R ■■■^' \

Agriculture Handbook No. 151 I Vt

U. S. Department of Agriculture
Contents

Page

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS. ._.._, 3

Protein^ >_._ 3

Carbohydrate and Fat. 3

Vitamins 5

FORMULATION AND PREPARATION 10

Formulation 10

Specimen Diets 11

Mixing 12

Processing \___: 12

FEED EVALUATION 12

U. S. Agricultural Research Service. Animal Husbandry

Research Division.

Broiler feeding. [Washington, U. S. Govt. Print. Off.,

1959j

12 p. tables. 27 cm. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Agriculture

handbook no. 151 )

1. Poultry—Feeding and feeds, d. Broilers (Poultry)—Feedingj

(Series)

SF494.U6 636.5085 Agr 59-5

U. S. Dept. of Agr. Libr. lAg84Ah no. 151

for Library of Congress t

Prepared hy

Animal Husbandry Research Division

Agricultural Research Service

Washington, D. C. Issued January 1959

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. O. - Price 15 cents
ífiA

Broiler raising is one of agriculture's most efficient enterprises. Eations supplied broilers

should produce a 3-pound bird with good feathering and pigmentation in 8 to 10 weeks at the least

possible cost. An efficient conversion job can be

done only if adequate amounts of the required

materials are supplied in the proper balance.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS

Broiler diets are made up of many nutrients.

Eesearch has determined the minimum amounts

and, in some cases, maximum amounts necessary

for good growth. It has been found that other

dietary materials also are required if the bird is

to reach a desired weight in the shortest length

of time and at the lowest feed cost. Still other

materials are included in the ration to improve

market quality. Each of these nutrients and

added materials is discussed in the following

sections.

PROTEIN

Protein is the principal material used by the

bird to build tissue. Starter diets that usually

are fed the first 6 to 8 weeks should contain at

least 22 to 24 percent of protein. The costs of

protein ingredients may make it desirable to reduce this range to 17 to 19 percent for finishing

off the broilers, because the bird's protein requirements gradually decline as it grows older. Reducing the protein level too soon or too much

may be false economy. Too great a reduction in

protein content reduces growth rate and feed

efficiency to a point where the saving in feed cost

is more than canceled out.

The total quantity of protein in the diet is important, but equally important is the quantity of

each of certain amino acids found in protein.

The amino acids ace the parts that, fitted together, form the various kinds of plant and animal proteins. Eleven of these parts are considered essential—ten because they cannot be synthesized, or manufactured, by the bird, and an

eleventh, glycine, because it cannot be synthesized by the bird in adequate amounts. Two additional amino acids, cystine and tyrosine, can be

substituted in part for two that the chick cannot

synthesize, methionine and phenylalanine. Requirements of the eleven essential amino acids are

listed in table 1. Most efficient growth occurs

when the essential ones are supplied in balanced

amounts.

Animal protein sources, such as fishmeal, meat

scrap, and dried milk, contain adequate quantities of the essential amino acids. The most commonly used vegetable proteins, soybean oil meal,

and cottonseed meal, are relatively low in certain of the essential amino acids. When either

of these two meals is used as the sole protein concentrate, the soybean oil meal diet may be deficient in methionine and the cottonseed meal diet

is likely to be inadequate in lysine. Methionine

is used as a dietary supplement. Lysine may be

available commercially for this purpose. Cottonseed meal is used in broiler diets in combination

with soybean oil meal, with animal proteins, or

with both.

Processing conditions affect the amino acid

availability and content of all protein materials.

One of th^ most important of these conditions is

heat exposure—^both maximum temperatures and

duration of heat exposure of the meal during

processing. Meals that have not been heated excessively during processing usually are the most

desirable protein concentrates.

CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT

Carbohydrate and fat serve primarily as fuel

in the body although protein may also be used

for this purpose. Excess amounts may be stored

as body fat.

Carbohydrate is listed on feed analysis tags under two headings, nitrogen-free extract and crude

fiber. Nitrogen-free extract is made up of

starches and sugars that are readily utilized.

Crude fiber is a woody material not readily
utilized by chickens and should not constitute

more than 4 percent of a broiler diet. Principal

sources of carbohydrate are the grains and their

byproducts.

Fat is a concentrated source of energy that

supplies approximately 2.25 times as much energy

as the same weight of carbohydrate. A certain

amount of fat is present in most feedstuffs used

in poultry rations. Eesearch has shown that adding fat as a separate ingredient improves feed

efficiency and, in some cases, increases the rate of

growth. In addition, it makes feeds less dusty

and enhances their appearance, texture, and palatability. Equipment for mixing liquid fat with

dry ingredients has been developed. Chemicals

called antioxidants are added to the fat to reduce

the likelihood of rancidity.

The amount of fat added to commercial broiler

diets may range from 1 to 8 percent. In general,

the proper amount to add is that which will result in the production of a pound of chicken for

the least possible cost. This in turn will depend

on improvement in growth and feed efficiency resulting from adding the fat, the price of fat, and

the price of other dietary ingredients. Therefore,

there is no specific recommended level that will

be suitable for all conditions.

TABLE 1,—Essential amino acid requirements for

starting chicles ^

TABLE 2.—Vitamin requirements for st'arting'"^^

chicks ^

Amino acid

Arginine

Lysine__^__

Histidine

Methionine 3_ _

Tryptophan

Glycine *

Phenylalanine ^

Leucine

Tsoleucine

Threonine

Valine

Requirement 2

Percent ofration

L20

.90

. 15

.80

.20

1.00

1.60

L40

.60

.60

.80

1 From Nutrient Requirements for Poultry, A Report of

the Committee on Animal Nutrition. National Research

Council Publication 301.

2 Based on a diet containing 20 percent of protein.

3 Cystine can be substituted for part of the methionine

on the following basis: Cystine 0.35 percent and methionine 0.45 percent of the ration.

* The cliick can synthesize glycine but the synthesis

does not proceed at a rate sufficient for maximum growth.

* Tyrosine can be substituted for part of the phenylalanine on the following basis: Tyrosine 0.7 percent and

phenylalanine 0.9 percent of the ration.

Vitamin Minimum requirement 1

Recommended

allowance ^

A»

Per pound offeed

1,200 USP^

90ICU«

7-11 IU8

0.180 mg

0.800 mg

1.300 mg

12.000 mg

4.200 mg

1.300 mg

0.040 mg

600.000 mg

0.250 mg

0.004 mg

Per pound offeed

4,400 USP.

D5 400 ICU.

E7

K7___

B-complex:

Thiamine

Riboflavin

Niacin

0.9 mg.

2.3 mg.

24.0 mg.

6.4 mg.

1.5 mg.

0.5 mg.

670.0 mg.

0.3 mg.

Pantothenic acid.

Pyridoxine

Biotin___

Choline7 .

Folacin

Vitamin B12 ^

1 From Nutrient Requirements for Poultry. A Report of

the Committee on Animal Nutrition. National Research

Council Publication 301. Amounts listed contain no

margin of safety and refer to units of pure vitamin.

Amount of vitamin supplements included in a ration will

depend on the potency of the product used.

2 It is felt that high-efficiency diets increase the requirement for several nutrients, particularly vitamins and

protein.

* May be vitamin A or vitamin A precursor.

^ USP (United States Pharmacopoeia) is the equivalent

of 0.344 microgram of vitamin A acetate.

5 May be vitamin D 3 from fish oil or irradiated animal

sterol.

* ICU (International Chick Unit) is the equivalent of

0.025 microgram of pure vitamin D 3, a form of the vitamin used by poultry.

7 Tentative—exact requirement not known.

8 lU (International Unit) is the equivalent of 1 milligram

of dl-alpha-tocopherol acetate.

The majority of broiler diets probably contain

2 to 4 percent of added fat, which brings their

total fat content up to 6 to 8 percent. It is emphasized that, from a nutritional standpoint, fat

is added only for the purpose of increasing the

energy content of the diet. The amount of fat

added is important only for its contribution to the

total energy content of the diet, which is the

sum of the energy derived from fat, carbohydrate,

and protein.

The productive energy probably varies from 900

to 1,100 Calories "^ per pound in most broiler diets.

For optimum feed efficiency the number of Calories

in a diet should be related to the protein content.

In research to discover the proper relationship between Calorie and protein content, no fixed ratio

has been established. Good results have been ob-

*As used in this publication, "Calorie" equals 1 large

calorie or 1,000 small calories.
tained with starting diets containing 42 to 45 Calories for each percent of protein and with finishing

diets containing 50 Calories for each percent of

protein.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are substances found in most natural

feeds in extremely small amounts. Those considered necessary for growth and maintenance of

health are : A, D, E, K, and the B complex, which

includes thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic

acid, pyridoxine, biotin, choline, folacin, and vitamin Bi2. Eequirements per pound of feed for these

vitamins are listed in table 2. The requirements of

E, K, and B12 are tentative, but research has shown

that under most conditions these minimums are

desirable. Recommended allowances are considerably above the minimum requirements listed; the

purpose is to provide a safety margin to offset variation in vitamin content of feedstuffs and possible

vitamin loss due to deterioration.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is important for proper nerve function and helps to prevent infections of the eye

and the respiratory tract. Deficiency retards

growth and impairs the bird's health.

Dietary requirements may be met by adding

fish oils, vitamin A concentrates, or plant materials that the animal caii convert into vitamin A.

TABLE 3.—Mineral requirefnents for starting

chicks ^

TABIíE ^.—Approximate composition of all-mash

hroiler rations hy ingredient classes

Mineral Minimum requirement

Calcium

Percent ofration

1. 0

.6

3.5

Milligrams per

pound offeed

Phosphorus 2

Sodium

Manganese 25. 0

Iodine . 5

Iron * 9.0

Copper* . 9

* From Nutrient Requirements for Poultry. A Report of

thé Committee on Animal Nutrition. National Research

Council Publication 301.

2 At least 75 percent of the nutrition requirement for

phosphorus should be of the inorganic type. All of the

phosphorus of nonplant feed ingredients is considered to be

inorganic and approximately 30 percent of the phosphorus

of plant products may also be considered inorganic.

* This figure represents sodium chloride added as such

or that in marine or fermentation products of high sodium

chloride content.

* Tentative—exact requirement not known.

Class of ingredient Percent of

ration

Carbohvdrate incredients^ _^ ^ 55-60

Vegetable-protein ingredients ^ 20-25

Animal-protein ingredients ^ 5-10

Vitamin-rich inirredients * _ ^_ 4-8

Stabilized fats ^ __ 0-8

Mineral carriers^ ______ 3-4

Miscellaneous ingredients ^

1 Grains and grain byproducts: Corn, wheat, barley,

oats, millet, shorts, middlings, red dog, hominy feed, etc.

2 Soybean, cottonseed, and peanut meals.

3 Fishmeal, fish solubles, meat scrap, liver meal, dried

milk, feather meal, etc.

* Commercial vitamin supplements, alfalfa, dried whey,

dried yeast, distillers* solubles, fermentation solubles, etc.

5 Grease, tallow, etc.

® Limestone flour, oyster shell flour, dicalcium phosphate,

steamed bonemeal, defluorinated superphosphate, defluorinated rock phosphate, iodized salt, manganese sulphate,

etc.

7 Trace amounts of these ingredients may be added.

Many are present in commercial rations, but some may

not be necessary under all conditions. The group includes

antibiotics, coccidiostats, arsenicals, surfactants, hormones,

antioxidants, and xanthophyll.

Alfalfa meal and yellow com contain vitamin A

precursors, or substances that form vitamin A.

However, the amounts of the vitamin precursor

in alfalfa meal and yellow com usually are not

considered in making up a formula. Sufficient

amounts of vitamin A concentrates usually are

added to meet the bird's full requirement.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is essential for normal utilization

of calcium and phosphorus in bone building.

When it is not supplied in sufficient quantity,

young chickens grow slowly and develop soft

bones regardless of the amount of calcium and

phosphorus in the diet.

The chicken synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to sunlight, but concentrates containing the

vitamin (fish oils and irradiated animal sterols)

are added to rations because broilers seldom are

raised in sunlight. These concentrates should be

premixed with ground corn, bran, middlings, alfalfa, or soybean meal, because intimate contact

with minerals brings about rapid destruction of

vitamin D activity.

Vitamin E

Adequate amounts of vitamin E prevent e^u*

dative diathesis and a condition known as '^crazy
chick" disease, or encephalomalacia. Exudative

diathesis is characterized by a swelling of

fatty tissues just beneath the skin. Birds affected by crazy chick disease are unable to coordinate movements of their legs, wings, and neck.

Vitamin E is found in cereal grains, alfalfa

meal, and liver meal. It usually is added to the

diet in wheat germ oil or as alphatocopherol

acetate. Like vitamin A, the destruction of vitamin E is accelerated by contact with rancid fat.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is required to preserve the clotting

power of the blood. A deficiency is marked by

hemorrhages, which may occur in any part of

the body. The vitamin can be obtained from

meat scrap, fish products, or alfalfa meal.

Vitamin B Complex

RiBOFLAViN.—Riboflavin is essential for normal growth and prevents curled-toe paralysis. It

is widely distributed in feedstuffs and also

available as a synthetic compound. Among fi

best natural sources are dried milk products and

brewers' yeast. Riboflavin is reasonably stable

under ordinary storage conditions.

CHOLINE.—Choline is one of the vitamins' required for normal growth and is a factor in the

prevention of perosis, or slipped tendon. The

chick's requirement is met, in most diets, by the

addition of choline supplement.

VITAMIN B12.—Vitamin B12 is added to diets

that contain no animal proteins, because vegetable proteins are deficient in this vitamin. Vitamin B12 is available as a commercial supplement.

OTHER REQUIRED VITAMINS.—Thiamine, niacin,

pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, and folacin

are present in adequate quantities in the feedstuffs normally included in diets. It is not considered necessary to add them separately, although extra quantities of niacin and pantothenic acid commonly are included in broiler diets

TABLE 5.—

Protein Crade

fat'

Fiber

Minerals

Ingredient

Calcium

Phosphoras

Inorganic!

Total

Alfalfa meal, dehydrated -

Percent

17.8

12.7

9.0

44.6

32.0

8.9

42.9

4L 4

4L 6

27.2

26.9

Percent

2.8

L9

2.0

LI

5.8

3.9

2.3

5.8

L6

9.3

9.1

100.0

3.0

7.7

6.6

L7

2.9

9.5

9.9

4.6

4.5

6.3

L2

14.0

.9

.8

.9

8.1

L8

4.1

4.6

Percent

24.2

5.4

6.0

2.7

.4

2.0

4.0

10.7

ILO

9.0

3.8

Percent

L07

.09

.60

.13

L34

.02

.16

.18

.15

.17

.35

Percent

0.06

.12

Percent

0.20

.40

.30

L43

.94

.30

.40

L15

LIO

.68

L37

Barlev. excliidins Pacific Coast _-

Barlev Pacific Coast - - -

Brewers' dried veast - - .43

.94

.09

.12

.34

Buttermilk, dried

Com, yellow dent

Com gluten meal _ -

Cottonseed meal (expeUer). -

Cottonseed meal fsolvent) * - - - - -

Distillers* dried grains with solubles (com) .20

Distillers'dried solubles .40

Fat. stabilized -

Fßathßrs hvdrolvzßd noultrv 3 85.0

6L0

3L4

35.1

1L3

50.6

53.4

12.0

9.0

15.0

47.4

56.0

33.5

60.9

45.8

59.8

15.2

16.0

17.2

LO

.7

.6

8.9

2.2

2.2

2.4

ILO

12.0

2.0

13.1

2.0

.2

2.8

6.8

L9

2.6

9.9

7.6

Fishmeal. menhaden - - - - 5.49

.61

.40

.03

10.57

7.94

.09

.10

.07

.20

3.50

L26

.26

.32

5.94

.05

.14

.15

2.81

.70

.25

.09

5.07

4.03

.12

2.81

.70

.83

.30

6.07

4.03

.40

.36

.40

.65

L70

L03

.62

.67

3.17

.40

L17

.91

Fish solubles, condensed- - .- - -

Linseed oilmeal fsolvent) - -

Müo maize (sorghum)

Meat and bone scrans . .

Meat scraps * -- -.-

Oats, excent Pacific Coast -- --

Oats Pacific Coast - - -

Oats ffeedincf'). rolled -

.12

Poultry bvDroduct meal 3 _ L70

Skimmilk, dried —- L03

Soybean meal, solvent - - - -

.20

3.17

.12

.35

.27

Tsuikaee. dieester'^ - -

Wheat, hard

Wheat bran -

Wheat, standard middlings . ._

"Whpat'ffPrm nil "

Whey, dried - --- 13.1

12.1

0

0

0

.5

3.2

0

0

0

.3

L7

0

0

0

.90

28.98

36.59

27.00

34.00

.80

13.69

0

19.07

14.50

.80

13.69

0

19.07

14.60

Bonemeal, steamed

Calcium carbonate -

Dicalcium phosphate --

Defluorinatcd rock Dhosnhate - -

1 Poultry aré better able to assimilate inorganic phosphorus than other

types. At least 76 percent of the nutritive requirement for phosphorus

should be of the inorganic type.

> Carotene values were obtained from NRC Publications 301 and 449 with

the exception of alfalfa meal. The value for alfalfa meal was obtained from

1967 Feedstuffs Analysis table.
because of the possibility that the addition is

beneficial.

Minerals

Minerals have a number of functions in the

bird's body. Some serve as structural materials

for bones and tissue, while others are necessary

for the production of enzymes and hormones.

Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, manganese, iodine,

magnesium, potassium, sulfur, and trace minerals

such as iron, copper, molybdenum, selenium, and

zinc all must be included in the bird's diet. Definite requirement« of the first five minerals and

tentative requirements of iron and copper have

been established and are given in table 3. The

others, with the possible exception of molybdenum, are believed to be furnished in sufficient

amounts by the grains and feedstuffs used in

broiler rations and do not have to be added as

part of a mineral supplement.

Feedstuffs analysis

CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS.—Calcium and phosphorus are bone-building materials that should be

supplied in the required amounts and in the

proper ratio. Both excesses and deficiencies

should be avoided, because they interfere with

growth and bone development.

The principal sources of calcium for broiler

feeds are oyster-shell flour and high-calcium limestone. Available phosphorus is furnished in small

quantities by vegetable-protein concentrates.

Phosphoric acid is rich in phosphorus and seems

to have commercial possibilities as a source of this

mineral. Both calcium and phosphorus are supplied in liberal quantities by meat and fishmeals,

bonemeal, and defluorinated calcium phosphates.

Naturally occurring calcium-phosphate rock

should not be fed, because usually it contains toxic

amounts of fluorine.

SODIUM.—Sodium usually is added to broiler

rations in the form of salt (sodium chloride).

Vitamins Amino acids

Productive

Ribo- energy

flavin Niacin

Pantothenic

acid

Oholine A E

Methionine Cystine

Methionine

plus

cysttne

Arginlne Lysine

Tryptophan Glycine

Metabolizable

energy

Milligrams

per

pound

7.3

.8

.5

15.9

14,1

.5

.7

2.4

2.1

3.9

7.7

Milligrams

per

pound

8.7

24.1

20.0

203.4

3.9

9.8

22.7

15.4

20.7

30.4

52.4

Milligrams

per

pound

12.3

3.7

3.0

49.9

13.7

2.6

4.7

4.7

8.1

5.0

9.5

Milligrams

per

pound

400

500

400

1,766

822

200

150

1,262

1,301

1,123

2,190

U8P

units

per

pound 2

100,000

0

Milligrams

per

pound

»86.00

0

Percent

0.32

.12

.19

.70

.70

.14

1.00

.50

.60

.50

.60

Percera

0.34

.20

.16

.60

.30

.16

.60

1,00

».86

.30

.60

Percent

0,66

.32

.34

1.20

1.00

.29

1,60

1.60

1.46

.80

1.20

Percent

0.80

.60

,40

2.20

1.10

,40

1.40

3.30

•3.60

.90

1.00

Percera

0.90

.30

.22

3.00

2.40

.30

.80

1.60

1.60

.70

.90

Percent

0.23

.13

.10

.60

.60

.08

.20

.60

.60

.10

.20

Percent

Calories

per

pound

*217

<813

800

672

*786

< 1,105

*821

*800

»660

891

U,020

<2,878

800

*941

2 440

4 607

< 1,099

*874

«949

*810

800

* 1,162

Calories

per

pound*

348

1,256

0

0

2,215.8

12,328.4

10

0

2,832.2

499.8

0

0

«1.70

0

11.48

4.96

0

8 7.00

»i.7

.2

.4

2.1

»2,4

2.3

».6

»1.1

1,247

1,536

1,095

1,159

1,396

.8

2.2

6.6

1.3

.4

2.0

2.4

.4

8.0

25.4

76.7

13.7

13.1

21.7

25.8

8,2

3.5

4.1

16.1

6.5

5.0

1.7

2.2

6.8

4ÖO

1,663

1,831

657

250

993

887

450

.52

1.80

1.00

.50

.16

.70

.80

.13

.19

.24

.40

1.00

,80

3,87

.62

.80

.21

.10

.20

2.30

1.00

1.70

.60

.20

.60

.60

.22

.17

.27

2.82

2.80

2.70

1.10

.36

1.30

1.40

.36

.36

.61

6.60

4.00

2.40

2.80

.30

4.00

3.70

.60

.50

.96

6.90

2.76

1.20

»3.10

3.20

3.60

.60

1.00

.90

i. 60

6.30

2.70

1.30

.30

3.60

3.80

.40

.30

.61

2.30

3.70

2.80

»3.00

2.90

4.00

.40

.60

.70

.67

.60

.80

.60

.09

.20

.30

.14

.10

.21

.60

.41

.40

3.68

.60

.70

.16

.30

.20

6.9

4.0

2.3

1.8

».4

2.0

2.2

0

999.6

0

0

0

0

0

3 9.50

0

0

0

0

0

0

1,230

692

1,628

1,152

1,249

1,133

.6

5.0

4.8

9.1

1.4

1.5

1.1

.5

1.4

.9

4.5

3 77.5

18.0

5.2

9.8

12.2

17.8

24.1

95.1

44.8

6,6

3 24.0

4.0

15.3

505

3800

2,720

647

1,255

1,247

986

450

491

488

0 0 1,612

2.5

2.9

.2

2.7

3 2.4

1.00

.50

».68

.66

2.00

1.30

»1.66

1.28

880

*766

«790

«761

«814

«897

«494

«694

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4,15

0

0

0

0

4.49

9,50

60,30

0

0

0

0

0

1,232

1,142

6.6

1.1

6.3

13.2

9.0

1,103

1,198

.24

.30

.20

.45

.40

.40

1,381

».9

8,4

759

1,043

8.1

.4

0

t

5.1

1.1

0

0

0

22.4

1.9

0

0

0

914

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.15

0

0

0

0

.31

0

0

0

0

.46

0

0

0

0

.20

0

0

0

0

.80

1

0

0

.10

0

0

0

0

8.7

0

0

0

0

«786

300

0

0

0

1,242

0

0

0

0

hfiom Ï967 Feedstuffs AnalysisiBible.

« From Energy Values of Feedstuffsfor Poultry. Titus (1955).

« Froip NRG Publication 449, June 1956.

» From NRG Publication 301, January 1954.

7 Also called ether extract and includes all ether-soluble materials.
MANGANESE.^—^Manganese is present in nearly

all ingredients of poultry feeds but not in sufficient quantity to insure an adequate supply.

Dietary requirements may be met by adding manganese sulfate tetrahydrate. Lack of this mineral

is a cause of perosis, or slipped tendon, in chicks.

IODINE.—The iodine content of feedstuffs is

variable. Dietary requirements may be met by

adding commercial iodized salt to poultry rations.

An iodine deficiency leads to goiter formation, an

enlargement of the thyroid gland of the neck.

IRON AND COPPER.—A deficiency of iron or copper results in nutritional anemia, but rarely

occurs in practical diets. The grains and vegetable proteins used in broiler rations contain adequate amounts of these minerals and adding them

separately is not considered necessary.

Miscellaneous Materials

UNIDENTIFIED GROWTH FACTORS.—Certain unidentified factors are known to be important in

animal nutrition. Three of these are well recognized and are called the "whey," "fish," and

"alfalfa" factors.

The whey factor is thought to be present in

distillers' solubles, distillers' molasses solubles,

brewers' yeast, butyl fermentation solubles, and

dried whey.

The fish factor is thought to be present in fishmeal, fish solubles, crab meal, meat byproducts,

liver preparations, and certain fermentation

products.

The alfalfa factor is thought to be present in

dehydrated alfalfa leaf meal, grass juice concentrate, and dried brewers' yeast.

ANTIBIOTICS AND COCCIDIOSTATS.—Antibiotics

are added to rations either to stimulate growth or

in connection with disease in the flock. The most

commonly used ones are penicillin, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, and bacitracin. The addition of 4 to 5 grams of penicillin or 8 to 10 grams

of the other antibiotics to a ton of feed usually

results in lower flock mortality, more rapid

growth, and greater feed efficiency. Addition of

certain antibiotics at 100 to 250 grams per ton

appears to be of value in reducing mortality and

restoring birds to a healthy condition during outbreaks of some diseases. Most commercial broiler

rations contain antibiotics at the lower level.

Coccidiostats are drugs added to rations to prevent or control the intestinal disease coccidiosis.

Low levels of these drugs, included in a ration, i^^

enable birds to build up natural immunity. ^

Higher levels help to control acute attacks of coccidiosis, but control generally is achieved more

quickly by the addition of water-soluble coccidiostats to the drinking water.

A number of coccidiostats are in use, including

sulfaquinoxaline, sulfamethazine, nitrophenide,

and nitrofurazone. They should be used only at

dosages recommended by the drug manufacturer

since higher concentrations may be toxic.

ARSENICALS.—^Another group of compounds

that are used as growth stimulants is the arsenicals. Although toxic at higher levels, small

amounts have effects similar to the antibiotics.

There is experimental evidence that an arsenical,

plus an antibiotic in some cases, provides a growth

response greater than either alone. There also is

some evidence that arsenicals may improve pigmentation. Because of these two possibilities,

most commercial broiler diets contain an arsenical.

The two commonly accepted arsenicals are

arsonic acid (3-nitro, 4 hydroxyphenylarsonic

acid), and arsanilic acid (para-amino-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid). Arsonic acid usually is

used at 45 grams per ton and arsanilic acid at 90

grams per ton.

SURFACTANTS.—Surfactants, also known as detergents, may stimulate growth. Few commercial

broiler feeds contain surfactants, because there is

little evidence that they provide growth stimulation beyond that provided by antibiotics.

HORMONES.—Hormones are gland secretions

that regulate body functions. Estrogen, the female sex hormone, causes increased fat deposition

under the skin of the bird and results in higher

carcass quality. Synthetic chemical compounds

have been discovered that have the same effect as

this natural hormone. The best known of these

compounds is diethylstilbestrol, which came into

use as a pellet and a paste for implantation in the

neck of the bird. Another compound, dienestrol

diacetate, has been mixed with feed for the same

purpose. Broiler rations that contain this compound are available. Feed manufacturers are required to comply with regulations of the united

States Food and Drug Administration and of

State feed control officials before marketing broiler

rations that contain dienestrol diacetate.

ANTIOXIDANTS.—^Antioxidants are chemical preservatives included in feeds to lessen the loss of
TABLE 6.—All-mash broiler diets

Ingredient

Diet number

Starting diets Finishing diets

.-^^-

Qround yellow corn ^ Ground wheat 2

Animal fat 3__ _

Fishmeal (60 percent)

Meat scraps

Poultry byproduct meal

Feathers, hydrolyzed poultry

Corn gluten meal

Soybean meal, solvent * _

Soybean meal, solvent debulled

Cottonseed meal, solvent..-

Dried whey _

Alfalfa meal

Dried distillers' solubles

Calcium carbonate

Defluorinated rock phosphate

Dicalcium phosphate .__ ._.

Bonemeal, steamed

Salt, iodized ..__

Manganese sulfate (65 percent grade) " _.

Vitamin A supplement (4,000 USP units per gram) s.

Vitamin D3 supplement (1,500 ICU per gram) «

Vitamin B12 supplement (12 milligrams per pound) 5_.

Riboflavin supplement (227 milligrams per pound) 8_.

Choline supplement (25 percent grade) « «

DL-methionine (feed grade) »

Antibiotic supplement (10 grams per pound) 5 _.

Arsonicacid (10 percent) * 7._ __

Totals.

Coccidiostat s

Niacin

Calcium pantothenate..

Vitamin E s

Vitamin K ..

Crude protein, percent

Productive energy, calories per pound.__

galorie-protein ratio 9 :

rude fat, percent.. .

Crude fiber, percent

Calcium, percent

Phosphorus, total, percent

Phosphorus, inorganic, percent

Vitamin A, USP units per pound

Vitamin D3, ICU per pound

Riboflavin, milligrams per pound

Niacin, milligrams per pound

Pantothenic acid, milligrams per pound.

Choline, milligrams per pound. _ Methionine, percent ---. -.._...

Cystine, percent

Methionine+cystine, percent

Arginine, percent

Lysine, percent

Tryptophan, percent .

Glycine, percent

Percent

59.40

Percent

53.94

Percent

59.34

6.00

"5.'ÓÓ'

4.00

5.00 5.00

"2.'5Ö"

Percent

55.49

5.00

4.00 5.Ô0

1.00

Percent

59.54

5.00

Percent

57.94

Percent

64.62

5.00

1.00

1.00

5.00

4.00

18.00

2.50

25.50

2.50

22.00

3.00

10.00

3.00

10.00

7.60

6.00

1.25

2.00

2.50

1.25

2.00

2.00

1.50

.75

1.60

2,00

1.00

1.35

8.00

2.00

2.00

8.00

2.00

2.00

16.00

18.00

1.50

1.50

1.50

1.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

2.00

2.00

1.00

1.00

.05

.06

.06

.05

.50

.10

.04

.05

.06

1.50

.30

.05

.05

.06

.06

.50

.10

.10

.06

.05

1.50

.30

.06

.05

.06

.05

.50

.10

.10

.05

.05

1.60

.40

.06

.06

.06

.05

.50

.15

.16

.05

.05

.40

.05

.05

.06

.05

.60

.10

.15

.06

.06

.30

.05

.05

.06

.05

.50

.10

.10

.06

.05

1.60

.30

.06

.06

.06

.06

.50

.10

.17

.06

.05

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Grams

per

ton

+

26

6

5

1

Grams

per

ton

4-

26

5

6

1

Grams

per

ton

+

25

5

6

1

Grams

per

ton

+

25

6

5

1

Grams

per

ton

+

25

5

5

1

Grams

per

ton

+

25

6

5

1

Grams

per

ton

+

25

5

5

1

Calculated analysis

Percent

66.61

5.00

'2.'50

16.50

1.60

2.00

2.00

1.00

1.50

.30

.05

.05

.06

.05

.50

.10

.18

.05

.05

100.00

Grams

per

ton

+

25

6

5

1

22.7 23.9 21.7 21.5 21.8 23.9 19.3

966 1,008 939 892 925 1,026 980

42.0 42.1 43.3 41.4 42.4 42.9 60.0

4.0 6.9 3.5 7.10 3.26 7.9 4.6

3.1 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.5 2.4 2.9

1.24 1.14 1.43 1.53 1.53 1.13 1.29

.72 .73 .75 .77 .79 .72 .74

.47 .47 .51 .58 .69 .51 .50

717 4,410 4,530 4,606 4,596 4.346 4,339

409 409 409 409 409 409 409

2.44 2.29 2.36 2.22 2.24 2.33 2.3

26.3 23.8 24.1 24.6 24.9 22.8 23.6

6.3 6.7 6.6 6.6 6.7 5.0 6.4

760 685 706 665 607 700 667

.45 .47 .47 .49 .49 .45 .50

.36 .34 .34 .32 .32 .43 .31

.81 .81 , .81 .81 .81 . .88 .81

1.29 1.31 1.28 1.15 1.16 U.32 1.13

1.28 1.24 1.23 .97 .98 1.06 1.12

.23 .24 .23 .20 .20 .22 .21

1.17 1.11 1.11 .95 .96 1.28 .99

19.0

968

60.9

3.7

2.9

1.29

.75

.50

1,383

409

2.3

24.0

6.4

666

.51

1.10

1.09

.20

.97

1 Milo maize may be substituted for corn if the fat and vitamin A deficiencies of maize are compensated for. Barley may be substituted for com if

the productive energy and vitamin A deficiencies of barley are compensated

for. Xanthophyll should be added for pigmentation.

2 Oats or barley may be substituted for ground wheat if the formula is

adjusted for the differences in productive energy and vitamin content.

3 Should be stabilized with an antioxidant.

* Degossypolized cottonseed meal (meal containing 0.04 percent or less of

free gossypol) may replace up to 50 percent of soybean meal in broiler diets.

fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and to

retard the rancidity of added fats. The two most

commonly used antioxidants for poultry feeds are

BHA (butylated hydroxyanisóle) and BHT

(butylated hydroxytoluene). Either or both may

be added to poultry rations in line with limitas May be supplied in the form of a supplement or as a pure product providing the amounts used are adjusted to meet the bird's requirement for

the pure product.

0 Contains 25 percent choline chloride.

7 Contains 10 percent 3-nitro, 4 hydroxyphenylarsonic acid.

8 Feed at level recommended by manufacturer.

9 Figures represent the number of Calories per pound of feed for each 1 percent of protein.

tions set by the United States Food and prùg

Administration and State feed control officials.

XANTHOPHYLL.—Xanthophyll is the pigment

that imparts yellow color to the skin and shanks

of broilers. Yellow corn, corn gluten meal, and

alfalfa meal are good sources of the pigmeiit. If
TABLE 7.—Sample worksheet showing

Proportion of

total diet

Productive

energy.

Calories

per

pound»

Protein a Crude

fat» Fiber»

Vitamins

Ingredient

A D E K

Riboflavin

Yellow com.._

Percent

59.40

6.00

6.00

4.00

18.00

2.00

2.60

1.26

.60

.30

.06

.05

.06

.05

.50

.10

.04

.06

.06

Pounds

per ton

1,188

120

100

80

360

40

50

25

12

6

1

1

1.2

1

10

2

.8

1

1

Calories

1,312,740

112,920

88,000

65,680

273,600

8,680

61,000

Pounds

per ton

105.73

73.20

56.00

34.32

168.88

7.12

13.45

Pounds

per ton

46.33

9.24

14.00

1.84

3.24

1.12

4.56

Pounds

per ton

23.76

.84

2.00

3.20

20.88

9.68

1.90

USP*

per ton

2,632,370

ICU i

per ton

Orams

per ton

Grams

per ton

MiUigrams

per ton

594

264

480

56

540

292

385

Fishmeal (60 percent)

Poultry bjrproducts meal. _

Com gluten meal 986,272

Soybean meal, solvent ._.

Alfalfa meal 4,000,000

Dried distillers' solubles

Calcium carbonate

Dicalcium phosphate

Salt, iodized.-_

Manganese sulfate (66 percent)

Vitamin A supplement (4,000 USP units 1,816,000

per gram).

Vitamin Da supplement (1,600 ICU 817,200

per gram).

Vitamin B12 supplement (12 milligrams

per pound).

Riboflavin supplement (227 milligrams 2,270

per pound).

CholineCL (25 percent)

DT^-Tnethionine,

Antibiotic supplement (10 grams per

pound).

Arsonic acid (10 percent)

Nlacin _

Pantothenic acid

Vitamin E 5

Vitamin K 1

Total per ton 100.00 2,000.0 1,912,620 1

95,631

966

454.90

22.75

80.32

4.02

62.26

3.11

9,434,642

471,732

4,717

4,400

817,200

40,875

409

400

5

.25

8.0025

4,881

244

2.44

2.30

Total per 100 pounds 6

Total per pound '

Recommended allowance 22.24

^J^fe

Í Diet analyzed is all-mash starting diet No. 1, table 6.

2 Nutrient and energy content of each ingredient is calculated by multiplying the pounds used by the average composition figures given in table 5.

That is, 1,188 pounds of com (column 3) 8.9 percent protein (table 5)=106.73

pounds of protein (column 5).

3 Poultry are better able to assimilate inorganic phosphoras than other

types. At least 75 percent of the nutritive requirement for phosphoms

should be of the inorganic type.

* USP (United States Pharmacopoeia) is the equivalent of 0.344 microgram of vitamin A acetate.

the feedstuffs do not give the skin and shank a

sufficiently deep color, additional xanthophyll can

be added to the feed separately. Healthy birds

generally show better pigmentation on any diet.

For this reason, many ingredients may appear

to have an effect on pigmentation (see Arsenicals,

p.8).

FORMULATION AND PREPARATION

Diet formulation refers to the selection of a

particular ingredient combination that meets

specific requirements. Preparation refers to the

actual mixing of the ingredients chosen and the

processing of the mixture to obtain a desired

texture or form.

FORMULATION

In the formulation of a broiler ration, there are

two steps: (1) Specific ingredients are chosen,

and (2) amounts of each ingredient are calculated.

One of the principal considerations in choosing

ingredients is their nutrient content. Most feed

ingredients provide more than one of the required

nutrients, but certain ones are rich in a particular

nutrient. On this basis they can be divided into

seven broad classes: Carbohydrates, vegetable

proteins, animal proteins, vitamin-rich ingredients, stabilized fats, mineral carriers, and a

miscellaneous group that includes ingredients

added in trace amounts. These seven classes are

listed in table 4, with a percentage range to show

the approximate composition of all-mash rations.

Choice of ingredients within a class depends

largely on availability and price. In various

parts of the country and in different seasons of

the year, certain ingredients are available in quantity. Because plentiful ingredients usually are

lower in price than scarce ones, the feed mixer

should choose the ingredients that can be combined to provide the maximum nutritive value at

the lowest possible cost. The resulting ration

may not be the lowest priced mixture, but should

be one that meets nutritive requirements, makes

possible rapid growth, low mortality, a quality

carcass, and, at the same time, produces broiler

10
calculation of nutrient content of a proposed diet ^

Vitamins—Contmued Minerals Miscellaneous

materials

Amino acids

Niacin

Pantothenic

acid

Choline Calcium 2

Phosphorus 2

ManganeseAntibioticArsenical

Methionine2 Cystine2

Arginine2 Lysine 2 tophan2

OlyInorganic 8

Total

cine2

MUUgrams

per ton

11,642

3,048

1,800

1,816

4,392

348

2,620

Milligrams

per ton

3,088

492

400

376

2,376

492

475

Milligrams

per ton

237,600

199,560

272,000

12,000

448,920

16,000

109,500

Pounds

per ton

0.238

6.588

3.500

.128

1.152

.680

.175

9.147

3.240

Pounds

per ton

1.069

3.370

1.700

.096

.720

.024

.200

Pounds

per ton

3.564

3.370

1.700

.320

2.412

.080

.685

Orams

per ton

Orams

per ton

Orams

per tan

Percent

of diet

0.083

.108

.050

.040

.112

.006

.015

Percent

of diet

0.89

.060

.050

.024

.119

.007

.015

Percent

of diet

0.238

.240

.138

.056

.576

.016

.025

Percent

of diet

0.178

. 318

.185

.032

.522

.018

.023

Percent

of diet

0.048

.036

.021

.008

.108

.005

.005

Percent

of diet

0.238

.240

. 145

.084

.432

.028

2.280 2.280

72.6

227,000

.04

10

45

25,000

5,000

50.666

2,533

25.33

24.00

12,699

635

6.35

6.40

1,522,580

V76,129

761.3

670.0

24.848

1.242

9.459

.472

14.411

.73

72.6

3.63

9.0363

25.00

10 45 .454

.454

.454

.450

.364

.364

.364

.350

1.289

1,289

1.289

1.200

i.276

1.276

1.276

.900

.231

.231

.231

.20

1.167

1.167

1.167

1.000 .45 .60 1.000

« lOU (International Chick Units) are the equivalent of 0.025 microgram

of pure vitamin D 3, a form of the vitamin used by poultry.

« Dividing total per ton by 20 (20 hundredweight=1 ton) gives the energy

and nutri^t content per himdredweight. When this figure is in pounds,

it is the same as the percentage of the mixture. Figures on this line may be

checked against the nutritive requirements in the text and in tables 1 and 3.

meat at the lowest possible cost per pound. To

produce such a ration, consideration also should

be given to palatability and quality of the ingredients. Palatability is important since broilers must consume large amounts of feed to make

^^ rapid gains, and ingredient quality is important

"\, to meeting nutritional requirements.

The amount of each ingredient that goes into

the formula depends on its nutritive content.

The average composition of the most commonly

used broiler-feed ingredients is given in table 5;

samples of an ingredient may contain more or

less of a specific substance than is listed.

The information in table 5 enables the feed

mixer to choose ingredients and ingredient

^ amounts for formulating various broiler diets.

ß There is no "best" diet. A number of combinations can be devised that will provide an efficient,

economical ration.

SPECIMEN DIETS

Eight specimen all-mash diets are given in table

6. Six of these are rations that may be fed

' Dividing totals per ton by 2,000 gives energy and nutrient content per

pound. Figures on this line may be checked against nutritive requirements

in the text and in tables 1, 2, and 3.

«0.025 grams=10,0001X7.

> 0.0363 grams=36.3 milligrams.

from starting time to market. Two are finishing

diets that may be fed to the birds after the seventh week. Ingredient contents of the diets differ somewhat; one may be more desirable than

the others in a particular part of the country,

because of ingredient availability. All of the

diets meet the nutritive requirements of broilers

and will give a good rate of growth and feed

efficiency under proper conditions, assuming average quality of all ingredients.

Broiler finishing diets are lower in protein and

vitamin content, because the requirements for

these nutrients decline as the birds grow older.

Many broiler growers prefer to feed the starting

ration the entire period, but finishing rations normally are lower in price than starting rations.

A method of checking a feed formula to be sure

that it meets nutritive requirements is illustrated

in table 7. This table may be used to calculate

the nutritive content of any feed formula. The

ingredients to be included are listed in column

1, and the percentage of each ingredient is listed

11
in column 2. Column 3 can then be filled in by

calculating the pounds of each ingredient that

would be included in a ton mixture.

The nutrient content of each ingredient then

is calculated by multiplying the pounds used by

the average composition figures given in table 5,

and filling in the results under the proper headings in table 7.

NOTE.—In the diet analyzed in table 7, corn represents

59.4 percent of the diet, and 59.4 percent of 2,000 is 1,188,

the number of pounds of corn used in this diet to mix a

2,000-pound batch. In this diet 1,188 pounds of corn

(column 3) X 8.9 percent of protein (table 5) =105.73

I)ounds of protein, which is entered in column 5.

When the table is filled in with the figures for a

particular feed formula, the columns are totaled ;

this gives the nutritive content of a ton of feed.

These totals then can be divided by 20 to obtain

the nutrient content per hundredweight. When

this figure is in pounds, it is the same as the percentage of the mixture. Figures on this line then

may be checked against nutritive requirements in

the text and in tables 1 and 3.

Dividing the total by 2,000 gives the nutritive

content per pound of feed, and these figures can

be used to check the requirements of those nutrients and materials required in very small amounts

(tablesl, 2, andS).

MIXING

Mixing is an important step in the preparation

of an efficient economical ration. A baby chick

eats about a thimbleful of feed a day. That

thimbleful must meet all of the bird's nutritional

requirements. Because only trace amounts of

some ingredients are included in a ton of feed, a

thorough mixing job is necessary if each thimbleful is to contain the nutrients in the proper

proportions.

PROCESSING

After the feed is mixed, it may be processed

further to obtain a desired iorm or texture.

Pellets probably are the most common form of

processed feed. They usually are fed on top of

the mash in hope of increasing feed intake and

rate of growth. Pellets sometimes are fed as the

entire ration, but the practice frequently results in

cannibalism, particularly when the birds are

confined.

Granules are another form of processed feed

that is offered broiler raisers. They commonly are

manufactured by breaking up pelleted feed into

small particles, but a similar coarse-textured feed

can be produced by using coarsely ground ingredients in the mixture. Birds seem to prefer a

coarse feed to a fine, powdery mash. They tend to

consume more and grow faster.

The extra processing necessary to produce pellets or granules makes them higher in price than

coarsely ground mash.

FEED EVALUATION

Complete evaluation of feed formulas cannot

be done on paper. Worksheets may show that a

particular mixture meets nutritional requirements

and is the lowest priced of those compared. But

no method of calculating the amount of a particular feed that will be required to produce a pound

of meat has been devised.

The most desirable feed or ieed formula can be

chosen by comparing the results of properly run

feeding tests. Feeds being tested should be fed

simultaneously to separate flocks of the same

breeding and sex. All flocks should be sold at the

same time, and careful records should be maintg^ined throughoutthe feeding period.

Records should include figures for total feed

consumeä, total feed cost, total pounds of meat

sold, and total dollars received for each flock.

With these figures, the broiler raiser can compare

the feeds tested, in three ways :

1. Pounds of feed required to produce a pounds

of meat can be determined by dividing the pounds

of meat sold into pounds of feed fed, for each

flock.

2. Feed cost of a pound of meat can be determined by dividing pounds of meat sold into total

feed cost, for each flock.

3. Income over feed cost can be determined by

subtracting feed cost from dollars received, for

each flock.

The results of these calculations will enable the

feeder to make a comp^ison of different feeds and

assist him in deciding tv^hich feed or feed formula

is best suited to his purpose.

/'

12 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : itS» O—471tl2