United States

Department of

Agriculture

 Forest Service

 Northeastern Area

 State & Private Forestry

 Natural Resources

 Conservation Service

 Cooperative State Research,

 Education, and Extension

 Service

NA-TP-02-97

Chesapeake Bay

Riparian Handbook:

A Guide for Establishing

and Maintaining Riparian

Forest Buffers
##### CHESAPEAKE BAY NORTHEASTERN AREA

 PROGRAM State and Private Forestry

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Edited by:

Roxane S. Palone

Watershed Specialist

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Area - State and Private Forestry

Morgantown, WV

and

Albert H. Todd

Chesapeake Bay Program Liaison

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Area - State and Private Forestry

Annapolis, MD

May 1997

Revised June 1998

Acknowledgments

Managing Editor: Nancy A. Lough, Visual Information Specialist

Assistant Managing Editors: Brenda L. Wilkins, Technology Transfer Specialist

Kasey L. Russell, Information Assistant

Production Assistant: Helen A. Wassick, Office Automation Clerk

Contributing Authors:

Richard A. Cooksey; USDA Forest Service; Annapolis, MD

J. Michael Foreman; Virginia Department of Forestry; Charlottesville, VA

Steven W. Koehn; Maryland Forest; Wildlife; and Heritage Service; Annapolis, MD

Brian M. LeCouteur; Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Washington, DC

Richard Lowrance; USDA Agricultural Research Service; Tifton, GA

William Lucas; Integrated Land Management; Malvern, PA

Nancy A. Myers; USDA Forest Service; Carefree, AZ

Roxane S. Palone; USDA Forest Service; Morgantown, WV

James L. Robinson; USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service; Ft. Worth, TX

Gordon Stuart; USDA Forest Service (retired); Morgantown, WV

Karen J. Sykes; USDA Forest Service; Morgantown, WV

Robert Tjaden; University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service; Queenstown, MD

Albert H. Todd; USDA Forest Service; Annapolis, MD

We extend a hearty “thank you” to the following for making this publication possible. We appreciate all

your comments, hard work, and suggestions.

Warren Archey, State Forester, Commonwealth of Massachusetts; John Barber, Chair,

Forestry Workgroup, Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake Bay Program; Karl Blankenship

and Brook Lenker, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay; Earl Bradley, Maryland Department

of Natural Resources; Dan Greig, Chester County Conservation District; Bill Brumbley,

Wayne Merkel, and David Plummer, Maryland Forest, Wildlife, and Heritage Service;

Patty Dougherty, Jim Hornbeck, Dan Kucera, Jim Lockyer, and Arlyn Perkey, USDA

Forest Service; Patricia Engler, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Claudia Jones,

Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Commission; Jerry Martin, Pequea-Mill Creek Project;

Robert Merrill, Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry; Mark Metzler, Lancaster County

Conservation District; Joe Osman, Pennsylvania Game Commission; Erin Smith; and

Robert Whipkey, West Virginia Division of Forestry
If you find this publication helpful, please write and tell us how you used it.

Information Services

Forest Resources Management

USDA Forest Service

Northeastern Area-State & Private Forestry

180 Canfield Street

Morgantown, WV 26505

Palone, R.S. and A.H. Todd (editors.) 1997. Chesapeake Bay riparian handbook: a guide for

establishing and maintaining riparian forest buffers. USDA Forest Service. NA-TP-02-97.

Radnor, PA.

The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and

convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of any

product or services by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the exclusion of others which may be

suitable.

Information about pesticides appears in the publication. Publication of this information does not

constitute endorsement or recommendation by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, nor does it imply

that all uses discussed have been registered. Use of most pesticides is regulated by State and

Federal law. Applicable regulations must be obtained from appropriate regulatory agencies.

CAUTION: Pesticides can be injurious to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and fish or

other wildlife if not handled or applied properly. Use all pesticides selectively and carefully. Follow

recommended practices given on the label for use and disposal of pesticides and pesticide

containers.

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basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or

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require alternative means for communication of program information (braille, large print, audiotape,

etc.) should contact the USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint, write the Secretary, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250 or

call 1-800-245-6340 (voice) or 202-720-1127 (TDD). USDA is an equal employment opportunity

employer.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction

The Purpose of This Handbook............................................................................1-1

Historical Background..........................................................................................1-1

Defining the Chesapeake Bay’s Riparian Resources ...........................................1-2

Describing Riparian Forest Buffers in Different Landscapes ..............................1-5

The Three Zone Concept:

A Tool to Guide Forest Buffer Planning.......................................................1-8

Additional Definitions........................................................................................1-10

References ..........................................................................................................1-14

II. Physiographic and Hydro-Physiographic Provinces

Introduction ..........................................................................................................2-1

Northern Glaciated Allegheny Plateau.................................................................2-4

Northern Ridge and Valle ...................................................................................2-5

Northern Appalachian Piedmont..........................................................................2-6

Southern Appalachian Piedmont..........................................................................2-7

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain ..............................................................................2-8

Hydro-Physiographic Response ...........................................................................2-9

Major Hydro-Physiographic Regions in the Chesapeake Watershed.................2-10

References ..........................................................................................................2-18

III. Functions/Values of Riparian Forest Buffers

Introduction ..........................................................................................................3-1

WATER QUALITY AND HYDROLOGIC FUNCTIONS/VALUES OF

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS.................................................3-1

How Riparian Forest Buffers Control the Stream Environment..........................3-3

How Riparian Forest Buffers Facilitate Removal of

Nonpoint Source Pollutants ..........................................................................3-6

Integrated Water Quality Functions of Riparian Forest Buffer Systems............3-11

Loading Rates and Nonpoint Source Pollution Control.....................................3-11

Stream Order and Size Effects ...........................................................................3-12

Stormwater Management ...................................................................................3-13

Flood Reduction and Control .............................................................................3-13

WILDLIFE AND FISH HABITAT FUNCTIONS/VALUES OF

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS...............................................3-14

Riparian Area Importance to Wildlife................................................................3-15

Principles of the Riparian Ecosystem.................................................................3-16

Structure .............................................................................................................3-17

Travel Corridors .................................................................................................3-25

Fish Habitat ........................................................................................................3-26

Management Considerations ..............................................................................3-29

AESTHETICS AND OUTDOOR RECREATION FUNCTIONS/VALUES

OF RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS.........................................3-34

Types of Recreation That Occur in Riparian Forests .........................................3-35
References..........................................................................................................3-38

IV. Soils

Introduction ..........................................................................................................4-1

Definitions............................................................................................................4-1

Factors of Soil Formation.....................................................................................4-1

Soil Classification ................................................................................................4-5

Soil Characteristics...............................................................................................4-6

Soil Characteristics Relating to Hydrolog ........................................................4-11

Information Necessary to Establish Riparian Forest Buffers.............................4-14

The Soil Survey..................................................................................................4-14

Hydrologic Soil Groups......................................................................................4-18

Land Capability Classification ...........................................................................4-19

Soil as It Relates to Establishing a Riparian Forest Buffer................................4-20

References..........................................................................................................4-22

V. Design of Buffer Systems for Nonpoint Source Pollution Reduction

Introduction ..........................................................................................................5-1

Suspended Sediments and Sediment Bound Pollutants.......................................5-1

Nitrates and Dissolved Pesticides ........................................................................5-6

References..........................................................................................................5-12

VI. Determining Buffer Width

Determining the Width of Riparian Buffers.........................................................6-1

Buffer Width Criteria ...........................................................................................6-1

Science-Based Criteria .........................................................................................6-2

Landowner-Based Criteria..................................................................................6-11

Application.........................................................................................................6-11

Fixed Minimum Versus Variable Width Buffers...............................................6-12

Conclusion..........................................................................................................6-13

References..........................................................................................................6-14

VII. Site Evaluation, Planning, and Establishment

RIPARIAN SITE EVALUATION AND PLANNING........................................7-1

Site Analysis - Physical Features .........................................................................7-1

Site Analysis - Vegetative Features .....................................................................7-7

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER ESTABLISHMENT........................................7-11

Site Preparation ..................................................................................................7-12

Riparian Forest Buffer Design ...........................................................................7-16

Riparian Forest Buffer Planting .........................................................................7-24

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER MAINTENANCE...........................................7-33

References..........................................................................................................7-34

VIII. Streamside Stabilization as a Component of Riparian Restoration

Introduction ..........................................................................................................8-1

Stabilization Techniques......................................................................................8-1

Planning for Streambank and Channel Restoration .............................................8-4
Construction Techniques and Materials...............................................................8-5

Tree Revetments...................................................................................................8-5

Live Stakes .........................................................................................................8-10

Live Fascines......................................................................................................8-12

Brushlayer ..........................................................................................................8-13

Branchpacking....................................................................................................8-15

Live Cribwall......................................................................................................8-17

Lunker Structures ...............................................................................................8-18

Other Innovative Methods..................................................................................8-20

Guides and Manuals for Streambank Stabilization............................................8-21

IX. Agricultural/Rural Aspects

Introduction ..........................................................................................................9-1

The Stream System...............................................................................................9-2

Cropland...............................................................................................................9-3

Riparian Buffer Design for Cropland...................................................................9-4

Pastureland ...........................................................................................................9-4

Livestock Confinement or Concentration Areas ..................................................9-6

Farm Woodlots or Forest......................................................................................9-7

Putting It All Together .........................................................................................9-7

Plan Implementation and Riparian Forest Buffers...............................................9-7

Examples of How Riparian Forest Buffers Can Be Integrated into

Farm Streamside Management Systems .......................................................9-8

 Example 1. Crop Production Farm .........................................................9-8

 Example 2. Beef Cattle Operation ........................................................9-10

 Example 3. Dairy Farm .........................................................................9-11

Planning and Application Assistance.................................................................9-13

References ..........................................................................................................9-13

X. Silvicultural/Forest Management Aspects

Introduction..... ..................................................................................................10-1

Factors Influencing Forest Resources Management...........................................10-1

Landowner Types and Their Objectives in Riparian Management....................10-3

Summary and Review of Silvicultural Systems.................................................10-4

Managing the Riparian Forest Buffer...............................................................10-13

Example Prescriptions......................................................................................10-14

Forest Resources Protection.............................................................................10-14

References ........................................................................................................10-24

XI. Urban/Suburban Aspects

Introduction ........................................................................................................11-1

Buffer Specification Guidance ...........................................................................11-6

Planning Reforestation Sites in Urban Areas...................................................11-15

Ordinances/Zoning...........................................................................................11-25

Implementing a Riparian Reforestation Plan ...................................................11-27

References ........................................................................................................11-33
XII. Economics of Riparian Forest Buffers

Introduction ........................................................................................................12-1

Economic Value .................................................................................................12-1

Economic Benefits Associated with Riparian Forest Buffers ............................12-2

Costs Associated with Riparian Forest Buffers..................................................12-7

Economic Impacts of Riparian Forest Buffers ...................................................12-9

Scenario #1: Agricultural Field .......................................................................12-10

Scenario #2: Forest Site...................................................................................12-13

Scenario #3: Subdivision Development Site...................................................12-16

Comparison of Trees, Row Crops, and Pasture on Land with Class IIIe

Capabilit ..................................................................................................12-19

Finance Tools and Economic Incentives..........................................................12-20

References ........................................................................................................12-23

XIII. Information and Education Strategies

Introduction ........................................................................................................13-1

Natural Resource Professional Training.............................................................13-1

Landowner Information and Education..............................................................13-2

Working with Volunteers ...................................................................................13-6

Working with the Media ....................................................................................13-6

Information Resources .......................................................................................13-7

References ..........................................................................................................13-9

XIV. Appendices

1. USDA Forest Service Specification-Riparian Forest Buffer..................................14-1

2. Natural Resources Conservation Service

Conservation Practice Standard Riparian Forest Buffer .................................14-2

3. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

Maryland Conservation Practice Standard Riparian Forest Buffer.................14-3

4. Program Contacts in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed ............................................14-4

5. Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs ..............................................14-5

6. Excerpts from the Chesapeake Bay Riparian Forest Buffer Inventor ...................14-6

7. Native Plant Guide for Planting Along Streams and Ponds ...................................14-7

8. Sources of Planting Stock.......................................................................................14-8

9. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map..........................................................................14-9

10. Sources of Tree Shelters .......................................................................................14-10

11. Companies that Provide Materials and Services in the Areas of Streambank

Stabilization, Erosion and Sediment Control, and Geotextiles.....................14-11

12. Herbicide Labels ...................................................................................................14-12
Section I

Introduction

The Purpose of This Handbook............................................................................1-1

Historical Background..........................................................................................1-1

Defining the Chesapeake Bay’s Riparian Resources ...........................................1-2

Describing Riparian Forest Buffers in Different Landscapes ..............................1-5

The Three Zone Concept:

A Tool to Guide Forest Buffer Planning.......................................................1-8

Additional Definitions........................................................................................1-10

References ..........................................................................................................1-14
Section I

1-1

Introduction

The Purpose of This Handbook

Riparian forest buffers have been identified as a

valuable nutrient reduction tool when used in

conjunction with other conservation practices.

For this reason, the Chesapeake Bay Program

has targeted riparian forests as a key habitat for

restoration. The purpose of this handbook is to

provide professional land managers and planners with the latest information on the functions, design, establishment, and

management of riparian forest buffers. This

handbook is intended for use by:

• agencies and private concerns that provide

technical assistance in the field,

• local governments who want to use the

handbook as a technical basis for decisionmaking,

• policy makers,

• public/consulting or service/private foresters,

and

• professional land managers, both industrial

and public.

The handbook is specifically written to serve

those states in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed –

Delaware, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania,

Virginia, and West Virginia. However, states

that are adjacent to the Bay states, with similar

physiography, can also use the publication for

guidance. The handbook uses the three-zone

riparian buffer concept developed by Welsch as

a guideline for buffer establishment.

This publication is done in three-ring binder

format so that additional materials can be added

as they become available. Local publications

and regulations can be added to personalize the

handbook.

Historical Background

When colonists first arrived on the shores of the

Chesapeake Bay, more than 95 percent of the

landscape was forested. This vast forest was an

important regulator of the Bay’s environment –

a “living filter” which protected the land, filtered pollutants and sediment from rainfall,

regulated stream and air temperatures, controlled runoff, and provided living resource

habitat.

Lumber quickly became one of the first exports

from the colonies; the first ship returning to

England carried a cargo of oak and cedar. Soon,

the colonies became an important supplier of

ship masts and hardwood lumber. Land was

quickly cleared for farming, settlements, and

fuel.

The last 300 years have brought dramatic

changes to the Bay’s forests. The rate of land

clearing increased rapidly through the 1800s as

demand for wood, primarily as fuel for industry,

grew. By the early 1900s, only about 30 to 40

percent of the watershed was still covered by

forest. After the early part of the century however, forests gradually reclaimed some land,

particularly as previously harvested areas regrew and farmland was allowed to return to forest. By the late 1970s, forestland made up 60

percent of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

Since then, the amount has declined, largely because of development

Almost 15 million people live in the Bay’s watershed. Urban growth results in the loss of almost 100 acres of forest daily, making the

management and protection of the remaining

forestland base critical to the overall health and

resiliency of the Bay ecosystem. As a result,

today’s forests are not evenly distributed in the

watershed. Much of the remaining contiguous
Section I

1-2

forestland is far inland, covering the mountains

of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. By

contrast, most of the forests have vanished in

agricultural areas and rapidly developing urban

centers nearest the Bay. Deforestation in some

of these counties approaches 80 percent.

For the Chesapeake Bay, that change has major

ramifications. Acre for acre, forests contribute

less sediment and nutrient runoff pollution than

any other land use. Riparian forests have an

ability to filter water that is often comparable to

wetlands. The loss of forests is therefore correlated with declining water quality in both the

Bay and the rivers and streams that supply it

with fresh-water. In recent years, studies have

suggested that streamside forests can serve as

highly effective filters that control both surface

runoff and, in many landscapes, groundwater

flow in streams. In addition, they provide

shade, temperature control, and food required by

many aquatic species.

Streamside forests, as a result, are being viewed

as a way to partially mitigate the loss of forest

over much of the remaining landscape. This

recognition has come after many streamside forests were cleared for other uses. The Chesapeake Basin has more than 112,000 miles of

rivers, streams, and shorelines, but it has been

estimated that as much as 60 percent of the

streamside forests have been removed or severely impaired. Although comprising only 5-

10 percent of the land in the watershed, riparian

areas have an extremely important role in

maintaining the health of the Bay in its entirety.

Defining the Chesapeake Bay's

Riparian Resources

Riparian areas are landscapes with high economic and ecological values. In their natural

forested state, they provide crucial

fish and wildlife habitat and help

control stream stability, flow, and

water quality. In addition, riparian areas are used for recreation

and/or timber production. Shorelines are highly valued building

sites. Many acres of riparian areas have been converted to other

land uses, especially fertile flood

plain soils that have been converted to crops. Cultivated agriculture, pasture, grass filter strips,

lawns, or residential, commercial,

and industrial development and

infrastructure are common land

uses. Recognizing these multiple

values and uses is essential in developing effective management

and restoration strategies.

Understanding any concept requires knowledge of the terminology used to describe it. The

definitions of a riparian area

sometimes vary depending on the perspectives

of managers and scientists. The word “riparian” is derived from the Latin word for bank or

shore and simply refers to land adjacent to a

body of water. Plant ecologists define riparian

areas based on soil moisture conditions and

unique plant communities associated with wet

and mesic soils. Others may define riparian arFigure 1 - 1. Percentage of Chesapeake Bay Watershed forested from

the years 1650 to 2000. (Source: USDA Forest Service, Chesapeake

Bay Program)
Section I

1-3

eas in terms of soil characteristics, hydrology, or

landscape features. Law or policy often defines

a riparian area in terms of its uses. Consequently, riparian areas do not stop at an arbitrary, uniform distance away from a stream or

watercourse; they vary in width, shape, and

character.

Ecosystem perspectives of riparian areas incorporate concepts of geomorphology, terrestrial

plant succession, and aquatic ecology. Here,

riparian areas are defined as three-dimensional

zones of influence between terrestrial and

aquatic ecosystems. The boundaries of the riparian area extend out from the streambed or

tidal shoreline and upward into the canopy of

streamside vegetation. Likewise, the functioning riparian zone may be considered to extend

into the soil to the water table, and thus incorporate underlying hydrogeologic conditions.

With the exception of tidal marshes and emergent wetlands, nearly all riparian ecosystems of

the Chesapeake Bay Watershed in their natural

state were dominated by forest plant communities. Relative to other land types, forested riparian areas are characterized by a combination

of high species diversity, high species density,

and high bio-productivity. Natural and humancaused factors have greatly altered riparian

character and condition over time. Landscape

differences, such as physiographic region, also

result in variation in form and function of riparian systems.

The Riparian Area

The USDA Forest Service defines a riparian

area as:

“the aquatic ecosystem and the portions of

the adjacent terrestrial ecosystem that directly affect or are affected by the aquatic

environment. This includes streams, rivers, lakes, and bays and their adjacent side

channels, flood plain, and wetlands. In

specific cases, the riparian area may also

include a portion of the hillslope that directly serves as streamside habitats for

wildlife.”

Lowrance, Leonard, and Sheridan define the

riparian ecosystem as:

“a complex assemblage of plants and other

organisms in an environment adjacent to

water. Without definitive boundaries, it

may include streambanks, flood plain, and

wetlands, . . . forming a transitional zone

between upland and aquatic habitat.

Mainly linear in shape and extent, they are

characterized by laterally flowing water

that rises and falls at least once within a

growing season.”

The Coastal Zone Management Handbook defines riparian areas as:

“vegetated ecosystems along a waterbody

through which energy, materials, and water pass. Riparian areas characteristically

have a high water table and are subject to

periodic flooding and influence from the

adjacent waterbody. These systems encompass wetlands, uplands, or some combination of these two land forms. They will

not in all cases have all the characteristics

necessary for them to be classified as wetlands.”

American Fisheries Society defines riparian

areas as:

“the lands adjacent to streams, rivers, or

other bodies of water where vegetation is

strongly influenced by the presence of water.”

These and other definitions identify aspects of a

riparian area held in common. They:

• are adjacent to a body of water,

• are linear in nature.

• lack clearly defined or linear boundaries,

• provide a transition between aquatic and upland environments, and

In the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, forests are

the natural vegetation which comprises the riparian area of most streamsides and shorelines.
Section I

1-4

Filter Strips and Buffers

When adjoining land uses are significantly different, or where potential for conflict is serious,

it is common practice to create a buffer between

them. Thus we have “buffers” between highways and houses, industrial and residential areas, and around recreation sites and airports.

Generally, as the density or magnitude of the

activity or the potential for impact increases, the

width of the buffer necessary to contain the

negative effects increases proportionally. In

terms of a riparian area, the differences between

developed or disturbed lands and the stream or

aquatic environment are significant. The more

intensely disturbed or developed, the more the

difference. Likewise, the size or importance of

the buffer increases as the potential impact created by increased yields of nutrients, chemicals,

and sediment from adjacent land use increases.

Riparian buffers have been described as “one of

the most effective tools for coping with nonpoint source pollution.”

“Filter strips” are vegetated sections of land

designed to accept runoff for pollutant removal.

Grass filter strips have commonly been used to

help control pollutants in run-off. They are not

designed for high velocity flows, but rather low

volume dispersed flows and groundwater. Filter

strips differ from “natural buffers” in that

strips are not "natural;" they are designed and

managed specifically for the purpose of pollutant removal. “Enhanced natural buffers” are

natural buffers whose removal capacity has been

improved through land grading, water spreaders,

planting of additional vegetation, increased

width, or other measures.

Riparian buffer strips should be designed to fulfill one or more of the following basic roles:

• protect fish and wildlife by supplying food,

cover, and thermal protection.

• help prevent upland sources of pollution

from reaching surface waters by trapping,

filtering and converting sediments, nutrients,

and chemicals.

• maintain the hydrologic, hydraulic, and ecological integrity of the stream channel and

associated soil and vegetation (i.e. maintaining streambank stability and channel capacity).

Riparian (Streamside) Forests

Naturally forested riparian areas have also been

called “streamside forests,” “river woods,” and

“wet woods” to name a few. When thinking of

these areas as part of a landscape, people also

routinely define them by their desired use or

perceived value to people rather than by their

ecological significance. Natural riparian forests

are often enhanced or protected to serve the role

of a buffer.

The Riparian Forest Buffer

Buffers or filter strips may utilize a variety of

vegetation types. Forested riparian buffers (or

streamside forests) are riparian buffers with a

functional forest ecosystem. Forest buffers are

recognized as the most beneficial of any type of

buffer because of the multiple environmental

benefits they provide. The use of forested zones

near streams has long been recognized as an

important strategy for improving water quality

while simultaneously protecting or restoring the

stream ecosystem. Forested riparian buffers

should be clearly distinguished from vegetative

or grassed filter strips commonly recommended

as a best management practice (BMP) because

of their ability to accomplish both water quality

and ecological roles.

The Executive Council of the Chesapeake Bay

Program has defined a Riparian Forest Buffer

as:

“an area of trees, usually accompanied by

shrubs and other vegetation, that is adjacent

to a body of water and which is managed to

maintain the integrity of stream channels and

shorelines, to reduce the impact of upland

sources of pollution by trapping, filtering

and converting sediments, nutrients, and

other chemicals, and to supply food, cover,

and thermal protection to fish and other

wildlife.”
Section I

1-5

Riparian forest buffers may vary in size, shape,

mix of vegetation, and management objectives;

however, they maintain trees over the long term

as the dominant part of their plant communities.

Describing Riparian Forest

Buffers in Different Landscapes

To increase general understanding, it is sometimes useful to characterize riparian forest buffers by their use in each of the unique land use

settings in which the practice is applied.

There are four land uses on which riparian forest buffers can be described:

• Forested Landscape

• Agricultural Landscape

• Suburban/Developing Landscape

• Urban Landscape

FORESTED LANDSCAPE

Streamside Management Zone (SMZ) - an area

of forest, varying in width, where timber management practices that might affect water

quality or aquatic resources are modified.

This is the riparian portion of forested lands.

Where the landscape is managed for wood

products, the riparian forest buffer is referred to

as a “streamside management zone (SMZ)” or

“streamside management area.” In a forest

landscape, management objectives for the forested areas closest to the water are oriented

away from timber production and toward water

quality protection and habitat concerns. Forest

composition in the SMZ commonly represents a

more natural diversity, rather than favoring only

commercial species. SMZ widths are usually

fixed, but may vary from 25 feet to more than

300 feet, primarily controlled by slope or biological considerations.

AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPE

Agricultural Riparian Forest Buffer (RFB) -

an area of trees and other vegetation separating cropland or pasture from a stream, another

body of water, or a groundwater recharge

area. RFBs are designed and managed to provide shade, restore stream habitat, and to trap

and remove nutrients, sediments, pesticides,

and other chemicals from surface runoff and

subsurface/groundwater flows. These areas

are retained, enhanced, or planted.

Forests that have remained a part of agricultural

areas may be managed as woodlots, recreational

open space, or wildlife habitat. Many are limited to fragmented patches confined to wet soils

or steep slopes and hilltops too difficult to cultivate. Riparian forests have usually been cleared

on farms managed for livestock. These areas

represent the classic definition of riparian forest

buffer as a water quality and habitat enhancement BMP. Because of potentially high levels

of sediments, nutrients, and other chemicals

leaving the crop fields or pastures in surface or

groundwater, RFBs are designed to serve as a
Section I

1-6

zone to buffer water quality impacts of this land

use from a stream, river, or bay. In addition,

streams have often been highly altered in these

areas, and the forest buffer supports the restoration of aquatic habitat. Remaining riparian forests are often very narrow bands (10 to 25 feet)

of intermittent trees along the bank of a river or

stream. Groundwater may be drained by tile

systems.

Agricultural applications of forest buffers

sometimes require the conversion of active

cropland, but most often are a combination of

pasture, grass filter strip, and/or cultivated field.

Establishing riparian forest buffers may involve

the task of conversion of grass or crop fields to

forest where no forest has existed for 50 to 250

years. In other cases, the RFB may be just an

expansion of a narrow existing forest strip.

SUBURBAN/DEVELOPING LANDSCAPE

Suburban Riparian Forest Buffer - corridors of

forest bordered by parks, ballfields, roadways,

lawns, and residential/commercial structures.

They are also landscapes that are retained and

managed to provide the natural functions and

values of sediment filtering, enhanced infiltration, nutrient uptake and processing, temperature moderation, noise control, screening,

aesthetics, and wildlife habitat.

When describing forests, whether riparian or in

general, the suburban or developing landscape is

one of change. The challenge is retaining existing riparian forests and planning for sustaining them over the long term. As forests are

cleared for development and runoff, temperature, edge effect, exotic plants, and pests all increase. The focus is to retain functional riparian

forest corridors. The potential benefits of retaining these riparian forests are equally high for

future water quality and aquatic and human resources. Increased nutrients from road runoff

and lawn fertilizers are effectively treated by the

riparian forest buffer if stormwater designs allow adequate watershed infiltration. RFBs can

be integrated with stormwater management

strategies (See Section XI). Riparian forests in

these areas also contribute to higher property

values.

In developing areas, many communities already

have subdivision or zoning rules that impose

mandatory building setbacks from lot lines.

Some communities require a specific setback

from the shoreline (such as mean high tide) or

streambank. Maintaining buffers that provide

environmental benefits generally means preserving or establishing a zone of woody vegetation where disturbance and building are limited.

To accomplish this, lot line setbacks may need

to be reduced or a subdivision may need to alter

lot sizes. Riparian buffers and stream corridors

can be effectively established during zoning or

in the planning of a subdivision. Riparian for-
Section I

1-7

ests should be considered a high priority for retention and restoration in a community's open

space plan. However, if too much recreation

occurs without proper management, then both

erosion reduction values and wildlife benefits

may be lost.

One key principle of modern land use planning

promotes concentrating intense development in

areas where supporting infrastructure already

exists. This principle focuses on “infill” development and redevelopment. In many communities, these intensely developed areas may

include streambanks and shorelines or larger

bodies of water. These shorelines may already

have high land values and tax burdens, creating

a desire to maximize the economic return on

such properties. This can preclude giving such

land over to environmental uses, such as a

buffer, unless a financial incentive, like a tax

reduction, is provided.

URBAN LANDSCAPE

Urban Riparian Forest Buffer - corridors or

strips of forest, often narrow or highly irregular in extent or linear distance, which are protected, managed, and/or enhanced for

aesthetic, habitat, recreational, climatic, or

water quality benefits within a highly impervious setting.

Riparian forest buffers have also found a place

in stormwater management in conjunction with

wet ponds, wetland detention, and stream erosion control. Combined with stormwater planning, forests provide a net reduction in

stormwater and a significant cost savings in future stormwater facility repair and replacement.

Forests in the urbanized landscape are highly

fragmented and often dysfunctional ecosystems.

Of all the various types of urban forests, including trees in parks, along streets, and on private lots, forests bordering streams and rivers

are probably the most valuable forests from a

water quality and habitat perspective. The

fragments of riparian forest that have been protected from development often represent the

largest contiguous forests within urban areas.

Refuges for songbirds, amphibians, and other

wildlife, they can be unique areas for appreciating nature. From a human perspective, they

provide much needed recreational areas for urban residents through the accommodation of

streamside trails.

Interest and activity in reforestation and tree

planting have greatly increased over the past

decade. Most projects involve augmenting or

connecting fragmented riparian forest buffers.

The ability of riparian forest buffers in urban

areas to significantly improve surface water

quality is limited because of the volume and

velocity of stormwater runoff. However, merging aesthetic and habitat improvement objectives with open space, vacant lot, and parkland

management has yielded many excellent examples of riparian forest restoration and natural

buffer creation.
Section I

1-8

The Three-Zone Concept:

A Tool to Guide Forest Buffer

Planning

A three-zone system has been developed to help plan riparian forest buffers. This three-zone concept is

intended to be flexible in order to

achieve both water quality and landowner objectives.

Zone 1

This is the near stream portion of the buffer,

stretching upland from the edge of the stream.

Its primary purpose is to stabilize the streambank and provide habitat for aquatic organisms.

The roots of trees in Zone 1 hold together the

soil to resist the erosive force of flowing water.

This also keeps sediment, and any nutrients

bound to it, out of the stream.

Roots and fallen logs slow stream flow. This

not only provides additional protection against

erosion, but also creates pools that form unique

“microenvironments.” Pools support species of

macroinvertebrates different from those in riffles only a few feet away. As a result, the presence of trees is directly related to greater

biodiversity in the stream ecosystem.

Roots and submerged tree limbs also provide

important habitats for macroinvertebrates, supporting even greater densities of the insects than

can be found on the rocky stream bottom. This

fallen debris also traps leaves, twigs, fruit seeds,

and other material in the stream, allowing it to

decay and be used by stream-dwelling organisms.

The leafy canopy of the trees provides shade

that helps to control water temperature. Maximum summer temperatures in a deforested

stream may be 10-20 degrees warmer than in a

forested stream. That is significant as temperature changes of only 4-10 degrees usually alter

the life-history characteristics of macroinvertebrates that form an important part of the food

web.

In addition, shaded streams support algae communities dominated by diatoms — a type of algae favored by many species — throughout the

year, while areas getting more direct sunlight

are dominated by filamentous algae. This

change, at the very bottom of the food web, is

critically important. While crayfish and a few

insect species will consume filamentous algae,

most macroinvertebrate species cannot because

they have evolved as specialists for scraping

diatoms from the bottom.

While Zone 1 will improve habitat along all

streams, its greatest impact will be along smaller

streams where the canopy completely covers the

water surface, providing maximum control over

light and temperature conditions. Trees in Zone

1 will aid in filtering surface runoff and, in some

landscapes, can help remove nutrients carried in

the groundwater.

Zone 2

Located immediately upslope from Zone 1, the

primary function of Zone 2 is to remove, transform, or store nutrients, sediments and other

pollutants flowing over the surface and through

the groundwater. Widths of Zone 2 can vary.

In areas where shallow groundwater flows

through the root zones of trees, large amounts of

nitrate can be removed before the water enters a

stream. This results primarily from plant uptake

and denitrification in the soils. Nitrate removal

in these areas can be high — on the order of 90

percent. In areas where the groundwater flows

deeper, much of this benefit will be lost as most

of the water bypasses the root zone and enters

the stream directly through the sediment.

Regardless of whether shallow groundwater

flows through the root zones, all Zone 2 forest

buffers will remove surface-borne pollutants.

Debris from the trees slows and traps sediments

in the runoff, giving the nutrients they carry

time to infiltrate into the ground where they may

be stored or removed through natural processes.

Section I

1-9

Studies have found that Zone 2 can remove 50-

80 percent of the sediment in runoff from upland fields.

Whether they are pulled from shallow groundwater or infiltrate into the soils from surface

runoff, nutrients are removed in Zone 2 through

a variety of mechanisms. The most obvious

process is plant uptake, as all plants must absorb

nutrients to grow. In addition, forests provide

large amounts of decaying organic material necessary to fuel the microbial processes in Zone 2

soils that remove nutrients. There are three

main ways those processes work:

T Microbes in the soil can take up nutrients

and store them until they die, at which time

the nutrients are released in a mineralized

form that is less biologically available to

other organisms and more readily stored in

the soil. If managed to foster accumulation

of this material, Zone 2 may support significant long-term nutrient storage.

T Denitrification takes place under the

proper conditions when certain denitrifying

bacteria convert nitrate to nitrogen gases.

Denitrification is carried out by anaerobic

microbes, organisms which survive in water or soils — usually wetlands — without

oxygen. The large amount of decaying organic material on the ground in forested

buffers depletes oxygen in the soils, and

there is usually enough moisture in riparian

areas to support the microbes needed for

denitrification. Even drier forest soils

commonly have small pockets which support these bacteria. Denitrification rates

will vary depending on site conditions.

T Microbes use organic compounds as food

and, through various reactions, change

them so they are degraded to simpler compounds or synthesized into microbial biomass. Riparian forests appear to support a

variety of microbial degradation mechanisms, though the management strategies

that would promote them are not understood at this point.

Zone 3

Located immediately upslope of Zone 2, Zone 3

contains grass filter strips or other control

measures which help slow runoff, filter sediment and its associated chemicals, and allow

water to infiltrate into the ground. Grass filter

strips help to protect the wooded areas and set

the stage so the forest buffer can perform at its

maximum potential. Effective sediment trapping in Zone 2 requires that runoff entering that

portion of the buffer be in the form of sheet

flow. Zone 3, therefore, acts to spread out the

flow and prevent runoff from adjacent land uses

from eroding channels into the buffer.

Several studies show that grass filter strips are

highly effective at reducing sediment runoff,

with removal rates of 50 percent or more. Also,

the filter strips are highly effective at removing

sediment-bound nutrients such as phosphorus,

but less effective at removing dissolved nutrients. Over time, the removal efficiency decreases as grass is smothered by deposited

sediment. Generally, the narrower the filter

strip, the shorter its effective life. As a result,

grass filter strips require periodic maintenance

which includes the removal of sediment, reestablishment of vegetation, and removal of channels. In urban areas, infiltration trenches and

stormwater control measures may be common in

Zone 3.
Section I

1-10

Additional Definitions

Aquiclude

Impermeable layer, such as a clay bed,

that confines an aquifer.

Anadromous species

Organisms that spend part of their life cycle in freshwater and part in saltwater and

ascend rivers and streams to breed.

Bankfull depth

The mean water depth that occurs during

a bankfull stream flow event.

Bankfull width

The mean water width that occurs during

a bankfull stream flow event.

Baseflow

Portions of stream discharge derived from

natural sources, such as groundwater and

large lakes and swamps situated outside

the area of net rainfall that created local

surface runoff; the sustained discharge

that does not result from direct runoff or

from stream regulations, water diversion,

or other human activities.

Benthos

Organisms that inhabit the bottom substrate of lakes, ponds, and streams. These

organisms are divided into two groups:

macrobenthos and microbenthos. The

adjective is benthic.

Best management practices

Methods, measures or practices to prevent

or reduce water pollution, including but

not limited to, structural and nonstructural

controls, operation and maintenance procedures, other requirements and scheduling and distribution of activities.

Bioengineering

An applied science that combines structural, biological, and ecological concepts

to construct living structures for erosion,

sediment, and flood control.

Buffer

An area maintained in permanent vegetation and managed to reduce the impacts

of adjacent land use.

Channel stability

The sensitivity of a channel area to disruptions in its physical structure. Under

undisturbed conditions, natural channels

demonstrate wide variability in withstanding physical disruptions without experiencing changes in their ability to pass

streamflow, process sediment, or provide

habitat. Stable channels are capable of

withstanding an appreciable amount of

disruption with little effect on function.

Channelization

The practice of straightening a waterway

to remove meanders and increase flow.

Sometimes concrete is used to line the

sides and bottom of the channel.

Community

An aggregation of living organisms having mutual relationships among themselves and to their environment.

Dendritic

Branched pattern; similar to that of a tree.

Ecosystem

The system formed by the interaction of a

community of organisms with their environment.

Ecosystem management

The careful and skillful use of ecological,

economic, social, and managerial principles in managing ecosystems to produce,

restore, or sustain ecosystem integrity and

desired uses, products, and services over

the long-term.
Section I

1-11

Environment

All the biotic and abiotic factors of a site.

Ephemeral stream

A stream or portion of a stream that flows

only in direct response to precipitation. It

receives little or no water from springs

and no long-continued supply from melting snow or other sources. Its channel is

at all times above the water table. The

term may be arbitrarily restricted to

streams which do not flow continuously

during periods of one month.

Erosion

The removal of rock debris and soil by

wind, moving water, or gravity.

Exotic invasive species

An organism that is out of its naturally

occurring range and environment, and occupying the habitat of native species.

Filter strip

A linear strip of land maintained to slow

the velocity of runoff and filter sediment.

Flood plain

That portion of a stream valley adjacent

to the channel that is built by sediments

of the stream and covered with water

when the stream overflows its banks at

flood stage. Also, the nearly level land

situated on either side of a channel that is

subject to overflow flooding.

Forest

A descriptive classification of land type

predominated by trees and woody vegetation and characterized by high structural

diversity, greater than 25 percent canopy

shading, and by the significant accumulation of organic duff on the soil surface.

Forest buffer conservation

Retaining and managing existing riparian

forests so that they continue to provide

the benefits of a forest buffer.

Forest buffer restoration

The re-establishment of a sustainable

community of native trees, shrubs, and

other vegetation capable of providing

multiple buffer functions adjacent to a

body of water where forest cover was

converted to other uses.

Forest buffer width

A fixed or variable distance measured

from the edge of the streambank or

shoreline within which the vegetation and

land is retained and managed for the purpose of sustaining specific or multiple

buffer functions.

Fluvial

Geomorphic processes associated with

running water; of, or pertaining to rivers.

Geomorphology

The geologic study of the evolution and

configuration of land forms.

Habitat

A place where the physical and biological

elements of ecosystems provide a suitable

environment and the food, cover, and

space resources needed for plant and

animal livelihood.

Headwaters

The uppermost reaches of a stream or

river.

Hydrologic function

The capacity of a stream to move or to

store water, bedload material, and suspended sediment. Stream gradient, the

resultant stream power and size of material are critical factors.

Hydrology

The study of the properties, distribution,

and effects of water on the earth's surface,

soil, and atmosphere.
Section I

1-12

Infiltration

Movement of surface water into the soil.

Intermittent stream

A defined channel in which surface water

is absent during a portion of the year.

Large woody debris

A term used to describe logs, tree boles,

rootwads, and limbs that are in, on, or

near a stream channel.

Level spreader

A device used to spread out stormwater

runoff uniformly over the ground surface

as sheet flow. The purpose of level

spreaders is to prevent concentrated, erosive flows from occurring and to enhance

infiltration.

Limnology

Study of aquatic ecology.

Meander

A circuitous winding or bend in the river.

Native species

A naturally occurring organism that is

within its range and normal environment.

Nonpoint source pollution

Pollution that originates from many diffuse sources, such as runoff from roads,

fields, or other surfaces.

Nutrient cycling

The path of an element through the ecosystem, including its assimilation by organisms and its release in a reusable

inorganic form.

Perennial streams

A defined channel containing surface

water throughout an average rainfall year.

Physiographic province

An area of land, less extensive than a region, having a characteristic plant and

animal population, landforms, climate,

and other processes.

Point source

Originating from a discrete identifiable

source or conveyance.

Pool

Deeper areas of a stream with slowmoving water, often used by larger fish

for cover.

Riffle

Shallow section of a stream or river with

rapid current and a surface broken by

gravel, rubble, or boulders.

Riparian

Pertaining to anything connected with or

immediately adjacent to the banks of a

stream or other body of water.

Riparian area

The area of land adjacent to streams, rivers, and other bodies of water that serves

as a transition between aquatic and terrestrial environments and directly affects

or is affected by that body of water.

Riparian forest buffer

An area of trees, usually accompanied by

shrubs and other vegetation, adjacent to a

body of water and managed to maintain

the integrity of stream channels and

shorelines to 1) reduce the impact of upland sources of pollution by trapping, filtering, and converting sediments,

nutrients, and other chemicals, and 2)

supply food, cover, and thermal protection to fish and other wildlife.

Riprap

Stones of varying size used to dissipate

energy or stabilize a soil surface.

Scour

Local removal of material from a streambed by flowing water.
Section I

1-13

Sediment

Fragmented material that originated from

weathering rocks and decomposing organic material that is transported by, suspended in, and eventually deposited in the

streambed.

Shannon Diversity Index

A system of analysis that relates the number of kinds of benthos to the total number of organisms and, in some cases, that

number of individuals of each kind. The

index is an indicator of water quality:

low diversity often indicates water of low

quality.

Sheetflow

A flow process associated with water

movement on sloping ground surfaces

that is not channelized or concentrated.

Stream

A perennial or intermittent watercourse

having a defined channel (excluding manmade ditches) which contains flow from

surface and groundwater sources during

at least 50 percent of an average rainfall

year.

Stream corridor conservation

An approach to management that encourages the protection of a stream and a continuous vegetated buffer zone from a

stream’s headwaters to its mouth and integrates riparian buffers with other

needed stream protection and restoration

actions.

Stream order

A numerical system (ranking from headwaters to river terminus) used to designate the relative position of a stream or

stream segment in a drainage basin.

Streamside management zone (SMZ)

A forested area along a stream or other

body of water, varying in width, where

timber management practices that might

affect water quality or aquatic resources

are modified.

Streambank

The portion of the channel cross-section

that restricts lateral movement of water at

normal water levels.

Swale

A natural depression or wide shallow

ditch used to temporarily store, route, or

filter runoff.

Unconstrained channel stream

Not confined to an entrenched or well defined channel.

Vegetated filter strip

An area maintained in permanent vegetation, such as grass, shrubs, or trees and

designed to capture and filter runoff and

sediment from surrounding land uses.

Watershed

1) An area of land that drains into a particular river or body of water; usually divided

by topography.

2) The total area of land above a given point

on a waterway that contributes surface

runoff water to the flow at that point; a

drainage basin or a major subdivision of a

drainage basin.

Watershed-based planning

An approach to resource, land use, and

development planning that utilizes natural

watersheds instead of geopolitical

boundaries in order to sustain natural

stream functions while accommodating a

reasonable level of land development.

Wetland

An area of land that has a predominance

of hydric soils and is inundated or saturated with water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of

vegetation typically adapted to saturated

soil conditions. Usually found in depres-
Section I

1-14

sions, adjacent to bodies of water, or

along flood plains or coastal waters.

Zoning

The practice of dividing land into regions

or parcels pertaining to its use or activities within it.

References

American Fisheries Society. 1985. Stream obstruction removal guidelines. AFS, Grosvenor

Lane, Bethesda, MD.

Belt, G.H., J. O'Laughlin, and T. Merrill. 1992.

Design of forest riparian buffer strips for the

protection of water quality: Analysis of Scientific Literature. University of Idaho, Report No.

8, Moscow, ID.

Cooksey, R.A. and A.H. Todd. 1996. Conserving the forests of the Chesapeake: the status,

trends, and importance of forests for the Bay’s

sustainable future. NA-TP-03-96. USDA Forest

Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private

Forestry, Radnor, PA.

Hunter, Jr., M. 1990. Wildlife, forests, and forestry: principles for managing for biological

diversity. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Karr, J.R. and I.J. Schlosser. 1978. Water resources and the land-water interface. Science

201:229-234.

Lowrance, R., R. Leonard, and J. Sheridan.

1985. Managing riparian ecosystems to control

nonpoint pollution. J. Soil and Water Conservation, 40(1):87-91.

USDA Forest Service. 1988. Management of

riparian resources within forested landscapes.

Riparian Management Guide, Williamette National Forest, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR.

Welsch, D.J. 1991. Riparian forest buffers:

function and design for protection and enhancement of water resources. NA-PR-07-91.

USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State

and Private Forestry, Forest Resources Management, Radnor, PA.
Section II

Physiographic and Hydro-Physiographic Provinces

Introduction ..........................................................................................................2-1

Northern Glaciated Allegheny Plateau.................................................................2-4

Northern Ridge and Valley...................................................................................2-5

Northern Appalachian Piedmont..........................................................................2-6

Southern Appalachian Piedmont..........................................................................2-7

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain ..............................................................................2-8

Hydro-Physiographic Response ...........................................................................2-9

Major Hydro-Physiographic Regions in the Chesapeake Watershed.................2-10

References..........................................................................................................2-18
Section II

2-1

Physiographic and Hydro-Physiographic Provinces

Introduction

This section contains the biophysical descriptions of the physiographic provinces as depicted

from the USDA Forest Service national ecomapping project. The basis for the section is the

document “Ecological Subregions of the United

States: Section Descriptions.” The section introduces the physiographic provinces by

discussing similarities and differences in their

geologic (see Table 2-1), climatic, vegetative,

faunal, and resource attributes. Table 2-2 shows

how these physiographic provinces are oriented

in relation to the Chesapeake Bay.

The section further defines these regions in

terms of hydrology and the potential function of

riparian forest buffers.

Table 2 - 1

Table of Ages

(modified from several recent sources)

Period Duration* Began** Ended**

Quaternary 2.5 2.5

Tertiary 63.5 66 2.5

Cretaceous 69 135 66

Jurassic 50 185 135

Triassic 40 225 185

Permian 45 270 225

Pennsylvanian 45 315 270

Mississippian 30 345 315

Devonian 60 405 345

Silurian 25 430 405

Ordovician 70 500 430

Cambrian 100 600 500

Ante-Cambrian 400 1,000 600

First evidences of life known 3,200

*Millions of years **Millions of years ago

Source: Cardwell, D.H. Geologic History of West Virginia.
Table 2-2

Summary of the Biophysical Descriptions of the Physiographic Provinces

Physiographic

Provinces

Land Surface Form

Geomorphology Elevation

Lithology and

 Stratigraphy Soil Taxa Climate

Surface Water

Characteristics 

Northern Glaciated

Allegheny Plateau

Dissected plateau, glacialfeatures, mast wasting,fluvial erosion, transport& deposition, karst solution; 650 to 1,970 feet

Pleistocene till andstratified drift; Devonian sandstone,siltstone, and shale

Fragiaquepts,Fragiochrepts,Dystrochrepts;utic, aquic; mesic

Prcp: 30-50 in.Temp: 46-50° FG.s.: 100-160 d

Perennial streams,small lakes; highgradient, bedrockcontrolled; somemarsh/swamps;dendritic pattern

Northern Ridge and

Valley

Parallel, folded, faultedvalleys & ridges; mastwasting , karst solution,fluvial erosion, transport& deposition; trellis &some dendritic; 300 to4,000 feet

Residuum, colluvium& alluvium; Ordovician & Silurian in PAsection; shale, siltstone, chert,limestone, coal

Utisols, Alfisols,Inceptisols;Ochrepts &Udults; mesic;utic

Prcp: 30-45 in.Temp: 39-57o FG.s.: 120-180 d

Streams regulated byseasons; trellis pattern, dendritic inBlue Ridge; wetlandsscarce

Northern

Appalachian

Piedmont

Dissected peneplain, broadstructural basin, hilly &rolling; dendritic drainage;fluvial erosion, transport& deposition; sea level1,000 ft.

Residuum, colluvium& alluvium; shale,sandstone, conglomerates, basalt, diabasesills, mixed metamorphics

Udults, Udalfs,Ochrepts; Dystrochrepts &Fluvaquents onflood plains;mesic; udic

Prcp: 39-47 in.Temp: 40-55 o FG.s.: 160-250 d

Dendritic drainage;natural lakes rare;few bogs, swamps;salt marshes close toBay area; tidaleffects

Southern

Appalachian

Piedmont

Dissected & irregularplains; differential erosion,mass-wasting, fluvial erosion, transport &deposition; 330-1,300 feet

Metamorphic complexes, volcanics,marine deposits

Udults, mixturesof moist soils;thermic

Prcp: 45-55 in.Temp: 58-60o FG.s.: 205-235 d

Numerous lakes,marshes & swamps;streams sluggish;perennial streams andrivers; low flow rates

2-2

Middle Atlantic

Coastal Plain

Sloping, flat plains;weakly dissected alluvialfan; fluvial deposition sealevel - 80 feet

Marine deposits Udults,

hydraquents intidal marshes;mesic; utic

Prcp: 46 in.Temp: 55-57 o FG.s. 185-220 d

Streams & riverssluggish; marshes,swamps, lakes;small-medium perennial streams; highwater tables; poorlydefined drainage
Section II

2-3

Figure 2 - 1. Chesapeake Bay Physiographic Provinces. (Source: USDA Forest Service, 1997)
Section II

2-4

Northern Glaciated Allegheny

Plateau

• Land-Surface Form and Geomorphology -

Most of this area consists of a dissected plateau of moderate relief, but rolling hills occur

in many places. Its northern boundary is the

Erie and Ontario Lake Plain, and its southern

is the Ridge and Valley Province. Lakes,

poorly-drained depressions, morainic hills,

drumlins, kettles, eskers, outwash plains,

scour, and other glacial features are typical of

the area, which was entirely covered by glaciers during parts of the Pleistocene. Masswasting, karst solution, fluvial erosion, and

transport and deposition are the primary operating geomorphic processes. Elevations range

from 650 to 1,970 feet.

• Lithology and Stratigraphy - Most of the

area is covered by a thin, stony Pleistocene

till and stratified drift. On top of the plateau,

beneath the drift, bedrock is mostly Devonian

sandstone, siltstone, and shale. Silurian conglomerate holds up a prominent escarpment in

the southeast corner of the province. In the

central region, bedrock had been broadly

folded into a series of gentle, sub-parallel,

east-west trending anticlines and synclines.

• Soil Taxa - Soils are mainly Fragiaquepts,

Fragiochrepts, and Dystrochrepts with utic

and aquic moisture regimes, and mesic temperatures dominate. Soils are derived from

glacial materials left by the Wisconsin Glacier when it retreated about 12,000 to 15,000

years ago. Alluvial and organic materials are

of recent origin and are still being deposited.

• Climate - Winters are moderately long and

severe, but more than 120 days have temperatures above 50° F. Snow usually stays on

the ground all winter; snowfall averages from

60 to 80 inches. The growing season is considered short, lasting 100 to 160 days, and the

frost-free season lasts from 100 to 140 days.

Average annual rainfall is moderate, ranging

from 30 to 50 inches.

• Surface Water Characteristics - Perennial

streams and small lakes provide an abundance

of water. The area is characterized by deeply

incised high gradient and bedrock-controlled

streams in the uplands, and low and moderate

gradient, mature streams in the valleys.

Swamps and marshes occupy poorly-drained

uplands and valleys. The drainage pattern is

dendritic. Numerous waterfalls and rapids

exist where streams cross beds of resistant

rock. Runoff values are lowest in the center

of the Allegheny Plateau and increase both

east and west. Highest runoff occurs in the

spring; lowest runoff occurs in the summer

and fall. Major rivers include the Susquehanna, Chenango, and Chemung.

• Vegetation - This province lies between the

boreal forest and the broadleaf deciduous forest zones, so it is transitional. Part of it

consists of mixed stands of a few coniferous

species, mainly pine, and a few deciduous

species such as yellow birch, sugar maple,

and American beech. The rest of the area is a

macromosiac of pure deciduous forests in favorable habitats with good soils and pure

coniferous forests in less favorable habitats

with poor soils. Mixed stands may have several species of conifer and eastern hemlock.

Eastern white cedar is found in the southeast

part of the province. Küchler vegetation

types include northern hardwoods and Appalachian oak forests. Regionally defined

important vegetation types include Appalachian oak-hickory forests, Appalachian oakpine forests, beech-maple mesic forests, and

hemlock-northern hardwood forests.

• Fauna - White-tailed deer is the most common large mammal. Smaller mammals

include beaver, red and gray fox, raccoon,

skunk, gray squirrel, coyotes, mink, and

muskrat. The most common game birds are

wild turkey, ruffed grouse, woodcock, and

other waterfowl. Other birds include raptors,

cavity nesters, and songbirds. Historically

this area was habitat for peregrine falcon. No

federally listed threatened or endangered species are unique to the area.
Section II

2-5

• Disturbance Regimes - Fire was historically

important to maintain the oak-dominated

communities in the central part of the plateau

and the western and southern slopes of the region. Insect and disease disturbances that

dominate the area include chestnut blight,

beech bark disease, sugar maple borer, and

ongoing ash dieback. Occasional droughts

have occurred in the central part of the region.

• Land Use - Most of the area is agricultural

land; second and third growth forests occupy

the ridgetops and steeper slopes. The main

form of recreation is hunting, although

camping, fishing, and hiking are also popular.

Northern Ridge And Valley

• Land-Surface Form and Geomorphology -

This province is characterized by a series of

parallel, southwest to northeast trending, narrow valleys and mountain ranges created by

differential erosion of tightly folded, intensely

faulted bedrock. The eastern boundary is the

Great Valley low land; the western boundary

is the steep, high ridge Allegheny Front.

Drainage is structurally controlled, dominantly trellis with some dendritic patterns.

Mass-wasting, karst solution, and fluvial erosion, transport, and deposition are the

dominant geomorphic processes. A notable

but minor landform are lands that have been

strip-mined. Elevations range from 300 to

4,000 feet.

One of the major features of the Ridge and

Valley is the Great Valley and Blue Ridge

Mountains. The Great Valley is part of the

Ridge and Valley, whereas, the Blue Ridge

itself is a physiographic province. But it is

so similar to the Ridge and Valley that it has

been lumped in with it. Major differences in

the two provinces will be noted throughout

this section. The northern part of the Blue

Ridge (north of Roanoke Gap in Virginia) is

characterized by a single, broad ridge that

extends into southern Pennsylvania. Drainage is structurally controlled; it is dominantly

trellis in the north and dendritic in the south.

Landforms on about 80 percent of the area

are low mountains, with elevations ranging

from 1,000 to 3,000 feet.

• Lithology and Stratigraphy -

Unconsolidated materials overlie most bedrock; residuum on flats and gently sloping

uplands, colluvium on slopes, and alluvium in

valley bottoms. Shale, siltstone, sandstone,

chert, and carbonates form the bedrock. Ordovician and Silurian rock dominate the

northern Pennsylvanian extension of the

province. Some Devonian, Mississippian,

and Pennsylvanian rock (including coal) are

exposed in the larger synclines, and Cambrian

limestone is exposed in a few anticlines.

• Soil Taxa - Soils are mostly Utisols, Alfisols,

and Inceptisols, with mesic temperature regimes and mostly utic moisture regimes.

They are derived from heavily weathered

shale, siltstone, sandstone residuum and colluvium, cherty limestone, and limestone

residuum. The Blue Ridge soils are dominated by Ochrepts and Udults. Soils are

generally moderately-deep and mediumtextured. Boulders and bedrock outcrops are

common.

• Climate - The climate is temperate, with distinct summer and winter seasons, and all areas

are subject to frost. Mean annual temperature

is approximately 39 to 57° F. The average

length of the frost-free period is about 100

days in the northern mountains. Mean annual

precipitation is generally 30 to 45 inches in

the valleys and up to 80 inches on the highest

peaks. Precipitation is fairly well distributed

throughout the year. Snowfall is more than

24 inches in Pennsylvania, increasing southward along the mountains to about 30 inches

in the Great Smoky Mountains. In the transition to the Allegheny Plateau, rainfall may

range as high as 60 inches. Approximately 20

percent of the precipitation falls as snow. At

elevations above 3,500 feet, 30 percent falls

as snow. The growing season ranges from

120 to 180 days, extending to 220 days on the
Section II

2-6

Blue Ridge. Southeast and south-facing

slopes are notably warmer and drier than the

northwest and north-facing slopes, because

they face the sun and are on the lee side of the

ridges. One result is that forest fires are more

frequent on the south-facing slopes.

• Surface Water Characteristics - Streams are

most active in the spring. Many smaller

streams dry up in the summer and are not recharged until October and November. Stream

patterns are trellis-shaped, reflecting the

regular folding of the geomorphology.

Streams are generally more alkaline and productive than in the Allegheny Mountains.

Wetlands are scarce. In the Blue Ridge

Mountains, there is a high density of small- to

medium-sized streams and associated rivers.

Some streams in mountainous areas in zones

of high rainfall are characterized by high flow

rates and velocities. A dendritic drainage

pattern has developed on deeply dissected

surfaces, with some control from the underlying bedrock. Isolated areas in some

locations are wet all year as a result of seeps.

Major rivers include the Susquehanna,

Juniata, Shenandoah, and Potomac.

• Vegetation - Because much of the area lies in

the rainshadow of the Allegheny Mountains,

vegetation reflects drier conditions. Küchler

types are mapped as Appalachian oak forests,

oak-hickory-pine forests, and some northern

hardwoods. Red and white oaks occur on

more productive, mesic sites. Eastern white

pine can occur with white oak on lower portions of slopes. On the driest sites, oaks are

mixed with pitch, table mountain, or Virginia

pine. Other regionally important species include hickories, yellow-poplar, maples, and

associated upland hardwoods.

• Fauna - White-tailed deer are dominant and

have an impact on understory flora. The

black bear is the sole representative of large

carnivores. Smaller mammals include squirrels, fox, weasels, and bats. The endangered

Indiana bat and Virginia big-eared bat are associated with karst areas. Bird species are

diverse and include both residents and neotropicals. Game birds include ruffed grouse

and wild turkey. The Blue Ridge supports the

largest diversity of salamanders in North

America. Most endemic species occur in the

central and southern sections of the Blue

Ridge where topographic relief is greater and

ridges isolated.

• Disturbance Regimes - Fire was used extensively by Native Americans. Major historical

disturbance includes grazing from about 1780

onward and logging from 1880 to 1920.

Gypsy moth is affecting Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia.

• Land Use - Farming, grazing, and hay production are common on river flood plains and

on limestone areas in the northern part of the

province. Timber production is important in

forested areas. The area also receives some

recreation pressure for fishing, hiking, hunting, and camping. Canoeing and climbing

occur in certain areas.

Northern Appalachian Piedmont

• Land-Surface Form and Geomorphology -

This province includes topography of a diverse nature. The northern limits that stretch

to southern Maine have been glaciated, and

west of the Ridge and Valley Province is the

Appalachian Plateau. The section discussed

here is the Piedmont Plateau and coastal

plain, where altitudes range from sea level to

about 1,000 feet. Most of the area is a

maturely dissected peneplain sloping gently

toward the Atlantic coast. It is hilly to rolling

terrain, with a few high ridges. The area is

crossed southwest to northeast by a broad

structural basin forming a lowland plain. An

extension of the plain forms northern New

Jersey, Long Island, and Connecticut. Drainage is dendritic; fluvial erosion, transport and

deposition, and mass-wasting are the primary

geomorphic processes operating.

• Lithology and Stratigraphy - Bedrock is

overlain by residuum on the ridges and hill

tops, colluvium on the slopes, and alluvial

materials in the valleys. The youngest bed-
Section II

2-7

rock in the area occupies the structural basin:

Triassic and Jurassic conglomerates; sandstones and shales; basalt flows and diabase

sills; and mixed metamorphics of marble,

slate, quartzite, schist, and gneiss of the Protozoic to Paleozoic age.

• Soil Taxa - Soils include Udults, Udalfs, and

Ochrepts. These were derived by Triassic

sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. The

sedimentary rocks contain numerous dikes

and sills of diabase and basalt. Other local

areas are underlaid by limestone. The dominant moisture regime is udic. The

temperature regime is mesic. Soils are dominantly well-drained and range from

moderately-deep to deep. Dominant soils on

the flood plains are Dystrochrepts and Fluvaquents.

• Climate - The continental climate regime

here ensures a strong annual temperature cycle, with cold winters and warm summers.

Precipitation averages between 39 to 47

inches. It falls mainly in the spring and early

summer. Snowfall ranges from 27 to 40

inches. Temperature ranges from 40 to 55° F.

The growing season lasts for 160 to 250 days.

• Surface Water Characteristics - The area is

characterized by a mature, dendritic drainage

network. Natural lakes are rare to nonexistent, except in the northeastern extremity,

which was covered by glaciation. Small impoundments are common along upper reaches

of streams. A few bogs, swamps, and salt

marshes occur in areas adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean and the Chesapeake Bay. The

lower extremities of some of the major

streams are affected by tides. There is ample

water for farm, urban, and industrial uses,

however, urban development is affecting water yields. Good groundwater recharge areas

are being impacted by encroaching development. Susquehanna is a major river.

• Vegetation - The province is dominated by a

temperate deciduous forest. Prior to European settlement in the early 17th century, the

native vegetation consisted mainly of oak and

hickory. Currently, Appalachian oak forests

(Küchler) and sugar maple-mixed hardwoods,

hemlock-mixed hardwoods, and oak-chestnut

(Braun) dominate. Red maple is dominant on

the wet bottomlands.

• Fauna - Relatively fertile soils result in very

diverse habitats. Large areas of the original

forested wildlife habitat have been altered or

eliminated as a result of intensive agricultural

and residential development. Examples of

openland wildlife include birds, rabbits, red

fox, and woodchuck. Among the mammals

and birds that prefer forestlands are ruffed

grouse, woodcock, various thrushes, squirrels,

white-tailed deer, gray fox, and raccoon.

Ducks, herons, geese, shore birds, mink, and

muskrats are found in ponds, marshes, and

swamps. No federally listed threatened or

endangered species are unique to this area.

• Disturbance Regimes - Historically, fire was

a significant natural disturbance. Gypsy moth

and chestnut blight have had effects on vegetation.

• Land Use - Farms, woodlands, and industrial

and urban development are the current land

uses.

Southern Appalachian

Piedmont

• Land-Surface Form and Geomorphology -

This province comprises the Piedmont where

50 to 80 percent of the area slopes gently.

The area consists of an intensely metamorphosed, moderately dissected plain. It

consists of thick saprolite, continental sediments, and accreted terraces. Differential

erosion has produced some isolated mountains (monadnocks) that rise above the

general land surface. Landforms on about 70

percent of the area are irregular plains. Landforms on the remaining area are about equally

divided among plains with high hills, open

low hills, and tablelands of moderate relief.

A major feature of the outer boundary is the

Fall Line, which indicates the prevalence of

falls and rapids in the area (Fenneman).
Section II

2-8

Mass-wasting, fluvial erosion, and transport

and deposition are the dominant operating

geomorphic processes. Elevation ranges from

330 to 1,300 feet.

• Lithology and Stratigraphy - Rock units

formed during the Precambrian, Paleozoic,

and Mesozoic Eras. Precambrian strata consist of metamorphic complexes with

compositions of schist and phylite and mafic

paragneiss. Paleozoic strata consist of about

equal amounts of Cambrian eugosynclinal and

volcanic rocks. Mesozoic strata consist of

Triassic marine deposits of sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

• Soil Taxa - Udults are the predominant soils.

Paleudults and Hapludults are on gently

sloping uplands. Steeper slopes are dominated by Hapludults, Rhodudults,

Dystrochrepts, and Hapludalfs. Dystrochrepts, Udifluvents, and Fluvaquests are on

alluvium. Soils have a thermic temperature

regime, and kaolinitic, mixed, or oxidic mineralogy. Soils are generally deep, with a

clayey or loamy subsoil. In many areas, soils

are severely eroded as a result of past agricultural practices.

• Climate - The climate is usually uniform

throughout the region. Mild winters and hot,

humid summers are the rule. Average annual

temperature ranges from 58 to 64o F. Precipitation, which ranges from 45 to 55 inches,

is evenly distributed throughout the year.

Precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, but

summer droughts occur. Growing season

lasts from 205 to 235 days.

• Surface Water Characteristics - There is a

moderate density of small- to medium-size

perennial streams and associated rivers; most

have low to moderate rates of flow and moderate velocity. Marshes, lakes, and swamps

are numerous. A dendritic drainage pattern

has developed on moderately dissected surfaces, with some influence from the

underlying bedrock. All streams are relatively swift in crossing the denuded edge of

the older, steeper peneplain. Some have pronounced rapids and falls, also called the “Fall

Line.” Major rivers in the area include the

Potomac, Rappahannock, Appomattox, and

James.

• Vegetation - The climax vegetation of the

area consists of broad-leaved deciduous and

needle-leaf evergreen trees. At least 50 percent of the stands are made up of loblolly,

shortleaf, and other southern pines. Common

associates include oak, hickory, sweetgum,

black gum, and red maple. Küchler mapped

vegetation as oak-hickory-pine forests and

oak-hickory forests. The oak-hickory forest

type consist of white, post, and southern red

oaks and pignut and mockernut hickories.

The loblolly-shortleaf combination is common on disturbed areas.

• Fauna - White-tailed deer, black bear, bobcat, gray fox, cottontail rabbit, and squirrels

are among the common mammals found in

this area. Wild turkey, bobwhite quail, and

mourning dove are the common game bird

species. Numerous songbirds and herpetofauna are also found.

• Disturbance Regimes - Fire has been the

principle historic disturbance. Agriculture and

development are the current major disturbances. Climatic disturbances include

occasional summer drought, winter ice

storms, and infrequent tornadoes and hurricanes. Insect-related disturbances are caused

by the Southern pine beetle.

• Land Use - Natural vegetation has been

cleared for agriculture in most of the area.

Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain

• Land-Surface Form and Geomorphology -

The province comprises the flat and irregular

Atlantic Coastal Plain down to the sea. Well

over 50 percent of the area is gently sloping,

flat plains. Much of the other landforms are

irregular plains. Elevation ranges from 0 to

80 feet. The predominant land form is a flat,

weakly dissected alluvial plain formed by

deposition of continental sediments onto a
Section II

2-9

submerged, shallow continental shelf. Later,

it was exposed by sea level subsidence.

Along the coast, fluvial deposition and shore

zone processes are active in developing and

maintaining beaches, swamps, and mud flats.

One prominent feature is the Fall Line, which

is the inner edge of the province.

• Lithology and Stratigraphy - Rocks in this

province were formed during the Cenozoic

Era. Strata consist of Quarternary marine deposits (shales and sands). Small areas of

Tertiary marine deposits (silts and clays) are

exposed along some large rivers.

• Soil Taxa - Soils consist of Udults.

Hapludults are common in areas with and

without loess. Quartzipsamments are on the

high ridges. Hydraquents are in the tidal

marshes of the Chesapeake Bay. These soils

are deep and have inadequate to excessive

moisture contents. Their temperature regime

is mesic and moisture regime utic. These

soils are deep, adequately drained, and have

adequate moisture supply for use by vegetation during the growing season.

• Climate - The climate regime has a small to

moderate annual temperature range; average

annual temperature is 55 to 57° F. Rainfall is

usually abundant and evenly distributed

throughout the year; precipitation averages 46

inches. The growing season lasts 185 to 220

days.

• Surface Water Characteristics - The area

has a moderate density of small- to mediumsized perennial streams. There is also a low

density of associated rivers, most with a moderate volume of water, flowing at very low

velocity. Water table is high in many areas,

resulting in poor natural drainage and abundance of wetlands. A poorly defined drainage

pattern has developed on this relatively young

plain. There are numerous palustrine systems

having seasonally high water levels, especially in pocosin areas. Major rivers in this

area include the James, Patuxent, and Potomac.

• Vegetation - Along the Atlantic coast, the

extensive marshes and interior swamps are

dominated by gum and cypress. Most upland

areas are covered by subclimax pine forests.

Küchler classified most vegetation as oakhickory-pine forests and southern flood plain

forests. The predominant vegetation form is

needle-leafed evergreen forests and deciduous

broad-leafed forests. The main forest cover

type is loblolly pine-hardwood. Hardwood

species are sweetgum, water oak, white ash,

yellow-poplar, red maple, and swamp hickory. On bottomland areas along major rivers,

species include green ash, sugarberry, water

oak, American sycamore, sweetgum, and

American elm.

• Fauna - Fauna include white-tailed deer and

numerous other mammals. Wild turkey,

bobwhite quail, and mourning dove are the

common game birds. Both saltwater and

freshwater birds, such as herons, egrets,

ducks, geese, and cormorants, are present.

There are numerous herpetofauna, songbirds,

and amphibians.

• Disturbance Regimes - Present disturbances

include development and agriculture. Climatic disturbances include infrequent

hurricanes.

• Land Use - Natural vegetation has been

cleared for agriculture on about 65 percent of

the area. Other areas are in rapid development.

Hydro-Physiographic Response

The following map, diagrams, and tables provide an interpretation of hydrology and potential

level of water quality function expected for riparian forest buffers when used in these

provinces.
Section II

2-10

Major Hydro-Physiographic Regions in the

Chesapeake Watershed

Figure 2 - 2. Major Hydro-Physiographic Regions in the Chesapeake Watershed. (Source: Alliance for the

Chesapeake Bay, 1996)
Section II

2-11

Inner Coastal Plain

Of all the physiographic regions, the inner

coastal plain probably represents the maximum

potential for nonpoint source control in riparian

forest buffer systems. Most excess rainfall enters streams through subsurface runoff or

shallow groundwater and therefore moves in or

near the forest buffer root zone where nutrient

removal is very high. Forest buffers will be very

effective in controlling most particulate surface

runoff as well, though dissolved phosphorus

removal takes place at a lower rate. Because this

region is often flat, many agricultural areas have

drainage systems. For forest buffers to be effective, those systems must be modified to

encourage flow through the buffer.

Riparian Forest Buffers:

% Reduction of Nutrients and Sediment*

Level Sediment Nitrogen Phosphorus

High 85-95 68-92 70-81

Medium 65-85 45-68 50-70

Low 40-65 15-45 24-50

* General approximations for 100-foot forest buffer

system. Actual levels will vary by land use and site

conditions. Based on loadings from agricultural

lands, performance in field studies rated as high removed total N in the range of 23-66 pounds/acre/year

and total P in the range of 1-3 pounds/acre/year from

adjacent fields. Expected level of function is based

on mature forest in Zones 1 and 2.
Section II

2-12

Outer Coastal Plain

Well drained upland: Aside from lands immediately adjacent to streams, excess rainfall sinks

farther into the ground and therefore enters the

streams through their bottoms, never coming

into contact with the root zone. As a result,

there is little nitrate removal from groundwater.

In this area, Zone 1 vegetation is particularly

important because trees immediately adjacent to

small streams offer the most potential for root

systems to intercept the deeper groundwater before entering small streams. Management

actions in this area might include the selection

of trees that would have roots most likely to

make that connection. If the roots can reach the

groundwater, nitrate removal could be about as

effective as buffer systems in other landscapes.

Regardless of the groundwater situation, buffer

systems in this area would still provide sediment

control capacity similar to the Inner Coastal

Plain. Because of the lower water tables, welldrained uplands may have more capacity to

store dissolved chemicals in groundwater.

Poorly drained upland/surficial confined:

Groundwater is slightly higher here than in the

well-drained upland, but lower than the inner

coastal plain. As a result, the effectiveness of

nitrate removal from the groundwater is between

those two extremes.
Section II

2-13
Section II

2-14

Surface runoff control would still be effective,

but removal of dissolved chemicals would

probably be less than in the well-drained upland

because the higher groundwater level limits

storage. Agriculture in this region is commonly

associated with artificial drainage, which requires integration into the buffer system.

Tidal area: Tidally-influenced areas are unique

because groundwater discharges are affected by

tidal movements. Also, unlike most of the Bay

watershed, marshes are the natural shore vegetation in many of these areas. At sites where

marshes are not the natural shoreline, forest

buffers can help stabilize the banks. Shorelines

and cliffs are unique areas where special management may be needed. In most areas, the

water table will be completely under the root

zone, minimizing its impact. Restoration efforts

should focus on areas with shallow water tables

and wetland soils. Sediment control would be

similar to the inner coastal plain.

Piedmont
Section II

2-15

The Piedmont contains rich soils that can be

quite deep. The effectiveness of a riparian forest buffer’s ability to remove nitrate from the

groundwater hinges on the depth of those soils

and the underlying bedrock. In areas with thin

or finely textured soils and short flow paths to

streams through shallow groundwater or surface

seepage — characteristics common in the Virginia Piedmont — nitrate removal would be

high, as in the inner coastal plain.

Piedmont areas with deeper soils are likely to

have longer flow paths which allow water to

sink deeper into the ground before entering the

stream, in some cases bypassing the forest

buffer. These areas are characterized by two

different types of bedrock--gneiss/schist and

marble. Areas with primarily schist bedrock

would achieve moderate nitrate removal, as

groundwater would be forced to move laterally

toward small streams. Some groundwater would

either seep up toward the surface before reaching the stream or would pass through the root

zone of the buffer, while some flowing more

deeply would bypass the buffer. In areas with

deep soils underlaid by marble, nitrate removal

would be minimal, as much of the groundwater

would move through the porous marble layer

and into regional aquifers. Riparian forests are

most valuable here in flood plains and valley

bottoms.

Sediment control in areas characterized by thin

soils and flatter terrain would be similar to that

of the inner coastal plain, with the removal of

sediment and particulate nutrients being fairly

high, while control of dissolved phosphorus

would be fairly low. In hillier areas of the

Piedmont, sediment control will depend on how

effectively Zone 3 is managed to spread out the

runoff and prevent it from cutting channels into

the forest, allowing water to pass rapidly

through the buffer. Steeper slopes in riparian

areas may limit both the sediment filtering capacity and the retention time of water, possibly

requiring expansion of Zone 3 and/or Zone 2.
Section II

2-16

Ridge & Valley/Appalachian

The Ridge and Valley province is characterized

by folds in topography. Ridges of harder, more

resistant rock lie parallel to softer rock worn

down over time to form the lowlands. Streams

are intimately connected to this topography,

flowing on belts of soft rock which rarely cross

mountain ridges. Where they do, they cross at

right angles, forming a distinctive “trellised”

drainage pattern. Springs and seepage areas are

common, and the water table is often close to

the surface in near-stream areas.

This area is characterized by larger streams that

drain the main valleys, with smaller, and often

steeper, streams draining the ridges. Forested

riparian buffers have proven highly effective in

controlling water temperature and sediment delivery to streams in forest and agricultural

settings in the Ridge and Valley, but knowledge

of the removal of nutrients from groundwater is

less certain. This is primarily because of differences in geology. Water flow in Ridge and

Valley areas with limestone bedrock is complicated and quite variable over time. There is

often little potential for removing nitrate from

groundwater as water will flow through cavernous openings in the rock to deep aquifers. From

there, groundwater will eventually flow into the

bottom of larger streams or rivers, bypassing

riparian buffer zones altogether. Ridge and

Valley areas with sandstone/shale bedrock have

greater potential for groundwater nitrate removal as the hard bedrock keeps water moving

laterally in the shallow soils toward the streams.

Seepage and near-stream areas provide opportuBedrock
Section II

2-17

nities for substantial nitrate removal, while valley flood plains where groundwater discharge

occurs will likely be areas for forest buffers to

influence water quality. Surface runoff control

would face the same issues as in hilly portions

of the Piedmont.
Section II

2-18

References

Bailey, R.G. 1980. Descriptions of the ecoregions of the United States. Miscellaneous

U.S. Department of Agriculture Publication

1391. Washington, DC. 77p.

Braun, L.E. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern

North America. The Free Press. Macmillan

Publishing Co., Inc., NY. 596p.

Fenneman, N.M. 1938. Physiography of the

eastern United States. McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., NY and London. 714p.

Küchler, A.W. 1964. Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special

Publication 36. New York, NY: American Geographical Society. 116p.

USDA Forest Service. 1994. Ecological subregions of the United States: section descriptions.

WO-WSA-5. Washington DC: U.S. Department

of Agriculture, Forest Service.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. 1981. Land

resource regions and major land resource areas

of the United States. Agric. Handbook. No.

296. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 156p.
Section III

Functions/Values of Riparian Forest Buffers

Introduction ..........................................................................................................3-1

WATER QUALITY AND HYDROLOGIC FUNCTIONS/VALUES OF

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS.............................................3-1

How Riparian Forest Buffers Control the Stream Environment..........................3-3

How Riparian Forest Buffers Facilitate Removal of

Nonpoint Source Pollutants ..........................................................................3-6

Integrated Water Quality Functions of Riparian Forest Buffer Systems............3-11

Loading Rates and Nonpoint Source Pollution Control.....................................3-11

Stream Order and Size Effects...........................................................................3-12

Stormwater Management ...................................................................................3-13

Flood Reduction and Control.............................................................................3-13

WILDLIFE AND FISH HABITAT FUNCTIONS/VALUES O

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS...........................................3-14

Riparian Area Importance to Wildlife................................................................3-15

Principles of the Riparian Ecosystem.................................................................3-16

Structure .............................................................................................................3-17

Travel Corridors.................................................................................................3-25

Fish Habitat ........................................................................................................3-26

Management Considerations..............................................................................3-29

AESTHETICS AND OUTDOOR RECREATION FUNCTIONS/VALUES

OF RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER SYSTEMS.....................................3-34

Types of Recreation that Occur in Riparian Forests ..........................................3-35

References..........................................................................................................3-38
Section III

3-1

Introduction

This section describes the functions and values

of riparian areas and riparian forest buffers as

they relate to:

• Water Quality and Hydrology

• Wildlife and Fish

• Aesthetics and Outdoor Recreation

Water Quality and Hydrologic

Functions/Values of Riparian

Forest Buffer Systems

First and second order streams comprise nearly

three-quarters of the total stream length in the

United States (see Figure 3-1). Riparian ecosystems along these small streams are

influenced by processes occurring on both land

and water. Small streams can be completely

covered by the canopies of streamside vegetation. Riparian vegetation has well-known

beneficial effects on the bank stability, biological diversity, and water temperatures of streams.

Riparian forests of mature trees (30 to 75 years

old) are known to effectively reduce nonpoint

pollution from agricultural fields.

Compared to other water quality improvement

measures, Riparian Forest Buffer Systems

(RFBS) can lead to longer-term changes in the

structure and function of human-dominated

landscapes. To produce long-term improvements in water quality, RFBS must be designed

with an understanding of the following:

• processes which remove or sequester pollutants entering the riparian buffer system

• effects of riparian management practices on

pollutant retention

• effects of riparian forest buffers on aquatic

ecosystems

• effects and potential benefits of planned harvesting of trees on riparian buffer systems

• effects of underlying soil and geologic materials on chemical, hydrological, and

biological processes

It is important to note that the current understanding of the functions of the RFBS is based

on studies that have been done in areas where

riparian forests currently exist because of a

combination of hydrology, soils, cultural practices, and economics. Most of the current

knowledge of the water quality functions of the

three zones of the RFBS specification is derived

from studies in existing riparian forests and on

experimental and real-world grass buffer systems.

Functions/Values of Riparian Forest Buffers
Section III

3-2

Figure 3 - 1. Stream orders as illustrated in the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay White Paper, 1996.
Section III

3-3

How Riparian Forest Buffers

Control the Stream Environment

Although reduction of nonpoint source (NPS)

pollution is a widely recognized function of

riparian forest buffer systems, they also contribute significantly to other aspects of water

quality and physical habitat. Habitat alterations,

especially channel straightening and removal of

riparian vegetation, continue to impair the ecological health of streams more often and for

longer time periods than toxic chemicals.

Studies in Pennsylvania consider loss of riparian

forests in eastern North America to be one of

the major causes of aquatic ecosystem degradation.

Zone 1, the permanent woody vegetation at the

stream edge, enhances ecosystem stability and

helps control the physical, chemical, and trophic

status of the stream. Healthy riparian vegetation

in Zone 1 also contributes to bank stability and

minimizes instream sediment loading because of

bank erosion. Zone 1 also has substantial ability

to control NPS pollution through denitrification,

sedimentation, or direct root uptake of pollutants.

Riparian forest vegetation controls light quantity

and quality, moderates temperature, stabilizes

channel geometry, provides tree roots and

woody debris for habitat, and provides litter for

detritivores. To maintain the biological integrity of the aquatic ecosystem, an ideal managed

buffer system should have patterns of vegetation, litterfall, and light penetration similar to

those in a natural, undisturbed riparian forest.

However, for many locations, representative

sites of truly natural, undisturbed riparian ecosystems do not exist. In fact, after a long history

of human disturbance in many areas, the concept

can be difficult to define. Studies suggest that

within a homogeneous region, relatively pristine

areas may be identified as benchmarks for the

evaluation of other sites.

1. Temperature and Light

The daily and seasonal patterns of water temperature are critical habitat features that directly

and indirectly affect the ability of a given stream

to maintain viable populations of most aquatic

species, both plant and animal. Considerable

indirect evidence suggests that the absence of

riparian forests along many streams and rivers in

the Chesapeake drainage, particularly in agricultural areas, may have a profound effect on

the current geographic distribution of many species of macroinvertebrates and fish. Studies

reviewed the effects of temperature alterations

on the growth, development, and survival of

stream macroinvertebrates found in the Pennsylvania Piedmont. These studies showed that

temperature changes of 2-6° C usually alter key

life-history characteristics of most of the study

species.

In the absence of shading by a forest canopy,

direct sunlight can warm stream temperatures

significantly, especially during summer periods

of low flow. For example, maximum summer

temperatures have been reported to increase 6°-

15° C following removal of the riparian forest

canopy. Streams flowing through forests will

warm very rapidly as they enter deforested areas, but excess heat dissipates quickly when

streams reenter the forest. Studies demonstrated

this alternate warming (by 4-5° C) and cooling

as a stream passed through clearcut and uncut

strips in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire. In Pennsylvania (Ridge

and Valley Province), average daily stream temperatures that increased 11.7° C through a

clearcut area were substantially moderated after

flow through 500 meters of forest below the

clearcut. The temperature reduction was attributed primarily to inflows of cooler groundwater.

The impact of deforestation on stream temperature varies seasonally. In the Pennsylvania

Piedmont, studies found that from April through

October average daily temperatures in a second-order meadow stream reach were higher

than in a comparable wooded reach, but that the

reverse was true from November through

March.
Section III

3-4

Riparian forest buffers have been shown to prevent the disruption of natural temperature

patterns as well as to mitigate the increases in

temperature following deforestation. Studies

found that buffer strips of 10 meters wide were

as effective as a complete forest canopy in reducing solar radiation reaching small streams in

the Pacific Northwest. The exact width of Zone

1 needed for temperature control will vary from

site-to-site depending on a variety of factors (see

Sections V and VI). A previous study pointed

out that: 1) streams oriented in a north-south

direction are less easily shaded than streams

flowing east or west, and 2) a buffer on the

north side of a stream may have little or no effect. Also, in larger streams and rivers, the

width of the channel prevents a complete canopy cover, so the effect of canopy shading may

be reduced. In eastern North America, openings

in the canopy immediately above streams occur

when the channel width exceeds about 20 meters in width (i.e., about stream order 4 or 5).

Stream orientation relative to solar angle may

also affect the extent of shading for larger

streams. Although shading on larger rivers may

have little or no influence on water temperature,

shaded stream banks provide habitat microsites

for fish and other aquatic organisms.

The ability of a given width of streamside forest

to maintain or restore the natural temperature

characteristics of a stream segment depends on

how it affects the factors that control the daily

and seasonal thermal regime of the stream.

Such factors (other than shading) include: flow,

channel geometry, solar radiation, evaporative

heat loss, conductive surface heat exchange,

and, in some cases, conductive heat exchange

with the streambed.

2. Habitat Diversity and Channel

Morphology

The biological diversity of streams depends on

the diversity of habitats available. Woody debris is one of the major factors in habitat

diversity. Woody debris can benefit a stream

by:

• stabilizing the stream environment by reducing the severity of the erosive influence

of stream flow,

• increasing the diversity and amount of habitat for aquatic organisms,

• providing a source of slowly decomposable

nutrients, and

• forming debris dams, it enhances the availability of nutrients for aquatic organisms

from more rapidly decaying material.

Quantities of large woody debris (LWD) recommended for healthy streams in the George

Washington National Forest in Virginia range

from 34 pieces of LWD per km for warm water

fisheries to 136 pieces/km for cold water fisheries. Although the quantity of woody debris in

streams without forested riparian areas would be

expected to be very low, there are few quantitative studies. Studies in Pennsylvania found that

the volume of woody debris under forested

canopies in a Mid-Atlantic Piedmont stream was

20 times greater than the volume in a comparable meadow reach. Following removal of a

riparian forest, large woody debris present in the

stream declines through gradual decomposition,

flushing during storms, and lack of inputs.

Smaller debris from second-growth stands promotes less stability of the aquatic habitat and

tends to have a shorter residence time in the

stream.

Loss of streamside forest can lead to loss of

habitat through stream widening where no permanent vegetation replaces forest, or through

stream narrowing where forest is replaced by

permanent sod. In the absence of other perennial vegetation, bank erosion and channel

straightening can occur as unimpeded streamflow scours the streambed and banks. The

accelerated streamflow velocity allowed by

straight channels promotes channel incision as

erosion from the stream bottom exceeds sediment entering the stream. This process can

eventually lead to the development of wide,

shallow streams that support fewer species.
Section III

3-5

Studies point out that stability of debris accumulation is important for aquatic habitat.

Because of the greater resistance to displacement by hydraulic forces, large woody debris is

of greater benefit to stream stability. Longer

material is relatively more important for the stability of wider streams.

In contrast, narrowing of stream channels has

also been reported following the replacement of

streamside forest with permanent grassland or

grass sod. Studies found that the narrowing of

deforested stream channels was evident for

streams up to drainage areas five square miles,

or about a third or fourth order stream. Other

studies quantified the narrowing phenomenon

more explicitly in a Pennsylvania Piedmont basin, showing that:

• first and second order wooded reaches averaged about 2 times wider than their meadow

counterparts of the same order.

• third and fourth order forested reaches were

about 1.7 times wider than in deforested

areas.

The channel narrows in the absence of a streamside forest because grassy vegetation, which is

normally shaded out, develops a sod that gradually encroaches on the channel banks. For

benthic macroinvertebrates, microbes, and algae, which live in and on the stream bed, the

loss in stream width translates into a proportional loss of habitat. The effects of channel

narrowing on fish habitat are more complex and

involve the influence of woody debris on the

pool and riffle structure.

Links between large woody debris in streams,

the abundance of fish habitat, and the populations, growth, and diversity of fishes have been

documented. Even when the selection method

of tree harvesting has been done along streams,

the removal of old growth has caused a decline

in aquatic habitat quality because of diminished

inputs of large woody debris. The surfaces of

submerged logs and roots provide habitat that

often support macroinvertebrate densities far

higher than on the stream bottom itself.

Woody debris, like boulders and bedrock protrusions, tends to form pools in streams by

directly damming flow, by the scouring effects

of plunge pools downstream of fallen logs, or by

forming backwater eddies where logs divert

flow laterally. In undisturbed forests, large

woody debris accounts for the majority of pool

formation. As expected, removal of woody debris by deforestation typically results in loss of

pool habitat. Although pools are spatially contiguous with riffles, there is little or no overlap

in the species composition of the dominant

macroinvertebrates occurring in the two habitats. The loss of pools, therefore, translates

directly into lower populations and diversity for

this group. For fish, pools improve habitat by

providing space, cover, and a diversity of microenvironments. Greater depth and slower velocity in pools afford protection to fish during

storms, droughts, and other stressful conditions.

Debris dams of large woody material block the

transport of both sediment and smaller litter

materials. The impoundment and delayed transport of organic material downstream enhances

its utilization by aquatic organisms. By slowing

transport rates, dams on small order streams

serve as buffers against the sudden deposition of

sediment downstream. The capacity of a stream

to retain debris, therefore, is an important characteristic influencing the aquatic habitat.

Although it is often thought that large woody

debris is less important on large rivers and open

water habitats, it has been shown that woody

debris derived from riparian forests along tidal

shorelines of the Bay provides an important refuge habitat for numerous species of fish and

crustaceans. Shallow water habitats, with plentiful large woody debris, support greater

abundance of many species of fish and crustaceans than do areas with no woody debris

bordered by narrow strips of marsh. Studies

hypothesize that the importance of large woody

debris along Bay shorelines has been increased

because of loss of habitat in submerged aquatic

vegetation and oysterbeds.
Section III

3-6

3. Food Webs and Species Diversity

The two primary sources of food energy input to

streams are litterfall (leaves, twigs, fruit seeds,

and other organic debris) from streamside

vegetation and algal production within the

stream. Total annual food energy inputs (litter

plus algal production) are similar under shaded

and open canopies, but the presence or absence

of a tree canopy has a major influence on the

balance between litter input and primary production of algae in the stream.

Studies noted that “streams flowing through

older, stratified forests receive the greatest

variation in quality of food for detritusprocessing organisms.” In the Piedmont,

streams flowing through forested landscapes do

not contribute food energy to downstream channels that have been deforested (even contiguous

reaches) because the large pieces of litter do not

move very far. This means that a streamside

forest is needed along the entire length of a

stream in order to assure a proper balance of

food inputs appropriate to the food chain of native species. Macroinvertebrate populations are

affected by changes in litter inputs. The activity

of benthic organisms may increase following

streamside plant removal. Woody material

decomposes more quickly following riparian

forest removal, thereby further reducing the

stream's nutrient retention.

The quantity and quality of algal production in a

stream are greatly affected by the quantity and

quality of light striking its surface. For example, studies showed that the algal community of

a stream heavily shaded by an old growth forest

was dominated by diatoms all year, while a

nearby stream in a deforested area contained

mainly filamentous green algae in the spring and

diatoms at other times. Other studies have also

shown that deforested sites tend to be dominated

by filamentous algae while diatoms prevail under dense canopy cover. In the eastern

Piedmont, filamentous algae such as Cladophora can be dominant in deforested streams

due primarily to a combination of high nutrients,

high light levels, and warm temperatures. Although some macroinvertebrates such as

crayfish and waterboatmen insects readily consume this type of algae, most herbivorous

species of stream macroinvertebrates have

evolved mouth parts specialized for scraping

diatoms from the surface of benthic substrates

and cannot eat filamentous algae.

The influence of differences in the quality of

algal production on the aquatic ecosystem is

complex. Algal grazing species generally benefit from an increase in algal growth. Because

the growth efficiency of insects is often higher

on algae than on detritus, the opening of the

canopy may increase the production of macroinvertebrates in these reaches. For example,

studies found both higher biomass and densities

for most grazer species in deforested sites relative to forested sites. The pattern is not clear,

however, because other studies found higher

biomass but lower densities of grazers in deforested versus forested sites. Researchers

observed in California streams that the benthic

community in logged watersheds became dominated by a few algal feeding species. The

diversity of the macroinvertebrate community

was significantly lower than in unlogged watersheds, except where the stream was protected by

a riparian buffer of 30 meters or more. For

buffer strips less than 30 meters in width, the

Shannon diversity was significantly correlated

with buffer width.

How Riparian Forest Buffers

Facilitate Removal of Nonpoint

Source Pollutants

Riparian forests remove, sequester, or transform

nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. The

pollutant removal function of a Riparian Forest

Buffer System depends on two key factors:

• The capability of a particular area to intercept surface and/or groundwater-borne

pollutants, and

• The activity of specific pollutant removal

processes.
Section III

3-7

Focusing on these two factors as regulators of

buffer zone effectiveness is useful for evaluating

the importance of a particular site as a buffer.

1. Nitrate Removal

Most studies with high levels of nitrate removal

were in areas with high water tables that caused

shallow groundwater to flow through or near the

root zone. The mechanisms for removal of

nitrate in these study areas are thought to be a

combination of denitrification and plant uptake.

Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of

nitrate or nitrite to gaseous nitrogen, either as

molecular nitrogen or as an oxide of nitrogen.

Linkages between plant uptake and denitrification in surface soils have been proposed as a

means for maintaining high denitrification rates

in riparian ecosystems. In contrast, riparian

systems without substantial contact between the

biologically active soil layers and groundwater,

or with very rapid groundwater movement, appear to allow passage of nitrate with only minor

reductions in concentration and load. A study

reported both high nitrate concentrations and

high nitrate removal rates beneath a riparian

forest where very high nitrate flux and rapid

groundwater movement through sandy aquifer

material limited nitrate removal efficiency. Another study showed that groundwater flow

beneath the biologically active zone of a narrow

riparian buffer along a tidal bay in Maryland

resulted in little removal of nitrate. It is also

known that groundwater discharging through

sediments of tidal creeks may have up to 20

times the nitrate concentrations found in the

main stem of the creeks. A study indicated that

groundwater nitrate might bypass narrow areas

of riparian forest wetland and discharge into

stream channels relatively unaltered when the

forest is underlain by an oxygenated aquifer.

This pattern of groundwater flow was supported

by modeling of a small Coastal Plain watershed

in Maryland. Isotopic analysis of groundwater

and surface water in this watershed suggested

that denitrification was not affecting the nitrate

concentrations of discharging groundwater. In

these cases where nitrate enriched water surfaces in the stream channel, a wide RFBS would

have little effect on nitrate. Deeply rooted

vegetation near the stream might have some effect.

Studies in New Zealand have shown that the

majority of nitrate removal in a pasture watershed took place in organic riparian soils which

received large amounts of nitrate laden groundwater. The location of the high organic soils at

the base of hollows caused a high proportion of

groundwater (37-81%) to flow through the organic soils although they occupied only 12

percent of the riparian area. A related study in

New Zealand found very high nitrate removal in

the organic riparian soils, but streamflow was

still enriched with nitrate. The authors speculated that water movement through mineral soils

was responsible for most of the nitrate transport

to streams. Riparian systems with intermingling

organic and mineral soils point out the need to

understand where groundwater is moving and

what types of soils it will contact, especially in

seepage areas.

2. Plant Uptake of Nutrients

Maintenance of active nutrient uptake by vegetation in Zone 2 should increase the potential for

short-term (non-woody biomass) or long-term

(woody biomass) sequestering of nutrients. Although plant water uptake is chiefly a passive

transpiration process, plant nutrient uptake is

mostly an active process, dependent upon plant

metabolic activity.

Nutrient uptake by flood-intolerant plants is

strongly influenced by the aeration status of the

soil. As low oxygen supply decreases root

metabolism, the uptake of most nutrients decreases. Flood-tolerant species, such as those

found in many riparian forests, may tolerate

low-oxygen conditions by means of adaptive

metabolic responses. They may also avoid root

anoxia by morphological adaptations that facilitate the availability of oxygen. Under

flooded conditions, roots may become thicker

and increase in porosity, allowing an internal

downward diffusion of oxygen. The growth of

adventitious roots may also allow water and nu-
Section III

3-8

trient uptake from near-surface areas that are

more aerated. Vegetation selection for restored

or managed RFBS must consider the ability of

different species to take up and store nutrients

under specific conditions of the site. A study

points out that flooding can enhance the nutrient

uptake and growth of some species. Bottomland

hardwood seedlings grow faster under saturated

conditions than under drained but well-watered

conditions. More rapid increases in total dry

weight and nitrogen and phosphorus uptake

were found in water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica L.)

as well as several other species under saturated

conditions. Shoot weights of a majority of wetland and intermediate plant species were either

unaffected or increased under flooded conditions.

Compared to the “natural” riparian forests studied in most existing research, managed riparian

forests have the potential for increased accumulation of nitrogen and phosphorus in biomass

through both increased biomass production and

increased foliar nutrient contents. Trees can

respond to nitrogen subsidy by both increased

growth rates and luxury nitrogen uptake. The

growth rate of forests is commonly nitrogen

limited. A study suggested that high efficiency

of nitrogen use by forests is an adaptation to the

nitrogen-deficient environments that they frequently inhabit. Often the potential nitrogen

uptake rate is much higher than observed rates.

Conditions do exist where nitrogen is no longer

the limiting nutrient for forest growth. Longterm inputs of nitrogen, such as may occur from

atmospheric deposition in the northeastern

United States, could result in nitrogen levels

exceeding the total combined plant and microbial nutritional demands. Under these

conditions, phosphorus might become the limiting factor for tree growth. Unlike upland

forests, phosphorus may often be the most limiting nutrient in wetland ecosystems. A study

found the growth of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum (L). Rich.) in a southern Illinois swamp

to correspond well with phosphorus inputs from

flooding. Foliar phosphorus content of loblolly

pine on wet Coastal Plain sites in South Carolina has been observed to correlate well with

growth. An analysis of nutrient ratios in decaying litter from tupelo gum trees in a North

Carolina swamp forest suggested that phosphorus levels may limit decomposition rates. If

phosphorus is the limiting nutrient for tree

growth, it should make vegetation an effective

phosphorus sink.

While several studies have found plant uptake to

be an important nutrient removal mechanism in

riparian forest buffers, several factors may reduce the importance of plants as nutrient sinks.

Pollutants in groundwater flowing into the riparian buffer will only be accessible to plants if

the water table is high in the soil profile or if

mass movement of water because of transpiration demands moves water and solutes into the

root zone. Coastal Plain riparian forests have

been shown to control localized downslope water transport by creating moisture gradients

which move water in unsaturated flow from

both the adjacent stream and the upland field.

Nutrients in surface runoff and in water percolating rapidly through soil macropores as

“gravitational water” may not be available to

plants. Large rainfall events that often transport

a high percentage of pollutants in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed (CBW) often produce

concentrated surface flow and macropore-dominated percolation.

Plant sequestering of nutrients is also limited by

seasonal factors. In the temperate deciduous

ecosystems that dominate riparian forest buffers

in the CBW, plant uptake will decline or stop

during the winter season. A high percentage of

surface and groundwater flow occurs in the

CBW during winter. There is also concern that

nutrients trapped in plant tissues can be released

back into the soil solution following litterfall

and decomposition. However, nutrients released

from decomposing plant litter may be subject to

microbial, physical or chemical attenuation

mechanisms in the root zone of forest soils.

Storage of nutrients in woody tissue is a relatively long-term attenuation, but still does not

result in removal of pollutants from the ecosystem unless biomass is removed. A final concern

about plant uptake as a nutrient removal mecha-
Section III

3-9

nism arises from the possibility that the ability

of trees in a buffer zone to sequester nutrients in

woody biomass becomes less as trees mature.

The average tree age in most riparian forest

buffers in the CBW is less than 100 years and

should thus be accumulating nutrients in woody

biomass. Although net vegetation accumulation

of nutrients may reach zero, net ecosystem accumulation may continue as nutrients are stored

in soil organic matter.

3. Microbial Processes

In addition to plant uptake, there are microbial

processes that attenuate pollutants in RFBS.

These processes include immobilization of nutrients, denitrification of nitrate and degradation

of organic pollutants. Microbes take up or

“immobilize” dissolved nutrients just as plants

do. These immobilized nutrients can be

re-released or “mineralized” following death

and decomposition of microbial cells, just as

nutrients sequestered by plants can be released

following litterfall. In ecosystems that are accumulating soil organic matter, there will be a

net storage of immobilized nutrients. Riparian

forest buffers, if managed to foster soil organic

matter accumulation, may thus support significant long-term rates of nutrient storage by

immobilization.

Denitrification refers to the anaerobic microbial

conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gases. Denitrification is controlled by the availability of

oxygen (O2), nitrate, and carbon (C). Although

essentially an anaerobic process, denitrification

can occur in well-drained soils because of the

presence of anaerobic microsites, often associated with decomposing organic matter fragments

which deplete available oxygen. It is likely that

soil moisture gradients in riparian ecosystems

cause a change in controlling factors within

most three-zone RFBS. In parts of the RFBS

with better internal drainage and generally lower

soil moisture conditions, denitrification may be

generally limited by the interacting factors of

carbon availability and aeration status. Although many wetlands are often assumed to

have high levels of denitrification because of

high carbon soils and anaerobic conditions, denitrification in many wetlands will be nitrogen

limited. In the more poorly drained or wetland

portions of an RFBS, denitrification is more

likely to be limited by nitrate availability.

Wetland soils develop high levels of organic

matter because of their slope position and hydrologic condition. Frequently inundated soils

will have lower rates of litter decomposition

because the flow of carbon from litter to microbial populations is reduced under anaerobic

conditions. The interactive nature of oxygen,

nitrate, and carbon control of denitrification

means that more denitrification generally occurs

in intermittently flooded sites than in permanently flooded conditions.

Denitrification has been identified as the key

nitrate removal mechanism in several riparian

forest buffer studies. Estimates in the range of

30 to 40 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare per

year have been reported for natural riparian forests in the United States. In several studies of

denitrification in riparian ecosystems, denitrification has been concentrated in surface soil and

rates are generally much lower below the top 12

to 15 centimeters of soil. A study reported very

high denitrification in the top 30 centimeters of

an organic riparian zone soil in New Zealand.

Denitrification rates (measured on anaerobic

soil slurries) were over 11 kilograms of nitrogen

per hectare per day at this site.

While the factors regulating denitrification in

surface soils and aquifers are relatively well understood, the amounts of direct denitrification of

groundwater-borne nitrate are much less well

established. Subsurface microbial activity is

usually limited by carbon availability. In settings where the total and dissolved carbon

contents of aquifers are low, they are poor quality substrates for microbial growth, and

anaerobic conditions necessary for denitrification to proceed are not generated.

Microbial attenuation of organic compounds

arises from their ability to degrade these compounds as food sources or through non-energy

yielding “cometabolism” reactions. There are
Section III

3-10

many different microbial degradation mechanisms including aerobic, anaerobic,

chemoautotrophic and heterotrophic pathways.

The wide range of environments and high diversity of microbial metabolism in RFBS should

support many of these mechanisms. Further

research into specific management strategies to

foster a wide range of degradation strategies is

needed.

In many cases, riparian area retention of

groundwater-borne pollutants may depend on a

complex interaction of hydrology, plant, soil,

and microbial factors. The potential importance

of these interactions is hypothesized based on

studies where significant rates of nitrate removal

from groundwater were measured, but the potential for denitrification in the subsurface was

low. Studies suggested that surface soil denitrification of groundwater derived nitrate is an

important route of nitrogen removal in riparian

forests. This route depends on plant uptake of

nitrate from groundwater, decomposition and

nitrogen release from plant litter, and nitrification and denitrification of this nitrogen in

surface soil. In riparian forests where this route

of nitrogen removal is important, the nitrate

removal function may depend on complex interactions among hydrology, plant dynamics, and

soil microbial processes. These interactions

vary within and between riparian forests and

should be strongly influenced by soil drainage

class, vegetation and soil type, climate, and

groundwater quality. Although soil denitrification should be sustainable indefinitely under

proper conditions with a supply of nitrate and

available C, a study found that long-term

groundwater nitrate loading led to symptoms of

nitrogen saturation in the surface soils of a riparian forest buffer.

4. Removal of Surface-Borne

Pollutants

Sediment trapping in riparian forest buffers is

facilitated by physical interception of surface

runoff that causes flow to slow and sediment

particles to be deposited. Effective sediment

trapping requires that runoff be primarily sheet

flow. Channelized flow is not conducive to

sediment deposition and can actually cause erosion of the RFBS. Two studies on long-term

sediment deposition in riparian forests indicated

that it is substantial. Results of both studies indicate that two main actions occur:

• The forest edge fosters large amounts of

coarse sediment deposition within a few

meters of the field/forest boundary, and

• Finer sediments are deposited further into the

forest and near the stream.

Two other studies found much higher depths of

sediment deposition at the forest edge than near

the stream. A second peak of sediment depth

was often found near the stream, possibly from

upstream sediment sources deposited in overbank flows. The surface runoff which passes

through the forest edge environment is much

reduced in sediment load because of coarse

sediment deposition, but the fine sediment fraction is enriched relative to total sediment load.

These fine sediments carry higher concentrations of labile nutrients and adsorbed pollutants

which are carried further into the riparian forest

and are deposited broadly across the RFBS.

Movement of nutrients through the RFBS in

surface runoff will be controlled by a combination of the following:

• sediment deposition and erosion processes,

• infiltration of runoff,

• dilution by incoming rainfall/throughfall, and

• adsorption/desorption reactions with forest

floor soil and litter.

Studies that separate the effects of these various

processes are not available. A study found large

reductions in concentrations of sediment, ammonium-nitrogen, and ortho-phosphorus in

surface runoff which passed through about 50

meters of a mature riparian forest in the Maryland Coastal Plain. Although the concentrations

of these pollutants were reduced by a factor of

three or four in most cases, the flow-length was

about twice that recommended in the RFBS

specification. Another study found that dis-
Section III

3-11

solved ortho-phosphorus loads in surface runoff

were not reduced markedly in a Zone 2-like area

of the riparian forest. The studies of surface

runoff through riparian forests agreed on the

importance of eliminating channelized flow

through the riparian forest and recommended

spreading flow before it reached the forest

buffer. In-field practices are also critical in preventing channelized flow from reaching the field

edge.

Integrated Water Quality

Functions of Riparian Forest

Buffer Systems

The need to simultaneously control at least three

major transport mechanisms of waterborne pollutants creates potential difficulties for RFBS.

It is likely that control of pollutants transported

in the sediment-adsorbed phase of surface runoff, the dissolved phase of surface runoff, and

groundwater (dissolved phase only) may be optimal on different sorts of RFBS with differing

soils, vegetation, and management.

For surface-borne pollutants, increasing infiltration in the RFBS will be an effective measure

for both dissolved and adsorbed pollutant control. Conversely, the sandy well-drained soils

which have highest infiltration will likely have

lowest denitrification rates and may have rapid

groundwater movement rates leading to high

rates of nitrate transport through the riparian

forest buffer.

For nitrate removal via denitrification, a riparian

ecosystem where high nitrate water moves into

high organic matter soils or subsoils is the best

way to promote denitrification and the best way

to permanently remove nitrate from the soilwater-plant system. This is illustrated both by

the New Zealand riparian studies of organic riparian soils and by the findings that

denitrification is highly stratified in mineral

soils with most denitrification occurring in the

high organic carbon surface soils. Organic-rich

wetland soils can often respond to increased

nitrate loads with increased denitrification. The

same conditions which are likely to promote

denitrification are also likely to decrease the

amount of retention of surface-borne pollutants.

Wetland soils which are frequently inundated

will have little or no infiltration capacity or

available water storage capacity.

Loading Rates and Nonpoint

Source Pollution Control

As a nonpoint pollution control practice, Riparian Forest Buffer Systems represent a long-term

investment which can change landscape structure. As a long-term management option, it is

quite likely that RFBS will be exposed to a wide

range of pollutant loadings because of both interannual variation and changes in management

practices in source areas. Information on how

mature RFBS respond to changing pollutant

loads is essential to understanding long-term

sustainability of RFBS. Some research on

Coastal Plain RFBS indicates that higher rates

of nitrate removal would be possible under

higher loadings of nitrate. Published studies

indicate that this is most likely to be true in areas where denitrification is the primary means

of nitrate removal. Given the range in nutrient

uptake observed both among different plant species and within the same plant species, it is

likely that vegetation uptake will increase with

increasing loads, if there is significant hydrologic interaction with vegetation.

Increasing loads of phosphorus are likely to be

less effectively controlled than increasing loads

of nitrogen, because of the lack of biological

processes to remove or sequester phosphorus in

the RFBS. If increasing phosphorus loads are to

be controlled, it will require effective management of Zone 2 for infiltration and both Zones 2

and 3 for sediment removal. If dissolved or

particulated phosphorus can be retained in the

root zone, it will be available for both biological

and chemical removal processes. If RFBS have

some absolute removal potential for phosphorus,

reducing input loads should increase the efficiency of removal.

Management to control increasing loads of

sediment and sediment-borne chemicals will

require specific management for sediment re-
Section III

3-12

tention. Most of the mass of sediment will be

deposited in Zone 3 or in the upper portions of

Zone 2 and most of the sediment-borne nutrients

will be deposited downslope in Zone 2. Increased sediment loadings will require increased

management to eliminate concentrated flows,

remove accumulated sediment, especially in

berms, and restore the herbaceous vegetation.

Increased sediment and sediment-borne chemical loads should lead to higher amounts of

chemical deposition in surface litter. The ability

of RFBS to retain dissolved phosphorus, especially under high loadings, may be limited.

Loading rate/buffer width relationships are only

poorly defined, especially for dissolved pollutants. In published studies with water clearly in

contact with surface litter or the biologically

active root zone, buffers of about 100 feet have

been effective for at least sediment and nitrate

removal. One of the difficulties in describing

these relationships is that increasing pollutant

loads may also be accompanied by increasing

water volumes in either surface runoff, groundwater, or both. In the presence of increased

water movement, denitrification for nitrate removal should be enhanced and sedimentation

and infiltration may be decreased. Increased

surface runoff and loading of sediment and

sediment-borne chemicals can be accommodated by management to increase roughness and

control channelized flow.

Stream Order and Size Effects

Regardless of the size of stream or the hydrologic setting, water moving across the surface or

through the root zone of a RFBS should show

reduction in either nitrate (groundwater) or

sediment and sediment-borne chemical loads

reaching the stream. As streams increase in

size, the integrated effects of adjacent riparian

ecosystems should decrease relative to the overall water quality of the stream. On lower order

streams there is greatest potential for interactions between water and riparian areas. For

NPS pollution control, the change in impact of

RFBS as stream order increases can be estimated based on hydrologic contributions from

upstream and from the riparian ecosystem.

For first-order streams, the potential impact of

the RFBS on chemical load or flow-weighted

concentration is directly proportional to the proportion of the excess precipitation from the

contributing area which moves through or near

the root zone or surface of the RFBS. For all

streams above first order, the contributing area

is only one source of pollutants, with upstream

reaches providing the other source.

For second-order and above, the NPS pollution

control function of a given RFBS is based on

both the proportion of water from the contributing area which moves through the riparian

system and the relative sizes of the two potential

pollutant loads - upstream sources or adjacent

land uses. Clearly, the larger the stream, the

less impact a RFBS along a particular stream

reach can have on reduction in overall load

within that reach. If there are no RFBS upstream from a particular stream reach, the water

entering the stream reach is likely to be already

contaminated.

On a watershed basis, the higher the proportion

of total streamflow originating from relatively

short flow-paths to small streams, the larger the

potential impact of RFBS. In comparing the

potential effectiveness of RFBS among watersheds, drainage density (length of channel per

unit area of watershed) should provide a useful

starting point. Higher drainage density implies

greater potential importance for RFBS in NPS

pollution control.

Control of the stream environment is most effective when native vegetation forms a complete

canopy over the stream. This is obviously only

possible on relatively small streams. The effect

of the RFBS on the stream environment is not

simply proportional to the amount of the channel that is shaded. As previously noted, besides

direct shading of the stream channel, cooling of

groundwater, recharging streams, and provision

of bank habitat will occur even on larger

streams. Providing for bank habitat, large

woody debris and leaf detritus remain important

functions, regardless of stream size.
Section III

3-13

Stormwater Management

Retaining forests as open space and using riparian forest buffer corridors can be effective

practices to integrate with stormwater planning

in urbanizing areas. Forests can capture, absorb,

and store amounts of rainfall 40 times greater

than disturbed soils, like agricultural fields or

construction sites, and 15 times more than grass

turf or pasture. Capitalizing on this ability to

reduce the amount of water available for stormwater runoff is a function that makes forests

valuable as an “open space tool” for stormwater

reduction. Fairfax County, VA, recently estimated that forests were providing almost $57

million in stormwater reduction benefits annually to local taxpayers.

A buffer network acts as the right-of-way for a

stream and functions as an integral part of the

stream ecosystem. Buffers can be an important

component of the stormwater treatment system

of a development site. They cannot, however,

treat all the stormwater runoff generated within

a watershed. In heavily urbanized watersheds,

only 10 percent or so of water contributing to

stormflow may end up passing through a buffer

area. When buffers can be designed to accept

flow directly from impervious areas – such as

cuts in roadside curbs – a narrow stone layer, a

grass filter strip, or some other method, can be

used to spread water. The buffer can better

function as a direct filtering system. Roadside

swales or small collection areas just outside the

forest buffer may also provide a means to slowly

release and spread stormflow for treatment by

the buffer. Locating larger ponds and wetland

detention areas in or adjacent to buffers will

always be a balancing act. However, these

practices can be designed to work well in tandem.

Flood Reduction and Control

Streams and their valleys in the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed were formed in a hydrologic balance

with their forested watersheds. The capacity of

downstream channels was also influenced by

forested flood plains. Forested flood plains

temporarily store flood waters, and woody

vegetation helps reduce and capture sediment

loads.

Human activities have changed the hydrologic

balance between channels and their watersheds.

Some examples of changes are:

• Forested lands have been cleared, resulting

in increased storm runoff.

• Drainage efficiency has been increased

through channelization, gully formation, or

the removal of large woody debris, resulting

in rapid surface runoff.

• The construction of dikes and levees has increased downstream peaks.

• Flooding is increased by deposition and

stream aggradation.

• Channels are cleaned and cleared of snags,

resulting in increased flood velocities.

• Eventually channels are downcut, and the

force of bankfull flows is increased.

The influence of past human use will still affect

the hydrology of watersheds that have become

reforested, and the function of reestablished

riparian forests will sometimes be limited by

existing watershed and channel conditions.

Flood Plain Function

The Federal Flood Plain Assessment Report

calls for restoring the natural function of flood

plains. The natural flood control functions of

flood plain forests include the following:

• Retarding flood flow velocities is the primary beneficial function of flood plain

forests. The U.S. Geological Survey developed a procedure for determining the rate at

which increasing the number of woody stems

increases flood plain roughness, thereby reducing flood velocity. The role of woody

stems in reducing velocity and increasing

sediment deposition during floods has been

well documented. By comparison, grass

covered flood plains, when submerged, do

not retard flow.
Section III

3-14

• Maintaining downstream flood control capacities. Colonization of riparian areas with

woody vegetation can dramatically decrease

the rate of sedimentation in a downstream

reservoir. This can help maintain the flood

storage capacity of small reservoirs.

• Streamside forests contribute to channel stability and roughness. They contribute large

woody debris that prevents downcutting,

traps bedload sediments, and dissipates

stream energy in plunge pools.

The natural resources manager should assess the

site-specific opportunities to restore flood plain

functions with riparian forest buffers. The following are areas that should receive special

attention and consideration:

• In headwaters - By restoring forests along

smaller streams, more storm flow can be dispersed and retained higher in the watershed,

thus reducing flood heights and damage

along downstream rivers

• Along downcut channels - Where channels

are contained within steep banks, and the

stream reaches the former flood plain less

frequently, the opportunity to restore flood

plain function will be reduced.

• Channels with levees - Where stream access

to the flood plain is blocked by levees, the

flood plain function is lost. However, establishing trees on the levee will help protect

the levee and provide other benefits. Studies

by the Agricultural Research Service indicate

that rock-faced revetments with woody

vegetation suffered less damage during

floods. Similar results were observed following the 1993 Mississippi River floods

where tree-covered levees withstood overtopping better than grass-covered levees.

• Watershed – Consideration must be given

to the following upstream conditions that

increase the frequency of flooding:

1) Land development

2) Addition of levees

3) Clearing and snagging operations

4) Clearing streamside trees

Downstream considerations that reduce the

stream’s access to the flood plain include:

1) Potential for dredging and channel

clearing

2) Presence of active headcuts

• Channel type - Many types of stream channels do not have active flood plains.

Channels with the National Wetland Classification of “lower perennial” are more likely

to have flood plains.

• Period of inundation - Areas that are inundated for extended periods will limit the

selection of suitable woody vegetation.

Opportunities for Management

Restoring a streamside forest with the attendant

understory and ground cover will make a significant difference in flood plain function.

Periodic harvesting will keep those functions at

an optimum by:

1) Opening the canopy to increase the number of woody stems that retard velocity.

2) Harvesting to control tree size which is

important where there are levees.

Wildlife and Fish Habitat

Functions/Values of Riparian

Forest Buffer Systems

Riparian areas are used by wildlife more that

any other type of habitat. Many resource managers are aware of the water quality values of

riparian areas, but many are not aware of the

direct effects these areas have on wildlife, both

aquatic and terrestrial.

Riparian areas provide valuable habitat in many

forms for different types of wildlife. Establishing, managing, and protecting these areas can
Section III

3-15

increase biodiversity. Aquatic biodiversity, in

many cases, is dependent on the quality of the

riparian areas. Equally important is the value of

these areas for terrestrial wildlife. They provide

valuable wildlife corridors, many of which have

been lost over the years, for agriculture expansion and housing development.

The primary determinants of stream flora and

fauna are water abundance and quality and the

ecological character of the riparian area, as well

as the watershed as a whole. The riparian

system provides a reflection of the surrounding

terrestrial ecosystems. Removal or degradation

of riparian areas can have a domino effect with

negative results in both aquatic and terrestrial

ecosystems that are linked to it.

Riparian Area Importance to

Wildlife

The major reasons why riparian areas are so

important to wildlife are:

• Wildlife habitat is composed of cover, food,

and “water.”

• The greater availability of water to plants,

frequently in combination with deeper soils,

increases plant production and provides a

Figure 3 - 2. Benefits of Riparian Forest Buffers. (Source: Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, January 1996)
Section III

3-16

suitable site for plants that could not occur in

areas with inadequate water. This increases

plant diversity.

• The shape of many riparian areas, particularly their linear meandering nature along

streams, provides a great deal of productive

edge.Riparian areas frequently produce more

edge within a small area.

• Along streams, there are many layers of

vegetation exposed in stair step structure.

The stair step of vegetation of contrasting

form (deciduous vs. coniferous, shrubs vs.

trees) provides diverse nesting and feeding

opportunities for wildlife.

• Riparian areas along intermittent and permanent streams and rivers provide travel routes

for wildlife. These may serve as forested

connectors between wooded habitats. Wildlife may use such habitat for cover to travel

through otherwise unforested agricultural or

urban areas.

Principles of the Riparian

Ecosystem

Definition of Terms

To better understand the important wildlife values that riparian areas provide, concepts of the

ecosystem and the food web are addressed first.

An ecosystem is the area in which one lives.

Derived from “Eco,” which is the Greek word

meaning “Home,” ecology is the study of the

“Home.” So, an ecosystem is the “system” or

“make up” of one’s “home.” This home could

be as small as under a rock in a stream or as

large as the entire Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

When thinking about the importance of riparian

areas to wildlife, the type and species of wildlife

being managed must be considered along with

relative ecosystem size. Smaller systems are

connected to a larger ecosystem, providing the

base support for the larger system.

An ecosystem includes populations, communities, habitats, and environments, and it

specifically refers to the dynamic interaction of

all parts of the environment, focusing particularly on the exchange of materials between the

living and nonliving parts.

A population is a group of interacting individuals, usually of the same species, in a definable

space. A community, in the biologic sense,

consists of the population of plants, animals,

and microorganisms living together in a given

place.

The terms environment and habitat refer to a

definable place where an organism lives, including both the physical and biologic features

of the place. The word environment comes

from the French verb “environner,” to surround,

and means surrounding or something that surrounds. It includes all the conditions,

circumstances, and influences surrounding and

affecting an organism or group of organisms.

A habitat is the natural abode or locality of an

animal, plant, or person. It is derived from the

Latin, “habitare” - to “dwell.” It also includes

all features of the environment in a given locality.

The term abiotic means “without life or

nonliving.” Many substances such as water,

oxygen, sodium chloride, nitrogen, and carbon

dioxide are abiotic when they are physically

outside living organisms. However, once they

are within living organisms they become part of

the biotic world. An important property of an

ecosystem that determines its productivity is the

form and composition in which bioactive elements and compounds occur. For example, an

ecosystem may have an abundance of vital nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates. If they

are present in relatively insoluble particulate

form, as when they are linked to ferric ions, they

are not readily available to plants. When they

are in the soluble form of potassium or calcium

nitrate and phosphate, they are more readily

available. One of the most important qualities

of an ecosystem is the rate of release of nutrients from solids; this regulates the rate of

function of the entire system.

Photosynthesis is the basic production force in

the ecosystem, and it is dependent upon green
Section III

3-17

plants, sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, and certain inorganic ions.

The transfer of energy from plants through a

series of other organisms constitutes a food

chain. The term trophic (feeding) level refers

to the parts of a food chain or nutritive series in

which a group of organisms secures food in the

same general way. Thus, all animals that obtain

their energy directly from eating grass such as

grasshoppers, meadow mice, and deer are part

of the same trophic level.

 

The particular assemblage of trophic levels

within an ecosystem is known as the trophic

structure. Typically, ecosystems have three to

six trophic levels through which energy and organic materials pass. In more vernacular terms,

food chains usually have three to six links, or

groups of organisms, which derive their nutrition similarly.

It may even be more appropriate to call such

trophic structures food webs rather than food

chains. The interlocking nature of these relationships is typical of other ecosystems. This

interlocking or interaction is extremely important to the overall function and value of riparian

buffers.

Structure

It is very important for riparian areas to have

structure. Depending on the diversity of the

area, the structure can be very simple and not

support a wide range of values for wildlife, or it

can be complex and supply a wide range of values for many different species of wildlife.

Horizontal and vertical diversity are two components of habitat structure. Horizontal

diversity or “patchiness” refers to the complexity of the arrangement of plant communities and

other habitats (see Figure 3-3). Different forest

types have different wildlife communities. Vertical diversity refers to the extent to which

plants are layered in a stand (see Figure 3-4 on

the next page). The degree of layering is determined by the arrangement of plant growth

forms, by distribution of trees of varying heights

and crown characteristics, and by trees of the

same species but different ages.

It is important to think of structure and dynamics when managing a riparian area. Structure

refers to the spatial organization of communities

and what part of the area populations utilize.

Dynamics refers to the interactional processes,

energetic relationships, and patterns of change

Figure 3 - 3. Horizontal diversity depends on the type of area and size-class management used on a property.

(Source: DeGraaf, 1992)
Section III

3-18

within communities. The riparian forest buffer

may be thought of as a layered system, with

each layer possessing characteristic populations

and a typical organization.

One can obtain a partial glimpse of the dynamic

complexity of the forest floor by carefully examining the leaf litter of this biotic community

and by turning over a rotten log, or parting the

grass and herbaceous cover of the edges. The

soil-air interface is a particularly rich and active

area for living organisms. There is a variety of

insects, isopods, spiders, and myriapods (millipedes and centipedes), but those that are easily

seen represent only a small portion of the total

community.

 

They are interacting with a great number of

smaller forms—springtails, mites, and nematodes. They are also part of the food chain of

vertebrates, such as salamanders, reptiles,

shrews, mice, and ground dwelling birds, that

patrol the area..

Reptiles and Amphibians that use riparian forested areas as their preferred

habitat:

• eastern ribbon snake

• eastern worm snake

• green frog

• Jefferson salamander

• mountain dusky salamander

• northern two-lined salamander

In moving upward from the floor of the riparian

forest, the biotic community thins out to a certain extent. Animals become more widely

spaced in three dimensions, and they become

more mobile. The plant community is dominated by herbs and shrubs and the animal

community by insects, birds, and mammals.

Figure 3 - 4. Vertical diversity depends on the number of vegetative layers present in a stand.

(Source: DeGraaf, 1992)
Section III

3-19

Mammals that use riparian forested areas as their preferred habitat:

• beaver

• big brown bat

• black bear

• eastern Pipistrelle

• Keen’s Myotis

• little brown Myotis

• long-tailed weasel

• mink

• northern short-tailed shrew

• raccoon

• river otter

• silver-haired bat

• Virginia opossum

Mammals, including deer, rabbits, mice, shrews,

raccoons, and opossum, actively forage through

the lower layer of the community. Many animal

species, including annelids, some molluscs, myriapods, and soil dwelling arthropods, do not

enter this realm and are seldom if ever found

above the surface of the ground. There are exceptions, of course, such as certain snails

(molluscs) which climb trees.

 

The intermediate, codominant, and dominant

canopy layers of the riparian forest, dominated

by the foliage of trees and vines, also have their

characteristic animal communities. This is the

realm of insects and birds. Relatively few

mammals penetrate these upper levels. Squirrels, bats, and occasionally opossums and

raccoons may be seen in this level, however.

Birds that use riparian forested areas as their

preferred habitat:

• alder flycatcher

• American goldfinch

• bald eagle

• barred owl

• red-bellied woodpecker

• belted kingfisher

• cerulean warbler

• common yellowthroat

• eastern screech-owl

• eastern wood-peewee

• gray catbird

• Louisiana waterthrush

• northern rough-winged swallow

• northern waterthrush

• prothonotary warbler

• red herons

• red-shouldered hawk

• song sparrow

• tufted titmouse

• veery

• wood duck

• yellow-breasted chat

• yellow warbler

Stratification is evident in bird populations that

are obviously capable of ranging throughout the

riparian forest from the floor to the canopy.

Birds have definite preferences and tendencies

to frequent certain layers. Morley showed a

definite stratification of bird life: in the upper
Section III

3-20

canopy, tree creepers (Certhia sp.); and robins

and wrens on the ground and the herbaceous

zone. These patterns of vertical distribution

reflect the feeding habitats of the birds and are

an indication of the distribution of seeds and

insects.

 

Table 3-1 describes some plants used by common songbirds for food, cover, and nesting.

Morse has shown that the stratum distribution of

many birds within the forest is further limited to

specific sites. He found, for example, that the

brown creeper (Certhia familiaris) and white

breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) forage

mainly on the lower part of tree trunks, whereas

the downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens)

and the Carolina chickadee (Parus carolinensis)

forage on twig tips high in the canopy.

 

As described, these riparian forests provide a

home, or habitat, for many kinds of wildlifegame animals, songbirds, and many forms of

tiny insects and animal life. Hundreds of kinds

of plants make their home under this forest canopy and could not exist without it. The

important elements of a wildlife habitat are

food, cover, and water. The combination and

balance of these factors determines the kinds of

wildlife to be found in any riparian forest area.

Table 3-2 lists some wildlife food plants for

specific wildlife species and seasons available.
Table 3 - 1.

Native Plants Used by Common Songbirds for Food, Cover, and Nesting

PLANT BIRD

Bluebird

Thrush

Bunting Cardinal

Grosbeak

Catbird

Thrasher

Finch

Siskin

Jay Mockingbird Oriole

Tanager

Robin Sparrow

Junco

TitmNut

Ash È ÈÈ È Bayberry È ÈÈ È È Bittersweet ÈÈ È È È È Blackberry ÈÈ È È È È È È È Blueberry ÈÈ È È È È È È È Cedar È È ÈÈ È È È Cherry È È È ÈÈ È È È È Crabapple È È È ÈÈ È È È Dogwood È È ÈÈ È È È È Elderberry È È È È ÈÈ È È È È Grape È È È È ÈÈ È È È Hawthorn È È È È ÈÈ È È È Hickory È ÈHolly È È È È ÈÈ È È È Honeysuckle ÈÈ È ÈÈ È È È Maple È ÈÈ ÈMillet È È ÈÈ È Mulberry È È ÈÈ È È È È Oak È È ÈÈ È È È È Pine È È È ÈÈ È È 

3-21

Plum È È ÈÈ È È 
PLANT BIRD

Bluebird

Thrush

Bunting Cardinal

Grosbeak

Catbird

Thrasher

Finch

Siskin

Jay Mockingbird Oriole

Tanager

Robin Sparrow

Junco

TitmNut

Pokeberry È ÈÈ È ÈÈ È Pyracanthia È È È È ÈÈ È È È Rose È È ÈÈ È È È Sassafras È È ÈÈ Serviceberry È È È È ÈÈ È È È È Spicebush È ÈÈ È ÈSpruce È ÈÈ È È È Sumac È È È ÈÈ È È È È Sunflower È È ÈÈ È Viburnum È È È È ÈÈ È È È 

3-22Virginia Creeper È È È ÈÈ È È È 
Section III

3-23

Table 3 - 2

Wildlife Food Plants

No. of Species Seasons

Plant Species Wildlife Species Using Plants for Food Using Plants Availablea

Ash cardinal, purple finch, evening grosbeak, pine grosbeak, 20 W

cedar waxwing, yellow-bellied sapsucker, wood duck, 

bobwhite quail, black bear, beaver, porcupine, white-tailed deer

Blackberry brown thrasher, chipmunk, gray catbird, rabbit, 56 S, F

ring-necked pheasant, robin, white-tailed deer

Cherry black bear, cedar waxwing, raccoon, red squirrel, rose- 56 S, F

breasted grosbeak, ruffed grouse, white-footed mouse

Grape black bear, cardinal, fox sparrow, gray fox, 53 S, F, W

mockingbird, ruffed grouse, wild turkey

Ragweed dark-eyed junco, goldfinch, horned lark, mourning

dove, red-winged blackbird, sparrows 49 F, W

Dogwood bluebird, cardinal, cedar waxwing, rabbit, ruffed 47 S, F, W

grouse, wild turkey, wood duck

Oak black bear, blue jay, raccoon, ruffed grouse, 43 Sp, F,

white-tailed deer, wild turkey, wood duck W

Sedge horned lark, ruffed grouse, sparrows, wild turkey 43 Sp, S

Serviceberry beaver, bluebird, cardinal, cedar waxwing, gray catbird, 39 Sp, S

red squirrel, scarlet tanager, white-tailed deer

Blueberry black bear, gray catbird, rabbit, rufous-sided towhee, 37 S, F

skunk, white-footed mouse, white-tailed deer

Elderberry bluebird, brown thrasher, cardinal, indigo bunting, 36 S

rabbit, rose-breasted grosbeak

Pine beaver, black-capped chickadee, brown creeper 33 W

Panic grass dark-eyed junco, sparrows, red-winged blackbird, 32 F

wild turkey

Beech black bear, blue jay, chipmunk, porcupine, ruffed grouse, 31 Sp, W

squirrels, tufted titmouse, white-tailed deer, wild turkey

Poison Ivy black-capped chickadee, gray catbird, downy woodpecker, 28 F, W

flicker, hairy woodpecker, hermit thrush, wild turkey
Section III

3-24

Table 3 - 2 (cont.)

Wildlife Food Plants

No. of Species Seasons

Plant Species Wildlife Species Using Plants for Food Using Plants Availablea

Sumac bluebird, cardinal, black-capped chickadee, hermit 28 F, W

thrush, rabbit, robin

Maple beaver, chipmunk, porcupine, rose-breasted grosbeak, 27 S, F

squirrels, white-tailed deer

Pokeweed bluebird, cedar waxwing, gray catbird, gray fox, 25 F

mourning dove, raccoon, red fox

Greenbriar gray catbird, hermit thrush, mockingbird, raccoon, 23 F, W

ruffed grouse

Birch black-capped chickadee, beaver, porcupine, rabbit, 22 Sp, S

ruffed grouse

Virginia creeper bluebird, great-crested flycatcher, pileated 22 F, W

woodpecker, red-eyed vireo

Hickory chipmunk, red-bellied woodpecker, rose-breasted 19 Sp, S,

grosbeak, squirrels, wood duck F, W

Aspen beaver, porcupine, ruffed grouse, white-tailed deer 17 Sp, S,

F, W

Hawthorn fox sparrow, gray fox, raccoon, ruffed grouse 15 S, F

Hemlock black-capped chickadee, porcupine, red squirrel, 13 F, W

ruffed grouse, white-footed mouse

Walnut red-bellied woodpecker, beaver, fox squirrel, gray squirrel, 7 F, W

red squirrel

Yellow-poplar redwing blackbird, cardinal, chickadee, purple 14 Sp, S

finch, goldfinch, hummingbird, yellow-bellied F, W

sapsucker, beaver, red squirrel, fox squirrel, gray

squirrel, white-tailed deer

Alder beaver, goldfinch, ruffed grouse 11 Sp, S,

F, W

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Source: Adapted from Martin, A. C. et al. 1951. a Sp = spring, S = summer, F = fall, W = winter.
Section III

3-25

Although the species that live in stream corridors differ from one part of the region to

another, all wildlife has similar basic needs:

food, water, and shelter – collectively called

habitat. In Maryland, different wildlife lives

near a fast-flowing, cool stream in the western

part of the state than a slow-flowing, warm

stream on the Eastern Shore, or near an urban

stream in central Maryland.

Travel Corridors

Riparian forests are transition zones between

wet lowlands and drier upland habitats. They

often include a greater variety of plant types and

habitats than neighboring uplands areas. They

tend to be linear, creating a series of travel corridors and natural edges from the water to the

uplands. In areas of intensive farming, where

agricultural operations remove most crop residues, riparian vegetation provides cover for

reproduction, escape, nesting, and protection

from the weather. Where farmlands are bare for

most of the year, riparian areas provide abundant food and water year-round.

Riparian forests also provide corridors for wildlife to move from one area to another. This is

especially important in winter, where cover is

nearby and travel is easier because of reduced

snow depth. Young birds and mammals use riparian areas during dispersal from their birth

place. Migrating birds often use these areas and

wetlands for resting. The wildlife trees (snags

and den trees) found in these areas are used extensively for nest sites and perches. Riparian

areas also serve as links between different types

of habitat, providing dispersal and travel routes

for species that would not otherwise cross large

openings or cuts. It is extremely important that

these riparian buffer corridors are linked to

other areas of cover.

There were two studies conducted in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed that examined the use of

forest corridors by songbirds. One study examined use of riparian buffers of different widths

by breeding birds. Those authors recommended

a minimum buffer width of 100 meters to attract

breeding neotropical migratory birds, because

many of those species were not present in narrower buffers. Yet, past research has indicated

that, even if a species of songbird is present,

reproduction success of that species may be

lower in narrow strips compared to larger habitat patches. Thus, only wide riparian buffers

may provide high-quality breeding habitat for

many songbird species.

Another study conducted by the Smithsonian

Institution indicated that forest corridors, including riparian buffers, may be very important

for songbirds during migration. In that study,

more species of migratory songbirds were found

in large (greater than 500 hectares) rather than

in small (less than 100 hectares) forest tracts.

This was the case whether or not the tracts were

connected to other forests by corridors. However, small tracts that were connected to other

forests by an intervening corridor supported significantly more species than did isolated small

tracts. Here, the presence of a corridor apparently increased the use of small forest tracts by

migrating birds, possibly by serving as a connection to other habitat patches.

The few studies conducted on wildlife use of

corridors have suggested that corridors may be

beneficial for movement of individuals during

some periods, but may not provide high-quality

breeding habitats.

For example, riparian buffers that join with

large forest tracts may not be needed to provide

high-quality breeding habitat for songbirds.

These areas still may provide breeding habitat

for some reptiles, amphibians, or invertebrates

and be useful connecting habitat for migrating

songbirds. In most cases, vegetation within riparian buffers should be planted or managed to

maintain both a high structural diversity and a

high plant species diversity using native plant

species.
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Fish Habitat

The Riparian Forest as a Food

Source

Macroinvertebrates, including aquatic insects,

are important sources of food for fish. The

presence or absence of riparian trees may be the

single most important factor altered by humans

that affects the structure and functions of stream

macoinvertebrates. Several changes occur in a

watershed as a result of removing the riparian

forest buffers. Watercourses become much narrower, resulting in less benthic area. Once trees

are removed, grasses take over, sod forms, and

the stream narrows rapidly. Tree removal results in loss of tree root systems, an important

component of fish habitat.

Aquatic macroinvertebrates can be herbivores,

detrivores (scavengers), carnivores (predators),

or parasites. Aquatic insects can be classified

by the specialized way in which they obtain

food as follows:

1. shredders – chew, mince, or gouge coarse

particulate detritus or live macrophytes (example - some caddisflies)

2. scrapers – scrape diatoms and other food

from rocks (example - mayflies, stoneflies)

3. collectors – gather fine particulate detritus

loosely associated with the sediment or from

the surface film (example - some caddisflies)

4. piercers – pierce and suck the contents of

green plants or of animals (example - true

bugs, waterstriders)

5. predators – attack live prey and ingest whole

or parts of animals (example - dragonfly,

damselfly, hellgrammite)

6. parasites – live in or on aquatic animals, not

necessarily killing them

7. filter feeders – filter particles suspended in

the water column (example - blackflies,

caddisflies that spin silk nets)

8. grazers – remove attached periphyton and

material closely associated with mineral or

organic substrates (example - mayflies,

stoneflies)

As aquatic insects go through different stages in

their life cycles, they become different types of

feeders.

Quality and quantity of food deteriorates when

riparian trees are removed. Loss of the forest

canopy allows high light levels to reach the watercourses. This promotes the growth of

filamentous green algae, which few, if any,

aquatic species eat. Shade promotes diatoms, a

good food source for all macroinvertebrates,

especially caddisflies and mayflies. Seeds,

twigs, and leaves are also a good source of dissolved organic chemicals. The chemicals

support beneficial bacteria, which in turn support protozoans and higher forms of animal life.

Some macroinvertebrates eat leaves directly. It

is not uncommon for small Pennsylvania

streams flowing through forested land to contain

more than 1,000 grams of leaf material per

square meter in November. In a healthy stream,

most of the food is consumed by the following

April. Leaves generally travel less than 220 feet

from where they enter small streams and are

eaten by mayflies and caddisflies.

Most species of insects seem to prefer and

flourish best on a particular tree species. If preferred trees are removed and replaced with less

desirable species, some species of insects will

vanish from a watershed. Sycamore is a good

species for most insects, as are sweet birch, river

birch, and red maple. For example, certain

stonefly species grow best by eating chestnut

oak leaves. Some stoneflies need to eat the

flowers of riparian trees in order to survive.

Removal of the riparian forest eliminates tree

flowers (food) that stoneflies must have to complete their life cycle. Some species of

caddisflies need hollowed out twigs with which

to build a home, while others actually eat the

wood for food (like termites do).
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How Sediments Adversely Affect Fish

Habitat

Sediment by weight is the largest single pollutant of water resources in the United States.

Sediment entering watercourses is caused by

rainsplash erosion and sheetwash erosion.

Sediment reduces the productivity of aquatic

plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate communities.

It can threaten the survival of fish by covering

essential spawning grounds, covering eggs, and

preventing emergence of recently hatched fry.

Sedimentation is one of the major causes of decline in the quality of fisheries throughout the

United States. Turbidity in excess of 100 ppm

can inhibit fish growth and reproduction. Studies have shown that 2mm of silt deposition

caused 100 percent mortality in white perch

eggs, and 0.5 to 1 mm of sediment caused 50

percent mortality in adults.

The Use of Riparian Forest Buffers

to Moderate Stream Water

Temperatures

Water temperature is very important in assessing water quality. As water temperature

increases, the capacity of water to hold oxygen

decreases. At elevated water temperatures,

there is a risk of oxygen depletion as a result of

the decomposition of organic matter.

Temperature also affects the release of nutrients

attached to sediment particles. As water temperature increases, the solubility of the nutrients

increases. Slight increases in water temperature

can produce substantial increases in the amount

of phosphorus released into the water.

The removal of trees and other streamside

vegetation will cause detrimental effects. During hot summer months, a stream that is not

shaded will not be able to hold oxygen required

for aquatic life. Lack of oxygen, coupled with

the release of more nutrients into the water is

disastrous. An increase in sunlight and nutrients

will cause large algal blooms, further decreasing

water quality and aquatic habitat.

Temperature increases can cause a shift in the

aquatic community from more desirable species

to less desirable species that are more tolerant to

elevated water temperatures. This is an important concern in the coldwater fish habitat of the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Water temperature

must be controlled if the region is to promote

outdoor recreation that includes an emphasis on

fishing. In addition, if streamside vegetation is

removed from headwater areas, optimum

breeding areas for important game fish may be

destroyed. An increase in temperature in these

areas will cause fish to stop reproduction activities.

Studies show that maintenance of forest buffers

along streams is an excellent way to moderate

stream temperatures. One study compared

stream temperatures of two streams; one flowing

through cropland and the other flowing through

a forest (see Figure 3-5). The cropland stream,

which had no forest buffer, had a maximum

temperature that was 5 to 13 degrees Celsius

warmer than the stream flowing through a forest. Not only did the buffer keep the water

temperature cooler during the summer months,

but it kept the stream warmer during the coldest

months of winter. Studies in southeastern Pennsylvania have shown that during the summer

months, streams passing through open fields are

10 degrees Fahrenheit warmer than streams

passing through forest shade. The streams in the

open fields are usually too warm to support trout

all year.

Studies show that temperature minimums during

summer months are greater for streams with no

forest buffer. If the temperature is elevated for

prolonged periods of time, there will be an adverse impact to the energy budget of the aquatic

ecosystem. If nearstream vegetation is left to

shade the stream, only minor changes in stream

temperature will result. If forested buffers are

maintained adjacent to streams, significant decreases in water temperature will result. Grass

buffers cannot provide this benefit.
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Research statistics have shown that angular canopy density (a parameter used to measure

shading) is strongly correlated with temperature

control. The width of the buffer is also related

to the effectiveness of the buffer to regulate

stream temperatures. The research recommends

that canopy density be kept at least at 80 percent

coverage. It concludes that the maximum

shading ability is reached within a width of 80

feet, with 90 percent of the maximum reached

within 55 feet.

Buffer effectiveness in controlling temperature

increases as stream size decreases. Usually, the

smaller streams have the greatest temperature

problems; therefore, if temperatures are controlled in the upper reaches of the watershed,

temperature problems in larger downstream

channels will be controlled as well.

Table 3-3 shows the range of some habitat requirements for typical fish.

Large Woody Debris as Fish Habitat

Enhancement

One of the most important functions of the riparian forest buffer is the addition of large

woody debris (LWD) to a stream. LWD is the

natural accumulation of trees, branches and root

wads, at least 10 centimeters (4 inches) in diameter, upon which a large number of aquatic

organisms depend. LWD becomes lodged,

forming pools that are needed by trout for surFigure 3 - 5. Riparian forests are very important for shading streams and keeping water temperatures lower.

As water temperature increases, the stream has less ability to hold oxygen. Oxygen is needed for plants and

animals to survive. A cropland stream with no forest buffer is 5 to 13 degrees Celsius (generally 10 degrees

Fahrenheit) warmer than a forest stream. (Source: G.F. Greene, 1950. Land Use and Trout Streams, Journal

of Soil and Water Conservation.)

Table 3 - 3

Habitat Requirements of Major Families of Fish

Family Oxygen Temperature pH Turbidity Tolerance

Carp >0.5 ppm 70-90° F 7.5-9.0 High

Catfish >4.0 ppm 70-90° F 7.5-9.0 High

Sunfish (including Bass)>5.0 ppm 73-80° F 7.5-8.5 Low-moderate

Trout >5.0 ppm 50-60° F 6.0-8.0 Low
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3-29

vival. LWD in the form of overhanging logs,

debris jams, and root wads provides complex

cover for fish that is used for hiding from

predators or to stalk prey. LWD provides food

and shelter to micro- and macro-organisms that

are eaten by fish. Lack of LWD

results in lower fish numbers,

lower average size, and lower

biomass for both warmwater

and coldwater fish species.

Most LWD debris originates

within 60 feet of a stream, so it

is imperative that the riparian

forest is established if fish

habitat is be to maintained.

Ideally, streams supporting fish

should have 75 to 200 pieces of

large woody debris per stream

mile.

Different types of vegetation

play certain roles in maintaining a healthy

aquatic habitat. Both the size and type of vegetation within the riparian area are important in

creating a productive and stable environment.

Table 3-4 gives benefits of vegetation to aquatic

ecology.

Management Considerations

How wide should a riparian buffer be to provide

these benefits? It depends on the conditions of

the site, but most experts agree that 50 to 100

feet of natural riparian buffer is adequate to protect water quality and

improve stream conditions for fish

and other aquatic organisms. A corridor of this width also will provide

suitable habitat for many wildlife

species such as wood ducks, herons,

kingfishers, beaver, muskrat, songbirds, pheasants, quail, fox, deer,

raccoons, turtles, snakes, salamanders, and frogs.

Careful management of stream corridors can make naturally good

habitat even better. Before designing

riparian buffers to enhance their

value for wildlife populations, land

managers should consider the following key issues:

1. Which wildlife species are of the greatest conservation priority in the region?

2. How important would the corridor be as

habitat for those priority species within

the region?

Table 3 - 4

Benefits of Vegetation on Aquatic Ecology

VEGETATION BENEFITS

Trees and shrubs overhanging the

stream.

• Shade lowers the water temperature, which improves

the conditions for fish.

• Source of large and fine plant debris.

• Source of terrestrial insects that fish eat.

Leaves, branches, and other debris

in the stream.

• Helps create pools and cover.

• Provides food source and stable base for many stream

aquatic organisms.

Roots in the stream bank. • Increases bank stability.

• Creates overhanging bank cover.

Stems and low-growing vegetation

next to the watercourse.

• Restarts movement of sediment, water, and debris

floating in flood waters.
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3. Can the buffer be enhanced enough to

meet the minimum area requirements of

target wildlife species?

Planting certain types of trees and shrubs can

enhance some areas. For example, pheasants

find wild grapes and dogwood highly desirable,

and quail find certain types of lespedeza desirable. The Maryland Department of Natural

Resources - Forest Service sells “conservation

packets” of plant materials through the state

nursery. These packets can be very useful in

riparian buffer enhancement. A variety of tree

species provides a wide array of wildlife food,

dens, roosts, and nesting sites. A combination

of tree sizes provides tall, medium, and short

tree heights, with each height serving as specific

habitat for different species of wildlife.

There are many factors to consider when

choosing plant materials for each Zone of the

riparian buffer, depending on the landowner’s

objective and what Zone is being planted. Table

3-5 is a partial list of trees, shrubs, and grasses

that could be planted within the riparian area. It

shows how each benefits wildlife. It is important to select vegetation that may be periodically

subjected to flooding. Although this list is not

all inclusive, it lists several plant species that

could be used within the riparian area.

Table 3 - 5

Plant Species That Grow Well in the Riparian Area and Their Value to Wildlife

Common Name Vegetation Type Wildlife Value

River birch tree good; cavity nesting

Black willow tree high; nesting

American beech tree high

Eastern cottonwood tree low

Green ash tree low

Silver maple tree moderate

Red maple tree high; seeds/browse

Sweetgum tree low

Sycamore tree high; cavity nesters

American hornbeam tree low

Bitternut hickory tree moderate; food

Flowering dogwood tree high; food (birds)

Persimmon tree extremely high;

mammals

Boxelder tree low

Baldcypress tree low

Black locust tree low

Pawpaw tree high; fox & opossum
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3-31

Common Name Vegetation Type Wildlife Value

American holly tree high; food, cover,

nests

Black walnut tree high

Eastern redcedar tree high; food

Yellow-poplar tree low

Sweetbay tree very low

Blackgum or sourgum tree moderate; seeds

Hophornbeam tree moderate

Swamp tupelo tree high

Red bay tree good, food (quail/

bluebirds)

Loblolly pine tree moderate

White oak tree high; food (on well

drained sites)

Overcup oak tree high

Swamp chestnut oak tree high

Water oak tree high

Cherrybark oak tree high

Willow oak tree high; mast

Eastern hemlock tree high; nesting

Southern wax myrtle shrub moderate

Common spicebush shrub high; songbirds

Winterberry shrub high; cover & fruit-

(birds). Holds berries

in winter.

Pussy willow shrub moderate; cover-

(birds) & nectar-

(butterflies)

Sweet pepperbush shrub high

Red-osier dogwood shrub high

Silky dogwood shrub high; mammals &

songbirds

Witch-hazel shrub moderate

Hackberry tree high
Section III

3-32

Common Name Vegetation Type Wildlife Value

Buttonbush shrub moderate; (duck/shore

birds) & nectar

(hummingbirds)

Gray dogwood shrub moderate

Hawthorn shrub moderate

American elderberry shrub high; food

Arrowwood viburnum shrub high

Switch grass grass high; cover

Reeds canary grass grass high; cover, droughttolerant

Little or big blue stem grass high; cover

Eastern gamagrass grass high; cover

Weeping love grass grass high; cover

Indian grass grass high; cover

Coastal panic grass grass high; cover

NOTE: (For use with the three-zone riparian forest buffer system)

1. Zone 1 has the greatest potential for annual inundation of water and the least moisture stress.

2. Zone 2 has the potential for the greatest moisture stress during the summer, because it could be a steep area subject to rapid drying.

3. Zone 3 has the greatest variability, because some plant species have naturally adapted to these areas, and the

width could vary greatly.

Grasses integrated as part of riparian forest

buffer systems are often used in Zone 3. There

are many grass species that provide excellent

habitat for birds and other wildlife. Specifically, many of the warm season grasses (Table

3-6 on the next page) provide this valuable

habitat in the form of brood rearing cover, nesting habitat, and superior winter cover. These

warm season grasses grow upright with some

bare ground in between, which provides overhead cover for protection, quality nest sites, and

free movement. It also provides more opportunities for food searching in between the clumps

by ground feeding wildlife such as quail. It has

been documented in Iowa that switch grass

plantings dramatically increase nesting success

of both game and song birds. Pheasants built 20

percent more nests in switch grass than in orchard grass and alfalfa combination. These

warm season grasses also stand upright under

snow, offering more winter cover. It is also important to note that the management of many of

these warm season grasses requires prescribed

burning every one to three years. Prescribed

burns stimulate insect life, which is valuable

food for chicks, and intense seed set.

Spring is the best time to burn, as the warm season grasses first reach an inch of new growth–

usually about April 1. This date can vary from

mid-March in a warm spring to mid-April in a

cool spring, and it varies in the Piedmont or

Coastal Plain.
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May and June are the preferred planting months

for warm season grasses. In Coastal Plain areas,

late April is suitable, and some people have

good planting results into the first few days of

July in the Piedmont. Minimum planting rates

are given in Table 3-6.

When planning and maintaining a riparian forest

buffer in a suburban area, the following must be

taken into consideration:

1. Corridors in the suburban landscape frequently are surrounded by commercial,

residential, and industrial developments.

These habitats harbor species that are

predators to forest dwellers, such as cowbirds, raccoons, and domestic cats.

2. Corridors may already be planted to nonnative species, such as Norway maple, that

can cause the slow deterioration of the

vegetation structure and diversity of the forest ecosystem.

3. The wildlife population in the corridor may

depend on large forest patches for survival

during some portion of its life cycle.

4. The wildlife population densities are naturally low such that they must receive

immigrants in order to survive in isolated

patches.

5. The wildlife population cannot move from

forest patch to patch without an interconnecting forest corridor.

In summary, riparian areas vary considerably in

size and vegetation makeup depending on characteristics such as gradient, aspect, topography,

soil type of stream bottom, water quality, elevation, and plant community. Riparian areas are

used by wildlife more than any other type of

habitat; they are one of the most productive

wildlife habitats in many areas of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

Table 3 - 6

Minimum Planting Rates for Warm Season Grasses in

Zone 3 of the Riparian Forest Buffer

Grass Species Planting rate (lb/acre)

Switch grass 5*

Big Bluestem 7

Indian grass 7

Coastal Panic grass 8

Weeping Love grass 3**

 *lb is in PLS, which means pounds of pure live seed, not bulk. This is especially

important on fluffy seeds and those with low germination.

**Often seed is mixed with other grasses or 5 pounds Korean or Kobe Lespedeza.
Section III

3-34

Aesthetics and Outdoor

Recreation Functions/Values of

Riparian Forest Buffer Systems

Riparian forests enhance the natural beauty of

streams within the Chesapeake Bay Watershed

by increasing their aesthetic value. A variety of

trees and other green vegetation on the landscape provides an enjoyable scenic view and

stimulates appreciation of the natural environment.

Riparian forests, which include streamside management zones, furnish a variety of recreational

values. An important function of riparian forests is their use as urban area greenway systems

with linear parks. Greenways, resulting from

establishing riparian forest buffers, will be particularly advantageous to residents of

Chesapeake Bay urban areas experiencing a

shortage of green space. Riparian forest buffers

offer urban residents an alternative to cement

and concrete and a solace for rest and relaxation. Increased greenspace improves the overall

quality of life in both rural and urban areas. It

offers people a beautiful natural setting in which

to recreate, socialize, and enjoy all forest resources.

The Pennsylvania Citizen’s Advisory Council

found that the Pennsylvania state forest system

is experiencing a dramatic increase in recreational use. With demand for recreation

resources on the rise, riparian forest buffers not

only contribute to natural resource conservation

and clean water, but they also enhance existing

state, county, and municipal park and forest

systems within the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

Riparian forest buffer establishment serves as

additional greenspaces offering alternative

places for recreational opportunities in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Both watershed

residents and visitors will benefit from an increase in greenspace.

Recreational activities can be a revenuegenerating mechanism for the landowner. Fees,

especially for hunting privileges, are often

charged on a per acre basis and are considered

routine compensation for landowners in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed. For example, in

Virginia, nearly two-thirds of its citizens over

the age of sixteen participated in wildlife-related

recreation spending $1.1 billion annually.

There are two forms of recreational settings that

occur in riparian areas – developed and dispersed. Natural resource managers who

establish riparian forest buffers must consider

the landowner objectives for recreation when

developing and implementing a resource plan.

Some developed recreation areas are designed

specifically to attract visitors to riparian areas.

Developed recreation areas place more emphasis

and reliance on specially improved constructed

facilities to enhance visitor comfort, convenience, and safety. These facilities are usually

concentrated in areas that have easy access.

Developed campgrounds may provide restrooms

and showers, paved roads and drive-ups, designated camp sites, tent pads, grills, and picnic

tables. These areas have a tendency to attract

more people in a concentrated area. Developed
Section III

3-35

campgrounds have designated campsites in

close proximity to each other. Many campgrounds are designed with vegetation left

between sites providing natural buffer areas, yet

there is little privacy. Developed lakes and rivers feature boat ramps, launches, and fishing

piers. Other examples of developed areas are

ski resorts and golf courses. Occasionally,

highly developed recreational areas feature

visitor centers and contract with concessionaires

to sell food and souvenir items. Developed recreation facilities are provided by public and

private entities. Because of the dependence on

constructed facilities, there are increased impacts to the surrounding area.

Other riparian areas are more suited to, or may

be restricted to, dispersed recreation. In contrast

to developed recreation, dispersed recreational

activities occur over wide areas in a variety of

natural settings, such as entire national, state,

and private parks and forests. Dispersed recreational activities are more reliant on the use of

natural resources. Facility development is limited to the extent necessary for visitor safety,

resource protection, general information, and

interpretation. As a result, dispersed recreation

is less disturbing to the surrounding environment and more conducive to experiences of

solitude and “getting away from it all.” Access

to and within dispersed recreational areas may

be more difficult than for developed recreation

areas. In some dispersed recreation areas, the

roads may be low standard, requiring a fourwheel drive vehicle. Trails will be non-existent,

or primitive, with little to no maintenance.

Signing is minimal or non-existent. Dispersed

recreation areas may be located farther from

urban areas and require more travel to get to

them.

Riparian forest buffers and streamside management zones are suitable for a wide variety of

recreational activities. Landowner objectives

determine the type of recreation and level of

development. It is important to keep in mind

that these areas are in close proximity to streams

and may have fragile vegetation growing that is

not resilient to higher impacts. When deciding

upon the type of recreational use, consider the

particular environment of the area and plan

accordingly. Recreationists should learn and

practice leave-no-trace, low-impact outdoor recreation principles in order to help protect

riparian areas. Depending on size, location, and

natural features, riparian forest buffers provide a

beautiful natural setting for a wide range of outdoor recreational activities.

Types of Recreation That Occur

in Riparian Forests

Camping and Picnicking

Camping is one of the most popular forms of

outdoor recreation, whether in a developed or

dispersed setting. Campers must be aware of

their impact, especially on streams, and take

steps to avoid disturbing them. Human waste

and garbage negatively impact water quality.

Developed campgrounds are usually intended

for car-camping and generally require more

space and permanent structures, such as

restroom facilities, tent pads, grills, and picnic

tables. The addition of these conveniences will

cause greater disturbance and impact. In riparian areas, developed campgrounds should be

located on higher, stable ground.

Backpacking is a more rugged and primitive

form of camping, allowing the recreationist to

venture into remote forested areas. Backpackers

carry all of their equipment into the forest with

them in specially designed backpacks. They

must be self-sufficient without relying on constructed facilities. Backpacking is generally less

disturbing to forested areas, as long as campers

practice leave-no-trace outdoor principles.
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Riparian forests also provide a peaceful location

in which to enjoy a picnic with friends and family. Picnicking can be as simple as bringing a

picnic basket and a blanket or using designated

picnic areas that provide tables, restrooms, and

garbage facilities.

Cycling, Motorbiking, and ATVs

Cycling is another form of outdoor recreation

and exercise that can be enjoyed within riparian

settings, on lightly used roads, or on appropriately designed trails. Cycling not only provides

a convenient form of travel for exploring beautiful areas, it also increases the heart rate and

tones the lower body. Touring bikes are suitable

for paved road cycling, while mountain and

motorbiking are suitable for more rugged terrain. Driving ATVs is an increasingly popular

recreational activity. Mountain biking, motorbiking, and ATV driving are higher-impact

recreational activities that contribute to soil loss

and erosion. It is important to find suitable locations designated for these uses in order to

avoid excessive disturbance and damage to

soils, vegetation, and streams.

Horseback Riding

Horses have become favored recreational animals. Many people enjoy horseback riding on

trails through forests and parks. Riparian forests

provide an ideal location for a pleasurable

horseback riding experience, either solo or with

family and friends.

Hunting and Fishing

Because of their close proximity to streams and

a variety of habitat, riparian forests are ideal

locations for hunting, trapping, and fishing.

Hunting and fishing are age-old activities, once

undertaken for survival. Today, many people

enjoy hunting and fishing as recreational activities.

.

They allow particicpants to express an inner

natural instinct and to commune with nature on

nature’s terms. Some of the wildlife species

found in riparian forests include: deer, elk,

black bear, wild turkey, grouse, quail, rabbit,

squirrel, raccoon, and waterfowl including

ducks and geese. Many people enjoy fishing,

whether they release the catch or use fish for

food. Riparian forests provide a beautiful and

peaceful access for fishing in streams, ponds,

lakes, bays, or along ocean beaches.

Relaxing

Relaxing is restorative and pleasurable, providing a respite from hectic schedules and the

everyday pressures of life in an increasingly

fast-paced world. A riparian forested area is a

wonderful location for rest and relaxation. Individuals who choose riparian areas as a place to

relax, enjoy peace, quiet, and nature will be recharged and ready to take on the world again.

The resulting peace of mind can have farreaching effects on the whole being. Relaxing

in nature is constructive as well. Reflection in
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and communing with nature can be inspirational, enlightening, and enhancing to the

creative processes. Many successful authors

have written popular books about the positive

benefits and effects of their outdoor experiences. Relaxing can be particularly important to

urban communities where a riparian forest can

provide recreation and aesthetic values close to

home.

Walking/Hiking/Running/Roller and

In-Line Skating

Riparian areas provide a natural setting for exercising and enjoying the pleasures of aerobic

activities. More people are walking, hiking, and

running to improve their overall health and wellbeing and to reduce stress. Participation in

aerobic activities within a refreshing riparian

area enhances the emotional and physical benefits. The benefits provide incentive for walkers,

hikers, and runners to engage in regular exercise

programs. Roller blading is becoming a more

popular outdoor recreational activity and a good

way to exercise. Skating, an alternative form of

aerobic exercise, enables recreationists to cover

more miles than simply walking or running.

Riparian areas are a valuable resource in suburban and urban areas where the chances for

outdoor recreation are sometimes limited.

Water Recreation (Motor Boating,

Sailing, Canoeing, Rafting, Kayaking,

and Swimming)

More than half of all outdoor recreational

activities are water-related. This type of recreation ranges from aesthetic appreciation of water,

to observation of waterfowl and aquatic life, to

activities occurring in the water. Canoeing,

rafting, kayaking, and tubing are increasingly

popular recreational activities, as well as snorkeling and scuba diving. Rafting tends to be

largely a commercial venture with outfitters

guiding large groups; kayaking is both commercial and private. Although some outfitters do

guide canoe trips, canoeing is a more solitary

activity motivated by the desire for solitude and

a wilderness experience.

Canoeing, rafting, and kayaking require put-in

and take-out areas. These areas can be wooden

docks, concrete boat ramps, built-up gravel and

sand beds (mini-docks), or a simple grassy area

where use is funneled. These recreationists

usually camp in primitive, designated campsites

along the shore. Some put-in and take-out areas

have shelters, fire rings, and/or picnic tables to

use, depending on the land ownership. Land

along rivers, lakes, and bay shores often has a

combination of owners. Canoeists, rafters, and

kayakers need to know who owns the land they

desire to use, so they can make appropriate arrangements with the landowner(s). Riparian

forests provide access to water-based recreation

and a beautiful backdrop for engaging in the

activities.

Wildlife Viewing, Birdwatching,

Nature Appreciation, Environmental

Study, Wildlife and Nature Photography, Collecting for Arts and Crafts

Riparian forests are a natural laboratory for nature appreciation and environmental studies.

Many people enjoy studying and collecting

shells and rocks dispersed along river banks and

lake and bay shores. Wildlife, birds, and waterfowl are interesting to observe in their natural

settings.
Section III

3-38

Many people enjoy photographing wildlife as a

hobby or for their professional livelihood. The

outdoors also stimulates creative expression in

writing, drawing, painting, arts, and crafts. Riparian forests are a good place to find natural

materials used in many art and craft projects.

Seeds, nuts, shells, leaves, cones, needles, fibers, plants, woods, and flowers are used to

make wreaths, terrariums, birdhouses, and other

crafts. These are made for personal enjoyment,

gifts, and displays, or for arts and crafts businesses.

Winter Recreation (Snowmobiling,

Cross-Country Skiing, Ice Skating,

and Snow Shoeing)

Many recreationists enjoy the exhilaration of

winter sport activities. Cross-country skiing, ice

skating, and snow shoeing are relatively lowimpact activities that provide opportunities for

solitude and exercise. Snowmobiling is a

higher-impact, adventuresome, and socialorientated activity. Riparian forests provide

another resource for the enjoyment of winter

recreation.

The above mentioned outdoor recreational activities can be pursued and enjoyed within

riparian forest buffers or streamside management zones. Riparian forest buffers protect and

enhance streams and increase the opportunities

for recreational pursuits in the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed.

References

Allan, J.D. and A.S. Flecker. 1993. Biodiversity conservation in running waters. BioScience

43:32-43.

Capel, S. 1992. Warm season grasses for Virginia and North Carolina - benefits for livestock

and wildlife. Virginia Division of Game and

Inland Fisheries.

Chesapeake Bay Program. 1994. Riparian forest buffers: restoring and managing a vital

Chesapeake resource. Conference proceedings

–Riparian Forest Buffers, Chesapeake Bay Program Office; October 5-6, 1994; Ellicott City,

MD.

Citizens Advisory Council to the Department of

Natural Resources. 1992. These woods are

ours. A Report on Pennsylvania’s State Forest

System. Harrisburg, PA.

DeGraaf, R.M., M. Yamasaki, W.B. Leak, and

J.W. Lanier. 1992. New England wildlife:

management of forested habitats. Gen. Tech.

Report NE-144. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Dissmeyer, G. and B. Foster. 1986. Some

positive economics of protecting water quality

for fish. Presentation at SAF National Convention in Birmingham, AL.

Gregory, S.V., F.J. Swanson, W.A. McKee, and

K.W. Cummins. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. BioScience 41:540-551.

Groffman, P.M. 1994. Denitrification in freshwater wetlands. p. 15-35, In Current Topics in

Wetland Biogeochemistry. Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute, Louisiana St. Univ., Baton

Rouge, LA.

Hammitt, W.E. and D.N. Cole. 1987. Wildland

recreation. New York, NY: John Wiley &

Sons.

Jacobs, T.C. and J.W. Gilliam. 1985. Riparian

losses of nitrate from agricultural drainage waters. J. Environ. Qual. 14:472-478.

Jayne, P. and R. Tjaden. 1992. Field border

management. University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet #600.

Jordan, T.E., D.L. Correll, and D.E. Weller.

1993. Nutrient interception by a riparian forest

receiving inputs from adjacent cropland. J. Environ. Qual. 22:467-473.

Karr, J.R. and I.J. Schlosser. 1978. Water resources and the land-water interface. Science

01:229-234.

Kraus, R. 1994. Leisure in a changing America. New York, NY: Macmillan College

Publishing Company.
Section III

3-39

Kroll, J.C. 1994. A practical guide to producing and harvesting white-tailed deer. 3rd ed.

Institute for White-tailed Deer Management and

Research. Stephen F. Austin State University,

Nachogdoches, TX.

Lowrance, R., L.S. Altier, J.D. Newbold, R.R.

Schnabel, P.M. Groffman, J.M. Denver, D.L.

Correll, J.W. Gilliam, J.L. Robinson, R.B.

Brinsfield, K.W. Staver, W. Lucas, and A.H.

Todd. 1995. Water quality functions of riparian

forest buffer systems in the Chesapeake Bay

watershed. EPA 903-R-95-004. CBP/TRS

134/95. Annapolis, MD. 67pp.

Lowrance, R.R., R.L. Todd, J. Fail, Jr., O. Hendrickson, Jr., R. Leonard, and L. Asmussen.

1984. Riparian forests as nutrient filters in agricultural watersheds. BioScience 34:374-377.

Lusk, A. no date. Getting around in rural

America: trails. In: Proceedings of a National

Policy Symposium. Enhancing Rural Economies Through Amenity Resources. Penn State

University.

Maclean, J.R., J.A. Peterson, and W.D. Martin.

1985. Recreation and leisure: the changing

scene. 4th ed. New York, NY: Macmillan

Publishing Company.

Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.

American wildlife and plants: a guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications, NY.

Missouri Conservation Commission. 1985.

Trees along streams.

Morse, D.H. Ecological aspects of some mixed

species foraging flocks of birds. Ecology

Monogram, 40(1):119-168 (1970).

Newbold, J.D., D.C. Erman, and K.B. Roby.

1980. Effects of logging on macroinvertebrates

in streams with and without buffer strips. Can.

J. of Fish. and Aquatic Sci. 37:1076-1085.

Pais, R. 1994. Wildlife corridors in the suburban environment. Conference Proceedings -

Riparian Forest Buffers, Chesapeake Bay Program; October 5-6, 1994; Ellicott City, MD.

Peterjohn, W.T. and D.L. Correll. 1984. Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed:

Observations on the role of a riparian forest.

Ecology 65:1466-1475.

Petit, L. 1994. Planning forest buffers with

wildlife in mind. Conference Proceedings - Riparian Forest Buffers, Chesapeake Bay

Program; October 5-6, 1994; Ellicott City, MD.

Phillips, P.J., J.M. Denver, R.J. Shedlock, P.A.

Hamilton. 1993. Effect of forested wetlands on

nitrate concentrations in ground water and surface water on the Delmarva Peninsula.

Wetlands 13:75-83.

Rader, T. 1975. Fish and forests. Pennsylvania

Forest Resources - No. 26. December.

Schueler, T. 1995. The architecture of urban

stream buffers. Watershed Protection Techniques. Center For Watershed Protection. Vol.

1, No. 4, Summer.

Smith, S. and R. Tjaden. 1993. Songbirds: life

history and management. University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet

# 613.

Southwick, C.H. 1976. Ecology and the quality

of our environments. D. Van Nostrand Company, NY.

Stoddard, C.H. 1978. Essentials of forestry

practice. John Wiley and Sons, NY.

Sweeney, B. 1994. Ecology of forested streams

in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Conference

Proceedings - Riparian Forest Buffers, Chesapeake Bay Program Office; October 5-6, 1994.

Ellicott City, MD.

Sweeney, B. 1993. Effects of stream side

vegetation on macroinvertebrate communities of

White Clay Creek in eastern North America.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 144: 291-340.

Sweeney, B.W. 1992. Streamside forests and

the physical, chemical, and trophic characteristics of Piedmont streams in Eastern North

America. Water Sci. Tech. 26:2653-2673.

Tjaden, R. 1991-92. Eastern cottontail rabbits;

bobwhite quail; ring-necked pheasants; ruffed

grouse; eastern wild turkeys. University of
Section III

3-40

Maryland Cooperative Extension. Fact Sheets #

601-604 & 606.

Tjaden, R. 1991-92. Introduction to wildlife

habitat. University of Maryland Cooperative

Extension. Fact Sheet # 597.

Trial, L. 1992. Life within the water. Conservation Commission of the State of Missouri.

University of Maine Cooperative Extension

Service. 1988. A forester’s guide to managing

wildlife habitats in Maine. University of Maine

at Orono.

USDA-Soil Conservation Service and Missouri

Department of Conservation. 1985. Stream

corridor management. December.

Wade, R. 1992. Planting crops for wildlife.

University of Maryland Cooperative Extension.

Fact Sheet #598.

Wilson, E.O. 1988. Biodiversity. National

Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Section IV

Soils

Introduction ..........................................................................................................4-1

Definitions............................................................................................................4-1

Factors of Soil Formation.....................................................................................4-1

Soil Classification ................................................................................................4-5

Soil Characteristics...............................................................................................4-6

Soil Characteristics Relating to Hydrology.........................................................4-11

Information Necessary to Establish Riparian Forest Buffers.............................4-14

The Soil Survey..................................................................................................4-14

Hydrologic Soil Groups......................................................................................4-18

Land Capability Classification ...........................................................................4-19

Soil as It Relates to Establishing a Riparian Forest Buffer................................4-20

References..........................................................................................................4-22
Section IV

4-1

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an understanding of soils, enabling natural resource

professionals to develop suitable and effective

forest riparian buffers. This chapter discusses

some basic definitions used in soil science and

describes the factors of soil formation. The

Mattapex soil series, found in Baltimore

County, Maryland, serves as a reference to readers throughout the chapter. The Soil Classification system is introduced, and several soil

properties essential to forestry are discussed.

The chapter explains soil surveys, so they will

be more useful to foresters and planners. Next,

the chapter examines the importance of hydrologic soil groups and

Land Capability Classes and their importance to

forest riparian buffers. Finally, the chapter discusses how soil relates to establishing a riparian

forest buffer.

Definitions

Soil

The collection of natural bodies on the

earth’s surface, in places modified or even

made by man of earthy materials, containing

living matter and supporting or capable of

supporting plants out-of-doors.

Solum

The upper and most weathered part of the

soil profile; the A and B horizons.

Ped

A unit of soil structure such as an aggregate,

crumb, prism, block, or granule, formed by

natural processes.

Hydric Soil

A hydric soil is a soil that is saturated,

flooded, or ponded long enough during the

growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part.

Organic Soil

A soil that contains at least 20 percent organic matter (by weight) if the clay content

is low and at least 30 percent if the clay

content is as high as 60 percent. These soils

are classified as Histosols.

Mineral Soil

A soil consisting predominantly of, and

having its properties determined predominantly by, mineral matter. It usually contains less than 20 percent organic matter, but

may contain an organic surface layer up to

30 cm (12 inches) thick.

Factors of Soil Formation

There are 5 factors that determine the development of a soil—parent material, climate, vegetation, topography, and time.

1. Parent material

loess - wind-blown, silty material derived from

glacial outwash plains. These materials originally had a high content of weatherable minerals and high base saturation.

glacial till - material deposited by action of glaciers and usually unstratified materials or

sediments ranging in particle size from boulders to clay. It is comprised of materials over

which the glacier passed, and may be identiSoils
Section IV

4-2

fied by the presence of materials not common

to the local area.

Residuum - unconsolidated and partially weathered mineral materials accumulated by the

disintegration of rocks in place. The nature of

the rocks varies by locality and may include

igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic types.

Colluvium - deposits located at the footslopes of

hills or mountains. It is the result of erosion

and/or gravity and has little or no sorting.

Alluvium - material transported and deposited by

flowing water, either streams or local wash. It

may or may not be related to present streams

or drainageways. It includes material on bottoms, terraces, gentle footslopes, and some

depressions. Stratification may be present in

recent deposits.

Unconsolidated Coastal Plain Sediments -

materials deposited in both marine and nonmarine environments, but they have not undergone compaction to the extent that they

would be classified as rock. The sediments

are usually stratified and may include materials from boulders to clay size. The Coastal

Plain of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed includes gravels, sands, silts, and clays.

Eolian Sands - sandy material which has accumulated into dune-type topography by wind

action.

2. Climate

Soil Temperature Regime

frigid - The mean annual temperature of the soil

is lower than 47 degrees F, and the difference

between mean summer and mean winter soil

temperature is more than 9 degrees F at 50

cm.

mesic - The mean annual soil temperature is

greater than 47 degrees F, but lower than 59

degrees F, and the difference between mean

summer and mean winter soil temperature is

more than 9 degrees F at 50 cm.

thermic - The mean annual temperature of the

soil is over 59 degrees F, but lower than 72

degrees F, and the difference between mean

summer and mean winter soil temperature is

more than 9 degrees F at 50 cm.

Soil Moisture Regime

aquic - The aquic moisture regime implies a reducing regime that is free of dissolved oxygen

because the soil is saturated by ground water

or by water of the capillary fringe.

aridic - The aridic moisture regime occurs in

soils that are dry in all parts more than half the

time (cumulative), usually occurring in arid

areas.

udic - The udic moisture regime implies that in

most years the soil is not dry in any part for as

long as 90 days (cumulative).

ustic - This regime is intermediate between the

aridic and udic regime. The concept is one of

limited moisture, but the moisture is present at

a time when conditions are suitable for plant

growth.

3. Vegetation/organisms

Vegetation on the surface of soil protects it from

erosion and desiccation. This vegetation also

moderates soil temperature. Subterranean roots

promote soil aeration. As vegetation dies, it

adds organic matter both to the forest floor and

to the subsurface soil.

Earthworms perform an important function by

mixing and cementing soil into small aggregates, resulting in crumbly structure that affects

air and water permeability.

Microorganisms in the soil decompose organic

matter, decompose and synthesize nitrogenous

compounds, and transform mineral compounds.

These microorganisms include algae, yeasts,

molds, actinomycetes, bacteria, and protozoans.

4. Topography

Within specific geographic regions, many soil

properties are related to topography or relief.

They include: depth of the solum, thickness and

organic matter content of the A horizon, relative

wetness of the profile, color of the profile, degree of horizon differentiation, soil reaction,

temperature, and degree of pan development.
Section IV

4-3

Classes of Soil Slope Gradient

Soil slope is normally measured and expressed

in terms of percentage – the difference in elevation in feet for each 100 feet horizontal. The

following slope classes have been established:

A - nearly level, level – 0 to 3 percent

B - gently sloping, very gently sloping – 3 to

8 percent

C - sloping, strongly sloping – 8 to 15 percent

D - moderately steep – 15 to 25 percent

E - steep – 25 to 35 percent

F - very steep – 35 to 55 percent

G - extremely steep – 55 to 80 percent

Position of Site

Land form on which the soil is located:

flood plain - The flood plain refers to the lowest

level or levels associated with a stream valley

and is sometimes referred to as bottom land,

stream bottom, or first bottom. Sediments

may be stratified. Soils found in a flood plain

normally have little profile development and

are subject to periodic inundation unless protected by man.

terrace - This refers to a surface level or a level

positioned higher than the active flood plain.

It may be associated with either present or

past streams. Terraces may or may not flood

or show evidence of stratification.

upland - Upland refers to geomorphic land

forms, not otherwise designated, on which

soils are forming in residuum, glacial till, marine sediments, loess, or mixtures of these

parent materials.

footslope - This refers to the position at the base

of a slope on which colluvium has accumulated. Such colluvial parent materials are believed to have been transported by gravity

and/or local alluvial action. There is generally

little or no sorting.

depression - This term refers to a basin which

has no visible external or surface drainage.

Ponding of water may occur during and following periods of heavy rainfall. A depression is not the result of some man-made

structure.

drainageway - A natural or artificial depression

on the landscape that provides external surface drainage to a microwatershed within the

landscape. It may be found anywhere on the

landscape.

5. Time

There are some soil properties that can be used

to indicate the relative age of a soil. Older soils,

such as Oxisols, have thick B horizons, and

younger soils, such as Entisols, have no B horizon. Most soils turn redder with age, with an

exception for those soils that develop in red parent material. Older soils generally have more

developed structure. Older soils have clay

movement into lower horizons, which is denoted

by a Bt horizon.

Following is an example soil series description for a soil that occurs in the Chesapeake

Bay Watershed. This description is taken

from the Soil Survey of Baltimore County,

Maryland, written by W. U. Reybold and E. D.

Matthews and published in 1976. This description will serve as a reference to the

reader as the various soil properties are discussed.

Mattapex Series

The Mattapex series consists of deep, moderately well drained, nearly level to gently

sloping soils on uplands of the Coastal Plain.

These soils formed in old deposits of silty

material underlain by older, coarser textured

sediment. The native vegetation is mixed

hardwoods that tolerate wetness.

In a representative profile the surface layer is

dark grayish-brown silt loam about 9 inches

thick. The subsoil, about 27 inches thick, is

yellowish-brown and dark yellowish-brown

silty clay loam and silt loam that is mottled in
Section IV

4-4

the lower part. The underlying material is

yellowish-brown mottled silt loam.

Mattapex soils are fairly easy to work, but at

times in spring they are not dry and warm

soon enough for early planting. Artificial

drainage is needed for some crops, especially

in the more nearly level areas. These soils are

strongly acid to very strongly acid and have a

high available moisture capacity. Permeability is moderately slow. Seasonal wetness and

impeded drainage impose moderate to severe

limitations on Mattapex soils for many nonfarm uses. Erosion is a moderate hazard in

sloping areas.

Representative profile of Mattapex silt loam, 2

to 5 percent slopes, in a cultivated area on

Holly Neck Road, one mile east of Back River

Neck Road:

Ap--0 to 9 inches, dark grayish-brown (10YR

4/2) silt loam; moderate, medium, granular

structure; friable, slightly sticky; many roots;

strongly acid; clear, smooth boundary.

B21t--9 to 17 inches, yellowish-brown (10YR

5/4) light silty clay loam; weak, fine, subangular

blocky structure; friable, slightly sticky and

slightly plastic; common roots; distinct clay

films; very strongly acid; gradual, wavy boundary.

B22t--17 to 26 inches, yellowish-brown (10YR

5/6) heavy silt loam; common, medium, distinct

mottles of light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) and

few, fine, faint mottles of strong brown (7.5YR

5/8); weak, medium, subangular blocky structure; friable to firm, slightly sticky; few roots;

distinct but discontinuous clay films; very

strongly acid; gradual wavy boundary.

B3--26 to 36 inches, dark yellowish-brown

(10YR 4/4) silt loam; common, coarse, distinct

mottles of pale brown (10YR 6/3) and light

brownish gray (10YR 6/2); weak, medium,

subangular blocky structure; friable to firm,

slightly sticky; faint clay films in upper part; very

strongly acid; gradual, wavy boundary.

C--36 to 72 inches, yellowish-brown (10YR 5/8)

silt loam; many, coarse, prominent mottles of

gray or light gray (10 YR 6/1); massive; firm;

distinctly gritty with fine sand; very strongly acid.

Hue throughout the profile is either 10 YR or

2.5Y.

In the A horizon, the value ranges from 3 to 5

and the chroma from 1 to 4. The lower value is

in undisturbed A1 horizons less than 6 inches

thick, and the highest chroma is in undisturbed

A2 horizons.

In the B horizon, the value ranges from 4 to 6

and the chroma from 4 to 8. Mottles that have

chroma of 2 or less occur in the lower part of

the Bt horizon and in the B3 horizon. The Bt

horizon is silt loam or silty clay loam that is 18

to 30 percent clay.

The C horizon is similar to the B3 horizon except that it lacks structure. In some profiles a

IIC horizon of highly contrasting coarser texture

replaces the C horizon. Fine smooth pebbles

are in the IIC horizon in places.

The solum ranges from about 30 to 40 inches in

thickness.

Mattapex soils resemble Delanco and Woodstown soils in color and drainage but are more

silty in the solum. They are deeper to bedrock

than Delanco soils and are less sandy throughout the profile than Woodstown soils. Mattapex

soils formed in the same kind of silty material as

the Matapeake, Beltsville, Barclay, Leonardtown, and Othello soils.

Mattapex silt loam, 0 to 2 percent slopes

(MIA). The profile of this soil is similar to

the one described as representative of the series, but the lower part of the subsoil generally

is mottled with lighter gray colors. Impeded

drainage is the principal limitation to use and

management. Where drainage is improved, it

is well suited to cultivated crops and improved pasture. The choice of plants is more

restricted in undrained areas. Capability unit

IIw-1; woodland subclass 3o.

Mattapex silt loam, 2 to 5 percent slopes

(MIB). This soil has the profile described as

representative of the series. Included in mapping are a few moderately to severely eroded

areas, and a few areas of soils that have slopes

of more than 5 percent. The soil has good

surface drainage and does not need drainage

improvement for many crops. The hazard of

erosion is moderate in tilled areas. Capability

unit IIe-16; woodland subclass 3o.
Section IV

4-5

Mattapex-Urban land complex, 0 to 5 percent slopes (MmB). This complex consists of

soils of the Mattapex series that have been

graded, cut, filled, or otherwise disturbed for

nonfarm uses. Included in mapping are some

areas where the subsoil is less silty but more

sandy than is typical of Mattapex soils.

In about 35 percent of the area of this complex, the soils are relatively undisturbed. In

about 40 percent of the complex, the soils

have been covered by as much as 18 inches of

fill material, or they have had as much as twothirds of the original profile removed by cutting or grading. The remaining 25 percent of

the complex is urban land, where the soils

have been covered by fill material to a depth

of more than 18 inches, or most of the profile

or all of it has been cut or graded away. The

fill material is variable, but it generally is

from adjacent areas of the same kinds of soils.

Roads, streets, sidewalks, and buildings make

up a large part of the complex.

Except where fill materials are deep, seasonal

wetness limits the suitability of this complex for

building sites, septic tanks, and other nonfarm

uses. The soil materials, and most fill materials,

are fairly suitable for lawn grasses, ornamental

shrubs, and other vegetation. In deeply filled or

cut areas, suitability of the soil materials must

be determined locally at each site. Capability

unit and woodland subclass are not assigned.

Soil Classification

In the example of Mattapex soil series, the taxonomic name of the soil is:

Fine-silty, mixed, mesic Aquic Hapludults

Another example, taken from Section II,

Physiographic Provinces, is:

Sandy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Typic Dystrochrepts

Categories of soil classification from broadest to

most specific are as follows:

1. Order - 10 in the U.S. Order indicates the

presence or absence of diagnostic horizons

(epipedon). The order name is carried on

through the whole system. The order of the

Mattapex soil is Ultisols. The order from the

Section II example is Inceptisols.

2. Suborder - These are broken down by differences in wetness in a soil, soil moisture

regime, parent material, and vegetational effects. The suborder of the Mattapex series is

Udults. The suborder of the Section II example is Ochrepts.

3. Great Group - This category denotes degree

of expression of horizons. If it is used here,

it has not been used in the preceding categories. Soil temperature and moisture regime

may be at this level. The great group of the

Mattapex soil is Hapludults. The Great

Group of the Section II example is Dystrochrepts.

4. Subgroup - The subgroup of the Mattapex

soil is Aquic Hapludults. The Subgroup of

the Section II example is Typic Dystrochrepts. There are three types of subgroups:

typic - typical-within center of range of properties for the soil

intergrade - intergrades to another great group,

suborder, or order

extragrade - soils that are not typical. They

have a property that differs from the typical.

5. Family - This category is related to agriculture and plant growth. It has four parts:

1) particle size

2) texture group

3) soil temperature

4) soil reaction, in some cases

Using the Mattapex series, fine-silty is the

particle size, and mixed indicates mineralogy. In the Dystrochepts example, sandyskeletal is the particle size. Mixed is the

mineralogy, and mesic indicates the soil temperature.
Section IV

4-6

6. Soil Series - A series is a group of soils that

have similar horizons. Characteristics such

as horizon arrangement, kind, and thickness

distinguish one series from another. Additional soil characteristics such as soil structure, color, texture, and reaction also help to

differentiate between series. A series is

named for the community near where it was

first described, and can be thought of as the

common name of the soil.

Soil Characteristics

In order to fully utilize a soil survey, a comprehensive understanding of several soil characteristics is important. It is imperative to analyze

the soils in the area prior to developing forest

riparian buffers. The characteristics discussed

in the next section must be considered before

any management activities are planned. Most of

them will be evaluated from the soil survey.

Soil Profile

The soil profile is a cross-sectional view of all

the soil horizons, the natural organic layers at

the soil surface, and the parent material beneath

the soil that influences the formation and behavior of the soil.

Soil Horizons

A soil horizon is defined as a layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface. The

soil-forming process determines its characteristics. Master horizons are designated by the

capital letters O, A, B, C, E and R.

O - organic horizons of mineral soils are: (1)

formed or forming in the upper part of mineral soils above the mineral part; and (2)

dominated by fresh or partly decomposed

organic material.

A - mineral horizons that formed at the surface

and (1) are characterized by an accumulation of humidified organic matter intimately

mixed with the mineral fraction and not

dominated by properties characteristic of E

or B horizons (defined below), or (2) have

properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance.

E - mineral horizons in which the main feature

is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or

some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz

or other resistant minerals.

B - horizons formed below an A or E horizon

and dominated by obliteration of all or much

of the original rock structure and by:

(1) illuvial concentration of silicate clay,

iron, aluminum, humus, carbonates,

gypsum, or silica;

(2) evidence of removal of carbonates;

(3) residual concentrations of sesquioxides;

(4) coatings of sesquioxides that result in a

different color from horizons above or

below;

(5) alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both and that forms

granular, blocky, or prismatic structure;

or

(6) any combination of these.

C - horizons, excluding hard bedrock, that are

little affected by soil-forming properties,

and lack properties of the above horizons.

R - hard bedrock.

Horizons may be followed by subhorizon symbols, designated by a lower case subscript.

Symbols that the natural resource manager

should recognize when planning a riparian forest buffer include:

g - strong gleying. This symbol is used to indicate either that iron has been reduced and

removed during soil formation or that saturation with stagnant water has preserved a reduced state. This may indicate a hydric soil

and/or a wetland.

p - plowing or other disturbance. This symbol

is used to indicate disturbance of the surface

layer by cultivation, pasturing or similar

uses. The Ap horizon is very common in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed.
Section IV

4-7

t - accumulation of silicate clay. This symbol

is used to indicate an accumulation of silicate

clay that either has formed in the horizon or

has been moved into it by illuviation.

x - fragipan character. This symbol is used to

indicate firmness, brittleness, or high bulk

density. Few or no tree roots are able to

penetrate this horizon.

Generally, forest soils have O, A, E, B, and C

horizons.

Comparison of Grassland and Forest Soils

The base status is greater and pH is higher in

grass soils, due to less leaching. Organic matter

is greater in forest soil near the surface, but it

reaches a greater depth in grasslands because of

a greater abundance of fibrous roots. Evapotranspiration is lower in the forest. Clay content

is greater in forest soils because of greater

leaching. The A horizon is thicker in grasslands.

Grassland Forest

A O

AB A

B E

C B

C

Soil Depth

In humid regions, such as the Chesapeake Bay,

soil depth is classified as follows:

Very shallow 0 - 10 inches

Shallow 10 - 20 inches

Moderately deep or

 moderately shallow 20 - 40 inches

Deep 40 - 60 inches

Very deep 60+ inches

The denitrification process generally occurs in

the first 5 inches of the soil. Refer to the glossary of the particular soil survey that is being

used to determine exact depth classes. Not

every soil survey will contain a glossary.

Depth to Bedrock

The depth to bedrock is expressed in inches. If

bedrock is present within a depth of 60 inches

from the surface, it will be a factor on the soil

survey. The hardness of bedrock is classified as

follows:

• Soft bedrock is so soft or fractured that excavations can be made usually with trenching

machines, backhoes, or small rippers.

• Hard bedrock is so hard and massive that

blasting and special equipment is needed to

excavate.

The depth to bedrock generally indicates the

depth of soil material favorable for root growth.

Even though this layer will tend to inhibit root

growth, roots may penetrate soft or fractured
Section IV

4-8

bedrock. If bedrock is hard or massive, rooting

will be restricted almost completely. Soils that

are shallow to bedrock have a low or very low

available water capacity, high windthrow hazard, and moderate seedling mortality.

Soil Color

• Soil color is written in Munsell notation, in

order of hue, value, and chroma.

• Hue is the dominant rainbow color; it is related to the dominant wavelength of light.

Hue may be R for red, YR for yellow-red

(orange) or Y for yellow.

• Value refers to the relative lightness of color

and is a function of the total amount of light.

Value ranges from 0 (black) to 10 (white).

• Chroma is the relative purity or strength of

the spectral color and increases with decreasing grayness. It ranges from 0 for neutral grays to 20, which is never seen in soils.

The color of the Ap horizon in the Mattapex soil

is 10YR 4/2. 10YR is the hue, 4 is the value, 2

is the chroma.

Soil Texture (figure 4-1)

In the preceding example, Mattapex has a silt

loam texture. Soil texture refers to the proportions of clay, silt, and sand below 2 millimeters

in diameter contained in mineral soil. A silt

loam contains 50 percent or more silt and 12 to

27 percent clay (or) 50 to 80 percent silt and less

than12 percent clay.

Figure 4-1. Texture Triangle. Soil Survey Manual, 1993.
Section IV

4-9

In organic soils, muck, peat, mucky peat, and

peaty muck are used in place of the textural

class names of mineral soils.

Coarse Fragments

Soils that have rocks or stones larger than very

coarse sand use adjectives in the texture to describe the size and shape of the coarse fragments. Coarse fragments reduce the water

holding capacity of the soil. They influence

infiltration, runoff, and tree root growth. They

provide little or no soil fertility.

Thin, flat fragments:

• channery

• flaggy

• stony

• slaty

• shaly

Rounded fragments:

• gravelly

• cobbly

• stony or bouldery

• cherty

Soil Structure

Soil structure is the combination or arrangement

of primary soil particles into secondary particles, units, or peds. These secondary units may

be, but usually are not, arranged in a profile in

such a manner as to give a distinctive characteristic pattern. The units are characterized and

classified on the basis of size, shape, and degree

of distinctness into classes, types, and grades,

respectively.

Soil structure classes group soil structural units

or peds on the basis of size. Sizes range from

very fine to very coarse.

Soil structure grades classify soil structure on

the basis of inter- and intra-aggregate adhesion,

cohesion, or stability within the profile. Four

grades of structure, designated from 0 to 3, are

recognized.

0: structureless-no observable aggregation

1: weakly durable peds

2: moderately durable peds

3: strong, durable peds

Soil structure types is a classification of soil

structure based on the shape of the aggregates or

peds and their arrangement in the profile. There

are four types:

Spheroidal (granular and crumb subtypes). All

rounded peds or aggregates are placed in this

category. These rounded complexes usually

lie loosely and are readily shaken apart. Usually the aggregates are called granules and the

pattern granular, however, when the granules

are especially porous, the term crumb is applied. This type of structure is characteristic

of a furrow slice and is subject to wide and

rapid changes. It is especially prominent in

grassland soils and is the only type that is

commonly influenced by practical methods of

soil management. The Ap horizon of the

Mattapex soil has granular structure.

Plate-like (platy). In this structural type the

peds are arranged in relatively thin horizontal

plates, leaflets, or lenses. Platy structure is

most noticeable in the surface layers of virgin

soils, but may characterize the subsoil horizons as well. Although most structural features are a product of soil-forming forces, the

platy type is often inherited from the parent

materials, especially those laid down by water

or ice.

Prism-like (columnar or prismatic subtypes).

These subtypes are characterized by vertically

oriented aggregates or pillars that vary in

length with different soils. They occur in

some poorly drained soils of humid areas.

When the tops of prisms are rounded, the term

columnar is used. When the tops of the

prisms are still plane, level and clean cut, the

structural pattern is designated prismatic.

Block-like (blocky and subangular blocky subtypes). In this case the original aggregates

have been reduced to blocks, irregularly sixfaced, with their three dimensions more or

less equal. When the edges of the cubes are

sharp and the rectangular faces distinct, the

subtype is designated blocky. When sub-
Section IV

4-10

rounding has occurred, the aggregates are referred to as subangular blocky. These types

usually are confined to the subsoil, and their

stage of development and other characteristics

have much to do with soil drainage, aeration,

and root penetration. The B22t horizon of the

Mattapex soil has subangular blocky structure.

Moist Consistence

Consistence is the feel of the soil and the ease

with which a lump can be crushed by the fingers. Terms commonly used to describe consistence are:

loose - noncoherent when dry or moist; does not

hold together in a mass.

friable - when moist, crushes easily under gentle

pressure between thumb and forefinger and

can be pressed together in a lump (Ap horizon

of Mattapex soil).

firm - when moist, crushes under moderate pressure between thumb and forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable.

plastic - when wet, readily deformed by moderate pressure, but can be pressed into a lump;

will form a “wire” when rolled between

thumb and forefinger.

sticky - when wet, adheres to other material and

tends to stretch somewhat and pull apart rather

than to pull free from other material.

Redoximorphic Features

In most soil surveys, these features are referred

to as mottles. The term mottles and low chroma

colors have been replaced in Soil Taxonomy by

redoximorphic features. These features are

formed by the processes of reduction, translocation, and oxidation of iron and manganese oxides. The following kinds of redoximorphic

features have been identified for use in modern

profile descriptions.

redox concentrations - bodies of an apparent

accumulation of iron and manganese oxides.

These take the form of firm nodules, reddish

mottles, or pore linings.

redox depletions - bodies of low chroma having

values of 4 or more where iron-manganese

along ped faces hasbeen stripped out.

reduced matrices - soil matrices that have a low

chroma color in situ because of the presence

of iron, but whose color changes in hue or

chroma when exposed to air.

Examples of soil with description of redoximorphic features:

• Very few thin, faint, yellowish-red (5YR 5/8)

pore linings along 1 mm diameter root channels.

• Medium, dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2 and 4/4) Fe

nodules with sharp boundaries; many fine,

few coarse, distinct strong brown (7.5 YR

5/6) Fe depletions along ped surfaces and

some root channels.

In the Mattapex example, the B22t horizon has

common, medium, distinct mottles of light

brownish gray (10YR 6/2) and a few, fine, faint

mottles of strong brown (7.5YR 5/8).

Soil Reaction, pH

The strength of soil acidity or alkalinity is expressed in pH – the logarithm of the reciprocal

of the H-ion concentration. A pH of 7 is neutral; soils range in pH from 3.5 to 9.5. The terms

used in soil descriptions to describe the base

status of the soil correspond to the following:

Extremely acid below 4.5

Very strongly acid 4.5-5.0

Strongly acid 5.1-5.5

Medium acid 5.6-6.0

Slightly acid 6.1-6.5

Neutral 6.6-7.3

Mildly alkaline 7.4-7.8

Moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4

Strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0

Very strongly alkaline 9.1 & higher

Mattapex soils are strongly acid to very strongly

acid.
Section IV

4-11

Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the capacity

of a soil to retain nutrient cations in a form that

can be used by trees. It is the sum total of the

exchangeable cations that a soil can absorb.

Finer-textured soils tend to have a higher CEC

than sandy soils. Also, the amount of organic

matter and the amount and kind of clay influence the CEC. As pH rises, the CEC is larger.

Shrink-Swell Potential

The shrink-swell potential is defined as the potential for a soil to change volume as it loses or

gains moisture. Shrink-swell potential is classified as:

• Low

• Medium

• High

• Very high

The shrink-swell potential is determined by the

amount and kinds of clays present in the soil and

the magnitude of soil moisture change. On sites

with high or very high shrink-swell potential,

the use of heavy logging equipment may be restricted, and seedling mortality may result, due

primarily to frost heaving.

Bulk Density

Bulk density is the weight of the soil solids per

unit volume of the total soil. It is the weight per

unit volume of oven-dried soil expressed in

grams per cubic centimeter. Bulk density a

measure of the total pore space in a soil. Soils

that are loose and porous have low values and

those soils that are compacted have high values.

Sandy soils generally will have higher values

than silty and clayey soils. Undisturbed forest

soils will have lower bulk densities in the surface than the same soils in a cultivated field.

Bulk densities of forest soils range from 0.2

grams per cubic centimeter in some organic

soils to 1.9 grams per cubic centimeter in coarse

soils, with 1 to 1.3 an average range. The bulk

density of rock is 2.65 grams per cubic centimeter.

Soils with high bulk densities can limit rooting

and plant growth. Shallow rooting depths in

forests can increase the chance of windthrow.

Compacted soil horizons are those that are naturally dense, such as fragipans, firm glacial till,

and duripans. Bulk densities of 1.75 grams per

cubic centimeter for sands and 1.55 for clays

can restrict root penetration and water storage.

Bulk density is influenced by texture, content of

organic matter, soil structure, and type of clays

present. Bulk density is an indicator of porosity,

the degree of aeration, and the infiltration rate of

the soil.

Mycorrhiza

Practically all tree roots form close mycorrhizal

associations with fungi, either around root cells

or in root cells themselves. Mycorrhizae enhance the tree’s ability to obtain water and nutrients by increasing the surface area of the

tree’s roots.

Forest nurseries now infect tree seedlings with

specific mycorrhizal fungi. Commonly, Pisolithus tinctorius (Pt) is used for inoculation of

bare-root tree seedlings. Tree species inoculated successfully include Eastern white pine,

Virginia pine, shortleaf pine, and red and white

oak.

Soil Characteristics Relating to

Hydrology

Permeability

Soil permeability is that quality of the soil that

enables it to transmit water or air. It is measured in terms of rate of flow of water through a

unit cross section of saturated soil in one hour,

under specified temperature and hydraulic conditions.

Classes of soil permeability vary by state. The

following sets of relative classes are taken from

the USDA Soil Survey Manual.
Section IV

4-12

Possible Rates in Inches per Hour

 Slow

very slow less than 0.05

slow 0.05 to 0.20

 Moderate

moderately slow 0.20 to 0.80

moderate 0.80 to 2.50

moderately rapid 2.50 to 5.00

 Rapid

rapid 5.00 to 10.00

very rapid over 10.00

Mattapex soils have moderately slow permeability.

Runoff

Runoff, sometimes called surface runoff or external soil drainage, refers to the relative rate

that water is removed by flow over the surface

of the soil. This includes water falling as rain as

well as water flowing onto the soil from other

soils. Six classes are recognized on the basis of

the relative flow of water from the soil surface

as determined by the characteristics of the soil

profile, soil slope, climate, and vegetative cover.

ponded - None of the water added to the soil as

precipitation, or by flow from surrounding

higher land, escapes as runoff. Ponding occurs in depressions.

very slow - Surface water flows away so very

slowly that free water lies on the surface for

long periods or enters immediately into the

soil. Soils with very slow surface runoff are

commonly level or nearly level.

slow - Surface water flows away so slowly that

free water covers the soil for significant periods or enters the soil rapidly, and a large part

of the water passes through the profile or

evaporates into the air. Soils with a slow rate

of surface runoff are either nearly level or

very gently sloping, with little or no erosion

hazard.

medium - Surface water flows away at such a

rate that a moderate proportion of the water

enters the soil profile, and free water lies on

the surface for only short periods. With medium runoff, the loss of water over the surface

does not reduce seriously the supply available

for tree growth. The erosion hazard may be

slight to moderate if soils of this class are cultivated.

rapid - A large proportion of precipitation

moves rapidly over the surface of the soil, and

a small part moves through the soil profile.

Surface water runs off nearly as fast as it is

added. Soils with rapid runoff are usually

moderately steep to steep and have low infiltration capacities. The erosion hazard is

commonly moderate to high.

very rapid - A very large part of the water

moves rapidly over the surface of the soil and

a very small part goes through the profile.

Surface water runs off as fast as it is added.

Soils with very rapid rates of runoff are usually steep or very steep and have low infiltration capacities. The erosion hazard is

commonly high or very high.

Available Water Capacity

Available water capacity is defined as the

amount of water that can be stored by the soil

for plant use. Available water is the moisture

content of the soil between wilting point and

field capacity. Wilting point is reached when all

soil moisture held by soil particles is held so

tightly that it cannot be taken up by plants. At

wilting point, most plants will wilt steadily and

never recover. Field capacity is the point at

which the soil is so saturated that water begins

to move by force of gravity. It is commonly

expressed as inches of water per inch of soil,

expressed as:

Very low ........................ 0 to 2.4 inches

Low............................. 2.4 to 3.2 inches

Moderate..................... 3.2 to 5.2 inches

High ..................... more than 5.2 inches

In soil surveys, the available water capacity will

be described in the section called “General Soil
Section IV

4-13

Map Units” and/or under the soil series descriptions.

Natural Soil Drainage (figure 4-2)

Natural drainage refers to the frequency and

duration of periods of saturation or partial saturation during soil formation. Natural drainage

conditions are usually reflected in soil morphology. Seven classes of soil drainage are used in

soil descriptions and definitions to describe the

natural drainage under which the soil occurs.

Examples of Chesapeake Bay Watershed soil

series of each drainage class are shown in parentheses.

very poorly drained - water is removed from the

soil so slowly that the water table remains at

or on the surface most of the time. Soils of

this drainage class usually occupy level or depressed sites and are frequently ponded. Very

poorly drained soils in forests commonly have

dark-gray or black surface layers and are light

gray, with or without mottles, in deeper parts

of the profile. (Dunning, Pocomoke, Purdy)

poorly drained - water is removed so slowly that

the soil remains wet for a large part of the

time. The water table is commonly at or near

the surface during a considerable part of the

year. Poorly drained conditions are due to a

high water table, to a slowly permeable layer

within the profile, to seepage, or to some

combination of these conditions. In forests,

poorly drained soils may be light gray from

the surface downward, with or without mottles. (Baile, Elkton, Fallingston, Hatboro,

Leonardtown, Melvin, Othello, Trussel,

Watchung)

somewhat poorly drained - Water is removed

from the soil slowly enough to keep it wet for

significant periods, but not all the time.

Somewhat poorly drained soils commonly

have a slowly permeable layer within the profile, a high water table, and additions through

seepage or rainfall. Under forest conditions,

these soils are uniformly grayish, brownish, or

yellowish in the upper A horizon and commonly have mottles below 6 to 16 inches in

the lower A and in the B and C horizons.

(Barclay, Kelly, Lenoir, Orrville, Toms,

Tygart)

moderately well drained - Water is removed

from the soil somewhat slowly so that the profile is wet for a small, but significant, part of

the time. Moderately well drained soils commonly have a slowly permeable layer within

or immediately beneath the solum, a relatively

high water table, or additions of water through

seepage. Among forest sites, moderately well

drained soils have uniform colors in the A and

upper B horizons, with mottling in the lower

B and in the C horizons. (Aldino, Beltsville,

Buchanan, Captina, Clarksburg, Codorus,

Delanco, Ernest, Glenville, Iuka, Lindside,

Lobdell, Mattapex, Monongahela, Simoda,

Woodstown)

well-drained - A well-drained soil has “good”

drainage. Water is removed from the soil

readily but not rapidly. Well-drained soils are

commonly intermediate in texture, although

soils of other textural classes may also be well

drained. On forests, well-drained soils are

free of mottles (except for fossil gley), and horizons may be brownish, yellowish, grayish, or

reddish. They may be mottled deep in the C

horizon or below depths of several feet. Welldrained soils commonly retain optimum

amounts of moisture for tree growth after

rains. (Allegheny, Baltimore, Belmont, Berks,

Blackthorn, Calvin, Caneyville, Cateache,

Chagrin, Chester, Chillum, Christiana,

Chrome, Comus, Conestoga, Dekalb,

Edgemont, Edom, Elliber, Elioak, Elsinboro,

Fort Mott, Gauley, Glenelg, Hagerstown,

Hazleton, Hollinger, Joppa, Laidig, Legore,

Lehew, Mandy, Massanetta, Matapeake,

Montalto, Neshaminy, Opequon, Relay, Sassafras, Shouns, Sunnyside, Tioga, Weikert)

somewhat excessively drained - Water is removed from the soil rapidly. Some of the

soils are stony and shallow. Many of them

have little horizon differentiation and are

sandy and very porous. Among forests,

somewhat excessively drained soils are

brown, yellow, gray, or red. (Brandywine,

Galestown, Joppa, Manor, Mt. Airy, Potomac)
Section IV

4-14

excessively drained - Water is removed from the

soil very rapidly. Excessively drained soils

are commonly shallow, and may be steep, very

porous, or both. In forests, these soils are

commonly brownish, yellowish, grayish, or

reddish in color and free of mottles throughout

the profile. (Rushtown)

Flooding

The frequency of flooding is classified as follows:

none - Flooding is not probable.

rare - Flooding is unlikely, but possible under unusual weather conditions.

occasional - Flooding is expected to occur on

average less frequently than once in two

years (5 to 50 times in 100 years).

frequent - Flooding is expected to occur on

average more frequently than once in two

years (more than 50 times in 100 years).

Duration is expressed as:

very brief - The soil is flooded less than two

days.

brief - The soil is flooded from two to seven

days.

long - The soil is flooded from seven days to

one month.

very long - The soil is flooded longer than

one month.

Information Necessary to 

Establish Riparian Forest 

Buffers

To determine the width of riparian forest buffers

an evaluation of the soil survey, hydrologic soil

groups, and the land capability class are essential. The final sections of this chapter will help

the land manager get the best use from the soil

survey, and describe hydrologic soil groups,

land capability classification, and soil properties

as they apply to riparian forest buffers.

The Soil Survey

Forest planning begins with the soil survey.

Soil surveys have been evolving for decades, so

the information presented in each one will vary

depending on the knowledge that was available

at the time the survey was written. This chapter

cannot cover all the various taxonomic and

Figure 4 - 1. The position of the soil on a slope determines its drainage class.
Section IV

4-15

ecological changes that have occurred in surveys

over the years, but examples will be used to discuss and interpret information that foresters will

most commonly use in a soil survey. Some of

this information is presented quite well in some

of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed’s surveys,

while it is completely absent from others.

Most soil surveys have a table called “Factors

affecting woodland management,” or “Woodland management and Productivity,” or a similar

title (see Table 4-1). There are several things a

 manager needs to know to make the best use of

such a table.

Ordination System

The NRCS uses a national system of labeling

individual soils to determine the potential productivity and the principal soil properties in relation to any hazards or limitations of that soil.

This is called the ordination system. It has three

levels: Class, designated by a number; Subclass,

designated by a letter; and Group, designated by

a number. The three-part symbol is called a

woodland suitability group. The class and subclass symbols are called ordination symbols.

Table 4 - 1

(A portion of Table 3. Factors Affecting Woodland Management.

Excerpted from the Baltimore County Soil Survey)

Soil

Series

Woodland

Subclass

Management Concerns

Site

Index

Mixed

Oaks

Preferred Species

Erosion

Hazard

Equipment

Limitation

Seedling

Mortality

Windthrow

Hazard

Conifer

Competition

Hardwoods

Competition

In existing StandsFor

planting

Mattapex 3o slight slight slight slight moderate

to severe

slight to

moderate

70-80 red oak,

yellowpoplar,

sweetgum

loblolly

pine,

white

pine,

sweetgum

Class - This is the first element in ordination,

and it is a number that denotes potential productivity in terms of cubic meters of wood per

hectare.

1-1 cubic meter per hectare per year (14.3

cubic feet per acre)

2-2 cubic meters per hectare per year (28.6

cubic feet per acre)

10-10 cubic meters per hectare per year

(143 cubic feet per acre)

In modern surveys, class and potential productivity are rated as follows:

1 – low potential productivity

2 and 3 – moderate

4 and 5 – moderately high

6 to 8 – high

9 to 11 – very high

12 or more – extremely high
Section IV

4-16

Note: This is opposite of older surveys. Using our

example of Baltimore County, class 1 is very high

productivity and class 6 are soils of such low productivity that they are of little or no economic value for

trees. Be very careful in reading each soil survey

woodland section so that the tables are correctly interpreted. The Baltimore County system is more

common than the correct modern system.

Subclass - This is the second element in ordination and is indicated by a capital letter.

R - relief or slope steepness. Soils with restrictions or limitations for forest land use or

management because of steepness or slope.

X - stoniness or rockiness. Soils having restrictions or limitations for forestry because of

stones or rocks.

W - excessive wetness. Soils in which excessive

water, either seasonally or year-round,

causes significant limitations for forest land

use or management. These soils have restricted drainage, high water tables, or overflow hazards that adversely affect either

stand development or management.

T - toxic substances. Soils that have within the

rooting zone excessive alkalinity, acidity,

sodium salts, or other toxic substances that

limit or impede development of desirable

tree species.

D - restricted rooting depth. Soils with restrictions or limitations for forestry because of

shallowness, hard rock, hardpan or any layer

that restricts root growth.

C - clayey soils. Soils having limitations for

forestry because of the kind or amount of

clay in the upper portion of the soil profile.

S - sandy soils. Dry sandy soils with little or no

textural B horizons or having moderate to

severe restrictions for forestry. These soils

impose equipment limitations, have low

moisture holding capacity, and are normally

low in available plant nutrients.

F - fragmental or skeletal soils. Soils with

limitations for forestry because the profile

reveals large amounts of coarse fragments

that are more than 2mm and less than 10

inches.

A - soils with no significant limitations for forestry.

Note: In many soil surveys, this letter will be small in

the tables. In the Baltimore County example, the

woodland subclass for Mattapex silt loam, 2 to 5 percent slope is 3o. Three indicates the soil has medium

productivity (site index of 65 to 75) and o indicates it

has no limitations. Notice that o is no longer in use.

Soil descriptions may not be useful if the resource manager does not know what soil survey

they are from and what the numbers actually

mean.

Group - Unlike Class and Subclass, there is no

national meaning attached to the group number.

The group number is used to present soil mapping units that respond similarly. A woodland

suitablity group is composed of soils with similar productivity potential and capability and

similar management needs.

Erosion Hazard

Erosion hazard is the probability that damage

may occur as a result of site preparation and

following cutting operations where the soil is

exposed along roads, skid trails, fire lanes, and

log landings. Forests abused by fire and overgrazing are also subject to erosion. Erosion

hazard has the following classes:

Slight - no particular preventive measures are

needed under ordinary conditions.

Moderate - erosion control measures are needed

in certain silvicultural activities.

Severe - special precautions are needed to control erosion in most silvicultural activities.

Windthrow Hazard

Windthrow hazard is the likelihood of trees being uprooted (tipped over) by the wind as a result of insufficient depth of the soil to give

adequate root anchorage. Some modern surveys

do not include windthrow hazard. Windthrow

hazard is classified as follows:
Section IV

4-17

Slight - normally there are no trees blown down

by the wind. Trees may break, but they will

not be uprooted by strong winds.

Moderate - an occasional tree may blow down

during periods of soil wetness with moderate

or strong winds.

Severe - many trees may be expected to blow

down during periods of soil wetness with

moderate or strong winds.

Restricted rooting depth is the principal reason

for windthrow hazard. This restriction may be

caused by a high water table, fragipan, bedrock,

or any other restricting layer. If effective rooting depth is greater than 30 inches, windthrow

hazard is slight. If rooting depth is 20 to 30

inches, the hazard is moderate; and if rooting

depth is less than 20 inches, then the hazard is

severe. Examine the potential planting site for

soil and rooting depth.

Equipment Limitations

Equipment limitations are limits on the use of

equipment, year round or seasonally, as a result

of soil characteristics (see Table 4-2). The ratings are as follows:

Slight - equipment use normally is not restricted

in kind or time of year because of soil factors.

For soil wetness, equipment use can be restricted for a period not to exceed one month.

Moderate - equipment use is moderately restricted because of one or more soil factors.

Equipment use might be limited by slope,

stones, soil wetness, soil instability, extremes

in soil texture (clayeyness or sandiness), or

combinations of two or more factors. For soil

wetness, equipment use is restricted one to

three months.

Severe - equipment use is severely restricted

either as to kind of equipment that can be used

or season of use. For soil wetness, equipment

use is restricted more than three months.

Seedling Mortality

Seedling mortality can be caused by several soil

factors:

Table 4 - 2

Guidelines: Equipment Limitation Ratings on Soils for Forest Use

CRITERIA SLIGHT MODERATE SEVERE

Slope 0-15% 15-35%* > 35%

Stoniness (% surface

cover by volume)

< 15 15-50 > 50

Rock outcrop (%) < 10 10-25 > 25

Wetness (depth to

water table is < 15")

duration

< 2 months 2-6 months > 6 months

Surface texture sands 10-20 inches;

all textures other than

those listed

sands 20 inches; clay,

silty clay, sandy clay,

less than 10 inches

over clayey materials

-----------------------

* clayey soils - clay, sandy clay, and silty clay, and soils subject to slippage will rate severe.
Section IV

4-18

1. The main cause is too much or too little water – soil wetness or soil droughtiness. Too

much water is caused by high water tables or

flooding during a significant part of the

growing season. Soils that are very poorly

drained or are frequently flooded have severe

seedling mortality. Poorly drained soils have

a moderate hazard.

2. Soil droughtiness is caused by several factors: lack of rainfall at appropriate time, low

available water capacity, shallow rooting

depth, high evaporation, or a combination of

these factors. Seedlings can survive on soils

with low available water capacity if rains

come at the right frequency and duration. If

rainfall is less than optimum, the amount of

water that enters the soils and is held within

the root zone becomes the limiting factor that

determines seedling survival.

3. Surface texture must be coarse enough so

that water enters readily, but not so coarse as

to have a low available water capacity.

Seedling mortality is greatest on soils with

sandy and clayey surface textures.

4. The amount of water held in the soil for plant

use is determined by the available water capacity of the soil and the effective rooting

depth. The amount of water held within a

20-inch effective rooting depth is used as an

indicator of droughtiness.

5. Seedling mortality may also be affected by

the high temperatures and evaporation associated with steep south-facing slopes.

Plant Competition

Plant competition is the likelihood of the invasion or growth of undesirable species when

openings are made in the canopy during intermediate cuttings or final harvest. The ratings

are as follows:

slight - Competition of unwanted plants is not

likely to prevent the development of natural

regeneration or suppress the more desirable

species. Planted seedlings have good prospects for development without undue competition.

moderate - Competition may delay natural desirable trees or planted trees and may hamper

stand development , but it will not prevent the

eventual development of fully stocked stands.

severe - Competition can be expected to prevent

natural or planted regeneration unless precautionary measures are taken. The natural resources manager may want to consider

herbicides or tree shelters as described in

Section VII.

Hydrologic Soil Groups

This refers to soils grouped according to their

runoff-producing characteristics. The main consideration is the inherent capacity of soil devoid

of vegetation to permit infiltration. Groups are

described using saturated hydraulic conductivity. Saturated hydraulic conductivity is the factor relating soil water flow rate (flux density) to

the hydraulic gradient and is a measure of the

ease of water movement in soil. The slope and

kind of plant cover are not considered, but they

are separate factors in predicting runoff. Soils

are assigned to four groups:

A - Soils having a high infiltration rate when

thoroughly wet and having a low runoff potential. They are mainly deep, well drained,

and sandy or gravelly. Saturated hydraulic

conductivity is very high or in the upper half

of high, and internal free water occurrence

is very deep.

B - Saturated hydraulic conductivity is in the

lower half of high or in the upper half of

moderately high, and free water occurrence

is deep or very deep.

C - Saturated hydraulic conductivity is in the

lower half of moderately high or in the upper half of moderately low, and internal free

water occurrence is deeper than shallow.

D - Soils having a very slow infiltration rate and

thus a high runoff potential. They have a

claypan or clay layer at or near the surface,

have a permanent high water table, or are

shallow over nearly impervious bedrock or

other material. Saturated hydraulic conductivity is below the upper half of moderately
Section IV

4-19

low, and/or internal free water occurrence is

shallow or very shallow and transitory

through permanent.

A soil is assigned to two hydrologic groups if

part of the acreage is artificially drained and

part is undrained.

Zone 2 width of the riparian forest buffer is increased to occupy soils in hydrologic group D

and those soils in hydrologic group C that are

subject to frequent flooding.

Land Capability Classification

This system categorizes land on the basis of its

capability and limitations. Soil surveys will include capability class and subclass either in the

soil series description or in the soil map unit

descriptions. This information is very useful in

determining the width of the riparian forest

buffer needed. The USDA Natural Resources

Conservation Service uses eight land capability

classes. Keep in mind that this system was developed primarily for agricultural use, but it is

also used for engineering purposes. A brief description of the characteristics and best use of

soils in each class follows. This information is

summarized in Figure 4-3.

Class I. Soils in this land class have few limitations as to what uses are suitable for them.

Uses can range from intensive cropping to

forestry and wildlife reserves. The soils are

deep, well-drained, and the topography is

level. These soils have natural fertility or

are able to respond well to soil amendments.

The water-holding capacity of these soils is

high. No extraordinary measures are

needed to manage crops in Class I. Riparian

forest buffers in this class would be narrower relative to other classes.

Class II. Soils in this land class have some

limitations that result in a narrower choice

of plants or requires the use of some conservation practices. Some of the limiting factors of Class II soils are 1) gentle slopes, 2)

moderate erosion hazards, 3) inadequate soil

depth, 4) less than ideal soil structure and

tilth, 5) slight to moderate alkaline or saline

conditions, or 6) somewhat restricted drainage.

Class III. Soils in Class III have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special conservation practices.

Limitations in the use of soils in Class III

result from factors such as 1) moderately

steep slopes, 2) high erosion hazards, 3)

very slow water permeability, 4) shallow

depth and restricted root zone, 5) low waterholding capacity, 6) low fertility, 7) moderate alkalinity or salinity, and 8) unstable soil

structure.

Class IV. Soils in this class can be used for

cultivation, but there are very severe limitations that greatly reduce the choice of crops

that can be grown. Limiting factors on these

soils may be one or more of the following:

1) steep slopes, 2) severe erosion susceptibility, 3) severe past erosion, 4) shallow

soils, 5) low water-holding capacity, 6) poor

drainage, 7) severe alkalinity or salinity.

Class V. Soils in this class are generally not

cultivated, but are often used for pasture.

Erosion is generally not the concern, but

several other limitations include 1) frequent

flooding, 2) short growing season, 3) stones

or rocks, and 4) ponded areas that cannot be

drained.

Class VI. Soils in this class have extreme limitations that restrict their use to grazing, forestry, range, or wildlife. They have the

same limitations as soils in Class V, only

more rigid.

Class VII. Soils in this class have very severe

limitations that restrict their use to grazing,

forestry, or wildlife. Pasture improvement

for soils in this class is impractical.

Class VIII. Soils in this class are not capable of

producing commercial agricultural crops.

Their use is restricted to recreation, wildlife,

water supply, or aesthetic purposes. Examples of soils in this class would be sandy

beaches, river wash, or rock outcrops.
Section IV

4-20

Subclasses. Each of the land capability classes

are further divided by limitations designated by

a small letter. The four limitations recognized

in these subclasses are risks of erosion (e), wetness, drainage, or flooding (w), root-zone limitations (s), and climatic limitations (c).

Capability classes are used to help determine the

total width of the buffer. Referring to the specifications published by the USDA Forest Service

and the Natural Resources Conservation Service, the width of Zones 1 and 2 should be 100

feet in soils of capability classes IIIe or IIIs.

These classes indicate problems with erosion,

hardpans, or shallow soils that require a wide

riparian forest buffer.

In the Bay watershed, about 48 percent of the

land is in classes V through VIII, about 11 percent is in Class IV, and about 40 percent is in

Classes I through III.

Increasing intensity of land use

WILDLIFE FORESTRY GRAZING CULTIVATION

Land

Capability

Class

limited moderate intense limited moderate intense very

intense

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

Source: Adapted from Brady, 1984

Figure 4 - 2. The shaded blocks show uses for which classes are suitable. There are increasing limitations on

the prudent use of land as one moves from Class I to Class VIII. Also there is decreasing adaptability and

freedom of choice of uses moving from Class I to Class VIII.

Soil as It Relates to Establishing a Riparian Forest Buffer

The first step in the successful establishment of

a riparian forest buffer is to look around at what

is already growing in the vicinity. Trees growing nearby will reveal the parent material of the

area and indicate what trees grow naturally on

that site. Pines generally compete better in soil

derived from sandstone, while hardwoods have

the advantage on soils derived from limestone.

Following are examples of tree species that

grow in the watershed on soils derived from

various materials:

• limestone - walnut, beech, ash, elm, redcedar, red oak, shagbark hickory

• sandstone and chert - black oak, white

oak, mockernut hickory, black gum, flowering dogwood

Parent material has a direct effect on soil texture, which is one of the most important characteristics affecting site quality. It influences

the chemical properties of the soil, soil moisture, and root development. Clay in the soil has

the largest surface area from which nutrients

may be released to the roots. The fertility of a

soil is directly related to the amount of clay and

silt in the soil. Very sandy soils are not fertile,

and only conifers may be able to grow in them.

It may be a waste of time to plant hardwoods in

sandy soil.
Section IV

4-21

Texture also is related to the amount of soil

moisture retained. Sandy soils are droughty, so

drought-tolerant species should be planted in

them. Clay loams have good soil moisture characteristics, and heavy clay soils lack proper

aeration.

Structure also affects how well trees will grow

when planted in riparian areas. Soils that contain silt and clay and have granular or crumb

structure will grow the best trees. They permit

good percolation of both water and air, and reduce erosion. The presence of many earthworms in the soil indicates that organic matter is

being moved from the surface into other layers

of the soil, and that large soil aggregates are

being reduced in size. A soil with a healthy

population of earthworms should produce a

healthy riparian forest.

The third important consideration for successful

riparian tree planting is the topographic position of the site, its slope

and its aspect. Topographic position affects soil depth, profile development, and the texture and

structure of the surface soil and

subsoil. This, in turn, influences

the composition, development and

productivity of the forest.

Riparian areas are generally at the

low position on a slope. At this position, trees will generally be sheltered from high winds and have

access to more soil moisture. These

are areas of soil deposition, and are

subject to cold-air drainage. Areas

that have moderate slope are usually

more productive than flat, level areas.

The aspect of the site should be

evaluated before planting. Southfacing slopes are hotter and drier.

North slopes receive less sunlight

and are cooler and moister than

southern slopes. In the watershed,

northeast facing slopes are the most

productive for forests, and southwest facing slopes are the least productive.

There have been numerous studies conducted

that attempt to relate soil properties to forest

site. These studies show that the effective depth

of the soil, the surface soil depth, is the most

important property affecting forest productivity.

This is the depth of the portion of the soil occupied by tree roots or capable of being occupied

by tree roots that take up nutrients and water

from this space. The effective depth can be affected by a fragipan (Bx horizon), shallow soil

(lithic) where the bedrock is close to the surface,

or by a high water table during much of or part

of the year.

Before deciding to plant trees, and before deciding what species to plant, the land manager

should go to the site with a shovel and dig up a

small area. A soil survey for the area should be

taken to the site, and the soil type that has been
Section IV

4-22

mapped for the area should be determined. If

any of the following conditions occur, then the

situation must be reevaluated.

• The soil has a hardpan or fragipan, denoted

by Bx soil horizon.

• The soil is very gray, or has gleying, near

the surface.

• The hole that is dug fills up with water immediately.

• The soil is described as lithic, which means

that bedrock will be found at less than 50

cm (20 inches) from the surface.

• The soil is described as having mottles or

redoximorphic features, such as redox depletions, redox concentration, or reduced

matrix, close to the surface.

If any of the above conditions apply, be sure to

plant tree species that do not have deep tap

roots, such as black walnut, and can withstand

wet conditions.

References

Armson, K.A. 1979. Forest soils: properties

and processes. Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto,

Canada. 390 pp.

Brady, N.C. 1984. The nature and properties of

soils. 9th ed. Macmillan, NY. 750 pp.

Bunker, A.F. and H.G. Todd. 1987. Forest soils

handbook for Ohio. ODNR Division of Forestry, Columbus, OH.

Karathanasis, A.D., R.I. Barnhisel, and W.W.

Frye. 1987. Handbook for collegiate soils

contest: southeastern region. Univ. of Kentucky. Lexington, KY.

Soil Survey Staff, USDA. 1993. Soil survey

manual. Ag. Handbook No. 18. USDA Soil

Conservation Service. Washington, DC.

Soil Survey Staff, USDA. 1987. Keys to soil

taxonomy. SMSS Tech. Monograph #6. Cornell Univ. Ithaca, NY.

Soil Survey Staff, USDA. 1994. Keys to soil

taxonomy. 6th ed. Pocahontas Press, Inc.

Blacksburg, VA.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. 1980. National forestry manual. Title 190. Washington,

DC.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. 1983. National soils handbook. Title 430. Washington,

DC.
Section V

Design of Buffer Systems for Nonpoint Source Pollution Reduction

Introduction ..........................................................................................................5-1

Suspended Sediments and Sediment Bound Pollutants .......................................5-1

Nitrates and Dissolved Pesticides ........................................................................5-6

References ..........................................................................................................5-12
Section V

5-1

Introduction

To determine where a riparian forest buffer system (RFBS) will be most effective for removal of

nonpoint source (NPS) pollutants, it is necessary

to relate upland pollutant loading to the potential

buffering of a riparian corridor. Where upland

pollutant loading is high, a partially functioning

RFBS often provides more benefits than a completely functioning RFBS where upland pollutant

loading is already low. Therefore, the entire

watershed must be evaluated in terms of its pollutant sources as a first step in the process of

RFBS design. 

Agricultural land uses are recognized as a major

source of NPS pollutants in the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed. Areas generating high NPS loading,

such as cultivated fields or intensely maintained

turf, require more buffering than areas of lesser

loading, such as hay fields. If favorable conditions for NPS pollutant removal exist downgradient from areas of high loading, these areas are

prime locations for riparian forest buffers. 

First order streams and their tributary seeps and

springs have the greatest interface with upland

source areas, so they are likely to be the most

effective locations for potential riparian forest

buffers. First and second order streams represent

most of the total stream length within a watershed. NPS pollutant loading into higher order

streams is largely from the low order tributaries

where RFBs are more effective. For these reasons, it is important that the low order streams be

closely examined for potential RFBs.

The potential for removal of NPS pollutant

loading in surface runoff and shallow groundwater can be quite site dependent. The pathways

by which NPS pollutants are transported into a

RFB as well as the potential for their interception

by a RFB are affected by the topography, geology, and hydrology of a riparian site. In certain

riparian sites, groundwater hydrology may not

lend itself to interception of a high proportion of

dissolved nutrients, such as nitrates. In more

steeply sloped sites, channelized flows of sediments and adsorbed pollutants often bypass the

filtering effect of a RFBS. In any site, proper

design of a RFBS is necessary to ensure that the

pollutant removal benefits meet the potential inherent to the riparian site.

This section presents the factors involved in

evaluating the extent and location of upland

loading of NPS pollutants, as determined by land

uses and physiographic factors. Pollutant transport pathways and the potential for their removal

by riparian sites are also evaluated according to

inherent physiographic factors. By relating upland loading to potential removal by riparian

sites in accordance with appropriate design considerations, it is possible to optimize the design

of the RFBSs for the watershed.

Suspended Sediments and

Sediment Bound Pollutants

Loading from Upland Sources

To determine upland loading of suspended sediments and adsorbed pollutants such as phosphates, upland land uses must be evaluated. 

Aerial photographs, U.S.G.S. Quad maps, Soil

Survey maps, and Conservation Plans provide

information on field slope, slope length, soil erodibility, land cover, and management practices. 

Design of Buffer Systems for Nonpoint Source 

Pollution Reduction
Section V

5-2

These factors are variables used in the Universal

Soil Loss Equation (USLE) to quantitatively

project the unit losses of suspended sediments at

the field scale. 

By relating unit sediment losses to field area, a

Geographical Information System (GIS) and/or

computer programs such as Agricultural NonPoint-Source Pollution Model (AGNPS) can

graphically display sediment losses throughout

the watershed with a high degree of spatial precision. Note that sediment loading into a RFB is a

product of upland slope area and the sediment

losses calculated by the USLE. Riparian sites

downgradient from areas of the highest loading

would then be evaluated for their potential to

remove runoff pollutants.

Where these computing resources are not available, a qualitative approach is adequate for the

purpose of RFB design. Using the criteria presented in Table 5-1, the cumulative effect of

these factors can be estimated to project sediment

losses at the field scale. Manual mapping of high

loss areas such as cultivated fields will highlight

problem areas. Sediment loading from various

upland areas into the riparian area can then be

visually evaluated to determine where buffers are

most needed. To aid in evaluating annual sediment losses per acre of field, data sources and

technical assistance are available from the local

Conservation District.

Interception of Sediments by Riparian Forest

Buffers

RFBs can be quite effective in filtering sediments when the sediment loading is not excessive. Cropped or grass vegetated filter strips

(VFS) have also been shown to trap sediment

effectively at a width of roughly 25 feet if located

on slopes less than 16 percent. As the slope increases above 4 or 5 percent, the capability of the

filter strip decreases. At high sediment loading

rates, VFSs are quickly saturated with sediments

and become ineffective, unless regularly maintained. Furthermore, VFSs are easily bypassed

by concentrated flows. Field studies of existing

riparian forest buffers confirm that they also do

not intercept concentrated flows. Phosphorus

removal by a VFS is usually about half that of

sediments, since it is adsorbed to the finer fractions which pass more easily through the VFS.

Where sediment loading occurs in concentrated

flow, the filtering effect of the forest and grass

vegetation is likely to be bypassed. Some

method to eliminate channelized flow must be

provided to ensure sheet flow conditions. Unless

level spreaders or biofiltration swales are provided, RFBSs will not be effective for sediment

removal, even at the lower range of loading conditions. While a divergent hillslope (the nose of

a ridge) disperses runoff, a convergent hillslope

such as a draw usually collects upland runoff into

Table 5 - 1

Relative Loading from Upland Sources According to Upland Conditions

SITE CONDITION LOW LOADING MEDIUM LOADING HIGH LOADING

Upland Loading <1,000 lbs. 

sediment/acre

1,000-10,000 lbs. 

sediment/acre

>10,000 lbs. sediment/acre

Upland Slope Length <150 feet 150 to 300 feet >300 feet

Upland Slope 1-5 percent 5-15 percent >15 percent

Upland Soil Erodibility K < 0.22 K= 0.22 to 0.36 K> 0.36

Upland Cover Forest or hayfields Pastures Cultivated crops

Upland Practice No-till or no earth

disturbance.

Till-plant, strip and contour

cropping.

Conventional plowing, not

along contour.
Section V

5-3

a channelized flow. Where such loading is intercepted by a small area of riparian forest, as in the

case of a concave hillslope, the buffering potential is likely to be relatively low. Topography and

surface flow hydrology will thus control the potential for a RFBS to filter runoff sediments. 

Figure 5-1 displays the landforms typically found

in the Piedmont of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

At present, simple methods to quantify the extent

of channelized overland flow do not exist. As an

initial estimate, channelized flows from cultivated fields are likely to begin when the slope

length is over 250 feet, the upland slope is over

10 percent, and a concave landform exists. High

resolution stereo aerial photographs and on-site

field investigation will show where channelized

flow occurs. Soil stability in the riparian area

also plays an important role in projecting filtering potential, since easily erodable soils form

channels easily.

Table 5-2 displays a list of site conditions to help

determine the potential of a riparian site to effectively filter suspended sediments. Upland slope,

slope length, flow regime, and convergence are

factors that determine the likelihood of concentrated flow pathways. Riparian slope, flow regime, and erodibility determine the sediment

filtering potential of a riparian forest buffer.

Where sediment loading values into a RFB are

very high, where concentrated flows exist, or

where the riparian site conditions are not favorable, an engineered biofiltration swale is one tool

that can be used to disperse concentrated flow. 

Such structures can be effective at high loading

rates, however it is necessary to remove accumulated sediments on an annual basis. The advantage of biofiltration swales is that the

accumulated sediments are easily accessible.

Design Considerations

Where analysis of the riparian zone and upland

conditions indicate that overland sheet flow is

present, a RFB can effectively filter sediments. 

At acceptable upland loading rates (generally

where sediment losses are less than 5,000 pounds

per acre), the outermost zone of the RFB (Zone

3) should be planted in grasses or alfalfa that can

be mowed or harvested on a regular basis to allow for periodic removal of accumulated sediments. Where loading rates are low enough not

to require routine sediment removal (generally

below 1,000 pounds per acre), herbaceous forbs

and shrubs can be included in Zone 3.

Table 5 - 2

Relative Potential for Sediment Filtering of Surface Runoff According to Riparian Conditions

SITE CONDITION

HIGH

POTENTIAL

MEDIUM

POTENTIAL

LOW 

POTENTIAL

Upland Slope Length <150 feet 150 to 300 feet >300 feet

Upland Slope 1-5 percent 5-15 percent >15 percent

Upland Flow Regime No rills Small rills Rills and gullys

Upland Convergence Divergent hillslope Linear hillslope Convergent hillslope

Riparian Slope 0-5 percent 5-15 percent >15 percent

Riparian Flow Regime No channels Small rills Rills and gullys

Riparian Soil Erodibility K < 0.22 K= 0.22 to 0.36 K> 0.36
Section V

5-4

For effective deposition of sediments, Zone 3

should be at least 25 feet wide and located on

slopes less than 5 percent. As the projected

loading increases, the width of the sediment

deposition area in Zone 3 should increase proportionately. At any given sediment loading,

where the riparian slope is greater than 5 percent,

the width should also increase 5 feet for each

percent increase in slope in the riparian deposition zone. Where possible, Zone 3 should extend

up into the side draws where sheet flow is more

likely to occur, as shown in Figure 5-1.

Upland slope is only one of many factors incorporated into the USLE, in which sediment losses

are by no means directly proportional to upland

slope. Therefore, there is no simple relationship

between sediment loading and upland slope. As

a consequence, upland slope should not be the

sole design criterion for buffer width. The other

factors shown in Table 5-1 also need to be addressed, as they generally exert more influence

on potential sediment loading than slope.

For control of sediments where channelized flow

begins, a level spreader can redirect runoff into

sheet flow. However, great care must be used to

ensure that the level spreader is precisely level. 

Furthermore, it must be situated in locations

where runoff does not form channels immediately downgradient from the spreader in the riparian area. Inherent to their design, level

spreaders also cause sediments to settle immediately upstream, requiring continual maintenance

Figure 5 - 1. Plan view of Piedmont hillslope hydrology shows typical landforms and locations where partial

contributing areas and channelized flows are likely. Biofiltration swale is included to show typical layout. 

Source: William Lucas
Section V

5-5

to operate effectively. For these reasons, level

spreaders should be not be used where high

sediment loading or channelized flows have occurred.

One alternative for use where substantial channelized flow exists is the biofiltration swale. 

Biofiltration swales are used in urban and developed areas as part of a riparian buffer system.

Designed to settle sediments from concentrated

flows, biofiltration swales are essentially diversions that convey runoff at very shallow flow

depths. These engineered swales intercept the

channelized flows from the upslope areas and

direct them parallel to the riparian corridor. 

They are typically 15 to 25 feet wide and 1 to 2

feet deep, so they can be located within Zone 3

of the riparian forest buffer. Biofiltration swales

have been shown to reduce sediment transport by

up to 80 percent.

As displayed in Figure 5-2, biofiltration swales

are designed so that the flow depth is very shallow, less than two-thirds the height of the grass

(typically 6 inches), resulting in a flow velocity

of less than 2 feet per second. To properly design a biofiltration swale, the hydrological program TR-55 should be used to calculate

anticipated runoff for the 2-year design flows. 

One hundred year flood flows are also projected

for swale design to ensure that the banks are not

overtopped. Based upon the design flows, Manning’s equation for channel flow is then used to

design the swale to convey the required flows.

Typically, a trapezoidal section is used for swale

design. As the swale collects sediment, the

cross-section will evolve into a parabolic shape. 

A bioswale with a bottom width of 10 to 15 feet

and side slopes no steeper than 3:1 (to permit

mowing) can generally handle runoff from an

area of up to 10 acres or so. As the contributory

area increases, the swale cross-section increases

to ensure that the flow remains within the vegetation. Since the flow depth is designed to be in

the range of 4 to 8 inches, a value of 0.12 is generally appropriate for Manning’s n. The swale

slope follows the natural slope of the corridor,

typically varying from <1 percent to >4 percent.

Where the calculations indicate that peak flow

velocities will exceed 2 feet/second, check dams

should be installed. Check dams of coarse riprap at regular intervals form ponds during periFigure 5 - 2. Typical biofiltration swale cross section (not to scale), showing design elements to be considered. 

Source: William Lucas
Section V

5-6

ods of high flow to stabilize the swales and slow

down the flow velocity. Where peak velocities

over 5 feet/second are projected, check dams

should be installed in intervals so that the ponded

water extends up to the base of the upstream

check dam. In this manner, the energy of the

highly erosive flows is controlled by the rip-rap. 

Since the anticipated flows can be quite high, the

discharge channel through the RFBS to the receiving stream should be stabilized with geotextiles or riprap. In large fields where sediment

loading occurs up to the discharge point, an upstream diversion should be installed to redirect

runoff from the lowest part of the field into the

bioswale some 150 feet or so upstream of the

discharge point. This diversion can also be designed as a biofiltration swale for additional

sediment filtering. In this manner, all of the runoff will be filtered.

Figure 5-1 displays the schematic location of a

biofiltration swale used to intercept upslope

channelized flow. Note the diversion used to

redirect the runoff from the lowest part of the

pasture. Technical assistance to help in designing biofiltration swales and level spreaders is

available from the local Conservation District.

Nitrates & Dissolved Pesticides

Loading from Upland Sources

Tributary sources of nitrate in groundwater

leached from agricultural sources are a primary

cause of eutrophication in the Chesapeake Bay. 

While conservation is very effective in reducing

sediment runoff (by over 90 percent), this practice seems to increase nitrate leaching due to increased infiltration, and it also relies on extensive

use of herbicides. Under such circumstances, the

potential for removal of nitrates (and herbicides)

by riparian buffers has generated much interest

in the use of RFBSs as a tributary strategy for the

Chesapeake Bay Program. RFBSs can reduce

instream concentrations of herbicides by isolating streams from drift during application; however, no data exist on removal of groundwater

herbicides by RFBSs.

To best locate and design riparian forest buffers

for removal of nitrates, it is necessary to first

evaluate the extent of upland loading into the

riparian zones throughout the watershed. Many

studies suggest that some 20 to 40 percent of

applied fertilizer nitrogen (N) is leached into the

groundwater. In the Piedmont region of Pennsylvania, nitrate-N concentrations under heavily

fertilized crops can exceed 35 mg/l, far above the

EPA action level of 10 mg/l for drinking water

supplies.

Nitrate loading can be estimated from the type

and extent of crop or land use, as interpreted

from aerial photographs and Conservation Plans

on file. For most crops and land uses, there is

fairly extensive literature on groundwater or soil

profile concentrations of nitrates which is summarized here to assist in allocating loading levels

according to land use. Using a GIS or manual

mapping techniques, areas where nitrate loading

is high can then be graphically displayed to show

their relationship to potential RFBS in the riparian areas.

Shown in decreasing order of loading, Table 5-3

displays nitrate loadings from various land uses

within the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Note

that loading rates vary widely in response to fertilizer application rates. Detailed information on

the actual fertilizer application rates is necessary

to more accurately project the loading values in a

specific watershed.

Many of the cited sources measured groundwater

or soil profile nitrate concentrations, from which

the authors inferred the unit area loading. Values

shown with an asterisk in Table 5-3 have been

estimated by multiplying reported nitrate-N concentrations by average annual groundwater recharge. This is estimated by adding some 2

inches of riparian area evapo-transpiration to average stream baseflow, which varies from 10 to

16 inches in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. 

For instance, at an average recharge of 15 inches

(or 0.38 meters), nitrate concentrations would be

multiplied by a factor of 3.8 to obtain area load-
Section V

5-7

ing rates in kg/ha/yr. To convert to lb/ac/yr, this

figure is multiplied by 0.89. 

Loading rates for corn vary widely, ranging from

30 to 160 kg/ha/yr., depending upon fertilizer

application rates and the use of nutrient management conservation practices. For small grain

crops, there is less data, but one study suggests

lesser loading rates since they normally require

less fertilizer. Average loading rates for crops

such as barley, wheat, and oats are projected in

the range of 30 to 50 kg/ha/yr. 

Legumes such as soybeans and alfalfa can fix

considerable quantities of nitrogen from the atmosphere, some of which is released into the

groundwater when the crop residue is plowed

under. In the case of soybeans, this seems to

result in loading rates as high as 30 to 50

kg/ha/yr. Alfalfa is typically in a 3- to 5-year

rotation, so fixed nitrogen is not released until

plowing. With much of the nitrate then used by

subsequent row crops, losses seem to be 10 to 20

kg/ha/yr.

When groundwater nitrate concentrations are

high, alfalfa stops fixing nitrogen. Instead, alfalfa begins to utilize nitrate from groundwater

and the soil profile, sometimes at remarkable

rates. Alfalfa, with its deep roots, would thus

seem to be an excellent candidate for Zone 3

where the slope and hydrology in the riparian

area result in well drained soils with a relatively

deep seasonal high water table (SHWT). 

Loading from hayfields is also quite low, since

the root zone remains undisturbed and applied

nitrogen is returned as hay, instead of leaching

Table 5 - 3

Reported Nitrate Loading by Land Cover

LAND

COVER

SOIL WATER

CONC. (mg/l)

LOADING

(kg/ha/yr.)

FERTILIZER

(kg/ha/yr.)

LOCATION SOURCE CITED

Corn Fields 7.1 

9-15 

19.3 

17.5-24.3 

12-56 

29 

38 

94 

107 

162*

105 

154 

259 

192 

310+

MD Coastal Plain

MD Piedmont

PA Ridge and Valley

PA Ridge and Valley

PA Piedmont

Peterjohn and Correll, 1984

Angle et. al, 1989

Roth and Fox, 1990

Jemison and Fox, 1994

Hall and Risser, 1992

Pastures -

-

162 

27.1

420 

56 

UK - Hapladults

OH - Hapladults

Ryden et. al, 1984

Owens et. al, 1992

Small

Grains

14.8 52* 120 Sweden Bergstrom, 1987

Soybeans 13.7-14.4 52-55* 0 MD Piedmont Angle, 1990

Alfalfa

Fields

- 10 0 PA Ridge and Valley Toth and Fox, 1994

Hayfields 2.2 

-

-

8.1

29 

6 

 

179 

420 

224 

OH - Hapladults

UK - Hapladults

RI - Inceptisols

Chichester, 1977

Ryden et. al, 1984

Gold et. al, 1990

Forests 0.04 1-2* 0 TN Ridge and Valley Mulholland et. al, 1993

* These values are estimated by multiplying reported nitrate-N concentrations by average annual groundwater recharge.
Section V

5-8

out. For this reason, rather low leaching losses

have been found under even heavily fertilized

hay fields or golf courses, and by extension, suburban lawns. Loading rates for grasses are estimated at 5 to 10 kg/ha/yr.

In contrast to hayfields, heavily grazed fertilized

pastures can have remarkably high losses of nitrates, since nitrogen is returned in a concentrated form as urea. Much of the urea is

converted to nitrates, which percolates readily

through the soil. In the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, loading rates for pastures are estimated to

range from 20 to 120 kg/ha/yr, depending upon

the extent of grazing, amount of manure spreading, and fertilization.

Water bodies such as lakes and estuaries receive

atmospheric inputs averaging 10 to 15 kg/ha/yr.

Forests, being nitrogen limited, have very low

losses of nitrates, generally in the range of 2 to 5

kg/ha/yr. When cut, forests release substantial

amounts of nitrates into the groundwater as the

root systems decompose.

The above values should be used as a guide to

form an estimate of the loading rates within each

subwatershed in question. Where application

rates of fertilizer and manure are utilized in projecting loading, the estimates would be more refined. Using a map of the subwatershed, the area

of each land cover type within a subwatershed is

assigned the projected loading rates for each land

cover type. (In allocating land cover types, it is

important to keep in mind that while rotation

schedules may change, cultivated fields and

pastures will remain in similar uses due to underlying soil factors.) 

The average nitrate loading rate for an individual

subwatershed is then the weighted average of the

field areas multiplied by the particular loading

rate involved. Using a hypothetical 100 acre

subwatershed as an example, if 50 acres are in

pasture at a rate of 20 pounds per acre and 50

acres are in corn at 70 pounds per acre , the average loading rate would be:

[(50 x20) +(50 x 70)]/100, or 45 pounds per acre

By initially screening the estimated loadings at

the subwatershed level in this manner, those

subwatersheds with high loading can be identified for more detailed evaluation, where isolated

“hot spots” should become apparent. In the simple example above, loading would be higher in

areas downslope from the corn, and less below

the pasture. Riparian corridors in heavily loaded

subwatersheds and/or downgradient from such

locations would then be evaluated for their potential to intercept and transform nitrates from

the upland source areas according to the methods

described below.

Design Considerations

Riparian forests can remove much of the nitrate

in groundwater when it passes through the riparian area under confined conditions. The highest

removal rates occur in conditions where virtually

all of the nitrate-laden groundwater is confined

within the root zone by an aquiclude. Where

groundwater inputs are not confined to the root

zone, riparian forests have been found to offer

considerably less nitrate reduction. These results

imply that groundwater entering streams must

pass close to or through the root zone for nitrate

removal to occur. Therefore, the hydrological

relationship between the riparian zone and upland contributing areas determines the potential

for removal of nitrates by the riparian buffer.

Two components of regional hydrology affect the

potential for groundwater interception by the

riparian buffer: the relative depth of groundwater

pathways through the riparian buffer, and site

characteristics of the riparian area. As shown in

Figure 5-3, groundwater movement from the

upland source areas varies from shallow pathways flowing parallel to the slope, to deeper recharge pathways descending vertically before

proceeding downgradient and flowing upward

into streams from the bottom.

Note that groundwater infiltrating from upland

areas farthest from the stream follows the deepest

pathways, while groundwater infiltrating from

uplands closer to the stream follows a shallower

profile. Therefore, loading from sources closer

to the stream will follow a shallower pathway
Section V

5-9

more likely to be intercepted by a riparian forest

buffer. When the aquifer is deep, groundwater

pathways will remain partitioned in the riparian

area, even though mixing occurs in the discharge

zone under the streambed. 

The nature of groundwater pathways depends

upon the physiographic province and its underlying geology, soils and local topography. These

criteria affecting the potential for removal by

differing physiographic regimes are discussed

more fully in Sections II and III.

Table 5-4 summarizes the relationships among

regional hydrogeology, local topography, and

soils as they affect the relative depth of flow in

the riparian buffer. Sites with factors that tend to

favor shallow pathways will have a greater potential for riparian interaction than sites where

groundwater flow paths are deeper. 

Figure 5 - 3. Schematic diagram of a Piedmont hillslope, showing how rainfall is partitioned between

overland flow, shallow interflow, and deep recharge. Source: William Lucas
Section V

5-10

The optimal situation for groundwater interaction

with the riparian area occurs in many watersheds

of the Inner Coastal Plain, in which all groundwater is well mixed and confined within shallow

pathways into and through the riparian zone. It

is in these locations where most studies have

documented the removal of nitrate from groundwater.

In more complex hydrogeological regimes, such

as the Piedmont and Ridge and Valley Provinces,

the potential for groundwater interception by the

riparian buffer can be highly variable. The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont have a deep regolith of weathered saprolite and alluvium, within

which much of the groundwater moves. A thick

regolith permits deeper flow paths to bypass the

riparian root zone in many cases, emerging into

the streams from under the bottom. Where geomorphology results in less regolith under

streams, there would seem to be more potential

for groundwater interactions in the riparian zone.

In limestone formations, groundwater flow paths

have a substantial vertical component along

deeper solution channels, upwelling through the

saprolite under streams as base flow. As in the

case of the well-drained Outer Coastal Plain, this

characteristic of groundwater inflow tends to bypass the riparian buffer. In fact, in some limestone stream reaches, the stream flow actually

percolates through the streambed back into the

groundwater, suggesting minimal riparian interaction with groundwater. 

In sedimentary materials, as found in the Ridge

and Valley Province, groundwater flow paths

tend to follow the fracture planes which can be

quite complex. As a result, instead of being

downslope, groundwater discharge locations are

often far removed from upland source areas. 

Sandstones are generally better drained and well

fractured, favoring deeper bypassing flow. 

Shales, mudstones, and siltstones tend to be

aquicludes, so flow paths are confined along

shallower pathways into the riparian area. Soils

derived from these parent materials also tend to

have a high clay content, which generally increases the proportion of shallow interflow and

overland runoff. 

Reflecting underlying geology, regional hydrological characteristics of drainage density and

base flow partitioning provide additional inforTable 5 - 4

Relative Groundwater Depth According To Physiographic Factors

Groundwater

Flow

Shallow Medium Deep Deepest

Geological

Region

Inner Coastal Plain

(w/ Aquiclude)

Shallow Saprolite

Crystalline, Shales

Sandstones, Deep Saprolite CrystallineLimestones, Outer

Coastal Plain

Base Flow

Proportion

<0.30 mgd/mi2 0.30 to 0.40

mgd/mi2

0.40 to 0.50

mgd/mi2

>0.50 mgd/mi2

Drainage 

Density

>1.25

mi./mi2

1.0 to 1.25

mi./mi2

0.75 to 1.0

mi./mi2

<0.75

mi./mi2

Upland 

Hillslope

Convergent,

Concave (valley)

Convergent

to Linear

Linear to

Divergent

Divergent,

Convex (ridge)

Upland Bt

Horizon

>40 percent clay 25-40 percent clay 10-25 percent clay <10 percent clay

*mgd = million gallons per day
Section V

5-11

mation about the potential for groundwater interception in the riparian area. A relatively high

base flow component, as found in limestone terrain, indicates that groundwater follows deeper

pathways less likely to be intercepted in the riparian area. Drainage density (the linear extent

of streams per square mile) in such areas is also

less, since there is less runoff to establish stream

channels. A high drainage density also results in

less loading per linear foot of riparian buffer. 

Drainage density can provide a reasonable estimate of base flow partitioning where USGS data

are unavailable.

Information on the geology of a site is readily

available from the state geology maps. State and

U.S. Geological Survey personnel are also helpful in interpreting their hydrogeological implications, including base flow/storm flow

partitioning.

In many areas of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed

where there is a high clay content or fragipan in

the Bt horizon, some of the groundwater follows

a shallow subsurface pathway. Known as interflow, this groundwater flow contributes to the

formation of the “Partial Contributing Area”

(PCA) when it emerges at the base of hillslopes

during storm events. As displayed in Figure 5-1,

PCAs occur at the base of concave, convergent

hillslopes and generally extend to the streamside,

although there are many instances where the

groundwater reinfiltrates before contact with the

riparian buffer. PCA sites occur above the

headwaters and in the draws draining into

streams. These sites are also excellent locations

for the removal of dissolved NPS pollutants,

even though they would not be considered in a

streamside location. Channelized flow often begins in the PCAs along draws, where RFBSs

would stabilize the soils and permit reinfiltration

to occur. 

In certain cases, PCAs in soils with a high clay

content can occur in areas with limestone geology and high base flows. In this case, RFBSs

located in the PCAs in upland draws may well be

more effective than those located in the riparian

area. 

It is also important to examine the hydrology of

the riparian area itself. Where the riparian area is

very well-drained, there is much less potential for

groundwater interception by the root zone. 

Where the riparian area is moderately well

drained and subject to occasional inundation, the

potential for interception is greater, as groundwater is closer to the surface. Where riparian

soils are saturated, as in a wetland, much of the

groundwater flows through the root zone.

Geomorphology and topography also control

groundwater interactions. Groundwater will tend

to bypass the riparian buffer where the valley is

relatively steep, except at the immediate edge of

the stream. Where the riparian buffer area is

relatively flat, groundwater will be closer to the

root zone farther from the edge of the stream,

and the RFBS would be wide enough to be effective.

Table 5-5 lists the characteristics of the riparian

area that affect the potential for interaction with

groundwater. 

Using the criteria displayed in the preceding tables, the potential for groundwater interactions

within the riparian root zone can be estimated

after examining and comparing the geology, hydrology, riparian drainage, and riparian/upland

topography. The best locations for groundwater

interactions would have the shallowest flows and

greatest potential for riparian interception. Riparian interception potential may be the controlling factor, since a steep well drained riparian

area will have minimal interactions, regardless of

the thickness of the underlying flow groundwater

flow paths.

Having determined the areas of greatest loading

and evaluated downslope riparian site potential,

it is a straight-forward process to determine the

most effective locations for riparian forest buffers. Where loading is high, but interception potential is low, or where loading is low, a RFB

will remove relatively little nitrate. Where the

loading is highest and the interception potential

is best, a RFB will have the greatest effectiveness. 
Section V

5-12

The width of a riparian forest buffer designed for

removal of dissolved NPS pollutants is strongly

influenced by its potential to intercept groundwater flow. Removal of groundwater nitrate

seems to occur within a relatively short width, as

narrow as 50 feet. This corresponds to Zone 2 of

the USDA Forest Service specification. In a

flood plain where site conditions are favorable

over a large area, a narrow RFB next to the

stream may intercept most of the groundwater

flow. 

Where riparian site conditions are less than favorable, the riparian forest buffer width should

only extend to the point at which interception by

the root zone is likely. A wider buffer is unlikely

to remove additional nitrate. Instead, potential

RFB sites should be located in the PCAs at the

bottom of slopes where channelized flows originate above the riparian area. While not streamside forest buffers per se, these locations should

be considered as part of the overall NPS removal

strategy, particularly where the landowner objectives may be the other functions that are discussed in Section III.

This discussion has provided a framework to

evaluate riparian sites for their potential to remove NPS pollutants. By mapping those sites

that most effectively intercept both overland and

subsurface loading, the optimal locations for a

RFB will become apparent. The location and

width of the RFBS would then be based upon the

specific criteria presented in the tables. Specific

planting design methods for a RFB are presented

in Section VII. 

References

Angle, J.S. 1990. Nitrate leaching losses from

soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.). Agriculture,

Ecosystems and Environment 31:91-97.

Angle, J.S., C.M. Cross, and M.S. McIntosh. 

1989. Nitrate concentrations in percolate and

groundwater under conventional and no-till zea

mays watersheds. Agriculture, Ecosystems and

Environment 25: 279-286.

Bergstrom, L. 1987. Nitrate leaching and drainage from annual and perennial crops in tiledrained plots and lysimeters. Journal of Environmental Quality 16.1: 11-17.

Chichester, F.W. 1977. Effects of increased

fertilizer rates on nitrogen content of runoff and

percolate from monolith lysimeters. Journal of

Environmental Quality 6:211-217.

Daniels, R.B. and J.W Gilliam. 1996. Sediment

and chemical load reduction by grass and riparTable 5 - 5

Riparian Groundwater Interception According to Physiographic Factors

Interception 

Potential

Highest Medium Low Lowest

Riparian Slope 0-3 percent 3-8 percent 8-15 percent >15 percent

Hydrologic

Soil Group

D CB A

Riparian depth

to SHWT

0-2 feet 2-4 feet 4-8 feet >8 feet

Proximity to

Source

adjacent close (<200 feet) far (200 feet to

<600 feet)

distant (> 600 feet)

Stream Order draws, first order second order third order higher orders
Section V

5-13

ian filters. Soil Science Society of America

Journal 60:246-251.

Dillaha, T.A., R.B. Reneau, S. Mostaghimi, and

D. Lee. 1989. Vegetative filter strips for agricultural nonpoint source pollution control. 

Transactions of the ASAE 32:513-519.

Gaskin, J.W., J.F. Dowd, W.L Nutter, and W.T.

Swank. 1989. Vertical and lateral components

of soil nutrient flux in a hillslope. Journal of

Environmental Quality 18: 403-410.

Gold, A.J., W.R. DeRagon, W.M. Sullivan, and

J.L. Lemunyon. 1990. Nitrate-nitrogen losses to

groundwater from rural and suburban land uses. 

Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 

47:305-310. 

Hall, D.W. and D.W. Risser. 1992. Effects of

nutrient management on nitrogen flux through a

karst aquifer, Conestoga River Headwaters,

Pennsylvania in 10 years of controlling agricultural nonpoint source pollution: the RWCP experience. Proceedings of the National RWCP

Symposium, September 13-17, 1992. 

EPA/625/R-92/006 pp 115-130.

Horner, R.R. 1988. Biofiltration systems for

water quality control. Puget Sound COG.

Jemison, J.J. and R.H. Fox. 1994. Nitrate

leaching from nitrogen fertilized and manured

corn measured with zero-tension pan lysimeters. 

Journal of Environmental Quality (in press).

Kirkby, M. 1988. Hillslope runoff processes

and models. In Modeling Geomorphological

Systems, Anderson, M.G. ed. John Wiley and

Sons, Ltd.

Mathers, A.C., B.A. Stewart, and B. Blair. 1975.

 Nitrate-nitrogen removal from soil profiles by

alfalfa. Journal of Environmental Quality 4.3:

403-405.

McFarlane, E.R. 1995. Groundwater flow, geochemistry, and effects of agricultural practices on

nitrogen transport in the Piedmont and Coastal

Plain Physiographic provinces, Patuxent River

Basin, Maryland. U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 94-507.

Mulholland, P.J. 1993. Regulation of nutrient

concentrations in a temperate forest stream: roles

of upland, riparian and instream processes. Limnology and Oceanography 37(7): 1512-1526

Owens, L.B, W.M. Edwards, and R.W. Van

Keuren. 1992. Nitrate levels in shallow

groundwater under pastures receiving ammonium nitrate or slow-release nitrogen fertilizer. 

Journal of Environmental Quality 21:607-613.

Parsons, J.E., R.B. Daniels, J.W. Gilliam, and

T.A. Dillaha. 1994. Reduction in sediment and

chemical load in agricultural field runoff by

vegetated filter strips. Report to Water resources

Research Institute and USDA-SCS.

Pearce, A.J., M.K. Stewart, and M.G. Sklash. 

1986. Storm runoff generation in humid headwater catchments 1. Where does the water come

from? Water Res. Research 22:1263-1272.

Peterjohn, W.T. and D.T Correll. 1984. Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed: observations on the role of a riparian forest. 

Ecology 65(5): 1466-1475.

Peterjohn, W.T. and D.T. Correll. 1986. The

effect of riparian forest on the volume and

chemical composition of baseflow in an agricultural watershed. In Watershed Research Perspectives, D.L. Correll, ed. Smithsonian

Institution Press. pp. 244-262.

Petersen, G.W., J.M. Hamlett, G.M. Baumer,

D.A. Miller, R.L. Day, and J.M. Russo. 1990. 

Evaluation of agricultural nonpoint pollution

potential in Pennsylvania using a geographic information system. Environmental Resources

Research Institute, Penn State Univ. University

Park, PA. 60 pp.

Pionke, H.B., D.E. Glotfelty, A.D. Lucas, and

J.B. Urban. 1988. Pesticide contamination of

groundwaters in the Mahantango Creek Watershed. Journal of Environmental Quality 17.1:

76-84.

Power, J.F. and J.S. Schepers. 1989. Nitrate

contamination of groundwater in North America.
Section V

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 Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 26:

165-187.

Robbins, C.W. and D.L. Carter. 1980. Nitrate -

nitrogen leached below the root zone during and

following alfalfa. J. Environmental Quality 9(3):

447-450.

Roth, G.W and R.H. Fox. 1990. Soil nitrate

accumulations following nitrogen-fertilized corn

in Pennsylvania. Journal of Environmental

Quality 19:243-248.

Ryden, J.C., P.R. Ball, and E.A. Garwood. 

1984. Nitrate leaching from grassland. Nature

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Schertz, D.L. and D.A. Miller. 1972. Nitrate-n

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Agronomy Journal 64 (Sep.-Oct.): 660-664.

Schuman, G.E. and L.F. Elliott. 1978. Cropping

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Sklash, M.G, M.K. Stewart, and A.J. Pearce. 

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Authority Water Resource Report 2. Chester

County, PA. 127 pp.

Toth, J.D. and R.H. Fox. 1993. Measurements

and computer simulation of nitrate leaching

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Wanielista, M.P. and Y.A. Yousef. 1992. 

Stormwater Management. John Wiley and Sons,

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45, Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore,

MD.
Section VI

Determining Buffer Width

Determining the Width of Riparian Buffers.........................................................6-1

Buffer Width Criteria ...........................................................................................6-1

Science-Based Criteria .........................................................................................6-2

Landowner-Based Criteria..................................................................................6-11

Application.........................................................................................................6-11

Fixed Minimum Versus Variable Width Buffers...............................................6-12

Conclusion..........................................................................................................6-13

References ..........................................................................................................6-14
Section VI

6-1

Determining the Width of

Riparian Buffers

There is substantial agreement in the scientific

community about the value of using vegetation

to buffer valuable aquatic resources from the

potential impacts of adjacent human use of the

land. There is also general agreement that the

greatest range of buffer benefits is provided

when natural vegetation, like forests, are the

target vegetation. However, there is often little

agreement and much continuing research and

debate over how to best achieve the level of

protection needed and how to best delineate and

manage a buffer. Of all questions related to

practical use of riparian buffers, determining the

appropriate minimum width of a buffer is certainly the most frequently discussed.

One of the important factors which determines

the effectiveness of a buffer is its size or effective width. Buffers that are too narrow may still

place water quality or aquatic resources at risk.

They may also present problems with

sustainability over the long term. Although

wider is nearly always better, buffers that are

wider than needed may unnecessarily restrict

use of a portion of the land. Therefore, the need

to determine “minimum” widths has been a primary focus of resource agencies and local

governments for many years. Complicating the

picture further, buffer size requirements are

typically established by political acceptability

and compromise rather than on scientific merit.

It is likely that these debates will continue.

Buffer Width Criteria

Various approaches and formulas have been

devised to determine and evaluate the needed

width of a riparian buffer. Establishing criteria

that are scientifically based should be the goal

of resource and conservation agencies. Four

criteria are generally discussed for determining

the adequate width of riparian buffers for protection of streams. They are the:

1. existing or potential value of the resource

to be protected,

2. site, watershed, and buffer characteristics,

3. intensity of adjacent land use, and

4. specific water quality and/or habitat functions desired.

If necessary, these scientific criteria can then be

modified by the management objectives or constraints of a given landowner or land

management agency. In this way, scientific criteria guide width decisions, but are modified by

socioeconomic variables where the risk and

benefits of the decisions can be identified and

discussed.

For example, when a 75-foot-wide buffer is determined appropriate, but is reduced to 25 foot

by constraints imposed by land use, the risk of

reduced water quality functions and potential

sustainability should be identified. Likewise,

when a decision is made to choose warmseason

grasses over forest as the target buffer vegetation, reductions in stream stability, flood

mitigation, groundwater nutrient removal, and

aquatic/terrestrial habitat should be identified.

In simple terms, narrower buffers may be adequate when the riparian area is in good

condition, the resource values may be low, site

conditions are ideal, the adjacent land use has a

low potential for impact, and/or the desired

buffer functions are few. Conversely, wider

buffers are necessary when the buffer quality is

poor and high-value water resources exist adjacent to intense land uses where a high level of

multiple buffer functions is desired.

Determining Buffer Width
Section VI

6-2

Science-Based Criteria

Decisions about buffer width can be made using

professional judgment in choosing among the

following criteria. Four criteria (Figure 6-1) are

discussed for which data may be available to

support an informed decision. These criteria

can form a “checklist” for buffer width determination.

Existing or Potential Resource Value

In general terms, narrower buffers are adequate

when the stream, wetland, shorezone, or lake is

of relatively low functional value. Although the

determination of “value” can involve subjective

judgment, scientific information can be applied

to assist in this assessment. For example, states

routinely rate the value of fish habitat based on

potential natural condition or the target species

being managed. The Chesapeake Bay Program

has identified priorities for stream blockage removal based on value to migratory fish.

Streams in watersheds providing municipal water supply or recreational use would likewise be

considered of high functional value. Aquatic

systems with a high disturbance regime or ones

that are dominated by non-native species may be

considered of lower functional value.

Conversely, degraded watershed, water quality,

or habitat conditions may also be used as criteria

for increasing buffer width if desire for improvement of conditions related to riparian areas

has been specified. The designated uses of water or specific fish or wildlife species needs

should be considered when buffers are established as a component of watershed restoration

rather than protection strategies.

Figure 6 - 1. Criteria for determining width of riparian buffers and their relationship to landowner

objectives.
Section VI

6-3

Site, Buffer, and Watershed

Characteristics

Site factors are most important when evaluating

performance in pollutant removal (Table 6-1).

This is because reliable generalizations about

the role of riparian buffers as nutrient and sediment filters can be based on the condition of the

soil in the buffer area (including plant, animal,

and microbial communities present) and the

route and rate of surface and groundwater

movement through the buffer. These characteristics are complex, interrelated, and not always

apparent to the field observer. For example,

judgments about water quality performance of a

buffer in the Coastal Plain may be made on observations of surface storm runoff, not

recognizing that 50-80 percent of nitrogen loads

are carried by subsurface water flow. Site factors are also discussed later in desired buffer

functions, but some general comments can also

be made.

Site Criteria Affecting

Buffer Width

• watershed condition

• slope

• stream order

• soil depth and erodibility

• hydrology

• flood plains

• wetlands

• streambanks

• vegetation type

• stormwater system

Table 6 - 1

Site Factors that Enhance or Limit Pollutant Removal Effectiveness of Buffers

(adapted from Schueler, 1995)

Factors that enhance effectiveness Factors that reduce effectiveness

Slopes < 5 percent Slopes greater than 5 percent

Contributing flow length <150 feet Overland flow paths over 300 feet

Seeps, high water table—subsurface flow Flow path to deep or regional groundwater

Permeable, but not highly sandy soils Compacted soils

Level spreaders or flow dispersal Concentrated storm flow

Organic matter, humus, or mulch layer Snowmelt, ice conditions, low organic soil

Entry runoff velocity less than 1.5 feet/second Entry runoff velocity more than 5

feet/second

Routine maintenance Sediment buildup at entrance

Poorly-drained soils, deep roots Shallow root systems

Forest and dense grass cover (6 inches) Tall bunch grass; Sparse vegetative cover
Section VI

6-4

Slope - Slope has the greatest influence over

sediment removal and is a determinant in the

rate and nature of water flow. In general terms,

steep slopes increase runoff velocity and the

volume of surface runoff. Buffers are often expanded to include steep slopes on small streams

or buffer widths are increased on steeper slopes

to provide a lower risk of impact from adjacent

land use. For forestry practices in Maryland for

example, a minimum 50 foot buffer width is

modified for slope by adding 4 feet for each

percent of side slope.

Stream Order – In order to design an effective

stream buffer system, it is important to understand spatial connections between the stream

and its watershed. Stream order is a useful tool

to classify elements of the stream network.

Headwater streams, defined as first or second

order, are generally short in length, but comprise

75 percent or more of the total stream and river

miles. In general terms, buffers have the greatest potential for control over water quality when

adjacent to low-order streams. Lower order

streams are small in size and have less contributing area per unit volume of water. Smaller

buffers may be adequate to maintain the desired

level of protection for first order streams.

As stream order increases, the contributing area

and volume of water available to the buffer area

also increases, potentially diminishing the relative capability of the buffer to filter and remove

pollutants as a percent of total loading. This

does not mean that the buffer's effectiveness in

treating pollutants immediately upslope may be

compromised, only that the magnitude of control exerted over the water in the stream

diminishes. An example of this type of relationship is portrayed in Figure 6-2. Likewise, as

stream order increases so does stream size, thus

decreasing the ability of streamside trees to provide control of water temperature. The

importance of the buffer zone in flood mitigation, on the other hand, may increase with

stream order, whereas, critical fish habitat may

be maximized by streamside trees in low to mid

order streams.

Figure 6 - 2. Generalized effect of stream order on variations in buffer function.

Flood Mitigation
Section VI

6-5

Target Vegetation and Condition - In simple

terms, adequate buffers may be smaller if properly designed and maintained in good condition.

Most riparian buffers use adapted or enhanced

natural vegetative systems. Therefore, buffers

in better condition (e.g. dense native vegetation,

undisturbed soils, healthy microbial community)

are likely to provide a variety of functions more

effectively. Common sense shows that by

looking to the natural ecosystem, the natural

resource manager will find guidance in maintaining and restoring riparian functions.

Although a number of vegetation types can be

used to meet these specific buffer functions and

provide multiple benefits, in the Chesapeake

Bay region, as in much of the eastern United

States, these benefits are amplified by or require

a streamside area that is forested. Forests provide the greatest range and number of potential

environmental benefits, and therefore, should be

promoted as the target vegetation whenever possible in a hierarchy of vegetation types. These

benefits are summarized in Table 6-2.

Greatly enhanced by

Benefit or requiring Forest

Protection from streambank erosion Í

Increased removal of nitrogen Í

Removal of phosphorus and sediment

Reduced downstream flooding Í

Thermal protection Í

Food and habitat for wildlife Í

Food and habitat for fish and amphibians Í

Foundation for present or future greenways Í

Increased urban/suburban property values Í

Provision of corridors for habitat conservation Í

Preservation of “right-of-way” for lateral movement

Enhanced potential for stream restoration Í

Reduced watershed imperviousness Í

Reduced small drainage complaints

Protection of associated wetlands Í

Table 6 - 2

Benefits of Riparian Buffers That Include Woody Vegetation
Section VI

6-6

Incorporation of flood plains and wetlands -

Buffer width is often expanded to incorporate

sensitive landscape features such as flood plains

and wetlands. Including the entire flood plain

width is desirable, but often difficult. Additional

areas such as stormwater ponds and buffer infiltration areas (biofiltration swales) will often

be incorporated in buffer layout in urban areas.

Continuity - Achieving contiguous buffers on

the landscape along a stream system may be

given a higher priority than increased width in

areas where aquatic and terrestrial habitat goals

are important.

Soils - Along with hydrology, soil characteristics are important in determining potential for

removal of nitrogen and pollutants carried by

sediment such as phosphorus and some pesticides. Primary considerations are soil texture,

depth to water table, and organic matter content

of soils. Moderate- to well-drained soils have

the greatest permeability and intercept large

amounts of water that may enter the buffer as

surface flow, thus promoting deposition of

sediment and related pollutants. Conversely,

moderate- to fine-textured soils have superior

potential to create conditions favorable for extensive denitrification.

Since denitrification is carried out by anaerobic

microbes, soil conditions must be wet enough to

allow oxygen depletion to occur. The large

amount of decaying organic material on the

ground and in upper soil layers in forested buffers helps to deplete oxygen supply and “fuel”

the denitrification process. Although denitrification rates and duration vary depending on site

conditions, even drier forest soils commonly

have pockets that support these bacteria. In

more poorly drained, higher organic matter soil,

denitrification may proceed at relatively high

rates in the top foot of soil. At better-drained

sites, denitrification depends on the cycling of

plant biomass back to the surface in litter fall.

Here denitrification will not be uniform, but still

active in surface soil. A combination of soil

properties which provides a gradation of coarseto finer-grained materials closer to the waterbody seems ideal. Sites with a depth to water

table of 3 to 15 feet will allow maximum root

penetration by woody plants and sustain uptake

of nutrients and chemicals in solution below the

surface. The water table need only be present

for a portion of the year.

Hydrologic Soil Groups are often used as criteria for determining buffer width and are

commonly available in county soil survey reports (Section IV).

Intensity of Adjacent Land Use

Generally, when the density, intensity, magnitude, or potential impact of the activity

increases, the width of the buffer necessary to

contain the negative effects increases proportionally. The differences between developed or

disturbed lands and the aquatic environment are

significant; the more intensely developed or

disturbed, the more significant. Likewise, the

size or importance of the buffer increases as the

potential yield of nutrients, chemicals, sediment,

and runoff from adjacent land use increases.

Table 6-3 illustrates how these loadings can

vary by land use. However, it is clearly recognized that a number of desired buffer functions,

such as nutrient removal, are reduced in urban

areas as impervious surface increases. Impervious surfaces increase watershed runoff

efficiency reducing base flow to the stream and

limiting the total volume of water passing

through the buffer.

Buffer widths prescribed in urbanized areas are

often increased to account for the risk of future

encroachments and to anticipate future changes

in stream morphology due to increases in

stormwater runoff. This stream “right-of-way”

approach is useful in development site planning.

Maintaining larger wooded corridors along

streams and rivers in urban planning helps preserve open space and offset general forest loss

in a watershed. It is often most economical to

consider this approach at the onset of land use

change.
Section VI

6-7

Studies in the coastal plain of Georgia described

a relationship of buffer area to contributing area

treated of 1:3 in agricultural areas with high nutrient loads. This ratio may be higher where

potential impacts are less. Likewise, smaller

buffers may be adequate where the magnitude of

impact from land use is also low, e.g. parklands,

haylands, or low-density development. A buffer

width that is one-third the distance from the

streambank to the top of the pollutant source

area is sometimes recommended. The intent is

to create a buffer between field and stream

which occupies approximately one-third of the

source area. This is reduced to one-fifth of the

drainage area for lakes and ponds.

Desired Buffer Functions

One of the most important scientific criteria for

determining buffer size requirements is an

evaluation of the specific functions that a buffer

needs to provide under site-specific conditions.

A search of the literature clearly suggests that

buffer sizes necessary for adequate performance

of specific buffer functions vary widely. Accordingly, some judgment and setting of

priorities is nearly always necessary to attain a

desired minimum buffer width for a desired set

of functions. Figure 6-3 illustrates a generalized

range of minimum widths based on specific objectives for the buffer. The following is an

overview of some important buffer functions

and discussion of their relationship to width.

Scientific references for these discussions are

extensive.

Sustainability - Inevitably, when discussing riparian buffer establishment, the concept that

“anything is better than nothing” will be raised.

This is probably an accurate assessment when it

comes to maintaining the functions of stable

streambanks and making some improvements in

stream or shoreline habitat. However, it is important to recognize that for a riparian area to

serve the water quality functions of buffering

impacts from adjacent land use, a “critical

mass” or sustainable width is often essential.

Buffers of less than 50 feet have proven increasingly difficult to maintain as effective

filters in the field, except on small, low order

drainages.

Sustainability should be a key consideration of

buffer layout and design, prior to making substantial investments or assumptions about

expected buffer performance. Sustainability

like other functions will be determined by site

characteristics and adjacent land use. For example, very narrow buffer strips of 15 to 25 feet

are generally inadequate for sediment or nutrient

reductions, except on small, low order streams.

Narrow forest strips may provide shade and

bank stability, but may not sustain a forest ecosystem capable of accumulating organic matter

Land Use

Total N

(lbs./acre/year)

Total P

(lbs./acre/year)

Forest 3.00 0.05

Pasture 9.34 0.61

Urban 11.44 0.67

Cropland 21.13 1.84

Table 6 - 3

Nutrient Loading Delivered to Edge of Stream as Used in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed Model

(does not include manure application areas)
Section VI

6-8

and providing the water storage necessary for

desired levels of nitrogen removal. These

narrow strips are also far more susceptible to

damage from floods and blowdowns. Grass filterstrips may be effective initially at reducing

sediment loads, but be quickly overwhelmed if

sediment loads remain high.

Excess nitrogen removal - Determining the

ability to provide nitrogen removal should consider: 1) the pathway by which nitrogen enters

the buffer zone (e.g. surface runoff, deep or

shallow groundwater, atmospheric deposition),

and 2) the potential for transformation of nitrogen within the buffer strip due to site conditions.

By filtering and absorbing runoff and reaching

groundwater within the rooting zone, nutrients

such as nitrogen (and dissolved phosphorus) are

processed in plant uptake or transformed by denitrification. The denitrification process

converts excess nitrogen compounds into nitrogen gas that is released into the atmosphere.

Microbes use organic compounds as food, degrading them into simpler compounds or

synthesizing them into microbial biomass. Riparian forests in particular, support a variety of

microbial degradation mechanisms, though the

specific conditions that promote them are not

yet well understood.

Although the focus of many studies is often

placed on surface flow, it is important to recognize interactions with water traveling as shallow

or deeper groundwater. Groundwater carrying

nitrogen passes through or surfaces within the

riparian area where it can be acted upon by

biological processes in the buffer. The natural

resource manager must pay close attention to

both localized and regional flow paths in determining this function.

Figure 6 - 3. Range of minimum widths for meeting specific buffer objectives.
Section VI

6-9

Processes of denitrification occur under a wide

range of conditions, but will be most intense in

the wetter streamside area, whereas, the uptake

of nitrogen by vegetation will begin at the upslope edge of the vegetation. Woody plants

enhance buffer functions through aggressive

uptake of nitrogen in plant biomass, accumulation of organic matter, root-fungal interactions,

and moisture retention. In this way, some reductions in overall buffer width may be possible

when forests occupy a substantial portion of the

buffer system. Efficiency will depend on residence time (affected by width) and nutrient

load. In nearly all documented studies, most

nitrogen removal occurred in the first 35 to 90

feet of forest. Nitrogen reductions of 25 to over

90 percent of total loadings have been shown in

field studies. Where conditions for water storage, vegetative uptake, and denitrification are

ideal, widths as small as 35 feet may provide

substantial removal of the nitrogen passing

through the buffer.

There are a variety of hydro-physiographic regions in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed and

each one has an effect on nitrogen processing.

See Section II for additional descriptions of

these areas.

Reduction of sediment and phosphorus -

Vegetated buffers improve water quality by

trapping sediment and debris, by stabilizing

streambanks, and by promoting infiltration of

runoff. Vegetation forms a physical barrier to

movement and mechanically traps associated

sediment. Roots maintain soil structure and

prevent erosion of soil. Reducing flow rates and

disrupting channelized flow by providing resistance is the role of vegetation, thus allowing

more time for infiltration and settling of sediment. Because nearly 90 percent of phosphorus

is carried to streams attached to soil particles or

organic matter, reducing sediment transport

helps to reduce phosphorus loads. The ability of

vegetation to colonize the sediment and rapidly

use available phosphorus is a related function.

Reductions in soil sediment by 40 to 70 percent

from lands using riparian buffers are typical.

Prevention of channelized flow is the primary

concern for sediment removal and is significantly affected by slope. Most studies show

buffer widths of 50 to 100 feet for adequate removal. While small buffers remove small

amounts of sediments, the relationship between

buffer width and sediment removal is not linear.

Beyond efficiencies of 80 percent removal, disproportionately large buffer widths are required

for incrementally greater sediment removal.

Except under conditions of excessive channelized flow and steep slopes, buffer widths in

excess of 150 feet did not show additional returns. Maintaining vegetation cover sufficient

to reduce flow is key. In agricultural areas, researchers found that of the 35 or more grass

filter strips inspected after three to five years of

use, less than 10 percent continued to be effective because of channelized flow and sediment

build-up at the field edge of the filter strip. The

combination of grass filter strips with a forested

buffer are especially efficient in performing this

function.

Reduction of pesticides - Generally speaking,

buffer strips of 45 feet or more have proven effective in reducing some pesticide

contamination of streamflow. Factors that affect pesticide transport in buffers are similar to

those affecting nutrients. Most pesticides in

common use are adsorbed to soil particles or

carried in runoff and subsurface flow. Organic

pesticides are subject to microbial breakdown

processes common in organically rich riparian

forest environments. For example, buffers are an

effective tool prescribed for protection of water

supplies from atrazine.

Moderation of water temperature - Forested

riparian buffers provide shade cover, thereby

helping to lower water temperatures during

summer and lessen temperature decreases in

winter. Lack of shade has a direct effect on

water quality and aquatic life. Elevated temperatures are a catalyst for water quality

problems by accelerating or increasing the impacts of nonpoint source pollution and robbing

oxygen from the system. Small streams flowing

through exposed reaches can increase as much
Section VI

6-10

as 1.5 degrees F for every 100 feet of exposure

to summer sun. Maximum temperature fluctuations for daily peaks can be as much as 12 to15

degrees F higher, and ambient temperatures of 6

to 8 F degrees higher are not uncommon. The

evapotranspiration process of forests also contributes to lower water temperatures. The

removal of streamside trees is one of the most

significant causes of degradation for streams in

the United States.

The ability of a buffer to provide shade is directly proportional to height of the vegetation

and bankfull width of the stream. Even 15- to

25-foot buffers can provide adequate shade for

small streams. Fifty- to 75-foot forest buffers

are sufficient to ensure favorable conditions for

trout, and buffer widths along slopes can decrease with increasing tree height with no loss

of shading. Aspect is also an important consideration. Grass filter strips along streams are

generally unable to provide cover sufficient to

moderate water temperature.

Preservation of stream channel integrity and

bank stability - Vegetation in the riparian area

exerts a strong control over the condition and

stability of the stream and its banks. In the eastern United States, trees often define the physical

characteristics of stream channels. Trees anchor

streambank soils through dense root masses, and

large roots provide physical resistance to flow

energy. Woody debris anchors channel substrate and determines bar formation, stores large

amounts of streambed sediment and gravel,

helps control sinuosity, and provides channel

structure through pool/riffle or step formation.

Until recently, the value of large woody debris

was misunderstood and much was removed

throughout the country. It is likely that the direct effect of buffer width on this function is

limited. Only vegetation within 25 feet of the

stream channel will provide a powerful role in

stabilization. However, increasing buffer width

will continue to indirectly enhance stream stability by providing additional protection and

stability during extreme flood events, allowing

stability during channel migration, and as a

physical barrier to human impact.

Moderation of storm flows and runoff - Stream

corridors and natural forest vegetation help to

reduce the downstream effects of floods by dissipating stream energy, temporarily storing

flood waters, and helping to remove sediment

loads through incorporation in the flood plain.

On a given site, a vegetated buffer that resists

channelization is effective in decreasing the rate

of flow, and in turn, increasing infiltration. Forests provide as much as 40 times the water

storage of a cropped field and 15 times that of

grass turf. These increases in storage are largely

due to the forest’s ability to capture rainfall on

the vast surface area of the leaves, stems, and

branches; the porosity and water holding capacity of organic material stored on the forest floor

and in the soil; and the greater transpiration

rates common to the community of forest vegetation. Forests are being evaluated more

frequently for their role in reduction of water

volume for stormwater management.

Increasing width to incorporate the flood plain

also increases the potential efficiency of water

storage from upstream flow during storm events.

Providing flood storage buffers where possible

along smaller streams in a watershed may provide a valuable approach to downstream flood

reduction. However, once the entire flood plain

is included within the buffer area, the effect of

buffer width on flood peak reductions is negligible.

Provision for aquatic habitat and food - Leaf

litter is the base food source in most stream ecosystems and streamside trees are critical in

establishing this aquatic food web. Small fish,

some amphibians, and most aquatic insects rely

primarily on leaf detritus (dead leaf material)

from trees as food. Studies have shown that

when streamside trees are removed, many

aquatic insects decline or even disappear, and

with them, native fish, birds, and other species

that may depend on them. Some insects are

adapted to specific tree species and are unable

to reproduce or even survive when fed the

leaves of grasses that are non-native or exotic

species.
Section VI

6-11

Large woody debris also creates cover and

habitat structure for fish and other aquatic species in shallow water estuarine habitat. Here it

may serve as a nursery area or refuge for fish,

crabs, and other organisms. This function is

noteworthy in the Chesapeake Bay since the

decline of submerged aquatic vegetation. Although the portion of the buffer nearest the

waterbody exerts the greatest influence over this

function, increasing buffer width provides support and sustainability. This is especially true

when considering the need to provide long-term

woody debris recruitment, diversity of vegetation for leaf detritus, and refuge for species

during high water. The presence of trees is directly related to greater biodiversity in the

stream ecosystem.

Provision for terrestrial habitat corridors -

Riparian areas have the potential to provide rich

habitats for a wide diversity of wildlife species.

Species such as turtles, pheasant, turkey, wood

ducks, great blue herons, woodpeckers, raptors,

tree frogs, salamanders, songbirds, and many

mammals require trees for breeding, nesting,

feeding, and escape habitats. Even narrow forest strips will provide essential habitats for some

of these species. However, the width and character of buffers will vary to meet the needs of

particular species. A mixture of grasses and

forbs, especially tall species, will provide suitable habitat for some game birds. In all cases,

maintaining forests as a component of the buffer

system greatly enhances diversity and abundance of birds and other wildlife.

Buffers also provide transition zones between

upland and aquatic environments. Although

buffers alone will not provide needed migratory

songbird habitat, studies have shown that even

narrow 100-foot corridors increased neotropical

bird abundance when they connected small

patches of remaining forest. To provide corridors for movement of many larger mammals

such as deer and bear, or to provide reliable

breeding habitat for migratory songbirds, larger

buffer widths (100 to 300 feet) are needed.

Landowner-Based Criteria

Riparian buffers can also be designed to provide

additional human benefits such as recreation and

aesthetic enjoyment, as well as sites for hunting,

fishing, or observing nature. Buffers can provide the foundation for future greenways. In

addition, buffer width may be expanded to provide an economically-viable unit for future

timber harvest or to provide sufficient land base

to sustain other secondary products derived

from compatible activity within the buffer.

Landowner concerns most often serve to constrain the width of a buffer. These decisions

may be due to economic considerations, livestock watering and pasture management,

operation of adjacent farm fields, competing

uses, or existing developments. As decisions

are made, landowners should be aware of the

potential changes in desired buffer functions

that occur and the potential compromise of longterm values. This is especially important when

buffers are being used within the context of

overall nutrient management plans. In most

cases, a buffer width can be determined which

will meet landowner needs while also providing

an adequate array of buffer functions.

Application

Given the practical need for simplicity, the operable question is how these multiple criteria

can be incorporated in field applications. The

problems related to using multiple criteria are

not effectively addressed in the scientific literature. Most often, states or local agencies use

an approach where multiple buffer criteria are

simply stated as separate requirements and their

interpretation is left to field staff. This approach has considerable merit, but results in

inconsistency. There are several other methods

with potential where multiple criteria are combined into a single requirement. One example is

the cartographic modeling approach used in

conjunction with a GIS. Here, multiple criteria

are expressed in spatial terms, and mapping of

buffer widths capable of meeting the criteria are
Section VI

6-12

displayed. For example, if temperature moderation is desired, a level of shading needed for the

stream can be determined. Extension of this

approach to multiple resource values and desired functions would be possible if additional

criteria can be determined and expressed in spatial terms.

Another approach, maximum protection, evaluates each of several criteria and then adopts the

greatest width to accommodate all desired functions. A variation on this approach commonly

used is to utilize average widths in the same

manner. A regional method might also be used

to set a recommended buffer width. For example, buffer widths could be determined based on

a set of criteria and desired function for selected

stream reaches within a region. Then, by evaluating the statistical probability of occurrence for

various stream types within a watershed, a regional buffer width could be selected to meet

the criterion a prescribed percent of the time.

Approaches of this kind are also useful in prioritizing or targeting areas for protection or

restoration.

Many agencies rely predominantly on stream

rating systems to establish minimum buffer

sizes. Most minimum widths are determined by

functional resource value alone or a specific

intended use or group of uses rather than by sitespecific factors. By looking at one function

alone or one site criteria, application is simplified, but most of the scientific information

available may be ignored.

The last and perhaps simplest approach may be

to determine a minimum width that will meet a

majority of the multiple desired functions with

the target vegetation. This could provide a limited number of additional site criteria that would

allow for modification and flexibility based on

site conditions.

Fixed Minimum Versus Variable

Width Buffers

There are two principal ways by which most

buffer widths are defined: 1) the width may be

set as a fixed distance, usually measured from

the streambank on each side of the stream, or 2)

the width may be variable depending on specific

natural or man-made features adjacent to the

waterway. Minimum width buffer strips are

usually promoted primarily because they are

simple to implement and administer. Because

minimum widths are most often developed by

compromise or by considering an average of

desired functions, it is likely that minimum

width buffers may provide more than adequate

protection in some areas, and inadequate protection in others. Where political compromise

has resulted in very narrow buffer widths, people may be given a false perception that a stream

is protected when serious risk may still exist.

Fixed buffer widths in common use across the

country range from 25 to 300 feet or more.

Variable width approaches to buffers usually

attempt to integrate buffer functions with sitespecific conditions. In this way, the width of the

buffer depends not only on the minimum width

needed for a specific function or set of functions, but also on the sensitivity and

characteristics of the stream and watershed in

which it is located. Adjacent slope, soil type,

presence of wetlands and flood plains, mature

forests or special habitats, scenic or cultural

features, recreation use, and other local aspects

of significance may be considered in determining buffer width. Buffer expansion and

contraction, as a characteristic of design width,

are promoted, especially in urban settings. A

range of adequate widths may also be provided.

Although, variable width approaches are likely

to be more science-based, they inevitably require more extensive site investigation and

evaluation and are ultimately more difficult to

monitor and administer. Often a combination of

these approaches is used. For example, a minimum width is determined and specific criteria

for expansion and contraction are specified.

The 3-zone buffer concept, discussed in Section

I, presents another way in which desired buffer

functions/values can be evaluated, resulting in a

design that meets the landowner’s or resource

manager’s needs. Specific zones are managed
Section VI

6-13

alone or in combination to accomplish various

objectives. Figure 6-4 illustrates how some

common buffer functions apply to the 3-zone

concept of buffer design.

Conclusion

The scientific literature clearly supports that

there is no “ideal” buffer width for all applications in all areas. A number of criteria are

appropriate for consideration in determining

adequate buffer widths in an ecosystem context.

Evaluating a combination of these factors such

as site and watershed characteristics, functional

resource value, intensity of land use, and desired

buffer functions all provide considerations from

a scientific viewpoint. Because most buffers are

established on private lands or public lands

managed for a variety of uses, landowner/manager and public constraints and

objectives are also considered.

The most commonly prescribed minimum buffer

widths for use in water quality and habitat

maintenance are approximately 75 to 100 feet.

The scientific literature appears to support that

buffers of less than 35 feet cannot sustain longterm protection of aquatic resources. To provide an array of functions then, buffers should

be a minimum of 35 to 100 feet in width under

most circumstances. Buffer widths toward the

lower end of the range appear to provide some

physical and biological components of the

stream ecosystem, especially on small streams.

Buffer widths at the upper end of the range are

likely to provide protection of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the aquatic

resource.

The establishment of riparian forest buffers in

agricultural or urban/suburban areas may require

significant care and investment. Likewise, protecting riparian forests as buffers also requires

an investment of land in lieu of other uses. Regardless of how buffer width is determined,

resource professionals should ensure that three

basic elements are considered. First, the miniFigure 6 - 4. Each zone of the riparian forest buffer provides various functions and values to the

landowner.
Section VI

6-14

mum width should be of significant size to perform desired functions for water quality and

habitat. If buffer width is significantly reduced

or constrained by landowner or other criteria,

then the risk that certain desired buffer functions

may not be realized over time should also be

recognized. It is safe to say that an increase in

buffer width reduces the risk of failure. Third, a

determination of minimum width should consider sustaining stream protection and buffer

functions over the long term and the potential

future threats to buffer integrity that the site,

stream, or watershed may experience.

References

Ambus, P., and R. Lowrance. 1991. Comparison of denitrification in two riparian soils. Soil

Science Society American Journal, 55:994-997.

Belt, G.H., J. O'Laughlin, and T. Merrill. 1992.

Design of forest riparian buffer strips for the

protection of water quality: Analysis of scientific literature. University of Idaho, Report No.

8, Idaho Forest, Wildlife, and Range Policy

Analysis Group.

Correll, D.L. 1996. Buffer zones and water

quality protection: general principles. In Proceedings of the International Conference on

Buffer Zones, N. Heycock, ed., Oxford, England, 8/28-9/2, 1996.

Correll, D.L., T.E. Jordan, and D.E. Weller.

1994. Coastal riparian forests: their role in filtering agricultural drainage. pp. 67-72, in:

Altered, Artificial and Managed Wetlands, Agriculture and Forestry, J. Kussler and C.

Lassonde (eds), Assoc. of State Wetlands Managers.

Dillaha, T.A., R.B. Reneau, S. Mostaghimi, and

D. Lee. 1989. Vegetative filter strips for agricultural nonpoint source pollution control.

Transactions of ASAE 32:513-519.

Dillaha, T.E. 1993. Development of a buffer

zone evaluation model/procedure. Report to the

Virginia Council on the Environment Coastal

Resources Management Program by Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and University,

Blacksburg, VA.

Doyle, R.C., G.C. Stanton, and D.C. Wolff.

1977. Effectiveness of forest and grass buffer

strips in improving the water quality of manure

polluted runoff. ASAE Paper 77-2501, ASAE,

St. Joseph. MO.

Fail Jr., J.L., B.L. Haines, and R.L. Todd. 1986.

Riparian forest communities and their role in

nutrient conservation in an agricultural watershed. American Journal of Alternative

Agriculture II(3); 114-121.

Fail, J.L., Jr., M.N. Hamzah, B.L. Haines, and

R.L. Todd. 1986. Above and below ground

biomass, production, and element accumulation

in riparian forests of an agricultural watershed.

pg. 193-224, In D.L. Correll (ed.) Watershed

research perspectives, Smithsonian Institute

Press, Washington, DC.

Gregory, S.V., F.J. Swanson, W.A. McKee, and

K.W. Cummins. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian areas. Bioscience 41:540-551.

Herson-Jones, L., M. Heraty, and B. Jones.

1996. Riparian buffer strategies for urban watersheds. Metropolitan Council of Governments, Environmental Land Planning Document

Series, No. 95703, Washington, DC.

Hill, A. 1996. The potential role of in-stream

and hyporheic environments as buffer zones. In

Proceedings of the International Conference on

Buffer Zones, N. Heycock (ed.) Oxford, England, 8/28-9/2, 1996.

Three main considerations for

determining minimum width:

È FUNCTION

È RISK

È SUSTAINABILITY
Section VI

6-15

Lowrance, R.R., R. Leonard, and J. Sheridan.

1985. Managing riparian ecosystems to control

nonpoint pollution. Journal of Soil and Water

Conservation No. 40; 87-97.

Myrold, D.D., and J.M. Tiedje. 1985. Establishment of denitrification capacity in soil:

effects of carbon nitrate, and moisture. Soil

Biol. Biochem. 17:819-822.

Pais, Richard. 1994. Wildlife corridors in the

suburban environment. Proceedings of Conference: “Riparian Forest Buffers: Restoring and

Managing a Vital Chesapeake Resource.” October 5-6, 1994. Ellicott City, MD, Chesapeake

Bay Program.

Sweeney, B.W. 1992. Streamside forests and

the physical, chemical, and trophic characteristics of piedmont streams in eastern North

America. Water Science Tech. 26:2653-2673.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Chesapeake Bay Program. 1995. A framework for

habitat restoration. C. Bisland (ed.) Living Resources Subcommittee, Annapolis, MD.
Section VII

Site Evaluation, Planning, and Establishment

RIPARIAN SITE EVALUATION AND PLANNING....................................7-1

Site Analysis - Physical Features .........................................................................7-1

Site Analysis - Vegetative Features .....................................................................7-7

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER ESTABLISHMENT ..................................7-11

Site Preparation ..................................................................................................7-12

Riparian Forest Buffer Design ...........................................................................7-16

Riparian Forest Buffer Planting .........................................................................7-24

RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER MAINTENANCE ......................................7-33

References..........................................................................................................7-34
Section VII

7-1

Riparian Site Evaluation and

Planning

Site Analysis – Physical

Features

To design and establish a successful riparian

forest buffer, it is necessary to evaluate the riparian area with respect to factors controlling

the viability of riparian plants. Soil moisture,

depth to seasonal high water table, flooding potential, topography, soil reaction (pH), soil texture, and climate are the most important

physical characteristics of a riparian site. Since

they cannot be altered, these characteristics are

the primary criteria for selecting the proper

plant species.

Soil Moisture

An important factor affecting plant viability is

soil moisture in the root zone. Certain plants

tolerate, or even prefer, the saturated soils found

in wetlands. Most riparian species prefer moist

soils, such as those found on forested northfacing slopes. Many species tolerate average

moisture soils found in less protected sites, and

a few riparian species can tolerate the dry soils

found on the most exposed sites. Table 7-1 presents the soil moisture tolerances and preferences of riparian plants, segregated by structural

categories of canopy, understory, shrubs and

forbs. Riparian species are listed in order of

relative soil moisture preferences.

In the field, simple procedures exist to measure

soil moisture. However, soil moisture fluctuates

considerably over the course of a year, so it is

difficult to reliably project the average growing

season moisture levels from a single measurement. The soil moisture regime and a table of

temperatures and precipitation are in soil surveys.

Depth to Seasonable High Water Table

The seasonal high water table (SHWT) in the

riparian area can range from that of poorly

drained wet soils to well-drained drier soils over

a short distance from the stream bank. From the

stream, the groundwater rises at a relatively uniform gradient controlled by soil texture.

Coarser soils drain readily and have a flat profile. Fine textured clays retard drainage, increasing the groundwater gradient. Typically,

the groundwater gradient is less than the surface

profile, so depth to SHWT increases farther

from the stream. In clay soils, perched water

tables also occur, particularly in draws and at

the bottom of hill slopes. Where such perched

water tables occur, soils will be wet or moist,

even though the permanent groundwater table

may be considerably deeper.

Soil probes are a simple method to determine

depth to SHWT by observation of wetness

and/or soil mottling and gleying. Groundwater

elevations in the riparian area do not fluctuate

substantially over the year. Therefore, depths to

SHWT found from soil probes are a reliable indicator of soil moisture. Information on the

typical depth to SHWT for a soil series is also

presented in the soil survey produced by the

Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Topography

Aspect and slope affect solar exposure. Southand west-facing slopes are more exposed to

sunlight, lowering soil moisture. North- and

east-facing slopes and stream reaches are less

exposed, increasing soil moisture. This effect is

accentuated where the general topography is

Site Evaluation, Planning, and Establishment
Section VII

7-2

relatively steep. Local topography within the

riparian area is also important. Hummocks and

levees within the flood plain can isolate moisture-intolerant species from the wet conditions

found at a similar SHWT below adjacent hillslopes.

Table 7 - 1

Physical Tolerances and Preferences of Riparian Plants

+ Preference/High Tolerance = Tolerance

PLANT NAME SOIL MOISTURE DEPTH TO SHWT FLOODING TEXTURE REACTION(pH) ZONE

COMMON NAME

WETMOISTAVG.DRY 0-1.5' 1.5-5' 5-10' >10'HIGHAVG.LOWSANDLOAMCLAY<5.050-6.06.0.70>7.0

RIPARIAN CANOPY

Swamp white-cedar + + + + + + + + + + + 5b-9a

Baldcypress + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

Black willow + + = + + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-9a

Eastern cottonwood + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3a-9a

Red maple + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-9a

Swamp white oak + + + + + + + + + + + + 4a-8b

Blackgum + + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

Green ash + + + = + + + + + + + + + + + + 2a-9a

Silver maple + + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 3a-9a

Sycamore = + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

River birch = + + + + + + + + + + + + 4a-9a

Pin oak = + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5a-8b

Willow oak = + + + + + + + + + + + + + 6a-9a

Hackberry = + + = + + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-8b

Pitch pine = + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 4b-7b

American beech + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4a-9a

Sweetgum + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5b-9a

Black walnut + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 4b-9a

Bitternut hickory + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4b-8b

Persimmon + + = + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

White ash + + + + + + + + + + + + + 4a-9a

Yellow-poplar + + + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

White oak + + = + + + + + + + + + + 4b-9a

Red oak + + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-9a

Basswood + + + + + + + + + + + + 3a-8a

RIPARIAN UNDERSTORY 

Boxelder + + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 2b-8a

Hazel alder + + = + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-9a

Sweet bay + + = + + + + + + + + + + 5b-9a

Blackhaw = + + + + + + + + + + + + + 6b-9a

Possumhaw = + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 5b-9a

Witch-hazel = + + + + + + + + + + + + 4a-9a

Shad bush + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3b-8a

Pawpaw + + + + + + + + + + + + 5b-8a

Hornbeam + + = + + + + + + + + + 3b-9a

Redbud + + = + + + + + + + + + 5b-9a

Flowering dogwood + + + + + + + + + + + 5b-8b
Section VII

7-3

The soil moisture regime in the riparian area can

thus be estimated by relating SHWT and topography. Wet soils are found at a SHWT less than

1.5 feet. Moist soils will occur where the

SHWT is from 1.5 feet to about 5 feet deep;

deeper where solar exposure is relatively low.

Average moisture occurs at a lower depth to

SHWT or where the site is more exposed. Dry

soils occur where the SHWT is deepest, and the

site is most exposed, as would be found in a

deeply incised south-facing slope. Since wet

and moist soils dominate riparian sites, mapping

depth to SHWT concentrates on delineating the

boundary between wet and moist soils.

Table 7-1 (cont.)

Physical Tolerances and Preferences of Riparian Plants

+ Preference/High Tolerance = Tolerance

PLANT NAME SOIL MOISTURE DEPTH TO SHWT FLOODING TEXTURE REACTION(pH) ZONE

COMMON NAME

WETMOISTAVG.DRY 0-1.5' 1.5-5' 5-10' >10'HIGHAVG.LOWSANDLOAMCLAY<5.050-6.06.0.70>7.0

RIPARIAN SHRUBS

Buttonbush + + + + + = + + + + = + + = 4b-9a

Pussy willow + + = + + + + = + = + = 3a-9a

Sweet pepperbush + + = + + + = + + + + + + 4b-9a

Swamp azalea + + = + + = + + + + + = 4b-9a

Winterberry + + + + + + + + + + + = = 4a-9a

Arrowwood + + + = + + + + = = + + + + 4a-9a

Highbush blueberry + + + = + + + + + + + + + + 4b-9a

Elderberry + + + = + + + + + + + + = + 3a-9a

Virginia sweetspire = + = + + = + + + + = + + 6b-9a

Inkberry = + + + + + + + + + + + 5a-9a

Swamp leucothoe = + + + + = = = + + + + 6a-9a

Pinxterbloom azalea = + + = + + + + + + + + + 5b-8b

Bayberry = + + = + + + + + + + + = + = 4b-9a

Silky dogwood = + + = + + + + = + + + = + + = 4b-9a

Common ninebark = + + = = + + + + = + + = = + + 3a-6b

Red chokeberry = + + = = + + + + + + + + + = 4b-9a

Spicebush = + + = = + + + = = + = + + = 5b-9a

Gray dogwood + + = = + + + = = + + = = + = 3b-7b

Rosebay rhododendron = + + + + + = = + = = + + = 5a-6b+

Maple-leaf viburnum + + = + + + = = + + + + 3b-9a

FORBS AND FERNS

Jewelweed + + = + + + + = + +

Smartweed + + + + + + + = + + + +

Royal fern + + + + + + = = + =

Sensitive fern + + + + + + = = + =

Joe-Pye weed + + = + + + = = + +

Swamp dewberry = + + + + + = = + + = + + 4a-7b

Thimbleberry + + = + + = = = + +

Raspberry + + = + + = = = + +

GRASSES

Switchgrass + + + + + + + + + + + +

Eastern gamagrass + + + + + + = = + = + +

Field bromegrass + + + = + + + = = = + + + +

Fowl meadow grass + + + + + + = + + + + +

Deertongue = + + = + + + = +++++ +

Tall fescue + + + + + + = + + + + +

Indiangrass = + + = + + + = =++++ +

Purpletop = + + = + + + = = + = + +

Big Bluestem = + = = + + = + + + + +

Little Bluestem = + = = + + = + + + + +
Section VII

7-4

Topography also determines the extent and duration of flooding events. Many species are well

adapted to flooding and should be planted in

flood plains and at the stream margin. Less tolerant species should be located further upslope.

Where topographic features are less welldefined, local experience, high water debris

marks, soils maps, and informed judgment can

determine the limits of flooding. A map of

likely flooding, potential flooding, and unlikely

flooding can then be prepared. Information on

flooding tolerances of riparian species is listed

in Table 7-1.

The stability of the streambanks is another important factor that affects riparian forest buffer

design. Where the streambanks migrate during

excessive flooding, it is important to address

bank stability as part of the buffer design process. This is discussed in detail in Section VIII.

Soil Reaction (pH)

In addition to soil moisture, pH is another important soil property relating to plant selection.

Plants should be selected based on the existing

soil pH. For this reason, field testing of soil pH

at representative locations in the riparian area is

necessary to ensure proper plant selection. Usually, soil reaction does not vary widely in the

riparian area. Where it does, a map of soil reaction should be generated to assist in plant selection. The pH preferences and tolerances of

riparian plants are listed in Table 7-1.

Soil Texture

Soil attributes such as texture, pH, and fertility

are discussed in detail in Section IV. Most riparian plants tolerate a wide variety of soil textures, although certain species do not tolerate

excessively sandy or clayey soils. Along with

organic matter, soil texture plays an important

part in determining available water capacity

(discussed in Section IV). Texture also affects

the groundwater gradient, as discussed previously. Table 7-1 displays the differing preferences of riparian species to soil texture.

Climate and Hardiness Zones

Climate affects plant hardiness. Plant hardiness

zones in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed range

from zone 5a to zone 8b. Nearly all of the plant

species listed in the Tables 7-1 and 7-2 are classified as being hardy throughout the watershed.

However, caution must be exercised when

specifying plants near the northern limit of their

hardiness zone. Riparian areas typically lie in

frost pockets that effectively reduce the regional

zone value by at least one increment. Microclimate is also affected by solar exposure. Microclimate and seed source must be considered

where plants are specified near the limits of

their hardiness zone. (See USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map in the Appendix.)

Generating Maps

The first step in site analysis is to generate a

usable base map of the tract. U.S.G.S. quadrangles and soil survey maps can be enlarged for

use. Keep in mind, however, that if the maps

are enlarged, there will be significant inaccuracies because data are being used at a much

larger scale than they were intended. To enlarge

a 2000 scale quad to a 100 scale, enlarge it on a

copier by a factor of two over four steps to bring

it close to 125 scale. To calculate the final enlargement factor, a known distance between two

features (measured on the original quad) is

measured with a 100 scale on the last enlargement. For instance, if a known distance of 600

feet scales at 730 feet, the final enlargement

factor will be 730/600, or 1.22. A similar procedure is used for the 1667 scale soils maps.

An alternative method is to digitize the features

within a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) system

and then scale to the final scale. An initial enlargement or two is necessary to assist digitizing

accuracy. CAD systems rapidly manipulate data

in the process of preparing and refining base

maps, as well as formulating the planting plans

and plant schedules.

The enlarged quads and soil maps are traced

onto a combined base map. For field use, the

base map should incorporate features and landmarks from the vegetation maps to help in locating the resource manager on the ground.

After refinements from field notes, the base map

is used to assist layout of the planting plan.
Section VII

7-5

From field observations and soil probe measurements of the seasonable high water table, it is

possible to draw up a map of the area. The

procedure involves several steps: On the initial

base map, note soil probe locations with depths

to SHWT, wetland vegetation, incised channels,

hummocks, swales, benches, and other features

of interest. From this initial sketch, revise the

contours on the initial base map to conform

more closely to the observed conditions. Then,

insert interpolated contours to portray variations

in local relief. Absolute accuracy is not required; rather it is important to indicate the

relative topography in relation to the stream

channel, which sets the SHWT elevation.

Where incised channels, benches, and hummocks occur, the SHWT will be deeper. Where

flat areas occur next to streams, or farther from

streams, the SHWT can rise within 1.5 feet behind drier benches or incised stream channels.

The SHWT can be mapped to show where it is

less than 1.5 feet and over five feet. (Depths

over 10 feet are unlikely in most riparian areas.)

Table 7 - 2

Ecological and Silvicultural Characteristics of Riparian Plants

+ Characteristic/Preference = Tolerance

PLANT NAME REGION WILDLIFE VALUE SHADE INDEX GROWTH RATE SIZE ROOTING

COMMON NAME

C. PLAINPIEDMONT MTNS.V. HIGHHIGHMED.LOW <2.02.0-5.050-7.9 >8.0V. FASTFASTMED.SLOW >75'50-75' <50'

RIPARIAN CANOPY

Swamp white-cedar + + + + + + shallow

Baldcypress + + + + = + + shallow

Black willow = + + + + + + shallow

Eastern cottonwood + + + + + + shallow

Red maple + + + + + + = + + + v. shallow

Swamp white oak + + + + = = + + + shallow

Blackgum + + + + + = + + taproot

Green ash = + + + + + + shallow

Silver maple + + + + + + = + + + v. shallow

Sycamore + + + + = = + + shallow

River birch + + + + + = + + shallow

Pin oak + + + + = + + + shallow

Willow oak + + + + = + + + shallow

Hackberry + + + + + = = + + + deep lateral

Pitch pine + + + + + + shallow

American beech + + + = + + + + + + shallow

Sweetgum + + + + = + + deep taproot

Black walnut = + + + + = + + taproot

Bitternut hickory + + = + + + = + + + deep taproot

Persimmon + + + + = + + deep taproot

White ash = + + + + + + + + shallow

Yellow-poplar + + + + + + = + + + shallow/deep

White oak = + + + + = = + + deep taproot

Red oak = + + + + + = + + deep lateral

Basswood + + + + + + = + + deep lateral

RIPARIAN UNDERSTORY 

>40'40-30'<30'

Boxelder = + + + + + + deep lateral

Hazel alder + + + + + + shallow

Sweet bay + + + = + = + + deep lateral

Blackhaw + + + + + = + + shallow

Possumhaw = + + + + + + + + shallow

Witch-hazel + + + = + + + + + deep lateral

Shad bush + + + = + + + + + shallow

Pawpaw + + + + = + + deep lateral

Hornbeam + + + = + + + + deep lateral

Redbud + + + = + + + + + shallow

Flowering Dogwood + + + = + + + + + shallow
Section VII

7-6

Using this procedure, Figure 7-1 displays how

topography and SHWT are related to generate a

soil moisture map for a parcel in the Pennsylvania Piedmont. In this site, the overall slopes are

gentle, so exposure will be uniform during RFB

establishment, and soil moisture will be closely

related to depth to SHWT. Note that the SHWT

is deeper than 1.5 feet where the stream channel

is incised below that depth. However, where

flat slopes lie behind such banks, the SHWT

will rise within 1.5 feet, creating wet areas. This

map of wet areas can then be related to the preferences and tolerances of riparian species (Table

7-1) to select the most appropriate species during the planning process.

For the site shown in Figure 7-1, flooding is

minimal in this headwater drainage area. Soils

are slightly acidic throughout the site, which is

located in Hardiness Zone 6b. These physical

features are combined with the moisture map to

determine which of the plant species listed in

Table 7-1 will do best on the site. Soil moisTable 7-2 (cont.)

Ecological and Silvicultural Characteristics for Riparian Plants

+ Characteristic/Preference = Tolerance

PLANT NAME REGION WILDLIFE VALUE SHADE INDEX GROWTH RATE SIZE ROOTING

COMMON NAME

C. PLAINPIEDMONT MTNS.V. HIGHHIGHMED.LOW <2.02.0-5.050-7.9 >8.0V. FASTFASTMED.SLOW >75'50-75' <50'

RIPARIAN SHRUBS

Buttonbush + + + + + = + + shallow

Pussy willow + + + + + + shallow

Sweet pepperbush + + + + + + + + + shallow

Swamp azalea + + + + + = + + shallow

Winterberry + + + + + = + + shallow

Arrowwood + + + + + + + + shallow

Highbush blueberry + + + + + + + shallow

Elderberry + + + + = + + + + shallow

Virginia sweetspire + + + + + + = + + + shallow

Inkberry + = + + + = + + shallow

Swamp leucothoe + + + = + + + + shallow

Pinxterbloom azalea + + + = + + + + shallow

Bayberry + + + = + + shallow

Silky dogwood + + + + = = + + shallow

Common ninebark + + + + = + + shallow

Red chokeberry + + + + = + + shallow

Spicebush + + + + = + + + + deep laterals

Gray dogwood + + + + + = + + shallow

Rosebay rhododendron + + + + = + + + + shallow

Maple-leaf viburnum + + + = + + + + + shallow

FORBS AND FERNS

>6' 3-6'<3'

TYPE

Jewelweed + + + + + = + + annual

Smartweed + + + + + + annual

Royal fern + + + + + = + + fern

Sensitive fern + + + + + + = + + fern

Joe-Pye weed + + + + + + + perennial

Swamp dewberry = + + + + = + + perennial

Thimbleberry = + + + + = + + perennial

Raspberry = + + + + = + + perennial

GRASSES

>6' 3-6'<3'

Switchgrass = + + + + = + + warm,clump

Eastern gamagrass + + + + = = + + warm,clump

Field bromegrass = + + + + + + w. annual

Fowl meadow grass = + + + + + + cold, sod

Deertongue = + + + + + = + + warm,clump

Tall fescue = + + + + = + + cold, sod

Indiangrass = + + + + + + + warm,sod

Purpletop = + + + + = + + warm,clump

Big Bluestem = + + + + + + warm,clump

Little Bluestem = + + + + + + warm,clump
Section VII

7-7

ture, texture, and reaction are described in Section IV.

Site Analysis - Vegetative

Features

While physical features control plant selection,

existing vegetation in a riparian area will dictate

the choice of strategy for buffer establishment.

Depending on whether the site is presently a

pasture, an overgrown abandoned crop field, or

a mid-successional forest, different approaches

are needed to properly establish the desired

vegetation. The structural aspect of the successional stage affects conditions such as competition for light, water, and nutrients. Depending

Figure 7 - 1. Soil moisture map relating topography and seasonal high water table in the Pennsylvania

Piedmont. Round area with dots = SHWT less than 2 feet.
Section VII

7-8

upon the species, different plants will respond

differently to these conditions. In addition to

the previously mentioned ground vegetation, the

seed bank in the upper soil layers will also determine the plant community likely to emerge

during buffer establishment. The seed bank includes not only the seeds of plants in the immediate vicinity, but also the substantial extent of

root biomass from which new vegetation can

sprout. Vegetative reproduction from root suckers often dominates in the successional situations found during riparian buffer establishment.

In many cases, riparian areas are overgrown

with invasive species, most of which are exotic.

In order to establish desired native species successfully, these plants and their seed bank must

be controlled to reduce competitive pressure

during establishment and maintenance of the

riparian forest buffer. Given the relatively narrow width of the typical forest buffer, this often

requires eradication of invasive species in the

riparian area during site preparation. Where

desirable species are also present, a more selective approach is required in site preparation.

A similar procedure to physical mapping is used

to prepare the vegetation base map. Soils maps

are based upon aerial photography, so they show

features such as treelines and ponds that may

not appear on U.S.G.S. topographic quadrangles. Government offices, such as the Natural

Resources Conservation Service, Farm Service

Agency, U.S. Geological Survey, and USDA

Forest Service offer aerial photos at 800 or 400

scale. These should be used as the source for

feature mapping as they are more recent than

most soil surveys. Aerial photography at the

lower scale will show individual trees, fence

lines, and other features useful as landmarks to

help locate the resource manager in the field.

With aerial photography, it is often best to trace

the features directly from the base photos or

blueprints, and then enlarge the tracings as described above. This prevents loss of clarity resulting from the copying process.

Riparian sites can be analyzed for physical and

vegetative features in one field visit, so the base

maps are often combined for field use. Using

this base map to locate features, note plant species, relative size, and condition from field observations. Existing trees should be located and

described individually, unless part of a mass of

trees, in which case the species composition,

average size, and density will be adequate. Understory, shrub, and vine composition should

also be noted in a similar manner. Figure 7-2

displays the existing vegetation in the site

shown in Figure 7-1.
Section VII

7-9

Identify Desired Species

Many different native tree and shrub species

thrive in riparian areas and provide substantial

benefits to the stream ecosystem. Tables 7-1

and 7-2 list native species available that have

characteristics desirable for establishment of

riparian buffer functions and values. In addition

to the plants listed, other native riparian trees

and shrubs that are difficult to transplant and/or

find should be identified for retention during the

site analysis phase. These species are listed on

the following page.

Figure 7 - 2. Existing vegetation on the map shown in Figure 7-1. Desired and undesired species can be identified here.

.
Section VII

7-10

In addition to these species, there are also several pioneer tree species that can be found colonizing a riparian area. Since they are shortlived, shade-intolerant, upland species, these

species are not included in Tables 7-1 and 7-2.

However, these species can play a very important part in providing shade and structural diversity in a young riparian forest, and their

presence will benefit the establishment of the

riparian forest buffer. These species include the

following:

Native trees should be retained during buffer

establishment. It is important to carefully examine the site to locate the seedlings of these

species. While certain species may be inappropriate as part of the final stand (for example,

black locust where nitrate reduction is a goal),

they should be retained during buffer establishment to provide shade for tolerant species and to

protect the stream environment. Native Plants That Should Be Retained

Fringetree Chionanthus

virginicus

difficult to

find

Fothergilla Fothergilla

major

difficult to

find

Black Ash Fraxinus nigra difficult to

find

Carolina

Silverbell

Halesia

 carolinia difficult to

find

Water Tupelo Nyssa aquatica difficult to

find

Snowbell Styrax

americanus difficult to

find

American

Elm

Ulmus

 americana subject to

disease

Slippery Elm Ulmus rubra difficult to

find

Pioneer Riparian Species

Gray Birch Betula

populifolia intolerant

fast growing

tree

Bigtooth

 Aspen

Populus

grandidentata intolerant

fast growing

tree

Black Cherry Prunus

 serotina intolerant

fast growing

tree, high

wildlife value

Sweet Cherry Prunus avium intolerant

fast growing

tree, high

wildlife value

Shining

Sumac

Rhus

 copallina intolerant

fast growing

tree

Black Locust Robinia

 pseudoacacia Nitrogen

fixer, useful

for canopy

establishment

Sassafras Sassafras

 albidum intolerant

fast growing

tree
Section VII

7-11

Several native shrub and vine species also thrive

in the transitional disturbed conditions often

found in riparian areas. Common species are

listed below:

While less desirable as components of a riparian

forest, these native species can provide an effective ground cover during establishment of the

buffer. They also provide many wildlife benefits. Therefore, they should be selectively controlled only when they will interfere with the

establishment and/or vegetative management

methods involved in establishing a buffer.

Eventually, forest canopy species will shade out

the intolerant species.

Identify Undesirable Species

Since the introduction of exotic plants for landscape and reclamation purposes over the last

century, many exotic species have aggressively

invaded riparian areas of the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed. In many cases, these plants have

completely taken over the riparian areas to the

exclusion of desired native species, effectively

stalling succession. Most invasive species reproduce heavily from underground stolons, as

well as by seeds. The more notable of these

species are listed on Page 7-12.

Since these plants are so aggressive when established, it is preferable to control them as much

as possible before buffer planting. Where present in adjacent upland areas, these plants should

also be controlled to reduce the propagule

source into the riparian area. In pasture situations, sod-forming cold season grasses are also

undesirable in the riparian area since they compete with tree seedlings and confine streams,

causing narrow, incised channels.

Riparian Forest Buffer

Establishment

There are generally five steps to establishing

and maintaining riparian forest buffers. These

steps include site preparation, tree planting,

maintenance, survival inspections, and reinforcement planting. Site preparation, tree

planting, maintenance, and reinforcement

planting will be discussed here.

Native Shrubs and Vines in Transitional

Zone

Blackberry Rubus spp. thorny herbaceous shrub,

intolerant,

high wildlife

value

Greenbrier Smilax

 rotundifolia thorny vine,

tolerant

Poison ivy Toxicodendron

 radicans

noxious vine,

tolerant, high

wildlife value

Wild grape Vitis spp. very aggressive vine,

intolerant,

high wildlife

value

Spicebush Lindera

benzoin aggressive

shrub where

deer herbivory heavy,

tolerant

Fragrant

Sumac

Rhus

 aromatica aggressive

shrub, intolerant, high

wildlife value
Section VII

7-12

Site Preparation

Streambank Stabilization

Where the streambank is unstable due to conditions of altered hydrology and inadequate soil

stability, bioengineering and mechanical techniques are necessary to stabilize the stream

banks. Discussed in Section VIII, some of the

bioengineering methods will overlap with the

formulation of the planting plan.

Vegetative Management Methods

Target Plant Control

Forest management practices generally use

herbicides for target plant control. Herbicides are very effective in controlling root

biomass. By eliminating soil disturbance,

direct sediment losses in herbicide treated

areas are barely one percent of that associated with mechanical treatments. Most herbicides affect plant enzymes or hormones

exclusively, and they are less toxic than table salt to animals. Therefore, the potential

for adverse toxic effects from herbicides is

minimal if label directions are carefully

followed.

Mowing and cutting leave the roots in place

to generate even more vigorous growth of

target species from root and stump sprouting. Only repeated cutting over the growing

season will eventually exhaust the remaining root systems. Shrubs and vines can be

ripped out with a tractor and chain, but it is

time-consuming and dangerous, and control

of the remaining root tips is still necessary.

Girdling is effective, but it requires at least

a year for complete control. Ripping with

power machinery removes roots effectively,

but the ground disturbance can result in

sediment losses up to 7,000 to 13,000

pounds per acre. Mechanical removal of

vegetation has been shown to be more

costly than chemical removal. For these

reasons, mechanical methods are best used

in concert with herbicides alone only in areas where herbicides are considered inappropriate.

Herbicides vary in their selectivity upon different target species. By using precise application

methods such as basal bark sprays and carefully

chosen application timing, it is possible to specifically control undesirable target species,

leaving the desired species unaffected. This

releases the desired species from competition,

accelerating their growth. Methods of application, mode of action, application timing, toxicity

characteristics, and species susceptibility are

briefly summarized in Table 7-3.

Exotic Undesirable Species

Common

reed

Phragmites

communis

very aggressive reed,

intolerant

Oriental

bittersweet

Celastris

 orbiculatis

aggressive vine, tolerant

Japanese

honeysuckle

Lonicera japonica aggressive vine, tolerant

Kudzu Pueraria lobata very aggressive vine,

intolerant

Porcelain

berry

Polygonum spp. aggressive vine, tolerant

Mile-aMinute vine

Polygonum

perfoliatum

very aggressive vine,

tolerant

Trumpet

creeper

Ampelopsis

brevipendiculata

very aggresive vine,

intolerant

Japanese

bamboo

Polygonum

cuspidatum

very agressive shrub,

intolerant

Privet Ligustrum spp. aggressive shrub,

intolerant

Multiflora

rose

Rosa multiflora aggressive shrub,

intolerant

Tree-ofheaven

Ailanthus altissima very aggressive tree,

intolerant

Norway

maple

Acer platanoides aggressive allelopathic tree, tolerant
Table 7 - 3

Herbicide Information

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Section VII

7-14

More detailed information on application methods and suitable herbicides is presented in “A

Manual of Ground Application of Forestry Herbicides” which is listed in the references at the

end of this Section. Other materials from herbicide manufacturers are included in the Appendix. The pesticide specialist at the local NRCS,

Cooperative Extension, or Conservation District

office can also provide valuable assistance in

drafting a program for a specific site. A computer-aided expert system, called ChESS, is

available to assist in formulating the most appropriate mixture, and will also provide cost

data.

Highly mobile herbicides (eg. Hexazinone or

Picloram) or more toxic herbicides (eg. Atrazine

and Fluazifop) should not be used anywhere

within the riparian areas. Herbicides suitable

for application in the riparian area, where herbicide drift and/or movement in groundwater

could enter streams, are listed as “Most Preferred” or “Preferred” in Table 7-3. In many

cases, the surfactant used to promote leaf wetting is much more toxic to aquatic organisms

than the herbicide itself. As surfactant formulations improve, other relatively nontoxic herbicides will eventually be approved for wetland

use. Herbicides listed as “Acceptable” in the

Table are best used only for basal bark spray or

cut stump treatment. Where used as foliar

sprays for tough plants such as kudzu or Japanese bamboo, these herbicides should be applied

with great caution because of the potential for

drift and/or runoff.

Wetlands and streams should not be exposed to

herbicides if it can be avoided. Even though

aquatic insects and fishes seem to be unaffected

by the “Most Preferred” herbicides, diatoms are

likely to be affected. Notwithstanding the low

toxicity of such herbicides to aquatic organisms,

timing application after peak diatom activity in

early spring should result in lesser effects upon

stream ecosystems. The only herbicide listed

for direct application to aquatic areas is RodeoTM, a glyphosate formulation used for

phragmites control in many parts of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. RodeoTM is practically

nontoxic to Daphnia.

Temporary Cover

After herbicide treatments, the standing stalks

should be left to provide shade, cover, perching

locations, nesting cavities, and coarse woody

debris. However, where dense thickets have

been controlled, it will be necessary to remove

the stalks to do the plantings. Alternatively,

burning the stalks is possible where permitted.

Known as the “brown and burn” strategy, this

should be used with caution as it will release

weeds and forbs. If desired plants exist where

extensive foliar applications are anticipated,

they can be removed to grow offsite during site

preparation, providing a source of locally

adapted native material for riparian forest establishment.

When the plant cover over extensive areas is

completely eradicated, it is necessary to establish a ground cover as soon as possible. Cover

crops such as annual or cereal rye also provide a

rapid, but temporary, ground cover. Since a

good cover is essential, cool season grasses such

as field bromegrass and tall fescue are often appropriate. These intolerant grasses are not invasive, do not require mowing, and will give way

to other plants as they are shaded out. They are

poor choices for wildlife, however. Where

heavy vine growth occurs, legumes such as

Sericea lespediza and birds-foot trefoil form a

vigorous cover able to compete with the vines.

Legumes compete for nutrients much less than

grasses. These cover crops should be combined

with native warmseason grasses to provide a

diverse mixture of species appropriate to the

riparian ecosystem.

Tables 7-1 and 7-2 list several native annual

plants and warmseason grasses that thrive in the

riparian area without aggressively competing for

tree nutrients. For the wettest areas, a mixture

of switchgrass (<15%), deertongue, and eastern

gamagrass can be combined with smartweed

seed to provide an effective cover. For moist

areas, some of the gamagrass and switchgrass

can be replaced with tall fescue, indiangrass,

and purpletop. For drier sites at the upland

margins, switchgrass and eastern gamagrass

would be replaced with the bluestem grasses.
Section VII

7-15

Seeding rates, mixtures, and planting methods

are best determined with the assistance of the

local extension agent or district conservationist.

Site Preparation Practices

Often, a riparian site will have a mixture of

turfed pasture, overgrown fields, and early successional forests along the stream, requiring a

combination of site preparation techniques. In

all site preparation situations, a variety of physical and herbicidal methods will be effective in

manipulating the plant composition to control

undesired species. In many situations, site

preparation procedures can require up to a year

of vegetative control prior to planting.

Pasture Preparation

In an existing pasture, the absence of woody

plants favors mechanical site preparation, as tree

seedlings grow most vigorously in tilled soils.

Turf-forming grasses such as blue grass, bermudagrass, johnsongrass, and panic grass are

among the worst competitors with seedlings.

The sod should be plowed and disked in early

spring followed by application of Oust®, EscortTM, and ArsenalTM to control turf grasses.

The site should be immediately seeded with an

appropriate warmseason and cover crop grass

mixture to stabilize the exposed soil as soon as

possible. In this case, site preparation essentially overlaps with the establishment of the riparian forest buffer. This method is appropriate

on sites of relatively nonerosive soils where

concentrated runoff is less likely to occur.

Where concentrated runoff and erosion occur,

extensive mechanical preparation is not recommended. Instead, a combination of RoundupTM

and Oust® should be applied in a four-foot diameter circle at each planting location to control

sod-forming grasses. As part of site preparation

in either case, other target species such as multiflora rose will have to be controlled by cutting,

pulling, and/or herbicides.

Abandoned Field Preparation

Abandoned fields are covered by shrubs and

vines, interspersed with tree saplings. In this

situation, preparation methods focus on releasing saplings and proposed plantings from competition by established undesirable species.

Other smaller seedlings encountered during site

evaluation can also be released if not heavily

overgrown by invasives.

Release methods vary according to the target

species and extent of infestation by invasives.

Where many seedlings of desirable plants occur,

basal bark sprays on target species during the

dormant season are very selective, and will provide effective control. Large shrubs and vines

can be cut, and the stumps treated after cutting

to prevent resprouting. In a sunny field, cutting

will not be effective by itself, unless the sprouts

are regularly cut back throughout the entire

growing season after cutting. This requires considerable effort.

Different target species are more susceptible to

different formulations, which are applied as direct applications to the cut stumps, basal bark,

and adventitious roots. The most susceptible

target species are listed for the following formulations:

Pathfinder IITM wild grape, poison ivy

StalkerTM multiflora rose, Norway

maple

CompadreTM tree-of-heaven, sumac

In situations where the target species are mostly

herbaceous, or where few desired species exist

among an overgrown tangle of vines and shrubs,

a viable approach is to cut all undesired vines,

shrubs, and trees after the target species are

completely leafed out, prior to hardening off in

late May. At this time, root reserves are at the

lowest, reducing resprouting vigor. Cut stump

formulations can be applied to the cut stumps of

the larger vines and trees by the cutter as each

cut is made, using a spray bottle carried at the

belt. To control sprouting adjacent to the

stream, cut stumps should be treated by CompadreTM, a glyphosate formulation.

Even where cut stump and/or basal treatment

does not prevent regrowth, the root biomass will

be weakened and further depleted by sending up
Section VII

7-16

additional shoots. Summer foliar applications

of a mixture of AccordTM and EscortTM will

generally control most target species. Where

control is less effective with this formulation,

the following foliar mixtures will provide more

effective control of the sprouts. A brief listing

of target species and foliar herbicide mixtures is

presented in Table 7-4.

Following foliar application, most target species

should be completely controlled, except the

toughest species such as kudzu and Japanese

bamboo. These species require higher application rates and repeat applications for effective

control. Control of wild grape is complicated by

its prodigious seed bank, which is capable of

sending up shoots for an eight-year period,

where light conditions permit. Since grape has a

very high wildlife value, forest managers recommend retention of the “arbors” which occur

when the vines completely overtop and break

trees, creating an opening in the canopy. However, in a riparian forest buffer, it is usually necessary to control wild grape, since arbors would

overwhelm a narrow buffer. This will depend

on the landowner’s objectives.

Early-successional Site Preparation

Early-successional sites occur where tree saplings are well enough established to begin canopy closure. This stage occurs when saplings

are at least 2-4 inches dbh (diameter at breast

height, 4.5 feet from the ground on the uphill

side of a tree) and have a crown height of 12-20

feet. Less tolerant species, such as wild grape,

blackberries, and multiflora rose, will be more

susceptible to cutting, requiring less herbicide

control. Tolerant species such as honeysuckle

and porcelain berry will still require herbicidal

control. In general, site preparation strategies

are similar to those involved in early successional sites, although to a

lesser degree. If aggressive

ferns have become established, their control will be

necessary to prevent competition for nutrients during

the seedling stage.

Riparian Forest

Buffer Design

In many cases, the riparian

forest buffer will be fairly

narrow, following the

three-zone concept of

Welsch that is described in

Section I. Width will depend on the landowner.

Within this strip, locally native riparian species

are preferable, since they have co-evolved with

the benthic stream community. Table 7-2 lists

these species by physiographic region, wildlife

value, shade tolerance, mature size, growth rate,

and rooting structure.

After mapping the physical constraints of a riparian site, design of the planting plan becomes

a process of selecting the best plants for each

particular combination of hardiness, moisture,

flooding, and soil pH listed in Table 7-1. Species not suited for reasons of pH, moisture, or

flooding will be excluded from certain areas of

the riparian buffer. The remaining species are

selected according to physiographic region,

wildlife value, price, and availability. The resource manager should always look at riparian

species in the vicinity to get an idea of the best

locally adapted species.

Table 7 - 4

Foliar Herbicide Mixtures and Target Species

Name of Herbicide Target Species

GarlonTM , EscortTM oriental bittersweet, porcelain

berry, poison ivy, wild grape,

blackberry, and multiflora rose

EscortTM kudzu, tree-of-heaven, and sumac

EscortTM , ArsenalTM greenbrier, honeysuckle, multiflora

rose, blackberries, and kudzu

ArsenalTM , AccordTM Japanese bamboo and phragmites
Section VII

7-17

Plant Species Selection

Zone 1

The design of the riparian buffer emphasizes

control of the stream environment in Zone 1.

Providing shade, deadfall, and leaf litter inputs

to the stream, this zone exerts the greatest ecological influence over instream habitat. This

zone also has the greatest potential for nitrate

interception. In this zone, bank stabilization

bioengineering and establishment of native

riparian trees are important. A dense canopy

and understory are required to provide shade

and overhang the stream.

Zone 1 is most subject to inundation. Species

with the greatest tolerance to these conditions

are listed at the beginning of Table 7-1. Silver

maple, sycamore, black willow and eastern cottonwood are best suited in these conditions in

most locations throughout the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed. The fast growth rate and brittle

habit of these species withstand the periodic

trauma of heavy floods. Instead of washing

away and exposing unstabilized banks, these

species shed branches, regrowing from the remaining trunk. Because of their fast growth

rate, they are established relatively easily and

rapidly reach canopy closure. These species

facilitate the important goal of stream shading

and promote establishment of the riparian forest

buffer. Nitrogen-fixing plants should be

avoided.

Along the stream, understory trees and shrubs

tolerant of flooding and wet soils are densely

interplanted among canopy species to provide

additional structure and shading of the riparian

area. On sunny banks, intolerant species such as

boxelder, pussy willow, and buttonbush will

thrive until shaded out as the buffer grows over

the stream. On wide streams, south and westoriented streambanks have more solar exposure.

Solar exposure will be reduced in north-facing

valleys and streambanks, so fewer species will

thrive in the shadier conditions. Information on

shade tolerance is in Table 7-2.

Zone 2

Zone 2, generally a canopy’s width behind Zone

1, can include commercially viable canopy species such as red oak and black walnut where site

conditions permit. More flood and wet soil tolerant species, such as green ash, sycamore, river

birch, and pin oak, may be necessary in Zone 2.

An understory of shad bush, hornbeam, blackhaw, and redbud will provide additional shade

and structure to Zone 2. Shade tolerant shrub

species, such as winterberry, virginia sweetspire, and maple-leaf viburnum, will grow in the

deeper shade further inland and shade the forest

floor to inhibit competition from intolerant edge

species. Highly resistant to deer browsing, spicebush often dominates certain sites. However,

it and maple-leaf viburnum are good choices

where heavy deer herbivory precludes the use of

other species. Nitrogen-fixing plants should be

avoided.

If not established during site preparation, a forb

layer of warm season grasses and annuals may

be planted in all Zones. Cold season grasses

should be included in open sites, along with

raspberry, dewberry, and thimbleberry. These

plants will effectively compete with undesired

invasive plants until canopy closure is reached.

Ostrich fern, cinnamon fern, and sensitive fern

grow well in shadier conditions found in Zone 2.

Since ferns can be invasive, it is recommended

that they be planted after the canopy, understory, and shrub layers are well established, if

they are desired.

Zone 3

As the transition zone between the forested

buffer and adjacent land uses, Zone 3 must be

carefully designed to meet management objectives. Edge effects of increased light and exposure to the adjacent seed bank in the ecotone

pose particular management problems. For

structural diversity, the transition across Zone 3

between open lands and the forest should be as

densely planted as possible. This will reduce

light penetration into Zone 2 and recolonization

by intolerant exotic species.
Section VII

7-18

In the riparian forest buffer, this transition between Zones 2 and 3 should be provided by the

establishment of understory edge species, such

as arrowwood, silky dogwood, azalea, elderberry, and gray dogwood to provide a dense

shrub layer. In the herbaceous layer, warm season grasses are combined with cold season

grasses for the densest herbaceous layer. Where sediment

filtering is a primary objective,

Zone 3 should be designed and

managed to provide a dense

herbaceous cover. This requires that no trees or shrubs

are located where sediments

will accumulate. For control

of channelized flows, a diversion should be installed in this

area to intercept channelized

flows. Following along the

side of the buffer, the diversion retards the flow, settling

out the sediments. Discharge

to the stream then occurs in a

stabilized channel through the

riparian forest buffer.

Planting Density

Succession Strategy

The preceding discussion provides the broad selection criteria to formulate a planting

plan. Usually, the planting

plan corresponds to the desired

final plant spacing and species

composition, after accounting

for losses during growth. Table 7-5 lists number of trees

per acre based on various

methods of planting. An alternative approach is to accelerate succession by overplanting

seedlings of fast growing intolerant species at a high

enough density to provide

canopy closure relatively rapidly. Yellow-poplar, sycamore, river birch, and silver

maple are among the fastest growing trees appropriate for the riparian area. Seedlings of tolerant canopy species, such as red oak

interplanted among the pioneer species, can be

selectively released after canopy closure to become the eventual dominants. Canopy overplanting will also reduce deer herbivory on

Table 7 - 5

Number of Trees per Acre by Various Methods of Spacing

Spacing

(feet)

Trees

(number)

Spacing

(feet)

Trees

(number)

Spacing

(feet)

Trees

(number)

2x2 10,890 7x9 691 12x15 242

3x3 4,840 7x10 622 12x18 202

4x4 2,722 7x12 519 12x20 182

4x5 2,178 7x15 415 12x25 145

4x6 1,815 8x8 681 13x13 258

4x7 1,556 8x9 605 13x15 223

4x8 1,361 8x10 544 13x20 168

4x9 1,210 8x12 454 13x25 134

4x10 1,089 8x15 363 14x14 222

5x5 1,742 8x25 218 14x15 207

5x6 1,452 9x9 538 14x20 156

5x7 1,245 9x10 484 14x25 124

5x8 1,089 9x12 403 15x15 194

5x9 968 9x15 323 15x20 145

5x10 871 10x10 436 15x25 116

6x6 1,210 10x12 363 16x16 170

6x7 1,037 10x15 290 16x20 136

6x8 908 10x18 242 16x25 109

6x9 807 11x11 360 18x18 134

6x10 726 11x12 330 18x20 121

6x12 605 11x15 264 18x25 97

6x15 484 11x20 198 20x20 109

7x7 889 11x25 158 20x25 87

7x8 778 12x12 302 25x25 70
Section VII

7-19

desired tolerant species. This release strategy

also provides more wildlife habitat and deadfall

in the riparian area.

One or two years prior to release of canopy species, tolerant understory trees and shrubs can be

planted to take advantage of the semi-shaded

conditions without competition from intolerant

shrubs and vines. Since enough light is present

for good growth after release, the understory

plants will become well established as the canopy fills in. The use of succession management

strategies is largely determined by the existing

vegetation in the riparian area. Where many

indigenous seedlings exist, the planting approach should attempt to capitalize on this by

accelerating succession.

Succession management also involves the herbaceous control procedures discussed in

“Vegetative Management Methods” on page 7-

12. After planting the buffer, competition by

adjacent herbaceous plants must be controlled

during the initial years to release the plantings.

The larger the plant, the less extensive these

measures need to be. Where tree shelters are

used, smaller plant material can be used with

good results.

Plant Size

Planting stock ranges from seeds to large caliper

nursery stock. Planting strategies are largely

determined by the extent of available funding

resources. Larger plant material, such as balled

and burlapped (B&B) trees or large container

stock (>2 gal.), will cost much more, although

they will attain the desired goals more rapidly.

The higher initial expense accelerates establishment of the riparian forest buffer. However,

quality of plants should receive much greater

attention during the selection process than price.

Balled & Burlap and/or Container Stock

The most expensive approach is to plant the

canopy, midstory, and understory species in

the final locations, using B&B and large

container stock. The most common sizes of

planting stock are 11⁄2 to 21⁄2 in caliper.

Smaller, less expensive tree will be suitable

for most riparian sites. Most B&B trees are

too heavy to easily handle. In mature riparian forests, canopy tree stem density is

roughly 150 stems per acre, indicating a tree

spacing of 16 to 18 feet. B&B material will

attain a higher canopy height in the shortest

time.

Large material is most appropriate in riparian

forests where intensive multiple uses are anticipated, as in urban development or part of

an urban park system. Often using a high

maintenance manicured approach, the herbaceous layer would be a combination of wood

chip mulch and mowed cold season grasses.

Note that the use of grasses as the ground

cover in the riparian forest buffer will sequester nutrients within the grasses, retarding

the growth of trees. Shade tolerant herbaceous species will eventually colonize the

site as canopy closure is attained.

The typical plant cost for B&B material 1.5-

inch caliper is about $35.00 and up. Fivefoot-tall B&B material costs from $8.00 to

$20.00, depending upon source and species.

Installation costs are about $10.00 to $30.00

per plant, depending upon method, size of

plant, and source. The installed cost ranges

from $18.00 to $50.00 (or higher) per plant,

or $2,700 to $7,500 per acre. Herbaceous

controls are least with this option if regular

mowing is not required. Since it is relatively

expensive, this approach is inappropriate for

use in most riparian sites.

Bare Root Stock

A more cost-effective approach is to use bare

root material. Planting density should be

higher than the final stem density desired, to

allow for losses due to competition, stress,

and herbivory. At a survival rate of 75 percent, roughly 200 plants are needed per acre.

A spacing of 14 to 16 feet is appropriate for

larger material at least several feet high and

around 3⁄4 inches in diameter. Bare root material can grow relatively rapidly after the

root system is established, reaching canopy

closure soon after similar size B&B material.
Section VII

7-20

Bare root plantings are best in situations

where visible plantings are desired after riparian forest buffer planting.

Bare root material ranges in price from $2.00

to $6.00 per plant for five-foot plants, less

than half the price of B&B for the same

height. Hand planting with mattocks is the

least expensive method, but root spread may

be compromised. Using power augers to dig

the planting holes, installation costs should

run from $0.40 to $0.50 per plant, indicating

an installed cost from $2.40 to $6.50 per

plant. At 240 stems per acre, installed costs

would range from $575 to $1500 per acre.

Since bare root stock is already high enough

to compete with the herbaceous layer, only a

few years of herbaceous control is needed

during riparian forest buffer establishment.

Container Grown Seedlings

Container grown seedlings are commonly

grown in paper pots that disintegrate. Both

seedling and pot are planted. This increases

survival rate because the plant never loses

contact with its soil, and suffers less stress.

They can be planted more quickly and efficiently than bare root seedlings.

Containerized seedlings can be grown 1) as

tubelings in plantable pots or tubes 2) as

plugs that are pulled out of the containers before planting, and 3) in blocks of pressed

peat or pulp that serves as both a container

and a rooting medium. Plastic containers

work well for producing plugs. They are reusable. Some containers are hinged and open

like a book for plant removal. Container

grown seedlings range in price from $2.50 to

$12.00 each, depending on the size of the

plant. Plugs are sold in quantities of 50

plants, ranging in price from 50¢ to 85¢ per

plug.

There are advantages to container seedlings

over bare root seedlings. Survival risks are

lower for container seedlings than for bare

root seedlings. Shipping dates are much

more flexible because there is no worry about

roots freezing. There is less chance of the

seedlings becoming crushed because they are

shipped in racks. Their roots are more developed than bare root plants, so they can

tolerate drought better.

Bare Root Seedlings and Year Transplants

In situations where a longer time to attain

canopy closure is acceptable, smaller 1-0 and

2-0 seedlings or 2-1 transplants are used. 1-0

and 2-0 seedlings are lifted directly from the

nursery bed and shipped. They are the least

expensive type of plants. 2-1 seedlings spend

two years in the nursery and one year in a

transplant bed. Often, this may be the only

alternative to obtaining enough stock for

large projects.

Red oak transplants with at least 6 lateral

roots demonstrate more vigorous growth

compared to those with fewer lateral roots.

Top pruning is not recommended The rootpruned species stock will provide the best results. While initially more expensive, increases in growth rate and survivability of

root-pruned material are less expensive in the

long run. Careful examination of the stock is

required to ensure that high-quality plants are

delivered; even then, substandard material

will have to be culled.

Since the process of establishing riparian

forest buffers may involve site preparation

measures for as long as a year, less expensive

one-year seedlings can be root pruned and

grown in a temporary bed on-site prior to

setting out in the riparian zone. Alternatively, the transplants can be contract grown

offsite. An advantage of contract growing is

that the final transplant cost should be lower

than that listed in supplier catalogs.

Depending upon the plant condition, species,

and site stresses, the survival rates range

from less than 30 percent to over 90 percent.

At an average survival rate around 50 percent, the plant spacing should be 6-feet-by-6-

feet, or 1,210 stems per acre, to provide sufficient stem density upon maturity. Assuming a 50 percent survival rate, the site will

have over 600 free-to-grow seedlings per
Section VII

7-21

acre. Seedlings and two-year transplants are

considerably less expensive, varying from

$0.30 to $1.50 per plant according to source

and type of plant. With experienced personnel, at least 60 to 80 plants can be planted per

hour. At $10.00 per hour, this results in installation costs from $0.10 to $0.15 per plant,

indicating an installed cost of $0.40 to $1.65

per plant. Given a planting density of 300

trees per acre, the installed cost ranges from

$120 to $495 per acre. Herbaceous control

measures are more extensive, though, requiring at least several years of control. Tree

shelters accelerate growth and increase the

survivability of seedlings. Where shelters

are used, the density can be decreased and

the results improved.

Seeds

For certain riparian species with large propagules, such as walnut and oak, seed planting

is a viable alternative. While the plant material may be the least expensive, tree shelters

are required to obtain acceptable survivability. Given the absence of transplant shock

and the favorable conditions inside a shelter,

growth rates from seed can be surprisingly

fast. Walnut seedlings in shelters have

grown up to 4 feet within the first growing

season. For grasses and forbs, seed is the

material of choice.

Sources of Plant Material

Species native to the local riparian site are most

appropriate for planting in the riparian area.

This is because local biotypes have better vigor

and hardiness and are better able to compete.

As pioneer colonizers, they assist in providing

rapid canopy establishment. Local biotypes coadapted with the local benthic macroinvertebrates may provide better riparian biomass

inputs to the stream.

While local biotypes may be more appropriate

for a riparian site, it is likely that most planting

material will have to be obtained from available

nursery stock. In recognition of the merits of

native material, many nurseries now stock native plants, some from local sources. Where

available, this stock should be used, although

much of the plant material may have to come

from more distant genetic sources. Nursery

stock from large or distant suppliers often comes

from a biotype far removed from the site of installation. Where stock from remote sources

differs substantially in hardiness, it is a less desirable option, even though its cost may be

slightly more competitive. Local sources may

be a little more expensive, but the better quality

control and reduced shipping and handling costs

can offset initial price disadvantages.

Even if they are remote, large suppliers can assist in locating and/or contract growing locallyadapted plant material, so they should be contacted. Suppliers of native plants are listed in

Appendix 8. This list is by no means exhaustive; other suppliers will have suitable material

as well. The NRCS office and local service forester should be contacted to ensure that potential

sources are not overlooked.

Planting Plan and Schedule

After determining physical site conditions, the

detailed planting plan starts by eliminating those

plants that would not thrive on the site. Depending upon succession strategy and maintenance measures, sources are then evaluated as to

size, price, and availability of the remaining

plants. Often, certain species are unavailable or

expensive, while others may be abundant in the

trade, and relatively inexpensive. In this manner, the plants listed in Tables 7-1 and 7-2 will

be narrowed down to appropriate species available in the proper sizes.
Section VII

7-22

The planting schedule should take price variation into account, so as to ensure the greatest

potential for the riparian forest buffer. Least

expensive material can be widely used, while

the most expensive material will be used sparingly in high visibility locations where it will be

most appreciated. Where cost differential is not

a factor, plants remaining on the list should be

used in roughly equal proportions within each

combination of physical conditions to provide

the greatest diversity and resistance to plant diseases.

Table 7-6 is a blank plant list to be filled out

with the costs and sizes from individual suppliers to assist in comparisons. After selecting the

size of the plantings, this table will be the basis

for the planting schedule.

Table 7 - 6

Plant Availability List

COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME SYM. QTY. PRICE AND AVAILABILITY (25-50 TO 100-1000)

RIPARIAN CANOPY SEED SDLG. B. ROOT CONT. B & B 1"

Swamp white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides Ct

Baldcypress Taxodium distichum Td

Black willow Salix nigra Sn

Eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides Pd

Red maple Acer rubrum Ar

Swamp white oak Quercus bicolor Qb

Blackgum Nyssa sylvatica Ns

Green ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica Fp

Silver maple Acer saccharinum As

Sycamore Platanus occidentalis Po

River birch Betula nigra Bn

Pin oak Quercus palustris Qp

Willow oak Quercus phellos Qw

Hackberry Celtis occidentalis Co

Pitch pine Pinus rigida Pr

American beech Fagus grandifolia Fg

Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua Ls

Black walnut Juglans nigra Jn

Bitternut hickory Carya cordiformis Cb

Persimmon Diospyros virginiana Dv

White ash Fraxinus americana Fa

Yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera Lt

White oak Quercus alba Qa

Red oak Quercus rubra Qr

Basswood Tilia americana Ta

RIPARIAN UNDERSTORY 

Boxelder Acer negundo An

Hazel alder Alnus serrulata Al

Sweet bay Magnolia virginiana Mv

Blackhaw Viburnum prunifolium Vp

Possumhaw Ilex decidua Id

Witch-hazel Hamamellis virginiana Hv

Shad bush Amelanchier arborea Ac

Pawpaw Asamina triloba At

Hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana Ch

Redbud Cercis canadensis Cc

Flowering Dogwood Cornus florida Cf
Section VII

7-23

Referring to Tables 7-1 and 7-2, species appropriate for each combination of site conditions

are listed for each habitat type, according to

structural category. This will provide the conceptual plant mix to be used in each category of

physical habitat mapped during the site analysis

of physical features. Given the planting density

and a conceptual plant mix, formulation of the

planting plan is straightforward. Canopy

plantings are delineated with graphic symbols of

a diameter representing the spacing and arranged randomly throughout the riparian area.

(Assuming mowing is not used for herbaceous

control, an artificial grid pattern is not necessary.) Individual species are allocated to each

symbol from the conceptual plant mix described

earlier. Note that many riparian plant species

have a wide degree of tolerance in soil moisture,

pH, and shade tolerance. Therefore, these species can be used effectively in many locations

throughout the riparian area. Where site conditions permit a wide choice of material, the indiTable 7-6 (cont.)

Plant Availability List

COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME SYM. QTY. PRICE AND AVAILABILITY (25-50 TO 100-1000)

RIPARIAN SHRUBS SEED SDLG. B. ROOT CONT. B & B 1"

Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis Cu

Pussy willow Salix discolor Sd

Sweet pepperbush Clethra acuminata Ca

Swamp azalea Rhododendron viscosum Rv

Winterberry Ilex verticillata Iv

Arrowwood Viburnum dentatum Vd

Highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum Vc

Elderberry Sambucus canadensis Sc

Virginia sweetspire Itea virginica Is

Inkberry Ilex glabra Ig

Swamp leucothoe Leucothoe racemosa Lr

Pinxterbloom azalea Rhododendron nudiflorum Rn

Bayberry Myrica pennsylvanica Mp

Silky dogwood Cornus amomum Cd

Common ninebark Physocarpus opulifolius Po

Red chokeberry Aronia arbutifolia Aa

Spicebush Lindera benzoin Lb

Gray dogwood Cornus racemosa Cr

Rosebay rhododendron Rhododendron maximum Rm

Maple-leaf viburnum Viburnum acerifolium Va

FORBS AND FERNS

Jewelweed Impatiens capensis

Smartweed Polygonum pensylvanicum

Royal fern Osmunda regalis

Sensitive fern Onoclea sensibilis

Joe-Pye weed Eupatorium maculatum

Swamp dewberry Rubus hispidus

Thimbleberry Rubus odoratus

Raspberry Rubus occidentalis

GRASSES

Switchgrass Panicum virgatum

Eastern gamagrass Tripsacum dactyloides

Field bromegrass Bromus arvensis

Fowl meadow grass Poa palustris

Deertongue Panicum clandestinum

Tall fescue Festuca cultivar

Indiangrass Sorghastrum nutans

Purpletop Tridens flavus

Big Bluestem Andropogon gerardi 

Little Bluestem Andropogon scoparius
Section VII

7-24

vidual species selection is not as important as

the overall mix in a particular area. In essence,

the planting plan should appear random; the

crucial issue being that all plants are located

where they will thrive.

Understory plants are similarly arranged, using

symbols of a smaller diameter. Typically, there

should be at least three or four understory trees

for every canopy tree. This will provide structural diversity similar to mature forests. Shrub

species are most intensively arranged at the

margins of riparian forest buffers, where edge

effects are the greatest. (Shade tolerant shrubs

can be placed in the interior after herbaceous

control practices are no longer required.) More

tolerant species are used on the north-facing

margins. To avoid clutter and provide more

graphic clarity in the dense plantings of buffer,

complete names can be omitted from the plan.

Instead, species can be listed by initials generally representing the genus and species, with the

key listed in the Plant Schedule.

Figure 7-3 on the next page displays a planting

plan for the site displayed in Figures 7-1 and 7-

2. In this site, the relatively small scale precludes a wide buffer, so control of the aquatic

environment is the primary goal. Removal of

sediments and nitrates is a lesser objective.

Plants are to be bare root, and species that deer

do not like, so a high survival rate is anticipated.

A spacing of about 18 feet is used. Shrubs are

concentrated along the external edge of Zone 3

to provide more shade and structure. Shade tolerant species are specified on the north-facing

edges. Grass mixtures in Zone 3 are chosen by

solar exposure and depth to SHWT. High-value

trees are concentrated closer to the residence.

An important step in planning and establishment

is the Plant Schedule, which lists the plant species, quantity, size, and type. The latter specifications are very important, particularly when

material such as 2-year seedlings are involved,

and great variability can be found in identically

listed material. Planting specifications should

detail the installation procedures, protection

measures, and maintenance practices to be followed.

Riparian Forest Buffer Planting

Ordering Plants

During formulation of the plan, likely sources

will have been identified. Likely sources should

not only be contacted, but also visited to see the

condition of the materials. Knowledgeable personnel should examine the size, condition, and

health of the plants to be ordered. Such visits

can be an invaluable educational tool, as nursery

managers take pride in their material and will

take the time to discuss details such as the best

planting methods. Specimen material can be

tagged at this time, and arrangements made for

delivery. Payment and guarantee conditions are

drawn up. Discounts are often available for

government-sponsored projects. When ordering

plants, it is important to provide as much lead

time as possible to ensure the best selection. It

would be prudent to place orders for trees about

four to six months before the planting date.

Plant Delivery and Inspection

In most cases, plants should not be paid for until

delivery and unloading. This ensures that delivered material meets the specifications stipulated,

and that the plants arrive in good condition.

Plants that do not meet specifications should not

be accepted and sent back to the supplier with

arrangements for replacement or refund. The

material should be examined for the following

criteria at delivery:

Size – The plants should meet the dimensions

specified in the Planting Schedule.

Form – The plants should not have broken

branches, misshapen crowns, poor crotch angles, or other defects in growth habit that may

preclude long-term viability. This is particularly

important for larger material. Seedlings available in “Conservation Grade” have poorer form,

but they are much less expensive than nursery

grade stock. Such seedlings are best used on

very large projects where seedling cost is a critical factor.
Section VII

7-25

Vigor – The plants should have well developed

branches and adequate buds. Bark should be

pliable and green when scratched, without

shriveling or discoloring. Leaves should not be

discolored or desiccated, or show spotting indicative of potential disease or nutrient stress.

Roots – B&B plants should have the specified

root ball size. The root ball should be securely

wrapped and competent without any signs of

looseness, or the roots are likely to be damaged

and/or desiccated. The ball should be moist.

Container plants should be upright and firmly

rooted. Inspect for circling, kinked, or “J” roots

that may girdle the tree. Rootbound plants often

have roots protruding above the surface or

through the drain holes, a leggy appearance,

and/or they are unusually large for the container.

Bare root material should be wrapped in burlap

Figure 7 - 3. Planting plan for the site displayed in Figures 7-1 and 7-2.
Section VII

7-26

and packing. The roots should be damp, fresh,

and flexible.

Wounds and Diseases – The trunk should be

free of abrasions, cuts, scars, knots, and/or sunscald injury. There should be no insect egg

masses or fungi on the branches or trunk.

Planting Layout

Prior to planting, the site must be marked so the

planting crew can put the right plant in the right

place. Usually, a specific marker is used to delineate each plant at each location. This approach is necessary for high-visibility sites or

inexperienced field crews. On large sites where

precise detail is not essential, markers are coded

for the conceptual plant mix, and an experienced

planting crew selects the individual species as it

proceeds. This increases productivity, since

crews do not have to carry the precise planting

mix every time they pick up plants.

A variety of markers can be used. Spray paint

can be rapidly applied to the ground and vegetation, but this method has minimal ability to

convey species selection. Prelabeled for species, flagged wires color coded to the conceptual

mix can be individually placed by the resource

professional. Survey flagging can be used in a

similar manner if enough vegetation is present

onto which the flagging can be tied.

To lay out the site, it may not be practical to

conform rigidly to the spacing specified in the

planting plan. Plants should not be placed

where roots, stumps, hummocks, depressions,

and gullies will interfere or create less than optimal conditions. Plants should not be placed

next to existing plants, or they will compete

with each other. Knowing the average plant

spacing, relative plant location is easily paced

off, starting from the streambank and proceeding upslope. For greater accuracy, the tree

planter can use a thin rod cut to the desired plant

spacing. Landmarks from the mapping are used

to ensure that spacing errors are not compounded as the planter proceeds along the

stream. In wide buffers without landmarks, a

survey crew can set location points at specific

intervals to provide base points, but this is expensive.

In smaller sites where the buffer is not too wide,

an experienced professional should be able to

lay out the plantings without even drawing up a

detailed planting plan. Each plant or conceptual

mix is placed as he/she proceeds through the

riparian area, based upon judgment of site conditions and a knowledge of plant availability.

The plantings are then counted, and the Planting

Schedule is drawn up according to the actual

layout. This is a more accurate method as to

total number, and the total effort involved is

reduced. A conceptual plan is still necessary to

assist field crews in staging.

Planting Practices

Planting Seasons

Trees can be planted during the spring or fall.

Deciduous trees are best planted in the early

spring before bud break in April. This ensures

the longest season for root growth and gives the

plant a chance to establish feeder roots prior to

the moisture demands of the growing season.

While less than optimal, planting can extend

into late May in the moist conditions found in

riparian areas. Evergreens can be planted with

good results before the new growth is fully extended in May. Planting later in the growing

season will subject plants to moisture stress,

unless proper care is taken to ensure adequate

moisture in the root zone.

Evergreens can be planted early in the fall after

the heat of summer is past. Most deciduous

trees can be planted later in the fall after leaf

drop, since their roots will continue to grow until the soil temperature falls below 45 degrees.

However, the ground must have adequate moisture, or a severe winter will kill the trees. Many

oaks are listed as fall hazard plants, so they

should be planted only in the spring. Winter

transplanting is possible if the soil around the

tree to be transplanted is not frozen, and if the

planting area is mulched enough to prevent

freezing through the winter. Bare root material

and seedlings should be planted in the winter to

early spring while they are still dormant.
Section VII

7-27

Planting bare root material after leaf emergence

is not recommended even if adequate shade and

moisture are present.

Planting Procedures

Storage During Planting

After delivery, plant material should be

stored on site in a moist shaded location prior

to and during planting. The root balls of

B&B stock and the packing of bare root stock

should be thoroughly watered and kept moist

with a covering of peat moss, straw, or sawdust. Bare root stock can be stored for several weeks if “heeled in” (Figure 7-4) by

laying the plants in a trench of loose soil or

mulch. The tops should face toward the

south at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees. Seedlings can be stored by stacking them in a circle with the roots facing inward in layers

separated by packing material and kept moist

at all times, or refrigerated if facilities are

available. Container material is least susceptible to moisture stress and will store well

if properly watered.

B&B Trees

B&B stock should never be picked up by the

trunk or dropped, as this will damage the root

ball. To move B&B stock during planting,

the root ball should be firmly cradled. The

planting hole should be twice the width of

the root ball, but no deeper (see Figure 7-5

on the next page). To dig the planting holes,

a tractor-mounted auger can be used to drill a

2 to 4 foot diameter hole. Soil amendments

are not recommended, since few roots will

grow beyond the amended soils. All sod

should be discarded. The root collar should

be placed at the same level as the original

soil; if the hole is overdug and backfill is

necessary, the tree should be placed an inch

or two higher to allow for settlement. After

placement of the tree, completely remove any

wire baskets and twine. Remove as much

burlap as possible without damaging the root

ball by cutting it down to where the root ball

rests on the native soil.

Figure 7 - 4. Heeling In Method. (Source: Tree Planting Notes, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources,

Division of Forestry.)
Section VII

7-28

Work the backfill around the

root ball, firmly tamping in

place to avoid any air pockets.

Fill up to original grade with

the balance of the soil, tamp,

and water. Fill in any spots

that settle, and place excess

soil in a ring around the tree to

retain water. A mulch of wood

chips and/or geotextile fabric

should be placed in a three-tofour-foot-diameter circle

around the tree to inhibit grass

and herbaceous competition.

Avoid placing organic mulch

directly against the trunk, as

this will harbor insects and rodents that may damage the

tree. Broken and diseased

branches should be pruned.

Container Stock

For container material, the

planting hole should be twice

as wide and as deep as the soil

in the container. A portable or

tractor-mounted auger can be

used to drill the planting hole,

or the hole can be hand dug.

Carefully cut the container

away from the plant to expose

the roots. Where size, soil

texture, and rooting density

permits, plants can be removed

from the containers by turning

them upside down and pulling

the containers off in an upward

direction. (This is appropriate

only if the soil remains firmly

attached to the root system).

Where the soil is very loose,

the container can be cut away

after placing it in the hole, and

the bottom can be slid out from

under the plant.

After exposing the roots, look

for circling roots. The small

ones can be teased apart and

Figure 7 - 5. Planting Burlapped or Potted Trees. Source:

Tree City USA Bulletin No. 19, The National Arbor Day Foundation.
Section VII

7-29

spread out in the planting hole. The large

and extensive ones will have to be severed in

several vertical cuts to prevent girdling the

plant, which would set them back substantially. These plants should be rejected, as

cutting roots introduces soil borne diseases.

Backfill, water, and mulch as in B&B plants.

Container Grown Seedlings

Container seedlings can be planted manually

or mechanically with a hand held portable

auger. Roots should be white. If roots are

completely brown, do not use the plant. The

recommended planting density for container

grown seedlings is 350 plants per acre.

Bare Root Seedlings and Year Transplants

Trees can be planted by hand or by machine.

A correctly planted tree should have the following general characteristics:

1. Planted at about the same depth, or not

exceeding one-half inch deeper than it

was in the nursery. This is very important. Use the root collar for depth judgment.

2. Have the main roots nearly straight and

spread out, not doubled, or sharply bent.

3. Have the soil firm around the roots.

Leave no air pockets.

4. Have the tree in an upright position, and

have it nearly even with the general

ground level, not sunk in a hole or raised

on a mound.

There are two methods of hand planting – slit

method and side-hole method (Figures 7-7

and 7-8). Hand planting tools such as planting bars, dibble bars, mattocks, and hoe-dads

are used for rapid planting of bare root stock

and seedlings. Figure 7-6 shows four tree

planting tools.

The slit method consists of making a slit with

a planting bar or a dibble bar for smaller

seedlings. It is much more rapid than the

side-hole method. After placement, the bar is

reinserted several inches away, rocked away

from the plant to kick in the soil at the bottom of the roots, and then rocked toward the

plant to compress the soil around the base of

the plant. Where water is not available to

settle the soil, it is important to firmly comFigure 7 - 6. Four tree-planting tools (left to right): planting bar, a pointed planting bar useful

in stony soils, the Rindi grub-hoe (L-shaped) for making straight-sided planting holes, and a tile

spade planting shovel for digging deep holes for large planting stock. (Source: The Practice of

Silviculture, Smith, 1986.)
Section VII

7-30

press the soil around the plants (Figure 7-7).

The side-hole method consists of digging a hole

deep enough with a mattock or grub hoe to hold

the roots of the tree (see Figure 7-8 on the next

page). Mattocks and hoe-dads are suitable for

larger seedlings and most bare root stock. With

larger bare root stock, the planting hole may not

be large enough to permit adequate root spread

with these tools, and the holes will have to be

hand dug. These tools are driven into the

ground and rocked to create a wedge-shaped

hole, into which the plant is placed at the proper

depth. It is important to hold the plant at the

proper depth when backfilling and compacting

Figure 7 - 7. Slit Method. Steps in the use of the slit method of planting seedlings in sandy soil. (Sketch

by U.S. Forest Service.)
Section VII

7-31

the soil, so as to prevent plant settling below the

root collar. If the roots are long, the hole should

be deepened, rather than bending the roots into a

“J” shape.

Trees can also be machine planted. Results of

good machine planting are comparable to those

of good hand planting and superior to average

for poorly hand-planted trees. A machine with a

three-person crew can plant 10,000 seedlings

per day. Planting machines are now generally

available and their use is recommended wherever conditions permit.

Several makes of commercial planting machines

are available for purchase. The type of machine

to use depends upon the nature of the terrain and

cover types to be planted. On relatively smooth

open fields, one of the lighter machines pulled

by a small tractor may be used. On areas with

heavy, brushy cover, a machine that prepares the

site and plants at the same time may be required.

Planting machines work best in light soils with

light or moderate plant cover. They will also

work well on heavy silt or clay soils if the

moisture conditions are right, that is, if the soil

is in what is considered a good condition for

plowing. Soils eroded down to heavy clay are

impossible to plant by machine unless they are

dry. Heavy soils with some topsoil and a good

Figure 7 - 8. The Side-Hole Method of Planting. (Sketch adapted from U.S. Forest Service and The Practice of Silviculture, Smith, 1986.)
Section VII

7-32

cover of broomsedge will plant well by machine

unless excessively wet.

Figure 7-9 illustrates some common planting

errors to avoid.

Tree Shelters

In areas where deer browsing is a substantial

problem, tree shelters have been used with considerable success. With shelters 4-feet high,

seedlings are protected until the root system is

well-established. Even if the emerging tips are

browsed, the root system will send up vigorous

new shoots. Five-foot shelters should be used

where deer herbivory is very heavy. Tree shelters protect against buck rub on the trunks, as

well as minimizing disease entry from wound

scars. Tree shelters also prevent rabbit and rodents from girdling the base of the tender trunks.

Where deer browsing is light, shorter tree shelters (2 or 3 foot lengths) will provide herbivory

protection at a lesser cost. Overplanting other

vigorous species is another method to sustain

deer browsing without excessive pressure on the

desired species.

While important for herbivore control, tree

shelters also provide a favorable microclimate

for the seedlings. When shelters are properly

installed, moisture transpired from the leaves

condenses inside the tube, resulting in more

humidity and a moister root zone. Carbon dioxide levels are also higher, promoting favorable growth. For these reasons, tree shelters

generally increase initial growth rates by a factor of two to four times that of unsheltered

seedlings. Sheltered seedlings also produce

more leaves and have greater apical dominance.

By protecting against wind and drought, tree

shelters substantially increase seedling survivability in adverse circumstances. Red oak is

particularly responsive to the beneficial effects

of tree shelters. Shelters are also used for black

walnut and other fruit and nut trees.

By isolating the trunk, tree shelters also ensure

that herbaceous control measures are much less

likely to affect the seedlings. Management of

competing vegetation after planting is much

easier; mowing and weedwacker strikes are prevented, and herbicides are isolated from trunk

contact. As a result, herbicide labor costs can

be reduced to one-fourth that required for unsheltered plantings. In the intensive management regime required for establishment of a

riparian forest buffer, such savings may be considerable.

There is some concern that shelters reduce

rooting and trunk strength due to wind isolation

Figure 7 - 9. (Source: The Forest Steward, The National Arbor Day Foundation, March/April 1996.)
Section VII

7-33

during initial growth. However, once the sapling has emerged so the crown spreads, there is

enough trunk movement to build stem and root

strength. The tree then allocates resources toward stem growth. For this reason, tree shelters

should be left on for two to three years after

emergence. After this time, the tree shelter must

be physically removed.

Because of the relative absence of moisture

stress, sheltered seedlings can grow later into

the season, making them susceptible to die-back

in cold winters. This is a temporary effect; regrowth in the following year will usually harden

off properly. Where repeated die-back is a

problem, the tubes can be lifted off the ground

around Labor Day, drying out the seedling in

time for winter. The tubes must be reinserted

around Halloween, to ensure a good growing

season the following year.

White tree shelters allow more light through

them, and are preferred in sites where shady

conditions will occur over the four to five-year

span that tree shelters are used. Brown shelters

are less obtrusive in more open sites. Tree

shelters should be staked with rot-resistant

stakes such as white oak. In southern states

where termites are a problem, southern yellow

pine or treated stakes are necessary. Stakes

should be installed on the upwind side on open

sites; on the north side in shadier sites. The

base of a tree shelter must be driven at least an

inch into the soil to avoid a chimney effect,

which increases moisture loss. Tree shelters are

then tied to the stake and a protective mesh

placed over the top to prevent entry of birds.

Netting should be removed once the tree grows

out of the top of the shelter.

There are several different types of shelters

available. The most widely used is the Supertube manufactured by the Treessentials Company. The one-piece seamless tube ensures

moisture integrity, and the flared ends minimize

bark rubbing where the seedling emerges. Recloseable shelters are offered by Tree Pro and

Tree Sentry. These products may retain less

moisture, but they permit inspection of the

plants, as well as the potential for reuse. Tree

Pro shelters are flared to minimize bark rubbing.

Tree Sentry also offers a flared two-foot-high

conical shelter with a mesh top to control

browsing up to a height of four feet. TreePee

makes a two-foot conical shelter, and Blue-X

offers rolled tubes of recycled X-ray film. Addresses and contact information for these companies are listed in Appendix 10.

The cost of installing tree shelters varies according to the product type and size used. Using

four-foot Supertubes as an example, the 1995

cost for 1,000 shelters with stakes was $2.50 per

shelter, plus shipping cost of $0.21 each. Labor

costs about $0.35 per shelter, suggesting an installed cost around $3.06 per shelter. Other

products are similar in price. Given that the installed seedling costs are about $0.40 to $1.65,

tree shelters would not be recommended for

every seedling. They are most appropriate for

the more expensive seedlings of species difficult

to establish, such as red oak. However, reductions in maintenance costs and increased seedling vigor associated with tree shelters suggest

that tree shelter plantings may be a more costeffective approach than planting unprotected

larger material.

Riparian Forest Buffer

Maintenance

The most critical period during riparian forest

buffer establishment is maintenance of the

newly planted trees during canopy closure. Ongoing maintenance practices are necessary to

ensure establishment of a thriving buffer, particularly where smaller seedling plant material

has been used. Even where large plants are involved, herbivory, invasion by exotic species,

and competition by herbaceous forbs and

grasses will be a continuing problem. Therefore, maintenance practices are necessary to ensure the long-term effectiveness of the buffer.

In the early stages of riparian forest buffer establishment, competition for nutrients by adjacent grasses and forbs will substantially inhibit

seedling growth. Release from herbaceous

competition has been demonstrated as a most

cost-effective method to accelerate the growth
Section VII

7-34

of seedlings and saplings. Therefore, the riparian forest buffer establishment strategy must

incorporate control of the herbaceous layer over

the near term until canopy closure shades out

grasses and herbaceous competition.

In many cases, existing grasses and forbs are

mowed once or twice per year to control their

height. This method maintains a vigorous herbaceous layer, even though the species mixture

may shift away from cold season grasses to

other perennial forbs. Since nutrient uptake by

the herbaceous layer is unaffected, or even increased by mowing, competition for nutrients

will persist until canopy closure shades out the

herbaceous layer. This substantially retards the

rate of growth of the seedlings. Mowing also

requires that the plants be spaced in a grid pattern, resulting in an artificial aspect to the

buffer. The requirement for mowing also inhibits the establishment of understory species and

shrubs until canopy closure. Mower strikes on

the trunks are often unavoidable if no protective

measures such as mulches or tree shelters are

used.

An alternative to mowing is the use of mulches

to control weed and forb growth. A well-aged

hardwood mulch will not compete for nutrients,

and it will retain moisture in the root zone of

plantings. However, annuals and perennials

easily root within such organic mulches as they

decompose, increasing herbaceous competition.

Geotextile fabrics reduce the rooting ability under organic mulches. However, plants in the

humid east thrive in organic mulches, and their

feeder roots can penetrate the underlying geotextile to obtain required nutrients and moisture.

Using exposed geotextile fabric without mulch

solves this problem, but then the uncovered fabric must be stapled down to prevent being entangled in mowers, blown away, or washed

away during floods. Weed control fabrics are

available from sources listed in the Appendix.

Herbicides can control herbaceous competition

without the preceding drawbacks, particularly

where tree shelters are present to isolate seedlings from control measures. Post emergent application of a mixture of Oust® and AccordTM

controls grasses and broadleaf annuals and perennials. A clear zone of four feet in diameter

will substantially promote the vigor of the seedlings compared to no treatment. Two to three

years of control will successfully release the

seedlings from grass and forb competition. Outside of the clear zone, selective control of

broadleafs by EscortTM will direct succession to

warmseason grasses, which have a high wildlife

value and pose less competition for desired

woody species. Herbicide application is less

expensive and more flexible over the establishment period than repeated mowing, and it will

result in more rapid establishment of the riparian forest buffer.

For control of vines and woody species, the procedures are similar to that involved for site

preparation on early successional sites. Selection cutting of trees and basal sprays are needed

from time to time to control undesirable species

as the riparian trees grow. Adjacent upland

source areas may need to be controlled by foliar

spraying as conditions warrant. By using a

regular maintenance regimen, the success of a

new riparian forest buffer will be assured.

References

Coughlin, R.E., J.R. Denworth, J. Keene, and

J.W. Rogers. 1992. Guiding growth: building

better communities and protecting our countryside. PA Environmental Council, Philadelphia,

PA.

Dick, R.C. 1991. Cartographic modeling of

riparian buffers. In M. Heit and A. Shortreid,

editors, GIS Applications in natural resources,

GIS World, Inc. Ft Collins, CO.

Dillaha, T.E. 1993. Development of a buffer

zone evaluation model/procedure. Report to the

Virginia Council on the Environment Coastal

Resources Management Program by Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and University,

Blacksburg, VA.

Dirr, M.A. 1983. Manual of woody landscape

plants. Champaign IL. Stipes Publishing Co.

Flint, H.L. 1983. Landscape plants of Eastern

North America. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Section VII

7-35

Hightshoe, G.L. 1988. Native trees, shrubs and

vines for urban and rural America. New York.

Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Lorenz, D.G., W.C. Sharp, and J.D. Ruffner.

1991. Conservation plants for the northeast.

USDA Soil Conservation Service. Program Aid

1154.

Miller, J.H. and R.J. Mitchell (editors). 1994.

A manual on ground applications of forestry

herbicides. USDA Forest Service. Mgmt. Bull.

R8-MB21. Atlanta, GA.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 1996.

Riparian forest buffer technical standard #392.

NRCS - Watershed Center, Seattle, WA.

Redington, C.B. 1994. Plants in wetlands.

Kendall Hunt Publishing Co.

Schueler, T. 1995. Site planning for urban

stream protection. Metropolitan Washington

Council of Governments and Center for Watershed Protection, Publication # 95708, Environmental Land Planning Series, Washington, DC.

Welsch, D. 1991. Riparian forest buffers. NAPR-07-91, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern

Area, Radnor, PA.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Chesapeake Bay Program. 1995. A framework for

habitat restoration. Living Resources Subcommittee, Annapolis, MD.
Section VIII

Streamside Stabilization as a Component of Riparian Restoration

Introduction ..........................................................................................................8-1

Stabilization Techniques ......................................................................................8-1

Planning for Streambank and Channel Restoration .............................................8-4

Construction Techniques and Materials...............................................................8-5

Tree Revetments...................................................................................................8-5

Live Stakes .........................................................................................................8-10

Live Fascines......................................................................................................8-12

Brushlayer ..........................................................................................................8-13

Branchpacking....................................................................................................8-15

Live Cribwall......................................................................................................8-17

Lunker Structures ...............................................................................................8-18

Other Innovative Methods..................................................................................8-20

Guides and Manuals for Streambank Stabilization............................................8-21
Section VIII

8-1

Introduction

It is difficult to find an undisturbed stream in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed. For centuries,

people have altered the landscape and the flow

of streams and rivers for a variety of reasons:

flood control, roads, power, agriculture and

development, aesthetics, and even erosion

control or “stabilization.” Unfortunately, most

manipulations of the stream and its riparian area

did not take into consideration the natural

dynamic processes at work in the stream

channel and flood plain. Nor did they take into

account the vital role of the stream environment

to wildlife, fish, and the function of the

downstream ecological system. The result is

many unstable, degraded streams and

watersheds.

Although establishing a riparian forest buffer

will not always require stream stabilization, all

successful stream stabilization efforts include

the replanting of natural woody riparian

vegetation.

Aside from direct damage to streams or

streambanks, other disturbances are more subtle

and occur over long periods of time, creating

chronic stress on streambanks and channels.

Continuous grazing by livestock slowly

degrades streams and rivers. Another example

of degradation is the gradual increase in

impervious surface in a watershed because of

development and repeated sedimentation. The

view people have of most streams is a distorted

one, because they often see unstable conditions

altered by lifetimes of continuous impact.

Stabilization Techniques

Evaluation of a site for establishment of a

riparian forest buffer often highlights the need

for additional actions to stabilize the stream or

protect the channel itself through stabilization or

control of bank erosion. In this way, planning

for stream restoration, fishery enhancement,

bank stabilization, and riparian buffer planting

can be integrated. Although streambank

stabilization work may not always be needed to

establish a riparian forest buffer, planting of

native woody vegetation is always a

recommended component of a stream restoration project.

Finding the “Cure”

In order to control erosion, the approach to

streambank management must be compatible

with the nature of the stream and the

composition of its streambanks. Before

restorative measures are applied to actively

eroding streambanks, it is essential to

understand what is causing the erosion problem.

Otherwise, time and money are wasted. It is

necessary to look at the streambank as part of

the channel, the channel as part of the stream,

and the stream in relation to its watershed

(Figure 8-1). Like a doctor with his patient,

diagnosing a stream's health and erosion

problems usually involves some detective work.

Too often, many of the actions taken by people

to control stream erosion focus on treating the

symptoms of a problem rather than curing its

disease. Unfortunately, many of the techniques

used to control erosion at a single point on a

stream have actually accelerated erosion or

degraded downstream conditions. Focusing on

the restoration of natural vegetation and the

Streamside Stabilization as a Component of

Riparian Restoration
Section VIII

8-2

form and function of channels may be the best

approaches to maintaining the “patient’s” health

over the long term.

Using Non-Structural Erosion Control

Many effective means of streambank erosion

control are available, but each technique will not

work equally well in every situation. Many

ineffective and costly techniques attempted in

the past have often tried to solve long-term

problems with quick solutions. For example,

dumping rocks or other materials into the

streamin the eroding area may do more harm

than good. In some cases, streambanks will need

engineering solutions to protect important

structures, such as real estate or utility poles. In

most cases, however, techniques that result in

“hardened” channels, that is, concrete and riprap, should be avoided.

Helping Mother Nature heal herself by using

natural processes to guide a streambank back to

a stable condition is most likely to achieve longterm success. “Biotechnical” approaches, as

they are called, have other important benefits.

They are dramatically lower in cost, and they

reclaim a more natural appearance and stream

equilibrium. These approaches are also easily

incorporated in the riparian forest buffer.

Non-structural approaches are differentiated

primarily by their reliance on vegetation as a

major component of the stabilization technique.

Using cuttings of willow and other woody

shrubs and trees that root from the stem is a

highly successful and inexpensive treatment.

Used as stakes, fascines, brush mats, or layered

in a stream bank, woody plants are combined

Woody vegetation is the best streambank

stabilizer. A goal of stabilization should

always be to maintain and increase

streamside trees and shrubs.

Figure 8-1. Illustration of streambank erosion and deposition.
Section VIII

8-3

with placement of log cribs, boulders, stones, or

other structural features.

To be successful, stream stabilization projects

should be carefully planned with the help of

technical experts, take a watershed approach,

and incorporate solutions that protect habitat,

water quality, and aesthetics.

Using a “Natural Channel Systems

Approach”

Despite a wealth of knowledge and experience

with low-cost, sustainable, and ecologically

sound stream restoration techniques, streams

continue to be channelized, diked, dammed, and

hardened by rocks and concrete. The goal of

stream restoration should be to design and

manage channels in a natural form., Until

recently, scientific principles of hydrology and

geomorphology had not been widely applied to

stream restoration techniques. The “Natural

Channel Systems Approach” recognizes the role

of hydrologic function of streams and rivers as

part in the overall health of the natural

ecosystem.

A healthy natural stream system should exhibit

two key characteristics:

• Physically, the stream system will be

dynamically stable. It will exhibit selfregulatory mechanisms that are stable over

time and adjust to accommodate changes in

water yields and sediment loads.

• Biologically, the stream and valley system

will be self-sustaining and self-regulating.

It will exhibit healthy ecological functions

manifested by productive vegetative

communities in the valley. The stream and

valley system will have healthy aquatic and

terrestrial communities supported by diverse

habitat.

Based on the Rosgen stream classification

system that characterizes how a channel changes

over time, the natural channel systems approach

aims to work with altered or eroding streams by

mimicking natural form and materials. Stream

restoration is carried out in such a way as to

approximate a channel width, depth, sinuosity,

and roughness that are compatible with channel

flow, sediment load, bed and bank materials,

and slope. By focusing on these natural channel

characteristics, restoration is more likely to be

stable and maintained over time. In addition to

the stability of natural channel design, this

approach incorporates natural materials and

vegetation in restoration. As a result, the end

product is more valuable from an aesthetic,

recreational, and habitat standpoint. In addition,

these approaches are more cost effective than

traditional engineering techniques.

The Role of Riparian Forest Buffers

With foresight to maintain riparian forests,

properly manage stream corridors, and avoid

land use practices that initiate erosion, unstable

streams or streambank erosion can often be

prevented. Woody vegetation is the best

streambank stabilizer. Reestablishing trees and

shrubs adjacent to stream channels should be

one of the goals of all restoration efforts. The

planting of a riparian forest buffer may even

help restore a stream over the long term,

Natural Channel Design Process

 CLIMATE GEOLOGY

 Hydrology Sediment

 Discharge Character

 Velocity Load

 Roughness

 ⇓

 Channel Character

 size + shape + pattern + slope

 bed and bank material + vegetation

 ⇓

 Character Of Restored Channel

 width - depth - slope - sinuosity - pattern

roughness - flood plain - riparian vegetation
Section VIII

8-4

provided the forest reaches maturity and is

extensive enough to allow natural stream

widening and migration over time. Riparian

buffer planting may be enhanced by simple

biotechnical approaches when streambank

erosion is present. Adding willow posts or

additional shrub planting in rows nearest the

stream may be appropriate.

Normally though, riparian forest buffers alone

should not be viewed as a stream restoration

technique. Trees and other vegetation cannot

quickly cure the erosion problems of an unstable

stream system. It is best to combine tree

planting with other stabilization and erosion

control practices. Many landowners, however,

may be unable to undertake the time or cost

involved in a major stream restoration project.

In these cases, RFBs may be used to achieve

habitat and water quality buffering values,

prevent further degradation of the stream, and

begin a natural healing process. The value of

the RFB to stream stabilization will be

maximized by placing priority on ensuring

adequate width and continuity of buffers in the

stream system.

Planning for Streambank and

Channel Restoration

Rivers and streams are complex systems.

Riparian forests are a part of these systems and

trees are an integral part of flood plain and

stream function. However, it is also the nature

of streams to change their course periodically.

Erosion of streambanks is often a natural part of

this process. To choose the best solution for a

given stream, a match must be made among the

local watershed conditions, the objectives of the

landowner, and the range of available

techniques. Before beginning a stabilization

project, the following steps should be taken:

• Determine the problems affecting the

stream.

• Establish the goals of the project.

• Develop a stabilization plan with

professional advice.

Simple Adjustments in the Riparian

Forest Buffer to Enhance Stabilization:

• Add 1-2 rows of high-density shrub

plantings closest to stream.

• Willow posting along streambank with

shrub row.

• Integrate biotechnical bank treatments.

• Expand the width of the buffer.

EROSION TYPES AND CAUSES

Type of Erosion Causes

General Bank Scour Increased discharge resulting from watershed changes; increased flow velocities

caused by reduction in channel roughness or increased gradient; removal or loss

of bank vegetation.

Toe Erosion and Upper Bank

Failure

Removal of unconsolidated or loose lower bank materials, especially along outside bends. Widespread toe erosion may be associated with bed lowering.

Local Streambank and Streambed

Scour

Scour of local lenses or deposits of unconsolidated material; erosion by secondary currents caused by flow obstructions and channel irregularities; loss of

bank vegetation. Local bed scour may be caused by channel constrictions and

flow obstructions. Some bed scour generally occurs below culverts.

Overbank Runoff Failure to provide adequate means of directing concentrated flows from overbank areas into the channel.

Sources: Adapted from Nelson R. Nunnally; Georgia State Soil & Water Conservation Commission.
Section VIII

8-5

• Obtain required permits and funding.

• Organize volunteers, materials, and

equipment.

• Implement the project.

• Provide follow-up maintenance and

monitoring.

A number of recent handbooks and guides

provide a wealth of design, installation, cost,

and effectiveness information on a variety of

stream stabilization and stream restoration

techniques. A list of references is provided at

the end of this section.

Construction Techniques and

Materials

Before constructing any of the following

structures, a permit may be needed from the

State Environmental Protection Agency or

Division. It is also important to diagnose the

problem and determine what the stream is doing

before any work is done to stabilize its

streambank. Some stabilization techniques, if

not planned adequately, can do more harm than

good to the streambank.

To protect the streambank during installation,

preserve as much of the existing vegetation as

possible. Hand equipment will not do as much

potential damage as heavy motorized

equipment. As a rule, willows are the most

effective species in most of these applications.

Their matted roots will form a natural barrier to

erosion. They are also easily propagated from

cuttings. However, a number of other species

show promise. Species are listed in Table 8-1.

Following are seven common soil bioengineering techniques.

Tree Revetments

Tree revetments (Figure 8-2) are made by

anchoring trees along a lake shore or

streambank. Revetments are used to control

erosion on cut and fill slopes subject to scour

and undermining. The vegetation will stop or

prevent erosion and shallow sloughing on or at

the slope face above the toe.

GENERAL CONDITIONS

 FREQUENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH STABLE AND ERODING BANKS

Characteristic Stable Bank Eroding Bank

Bank Slope 1 H to 1 V (Horizontal to Vertical)

or flatter; may be stepped or benched

with vegetated berm at toe

Often vertical or near vertical; may have mass of

sod or other failed material at toe

Bank Cover May have variety of vegetation

growing on slope, including ferns or

moss

General absence of vegetation

Trees Often has trees growing on bank or

on the bed at toe

Standing live or dead trees inside the bank line,

often leaning toward channel; fallen trees may obstruct flow

Bankline Relatively uniform or smoothly

curving

Irregular, sometimes with scalloped appearance

Sediment Sediment located in bars; bars may

be partially stabilized by vegetation

especially along bank toe

Entire bed may be covered with sediment, bars not

stabilized

Sources: Adapted from Nelson R. Nunnally; Georgia State Soil & Water Conservation Commission.
Section VIII

8-6

Where applicable

• Small to medium banks that are unstable

because original trees have been cleared

away. The eroding bank should be less than

12 feet high.

• Most effective on moderately eroding sites (1

to 3 feet of bank erosion annually).

Advantages

• Inexpensive and effective way to slow wave

action along the eroding shore.

Disadvantages

• For severely eroding sites, tree revetments

should be backed by an additional method.

Effectiveness

• Provide excellent fish and wildlife cover that

is absent on eroding, bare banks.

• Will cause a new bank to form as silt and

other material becomes deposited along the

bank and within tree branches.

• Will enable a good seed bed to form where

local lake shore species, such as willow, can

sprout and grow.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing – During any season, but late winter

and early spring are the best times.

• Preparation – Cut fresh cedar trees.

• Installation

1. Trees are moved to the top of the

eroding bank, then pulled into the

stream, one at a time.

2. Construction begins at the downstream

end of the eroding streambank. The tree

is anchored firmly against the eroding

bank with its butt end pointed upstream.

3. Trees can be anchored using steel Tposts, screw-in anchors, or driven earth

anchors.

4. A cable, 3/16 inches or larger, is

attached to a T-post, driven into the

bank, then the cable is wrapped around

the tree, and secured with a common

cable clamp.

5. The next tree is then moved into place,

with its top overlapping the butt of the

first tree, so that no gap exists between

the two.

6. The cable used to anchor the butt of the

first tree is then secured to the top of the

second tree. This process is continued

upstream until the entire streambank is

covered with trees.

7. A riparian forest buffer, 35 to 100 feet

wide, should be established along the

stream.

GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR ESTABLISHING SEVERITY OF EROSION

Degree of Erosion Characteristics

Stable to Mild Little or no evidence of erosion; if eroding banks are

present, they are small in extent (linear extent less

than average bank height) and rates are modest (less

than 1⁄2 foot per year); greater erosion may be tolerated at bends if it causes no associated problems.

Moderate Extent of problem or rate of erosion exceeds criteria

for stable class, it is less than severe.

Severe Erosion covers large area of bank (linear extent

greater than three times average bank height) and is

occurring at a rate in excess of one foot per year or a

rate that is unacceptable for safety, environmental, or

economic reasons.

Sources: Robbin B. Sotir & Associates; Georgia State Soil & Water Conservation Commission.
Section VIII

8-7

Table 8 - 1

Plants Suitable for Use as Unrooted Hardwood Cuttings

Species Region Tolerance

to Flooding

Tolerance

to Drought

Tolerance to

Deposition

Tolerance

to Shade

Acer negundo

Boxelder

C,P,M H H H L

Baccharis halimifolia

Groundsel bush

C, P

(lower)

MM H L

Cornus amomum

Silky dogwood

P, M L M L M

Cornus stolonifera

Red osier dogwood

P, M L M H M

Crataegus spp.

Hawthorn

C, P, M M H L L

Ligustrum sinense

Chinese privet

C, P, M H M M M

Populus deltoides

Eastern cottonwood

C, P, M M M H L

Salix interior

Sandbar willow

C, P, M H L H L

Salix nigra

Black willow

C, P, M H H H L

Salix purpurea

Streamco willow

C, P, M H M H L

Salix x cotteri

Bankers willow

P, M H M H L

Sambucus canadensis

American elderberry

P, M H M M M

Viburnum dentatum

Arrowwood viburnum

C, P, M M M M M

Viburnum lentago

Nannyberry viburnum

C, P, M M M L M

Robinia pseudoacacia

Black Locust

P,M L H M L

Source: Adapted from the USDA Soil Conservation Service Engineering Field Handbook, Chapter 18.

Legend:

Tolerance to flooding, drought, deposition, and shade

H=high, M=medium, L=low

Region

C=Coastal Plain, P=Piedmont, M=Mountains
Section VIII

8-8

EVERGREEN REVETMENT WORKSHEET

Source: Ohio Stream Management Guide No. 12

1. Determine water depth at toe of bank slope under normal water level conditions.

A. If more than 3 feet, then revetments may not stabilize the bank.

B. If 3 feet or less, then revetments should work.

2. Determine streambank soil type and anchoring method by using 3⁄4 inch steel rod (scrap rebar) to

probe at least 4 feet into channel bottom and streambank.

A. If bedrock is less than 4 feet below streambank, anchors won’t hold.

B. If bedrock is more than 4 feet below surface, and soils are rocky, use T-post or duckbill anchor.

C. If bedrock is more thant 4 feet below the surface, and soils are sand, silt, or clay, use T-post.

3. Determine size of channel constriction the revetment will cause, and optional approaches.

A. Difference in elevation (in feet) from top of eroded bank to toe of bank slope = ______ (3A).

B. Tree crown diameter (in feet) needed = answer to 3A x 0.67 = ______ (3B).

C. Tree crown radius = answer to 3B x 0.5 = ______ (3C).

D. Measure stream width (average) in feet at revetment site = ______ feet (3D).

E. Percent constriction caused by revetment = (3C ÷ 3D) x 100 = ______ % (3E).

F. If answer to 3E is less than 15%, then one row of anchored trees should work. At least two rows

are recommended if bank height will accommodate them.

G. If 3E is greater than 15%, a second row is needed, but with smaller diameter tree crowns. Also,

the narrower the stream width, the greater the likelihood water will overtop one row.

4. Determine total length (in feet) of trees needed.

A. Length of bank needing coverage by the revetment (measure beyond area of exposed soils) =

______ feet (4A).

B. Total length of trees needed, accounting for tree overlap during construction = 4A x 1.2 =

______ feet (4B).

5. Determine number of trees needed.

A. Number of trees needed for one row = total length of trees needed (4B) ÷ estimated average

height of trees available = ______ trees for one row (5A).

B. Height of revetment = height of area needing protection, measured vertically from the toe of the

slope up to a point 1-2 feet above where flows will spread out across the low bank into the flood

plain = ______ feet (5B).

C. Number of rows up the bank = 5B ÷ estimated average compressed tree crown diameter (cedar

and arborvitae compress more than fir trees) = ______ (5C).

D. The number of rows up the bank is also the number of trees in a “set”, the number of trees

needed for one row = the number of sets needed. 5A = ______sets (5D).
Section VIII

8-9

E. Estimated total number of trees needed for the revetment = 5A x 5C = ______ trees (5E).

F. If height or diameter of trees found available is different than the estimate, re-calculate number

of trees, anchors, clamps and cable length needed, and adjust purchases.

6. Determine the number of anchors needed.

A. For a one-row revetment, the number of anchors = 1 + number of trees in one row = ______

anchors.

B. For a multiple-row revetment, the number of anchors = 2 x number of sets + 2 = ______ anchors.

7. Determine the number of cable clamps (sized for cable) needed = 2 x the number of anchors______.

Bring extra clamps to replace any lost in the water. Some lost clamps can be retrieved with a large

magnet.

8. Estimating the amount of cable or wire needed, especially for multiple row revetments, is difficult

considering the difference among tree species on how much they will compact when wrapped with

cable. Use the following guidelines.

A. When using cable, 1⁄4 inch steel aircraft cable is flexible and adequate in most circumstances. If

in real doubt, double it, but washouts rarely happen because of a 1⁄4 inch cable breaking.

B. When the revetment will have one row of trees, the amount of cable/wire needed to wrap around

the trees = (4 feet x the number of anchors (6A)) + 20% = ______ feet of cable or wire (8C).

C. When the revetment design is for multiple rows, the amount of cable needed = (2 x revetment

height (5B)) x (the number of sets + 1 ) + 20% = ______ feet of cable or wire (8D).

D. If you are using anchors without pre-attached cable for sinking into the soil, you must estimate

the depth of your anchor installations, add 0.5 to 1.0 foot more for a loop to clamp the cable

onto the anchor, multiply that sum times the number of anchors, and add that total to your

results for 8C or 8D, whichever is applicable.

Example

A revetment covering 200 feet of eroded bank needs 240 feet of trees to cover the first row (200 x 1.2 =

240). (See worksheet items 4A and 4B). If using 8 foot trees, 30 trees are needed for a one-row

revetment (240 ÷ 8 = 30) or 30 sets of trees are needed for a multiple row revetment (see 5D). If the

revetment needs to cover an eroded area 5 feet high, and the average tree crown diameter is 2 feet, then

the revetment needs to have 3 rows [(5 ÷ 2 = 2.5)(round up to 3)(see 5C)]. Three rows x 30 sets = 90

trees needed (see 5E). Sixty-two anchors are needed (2 x 30 sets + 2 = 62) (see 6B) and 124 clamps (see

7) are needed. Each set needs 10 feet of cable for wrapping (2 x 5 feet eroded area height), so 10 feet per

set x (30 sets + 1) = miminum 310 feet of cable needed (see 8D). Purchase an additional 20% for a

margin of error. Cut the cable in lengths of 10 feet per set at first. If you find less cable is needed for

wrapping, reduce that length, saving cable for its next use.

If using anchors without pre-attached cable, and they are to be sunk 3 feet into the streambank, add (3

feet + 0.5 to 1.0 foot for the loop) x (30 sets + 1) to the 310 feet minimum before calculating the 20%

extra and cut the cable in 13.5 to 14 feet lengths at first (see 8E).
Section VIII

8-10

Live Stakes

Live stakes (Figure 8-3) are living woody plant

cuttings capable of quickly rooting in the

streamside environment. The cuttings need to

be large and long enough to be tamped as stakes.

A common rule is to use stakes no smaller than

the size of a person’s thumb or index finger.

Where applicable

• Stakes are used on streambanks of moderate

slope (4:1 or less) in original soil, not on fill.

Advantages

• Enhances conditions for natural invasion and

the establishment of other plants, resulting in

a permanent, natural stabilizer.

• Use to stabilize intervening area between

other techniques.

• Economical, if cuttings are available locally.

• Can be installed quickly with minimum labor.

Disadvantages

• Will not stabilize the bank until top growth

has occurred.

• Will be unsuccessful unless combined with

another method in areas of active erosion or

on streams with high fluctuation of flow.

Effectiveness

• A very effective stabilization method once

vegetation is established.

• An effective barrier to siltation from erosion

of adjacent land.

Figure 8 - 2. Tree Revetments. (Source: Missouri Department of Conservation, no date)
Section VIII

8-11

• An effective method for increasing vegetative

cover along a stream where existing

vegetation is sparse.

• Most effective on small earth slips and

slumps that are frequently wet.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing - Dormant season (generally

November to March) at low water levels.

• Sizes - The cuttings are usually 1/2 to 1-1/2

inches in diameter and 2 to 3 feet long.

• Preparation - The cuttings must be alive,

with side branches cleanly removed, and with

bark intact. The basal ends should be cut at

an angle for easy insertion into the soil. The

top should be cut square. Materials should be

installed the same day they are prepared.

• Installation

1. Tamp the live stake, at any point on the

slope face, into the ground at right angles

to the slope.

2. The stakes should be installed 2 to 3 feet

apart, using triangular spacing. The

density of installation will range from 2

to 4 stakes per square yard.

3. The buds should be oriented up.

4. Four-fifths of the length of the live stake

should be installed into the ground with

soil firmly packed around it.

5. Do not split the stakes during

installation.

6. An iron bar can be used to make a pilot

hole in firm soil.

Figure 8 - 3. Live Stakes. (Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1992)
Section VIII

8-12

Live Fascines

Live fascines (Figure 8-4) are long bundles of

branch cuttings bound together into sausage-like

structures. They are secured into the

streambank with live or dead stakes. They are

often used in combination with other techniques

and will provide stability while other vegetation

takes root.

Where Applicable

• Used to protect banks from washout and

seepage, particulary at the edge of a stream

and where water levels fluctuate moderately.

• Used on all sizes and classifications of

streams.

Figure 8 - 4. Live Fascines. (Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1992)
Section VIII

8-13

Advantages

• Will not cause much site disturbance, if

installed properly.

• Are economical where materials are locally

available.

• Are effective at the water’s edge even before

the cuttings have rooted.

• Grow into a durable, natural appearing

installation.

Disadvantages

• Hand labor is required.

• Wide spreading branches cannot be used.

• Not recommended where surface drainage

occurs over the face of the streambank.

Effectiveness

• Immediately reduce surface erosion or rilling.

• Are suitable for steep, rocky slopes, where

digging is difficult.

• Are capable of collecting sediment.

• Enhance vegetative establishment by creating

a microclimate conducive to plant growth.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing - Construction must occur in the

dormant season.

• Sizes - Fascines can be 15 to 20 feet long.

The bundles are 6 to 8 inches in diameter

when prepared. The branches contained in

the bundle should be at least 4 feet long and

have a maximum trunk diameter of 1 inch.

The wire for bundling should be 1/10-inch in

diameter or larger.

• Preparation - Cuttings must be from a

species that roots easily and has long, straight

branches. Young willows or shrub dogwoods

are ideal. The cuttings are placed in bundles

with the butt ends in the same direction and

wired together every 12 to 18 inches. Live

stakes should be 2 to 3 feet long and should

be placed through and below the fascine.

• Installation

1. Beginning at the base of the bank at

mean low water level, tamp stakes in a

row across the slope.

2. A shallow trench as deep as the diameter

of the fascine is dug above the stakes.

3. Place the bundles in the trench.

4. Tamp more stakes through the bundles.

5. Live stakes should be spaced approximately 12 inches apart. Extra stakes

should be used at joints. Leave the tips

of the stakes 6 inches above the soil.

6. Cover the bundles with soil from above

and tamp firmly.

7. Walk on top of the bundles to eliminate

any air.

8. To minimize drying of the soil, trenching

should not precede placement of the

bundles by more than one hour.

9. Fascines should be prepared immediately

before installation and must be stored in

a moist, shady location.

10. The sequence proceeds layer by layer up

the slope with trenches about 3 feet

apart. Twigs at the top of the bundles

should protrude above the soil.

Brushlayer

The Brushlayer Method (Figure 8-5) is similar

to live fascine systems because they both

involve the cutting and placement of live branch

cuttings on slopes. In brushlayering, the

cuttings are oriented more or less perpendicular

to the slope contour. Brushlayering consists of

placing live branch cuttings in small benches

excavated into the slope.
Section VIII

8-14

Where applicable

• Recommended on slopes up to 2:1 in

steepness and not to exceed 15 feet in vertical

height.

• Benches can range from 2 to 3 feet wide.

Advantages

• Performs several immediate functions in

erosion control, earth reinforcement, and

mass stability of slopes.

Disadvantages

• Cannot install in dry conditions.

• More difficult to install than other techniques.

Effectiveness

• Breaks up the slope length into a series of

shorter slopes.

• Reinforces the soil as roots develop, provides

slope stability, and allows vegetative cover to

become established.

Construction guidelines

• Timing - Seedlings do not have to be

dormant, but construction should be done

during spring or fall.

• Sizes - Branch cuttings should be 1⁄2 to 2

inches in diameter and long enough to reach

the back of the bench. Side branches should

remain intact for installation.

• Preparation - See size.

• Installation

1. Starting at the toe of the slope, benches

should be excavated horizontally, on the

contour, or angled slightly down the

slope, if needed to aid drainage. The

bench should be constructed 2 to 3 feet

wide.

2. The surface of the bench should be

sloped so that the outside edge is higher

than the inside.

3. Live branch cuttings should be placed on

the bench in a crisscross or overlapping

configuration.

4. Branch growing tips should be aligned

toward the outside of the bench.

5. Backfill is placed on top of the branches

and compacted to eliminate air spaces.

The brush tips should extend slightly

beyond the fill to filter sedimentation.

6. Each lower bench is backfilled with the

soil obtained from excavating the bench

above.

SELECTED EROSION PROTECTION MEASURES FOR STREAMBANKS

Erosion Problem Streambank Protection Measures Ranked by

Environmental Benefits

General bank scour 1. Brushlayer

2. Live fascine

3. Live staking

Toe erosion and upper bank failure 1. Live cribwall

2. Brushlayer with rock toe

Local streambank scour 1. Branchpacking

2. Live cribwall

3. Live fascine with erosion control fabric

Overbank runoff Intercept and divert runoff and repair damage with:

1. Branchpacking

2. Live fascine

3. Live staking with erosion control fabric

Adapted from Robbin B. Sotir & Associates; Georgia State Soil & Water Conservation Commission
Section VIII

8-15

7. Long straw or mulching material with

seeding should be placed between rows

on 3:1 flatter slopes, while slopes steeper

than 3:1 should have jute mesh or similar

material placed in addition to the mulch.

8. The brushlayer rows should vary from 3

to 5 feet apart, depending upon the slope

angle and stability.

Branchpacking

Branchpacking (Figure 8-6) is alternating layers

of live branches and soil incorporated into a

washed out streambank. Branches are used

above and below the water surface. The

branches above the water line root to form a

permanent installation while those below the

water line provide initial stability.

Where Applicable

• Banks that have had washouts.

• A scoured hole or localized stump. These

hollows should not exceed 12 feet in length, 5

feet in width, or 4 feet in depth.

Advantages

• Plant materials are usually available locally.

• Is an economical method.

• Reliable in fast moving water.

• Produces a permanent, natural appearing

installation.

Disadvantages

• Large amounts of branches are required.

• Considerable labor is required.

Effectiveness

• Provides immediate soil reinforcement by

redirecting water flow.

• One of the most effective methods for

revegetating holes scoured in a streambank.

• Produces a filter barrier, reducing erosion and

scouring conditions.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing - Install during the dormant season.

Figure 8 - 5. Brushlayer. Rooted/leafed condition of plant material is not representative at time of installation. (Source: Darby Stream Team of the Darby Creek Watershed Partnership, 1996)
Section VIII

8-16

• Sizes - Live branch cuttings may range from

1⁄2-inch to 2 inches in diameter. They should

be long enough to reach original bank soil

with 12 inches left exposed on the stream

side. Stakes should be 6 to 8 feet long.

• Preparation - Live cuttings are required.

Soil and gravel are mixed and used as

alternate layers between brush layers.

• Installation

1. Starting below the water line, tamp

stakes vertically into the soil 3 feet apart.

2. Place a 3- to 5-inch layer of compressed

branches on the bottom of the washout

between the vertical stakes. Cover with

an 8- to 12-inch layer of soil and gravel.

3. The following layers of branches are

installed with the basal ends angled down

into the streambank, so that they are at

least 12 inches lower than the tip of the

branches.

4. Each layer of branches must be followed

by a layer of soil mix and compacted

thoroughly, tamping by foot, in order to

ensure soil contact with the branch

cuttings.

5. Succeeding layers of branches and fill

are alternated until the washout is

completely filled.

6. The top layer should be filled with soil

and gravel.

7. From the stream bottom up to the

average water level, large rocks (do not

use rocks from the stream) capable of

resisting the current may be placed over

the layers to prevent scour.

8. Tips of the branches must extend

beyond the soil layers to grow. The

basal ends must extend into the

undisturbed soil.

Figure 8 - 6. Branchpacking. (Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1992)
Section VIII

8-17

Live Cribwall

The live cribwall (Figure 8-7) is a rectangular,

hollow, interlocking arrangement of logs, rocks,

and woody cuttings that can protect an eroding

streambank or prevent the formation of a split

channel. The structure is filled with suitable

backfill material and layers of live branch

cuttings that root inside the crib structure and

extend into the slope.

Where Applicable

• Outside bends of main channels where strong

currents are present.

• An eroding bank that may eventually form a

split channel.

• Applicable on all character types to maintain

a natural appearance.

Advantages

• Useful where space is limited and a more

vertical structure is required.

• Provides immediate protection from erosion,

while established vegetation provides longterm stability.

• An economical technique, when local

materials and unskilled labor are used.

Disadvantages

• Construction depends on local availability of

logs and rocks.

• A more complex installation than live

fascines or branch packings.

• Not designed for or intended to resist large,

lateral stresses.

Effectiveness

• Very effective in controlling bank erosion on

fast-flowing streams.

• Not effective where the bed of the stream is

actively eroding, as undercutting of the

cribbing will result, even when the structure

has been keyed into the streambed.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing - Live cribwalls should be built

during low to normal flow conditions.

Construction must take place in the dormant

season.

• Sizes - Live branch cuttings should be 1⁄2 to 2

inches in diameter and long enough to reach

the back of the wooden crib structure. The

height of the cribbing should be 50 to 70

percent of the height of the bank. The height

should be greater when this method is being

applied where a vertical load, such as a road,

is present.

• Preparation - Logs should be bark free and

should range from 4 to 6 inches in diameter or

dimension. The lengths will vary with the

size of the crib.

• Installation

1. Dig out the cribwall base 2 to 3 feet

below the existing streambed.

2. Place the first front log parallel to the

bank.

3. Place the next series of logs at right

angles to the first parallel log.

4. Overlap the end of each right angle log

on top of the parallel log.

5. Secure each log in place.

6. Place fill in the openings and compact

the soil.

7. Place the second parallel log on top of

the right angle logs.

8. Install live cuttings on top of the parallel

logs at right angles to the streambank.

Place another fill layer.

9. Continue to place layers of logs, cuttings,

and fill until the desired height is

reached.

10. The top layer should be compacted fill.

The top log should be a parallel unit.

11. The upper end of the crib should be

protected by a riprap delfector to prevent
Section VIII

8-18

undercutting. The lower end should be

protected by riprap.

Lunker Structures

The “Lunker” technique combines willow posts

with the placement of large wooden pallets

(lunkers). Lunker structures (Figure 8-8) are

oak planks, oak blocks, and reinforcing rods put

together to form a crib-like structure. When

they are anchored to the streambed they provide

bank stabilization and an undercut shelter for

fish. They are designed to survive and function

well in trout streams as well as small warm

water streams.

Where Applicable

• Lunkers are used on severely eroding banks

and areas suffering from widespread erosion,

stream channelization, and removal of

riparian cover.

Advantages

• Lunker structures immediately provide

instream cover, while appearing natural and

helping stabilize the bank.

Disadvantages

• They are more difficult to install than other

methods. Heavy equipment is required to

install lunker structures. To be successful

they need additional structures, such as

culverts.

Figure 8-7. Live Cribwall. (Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1992)
Section VIII

8-19

Effectiveness

• Most effective in combination with additional

techniques on steep streambanks and on sites

that are severely eroded.

Construction Guidelines

• Timing - Construction should be done when

the ground is frozen or dry. If using willow

posts for further stabilization, the construction

should be during the dormant season.

• Sizes - Oak blocks need to be 6 to 8 inches in

length and diameter. Dormant willow posts

should be 10 to 12 feet long.

• Preparation - Oak blocks should be cut with

a chain saw and drilled with a 5/8-inch auger

bit. All blocks must be cut in the same

length. Site evaluation and preparation is

recommended. Stockpiling of materials, such

as rock, planking, and logs, is necessary.

Installation - For instructions on how to install

the lunker structure, see “The Use of Unit

Construction for Trout Habitat Improvement

Structures in the Coulee Streams of the La

Crosse Area” by David M. Vetrano, La Crosse,

Bureau of Fish Management, Wisconsin

Department of Natural Resources, Madison,

Wisconsin. There are also two videos on

installation. For more information contact

Donald Roseboom, Water Quality Section,

Illinois State Water Survey, Box 697, Peoria,

Illinois 61652.

STREAMBANK EROSION PROTECTION MEASURES’

RELATIVE COST AND COMPLEXITY

Measure Relative Cost Relative Complexity

Live stake Low Simple

Live fascine Moderate Moderate

Brushlayer Moderate Moderate to Complex

Live cribwall High Complex

Branchpacking Moderate Moderate to Complex

Lunker High Moderate to Complex

Conventional riprap Low to Moderate Simple to Complex

Conventional vegetation Low to Moderate Simple to Moderate

Sources: Robbin B. Sotir & Associates; Georgia State Soil & Water Conservation Commission.
Section VIII

8-20

Other Innovative Methods

There are two innovative stabilization

techniques that serve multiple-purposes of

stabilizing the streambank and the channel,

while providing for fish habitat improvement.

The native material bank revetment and the logspur bank feature are shown in Figures 8-9 and

8-10. The native material bank revetment serves

many functions. These include:

1. protects the streambank from erosion,

2. provides for instream and overhead cover

for fish,

3. provides shade, detritus, terrestrial insect

habitat,

4. looks natural, and

5. provides diversity of habitats.

Figure 8 - 8. Lunker. (Source: Vetrano, 1988)
Section VIII

8-21

The log-spur bank feature shown in

Figure 8-11 is designed for channel

stabilization. It also creates in-stream

cover.

Guides and Manuals for

Streambank Stabilization

There are numerous manuals and guides

available that provide useful information

for the design and installation of stream

stabilization and enhancement measures.

Most newer publications focus on the

preferred non-structural approaches, but

highlight a variety of techniques.

Figure 8 - 9. Native material bank revetment. (Rosgen, 1996)

Figure 8 - 10. Native material bank revetment. (Rosgen, 1996)
Section VIII

8-22

The following is a list of useful guides for

stream restoration and erosion control.

A Streambank Stabilization and Management Guide for Pennsylvania Landowners

Produced in 1986 by the Department of

Environmental Resources for the

Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program, this 75-

page guide provides an excellent overview of

the benefits and techniques of streambank

protection and stabilization. The guide

discusses basics of river character and erosion

processes and outlines the technical basics for

nine techniques: live staking, live fascines,

branch packing, crib walls, riprap, channel

blocks deflectors, stone walls, and gabions.

Copies of this booklet are available from the

State Bookstore, P.O. Box 1365, Harrisburg,

PA 17105 or contact the Pennsylvania Scenic

Rivers Program, P.O. Box 8761, Harrisburg,

PA 17105-8761.

Natural Channel Systems:

An Approach to Management and Design

Published in June of

1994, this guide was the

result of a cooperative

effort among the Ontario

Ministry of Natural

Resources, Canadian

Water Resources Association, Soil and Water

Conservation Society and

the American Fisheries

Society. The guide moves

away from traditional

techniques of stream

armoring and erosion and

flood control practices.

Drawing from the work of

Dave Rosgen, this guide

is an excellent overview

of the concepts and

practices of stream

stabilization using a

natural channel systems approach. The guide

focuses on management and design that

identifies ecological relationships between

stream channels, their riparian areas and flood

plains, and their watersheds. It recognizes the

dynamic nature of stream systems and the

need to “fit” stabilization practices into the

natural processes at work in a watershed.

Based on a system of stream classification that

characterizes how a channel changes over

time, the natural channel systems approach

aims to work with altered or eroding streams

by mimicking natural form and materials.

This approach uses physical processes in the

stream to achieve stable but naturally

functioning channels.

The publication is available from Ministry of

Natural Resources, Natural Resources

Information Centre, Room M1-73,

MacDonald Block, 900 Bay Street, Toronto

ON M7A 2C1, 416-314-2000.

Figure 8 - 11. Log-spur bank feature. (Rosgen, 1996)
Section VIII

8-23

Soil Bioengineering for Upland Slope

Protection and Erosion Reduction

This is Chapter 18 of the USDA Natural

Resources Conservation Service Engineering

Field Handbook (part 650), printed in 1992.

The publication provides detailed design and

construction descriptions and standards for

bioengineering practices such as live stakes,

fascines, brush layering, crib walls,

branchpacking, and gully repair. The

handbook also provides very useful

information about cutting and handling live

plant materials and site preparation. Chapter

18 of the Handbook can be obtained by

contacting The USDA Natural Resources

Conservation Service Field Office in your

area.

A Citizen's Streambank Restoration

Handbook

Written by Karen Firehock and Jacqueline

Doherty, this user-friendly handbook was

published by the Issak Walton League in

January of 1995. The publication provides a

great deal of background information helpful

in understanding watersheds and the dynamic

nature of streams, methods for stream

inventories and monitoring, and information

on planning a project. The guide includes

basic information on bioengineering

techniques. Case studies, bibliography, and

places to go for technical assistance are also

provided. The handbook can be obtained

from: Issak Walton League of America, Inc.,

707 Conservation Lane, Gaithersburg, MD

20878 or call 1-800-284-4952.

Guidelines for Streambank Restoration

Published in 1993 by the Georgia Soil and

Water Conservation Commission with the

help of Robbin Sotir, this is another excellent

guide to streambank stabilization techniques

using plant materials, structural methods, or a

combination of both. The techniques

described are intended for small streams with

relatively straightforward erosion problems.

A detailed description of erosion processes

and types and detailed drawings and

photographs add to the document. Copies

may be obtained by calling 706-542-3065.

Stream Obstruction Removal Guidelines

This short 1983 publication is well-illustrated

and effective in dealing with a subject rarely

addressed by most handbooks – when and

where to remove large woody debris in

eroding streams. The publication illustrates

differences between obstructions and valuable

debris and helps guide removal. Copies are

available from the American Fisheries

Society, 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD

20814.

Stream Corridor Management: A Basic

Reference Manual

New York State's manual on stream corridors

is more oriented to planning strategies for

corridor protection than to stabilization

techniques. However, it provides an excellent

overview of assessing land use impacts,

establishing planning goals and objectives,

and stream corridor management plans,

conservation options, best management

practices for stream protection and restoration,

and local planning and design strategies. The

manual is available from the New York State

Department of Environmental Conservation,

Bureau of Preservation, Protection, and

Management, Room 412, 50 Wolf Road,

Albany, NY 12233.

Applied River Morphology

Published in 1996 by Dave Rosgen, this book

provides a generous and detailed explanation

of the Rosgen stream classification system. It

describes how it might be used to incorporate

the observed processes of river mechanics into

restoration designs that enhance the beauty,

natural function, and health of stream

channels. Both scientific theory and field

techniques and principles useful for inventory,

evaluation, scientific theory and design are

provided with an abundance of detailed color

illustrations, diagrams, and photographs. The

book is available from Wildland Hydrology

Books at 970-264-7100, or fax 970-284-7121.
Section VIII

8-24

Unit Construction of Trout Habitat

Improvement Structures for Wisconsin

Coulee Streams.

Published in 1988 by David Vetrona, this

Administrative Report No. 27 provides aid

to those unfamiliar with coulee stream

habitat improvement. It explains how to

implement, with minimum problems, a

habitat improvement project using the

Lunkers design. The text includes a stepby-step description of construction and

installation of the Lunkers unit, as well as

information on site preparation, materials,

and the Wisconsin permit process. To

obtain more information or a video that

describes lunkers, contact Dave Vetrano,

3550 Mormon Coulee Road, LaCrosse, WI

54601 or call 608-785-9009.

Ohio Stream Management Guide No. 12

Evergreen Revetments.

This guide was prepared by Jim Bishop,

Kathy Smith, Randy Hoover, and Margo

Fulmer of the Ohio Department of Natural

Resources. It discusses where to use tree

revetments, and design and construction

guidelines. To obtain copies, contact the

ODNR Public Information Center, 1952

Belcher Drive, Building C-1, Columbus, OH

43224-1386, or call 614-265-6791.
Section IX

Agricultural/Rural Aspects

Introduction ..........................................................................................................9-1

The Stream System...............................................................................................9-2

Cropland...............................................................................................................9-3

Riparian Buffer Design for Cropland...................................................................9-4

Pastureland ...........................................................................................................9-4

Livestock Confinement or Concentration Areas ..................................................9-6

Farm Woodlots or Forest......................................................................................9-7

Putting It All Together .........................................................................................9-7

Plan Implementation and Riparian Forest Buffers...............................................9-7

Examples of How Riparian Forest Buffers Can Be Integrated into

Farm Streamside Management Systems .......................................................9-8

 Example 1. Crop Production Farm .........................................................9-8

 Example 2. Beef Cattle Operation ........................................................9-10

 Example 3. Dairy Farm .........................................................................9-11

Planning and Application Assistance.................................................................9-13

References ..........................................................................................................9-13
Section IX

9-1

Introduction

This section addresses the application of riparian forest buffers in an agricultural setting.

While it is readily recognized that riparian forest

buffers provide many benefits, this chapter primarily focuses on their importance in planning

and applying a conservation program on a farm

for the protection or maintenance of water quality. Other benefits will be briefly discussed to

demonstrate how they interact in the decision

process to determine the extent or application of

the buffers or other conservation practices.

Collectively, the fields and forests, lakes and

rivers, towns and cities make up an ecosystem.

Farm management, to a large extent, determines

the impacts a farm operation can have on the

larger ecosystem, in this case the Chesapeake

Bay Watershed.

Improvement and maintenance of water quality

is the single most important component for the

protection and restoration of the Chesapeake

Bay. Some farm operators have resource problems or concerns that they must address to meet

their needs and/or the community’s needs.

Agricultural/Rural Aspects
Section IX

9-2

The farmer who develops a conservation plan or

program for the farm will meet the objectives of

the farm unit and contribute to meeting the

Chesapeake Bay restoration objectives. This is

accomplished with planning that meets the agricultural producer’s objectives while protecting

the resources of the Bay. To do this, the entire

farm must be viewed, each field, forest, and

stream, to assess the potential for the degradation and protection of the water resource. If a

stream is running through the farm, it is important to inventory the condition of that stream.

The Stream System

 

Streams and the associated riparian vegetation

provide the linkage from one land use to another

and affect what conditions exist on farms downstream. Therefore, in conservation planning it is

important to inventory the stream system and

analyze its condition as impacted by adjoining

land uses and farms.

Examples of items that might be inventoried in

relation to the stream with consideration of

landowner objectives are as follows:

• The hydrologic setting. This information

helps determine the flow of water in the

stream system and the effectiveness of practices like riparian forest buffers for treating

pollutants.

• Soils along the stream channel. This provides information on species that are suitable

for planting on a particular soil.

• The stream channel condition. This focuses

on channel agradation or degradation. It determines whether practices adjacent to the

stream will be successful. Major problems

in stream degradation often require action by

many landowners or a whole community.

• Streambank erosion. Streambank erosion

degrades water quality and indicates the stability of the system.

• Streambank vegetation. Existing vegetation

is also an indication of the stability of the

system.

• Existing water quality entering the farm.

• Existing canopy over stream channel. This

provides guidance about water temperature.

• Large woody debris in the stream channel.

This provides an indication of the biological

quality of the stream. Large log jams that restrict or impede flow also indicate potential

problems that increase flooding and streambank erosion.

• Existing wetlands along streams.

• Existing water entry points along stream.

Example practices that address water quality

concerns along streams are:

• Stream channel stabilization. This involves

the use of structures, such as vortex rock or

“W” rock weirs to control where and how the

water flows.
Section IX

9-3

• Streambank stabilization (discussed in Section VIII). This is the establishment of

vegetation or supportive structural measures

along the streambanks.

• Grade stabilization structure. This practice

may be used to control how water enters the

stream system and prevents gullies.

• Wetland restoration. Restoring wetlands can

aid in the treatment of pollutants.

• Riparian Forest Buffer. This practice removes sediment and associated chemical

pollutants. It also intercepts and processes

nitrates and other potential pollutants in

shallow groundwater passing through the riparian area.

• Clearing and snagging. This is the removal

of log jams that are detrimental to the hydrology of the stream system. Care must be

taken to protect large woody debris that are

not threatening the hydrology of the system,

because it improves the biological food

chain.

Cropland

Because of the management inputs and intensity

of use, croplands are considered potential nonpoint source water quality problems. To address

the water quality concerns from cropland, the

existing resource conditions must be inventoried

and analyzed to assess the impact of the land use

and management on water.

Examples of the inventory items that affect water quality concerns relating to landowner objectives are:

• The soils of the cropland field. This provides

information on the movement of nutrients

and chemicals through the soil or the potential for chemical loss through runoff and erodibility of the field.

• The proximity of the cropland to a stream or

other body of water. Generally the closer the

source of pollution, the greater the risk to

water quality concerns.
Section IX

9-4

The hydrologic setting. This information can be

used to help estimate the flow path of water to

the stream system and the effectiveness of

planned practices.

• The present condition of the stream or water

body.

• The designated uses of the stream or water

body.

• The amount and kinds of erosion evident on

the cropland field.

• The types of crops grown.

• The lime, fertilizer, and pesticide application

program.

• Other land uses associated with the cropland

and stream system.

Conservation practices that address water quality concerns include the following:

 

• Conservation tillage and crop rotation. This

helps reduce sheet and rill erosion and improve soil tilth and infiltration.

• Terraces. This reduces sheet and rill,

ephemeral, and gully erosion.

• Nutrient and pesticide management. This

assures proper application rates and times. It

also confirms appropriate chemicals are

matched to the crop and site conditions to

minimize risk of leaching or runoff.

• Riparian Forest Buffer. Depending upon

the hydrologic setting and the soils of the

site, this practice becomes the last means of

intercepting sediment, chemicals, and associated pollutants in runoff or shallow groundwater before they enter the stream. Riparian

forest buffers generally include a grass filter

component when adjacent to cropland fields.

This reduces the risk of erosion and concentrated flow or runoff.

• Land use changes. Conversion from cropland to a less intensive land use, such as

hayland or forest on areas adjacent to stream

systems, generally reduces the risk of pollutants entering the stream system.

A combination of these or similar practices generally will assure an adequate plan to protect the

water resource from degradation. The farmer

can select the combination of practices that best

meets his objectives and achieves the identified

resource needs for water quality.

Riparian Buffer Design for

Cropland

The National Agroforestry Center in Lincoln,

Nebraska, the USDA Forest Service, and the

Natural Resources Conservation Service recommend a general, multi-purpose, riparian

buffer design that consists of the three-zone

concept described in Section I. The zones consist of grass, shrubs, and trees between the normal bank-full water level and cropland ranging

from 50 to 95 feet in width. This general design

requires 6 to 24 acres of land per mile on each

side of the streambank.

The general design works well in relatively flat

areas where streambanks are stable. Where nutrients are a problem, the buffer should be widened to 100 feet or more.

Pastureland

Grazing lands are considered a major source of

nonpoint water quality problems in some areas

depending upon management. Most often

problems relate to confinement of livestock or

livestock’s access to streams. To address the

water quality concerns of pastureland, the existing resource conditions should be inventoried
Section IX

9-5

and analyzed to assess the impact of the land use

and management on water. Examples of the

inventory items that affect water quality concerns relating to landowner objectives are:

• The hydrologic setting of the stream valley.

This information is used to determine the

hydrologic flow of water to the stream system.

• The soils in the pasture or grazing unit. This

provides information on the movement of

nutrients and chemicals through the soil, or

the potential for chemical loss through runoff

and erodibility of the field.

• The present condition of the stream or water

body.

• The designated uses of the stream or water

body.

• The kind and condition of the forage species.

• The amount and kinds of erosion evident on

the pasture.

• The kind and numbers of livestock.

• The grazing duration and time of grazing.

• Livestock concentration areas, i.e. the location, size, aspect, and slope.

• The proximity to the stream.

• Nutrient or chemical application.

Example practices that address the identified

concerns on pastureland include:

• Prescribed and rotational grazing. Good

grassland serves as an effective cover to

control erosion and filter sediment. A healthy

well managed stand of grass effectively utilizes the available nutrients and prevents nutrient transport to the streams. A grazing

management plan can be designed to rotate

pastures or to limit the intensity and duration

of grazing and animal access to the streams.

• Nutrient and pesticide management. The

application of fertilizers is done when optimum utilization of the grass is realized.

Pesticides, when appropriate for pest control,

are applied for the target species at the prescribed rates and timing to reduce potential

off-site damage.

• Livestock watering facilities. This provides

livestock water from ponds, pipelines, or

controlled access to streams. It also improves grazing distribution. This aids in reducing the impact and erosion potential on

concentration areas. It also prevents longterm uncontrolled access to streams.

• Livestock exclusion. This practice protects

the streamside vegetation from overgrazing,

trampling, or other impacts that degrade riparian vegetation or the stability of the

stream. Depending on the water quality concern and the intensity of the grazing management, livestock access to streams may be

permissible as long as the grazing intensity

does not negatively impact the stream or filtering function of the streamside vegetation.

• Riparian Forest Buffer. This practice is the

last line of defense for intercepting sediment,

chemicals, and associated pollutants in runoff or shallow groundwater before they enter

the stream. This practice often becomes the

last means of intercepting pollutants in the

form of sediment or chemicals in runoff or

shallow groundwater before it enters the

streams.

The riparian forest buffer provides shade to

small streams for temperature control and
Section IX

9-6

aids in streambank stabilization. Riparian

forest buffers generally do not require a grass

filter, i.e. Zone 3, when the area is adjacent

to grassland.

• Other special conservation practices.

Stream crossings, pasture planting, or fencing may be needed to facilitate livestock

management and improve the vigor of vegetation to effectively prevent water quality

degradation.

A combination of these or similar practices generally will assure an adequate plan to protect the

water resource from degradation due to production activities on the pasture fields. The landowner or user must select the combination of

practices that best meets the planned objectives

for the farm and achieves the identified resource

needs for water quality.

Livestock Confinement or

Concentration Areas

Livestock confinement systems or concentration

areas are readily identified as potential sources

for the degradation of water quality on many

farms. To assess the potential contribution of

pollutants, an inventory of the resource conditions and an analysis of their impact must be

made. The inventory relating to landowner objectives should include:

• The soils of the livestock confinement area

and the soils of the area directly adjacent to

it. This provides information on the movement of nutrients and chemicals through the

soil or the potential for nutrient loss through

runoff and shallow groundwater flows.

• The proximity of the livestock confinement

area to a stream or other body of water.

• The hydrologic setting. This information is

used to help determine the hydrologic flow

of water to the stream system and the effectiveness of practices like riparian forest buffers in treating pollutants of concern.

• The amount of animal waste produced (nutrients).

• The land uses within the farm boundaries or

available to the landowner.

• Existing water quality.

Example practices that address potential pollutants produced in animal confinement systems

are:

 

• Animal Waste Management Plan with the

following components:

1. waste collection and treatment.

2. a waste distribution system such as a honeywagon or fertigation system.

3. a soil plant filter – an area where animal

waste can be applied and plants will utilize the nutrients.

• Nutrient management. Application and timing of nutrients must be according to the

plants’ ability to utilize nutrients and the

soils limitations.

• Riparian Forest Buffers. Concentration

areas compact the soil, retard infiltration, and

destroy vegetative cover. This may result in
Section IX

9-7

excessive nutrient laden runoff during rainfall events. When streams or channels are

down gradient from concentration areas, riparian forest buffers are essential because

they can intercept nutrients from overland

flow or interflow. They should also be considered as a component of a waste management system between areas of wastewater

application and the stream system.

Farm Woodlots or Forests

 

The farm woodlots or forests should go through

a similar inventory and analysis to determine

management activities that may impact water

quality. Practices are assessed to determine

their effectiveness in maintaining or enhancing

water quality. This is covered in a separate section.

Putting It All Together

Once all land uses on the farm have been inventoried and evaluated, the farmer and the

natural resources professional decide together

the combination of practices that will address

water quality concerns. All the pieces have

been put together from cropland, pasture, forest,

and feedlot to form a Resource Plan. A Resource Plan addresses the needs of one or more

resources. In this case, the resource plan addresses water quality concerns. In some locales,

this is called a Water Quality Management Plan.

Farmers who manage or have forests in addition

to crop or pastureland may want to contact their

State Forestry Agency to participate in a Forest

Stewardship Plan.

A resource plan does not usually address all the

farm objectives. Other plans that do address all

the objectives of a farm are known as One

Plans, Conservation Plans, or Total Resource

Management Plans. These other objectives

could be such things as improved crop yields,

livestock and wood production, development or

enhancement of wildlife habitat, improved income, or outdoor recreation. A Conservation

Plan addresses the total resource concerns of the

landowner and the community, and it is made up

of several layers of resource plans.

 

Addressing the total resource concerns may

change the combination of practices or the extent of a practice to help it meet more than one

goal. For instance, the species or width of a riparian forest buffer may not depend only upon

its water quality functions, but also on its ability

to provide habitat for the specific wildlife species targeted.

Plan Implementation and

Riparian Forest Buffers

Once the planned decisions have been made,

implementation is required to produce the desired results. The role riparian forest buffers

play in protecting or enhancing water quality is

dependent upon the characteristics of the soils,

hydrology, and potential vegetation.
Section IX

9-8

The dimensions of the riparian forest buffers

depend on the existing and potential nonpoint

source pollutant loads and the minimum width

required to sustain the aquatic system. The

maximum width riparian forest buffer may be

required in order to maintain the effectiveness

of the practice because of the potential for excess sediment and other pollutants to overload

the system. For long-term sustainability, riparian forest buffers should be applied in an orderly

schedule with sound upland practices that include nutrient management and erosion control.

 

Riparian areas provide the interface between the

uplands where pollutants are produced and the

stream systems where they are transported offsite. Since it is such a fragile area, forest buffers are recommended as part of an overall water

quality management strategy in the Chesapeake

Bay. Riparian forest buffers also provide many

other benefits to the health of the stream environments. These benefits include: modifying

stream temperatures and light penetration, enhancing habitat diversity and serving as travel

lanes for wildlife, contributing to bank stability,

and providing a source of large woody debris

that enhances the food chain and species richness. These benefits are realized on all streams

regardless of the hydrologic setting, thus 35 feet

along all streams is recommended as a minimum. The final dimensions of riparian forest

buffers and the inclusion of the three-zone concept discussed in Section I are dependent upon

the soils and hydrology of the site. The soils

and hydrology determine the effectiveness of the

riparian forest buffer in intercepting and treating

the pollutant and the required width to meet

other associated benefits desired by the landowner or decisionmaker.

Examples of How Riparian

Forest Buffers Can Be

Integrated Into Farm Streamside

Management Systems

Three examples follow that use riparian forest

buffers as a conservation practice on a: 1) crop

farm, 2) livestock farm with pasture, and 3) a

dairy farm. Conservation practices are listed

under each example. It is easy to see that each

practice is designed to be used with other practices to form an efficient system that protects

soil and water resources. Specific recommendations are given for establishment and/or protection of the riparian forest buffer on each

farm.

Example 1: A crop production farm with fields

of 8 percent slope, planting a corn, soybean, and

hay rotation.

Conservation practices that will be installed are:

• Crop rotation - This practice alternates row

crop production from a high residueproducing crop, corn, to a low residueproducing crop, soybeans. Crop rotations

work best with conservation tillage, contour

stripcropping, and grassed waterways. Crop

rotation can be used to help control corn

rootworms.

• Contour stripcropping - Tilling, planting, and

harvesting are done around the hill nearly on

the level, rather than up and down the hill.

Crop strips are 100 feet wide.

• Conservation tillage leaving 30 percent residue - Conservation tillage is a cropping system that leaves at least 30 percent ground

cover after planting. Soil is worked with a

chisel and disk instead of a conventional

moldboard plow.
Section IX

9-9

• Nutrient management - First a nutrient management plan is developed. There are nine

steps in the process. They are:

æ test soil

æ analyze animal manure

æ calculate residual nitrogen from previous

legume crops and manure

æ determine the nutrients in the manure

and their value

æ determine how and when the manure

should be applied

æ determine what rate to use to apply the

manure

æ choose proper supplemental fertilizers

æ calibrate manure spreader

æ install proper erosion and surface runoff

control measures

• Pesticide management - A system of controlling agricultural pest infestations that includes cultural, mechanical, chemical, and

biological control of weeds, insects, diseases,

and other pests. Proper pesticide management reduces amount of pesticides used,

Example 1. A crop production farm with fields of 8 percent slope, planting a corn, soybean, and

hay rotation.
Section IX

9-10

costs, and potential for water contamination

by pesticides. Use erosion control practices

in conjunction with pest management to

minimize soil loss. This is especially important in areas adjacent to riparian areas

where pesticides may be toxic to fish and

other aquatic life.

• Grassed waterway - These are areas planted

to grass where water usually concentrates as

it runs off a crop field. Grass is planted in

the waterway, which results in slowing the

water and guiding it off the field, significantly reducing the chance of gully erosion.

• Riparian forest buffer - This is part of the

proper erosion and surface control measures

for the farm. On flat land portions, a threezone buffer was established that is 50 feet

wide. Width is increased on steeper slopes

to ensure that sediment can be captured. A

general approach sometimes used is to add 4

feet of buffer for every percent of adjacent

slope over 5 percent. An additional grass

filter strip at least 20 feet wide is also added

here as Zone 3.

Example 2: A 90-unit beef cattle operation

with 220 acres of pasture with a stream running

through a portion of it.

Conservation practices that will be installed:

• Stream crossing - This is a controlled area

where cattle are permitted to cross the

stream. It is placed in a narrow portion of

the stream, perpendicular to the stream. Ideally, the stream should have sloped banks

and a hard rock bottom. The crossing is made

from 4-foot-by-12-foot-long concrete waffle

slats (Figures 9-1 and 9-2). They can be purchased as seconds from a concrete products

manufacturer in your area. Each one weighs

2,200 pounds. This type of crossing provides excellent streambank stabilization and

sure footing for the livestock. Water flows

over the slats so debris does not accumulate

at the crossing. Cows tend to linger in the

crossing and use it as a watering source. If

this is a problem, an alternative water source

will have to be developed.

Figure 9 - 1. Top and end views of concrete slats. (Source:

Penn State Cooperative Extension, Pequea-Mill Creek Information Series #22)

Figure 9 - 2. Cross section of parallel concrete slat crossing. (Source: Penn State Cooperative Extension, Pequea-Mill

Creek Information Series #22)
Section IX

9-11

• Fencing - Fencing prevents streambanks

from eroding, reduces the amount of animal

waste entering streams, and protects vegetation. One or two strands of electrical fencing

are sufficient for cattle. Drop wires prevent

cattle from entering the stream at the cattle

crossing. Woven wire fence is not recommended for use in the flood plain because

debris can damage it. Fencing is set back

from the edge of the stream 35 feet or more

to prevent flood damage and allow for natural stream meandering.

• Streambank stabilization - After fencing is

installed, the streambank should be stabilized

if necessary.

• Rotational grazing system - Cattle are rotated

among 12 small pasture subunits called paddocks. Each paddock is grazed for two days,

and then allowed to regrow for several days,

ungrazed, until ready for another grazing.

• Pasture improvement - The soil is tested,

then proper amounts of lime and fertilizer are

added to the pasture. Planting of forage

crops is done to improve vigor and density of

pasture.

• Riparian forest buffer - After fencing, the

riparian area can begin to grow in naturally,

or trees and shrubs can be planted.

Example 3: Dairy farm barnyard with 100

cows located 300 feet from a stream.

Barnyards can be a major source of water pollution when heavy rains flush animal wastes into

streams. The cows in this example produce

1,300 gallons of manure a day. There are two

steps to controlling barnyard runoff: 1) reduce

the amount of clean water entering the barnyard,

and 2) clean up and control polluted water

leaving the barnyard.

Example 2. Beef cattle pasture that illustrates the use of a riparian forest buffer, stream crossing, and fencing for

stream protection.
Section IX

9-12

Conservation practices that will be installed:

• Roof runoff management - This is a simple

system of gutters and downspouts on barns

that keeps clean water from washing into the

barnyard. It is an effective way to control

and reduce runoff.

• Animal Waste Management - The barnyard

is concrete with curbing. New facilities will

have barns with floor grates (slats) that allow

animal wastes to be

washed directly into

an animal waste facility.

1. The barnyard

has a scrapeoff

area where

wastes are

scraped into a

waste storage

facility. This is

a two-part system. One part

holds solid

waste, and the

other part is a

pond, at a lower

level, into which

liquid flows by

gravity. The

solid waste and

liquid separate

into two areas.

Waste scrape

schedule must be

maintained.

2. Milk house water, which includes leftover

milk, water from

washing down

the milking parlor, must be directed into the

waste storage

facility.

3. Nutrient management - These

are the same steps described in Example

1.

• Riparian forest buffer - Forested portion,

Zones 1 and 2, are 100 feet wide.

• Fencing - This is described in Example 2.

Example 3. A dairy farm barnyard that illustrates the use of a riparian forest

buffer, roof runoff management, curbing, animal waste storage, and fencing

for stream protection.
Section IX

9-13

Planning and Application

Assistance

Assistance for resource planning at the field,

farm, or watershed level is available to landowners and groups or units of government from

several local, state, or federal agencies. They

are the:

• USDA Natural Resources Conservation

Service

• USDA Forest Service

• Local Conservation District

• Local Agent of the Cooperative Extension

Service

• State Forestry Agency

• Private crop consultants

• USDA Farm Service Agency

References

Dosskey, M., D. Schultz, and T. Isenhart. 1997.

A riparian buffer design for cropland. AF Note5. National Agroforestry Center, Lincoln, NE.

Dosskey, M., D. Schultz, and T. Isenhart. 1997.

How to design a riparian buffer for agricultural

land. AF Note-4. National Agroforestry Center,

Lincoln, NE.

Dosskey, M., D. Schultz, and T. Isenhart. 1997.

Riparian buffers for agricultural land. AF Note3. National Agroforestry Center, Lincoln, NE

FACTS ABOUT COWS IN THE STREAM

Did you know that...?

Í One cow produces approximately 5.4 billion fecal coliforms per day. If a cow is allowed to graze for a 24-hour period with unrestricted access to a stream, approximately 565 million fecal coliforms could enter the stream!

Í One defecation by a dairy cow produces enough bacteria to make the equivalent of six

backyard swimming pools unsafe for swimmers!

Í Water with a fecal coliform count of 100 per 100 ml is unsafe for swimming!

Í Fifty cows allowed unrestricted access to a stream for a 24-hour period could contaminate the equivalent of one day’s untreated water supply for the city of Baltimore!

Í Water with a fecal coliform count of 2 per 100 ml is unsafe to drink!

Í Bacteria entering the stream can result in disease transmission between and within

livestock herds.

Í Persistent exposure to wet conditions can lead to soft hooves and lame cows.

Í Persistent access to streambanks can eliminate fish habitat by trampling and silting,

destroying insect habitat, and elevating stream temperature.

Adapted from Upper Thames River Conservation Authority, Rural Clean Water Quality Program publication.
Section X

Silvicultural/Forest Management Aspects

Introduction ..............................................................................10-1

Factors Influencing Forest Resources Management..................................10-1

Landowner Types and Their Objectives in Riparian Management................10-3

Summary and Review of Silvicultural Systems......................................10-4

Managing the Riparian Forest Buffer.................................................10-13

Example Prescriptions..................................................................10-14

Forest Resources Protection ...........................................................10-14

References ..............................................................................10-24
Section X

10-1

Introduction

The management and protection of the forest

resource plays an important role in maintaining

and improving the health, productivity, and diversity of riparian areas which are vital to water

quality. Impacts to riparian forest buffers can

have both positive and negative outcomes.

Properly managed riparian forests can produce

forest products while protecting the stream and

continuing to provide diverse living resource

habitat. The role of riparian forest management

is to provide for the prudent sustainable use of

renewable natural resources while ensuring their

natural functions and values are not diminished

over time.

The following section outlines those specific

areas important to the active management of the

riparian area. Information regarding management includes: Factors Influencing Forest Resource Management, Landowner Types and

Their Objectives in Riparian Management,

Summary and Review of Silvicultural Systems,

Managing the Riparian Forest Buffer, Example

Prescriptions, and Forest Resources Protection.

Scope

Forestry activities are generally considered to be

among the least impacting land uses relative to

water quality. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, nutrients that result from forest management activities are estimated at two percent of

the total controllable loads. While forests alone

cannot cure the troubled condition of the Chesapeake Bay’s many watersheds, “forestry solutions” can help reduce pollution, restore and

protect habitat, and provide watershed

sustainability over the long term. Riparian forest buffers are one such solution.

Streamside management zones (SMZ), also

commonly referred to as riparian management

areas, generally serve the same function on forested lands as riparian forest buffers do on agricultural and urban lands (see definitions in

Section I). Many states specifically define the

width of SMZs by regulation and limit the type

of harvesting, timing of operations, amount harvested, or reforestation methods used. SMZs

are managed with only those silvicultural practices that will prevent soil disturbance within the

zone.

Factors Influencing Forest

Resources Management

Merchandising and Markets

The merchandising and subsequent marketing of

wood products are the key components to a

profitable timber harvesting operation. The

principles involved are the same no matter

whether the operation is in the riparian area or

not. Both of these activities are dependent on

the volume, type, quality, and species of the

product harvested. Merchandising is the organized sale of a particular product based on the

highest value obtainable and the available market. For example, in the riparian area, the value

of one particular length of green ash sawlog

might cause the logger to harvest the product to

maximize its merchantability.

Marketing is defined as the business activity

involved in moving the product from the production arena to the consumer. Using the example above, if the market for the green ash

sawlog was too far away to make it profitable,

the logger would have to re-consider his merchandising and market availability.

Silvicultural/Forest Management Aspects
Section X

10-2

Riparian area product marketing typically involves the merchandising of hardwoods such as

green ash, several varieties of oak, black walnut,

baldcypress, and other species. Hardwood lumber is traditionally sold by the thousand board

feet in random-length, random-width loads.

Furniture, millwork, and cabinets are the major

uses. The export market has grown significantly

since the mid-1970’s and continues to be a major influence on local hardwood sales.

Access

The ability to access a riparian area for forest

management purposes can dictate the profitability of an operation. Access to paved roads

where loggers can travel easily without risking

equipment breakdown or excessive cost is a plus

when seeking riparian area harvesting and management. Road building within 100 feet of

stream courses should be avoided, except where

stream crossings are required. Utilize existing

road layout and/or plan carefully using Best

Management Practices (BMPs) to limit riparian

area degradation.

Timber Quality

The value of the existing merchantable timber is

called the stumpage value. Stumpage values

directly influence the profitability of timber

growing as a business whether in the riparian

area or not. Stumpage value and quality are interrelated. The better the quality, the higher the

stumpage value. The number, type, and size of

trees available for harvesting within the riparian

area will dictate the stumpage value. Proper

management should always promote quality enhancement. State or local Natural Resource

Agency personnel should always be consulted

when considering riparian forest management

activities.

Public Acceptance to Forest Management

Activities

The public’s view of timber management has

changed most dramatically in areas where urban

dwellers move into the rural fringe. The general

public is aware of the potential impacts of timber management activities. Some of these activities can alter the landscape significantly,

even within the riparian area. The public outcry

to these activities can lead to problems for both

land manager and landowner and can influence

the extent to which landowners can practice forest management. Forest management is sometimes viewed only as timber management, but

forest management includes soil and water protection, wildlife habitat enhancement, and outdoor recreation amenities. Land managers

should use every opportunity to inform the public that forest management is not just managing

for timber.

Public acceptance can be increased if land managers follow guidelines that include the public’s

concerns. First and foremost, land managers

must have a pre-harvest plan that outlines the

activities that will take place, the time line, and

how they will be implemented. Items to be included are property boundaries, streams and

drainages, soil restrictions, slope, threatened and

endangered species, road locations, equipment

limitations, and timing of the activity.

Second, land managers should identify through

public display the nature of the activity. For

example, a road sign indicating a timber harvesting operation is taking place allows the

public to understand what is occurring within

the community.

Third, if any problems occur from the activity

such as mud on the highway during timber

transport, act immediately to correct the situation. Delay in correcting the situation will be

perceived as not caring and will result in negative public opinion.

Site Conditions and Site Quality

The timing of the management activity is dependent on the ability of the site to withstand

equipment. Any activity that causes excessive

soil erosion leading to sedimentation, or soil

rutting, should be halted until the activity can

take place without degradation. In conjunction

with the pre-harvest plan, sensitive areas should

be identified and extra care taken to protect
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these areas. Examples may include springs or

seeps, non-tidal or tidal wetlands, rare, threatened, and endangered (RTE) species, or limiting

soil types. Sensitive areas, equipment limitations, and soil types can often be found in the

local county soil survey available from the

Natural Resources Conservation Service

(NRCS).

Site Quality is a measure of the productivity of

the soil and is tied directly to timber quality.

Site Index (SI) is the quantitative instrument and

is defined as the height in feet of a tree in a certain number of years, usually 50. Site Indices of

50 to 70 are considered poor to fair, 70 to 80

good, and 90 and above excellent.

Landowner Types and Their

Objectives in Riparian

Management

Traditionally, there have been three different

types of forest landowners within the Chesapeake Bay Watershed:

1. non-industrial private,

2. industrial private, and

3. public.

Each landowner may have a different perspective in terms of forest management. These differences were more distinct in the past than they

are now. However, a discussion of these differences may be useful in assessing the feasibility

of riparian forest restoration efforts.

Non-Industrial Private Forest (NIPF)

Landowners

More than 77 percent of the land in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed is privately owned. This

is very important to the land manager because

these are the people with which he will have the

most contact. The value and beliefs system of

non-industrial private landowners stems from

long-held traditions of land holding with roots

from Colonial America. In addition, more nontraditional forest landowners, such as urban

dwellers and absentee landowners, offer a new

clientele. NIPF landowners hold multiple values regarding management of their lands. They

use it as a place to live while enjoying the natural and cultural resources of their property to

enhance the quality of life. In addition to this,

many landowners have adopted and practiced

voluntary conservation measures as a way to

maintain and manage their property. This

“stewardship” ethic involves both conservation

elements as well as economic investments. Any

riparian restoration and maintenance program

must be sensitive to both elements. In turn,

however, much progress in riparian forest conservation can be made through these landowners.

Industrial Private Forest Landowners

Forest product companies hold 10 percent of the

land base in the Bay watershed. Reasons for

land ownership historically have been more

“economic” in nature than NIPF landowners.

Forest industry typically practices “sustained

yield” whereby land is managed for continual

return of forest products rather than for other

non-commodity reasons. The situation has

changed, however, to an adoption of Sustainable

Forestry Principles. The principles constitute

the American Forest & Paper Association members’ commitment to sustainable forestry. These

Principles include practicing forestry that will

ensure that the resources will be there in the future, protection of the environment, forest health

and productivity, protection of special sites, and

continuous improvement of forest management.

Forest industry can now be more fully aligned

with the NIPF landowner than before, including

the restoration and maintenance of riparian areas. Cooperation with State and local agencies

is part of the Sustainable Principles and objectives.

Public Forest Landowners

Public lands occupy about 13 percent of the land

base in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Accessibility by the general public has been and continues to be the cornerstone to the existence of
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these lands. Public participation and collaboration in the planning and decision-making process for these lands is a key difference from

private land holdings. The term “Ecosystem

Management” has been coined as the definition

of public land management. Protecting and restoring the function and health of forest ecosystems, while providing for their sustainable use,

is the goal. This concept includes looking at

forests over time in the context of their landscape. Riparian area management is a key component of this sustainable management. The

location of these lands, typically in the more

mountainous regions of the watershed, is exceedingly important due to the nature of the resource. Wildlife habitat including native trout

waters, RTE species, as well as unique forest

ecosystems, inhabit these lands – requiring special consideration when planning management

activities.

Summary and Review of 

Silvicultural Systems

Silviculture is the art and science of tending a

forest. Silva is latin for forest, and cultura is

latin for tending. A more technical definition of

silviculture is the theory and practice of controlling forest establishment, composition, and

growth. Silviculture can be practiced at different intensities, depending on the landowner objectives and the amount of time and money that

is available for management. Very extensive

silviculture may be only fire protection. Extensive silviculture implies small expenditures on a

stand, perhaps fire protection plus some improvement cutting. Intensive silviculture often

requires large expenditures of time and money

on productive sites. Silvics, or forest ecology, is

the basis of all silviculture, and a thorough understanding of the principles of ecology is essential for good silviculture practice. The

adoption of various silvicultural systems available depends on balancing competitive uses and

objectives within the riparian area. The stewardship ethic of an interdisciplinary approach

that considers all aspects of forest management

is crucial to the success of riparian area management and maintaining and improving water

quality.

Often, however, the overriding factor in the

choice of a silvicultural system or systems is the

stumpage within the riparian area. The stumpage amount, value, and location dictates the appropriateness of any one system. Any

silvicultural system can work with any other

riparian value, such as wildlife habitat or aesthetics. A complete evaluation of the riparian

area prior to any management action is imperative so all appropriate forest resources can be

determined.

In this section, tree establishment within the riparian area will be discussed as well as those

silvicultural systems most likely to be utilized.

Some of the systems are more likely to be used

than others, however, a basic understanding of

these systems is useful to determine applicability to the local situation. As always with any

riparian management activity, local site knowledge and management system feasibility are best

obtained through the state forestry agency.

Tree Establishment

Tree establishment within riparian areas falls

into two land use classifications: agricultural

and urban. More specifically, tree planting near

streams involves other management actions and

is wholly dependent on the site itself. Tree establishment within these areas deals with

matching tree to site and ensuring survival by

instituting protective measures. Tree establishment is discussed in length in Section VII “Site

Evaluation, Planning, and Establishment.”

Tree establishment, whether in the agricultural

or urban setting, has several important common

elements. They are as follows:

1. maintenance of the riparian area width

through fencing or other means,

2. matching the best suited trees for that particular site,

3. tree protection through the critical early

period, and
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4. post-planting management to ensure survival.

Maintenance of the riparian area width means

the long-term protection of the trees from any

outside factors such as human or animal intrusion. Human intrusion is more likely in urban

situations while cattle intrusion or mowing

equipment damage are more likely in agricultural settings. Fencing is the most sure way to

protect this area. Cattle normally require electric or multi-wire fencing. Maintenance of the

fence throughout the early years of the practice

is important to achieve planting success.

Another key element is matching the vegetation

present on the site to what one wants to plant in

the riparian area. Walking over the site during

the planning phases will determine which tree

species are already present. The county soil

survey has information related to which trees are

native to the area (see Section IV). Tree species

typically found in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed riparian areas are sycamore, green ash,

river birch, black walnut, red maple, willow oak,

water oak, willow, baldcypress, and yellowpoplar. Loblolly and white pine are also present

in more limited amounts. A diversity of species

should be planted. State and local nurseries can

also assist in determining which tree species

match a particular site.

Just before and during planting, one must consider the competition the tree will encounter and

the protection necessary to fend off the competitors. In areas of heavy grass growth or

weeds, site preparation methods may be chemical or mechanical. Chemical is the use of herbicides, and some types require an applicator’s

license that is issued by the state. A simple

hand-sprayer can be utilized to direct spray

where the tree will be placed. Each tree placement may require approximately one foot diameter of applied chemical. 

Mechanical site preparation involves eliminating the vegetative material through the use of

equipment. Plowing, disking, or subsoiling will

reduce the vegetation and expose mineral soil.

Care must be taken not to induce soil erosion

and sedimentation with the mechanical method.

The use of tree shelters is recommended for riparian area plantings where deer predation or

human intrusion may be a problem. Tree shelters come in various widths and diameters to

match with the individual planting stock. The

use of chemical spray with shelters during the

first growing season is an added plus to ensure

less competition. A simple directed spray

around the shelter will stop encroaching grass

and weeds. Tree planting without shelters puts

the seedling at risk from grass competition and

wildlife. Tree shelters should be removed 2 to 3

years after plants emerge from them. The use of

shelters is probably the most important protective measure a landowner can use to help with

planting.

The actual planting can be accomplished by

hand or machine. Hand planting involves the

use of a dibble bar or hoedad to open up the

planting hole. The depth of the hole is determined by the length of the roots. Care should be

used not to damage the root systems of the

planting stock. The tree shelter is installed at

the time of planting. Machine planting can

utilize a hydraulic auger on a tractor or gaspowered hand auger.

Another method is the planting of larger potted

or balled and burlapped trees as the outermost

row from the stream to provide a visual barrier

to encroachment on new plantings. This technique is especially useful in urban areas.

Post-planting efforts involve the inspection and

maintenance of fences, planting area, and the

trees themselves to ensure the highest survival

possible. A program of weekly inspection of the

planting area is suitable during the first year and

after any major storm event. If a drought situation is apparent, one should water the trees, especially the first growing season. The use of

chemical spray is recommended during years

one and two to limit vegetative competition.

Natural regeneration can also be utilized to establish a forest system. For both the agricultural

and urban settings, fencing continues to be rec-
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ommended to protect the newly-establishing

system against human or animal intrusion. The

following are lists of advantages and disadvantages of natural regeneration:

Advantages of Natural Regeneration

• lower establishment costs

• less labor/heavy equipment required

• better root system from natural method

• future harvesting decisions easier

• less soil movement

Disadvantages of Natural Regeneration

• less control over spacing/stocking

• risk of seed tree loss

• no use of genetically improved stock

• greater need for thinning

• regeneration delay causes growth loss

Typically, cost-sharing for forest establishment

plus a careful planting plan will cause most

landowners to choose planting rather than natural regeneration to accomplish their restoration

goals. Tree establishment is discussed in Section VII.

Forest Management Systems – Types and

Implications for Riparian Areas

Forest management methods should be based on

both riparian buffer objectives and condition of

the forest stand. Before choosing a forest management method, the manager should determine

if a forest stand is even-aged, two-aged, or uneven-aged. This is referred to as the form of the

stand. Even-aged stands have trees of the same

age or about the same age. For a stand to be

even-aged, the total variation in ages can only

be 1/5 of the total rotation length. Uneven-aged

stands have at least three age classes. Twostoried stands are kept separate as they often

represent the transition. They are neither evenaged nor uneven-aged, and are never handled as

uneven-aged stands.

Most forest management, or silvicultural systems, may be used to develop a stand from day

one. It involves use of intermediate cuttings and

regeneration methods to the end of a rotation. It

denotes a comprehensive planned program of

treatments, broken down in steps, and implemented in a logical order, during the life of a

stand. This ranges from 40 years to 80 years for

pine and 80 to 150 years or longer for hardwoods. These numbers are site dependent and

subject to riparian objectives.

Regeneration Methods

Basically, there are six types of regeneration

methods. They are:

High forest methods/producing stands originating from seedEven-aged stands:

• Clearcutting

• Seed-Tree Method

• Shelterwood Method

Uneven-aged stands:

• Selection Method

Coppice forest methods/producing stands originating primarily from vegetative regeneration-

• Coppice Method

• Coppice-with-Standards Method

Even-Aged Stands

Clearcutting is the removal of the entire stand in

one cutting. Reproduction is usually obtained

by planting or from a nearby seed source. This

system is more widely used than any other cutting/regeneration method in Virginia and Maryland.

This method is not recommended for use in riparian areas for many reasons. Most states have

best management practices that require a buffer

be left between the stream and the timber harvest area. Clearcutting produces an even-aged

stand. The goal for eastern riparian forests is to
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maximize ecological benefits by producing all

age classes in the riparian area to ensure vigorous growth in trees that will filter nutrients and

trap sediments. Good professional judgment

would not allow the clearcut of a riparian forest.

At most, 50 percent of the basal area can be removed.

Advantages of Clearcutting

• easy to implement

• less damage to residual stand because it is

only visited once

• lends itself to most tree species

• cheaper costs-concentrates logging on one

area

• trees do not have to be marked for cutting

• best method to remove overmature timber

• avoids danger of losing valuable seed trees by

windfall

• excellent way to regenerate shade intolerant

species

• lends itself to mechanized silvicultural practices

Disadvantages of Clearcutting

• may not be legal in some areas

• produces an even-aged stand with all trees

maturing at the same time

• is not aesthetically pleasing

• is not suitable for riparian buffer

• on wet sites, the water table may rise

• poor protection of the site in regard to watershed values such as stream temperature moderation and nutrient reduction

The Seed Tree Method is the removal of the old

stand in one cutting except for a small number

of trees left singly, in groups, or narrow strips,

as a source of seed for natural regeneration.

One percent or more of the volume is left, usually one to ten trees per acre. This method always produces an even-aged stand, and it is best

applied in an even-aged stand. After regeneration is established, these seed trees may be removed in a second cutting or left indefinitely.

This system does not provide shelter for the new

trees and may result in less than adequate regeneration. It is not suited to shallow soils or wet

areas.

Advantages of Seed Tree Method

• concentrates logging on one area, resulting in

lower costs

• easy to practice

• easy for the landowner to understand

• good for light-seeded intolerant, windfirm

species

• can cut larger area than with clearcutting

• name sounds much better to the public than

clearcutting

Disadvantages of Seed Tree Method

• poor site protection from erosion, windthrow

• value of seed trees may offset cost of planting

• seed trees can be lost before they can be

salvaged

• amount of seed produced annually is sporadic

• does not work well on shallow or wet soils

• not suitable for short-rotation pulp production

• produces an even-aged forest
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The Shelterwood Method is a series of cuttings

designed to foster seedling growth under the

present stand. Typically, two or three cuttings

are conducted within a four to six year time

span. The key to this system is that the new

stand is established prior to the complete removal of the present stand. The sequence of

operations involves two or three different kinds

of cutting applied in the following order:

1.) Preparatory cuttings, which set the stage for

regeneration. This cutting opens up the

stand to stimulate seed production. Sometimes, this cut is not needed.

2.) Establishment or seeding cuttings, which

promote the actual establishment of seedlings. Only one cut is made to open the

canopy enough to allow seedlings to become

established and survive. Generally, between

25 and 75 percent of the trees are removed.

3.) Removal cuttings, which release the established seedlings. This occurs 3 to 5 years

after the establishment cut. There may be

one or more cuttings made, followed by a

final cut that removes the remaining overstory. This method is the most aesthetic of

the even-aged regeneration methods. As in

the Seed Tree Method, regeneration of a

new stand is more risky with this method.

Advantages of Shelterwood Method

• easily modified until desired regeneration is

achieved

• more aesthetically pleasing than other methods

• good for oak and beech species

• regeneration is more complete and certain

than with other methods

• good site protection, especially in riparian

areas

• limits the amount of undesirable intolerant

species of trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants

Disadvantages of Shelterwood Method

• more intensive than other methods

• need trained technical persons to implement

• have to work through areas where regeneration is becoming established

Uneven-Aged Stands

Riparian area management will more typically

involve the hardwood resource as opposed to the

pine resource. Hardwood stands in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed may be even-aged. The

ideal situation would be to change the stands

from even-aged to uneven-aged. The hardwood

resource can be managed using a variety of

techniques which may better suit the sensitive

riparian areas, allowing the riparian forest buffer

functions and values to be fully utilized.

The Selection Method of regeneration is the removal of the mature timber, usually the oldest or

largest trees either as single individuals or in

small groups at relatively short intervals, repeated indefinitely, resulting in the continuous

establishment of reproduction and the maintenance of an uneven-aged stand.

Advantages of Selection Method

• aesthetically pleasing and acceptable

• high degree of protection of site and water

resources such as soil, water temperature,

and nutrient reduction

• can be applied where only sawlogs are merchantable

• promotes reproduction of tolerant trees

• only way of maintaining an uneven-aged

stand
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Disadvantages of Selection Method

• more expensive to mark and log trees

• timber may be of lower grade than that of an

even-aged system

• favors reproduction of tolerant species; not

applicable to most intolerant species

• must plan carefully, so as not to high-grade

the stand

• results in damage to residual stand

Coppice-Forest Method

This method relies on stump-sprouts or root

suckers as the main source of regeneration, although some seedlings and seedling sprouts may

form part of the new crop. The stand is clearcut

so that nothing is left to reduce the vigor of

sprouting. Usually, the objective of the management is to produce fuelwood, pulpwood, and

animal browse. Rotation is between 30 and 40

years. The coppice system is used to manage

root-suckers of aspen, hybrid poplar, and other

species.

Coppice-With-Standards Method

This method allows the manager to produce

products associated with coppicing along with

sawtimber. This is done by reserving a few of

the better trees, called standards, at the time

each crop of coppice material is cut.

Intermediate Cuttings as Part of

a Silvicultural System

In addition to regeneration cuts, a silvicultural

system may require intermediate cuts to produce

the desired goals of the landowner. The following summarizes information on the more

important types of intermediate cuts:

• An improvement cutting is a cutting made in

a stand past the sapling stage for the purpose

of improving its composition and character

by removing trees of undesirable species,

form, and condition occupying positions in

the main crown canopy. Primary emphasis is

placed on the removal of dominants and codominants of undesirable species. In the

watershed, most forest stands have been

“culled-over” repeatedly, and are comprised

of many unmerchantable trees that lack

vigor. Several light improvement cuttings

will provide the manager with a better stand.

Improvement cuttings are extremely beneficial

to many species of wildlife. The term timber

stand improvement (TSI) is sometimes used

instead of improvement cutting.

• A thinning is a cutting made in an immature

stand for the purpose of increasing the rate of

growth or improving the form of the trees

that remain – increasing the total merchantable production of the stand. The term thinning is used very loosely in many forestry

publications, and by many foresters, resulting in confusion in the literature. Thinnings

should not be confused with improvement

cuttings. The cuts in a selection cutting anticipate the establishment of regeneration.

Thinnings are not made with stand regeneration in mind. Thinnings make temporary

openings in the crown canopy that are gradually closed by the expansion of the crowns of

surrounding trees.

Thinnings can be commercial, which indicates

some economic value attributable to the cutting for the landowner, or non-commercial,

which indicates no value to the landowner.

Through thinning, a manager can utilize the

material that would ordinarily die and rot in

the woods, bringing no income. In addition,

the growth of the remaining trees is accelerated. The growth rate in cubic feet of wood

fiber laid down is apt to be about the same in

a thinned or unthinned stand, but in a thinned

stand, the wood production is concentrated

on selected, outstanding trees.

• A salvage cutting is cutting done for the purpose of removing trees killed or damaged by

various injurious agents. The purpose of this

cutting is to utilize this material before it becomes worthless. Examples include trees

injured by the gypsy moth caterpillar or by

ice storms. Cuttings made in anticipation of
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the need for salvage work are called presalvage cuttings.

Selection System

The term selection system or selection cutting is

applied to any silvicultural program aimed at the

creation and maintenance of uneven-aged

stands. The oldest and the largest trees are harvested periodically. After one or more years,

similar cutting is repeated. The interval at

which the cuts are made is referred to as the

cutting cycle. Cutting cycles may be 5, 10, 20

years or longer.

Single tree selection involves the removal of

older, large, high-value individual trees. Group

selection removes old, large trees in groups

large enough to allow regeneration to take place.

One disadvantage is that either method requires

frequent entry into the forest for an indefinite

time period which may not be the landowner’s

desire. Also, one must be careful not to overcut

at any one particular time causing too great an

intrusion. This may interfere with the landowner’s desired future condition of either timber

value or other considerations such as wildlife or

recreation.

Trees that are removed are chosen on the basis

of age and maturity, and they may be removed

individually. Trees can be managed to produce

sawlogs 12 inches or larger, with cutting occurring every 10 years to maintain a planned number of trees per acre after each harvest. This

method produces a lower rate of return for the

landowner compared to that obtain from diameter limit cutting.

Other methods of selection include strip selection cutting and group selection cutting. In strip

selection cutting, the cut is concentrated in one

area, not more than 100 feet wide, and the strip

is clearcut. It can be used for black cherry in

Pennsylvania. Group selection removes trees in

groups rather than singly. The size of the

opening is one-tenth to one-half acre.

Uneven-aged management can be practiced in

riparian areas to produce both sawtimber and

pulpwood trees (5.0 inches dbh and larger).

Selected trees can be cut every 10 years to establish reproduction and stimulate growth in all

diameter classes. This will control the number

of trees in each diameter class. The manager

must know the site, what residual basal area to

leave, and what size tree he wants to grow. The

goal is the q value, that is, what is the number of

trees that should be on each acre in each class?

It will take several cuttings to reach q, then the

surplus can be cut. Trees cut should be highrisk, poor form, and short-lived species that will

not make it to the next cutting cycle. Trees produced using this system will be of very high

economic value.

The term “selective cutting” is sometimes used

erroneously for selection cutting. Selective cutting is more correctly used to describe cutting

known as high-grading or logger’s choice.

To conclude, in order to maintain an unevenaged stand, care must be given to regulate the

cut by diameter distribution. Cutting is based on

basal area, q-factor, stand structure, and largest

tree diameter. Some of these terms may be hard

to explain to landowners.

Diameter Limit Cutting

In a strict diameter limit cutting, a definite diameter is predetermined, such as 14 inches, and

all trees above this diameter limit are removed,

and all trees below this diameter are left. Many

companies buy stumpage from the landowner

using this type of cutting. All trees of a certain

diameter must be removed, not just those trees

that are economically valuable. Diameter limit

cutting done properly is very profitable and results in a very high rate of return.

A modification of the strict diameter limit is the

flexible diameter limit, often called a semidiameter limit. Large thrifty trees larger than

the diameter limit are left, if it is good for the

stand. This may include fast-growing species,

trees left for seed, valuable wildlife trees, or a

tree in the midst of smaller trees that the landowner does not want to damage. Trees smaller

than the diameter limit can also be cut if they

are slow growers, diseased, dying, or undesirable.
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Another type of diameter limit cutting is the differential diameter limit. In this method, a different diameter is placed on each species. For

example, white pine over 22 inches may be cut,

oak over 16 inches may be cut, other hardwoods

14 inches, and blackgum 6 inches. Setting a

very low diameter limit for a species should,

over a long period of time, eliminate that species

from the stand.

Crop Tree Management System

Crop Tree Management in Immature Stands

Crop tree release is a cutting done on saplings, 3

to 6 inches in diameter, at age 12 to 20 years.

Select trees over 25 feet tall that are in a dominant or codominant crown. After crop trees are

selected, each of their crowns is released by

cutting competing trees that touch or interfere

with the crop tree’s crown. The least expensive

way to release crop trees is by using a chainsaw.

All undesirable trees do not have to be cut, only

those that are competing with the crop tree.

About 50 to 75 trees per acre are initially selected to be crop trees. Extras are selected as

many may die. Crop trees should be spaced

throughout each acre. The selection is based on

desirable species, straight form, no major forks,

and lack of disease and insect problems. All

grape vines and other vines should be cut from

each crop tree.

Crop Tree Management in Mature Stands

This system of forest resources management

offers private, non-industrial forest landowners

a means of accomplishing single or multiple

stewardship goals. It focuses on releasing individual trees that have been selected to produce

benefits consistent with stand-specific objectives. This system is based on application of the

crown-touching release that is described in the

paragraph above. Crop tree management involves the following steps:

1. Identify the landowner’s property goals.

2. Establish stand-specific objectives to define

how each stand will be managed to meet the

landowner’s goals.

3. Develop crop tree selection criteria for each

crop tree category. Generally, crop trees are

classified as wildlife, timber, aesthetic, or

water quality crop trees.

4. Inventory the property in order to analyze the

number of crop trees per acre to be released,

the number of trees to be cut, and the total

number of trees left in the stand.

5. Explain the proposed treatment to the landowner.

6. Decide how many crop trees to release per

acre, based on how many trees meet the selection criteria and how many the landowner

is willing to release.

7. Decide which trees to cut to release the crop

trees. Trees whose crowns are within two

feet of the crop tree crown should be cut.

Crop trees must be released on at least three

sides.

Water-Quality Crop Tree Selection Criteria

• Dominant/codominant trees

æ Healthy crown; large in relation to

dbh

æ A few dead, upper-crown branches

are acceptable

æ Stump-sprout or seedling-origin

stems are acceptable

• Expected longevity of 20+ years

• Species that are good nutrient accumulators

æ Young trees

æ Deciduous trees

• Trees tolerant to flooding

Crop tree management should not be confused

with thinning or improvement cutting. When

practiced in an immature stand, it is usually considered an intermediate cutting. Thinning, especially from below, may not open up a stand

enough to allow adequate sunlight to reach trees

to promote good growth. Thinning may not re-
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move enough trees to combat competition for

soil moisture in the residual stand.

Crop tree management is a good system to use

in riparian areas. Crop trees can be chosen using water quality criteria, and a moderate release

can be performed. Moderate cutting will result

in an aesthetically-pleasing forest.

Table 10-1 compares crop tree management and

uneven-aged management. Both systems can be

used in Zone 2 of a riparian forest buffer.

If it is the first time a particular riparian area has

been managed for any use including timber, a

land manager must be prepared to be creative

and utilize all the “tools” in the silvicultural

toolbag. Oftentimes, mismanaged land requires

harvest cutting and a fresh start using the previously mentioned ideas on tree establishment.

Cost-sharing and other incentives can help offset any initial establishment costs resulting from

harvest cutting.

Stream Health

The type of forest management system chosen

affects the stream ecosystem through time by

altering the tree overstory component. All forest management systems mentioned previously

must always consider stream health as a prime

focus. For example, crown cover should always

occur along streams to ensure overall health.

Any forest management system can be abused

and negatively affect stream health despite the

original intent of being less intrusive.

Table 10-2 is a summary of silvicultural methods and how each one affects stream temperature and how, at the same time, each one relates

to the shade tolerance of tree species. The symbols represent similar degrees of stream temperature moderation and shade tolerance of

regeneration species five years after treatment.

As an example from the table, the shelterwood

method, uneven-aged management leaving 60

square feet, and a moderate crop tree release

will offer the same amount of stream protection.

The immediate degree of crown closure is the

same, but there are implications for later treatments that will vary among the three. For example, using the shelterwood method, the

overstory will be removed in 5 to 10 years.

Table 10 - 1

Comparison of Crop Tree Management and Uneven-Aged Management

Parameter Uneven-aged Management Crop Tree Management

Purpose To produce an even flow of timber

products

To meet stand-specific landowner objectives

Marking Guides • Basal Area

• Structure

• Largest Diameter Tree (LDT)

• Crop tree selection criteria

• Number of trees released

Requirements • Intensive inventories

• Complex marking decision criteria

• Clear communication with

landowner

• Simple marking decision

criteria

Effect on Species Favors shade tolerant species Favors either tolerant or intolerant species

Provides • Continuous cover

• Periodic income

• Option of continuous

cover

• Option of periodic income
Section X

10-13

Using the uneven-aged methods, no cutting will

occur until the next cutting cycle, 25 years. If

using the crop tree management system, there

may be a subsequent removal of crop trees over

a period of time from 10 to 40 years. The manager must think in long-term solutions to stream

protection.

Forest management planning is critical to both

restoring and protecting riparian systems.

Through planning efforts including on-theground examinations, specific emphasis can be

placed on important ecological features such as

coarse woody debris in streams, wildlife crop

trees, and the aesthetic component. Overall forest health is dependent on sound management

actions accomplished by thorough planning efforts.

Managing the Riparian Forest

Buffer

The riparian forest needs special consideration

in its management. The desired function of the

buffer must be maintained. The main goal is to

minimize the soil disturbance to Zones 1 and 2

and sustain a healthy, vigorous, and diverse

stand, in both species and age. The soil’s duff

layer and organic matter, which affect infiltration, denitrification, and water holding capacity,

should be protected.

Management of the riparian forest should have

these main objectives – diversity, uneven-aged

management (biomass storage and nutrient recycling), surface roughness, and multistoried

habitat structure.

Table 10 - 2

Summary of Silvicultural Practices and Their Effects on

Stream Temperature and Species Regeneration
Section X

10-14

The following are recommendations for management of the riparian forest buffer:

• Zone 1 should not be harvested, except to

remove disease or insect-infested trees, or to

cut a tree that is ready to fall, and in doing

so, will cause the streambank to become unstable. In most cases, cut trees should be left

as woody debris.

• Zone 2 should be managed to produce different age classes, and a combination of diverse

herbaceous, midstory and overstory plants.

• Manage for a diversity of species. Do not

plant and manage monocultures, such as

loblolly pine, in riparian areas. Diversity is

valuable in terms of functions and health,

long-term stability, and the ability to control

invasives, especially in urban areas.

• Manage for hardwood species. Conifers are

good for diversity, but limit them to 25 percent of species in riparian areas. Hardwood

species ensure maximum functions for denitrification; understory, structural wildlife

habitat; and woody debris recruitment and

maintenance.

• Hardwood species are more nutrient demanding. Manage for hardwood species that

use excess nutrients that may enter the riparian areas adjacent to agricultural areas.

• Manage using a system of selection, unevenaged management, or crop tree management.

This means that species that are shade intolerant, such as black cherry or yellow-poplar,

will not be the selected species in riparian

areas.

• If thinning is done, it should be light, removing only 20 percent of basal area at one

time. Remove trees that are diseased, stagnant, and over mature.

• Retain trees that uptake nutrients. Red and

white oak, red maple, quaking aspen, white

ash, basswood, and yellow-poplar can use

excess nitrogen.

• Retain basswood, yellow-poplar, dogwood,

and redcedar for uptake of excess calcium,

phosphorus, and potassium.

• Do not be afraid to harvest. Riparian forest

buffer is not equal to preservation.

Example Prescriptions

Example 1: Mixed Oak-Hickory – Group

Selection, 1⁄4-Acre, 20-Year Cutting Cycle

Example 2: Cove Hardwoods – Group Selection, 1⁄2-Acre, Well Scattered Groups, 20-Year

Cutting Cycle

Example 3: Mixed Bottomland Hardwoods,

Age 65, Light Crop Tree Release. Select Water Quality Crop Trees – Release 15

trees/acre

Crop tree selection criteria:

• cavity trees

• favor trees that live long

• select trees with good nutrient uptake

• favor species such as river birch, red

maple, elm, sycamore, green ash, silver

maple, yellow-poplar, and hackberry

Forest Resources Protection

Water Resources

The Water Quality Act of 1987 considers a

“best management practice” (BMP) to be any

method, measure, or practice used to protect and
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preserve water quality including, but not limited

to, control of water-caused erosion. For any

forest harvesting operation, a single BMP or

combination of BMPs are usually sufficient to

mitigate any potential silvicultural sources of

erosion and sedimentation. BMPs are usually

voluntary in nature and most states have developed their own extensive BMPs for controlling

nonpoint source (NPS) pollution from forestry,

agriculture, and development.

The Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990 considers a “management measure” (MM) to be an economically achievable

measure to control an addition of nonpoint

source pollutants to coastal waters, which reflects the greatest degree of pollutant reduction

achievable through the application of the best

available nonpoint source pollution control

practices, technologies, processes, siting criteria, operating methods or other alternatives.

MMs are mandatory in nature since they must

be enforceable by some level of state or local

regulations. In many cases they are the same as

the BMPs developed for forestry in the MidAtlantic region.

The BMPs and MMs that have been developed

for silviculture should be used by natural resource professionals as an overall system of

practices to address NPS pollution sources on

any given site undergoing silvicultural treatments. In most cases, not all the potential practices will be needed to address the NPS sources

of a specific site. However, most forestry operations have more than one phase of operation

that needs to be addressed and will need to employ two or more practices to address multiple

NPS sources. When more than one phase exists,

the application of the practice needs to be coordinated to produce an overall system that can

satisfactorily address all sources of NPS pollution for the site and does not cause unnecessary

expenditure on the site by the operator or landowner.

Voluntary and Mandatory Programs

There are two basic types of state forestry NPS

pollution control programs-voluntary and mandatory. Thirty-five states currently implement

voluntary programs, with six of these states

having the authority to make the voluntary programs regulatory and ten states backing the voluntary program with a regulatory program for

non-compliers. Nine states have developed

regulatory programs.

Voluntary programs rely on a set of BMPs as

guidelines to forest products operators. Logger

education and technology transfer are also the

responsibility of most state forestry agencies.

Workshops, brochures, and field tours are used

to educate and demonstrate to forest products

operators the latest water quality and aesthetic

management techniques. Landowners are encouraged to use operators who have a thorough

working knowledge of state forestry BMPs and

MMs. Transfer of information on NPS pollution control methods to forest landowners is also

an important element of these state programs.

Regulatory programs often involve mandatory

controls and enforcement strategies defined in

Forest Practice Rules based on a state’s Forest

Practice Act, Water Quality Statute, or other

local government regulations and ordinances.

These programs usually require the implementation of BMPs and MMs based on site-specific

conditions and water quality goals, and they

have enforceable requirements. Often streams

are classified based on their most sensitive designated use, such as importance for municipal

water supply or for coldwater fisheries. Since

many BMPs and MMs also improve harvesting

operation efficiency, they can be applied in the

normal course of forest harvesting with few significant added costs. Harvest operations plans

or applications to perform a timber harvest are

frequently reviewed by the responsible state

and/or local agency. Present State Coastal Zone

Management (CZM Sec. 6217) and Clean Water

Act (CWA Sec. 319) programs already include

specific BMP and MM regulations or guidelines

for forestry activities in many cases. In some

states, CZM programs have adopted state forestry regulations and BMPs through reference or

as part of a linked program.
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10-16

Counties, municipalities, and local Conservation

Districts may also impose additional requirements on landowners and operators conducting

forestry activities. In urbanizing areas, these

requirements often relate to concerns regarding

the conversion of forested lands to urban uses or

changes in private property values due to aesthetic changes resulting from forestry practices.

In rural areas additional requirements for forestry activities may be implemented to protect

public property. Local forestry regulations tend

to be stricter in response to residents’ complaints.

The types of forestry activities affecting NPS

pollution include road construction and use,

timber harvesting, mechanical equipment operation, prescribed burning, and fertilizer and

pesticide application. Most States with forestry

activities have developed BMPs and MMs to

control silviculturally-related NPS water quality

problems. Often water quality problems are not

due to ineffectiveness of the practices themselves, but to the failure to implement them appropriately.

Best Management Practices/Management

Measure Guidance

The following are generic BMP/MM guidelines

that address the most common phases of forestry

operations relevant to the control of silvicultural

sources of NPS pollution (see the appendix for

specific Bay State BMPs):

Pre-Harvest Planning

Perform advance planning for forest harvesting

that includes the following elements where appropriate:

1. Identify the area to be harvested including

location of water bodies and sensitive areas

such as wetlands, threatened or endangered

aquatic species habitat areas, or high erosion

hazard areas (landslide-prone areas) within

the harvest unit.

2. Time the activity for the season or moisture

conditions when the least impact occurs.

3. Consider potential water quality impacts and

erosion and sedimentation control in the selection of silvicultural and regeneration systems, especially for harvesting and site

preparation.

4. Reduce the risk of occurrence of landslides

and severe erosion by identifying high erosion hazard areas and avoiding harvesting in

such areas to the extent practical.

5. Consider additional contributions from harvesting or roads to any known existing water

quality impairments or problems in watersheds of concern.

Perform advance planning for forest road systems. Consider the following elements where

appropriate:

1. Locate and design road systems to minimize,

to the extent practical, potential sediment

generation and delivery to surface waters.

Key components are:

• locate roads, landings, and skid trails to

avoid steep grades and steep hillslope areas, and to decrease the number of

stream crossings;

• avoid locating new roads and landings in

Streamside Management Areas (SMAs);

and

• design roads with a minimum of 2 percent slope, and a maximum of 10 percent

slope. Where absolutely necessary,

grades of 15-20 percent can be used for

short distances.

2. Locate and design temporary and permanent

stream crossings to prevent failure and control impacts from the road system. Key

components are:

• size and site crossing structures to prevent failure;

• for fish-bearing streams, design crossings to facilitate fish passage.

3. Ensure that the design of road prism and the

road surface drainage are appropriate to the
Section X

10-17

terrain and that road surface design is consistent with the road drainage structures.

4. Use suitable materials to surface roads

planned for all-weather use to support truck

traffic.

5. Design road systems to avoid high erosion or

landslide hazard areas. Identify these areas

and consult a qualified specialist for design

of any roads that must be constructed

through these areas.

Each State in the Chesapeake Bay Region has

developed a process that ensures that the BMPs

are implemented. Such a process includes appropriate notification, compliance audits, and/or

other mechanisms for forestry activities with the

potential for significant adverse nonpoint source

effects based on the type and size of operation

and the presence of stream crossings or SMAs.

Streamside Management Areas

Establish and maintain a streamside management area along surface waters, which is sufficiently wide and which includes a sufficient

number of canopy species to buffer against detrimental changes in the temperature regime of

the water body, to provide bank stability, and to

withstand wind damage. Manage the SMA in

such a way as to protect against soil disturbance

in the SMA and delivery to the stream of sediments and nutrients generated by forestry activities, including harvesting. Manage the SMA

canopy species to provide a sustainable source

of large woody debris needed for instream

channel structure and aquatic species habitat.

Road Construction/Reconstruction

1. Follow pre-harvest planning when constructing or reconstructing the roadway.

2. Follow designs planned under the pre-harvest

planning BMP for road surfacing and shaping.

3. Install road drainage structures according to

designs planned under the pre-harvest planning BMP and regional storm return period

and installation specifications. Match these

drainage structures with terrain features and

with road surface and prism designs.

4. Guard against the production of sediment

when installing stream crossings.

5. Protect surface waters from slash and debris

material from roadway clearing.

6. Use straw bales, silt fences, mulching, or

other favorable practices on disturbed soils

on unstable cuts, fills, etc.

7. Avoid constructing new roads in SMAs to

the extent practical.

Road Management

1. Where possible, avoid timber hauling or

heavy traffic during wet or thaw periods on

roads not designed and constructed for these

conditions.

2. Evaluate the future need for a road and close

roads that will not be needed. Leave closed

roads and drainage channels in a stable condition to withstand storms.

3. Remove drainage crossings and culverts if

there is a reasonable risk of plugging or failure from lack of maintenance.

4. Following completion of harvesting, close

and stabilize temporary spur roads and seasonal roads to control and direct water away

from the roadway. Remove all temporary

stream crossings.

5. Inspect roads to determine the need for

structural maintenance. Conduct maintenance practices, when conditions warrant,

including cleaning and replacement of deteriorated structures and erosion controls,

grading or seeding of road surfaces, and, in

extreme cases, slope stabilization or removal

of road fills where necessary to maintain

structural integrity.

6. Conduct maintenance activities, such as dust

abatement, so that chemical contaminants or

pollutants are not introduced into surface

waters.
Section X

10-18

7. Properly maintain permanent stream crossings and associated fills and approaches to

reduce the likelihood (a) that stream overflow will divert onto roads, and (b) that fill

erosion will occur if the drainage structures

become obstructed.

Timber Harvesting

1. Timber harvesting operations with skid trails

or cable yarding follow layouts determined

by Pre-harvest Planning.

2. No haul roads or skid trails should be within

the buffer unless there is a stream crossing.

Felled trees must be cabled out of the buffer

zone.

3. Timber harvests within the flood plain, wetlands, and/or saturated soils, should be done

in the driest months of the year, normally

August through October.

4. Install landing drainage structures to avoid

sedimentation to the extent practical. Disperse landing drainage over sideslopes.

5. Construct landings away from steep slopes

and reduce the likelihood of fill slope failures. Protect landing surfaces used during

wet periods. Locate landings outside of

SMAs.

6. Protect stream channels and significant

ephemeral drainages from logging debris and

slash material.

7. Use appropriate areas for petroleum storage,

draining, and dispensing. Establish procedures to contain and treat spills. Recycle or

properly dispose of all waste materials.

For cable yarding:

• Limit yarding corridor gouge or soil

plowing by properly locating cable

yarding landings.

• Locate yarding corridors for SMAs following SMA BMPs.

For ground skidding:

• Within SMAs, operate ground skidding

equipment only at stream crossings to the

extent practical. In SMAs, fell and endline trees to avoid sedimentation.

• Use improved stream crossings for skid

trails which cross flowing drainages.

Construct skid trails, with adequate

drainage structures, to disperse runoff.

• On steep slopes where ground skidding

may cause excessive sedimentation, use

cable systems.

Site Preparation and Forest Regeneration

Confine on-site potential NPS pollution and erosion resulting from site preparation and the regeneration of forest stands. The components of

the management measure for site preparation

and regeneration are:

1. Select a method of site preparation and regeneration suitable for the site conditions.

2. Conduct mechanical tree planting and

ground-disturbing site preparation activities

on the contour of sloping terrain.

3. Do not conduct mechanical site preparation

and mechanical tree planting in streamside

management areas.

4. Protect surface waters from logging debris

and slash material.

5. Suspend operations during wet periods if

equipment used begins to cause excessive

soil disturbance that will increase erosion.

6. Locate windrows at a safe distance from

drainages and SMAs to control movement of

the material during high runoff conditions.

7. Conduct bedding operations in high-watertable areas during dry periods of the year.

Conduct bedding in sloping areas on the

contour.

8. Protect small ephemeral drainages when

conducting mechanical tree planting.
Section X

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Fire Management

Prescribe fire for site preparation and control or

suppress wildfire in a manner which reduces

potential nonpoint source pollution of surface

waters:

1. Intense prescribed fire should not cause excessive sedimentation due to the combined

effect of removal of canopy species and the

loss of soil-binding ability of subcanopy and

herbaceous vegetation roots, especially in

SMAs, in streamside vegetation for small

ephemeral drainages, or on very steep slopes.

2. Prescriptions for prescribed fire should protect against excessive erosion or sedimentation.

3. All bladed firelines, for prescribed fire and

wildfire, should be plowed on contour or

stabilized with water bars and/or other appropriate techniques if needed to control excessive sedimentation or erosion of the

fireline.

4. Wildfire suppression and rehabilitation

should consider possible NPS pollution of

watercourses, while recognizing the safety

and operational priorities of fighting wildfires.

Revegetation of Disturbed Areas

Reduce erosion and sedimentation by rapid

revegetation of areas disturbed by harvesting

operations or road construction:

1. Revegetate disturbed areas (using seeding or

planting) promptly after completion of the

earth-disturbing activity. Local growing

conditions will dictate the timing for establishment of vegetative cover.

2. Use mixes of species and treatments developed and tailored for successful vegetation

establishment for the region or area.

3. Concentrate revegetation efforts initially on

priority areas such as disturbed areas in

SMAs or the steepest areas of disturbance

near drainages.

Forest Chemical Management

Use chemicals when necessary for forest management in accordance with the following

measures to reduce nonpoint source pollution

impacts due to the movement of forest chemicals off-site during and after application:

1. Conduct applications by skilled and, where

required, licensed applicators according to

the registered use, with special consideration

given to impacts to nearby surface waters.

2. Carefully prescribe the type and amount of

pesticides appropriate for the insect, fungus,

or herbaceous species.

3. Prior to applications of pesticides and fertilizers, inspect the mixing and loading process

and the calibration of equipment, and identify the appropriate weather conditions, the

spray area, and buffer areas for surface waters.

4. Establish and identify buffer areas for surface waters. (This is especially important for

aerial applications.)

5. Immediately report accidental spills of pesticides or fertilizers into surface waters to the

appropriate State agency. Develop an effective spill contingency plan to contain spills.

Wetland Forest Management

Plan, operate, and manage normal, ongoing forestry activities (including harvesting, road design and construction, site preparation and

regeneration, and chemical management) to

adequately protect the aquatic functions of forested wetlands.

Forest Resources - Protecting the Forest

From Injurious Agents

Weather

In many parts of the country, including the

Chesapeake Bay Region, weather can have major impact on the health of forest ecosystems.

Wind damage often results from such atmospheric disturbances as hurricanes, tornadoes,

and violent thunderstorms. It is not unusual for
Section X

10-20

wind speeds to exceed 40 mph in violent localized thunderstorms. During the Atlantic hurricane season, June through September, storms

passing offshore can produce sustained wind

speeds topping 80 mph for several hours. The

occasional tornado, though limited in its impact

range per event, can be highly destructive with

wind speeds of over 200 mph in the vicinity of

the funnel cloud. Besides breaking limbs and

the upper portions of boles, wind events can

cause windthrow (especially in shallow rooted

species such as Virginia pine or timber on thin

xeric soils) and winter desiccation of foliage

above the snow line.

Winter storms can be equally injurious to forests

due to ice, snow, and hail damage. Ice storms

resulting from freezing rain and sleet as well as

heavy wet snow storms can cause trees to suffer

limb failure, and in the case of small trees, particularly pines, main stem failure. Late season

frosts often cause die-back of shoots and buds

resulting in deformed growth and vigor.

Though relatively infrequent, hailstones can

cause shoot and bark damage, particularly in

thin barked species like beech, birch, and aspen

as well as many other species while they are

juveniles.

Besides wind, most storms in the humid east are

accompanied by precipitation during the growing season. Localized flooding is relatively

common in mountainous areas during the late

winter and early spring, especially during

“breakup” (ice). When streams and creeks come

up out of their banks during this time of year the

accompanying ice floes can be particularly destructive to riparian vegetation including tree

species. When the ground is saturated, tree

roots are subjected to anaerobic conditions

which normally only riparian species are capable of tolerating for any length of time. Saturated soil conditions can also lead to slope

failure and other forms of mass wasting which

dramatically affect site index of the area. Lack

of rain can be equally as destructive as too much

rain. Drought is one of the major reasons young

tree plantations fail after establishment. In most

cases these types of water related stresses do not

normally cause widespread tree mortality, rather

they predispose the affected trees to secondary

and tertiary pathogens which eventually cause

loss of vigor and death.

Though often impossible to predict, the effects

of weather on the health of the forest can be

ameliorated by the forest manager by promoting

vigorous growth via thinning to reduce competition. However, in many cases Mother Nature

has the last word and the only recourse for the

forest manager is to salvage the impacted timber, clean-up, and start over by ensuring desirable regeneration.

Insects

The family Insecta includes the oldest members

of the animal kingdom and the largest number of

animal species (90 percent of all species) at over

one million, of which over 10,000 live in the

United States. Insects are by far the most destructive injurious agent to forest ecosystems,

destroying 10 times the acreage that fire usually

does on an annual basis.

Forest insects are usually broken down into

three major groups: defoliators, borers, and stem

feeders. Examples of defoliators affecting the

forests of the Mid-Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay

Region include: gypsy moth, eastern tent caterpillar, fall cankerworms, red headed pine sawfly, pear thrips, and holly leaf miner. Examples

of borers include: southern pine beetle, twolined chestnut borer, locust borer, and metallic

beetles. Stem feeders include: beech scales,

Saratoga spittlebugs, Paley’s weevil, and woolly

adelgids.

Though forest insects can impact trees in many

different ways, insect infestation usually results

in a few generalized types of damage. Generally, the first sign of insect activity in the forest

is the loss of tree and/or stand vigor and growth,

especially when the agent is a defoliator. Stem

and shoot feeders often alter tree form and

shape, thus affecting tree quality. Insects can be

destructive enough by themselves to kill individual trees or sometimes whole stands. Usually, however, insects also introduce other

pathogens while feeding, which further stresses
Section X

10-21

the tree and makes mortality all the more likely.

If an insect prefers one tree species in particular,

which is often the case, then widespread infestations can also affect stand composition and

diameter distribution.

When natural factors fail to hold insect populations to economically tolerable levels, it may be

necessary to resort to artificial controls depending on the insect and its biology. Artificial

controls are applied by forest managers to regulate insect activity, distribution, and abundance

through the use of practices that mimic natural

control. The most often prescribed practices

include: silvicultural control, biological control,

and chemical control.

The possibilities for silvicultural control occur

during the establishment and throughout the

lives of forest stands by selecting the more resistant tree species for planting, by putting them

on sites best suited for them, or by controlling

their composition and density. Stand conditions

may be created or modified as needed by thinnings or cuttings to maintain or improve their

growth and vigor. Pure stands may be broken

up into mixtures of age-classes in small units,

with no two contiguous units of the same ageclass. Mixed stands may be broken up by cutting in small groups to maintain and promote

diversity in species composition and density.

Over mature trees may be removed or stands can

be harvested as soon as they are mature. High

risk or affected trees may be removed in sanitation-salvage cuttings and the area regenerated.

In general, biological control efforts against forest insects have been limited to the:

• importation and establishment of foreign

parasites and predators of introduced pests;

• transfer of parasites, predators, and disease

pathogens from one region to another;

• augmentation of established parasite and

predator populations with field-collected or

lab reared individuals; and

• use of microbial sprays to control outbreaks.

Viruses and bacteria are usually applied as

sprays, but they can also be applied as dusts if

first incorporated with a powder. Sprays may be

applied by hand-operated sprayers, mist blowers, or aircraft.

The use of chemical insecticides to suppress

forest insect populations is the method of last

resort. It is a sound policy to use them only

when other forms of control have failed or

threaten to fail. Depending on the situation,

chemicals may be applied to a single tree or to

forested areas covering thousands of acres. The

aim, therefore, is usually limited to the suppression of injurious populations to tolerable levels.

The concept of integrated pest management

(IPM) utilizes a combination of two or more of

the above control strategies that can and should

be used to achieve effective insect population

control without relying exclusively on one particular method. In the context of the associated

environment and the population dynamics of the

pest to be controlled, this system utilizes all

suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains the pest

populations at levels below that causing economic injury. Most of the important pest species in the Mid-Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay

Regions lend themselves to some form of IPM.

The long life of the forest and the fact that many

species of commercially important trees can

withstand some degree of infestation without

serious damage provides the opportunity to use

different methods of control.

Diseases

There are over 1,000 tree diseases which can

cause tree mortality in the United States, making

disease pathogens the second most destructive

agent to forest ecosystems.

Plant or tree pathogens can be broken down into

three common types of diseases: foliage, stem

and root. Examples of foliage diseases affecting

the forests of the Mid-Atlantic and Chesapeake

Bay Region include: anthracnose, leaf spot,

powdery mildew, leaf blister, and needle blight.

Examples of stem diseases include: Nectria

canker, fusiform rust, oak wilt, Dutch elm dis-
Section X

10-22

ease, elm phloem necrosis, and chestnut blight.

Examples of root diseases include: various root

rots and damping-off fungi.

Though forest pathogens can impact trees in

many different ways, disease outbreak usually

results in a few generalized types of damage.

Usually the first sign of disease in the forest is

the loss of tree and/or stand vigor and growth,

especially when the agent is a foliar pathogen.

Stem and shoot cankers often alter tree form and

shape, thus affecting tree quality. Diseases can

be destructive enough by themselves to kill individual trees or sometimes whole stands. Usually, however, insects also further stress the tree

which makes mortality all the more likely. If a

disease prefers one tree species in particular,

then widespread infestations can also affect

stand composition and diameter distribution.

Forest diseases have a tendency to become

problematic primarily because:

1. modern high-production forestry emphasizes tightly spaced pure stands or conversion to pure stands.

2. a common aspect of high-production forestry is to grow the same species for many

rotations on the same site.

3. a common feature of high-production forestry is the emphasis of growing the most

valuable species without enough regard for

important differences in site requirements.

4. the use of selective harvest techniques produces large numbers of infection sites and

creates situations that favor disease pathogens.

The forest manager can use many of the same

types of control techniques for diseases that are

used to suppress insect populations, with the

notable exception of biological control. Fungicides are most commonly used for high value

individuals or under nursery conditions, but not

under forested conditions because they would

not be cost effective. Silvicultural control

methods rely mostly on sanitation/salvage harvesting to remove and dispose of the infected

timber and to promote less susceptible regeneration. Removal of the alternate host for many

fungal pathogens, as in the case of white pine

blister rust, can often prove beneficial. The

most important overall silvicultural practice is to

maintain or improve forest growth and vigor

through periodic thinning so that the affected

tree has the opportunity to compartmentalize

and thus contain the invading pathogen. As

with insect outbreaks, disease outbreaks tend to

lend themselves to IPM techniques.

Wildfire

Unprescribed wildland fire is the third most

damaging injurious agent in terms of tree mortality in the United States. While other agents

impact forest ecosystems negatively for the most

part, wildfire can have some beneficial effects.

Wildland fire can be typed into three basic categories: ground, surface and crown. Ground fires

burn underground in either deep peat or humus

layers and can be very difficult to control. Coal

seam fires are an example of one form of ground

fire. Surface fires burn the leaf cover, understory vegetation and some low growing trees.

These fires have a slow to moderate rate of

spread (5-10 chains/hour) and short flame

lengths (12 inches). (One chain = 66 feet).

Crown fires are the most spectacular and destructive, with rapid rates of spread (20+

chains/hour) and long flame lengths (10+ feet).

Crown fires burn the foliage and the canopy of

mostly coniferous scrub and plantation forests in

the Mid-Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay Regions.

Wildland fire negatively impacts forest ecosystems in several ways. Fire results in the loss of

ground cover and its capacity for water infiltration and absorption, thus encouraging erosion

and sedimentation. Burning of the understory

vegetation and loss of the A soil horizon also

results in loss of important wildlife habitat, both

terrestrial and aquatic. Loss of soil structure

and function through compaction and the creation of hydrophobic conditions severely limit

the nutrient buffering capacity of riparian for-
Section X

10-23

ests within a burned area. Fire, if it does not kill

a tree outright, will seriously weaken it and predispose it to other injurious agents such as insects and disease, eventually resulting in

mortality.

The need to control wildland fire was the primary reason that many of the State forestry

agencies were created in the early part of this

century. Fire control methods include direct and

indirect techniques both with and without the

use of water. The forest manager can take a

number of precautions to help prevent the loss

of natural resources to fire:

1. establish fire breaks in natural cover fuels,

especially in coniferous timber types and

maintain them on an annual basis;

2. establish and/or maintain a system of fire

access trails sufficient to accommodate

wildland fire suppression equipment. Access

to the trail system should be controlled by

gates to limit usage during high fire danger;

3. manage the fuel load and stocking by resource utilization and extraction or by a

planned understory ignition for hazardous

fuel reduction;

4. where water sources exist, establish one or

more dry hydrants to facilitate the drafting

and refilling of fire suppression equipment;

and

5. network with adjacent forest landowners to

pool resources and share the burden of trail

and fuel break maintenance.

Invasive and/or Exotic Plants

Though not normally a major impact on established forest ecosystems, invasive and/or exotic

plant species can overwhelm more desirable

native vegetation at the local level. Examples of

invasive exotics include: kudzu, multi-flora rose

and Japanese honeysuckle. Exotic or invasive

plants can be a problem especially on newly

established buffers on disturbed lands like those

commonly found in agricultural and urban areas.

Examples of invasive natives are grapevine,

greenbrier, wild garlic mustard and tear-athumb. Parasitic plants like mistletoe can also

overwhelm their hosts and become quite invasive either on a per tree or per stand basis.

Invasive and/or exotic vegetation tends to retard

or eliminate more desirable regeneration following silvicultural treatments and natural disturbances. In doing so, these noxious plants

occupy sites otherwise suitable for native species. Because of their aggressive nature, invasive/exotics out compete both native and

desirable threatened and endangered species for

critical habitat.

Controlling invasive/exotics is challenging at

best, often requiring the most aggressive of

treatments. Mechanical control normally involves rootraking using a bulldozer or mowing

using a tractor and bush-hog implement. Depending on the species to be controlled, the species to be released, and specific site

requirements, prescribed burning has been used

successfully to control unwanted vegetation.

Silvicultural control methods for invasive/exotics might include maintaining understory light levels by proposing lighter intensity

thinning prescriptions or widening buffer recommendations to reduce invasion by intolerant

invasive/exotic species. Normally, most forest

managers resort to herbicide application for the

most cost-effective means of controlling stubborn invasive/exotics. The principles of IPM

apply equally well for invasive/exotics as they

do for insects or diseases.

Domestic Livestock and Wildlife

While not an insurmountable problem in most of

the Mid-Atlantic and Chesapeake Bay Region,

unrestrained livestock and/or an overpopulation

of wildlife can have detrimental effects on forest

ecosystems. Grazing livestock in forests, especially cattle, goats, and swine, has the greatest

potential for permanent loss of site productivity.

Too many stock animals in a woodlot causes

soil compaction which inhibits the capacity of

fine root hairs to function properly, reduces infiltration rates thus increasing erosion and sedimentation, and creates an impenetrable soil
Section X

10-24

layer hindering seed establishment and successful regeneration. Grazing and selective browsing removes seed and desirable reproduction,

making any possibility of advanced reproduction or desirable regeneration an impossibility.

Trampling and rubbing also causes physical

damage to stems of juveniles as well as more

mature trees.

Overpopulation of wildlife species can have

many of the same impacts as unrestricted grazing of livestock. Larger animals like deer can

over graze and browse a forest in the same manner goats do. Common field mice and voles

along with rabbits can reek havoc with reforestation and afforestation efforts if no effort is

made to control their impacts. Beaver and porcupine readily girdle small trees for food and

building material, often devastating riparian areas and making unwanted in-stream “improvements” at the same time.

There are a number of things the prudent forest

manager can do to mitigate or compensate for

the impacts from livestock and wildlife. Eliminate forest grazing by providing alternative watering facilities, shade, and loafing areas for

domestic livestock. Shade and loafing areas can

be provided by installing a fence 20-50 feet inside the border of a woodlot. While making the

outside edge of a woodlot available to livestock,

the inside contiguous block of forest is protected

from grazing and can be managed as a productive forest and an integral part of the overall

farming operation. The re-establishment of a

more or less complete food chain, including

predators, may be necessary to maintain sustainable wildlife populations. If this is not feasible,

then the use of controlled hunting with bag limits is the most practical way of maintaining acceptable population levels of wildlife.

References

American Forest and Paper Association. 1995.

Sustainable forestry principles and implementation guidelines. Washington DC.

American Forest and Paper Association. 1995.

U.S. forests facts and figures.

Davis, K.P. 1996. Forest management: regulation and valuation. McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Foreman, J.M., E. Frame, J. Carroll, and J.

Wagner. 1995. Virginia’s forests, our commonwealth. Virginia Department of Forestry.

Hepting, G.H. 1971. Diseases of forest and

shade trees of the United States. USDA Forest

Service Ag. Handbook No. 386. Washington,

DC.

Lowrance, R., L. Altier, J.D. Newbold, R.

Schnabel, P.M. Groffman, J.M. Denver, D.L.

Correll, J.W. Gilliam, J.L. Robinson, R.B.

Brinsfield, K.W. Staver, W.L. Lucas, and A.H.

Todd. 1995. Water quality functions of riparian

forest buffer systems in the Chesapeake Bay

watershed. EPA 903-R-95-004. CPB/TRS

134/95.

Perkey, A.W., B.L. Wilkins and H.C. Smith.

1993. Crop tree management in eastern hardwoods. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern

Area, State & Private Forestry. Morgantown,

WV. NA-TP-19-93.

Sinclair, S.A. 1992. Forest products marketing.

McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Smith, D.M. 1986. The practice of silviculture.

Rev. ed. of: The practice of silviculture/Ralph

C. Hawley. 7th ed. 1962. John Wiley & Sons.

Virginia Department of Forestry. 1994. Annual

best management practices report.

Virginia Department of Forestry. 1989. Forestry best management practices for water quality.

Welsch, D.J. 1991. Riparian forest buffers,

function and design for protection and enhancement of water resources. USDA Forest

Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private

Forestry. Radnor, PA. NA-PR-07-91.

Wenger, K.F. editor. 1984. The forestry handbook. second edition. John Wiley and Sons
Section XI

Urban/Suburban Aspects

Introduction ........................................................................................................11-1

Buffer Specification Guidance ...........................................................................11-6

Planning Reforestation Sites in Urban Areas...................................................11-15

Ordinances/Zoning...........................................................................................11-25

Implementing a Riparian Reforestation Plan ...................................................11-27

References ........................................................................................................11-33
Section XI

11-1

Introduction

Riparian forest buffers provide critical transitions

between surrounding land uses and streams, rivers, and other receiving waters. In urban areas,

riparian areas are extremely critical because they

are often the last line of defense for the protection

of water quality, flow regime, and habitat, both

aquatic and terrestrial (Table 11-1). Although

urban forest buffers may have similar appearances to their counterparts in rural areas, there are

significant differences. This section outlines how

these differences must be addressed both in the

planning and implementation for forest buffer

restoration in urban riparian areas. It is the area

of transition between urban and rural areas where

the greatest land use change is occurring and

where the greatest potential value of riparian forest buffers can be realized.

Comparison of Urban and Rural

Riparian Buffers

A primary difference between urban and rural

forest buffers is the level of disturbance that occurs both within and adjacent to them. Although

stream channels are, by nature, areas of high disturbance, urban stream channels are subject to

elevated levels of disturbance because of urban

land development (Figure 11-1). Altered flow

regimes and levels of human activity create notable changes in both the structure and function of

urban riparian forests.

Urban/Suburban Aspects

Figure 11 - 1. Effect of Urbanization on Stream Channels. The increase in the peak discharge rates following

urbanization shifts the elevation of the 100-year flood plain upward, which may put more property and structures at

risk. (Source: Schueler, 1987)
Section XI

11-2

Table 11 - 1

Benefits of Urban Riparian Forest Buffers

Reduce Runoff Volume Watershed imperviousness can be reduced by as much as five percent by setting aside 100-foot buffer areas.

Reduce Small Drainage

Problems

Buffers can reduce complaints from property owners regarding

flooding, erosion, and drainage problems by allowing space for the

natural meandering of stream channels.

Stabilize Banks and Limit

Channel Erosion

The roots of native grasses and woody plants preserved along the

shoreline help stabilize stream banks and limit channel erosion.

Increase Property Values Ninety percent of buffer administrators surveyed believe that buffers

and other forested lands have a positive impact on property values.

Reduce Pollutant Loads When properly designed, buffers can provide effective pollutant

removal for development when located within 150 feet of the buffer

boundary. A buffer's long-term pollutant removal capacity depends

on a number of factors, including soil conditions, vegetative character, and buffer size and slope.

Provide a Foundation for

Greenways

The systematic protection or creation of riparian buffers can connect

non-contiguous fragments of forest that create a valuable community resource.

Provide Food and Habitat for

Wildlife

Leaf litter is a base food source for many stream ecosystems. Forested buffers also provide woody debris that creates cover and

habitat structure for aquatic insects and fish.

Preserve Important

Terrestrial Habitat

Riparian corridors are important transition zones that are rich in

species. A mile of stream buffer can provide 25 to 40 acres of

habitat area. Unbroken stream buffers provide corridors for conservation that are highways for migration of plant and animal populations.

Maintain an Essential Habitat

for Amphibians

Preservation of flood plains in a forested state effectively protects

aquatic and terrestrial habitats that are dependent on riparian environments to protect their life cycles.

Mitigate Stream Warming Shading provided by a forest canopy protects the thermal regime of

streams. This is especially important in urban areas where stream

warming is a significant cause of in-stream species mortality.

Preserve Wetlands Urban buffers offer protection of associated wetlands that are frequently found along stream corridors. Wetlands are critical to the

control of both the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff, with

direct contributions to nutrient recycling.

Protect Steep Slopes Areas that should be excluded from development, like steep slopes,

can be set aside to reduce soil erosion if located in riparian areas.
Section XI

11-3

For example:

• Urban riparian forests incur increased levels

of bank erosion and subsequent tree-fall into

streams because of the high volume and velocity of storm events.

• Flood plains in urban areas are favored sites

for utility lines, gravity-fed sewer systems,

and stormdrain outfalls.

• Needs of urban recreational facilities are often

targeted toward riparian areas because of their

linear nature and contiguous forest.

• Adjacent land use can be a source of disturbance affecting the buffer, with problems such

as vandalism, excessive foot traffic, and

dumping.

Hydrologically, urban forest buffers may have

few similarities with rural buffers. In heavily

urbanized watersheds, the stream channel itself

becomes hydrologically disconnected with adjacent riparian areas because of channel incising

and bank armoring. Patterns of flow to a stream

channel shift from infiltration and subsurface

flow to rapid surface runoff. Roads and other

impervious areas adjacent to or within forested

buffers further disconnect buffers from surface

and subsurface flows. Direct discharges of storm

drains downstream of riparian buffers are the

most common examples of the disrupted hydrological patterns and potential for decreased water

quality benefits associated with urban riparian

buffers.

After riparian forest buffers are established, many

forces can affect the structure and function of

these areas. Encroachment of buffers is a common problem found in all types of adjacent land

uses. The expansion of turfgrass, excessive foot

traffic, removal of understory plants, and introduction of invasive plants can seriously degrade

the natural functions of forest buffers. The result

is reduction in the interception and treatment of

stormwater. Any of these factors (singularly or

combined) has a detrimental effect on the condition of urban forest buffers.

Riparian Forest Buffers as Urban Best

Management Practices (BMPs)

In recent years, it has been discovered that buffers

have a role in the treatment of stormwater. However, they are only one component in a multifaceted approach. Although riparian forest buffers can provide effective treatment for as much as

10 percent of the contributing watershed to the

stream, it is important to understand that buffers

cannot treat all the stormwater runoff generated

within a watershed. Communities frequently cite

pollutant removal as a primary objective of buffer

programs, although riparian buffers in urban areas vary greatly in their abilities to remove pollutants. Many reasons for this were discussed in

the previous section. To determine capacities for

stormwater treatment, the size and condition of

the urban stream buffer must be assessed in relation to the land use of contributing drainage areas. In many cases, urban buffers are inadequate

in terms of area, detention times, and infiltration

capacities to treat the quantities and concentrations of flow that enter from urban land uses.

When conditions are favorable, a buffer may

continue to adequately treat subsurface flow, but

treat only a limited amount of surface runoff from

a particular catchment area. Surface flow patterns are the main factor determining whether a

forest buffer is suitable to serve as a BMP. Forest

buffers provide natural mechanisms for physical

filtering, infiltration, and biological uptake. For

these processes to be effective, surface flow must

not be concentrated. As shown in Figure 11-2,

surface flow has a tendency to concentrate after it

has passed over distances of 150 to 200 feet. In

urban areas, the concentration of flow is accelerated by impervious surfaces and stormwater conveyance systems. Once concentrated, surface

flow forms a channel that can make a stable urban

buffer ineffective.

Certainly, ideal buffer conditions are rarely encountered in urban watersheds. However, even in

the best of circumstances, the capability of urban

forest buffers to remove pollutants and sediment

(Table 11-2) borne in stormwater is diminished

by harsh stormwater delivery systems that are
Section XI

11-4

designed to remove surface drainage in the shortest amount of time. Developers and planners are

beginning to recognize the role of conveyance

systems in this loss of treatment, and they are

making changes in the design and approval of the

systems. Stormwater management strategies are

beginning to focus more on infiltration techniques, which can shift the imbalance created by

loss of groundwater.

If a buffer receives flow directly from impervious

areas, the design should include flow-spreading

mechanisms, such as multiple curb cuts, spacers,

or other devices to evenly distribute runoff over

the forest buffer. A stone flow spreader typically

consists of a narrow band of stone, layered at the

pavement edge, 3 to 6 inches below the pavement

surface to prevent sediment deposits from blocking inflow to the filter strip.

Riparian forest buffers can provide stormwater

filtering benefits only if regular inspection and

fundamental maintenance can be guaranteed. An

example of such maintenance is periodic mowing

of turf filters at higher than normal heights. Another example is the annual removal of accumulated sediments at the border of the impervious

area and the grass filter (more frequent maintenance may be required during periods of high

sediment deposits). These techniques will ensure

the long-term effectiveness of the forest buffer

BMP.

Figure 11 - 2. Overland Flow Patterns in Urban Areas. The distance between the ridgetop and the stream is known

as the overland flow path (cross-section view). Even in undisturbed watersheds, flow tends to quickly concentrate

over a short distance (plan view, panel a). In urban watersheds, flow tends to concentrate even more quickly, requiring stabilization of the intermittent channel (panel b). In a, more water can soak into the ground so stormwater flow is

less intense. While b not only has concentrated flow, it has a greater quantity because of the imperviousness. (Source:

Metropolitan Washington COG, 1995)
Section XI

11-5

In summary, the size, slope, vegetation, soils, and

contributing drainage area of a buffer are all factors that determine its ability to act as a BMP.

For this reason, buffers must be carefully selected

for their capability to handle more than small

volumes of stormwater. For instance, design criteria of buffers as BMPs is particularly sensitive

to site-specific and local conditions. Regardless

of the buffer’s ability to handle stormwater runoff, it must be properly managed and maintained

to ensure that design values are not altered and

pollutant removal efficiency is retained.

As a consequence, many communities have

adopted stream buffer requirements as one element of an overall urban watershed protection

strategy. According to recent studies, when buffers are designed with realistic objectives in mind,

programs are better accepted by the community

and developers, alike. The uniform buffer designs of the past offered increased susceptibility

to disturbance and encroachment and often became imperceptible components of the landscape

to contractors, property owners, and even local

governmental agencies.

Table 11 - 2

Approximate Pollutant Removal Efficiencies of Buffer Mechanisms in Riparian Buffers

Designed for Urban Areas*

Pollutant Removal

Mechanism:

Type of Pollutant

Total Suspended

Solids

Total PhosphorusTotal

Nitrogen

Metals HydrocarbonsSolubles

Erosion Control/Bank

Stability

High NA NA NA NA NA

Limiting ImperviousnessModerate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Filtration and Settling High Low Low Moderate Moderate Low

Cation Exchange NA Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Plant Uptake NA Moderate Moderate Moderate NA Moderate

Denitrification NA NA Moderate NA NA Moderate1

1

 Nitrogen only.

Low ~ 0 - 40 percent

Moderate ~ 40 - 70 percent

High ~ 70 - 100 percent

NA = Not applicable

* Over time, a buffer's pollution removal rate is dependent on its capacity to store and recycle nutrients. Where pollutant loads exceed this long-term capacity, the amount of pollutants in the runoff flowing across a buffer may increase. For example, in urban areas, sediment often builds up in buffer areas until a major stormwater flow washes

much of it into the water. (Source: Metropolitan Washington COG, 1996)
Section XI

11-6

Recreation and Riparian Buffers

Riparian buffers and streamside corridors serve

different community needs. Some people view

these green corridors as park and recreation areas,

while others value their natural aesthetic beauty

and wildlife habitat potential. These perceptions

have evolved in recent years as the broad benefits

provided by riparian buffers and other natural

areas are being realized – whether for stream

protection, wildlife habitat, or recreational facilities. Despite the differing perspectives of the

importance and use of forest buffers, they are key

features of the urban landscape. They provide

multiple recreational and environmental benefits

for adjacent communities.

Many urban communities have become interested

in greenways or green corridor initiatives that

attempt to marry all of the riparian buffer benefits

and tie into recreational aspects, such as jogger

and hiker/biker trails. A greenway is defined as:

“[a] linear open space established along either a

natural corridor, such as a riverfront, stream valley, or ridgeline, or overland along a railroad

right-of-way converted to recreational use, a canal, a scenic road, or other route,” or, “[a]ny natural or landscaped course for pedestrian or bicycle

passage.”

Greenways act as transportation routes for bicycles, pedestrians, recreation, wildlife education,

or simply as greenspace for the sheer enjoyment

they provide. Greenways or other linear green

corridors improve environmental quality by reducing vehicle emissions through trip reduction,

providing water quality benefits, wildlife habitat,

and expanding forest cover.

There are many missed opportunities for the general public to have green corridors in urban areas

because of encroachment, private landownership,

or severe channel degradation along urban

streams. However, partnerships among adjacent

communities, recreation and transportation officials, stream protection advocates, and local governmental agencies can effectively change urban

stream corridors into functioning greenways.

This partnership approach has paid off in cities

like Boston, Boulder, Cleveland, Harrisburg,

Minneapolis/St. Paul, Seattle, San Diego, and

Washington, DC, where miles of quality trail

systems have been established. These cities and

many like them across the country have developed greenways systems in conjunction with existing linear natural areas or stream corridors.

As expected, difficulties can be encountered

when attempting to acquire new rights-of-way or

even in redesignating existing rights-of-way.

People along these greenways worry about crime,

viewshed degradation, and loss of their privacy

and safety. Other considerations revolve around

conflicts between users, policing, maintenance,

and trail design considerations, such as interpretive signage, access points, and trail width.

The establishment of greenspace is encouraging

because it increases forest cover, habitat, recreation, and other benefits. However, it must be understood that as we demand more use of our

green corridors in urban areas, there is a direct

relationship to the uses and the maintenance required. The impact on the resource, monetary

costs of increasing its size to meet recreational

needs, and the impact of limiting its use should

always be considered.

Wildlife Habitat Values of Urban Buffers

Riparian areas and wetlands contain the greatest

diversity of species. Urban forest buffers help

protect this resource and provide critical habitat

for wildlife. Many wildlife species need both

aquatic and terrestrial habitat. Riparian buffers

provide detritus and large woody debris for instream aquatic life. As the urban landscape becomes more developed, establishment and

protection of forest habitat along streams becomes even more critical.

Buffer Specification Guidance

As previously mentioned, riparian buffer corridors can be designed to accommodate a broad

range of goals and objectives, including stormwater management, wildlife habitat, bank stabilization, erosion control, and recreation. When

examined closely, these objectives tend to complement rather than oppose each other. At different locations along the corridor, however, the

primary function of the buffer may change as
Section XI

11-7

physical and social conditions change. For example, a small buffer adjacent to an apartment

complex, with high levels of imperviousness, may

not be able to provide stormwater treatment, but

may have an important role in protecting streambanks and providing recreational needs for the

community.

Urban stream buffers are an integral element of

any local stream protection program. By adopting some of these rather simple performance criteria, communities can make their stream buffers

more than just a designation on a map. Better

design and planning also ensure that communities

realize the full environmental and social benefits

of stream buffers.

The ability of an existing buffer to provide particular benefits depends on how well the buffer is

planned, designed, and managed for the specific

situation. The following information is offered as

practical guidance for the development of an urban buffer program. Much of the guidance reflects issues and solutions used by planning

agencies across the country to meet a variety of

program objectives.

Buffer Widths

Surveys of local forest buffer criteria reveal that

stream buffers are typically required to be a uniform width from the adjacent stream channel.

Buffer width specifications range from 20 to 200

feet on either side of the stream, with a median

width of 100 feet. In most cases, the jurisdictions

used state or local width criteria without clear

understanding of the scientific rationale or purpose. These criteria were sometimes altered to

meet political needs for compromise. Most programs required that all lands within the 100-year

flood plain be included within the buffer width,

with some jurisdictions expanding buffer areas to

include wetlands, steep slopes, and critical habitat

areas.

Buffer slope, vegetation, soils, and other features

should be used to determine the width required to

achieve water quality objectives. A minimum

width of 75 to 100 feet is recommended to provide effective stream protection. In most survey

locations, this translates into a buffer that is three

to five mature trees wide on each side of the

stream channel. Often, trees in the riparian area

are not mature, and not evenly dispersed. A

buffer 100 feet wide may be eight to ten trees in

width, depending on species, stocking density,

and other factors. The removal of sediments and

particulate pollutants from surface runoff, for

instance, may require widths of between 50 and

2,025 feet. A buffer's ability to treat stormwater

from adjacent land uses also depends on the extent to which that flow becomes channelized before it reaches the buffer. Adequate structures

and space should be used on adjacent land to

spread out channelized flow, known as sheetflow.

It is important to consider the costs of various

width requirements in light of anticipated benefits. The analysis should consider the cost of administering and maintaining the buffer program.

Three-Zone Buffer System

As shown in Figure 11-3, an effective urban

stream buffer can be divided into three lateral

zones, each performing a different function. The

zones also have varying widths, vegetative targets, and management schemes. The three zones

include:

• The Streamside Zone – It protects the physical

and ecological integrity of the stream ecosystem. The vegetative target is mature riparian

forest that can provide shade, leaf litter,

woody debris, and erosion protection to the

stream. The minimum width is 25 feet from

each streambank (approximately the distance

of one or two mature trees from the streambank), and land use is highly restricted. In urban situations, this includes preexisting

conditions, such as confined stormwater

channels, footpaths, and utility and roadway

crossings. Ideally, in a new development,

these attributes would be minimized substantially.

• The Middle Zone – It extends from the outward boundary of the streamside zone and

varies in width depending on stream order, the

extent of the 100-year flood plain, adjacent

steep slopes, and protected wetland areas.

The middle zone protects key components of
Section XI

11-8

the stream and provides further distance between upland development and the stream.

The minimum width of the middle core is approximately 50 feet, but it is often expanded

based on stream order, slope of the presence

of critical habitats, and the impact of recreational or utility uses. The vegetative target for

this zone is also mature forest, but some

clearing is permitted for stormwater management Best Management Practices (BMPs), site

access, and passive recreational uses. Recreational activities include: biking, hiking, nature

trails, and picnic areas.

• The Outer Zone – It is the “buffer's buffer.” It

is an additional 25-foot setback from the outward edge of the middle zone to the nearest

permanent structure. In many urban situations, this area is a residential backyard. The

vegetative character of the outer zone is usually turf or lawn, although the property owner

is encouraged to plant trees and shrubs to increase the total width of the buffer. Use restriction in this zone is minimal. Indeed,

gardening, compost piles, yard wastes, and

other common residential actions occur within

this zone, not all of which are promoted. The

Figure 11 - 3. Three-Zone Urban Buffer System. Three lateral zones comprise the foundation of an effective urban stream buffer zone. The width, function, management and vegetative target vary by zone. (Sources: Schueler, 1995

and Metropolitan Washington COG, 1995)
Section XI

11-9

only significant restrictions include septic

systems and new permanent structures.

With reference to stormwater management, the

outer and middle zones of the stream buffer may

be used as a combination grass/forest filter strip

under very limited circumstances. For example,

if the buffer cannot treat more than 75 feet of

overland flow from impervious areas or 150 feet

of pervious areas (rooftop, driveway, concrete

patio that is discharged to the backyard), the

maximum runoff velocity should be calculated

for both the six-month and two-year storm designs. The evaluation should include numbers

from each of the contributors to the overland

flow path, based on the slope, soil, and vegetative cover present. If the calculation indicates

that velocities will be erosive under either condition (greater than three feet-per-second (fps)

for six-month storm, five fps for two-year

storm), the allowable length of contributing flow

should be reduced.

Width Flexibility Planning

Streamside forest buffers should be flexible in

order to conform to topography, flood plains,

and existing drainage patterns that take advantage of existing forest cover. Many buffers’

specifications are inflexible, requiring a uniform

width for conformity to a pre-established development design. As defined earlier, the streamside zone is somewhat inflexible in that it must

be afforded minimal disturbance; however, it is

flexible in the sense that it will always include

the immediate flood plain and intersecting

streams. The middle and outer zones will fluctuate according to the proposed adjacent land

use and in accordance with other topographic

features to the greatest extent possible.

The middle zone can be expanded to include the

following:

• The full extent of the 100-year flood plain

(required in many areas)

• All undevelopable steep slopes (>25%)

• Steep slopes (5 to 25% slope, at four additional feet of slope per percent increment of

slope above 5%)

• Adjacent delineated wetlands or critical

habitats

The middle zone also expands to protect streams

and related ecosystems of significant quality or

higher order streams within the watershed. For

example, the width of the middle zone may increase from 75 feet (for first and second order

streams) to 100 feet (for third and fourth order

streams) and as much as 125 feet for fifth or

higher order streams and rivers. A very localized buffer width modification can be allowed in

some circumstances to accommodate unusual or

historical development patterns, shallow lots,

stream crossings, or stormwater ponds.

Vegetative Target

The ultimate vegetative target for the streamside

and middle zone of most urban stream buffers

should be the pre-development riparian plant

community, which in temperate eastern climates

is forest cover. In general, the target should be

based on the natural vegetative community present in the adjacent flood plain or from reference

riparian areas.

The vegetative target for the streamside zone is

related to the specific goals of the buffer. To

meet objectives of stormwater management, a

high density, stable cover is critical to treatment

goals. Buffers designed primarily for wildlife

purposes will be valued according to their ability to provide food, forage, and cover for target

wildlife species (see Section III, for information

on species selection for riparian reforestation).

Buffer Delineation

The process of delineating buffer areas will vary

for different sizes or orders of streams. For example, a buffer on a first or second order stream

can be most easily defined by using the stream

centerline as the inner edge of the buffer (see

Figures 11-4 and 11-5). As stream order increases, the inner edge of the buffer is better

defined as edge of the stream channel.
Section XI

11-10

Traditionally, the mapping scale used to define

stream order is the USGS 7.5-minute quadrangle

maps (1 inch = 2,000 feet). Perennial streams at

this topographic scale are depicted as “bluelines.” However, a considerable number of

smaller drainages exist, such as intermittent,

small swales, or ditches that are not shown at

this scale. Larger scale maps and field verification are the only foolproof technique to determine the actual location of all drainage at the

site.

Stream origin points may be in dispute if no

definite source can be determined. For land

clearing purposes, the conservative approach

defines stream origin as the point where several

minute, intermittent streams form a distinct

channel(s). This is indicated by the presence of

a largely unvegetated streambed and high water

marks. A more hydrologically conscientious

approach would be to evaluate topography more

closely through the use of more detailed maps,

field inspections, and a visit to the site during a

rain event. For the sake of comparison, arid

geographic regions of the country have defined

stream origin as the upper limit of running water

during the annual wet season. However stream

origin is defined, expect conflicts resulting from

the altering of drainage from agricultural and

development activities.

Buffer Crossings

Stream crossings for roads, railways, underground utilities, and open and enclosed storm

drains have direct effects on forest buffers and

the associated stream network. These structures

fragment forest and create both surface and subsurface barriers to wildlife and fish passage and

hydrologic flows.

The following criteria should be followed to

minimize the impact to urban buffer systems

(see Figure 11-5). Any performance criteria

established should specifically describe the conditions under which the stream or its buffers can

be crossed.

Figure 11 - 4. Stream Order Concept. Stream order is a useful tool to classify the many elements of the

stream network. (Source: Metropolitan Washington COG, 1995)
Section XI

11-11

Figure 11 - 5. Crossing the Stream Buffer. Two major goals of a stream buffer are to maintain an unbroken riparian corridor and to allow for fish passage. Therefore, the conditions under which the buffer can be crossed should be

clearly defined. (Source: Schueler, 1995)
Section XI

11-12

Examples of these performance criteria are:

• Crossing Width – Minimum width to allow

for maintenance access.

• Crossing Angle - Direct right angles are preferred over oblique crossing angles, since

they require less clearing in the buffer.

• Crossing Frequency - Only one road crossing

is allowed within each subdivision, and no

more than one fairway crossing is allowed

for every 1,000 feet of buffer.

• Crossing Elevation - All direct outfall channels should discharge at the invert elevation

of the stream. Underground utility and pipe

crossings should be located at least three feet

below the stream invert, so that future channel erosion does not expose them, creating

unintentional fish barriers. All roadway

crossings and culverts should be capable of

passing the ultimate 100-year flood event.

Bridges should be used in lieu of culverts

when stream crossings require a 72-inch or

greater pipe. Small stream crossings should

be avoided, as they tend to create fish barriers. Slab, arch, or box culverts are better alternatives to round, metal culverts for small

stream crossings. Where possible, the culvert should be “bottomless” to ensure passage of water during dry weather periods.

Locating Stormwater Ponds and

Wetlands Within the Buffer

Stormwater ponds and wetlands, types of BMPs,

can be located within the buffer area, but there

can be adverse effects. If constructed within the

buffer, there will be:

• localized clearing of trees

• alteration of surface and subsurface flow

regimes

• potential barriers to fish migration

• alteration of the receiving stream ecology

• stream warming

However, an advantage of placing the BMP

within the buffer is that the facility is likely to

treat a larger drainage area than if placed in

other locations on the site. Other benefits of

siting within the buffer include:

• Reducing the costs of the project due to

savings in materials such as pipe, trench, and

excavation.

• Reduced clearing and grading on the designated developable land where ponds and

other stormwater structures are typically located, providing a bargaining chip for seeking the preservation of buffers on-site.

• Aesthetic considerations such as the removal

of unsightly stormwater ponds and structures

from prominent points in the project site.

• Most important, adjacent or instream facilities can enhance habitat and structural diversity to the buffer and ecosystem.

These benefits do not mean that stormwater

ponds and wetlands should always be placed

within the buffer in all situations. Instead,

thoughtful consideration should be given to the

impacts and the performance potential for the

facility over the long-term. In cases where abnormal levels of pollution and sediment deposition are anticipated, location of BMPs within

the buffer areas may be the most practical solution, given their effectiveness in removing pollutants.

Criteria for restricting the use of BMPs in buffer

areas are as follows:

• Confine the contributing area to a maximum

suitable for that BMP,

• Restrict use within the first 500 feet of

stream channel, or

• Limit clearing of the streamside buffer zone

to the outflow channel only (if the pond is

discharging from the middle zone into the

stream), or to off-line locations within the

middle or outer zone of the buffer, or to use

ponds only to manage stormwater quantity

within the buffer.
Section XI

11-13

Management of Forest Buffers During

Plan Review and Construction

Having well-defined criteria for the delineation,

use, and protection during construction and post

construction management of riparian areas is

essential to implementing a riparian forest

buffer/BMP program. A well-managed system

for planning and tracking these areas will encourage full participation by those in the land

planning/development process. It will prevent

the degradation of habitat and aesthetic quality

and ensure that a particular stream system does

not receive excessive stormflows. Some helpful

guidelines are:

• Require preliminary buffer delineation on

conceptual and final plans

• Confirm that buffer delineations and subsequent changes are calculated and mapped

properly

• Field verify stream delineations as drawn

• Check buffer size calculations for suitability

against the proposed use as a stormwater

treatment facility

• Determine that other BMPs within and outside of the proposed project can perform to

specified parameters, and that they have been

properly integrated into the buffer system

• Carefully review all buffer crossings to

minimize impact

Buffer Education, Encroachment, and

Enforcement

Treatment of forest areas and stream buffers

during construction is tenuous because of mixed

perceptions of the susceptibility of forested areas to disturbance. Education of site level personnel is imperative to maintain protection

around these areas. Other site level safeguards

include:

• Clearly designating buffer boundaries with

durable, brightly colored signage that describes protection guidelines.

• Inviting construction personnel and adjacent

property owners to presentations, field demonstrations, and stream walks.

• Providing concise information about the

benefits and uses of the buffer, as well as

follow-up meetings with homeowner associations.

• Providing a program whereby property owners are fully informed about buffer limits and

uses at the point of sale for property or property transfers.

• Establishing a resident’s buffer stewardship

program for monitoring, reforestation, and

backyard buffer enhancement that includes

annual inspections.

The point of providing information about the

functions of forest buffers and impacts of human

interference is to prevent the degradation of the

buffer’s usefulness as a BMP and as a habitat

area. Encroachment is a major problem in urban

areas; individual landowners believe that their

actions will not harm the buffer’s functions. The

cumulative effects of dumping, understory removal, and drainage path alteration are difficult

for the individuals to perceive. Awareness and

education measures are intended to increase the

recognition of the buffer within the community.

It is advisable to establish an enforcement

mechanism to resolve conflicts with violators.

These restoration measures should have the

“teeth” necessary to achieve restoration of the

damaged areas and to levy fines, but only as a

last resort. Some program administrators have

had success in placing the full cost of buffer

restoration on the violators through the imposition of property liens.

Existing Urban Buffers

In most regions of the country, a 100-foot buffer

will remove approximately five percent of the

developable land of the total land area from development. Although this is a small percentage,

combined with other regulations, such as setbacks, roads, recreation set-asides, and easements, it can be a significant additional impact

on the developable portion of the property. In
Section XI

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preexisting communities, it is difficult to establish protection for forest buffers without strong

opposition by the property owners adjacent to

the stream. If easements, tax credits, or donation of private land cannot be accomplished, the

identified tract(s) may need to be purchased outright to avoid litigation over “takings” issues. It

should be understood that obtaining all of the

desired parcels cannot be immediate, in fact,

some parcels may never be obtained. Goals that

are realistic and tempered with a flexible attitude will be the most successful. The basic intent of the buffer program is to modify

development location in relation to the stream,

not the development’s intensity.

Private Ownership of Buffers

Retrofitting buffer protective measures in existing communities is the most problematic of

any buffer protection program. From a maintenance perspective, private property ownership

of riparian forest buffers is preferable to public

ownership. The cost and responsibility of the

buffer is not the community’s. Incentives, such

as increased property values associated with

forested tracts as well as aesthetic and recreational benefits, are all important in maintaining

private buffers for the future. A key strategy in

preserving private buffers is that the reservation

of the buffer cannot take away all economically

beneficial use for the property. Four techniques

– buffer averaging, density compensation, conservation easements, and variances – are used to

ensure that the interests of the property owners

are protected. These techniques for buffer acquisition are as follows:

1. Buffer Averaging

This basic concept permits the buffer to become

narrower at some points along the stream to allow for preexisting structures or to recover parcels reserved for their exceptional natural value,

provided that the minimum width is not compromised. In general, buffer narrowing is limited, such that the streamside zone is not

disturbed, and no new structures are allowed

within the 100-year flood plain (whichever distance is greater).

2. Density Compensation

Density compensation grants a developer a

credit for additional density allowances elsewhere on the same site in exchange for developable land that was reserved for the buffer

requirement. Developable land is determined

after subtracting the portion of the buffer area

remaining after the 100-year flood plain, wetland(s), and steep slope areas. Credits are

granted when more than five percent of developable land is consumed, using the scale shown

in Table 11-3. The density credit is accommodated at the development site by allowing

greater flexibility in setbacks, frontage distances, and minimum lot sizes. Cluster development also allows the developer to recover lots

that are taken out of production due to buffers

and other requirements in exchange for higher

Table 11 - 3

Sample Schedule for the Use of Density

Credits in Compensation to Developers for

Land Consumed by Stream Buffers

Percent of Site Lost to

Buffers

Density Credit*

1 to 10% 1.0

11 to 20% 1.1

21 to 30% 1.2

31 to 40% 1.3

41 to 50% 1.4

51 to 60%** 1.5

61 to 70%** 1.6

71 to 80%** 1.7

81 to 90%** 1.8

91 to 99%** 1.9

 * Additional dwelling units allowed over

base density (1.0).

** Credit may be transferred to a different

parcel.

(Adapted from Burns, 1992)
Section XI

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density on developable portions of the property.

Again, the intent of the stream buffer is to modify the location, not the intensity of development. Buffer averaging, density compensation,

and variances also minimize the responsibility

of those private property owners that are adjacent to the stream.

3. Conservation Easements

This type of easement allows for the donation to

a land trust as a charitable contribution that can

reduce an owner's tax burden. Some jurisdictions have afforded landowners the option of the

perpetual conservation easement. Variations

allow for the easement to be donated to a local

government in exchange for an amortized reduction and/or elimination of property tax on

the parcel.

4. Variances

The buffer ordinance should have provisions

that enable an existing property owner to be

granted a variance or waiver, if the owner can

demonstrate severe economic hardship or

unique circumstances in meeting some or all of

the buffer requirements. Similar to the zoning

variance process, property owners should be

provided an appeals process in the event of a

variance denial.

Planning Reforestation Sites in

Urban Areas

During the planning process, one of the main

considerations should be acquiring permission

and negotiating with the landowner. A great

deal of time and effort must be devoted to this

process. It is a critical first step in developing a

successful urban reforestation project.

Plantings are frequently chosen on the basis of

available land, ease of access, or aesthetics –

none of which may be the best site in terms of

effectiveness or overall watershed need. To target areas for reforestation, watershed need must

first be determined by examining watershed

health and existing conditions. This is not to

say that trees planted on a randomly selected

streamside location are not helpful to the stream

and existing forest habitat, only that the optimal

benefit is not realized. This is an important

point because all of the sites cannot be reforested at once, if at all, given limited financial

resources and sites available.

Identifying Riparian Buffer Planting Sites

In 1994, a new technique called the Urban Riparian Restoration Project (URRP) was developed to evaluate a watershed for suitable

riparian reforestation sites. This technique is an

assessment tool to:

1. Target restoration resources to the most environmentally effective sites, and

2. Prevent project failure resulting from other

environmental conditions that may be overlooked in the project planning stage.

The URRP method is a three-tiered system to

evaluate the health of the watershed using land

use, topographic, soils, and other maps. It also

uses aerial photographs, watershed imperviousness, natural resource data, and landownership

to rank areas for restoration activities.

This strategy aspires to examine all potential

projects, natural or unnatural occurrences or

effects to a stream system, and habitat and survivability potential. For example, if an eroding

riparian are is reforested before examining the

hydrologic fluctuations of the stream system, the

trees may be washed away before they can establish and stabilize the area. Prior to a project

such as this, it would be more prudent to examine the solutions to the peak streamflow that is

accelerating the erosion. This may involve tandem engineering solutions that would require

bank stabilization and upstream/ instream

activity that would obliterate the reforestation

project. Of course, it is impossible to anticipate

all potential problems, but this strategy can

dramatically diminish conflicts.

American Forests has developed a computer

software program called “City Green” that uses

satellite imagery and standard aerial photographs to evaluate a number of criteria for ecosystem health. Some of these criteria are

imperviousness, forest cover, population, and
Section XI

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land use. All of these are tabulated to determine

the level of degradation of that watershed.

Planting Season

Typically, the planting seasons for reforestation

projects in the Mid-Atlantic Region (USDA

Zones 6, 7, and 8) are as follows:

• March through Late-May – seedlings and

container/balled and burlapped plants

• Late September through November – container/balled and burlapped plants

While this window may seem narrow, reforestation projects are frequently performed with volunteers and with minimal financial support;

therefore, return site visits for watering, weeding, and other maintenance are frequently minimal. Since the plant's survival is left to the

elements, the timing of the planting must be

when the elements are the most beneficial to the

plants. Reforestation projects other than those

stated are not recommended as weather conditions can be extremely harsh and severely affect

plant survivability.

Planting Site Visit

Once the site is identified, a site visit is necessary to measure the planting area, assess planting conditions, soils, current vegetative cover,

and other factors. If possible, schedule this visit

during the growing season to observe what

growing conditions will be like for the plants

and to develop an idea of site preparations and

future maintenance needs. The information in

this section will describe how to plan and execute a reforestation project.

The items listed above should be on hand during

the site visit. They will be used to gather the

information specified in the site visit checklist.

Since property owners of riparian areas in urban

areas will frequently be a public agency, coordination will be with the local government. However, whether public or private, the following

procedures for meeting to discuss the project

will be primarily the same.

1. Meet with property owners on-site to establish a clear understanding of planting

boundaries and mark the locations in their

presence. Check for the presence of overhead utility lines, and find out what underground utility lines are in the area. Establish

acceptable access point(s) to the site for

plant and mulch delivery, volunteer parking,

and other neighborhood concerns. Together,

note any site irregularities, such as

trash/debris, erosion, and flooding. Take

Pre-Planting Field Visit Check List

• Identify site access • Note presence of invasive plants

• Verify site boundaries • Note erosion/sedimentation problems

• Calculate actual planting space • Proximity of residences/facilities

• Calculate plant spacing • Volunteer parking/restrooms

• Assess soil condition (type, compaction) • Need for bushogging (weeding)

• Identify surrounding vegetation • Water sources

• Check sun/wind exposure • Mulch dumping location

Items Needed for Planting at the Site

• Shovel • Hammer

• Stakes • Flagging

• Swinging Blade • Sketch-Pad

• Work boots • Camera

• Measuring Tape • Plant I.D. Book

• Calculator • Gloves
Section XI

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notice of adjacent forestland for garbage or

natural debris, such as grass clippings,

pruning clippings, and other yard waste.

This material should be removed prior to the

planting, and adjacent property owners must

be encouraged to keep the area clean.

2. Sample digging conditions at several locations. Note any potential difficulties, such as

hard, compacted, or rocky soil; insufficient

or excess soil moisture; landfill materials; or

roots. If the soil is particularly hard, for example, bring additional tools for the task.

Also, consider reducing the project scope to

match the trees planted with the number of

volunteers anticipated for the planting. (See

Urban Soils below.)

3. If the site is an unattended field, mowing will

most likely be necessary to access the planting area. In subsequent years, grass around

the plants will need to be trimmed manually

until the plants are established. High grass

and weeds can be beneficial as a shield from

winter winds or drought, although they will

compete for moisture and nutrients under

newly planted trees. If grass is not mowed,

plan two to three site visits per season to remove competing plants in the immediate root

zone of the trees for the first few seasons.

Urban Soils

Soil type is the most important factor in determining the kinds of plants that will grow on a

specific site. There are 16 different nutrients

that are essential for plant growth. Of these 16

nutrients, 13 are derived primarily from the soil.

Soil also provides water storage and support for

plant roots. Soil type dictates moisture retention, nutrient absorption, nutrient composition

and availability, and compactability. Soils in

urban areas are typically poor as a result of:

• original topsoil being removed during land

clearing for construction,

• compaction by machines and/or people,

• years of erosion , and

• poor soil management.

Many sites in urban areas that are prime for reforestation projects have the poorest soils. In

many cases, urban soils have an upper soil layer

devoid of organic material. These soils frequently contain mixtures of backfill soils, construction debris, and other non-indigenous soil

compositions that are devoid of nutrients.

The question of how to correct urban soil problems is complex. In many cases, nothing is done

to improve soil quality because of time, materials, equipment, and funding. Certainly, it is

recommended that a soil test be conducted from

several locations throughout the site. While

corrective measures should strive to achieve the

optimum soil quality, the reality in many situations is that any improvement will be welcome

(See Table 11-4). Some inexpensive options

include: soil aeration; compost application; and

cultivation in conjunction with a topsoil, gypsum, lime, or other soil improvement catalyst as

recommended by the soil test results. If soil is

severely compacted, it is virtually pointless to

plant anything before the compaction problem

has been resolved. Compacted soil contains no

oxygen (oxygen being a necessary soil component for root growth) and is impervious to

moisture absorption; both are key factors for the

survival of young plants.

This section does not presume to provide an exhaustive list of recommendations for solving

soil problems in urban areas. The goal is to introduce the various possibilities and to strongly

encourage that they be addressed where possible.

Visible soil properties are key indicators of the

quality of a soil (Section IV). These properties

include color, texture, structure, and depth.

Each of these soil properties is closely correlated to one or more properties that actually

control plant growth; therefore, one can infer the

ability of a soil to support plants from these four

properties.

Soil Color

Soil color is an indicator of soil properties that

affect plant development. The overall color of

the soil is an indicator of organic matter content,
Table 11 - 4. Soil Amendments for Urban Tree Plantings

Problematic Range1

Soil Characteristics Low Medium High Corrective Measures for ConsideraPhysical

Soil Textures

Sand <50% >75% >90% Add organic matter (OM), irrigate frequeClay, Kaolinitic2 <25% >50% >65% Add OM, DO NOT over irrigate, reduce 

Clay, Expandable2 none any >10% Reclaim with gypsum and leaching, DO 

until reclaimed.

Clay & Silt <30% >50% >75% Add OM, irrigate correctly, deep till, aer

Structure variable Eliminate compaction, traffic, add OM; m

and root growth; reduce sodium conDO NOT over till, especially at hig

Bulk Density2, Mg/m3

Clay <1.1 <1.4 >1.5 Add OM; deep till.Loam <1.2 >1.5 >1.7 Same as above.

Soil Crusting variable DO NOT leave bare soil; add OM and m

eliminate traffic; and reduce drople

Aeration Porosity2, % large pore >5 <2 <1 Add OM; deep till, eliminate traffic and 

volume earthworm population.

Soil Permeability, Infiltration and >0.50 <0.25 <0.20 Add OM; deep till, aerate; use mulches, 

Percolation Rates, in./hr. rates accordingly.

Debris and Litter variable Remove from soil surface and profile whTemperature Extreme hot or cold soil is influenced by exposure, elevation, latitude, water con

water, etc. Select adapted plants, use mulch, shade soils; use raised beds with headequate soil moisture; drain wet soils.

1. Approximate determinations, subject to site parameters and subjective judgment.2. Requires determination in a soil testing laboratory.
Table 11 - 4. Soil Amendments for Urban Tree Plantings (cont.)

Problematic Range1

Soil Characteristics Low Medium High Corrective Measures for ConsideraMorphological

Depth to bedrock >10' <4' <2' Add top soil.Seasonal Water Table Depth >10' <4' <2' Remove source, improve surface drainag

Select trees tolerant of short-term s

Apparent Water Table Depth >10' <6' <4' Same as above.Restrictive Horizons >10' <6' <4' Improve structure and/or install surface aImpermeable Layers >10' <6' <4' Deep till to break up or same as above or Disturbed and Mixed Horizons variable Add organic matter (OM) and mix well, 

and Profiles surface.

Cuts, Remaining Top Soil Depth >4' <2' <1' Replace top soil (blend into top of subso

subsoil.

Fill Soil variable Match new texture and structure with ori

soil. Deep, uniform fill is best.

Fill Depth Over Roots <6" 1' >1' Soil porosity dependent; avoid fine-textu

Add OM; install aeration tile at roo

Excessive Slope variable Stabilize mechanically. Terrace, add top 

eliminate traffic, plant soil-stabilizi

Soil Erosion, in./yr. <0.1" <0.25" >0.25" Reduce slopes, irrigation rates, wind and 

windbreaks; mulch and terrace.

Wet, Putrid Soils Brown Tan Gray, Black Remove source of stagnant water; install 

incorporate coarse OM.

Soil Structure - Massive, Platy present vs. absent Provide drainage, incorporate coarse OM

1. Approximate determinations, subject to site parameters and subjective judgment.2. Requires determination in a soil testing laboratory.
Table 11 - 4. Soil Amendments for Urban Tree Plantings (cont.)

Problematic Range1

Soil Characteristics Low Medium High Corrective Measures for ConsideraChemical

pH2

Acid Soils <7-6 <6.0 <4.0 Add lime, select low pH-adapted speciesAlkaline Soils 7-<7.5 >7.5 >8.5 Add OM, sulfur, and acidifying fertilize

Cation Exchange Capacity2 (CEC) >10 >5 <3 Add OM and soil amendments with high 

meg/100g

Fertility2 variable Test N, P, and K levels and micro-nutrie

add OM and encourage micro-orgalow demand, adapted plants. If defif toxic levels occur.

Salt-Affected Soils2

Saline; EC mmhos/cm (dS/m), <2.0 <4.0 >4.0 Sensitivity is species specific, leach salin pH < 8.5, ESP (SAR) < 15% quality leach and irrigation water.Sodic; EC mmhos/cm (dS/m), 4.0 <6.0 >6.0 Add gypsum and leach. In calcareous so pH > 8.5, ESP (SAR) > 15% iron sulfate, aluminum sulfate and lSodic-Saline; EC mmhos/cm, 4.0 <6.0 >6.0 Same as above. pH < 8.5, ESP (SAR) > 15%

Chemically Polluted2 Soils numerous chemicals & concentrations Identify the polluting chemicals; detoxify

train personal to prevent; stockpile chemicals off site; avoid spilling poleaks, repair immediately.

1. Approximate determinations, subject to site parameters and subjective judgment.2. Requires determination in a soil testing laboratory.
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drainage, and aeration. Some soil colors and

characteristics associated with them are:

Black—High in organic matter and may be

poorly drained. Soil becomes darker as organic matter increases from 0 to 8 percent.

At 8 percent or above, soil is essentially

black.

Brown—Good organic matter content and

well drained.

Red—Low in organic matter and well

drained. Redness is due to oxidized iron or

red parent material.

Gray—Low in organic matter and poorly

drained. Gray color is due to excess water

and poor aeration.

Yellow—Low in organic matter and well

drained.

Organic matter coats soil particles and masks

their natural color. The natural color of soil

particles is determined by their mineralogy.

Since the abundance of many plant nutrients is

also related to mineralogy, the unmasked color

of soil particles becomes a key to potential nutrient availability. For example, quartz is a

common translucent mineral that contains no

plant nutrients; while feldspars, which are

opaque white to pink or green minerals, are high

in plant nutrients. In general, the greater the

diversity of colors among soil particles, the

higher and more balanced is the potential nutrient-supplying power of the soil.

Plant Selection

Plants should be selected based on the geographic region, plant height and form, and the

native vegetation present at the site. If the site

is unvegetated, survey adjacent sites along the

stream. The list created from this survey will be

the basis for researching the other species for

the final plant list. Do not assume that if a particular species exists at a site, it is native. Use a

reference guide (such as the Manual of Woody

Landscape Plants by Michael A. Dirr) that

contains information on plant history and other

factors affecting plant selection.

A limiting factor in obtaining native plant material is availability at local nurseries. A regional

nursery may need to be contacted to receive the

material desired. When possible, try to purchase plants that normally grow in the reforestation area. Plants grown in different climatic

conditions, (milder or more severe winter

moisture conditions) will not adapt as readily as

a locally grown plant. As a rule, try to purchase

plants within one USDA hardiness zone of

where they will be planted before searching

suppliers in other zones. Although there are

several “native plant nurseries” in the MidAtlantic Region, species selection and quantities

are not always plentiful in the sizes desired.

When developing the plant list, be prepared to

make species and size substitutions.

Know plant species’ characteristics and needs

prior to ordering; for example, moisture requirements, shade tolerance, height, and drought

tolerance. If planting trees under utility wires,

select trees that are no taller than 20 feet high

when mature. Map their locations and numbers

accordingly. Many plant species adapted to

wetland, lowland, or riparian soils will tolerate

excessive moisture; however, planting sites are

not always directly adjacent to water-bodies or

may exhibit upland site conditions and may require the use of some more upland species depending on soil type and moisture content at the

site.

Container-stock and bare-root seedlings are the

simplest product to use for reforestation projects. Transportation and handling are significant

concerns when equipment availability or site

access is limited. Delivery of plants to the site

is the most convenient, and most nurseries will

deliver sizable orders to the site for a nominal

fee depending on the distance traveled. Plan to

order plants early in the season to get the widest

selection and best quality stock. When plants

are delivered, check the manifest against items

delivered. Nurseries ship large quantities of

plants in spring and fall, and errors are possible.

Have a knowledgeable person present to identify

plant species, particularly when plants are not

in-leaf. Segregating plants by species at the

time of delivery is necessary to know how to
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properly geographically distribute plants on the

site and successfully execute the planting plan.

Wildlife Habitat Considerations

Diverse communities of plants and animals in

urban areas contribute to the overall health of an

urban ecosystem and are important indicators of

livability for humans. Plant selection for wildlife habitat creation is an important part of this

urban ecosystem. Native forests and forest edge

ecosystems contain a variety of small trees,

shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation. In particular, the forest edge areas usually contain a diverse population of plants that offer wildlife a

variety of sources for food and shelter. Many

wildlife species thrive in the edge, or transition

zone, where two different cover-types merge.

This forest edge zone provides a wildlife border

between an open area and the forest, and between the border and the forest.

When properly planned and executed, a humancreated forest edge zone can be established

through plantings that will enhance forest buffers and encourage the natural expansion of forested areas, improve forest density and wildlife

cover, and provide a wildlife food source. Select some plants for the project that provide food

for wildlife. In the Mid-Atlantic region, trees

that produce nuts or berries, such as oak, hickory, cherry, dogwood, holly, or walnut, should

be encouraged where possible. Flowering dogwood, serviceberry, and American holly are

small trees suitable for wildlife. Viburnums,

blueberry, sumac, elderberry, and bayberry are

examples of acceptable shrub species. Running

cedar and Virginia creeper are suitable vines.

Herbaceous vegetation may include native

grasses, legumes, and wildflowers. Vines and

herbaceous vegetation should be planted in the

zone between the shrubs and the open area.

Select only native species and be careful that

invasive species, such as honeysuckle, multiflora rose, or English ivy, are not planted as they

can quickly crowd-out all other plant species.

Existing forestland adjacent to planting areas

should not be disturbed except in the following

situations. To:

• remove hazardous trees within close proximity to human activity,

• remove garbage and other unrelated debris

that has been dumped,

• remove sediment deposits,

• remove exotic vegetation that has taken control, or to

• plant native understory when it is necessary

for forest cover enhancement.

When areas are disturbed, some requisite replanting of understory and overstory vegetation

may be needed to more quickly reestablish the

area. Do not attempt to remove naturally deposited forest debris, such as branches, leaves,

stumps, and decaying logs. Forest debris creates

nesting and cover areas for wildlife and is necessary for the recycling of nutrients in the forest

ecosystem.

Plant Spacing

Some questions arise regarding plant layout and

spacing. Generally, there are two schools of

thought on this subject: Uniform Plant Distribution vs. Random Plant Distribution. The

benefits of uniform distribution are that layout

and maintenance are much simpler, particularly

when using volunteer labor for installation.

Variability and the natural appearance of a Uniform Plant Distribution planting can be enhanced by mixing species randomly within the

planting. A disadvantage to this approach is that

the reforestation project becomes “too structured and unnatural” in appearance. The answer

to this criticism is that plant mortality will compensate for uniformity and leave vacant spaces

between plants as well as opportunities for germination from natural seed dispersion of existing plants. Random distribution provides the

initial “natural spacing” appearance, but creates

difficulties when attempting to perform survivability counts, as well as maintenance activities,

such as mulching and the sickle-blading of

grass. Whichever method is chosen, plant

spacing should be close enough to reflect a forested situation and not landscaping. It should

also provide enough distance for adequate plant

establishment before root systems begin to com-
Section XI

11-23

pete within the limited

growing space. Some

examples of plant spacing are listed in Table

11-5.

These spacings are presented to provide an understanding of

plant/spacing relation

ships. Once the size of

the site is calculated,

determine appropriate

spacings based on the

specifics of that site.

Invasive/Weed Control

Native plants are those that are historically,

naturally occurring in a given geographical area

and exist in balance with the natural diversity of

that area. Exotic plants are those plants that are

not currently growing in their native habitat and,

therefore, may not have any natural limiting

factors to their proliferation.

An important issue to consider while planning a

reforestation project is the impact of existing

invasive or exotic plant materials. When nonnative or exotic plants are introduced by humans

into an ecosystem, a myriad of management

problems may arise. The common offenders to

forest invasion are kudzu, loosestrife, multiflora

rose, trumpet vine or wisteria, privet, mile-aminute weed, and bamboo. Ground covers, such

as English ivy, that have escaped from residential properties can also be damaging. Not surprisingly, the plant characteristics that made the

plants desirable are the very characteristics that

make them invasive – ease of propagation, hardiness, food and cover for wildlife, pest and disease resistance, or form and growth habit.

Control measures must be considered in areas

where exotic plants are taking control. First,

identify seed source locations and restrict their

movement until the appropriate control measure(s) can be determined and executed. Control

measures can be as simple as grubbing or digging out the unwanted species or spot-treating

plants with a herbicide during the growing season (See Figure 11-6). However, both methods

can be harmful to the forest ecosystem if done

haphazardly and improperly. For some species,

control can be attained with a regular mowing

program. The timing of these control methods

is most important to prevent seed heads from

forming and dispersing. The best control

method involves the initial understanding of the

life cycle of the species being controlled, as well

as the effectiveness of the control measure.

Certainly the most obvious concern for control

of exotic/invasives is to prevent their being

planted and becoming established. Encourage

the planting of native plant species in public

information campaigns, meetings, and brochures. Local, state, and federal native plant

conservation groups typically publish lists of

native plants for specific geographic areas.

These groups also have information on where

these plants can be purchased in your area.

It is important, however, to remember that not

all exotic plants are invasive and not all invasives are exotic. Some plants are merely very

opportunistic and, therefore, overpopulate an

area where other plants are not establishing.

Section VII and the appendix provide a list of

species considered to be exotic and invasive and

a list of desirable native plant species for the

Mid-Atlantic Region.

Table 11 - 5

Plant Spacing for Various Size Stock

Number of

Trees/Acre

Tree Size

(inches)

Spacing

(feet)

Planting Area/Per Tree

(square feet)

100 2 caliper 20 x 20 400

200 1 caliper 15 x 15 225

435 < 1 caliper

container-stock

10 x 10 100

680 seedlings 8 x 8 64
Section XI

11-24

Public Safety

Trails and other recreation facilities associated

with a reforestation project have tangential concerns from environmental restoration, particularly in urban areas. Crime and physical hazards

should be considered and addressed during project planning for the benefit of the users of the

recreation facility. Many jurisdictions have

regulations specifying a minimum distance for

vegetation to exist when associated

with a recreational facility, particularly bikeways, jogging trails, or other greenway facilities. To provide a safely reforested and

landscaped environment, borrow ideas from the

concept of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design or CPTED.

According to Officer Josh D. Brown of the

Fairfax County, VA, Police Crime Prevention

Unit, assigning community members to serve as

caretakers to communal areas can increase territorial loyalty. A housing development in

Louisville, Kentucky, planted a flower garden,

and the maintenance was assigned to several

members of the community. This provided a

regular visual inspection by those responsible

for the garden. Community members discouraged loitering, crime, and vandalism through

their visibility.

Transitional plantings, lighting, and plant selection are important to consider for safety when

planning projects through these areas. Native

annual and perennial flowers, wildflowers, and

other herbaceous plants can be used to help ease

the transition. Consider the maturity height of

the plants selected before planting. Avoid using

tall plants such as those that will attain a height

of three or more feet and obstruct views along

the corridor.

Many times a crime problem is recognized after

the fact, long after a facility is completed and

landscaping is installed. A safer environment

can be achieved by merely redesigning and rearranging the existing landscape. Trees and

shrubs directly adjacent to trails, through neglect, can gradually establish places for crimes

to occur. Existing vegetation within approximately ten feet of the center-line of the trail

should be limbed or pruned up to eight feet from

the ground. There is a difference in philosophy

when trying to establish a “natural area.” For

this reason, planting anything other than lowgrowing annual or perennial herbaceous vegetaTree Planting and Maintenance Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tree Planting:

Seedlings

Container/B&B

Stock

Watering

Mulching

Monitoring

Weeding

Figure 11 - 6. Tree Planting/Maintenance Schedule.
Section XI

11-25

tion or forest understory vegetation is not recommended. Concentrate naturalizing efforts on

the area where reforestation is permitted by

planting the lower-growing plants at the edge,

then planting rows of medium-height plants, and

ending with rows of plants that are tall at maturity. Use evergreens sparingly in these areas

as they can be of particular concern to those

trying to maintain trail safety while allowing the

planting to occur. In some cases, trees with

drooping limbs, such as weeping willow, should

be trimmed higher to maintain adequate visibility.

Lighting, used correctly, can make the difference between a safe or unsafe landscape.

Whether on buildings, under trees and shrubs, or

on lampposts, lighting can be used effectively to

illuminate the surroundings, without blinding

pedestrians and residents. It should be mentioned, however, that certain types of lights illuminate more effectively without “overlighting” the landscape. Select the types of

lighting that achieve specific lighting needs and

avoid confusing the landscape with too many

poles, fixtures, and electric cables. Also, select

lights that provide similar light intensity. For

example, incandescent, fluorescent, mercury,

and sodium lamps generate different ranges of

illumination and should not be used together in

a lighting scheme to avoid lighting “hot spots”

and shadows. Some lights, such as mercury vapor lamps, produce 50 percent more light and

use less energy than conventional lighting.

The key points to remember are:

• maintain landscapes near trails or walkways,

• reduce obstructions to view,

• use native thorny shrubs as a natural barrier

to traffic and as a deterrent to concealment,

and

• do not create dimly lit areas by allowing

landscaping to become overgrown.

Citizen groups or networks can be established to

regularly monitor and care for trail areas, which

will create a safer environment. Areas for native and non-invasive wildflower plantings can

be designated to create a neighborhood connection and human presence at the trail site.

Ordinances/Zoning

Zoning is commonly used as a tool to guide activities in riparian areas. Zoning ordinances set

aside areas specifically for the preservation and

planting of trees under existing flood plain

regulations and building setback regulations.

Other ordinances include the set-aside of forested land under easements, environmental

quality corridors, and forest conservation programs based on tax-based incentive vehicles on

a watershed-wide basis. There are some specific protection strategies that municipalities are

using to protect the riparian area.

Tree plantings are sometimes discouraged

within the flood plain of flood control projects

because of the potential impacts on peak water

levels. Wetland area activities, such as tree

plantings, are closely regulated by various state

and federal agencies. Permission must be

granted before planting occurs in these areas.

Some jurisdictions also may have concerns

about riparian plantings in areas of potential

archeological significance.

Some of the major riparian corridor protection

strategies are:

1. Fee Simple Acquisition - The municipality

purchases the riparian area outright, guaranteeing its protection and public access.

This can be very expensive.

2. Easement Purchase - The municipality purchases limited rights to the riparian area,

and the landowners receive tax benefits.

This is cheaper than acquisition, but the

municipality must ensure that it gets the

rights it needs to ensure protection and public access.

3. Overlay Zoning - Overlay zones are a type

of resource protection zoning that are superimposed on traditional zoning to protect

riparian areas, while still allowing the underlying use in suitable forms. As an example, a municipality produces and adopts an
Section XI

11-26

official map that complies with the Federal

Flood Insurance Program and regulates what

can be done in the riparian area. The map

delineates the area known as an Overlay

District. Several riparian corridor protection standards are written into a zoning ordinance to regulate use and intensity of

riparian area activities. This strategy gives

the municipality legal control of the area

without having to own the property. This

strategy is well suited to municipalities with

riparian areas of varied type, serving several

functions and having many values to the

citizens. This strategy considers all the land

uses that are adjacent to the riparian area.

4. Transfer of Development Rights - A transfer

of development rights (TDR) program allows municipalities to preserve unique and

environmentally-sensitive riparian areas.

This is a form of overlay zoning that targets

specific segments of a riparian corridor for

preservation. Landowner property values

are protected because they are permitted to

transfer their right to develop, based on the

underlying zoning district, to a portion of

the municipality designated for more intensive development. This allows the riparian

corridors to be permanently deed-restricted

from development, while maintaining the

land’s value.

5. Bonus/Incentive Zoning - Bonus zoning is

similar to transferable development rights,

except that the additional development

rights are generated and used by the developer rather than purchased from another

landowner. Incentive zones set both a standard set of conditions and an optional set of

incentives that the developer may choose to

meet in exchange for greater flexibility. For

example, an incentive zoning law may allow

a developer in a zone to build at a higher

density than is normally allowed if the developer agrees to set aside more open space

or adopt certain energy saving or transportation measures.

6. Large Lot Zoning - Large lot zoning requires that each house be constructed on a

lot of certain size, typically from 5 to 30

acres. The theory is that spreading occupancy thinly across the area will conserve

open space and reduce adverse impacts on

wildlife and water resources. Large lot

zoning has some disadvantages, such as

promoting sprawl, fragmentation of habitat,

increased pressure on public services, and

the exclusion of lower income families who

do not have the means to purchase large

lots.

7. Clustering - This strategy, sometimes called

open space zoning, allows municipalities to

offer incentives or to use regulation to ensure that new subdivisions cluster homes on

smaller lots, leaving some land as a common

green space for the whole community.

Homes can be clustered in upland areas, allowing the riparian area to be set aside and

protected as a common area for those who

live in the community to enjoy.

8. Performance-based Zoning - This type of

subdivision expands on the overlay concept.

The municipality identifies the performance

criteria that must be met by any development in the zone. The developer is given

flexibility in planning and developing the

subdivision, as long as the criteria are met.

For example, the developer is required to

subtract all or a portion of his land that is in

flood plain, riparian areas, road rights-ofway, and steep slopes before calculating the

permitted density of the proposed housing

units. Then he can design his units and lots

as he sees fit.

9. Streambank Setback, or Resource Protection Zones - The municipality can protect

riparian areas through use of an established

riparian forest buffer. The buffer is similar

to a utility right-of-way. The width of the

setback is determined before construction of

the subdivision begins. Zoning ordinances

use two approaches – a fixed buffer or a

floating buffer. A fixed buffer may prohibit

development within 200 feet of the high

water line of a perennial stream. A floating
Section XI

11-27

buffer may vary in width depending on site,

soil, and runoff characteristics.

10. Agricultural Protection Zoning - This strategy is used to preserve agricultural lands

and prevent them from being developed. It

is done by requiring cluster development on

agricultural lands, or by requiring that lots

be large, such as 100 acres. The areas not

used for homes are required to stay in agricultural use.

11. Urban Growth Boundaries - This is a zoning district that is set up to encourage development within it, but development is

discouraged outside the district boundaries.

Implementing a Riparian

Reforestation Plan

After the initial planning stages, the reforestation plan is ready to be implemented. Several

issues need to be addressed to ensure effective

implementation of the planting plan. Key issues

include: procuring a planting labor force, obtaining necessary tools, watering, mulching, and

long-term maintenance of planted areas.

Volunteer Support

The first place to look for volunteer support is

within the community or watershed where the

proposed project will occur. Contact existing or

established community-based organizations that

may lend their support for the project. Notices

posted at community centers, recreation facilities, and announcements at public meetings are

the best and most appropriate ways of garnering

support for the restoration activities. Canvass

the neighborhood through flyers notifying the

community of the intent and focus of the project

and ask for comments and support. In a strong

and well-established community organization,

this will be a relatively simple task. However,

in a community where a loosely-structured or

non-existent organizational structure exists,

support for the project will be needed from

those outside of the immediate neighborhood on

a watershed level.

Many volunteer organizations exist in major

metropolitan areas, as well as in suburban and

rural areas, that are dedicated to a variety of issues. Some groups are specifically dedicated to

the cause of environmental protection and restoration. They frequently sponsor projects of this

nature and will be interested in a team approach

to the project. Given advance notice, these

groups can publicize the project within their

contact network. These volunteer organizations

may have sites currently designated and approved for restoration activities that could be

useful when searching for sites within the watershed.

Sources of Community Support

• Local Utility Companies

• Local Businesses

• The Neighborhood

• Established Community-Based Groups

• Recreation Centers

• Schools

• Civic Organizations

• Resource Conservation and Development Councils

• Government Social Services/Criminal

Justice System

• Local Church Groups

The day of the planting or other restoration activity, plan for a short demonstration of how to

proceed safely and properly to achieve project

goals. Explain the goals of the project and how

their efforts will be valuable toward achieving

those goals. Volunteers bring a variety of experiences to the project that may be useful in performing the task at hand. When at the site, ask

for assistance in the demonstration from a volunteer who has some experience planting trees.

Although it is difficult to find two horticultural
Section XI

11-28

professionals that can agree on how a tree is to

be planted, there may be some common-ground

to provide an effective demonstration. Provide

an explanation for each tool and instruction in

its use. Some volunteers may be inexperienced

in tree planting. Take time to demonstrate the

proper techniques to all participants and to provide guidance as needed, explaining its importance as you proceed.

Entrusting long-term site monitoring to volunteers is particularly important as it provides a

sense of ownership and pride in the project. Try

to enlist volunteers to provide monitoring activities in the coming months following the

project. These activities will be most convenient for a nearby resident.

Obtaining Tools

Obtaining tools to equip large numbers of workers for a one-day event can be a challenge.

Listed below are some suggestions for locating

and obtaining tools:

• Contact participating local government agencies for help. They may be willing to lend

equipment for a one-day weekend event if

the tools are retrieved and returned in a

timely manner.

• If funds are available, some essential tools

could be purchased and used for subsequent

projects provided that adequate transportation and storage are available.

• Sponsor an event with an established restoration group that has access to the necessary

equipment. Long-term restoration goals are

often more successful when they include

other community organizations and groups

with similar goals.

• Request volunteers to bring their own tools

for the event.

Whatever option or combination of options is

chosen, tag or mark tools with the owner's name

or identification number to ensure their return.

Table 11-6 on the following page lists some of

the tools that will prove helpful, contingent

upon the type and scope of the project.

Watering

Watering at many reforestation sites, even in

urban areas, is difficult. Typically, water is not

readily available. Frequently, plants rely on

rainfall for watering. For this to be successful,

plantings must be timed to coincide with seasonal rains. Rainfall must be monitored well in

advance of the planting date to ensure that the

surface soil has received adequate moisture and

that there is time for additional rainfall in the

post-planting period (see Figure 11-6). Although this method seems somewhat precarious,

the success rates are higher than might be expected. This is one reason why the timing of

plantings discussed earlier is so critical (see

Page 11-16, Planting Season). Success is contingent on having plant root-balls (in the case of

container-grown or balled and burlapped plants)

or root mats (for seedlings) sufficiently moist at

the time of planting. Coordinate with the plant

supplier to ensure that plants will be watered a

day or so before delivery. As an insurance policy, have several buckets of water on-site during

the planting in which to dip the plants prior to

planting.

Occasionally, local sources may be helpful in

providing initial or post installation watering.

Some options are to haul a watering tank or barrel to the site or to request assistance from the

local fire department or forest fire protection

units and public works departments. These

agencies can also provide additional assistance

and may appreciate the opportunity to participate in the project. Whatever the watering

method, moisture should be monitored carefully

during the first season after the planting to prevent wholesale loss of plants due to drought.

Mulching

Mulch the soil surface around the plants with

two or three inches of a coarse slowdecomposing medium, such as shredded bark,

compost, leaf mulch, or wood chips. Organic

mulches retain moisture, retard evaporation,

moderate soil temperatures, control weeds, and

improve appearance. Uncomposted mulches,

such as grass clippings and sawdust, decompose
Section XI

11-29

rapidly and require more

frequent applications resulting in reduced benefits. They are not

recommended. Do not

place mulches directly

against the tree trunk as

this creates a moist area

that can provide a favorable environment for boring insects or fungi.

Mulch is considered by

many to be a cosmetic topdressing. However, the

proper type of mulch can

have many benefits. Research results suggest that

height growth and trunk

diameter base increase

significantly if the ground

near the tree is kept free of

grass. Besides the clear

advantage of preventing

turf competition to young

trees, expect fewer tree

injuries caused by mowing

equipment.

There are several different

types of mulch available,

most of which are shredded or chipped tree bark.

Typically, chipped mulch

is from pine trees and

shredded mulch is from

deciduous hardwood trees.

Sometimes the two types

are blended for color and

final appearance. Pine bark has a high acid

content that slowly leaches into the soil and may

not be favored by certain plants. The exclusive

use of pine bark does not provide good moisture

retention and weed control because it does not

compact well when spread in open planting

beds. The loose spread of pine bark also makes

it susceptible to redistribution by wind and

heavy rain. Similar problems occur with leaf

mulch, straw, and pine tags – particularly if not

kept moist.

If mulch is plentiful for the reforestation project,

the site can benefit from having an edge to edge

covering of the entire site. Spread 3 to 4 inches

deep, mulch will discourage weeds, retain

moisture, reduce maintenance activities, and

result in increased plant survivability.

Table 11 - 6

Types of Tools Needed for Reforestation Projects

Tool Use

Shovels General planting activities

Dibble Bars or Planting

Bars

A tool for planting seedlings swiftly

Edging Spade Breaking sod or backfill material

Pickaxe(s) or Mattock(s) Cutting through sod and root mats

Pick(s) Digging through compacted soil

Pitchfork/Mulch Fork Eases the transfer of mulch to

wheelbarrows/buckets

Lopping Shears For cutting through large roots and

 containers

Hand Pruners Trimming excess roots and broken branches

5 Gallon Buckets For carrying water and mulch

Wheelbarrow(s) For carrying large quantities of mulch

Mallet & Stakes For marking site boundaries and tree shelter

installation

Flagging To ease locating plants for maintenance

activities

Signage For public notification of the site location

Volunteer Items

Work boots For safety while using tools, and in case of

wet, muddy conditions

Gloves Inexpensive cotton gloves to prevent

 blisters

Refreshments For volunteer comfort
Section XI

11-30

In general, shredded hardwood mulch has good

moisture retention and weed control benefits

and is relatively unaffected by wind and rain.

Shredded hardwood mulch is marketed in

coarse, medium, and fine grinds. The more

coarse the grind, the greater the moisture retention and weed control benefits. Coarse ground

mulch is also less susceptible to dispersement by

wind and rain.

Whichever mulch type is selected for use, make

sure that it has been properly composted before

use to minimize the ensuing leachate. Uncomposted yard waste, such as grass clippings,

twigs, branches, and leaves, can be harmful to

plants when used as mulch, because they compete with the plant for soil nitrogen to continue

decomposition. Improperly composted wood

chips from tree chippers can also be harmful to

plants. Although this material can be obtained

free at landfills, utility companies, and tree

maintenance companies, in most cases, it has

not been properly composted to neutralize the

decomposing microorganisms. When the chips

are stored in large piles, sufficient amounts of

alcohol and/or acetic acid can accumulate and

kill plants when the chips are later used as

mulch. Another concern of using this freshly

chipped waste is that the composition is unknown. If the material being chipped was dead,

diseased, or insect infested, and not properly

sterilized, these problems can be spread by using this material as mulch.

Not surprisingly, the mulches used most frequently on reforestation sites are a combination

of wood chips/leaves/twigs because they are

readily available and may at most require a

nominal delivery fee. Since most reforestation

projects operate on a very limited budget,

groups, either knowingly or unknowingly, take

the risk of damage from the wood chips to the

plants. If possible, try to stockpile this type of

mulch for six months to a year before use or

reserve funds in the reforestation budget for

obtaining composted mulch.

Of the types of mulch listed, salt hay may require an explanation. Salt hay or Spartina sp. is

a wetland plant that is cut and dried for use as a

mulch when establishing a seeded bed where

contamination from seeds contained in bedding

straw or hay is a concern. It is commonly used

in the establishment of a wildflower meadow or

a new lawn. It is not recommended for use in

forest establishment or for large landscape areas

because of product availability and cost. For

this reason, salt hay is typically used in small

areas where the need is justified by the benefits

derived.

There are some problems with heavy mulching.

Many riparian sites are subject to flooding and

the mulch could just end up downstream.

Types of Mulch Available

ÍShredded hardwood mulch Í Straw or Salt Hay

ÍChipped pine bark ÍLeaf Humus

ÍComposted twigs, leaves, wood ÁDO NOT USE Fresh or “green”

 chips, or grass clippings wood, twigs, or other wood waste
Section XI

11-31

Mulching can destroy the open meadow habitat

and prevent natural succession from field to

shrub/scrub. Mulching can be detrimental to

wildlife habitat.

Planting Protection

In most urban areas, the best protection for any

reforestation project is communication, visibility, and maintenance. Communication through

recurrent signage, fencing, and flagging are all

effective physical protection measures from

unintentional mowing, traffic, or other damaging activity. Coordination and regular communication with property owners, public or private,

is an effective method of protection from unintentional mowing or other seasonal maintenance

activities at the project site. Regular maintenance, such as weeding and mulching, (Figure

11-6) improves project visibility through both

aesthetic appearance and a human presence at

the site. Substantial signage that describes the

nature of the restoration activity in bright colors

and large print placed at a height of five to six

feet every 75 or 100 feet provides good public

awareness of the project.

For public properties, arrange meetings with

maintenance personnel through the supervisory

staff. These members will establish and confirm

the existence and need for protection of the reforestation project. Reaffirm this recognition of

the location of the project annually as maintenance personnel are often seasonal hires and

will not know about the project. Staking connected with rope or string draped with brightly

colored flagging is also a relatively economical

visibility measure. Flagging on individual trees

may be all that is necessary in some instances.

In many urban situations or other high traffic

areas, nothing short of fencing of the entire site

will be sufficient. However, whole-site fencing

is expensive if purchased outright and is not affordable for most restoration project budgets.

For fencing and other more elaborate protection

measures, seek donations of materials from local

agencies or businesses. There may be an opportunity to acquire used fencing from a demolition or construction company at a nominal

charge for delivery. Once acquired, the fencing

may be reused at subsequent reforestation sites.

Localized and individual plant protection is also

available for planting sites, especially when

planting seedlings. Tree protectors or shelters

are products that have been designed to provide

extra protection for seedlings from deer browsing, beaver damage, or lawn mower injury. Tree

shelters are cylindrical plastic sheaths that are

placed around individual seedlings to protect

them from harsh winter winds, human, or animal

damage. They provide a high degree of visibility for the planting site after summer grasses

grow tall. The shelters also prevent invasive or

aggressive annual plants from overtaking the

much slower-growing trees.

Their use is recommended for deciduous trees

only, and they must be installed carefully to ensure the potential benefits. Netting placed at the

top of the tube has been added to address the

concern for birds becoming trapped inside the

cylinder. Although tree protectors are biodegradable, they should be removed within the

first two or three years after installation. After

two years, they can restrict growth and encourage weak trunk development by restricting the

development of flexible/structural wood. Tree

shelters also require maintenance to keep them

in place because they can become unstable from

wind, animal disturbance, or vandalism.

Certain tree species have performed better than

others in tree shelters. Fast-growing species,

such as green ash, sweetgum, and sycamore

have all performed consistently well in tree

shelters. However, slower-growing species,

such as oak, have not performed as well as other

species in the urban setting. Red oak that is root

pruned can do very well in shelters. Typically,

tree shelters offer less benefits in strictly urban

situations than they do in rural settings. Tree

shelters can keep saplings from being mowed or

run over, and they also help prevent mortality

from drought. In some cases, even those benefits have been compromised because of vandalism as a result of the increased visibility.
Section XI

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Insect and Disease Control

Typically, a healthy forest and newly established reforestation sites have minimal insect

and disease problems. Control measures in a

healthy forest ecosystem are not employed as a

rule, except with massive infestations of gypsy

moth or other devastating pest or disease problems. Diseases are usually confined to individual or small groups of trees or specific species

and do not usually threaten diverse forest

stands; therefore, they will rarely need control

measures.

This is not always the case in urban areas where

insect and disease problems can often be traced

to stress from the surrounding urban environment. There are many stresses in urban areas,

such as root suffocation and compaction, air

pollution, grade changes that affect moisture

conditions, poor soils, and trunk injury. When

trees are subjected to higher than normal stress

levels, the opportunities for insect and disease

infestations increase. Certainly, the best control

method in any situation is prevention; try to alleviate the factors that are contributing to the

trees’ stress. If specific pests can be identified

as part of the problem and can be controlled,

that may only be part of the problem. If the

poor environmental/growing conditions continue, pest control measures are merely treating

the symptoms of a larger problem. If forest

stress factors are not corrected, the insect and/or

disease infestation is likely to recur.

When insect and disease problems are suspected, it is advised to seek professional help.

Professional consultants or the local agricultural

extension agent are good sources for disease or

pest identification and recommendations on

control measures. Preliminary information

about symptoms of the suspected problem will

be useful when contacting the professional.

Compare suspected unhealthy trees with others

of the same species to verify evidence of the

problem.

Examine all available control methods before

the application of any remedies. Chemicals are

not always the answer to a problem. The extension agent will usually provide several control

options from which to choose. Some problems

will require a series of measures to be applied

over the life cycle of the pest depending on the

season. Be aware that some pests cannot be

controlled, while for others, the problem is

short-lived, and control is unnecessary.

Following are four options available for the

control of pest and disease problems once properly identified; non-chemical control, biological

control, chemical control, and integrated pest

management.

1. Non-Chemical Control

This control method focuses on a program of

preventive maintenance that provides very effective control of insects and disease through

proper silvicultural practices.

Wounds

Prevent mechanical damage inflicted by vehicles, lawn mowers, and string trimmers by discouraging mechanical maintenance. Wounds

provide an entry point for insects and disease

organisms.

Mulching

Maintain a mulched area, three to five feet in

diameter at a three- to four-inch depth around

each tree, and increase as the tree matures to

discourage competition from weeds and encroachment from close mowing and trimming.

Sanitation and Vector Control

Some disease organisms and insects can “overwinter” or hibernate in the organic debris of

dead plant material. Eliminating such material

for identified pest or disease problems can reduce infestation potential. However, do not remove any other debris because it is a vital

component of the forest ecosystem.

2. Biological Control

This control method focuses on insect populations that are becoming increasingly resistant to

chemical pesticides from their overuse. As the

costs and regulation on the use of most commercial insecticides rise, biological control of insects has presented an innovative option to pest

control. Biological controls reduce chemical
Section XI

11-33

pesticide applications, use materials that are

non-toxic to mammals, and affect only the target

pest. Some types of biological controls are:

• introduction of bacterial and viral

organisms that prey on pests

• introduction of parasites and predators that prey on pests

• the use of insect sterilizing agents

and lures

3. Chemical Control

If used properly, chemicals can be an invaluable

forest management tool for controlling insects,

diseases, and undesirable competition. Proper

use of chemicals requires an understanding of

insect and disease life cycles as well as a

knowledge of commercial fungicides, insecticides, and state and federal regulations for their

use.

There are several chemicals available that may

control a particular pest; however, they may be

toxic to beneficial insects, animals, and humans.

Many chemicals for insect control are nonselective, meaning that they are not limited to

the control of one or two pests. For this reason,

it is imperative that the proper chemical is selected and applied safely. Recommendations for

specific chemical controls should be obtained

from qualified individuals.

Pesticide applications on a small scale by individuals is not regulated; however, many state

regulations require professional chemical applicators to obtain a license. Pesticide applicator

training and certification programs through state

and federal agencies are designed to ensure the

safe and appropriate use of pesticides. Before

the community association contracts with a pesticide applicator, ensure that the company or

individual is licensed and is currently certified

for your area.

4. Integrated Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a conservation practice based on the knowledge of the

components of the ecosystem and their interaction. Also, IPM explores all possible pest control options after evaluating the biology of the

plant species involved, the life cycles of existing

and potential pests, and the acceptable pest

population and damage levels. If a chemical or

other control measure is necessary, then a pest

specific control measure is determined for that

situation. IPM is most effective for controlling

pests that threaten large plant populations, but

can be applied to individual plants. IPM programs have proven that they can reduce chemical use, expense, and citizen complaints

resulting from chemical use.

References

Brown, R.G. and M.L. Brown. 1972. Woody

plants of Maryland. Baltimore, MD: Port City

Press.

Burns, D. 1992. Environmental protection and

resource conservation plan. City of Lacey, WA.

169 pp.

Carlson, L. 1989. Artificial wetlands for

stormwater treatment. St. Michaels, MD: Environmental Concern.

Desbonnet, A., P. Pogue, V. Lee, and N. Wolff.

1994. Vegetated buffers in the coastal zone: a

summary review and bibliography. Coastal Resources Center. University of Rhode Island. 72

pp.

Dirr, M.A. 1983. Manual of woody landscape

plants: their identification, ornamental characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. 3rd ed.

Univ. of GA, Athens. Stipes Publishing Co.

Champaign, IL.

Galli, J., Engineer. Personal communication.

Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments.

Greenfeld, J. and B. LeCouteur. 1994. The

Chesapeake Bay community action guide: a

step-by-step guide to improving the environment

in your neighborhood.

Harris, R.W., W.D. Hamilton, W.D. David, and

A.T. Leiser. 1981. Pruning landscape trees.

University of California Division of Agricultural

Sciences Leaflet 2574, April.
Section XI

11-34

Hornbach, W. 1993. Private property and

community rights—what communities can still

do after development. Lucas 3(1):14.

Heraty, M., L.M. Herson-Jones, and B. Jordan.

1995. Riparian buffer strategies for urban watersheds. September.

Heraty, M. 1993. Riparian buffer programs: a

guide to developing and implementing a riparian

buffer program as an urban stormwater best

management practice. Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, U.S. EPA Office

of Oceans, Wetlands and Watersheds. 152 pp.

LeCouteur, B. and The Metropolitan Community Forestry Network. (in review) Community

forestry management handbook: a guide for

citizens and homeowner associations to manage

the urban forest. Published under the Community Forestry Network and the Metropolitan

Washington Council of Governments.

LeCouteur, B., J. Brown, and Fairfax County

Police Department. 1994. Community forestry

information bulletin: designing safe landscaping. Published under the Community Forestry

Network and the Metropolitan Washington

Council of Governments.

LeCouteur, B., R. Everett, M. Foreman, J. Frazier, K. Hawkins, L. Herson-Jones, M. Mohan,

J. Okay, and D. Plummer. 1994. Urban riparian

restoration strategy: a guide to assist planners,

local governments and others in prioritizing

watersheds for protection, habitat restoration

reforestation, and afforestation.

Leopold, L.B., M.G. Wolman, and J.P. Miller.

1964. Fluvial processes in geomorphology.

W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco,

CA. 509 pp.

Niering, W.A. 1990. Effects of stormwater

runoff on wetland vegetation (final draft). New

London, CT: Department of Botany, Connecticut College.

NVPDC, Northern Virginia Planning District

Commission. 1993. Greenways for northern

Virginia, a resource guide for open space planning. 68 pp.

Schueler, T. 1994. The stream protection approach. Center for Watershed Protection. Terrene Institute, Washington, DC. 66 pp.

Schueler, T. 1995. The importance of imperviousness. Watershed Protection Techniques.

1(3): pp. 100-111.

Schueler, T. Site planning for urban stream

protection. Center for Watershed Protection/Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. Silver Spring, MD. 320 pp.

Schueler, T. 1995. The architecture of urban

stream buffers. Center for Watershed Protection

1(4) pp. 155-164.

USDA Forest Service. 1990. Urban and community forestry: a guide for the eastern United

States.
Section XII

Economics of Riparian Forest Buffers

Introduction ........................................................................................................12-1

Economic Value .................................................................................................12-1

Economic Benefits Associated with Riparian Forest Buffers............................12-2

Costs Associated with Riparian Forest Buffers..................................................12-7

Economic Impacts of Riparian Forest Buffers...................................................12-9

Scenario #1: Agricultural Field .......................................................................12-10

Scenario #2: Forest Site...................................................................................12-13

Scenario #3: Subdivision Development Site...................................................12-16

Comparison of Trees, Row Crops, and Pasture on Land with Class IIIe

Capability ..................................................................................................12-19

Finance Tools and Economic Incentives..........................................................12-20

References........................................................................................................12-23
Section XII

12-1

Introduction

The term value, in the context of riparian forest

buffers, can have different meanings for those

with different interests.

• To a hydrologist, the value of trees growing

along rivers and streams might mean the significance or importance of lowering water

temperature, intercepting nutrients and sediment, or stabilizing streambanks. All improve water flow and quality.

• To an ecologist, the value might be associated with the streamside forest habitat for its

impact on the diversity of plant and other

living resource communities.

• To an environmental engineer, the value of

forests along watercourses may be linked to

their ability to lower the costs of stormwater

management.

• To a forester, the value may be in the harvestable trees.

• To others, there may be no obvious value,

and the buffers may even be seen as a nuisance.

• But, for an economist, the term value has a

precise definition – it is the price that individuals are willing to pay in order to obtain a

good or service. It is measured in units

(typically money) that are mathematical and

attempts to quantify the worth of goods or

services for a market.

However, it is important to note that these values do exist whether or not humans prefer them

or are even aware of them.

Economic Value

Economic value is comprised of several key

elements that fall into two broad groups – use

values (to use a resource today, or the option for

future use), and non-use or existence values

(benefits gained without use today or in the future). When people talk about the economic

value of a thing or a place, they are frequently

referring to its “intrinsic” value. That is, its

value for consumption or use by people, plus its

value for non-consumptive use (to look at, or

simply because it is there).

For example, the intrinsic value of a stream is

linked to the direct use benefits of recreational

or commercial activities (agricultural irrigation,

for cooling or washing industrial processes, or

for drinking water). Indirect use benefits result

when the stream adds to nearby activities (good

water quality results in an attractive place to

hunt, fish, picnic, or bird watch). Non-use

Economics of Riparian Forest Buffers

Characteristics of Economic Value

• Products or services typically have

value only if humans value them, directly or indirectly.

• Value is measured in terms of tradeoffs, because of scarce resources like

money, land, or high environmental

quality.

• Typically, money is used as a unit to

account value. But, sometimes

monetary values cannot be assigned to

environmental services.

• Individual values are combined to determine value to society as a whole.
Section XII

12-2

benefits result from good stewardship (conserving the water quality of the stream for one’s

family, future generations, or simply because its

good for the Bay).

Economists attempt to isolate the various value

elements to determine what is important to people, to make priority decisions for policy, and to

put a price on nature’s goods and services in

order to estimate the value of protecting a resource or to predict what it might cost to repair

it once its been degraded. But, this is a difficult

task.

The tools that economists use for this evaluation

are crude and cannot count all of the value that

nature provides, and they have difficulty dealing

with risk and uncertainty. For example, we do

not know, with certainty, all the costs if a stream

is lost or significantly degraded in quality, or the

real value of the current benefits or unknown

future benefits.

• What beneficial plant or animal could be

lost, and what value could it have to people

down the road?

• What will be the cost to fix it?

• What effects will it have on property value or

human health to an individual or group of

people in a watershed?

These questions are tough, but we can assume

that conserving a healthy, viable resource will

bring us more value in the long run than the risk

and uncertainty of costs to restore or replace the

resource. However, even with this limited information, economics can help us make better

decisions. To do this, we need to use the best

quantitative economic information available to

make comparisons between management and

policy options and their impacts, consider the

non-market values (those that do not have

prices, such as a bird or view), and look to anecdotal information and case studies to give examples of possible outcomes.

Economic Benefits Associated

with Riparian Forest Buffers

What is the Value of Water Quality and Environmental Benefits?

Clean streams, rivers, and the Bay offer many

benefits. Riparian forest buffers help ensure

those benefits and avoid costs to repair damaged

and degraded natural systems. As a Best Management Practice (BMP), riparian forest buffers

typically perform these functions for free.

Stream Stability - Urban retrofits and stormwater management technology is expensive.

Studies indicate that urban stream systems may

fail to function if the watershed is at 15 percent

or greater impervious surface, resulting in

“blown-out” streams that silt downstream areas

and increase flood potential. Forests help retain

stream integrity.

• Stormwater treatment options that integrate

natural systems, such as grass swales and

bioretention areas like forest, are less expensive to construct than stormdrain systems

and provide better environmental results. In

fact, costs of engineered stormwater BMPs

range from $500 to $10,000 per acre, and

will cost that much again over 20 to 25

years.

• After public outcry about degrading streams,

Montgomery County, MD, is spending

$20,000 to $50,000 per housing lot in some

areas to repair damaged streams and restore

riparian forests.

• In Fairfax County, VA, a local bond issue

provided nearly $1.5 million dollars to restore two miles of degraded stream and riparian area—that's more than $750,000 per

mile.

Nutrient Removal - Adequate buffers can reduce costly water treatment.

• The Interstate Commission for the Potomac

River Basin (ICPRB) estimates that urban

retrofit of BMPs to remove 20 percent of

current nutrient runoff will cost approxi-
Section XII

12-3

mately $200 per acre, or $643,172,600 for

the Bay basin.

• In the same study, estimated costs of reducing runoff from highly erodible agricultural

land are $130 per acre, or $68,758,430 for

the basin.

• Wastewater treatment facilities in the

Washington, DC, area have annual costs of

$2 to $10 million per year per facility, which

equates to $3 to $5 per pound of nitrogen

removed.

• Maryland’s Tributary Strategies show that,

to reach a 40 percent reduction of nutrients

by the year 2000, forest buffers and nonstructural controls are significantly more

cost effective than engineered approaches.

Where forest buffers are estimated to cost

$671,000, and nonstructural shore erosion

prevention/control $1.6 million per year,

comparable structural techniques could cost

$3.7 million to $4.3 million per year.

Pollution Prevention - Air pollution and deposit of airborne pollutants are a multi-billiondollar problem nationally that affect human

health, damage vegetation, and reduce visibility.

Trapping and filtering atmospheric pollution is a

benefit that trees provide, as well as riparian

buffers.

• In 1991, trees in Chicago removed an estimated 17 tons of carbon monoxide, 98 tons

of nitrogen dioxide, and 210 tons of ozone.

• Reducing air pollution by 20 percent would

cut agriculture losses in half, saving Maryland farmers $20 million.

• In Fairfax, VA, open space trees and buffers

are estimated to have reduced the cost of

traditional air pollution controls by over

$4.5 million in 1995.

• Energy savings of 10 percent can result by

adding as little as 10 percent tree cover to

buffers near buildings.

• Forest conservation has been estimated to

reduce the amount of urban runoff generated

from development in Utah by 17 percent.

• A single mature tree releases about 100

gallons of clean water vapor per day into the

atmosphere and provides the cooling

equivalent of nine room air conditioners operating at 8000 BTUs per hour for twelve

hours a day.

Stream Temperature - The absence of streamside trees can have a dramatic effect on aquatic

life through increased water temperature. Cold

water trout streams were once common in the

Mid-Atlantic states, but they have been greatly

reduced due to loss of riparian trees.

• The relationship between stream shade and

trout production is firmly linked. Studies

have shown that when stream surface shade

is reduced to 35 percent, trout populations

can drop by as much as 85 percent.

• In 1991, Maryland recreational fishers contributed $467 million to the state economy.

What is the Value of Services Provided by a

Wooded Stream Corridor?

Riparian forests are integral to the health of the

Bay and its rivers. Their position on the landscape makes them excellent buffers between

upland areas and waters that eventually enter the

Bay. Scientific studies have shown dramatic

reductions of 30 percent to 95 percent in nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), sediment, pesticides, and other pollutants in surface and

groundwater. Riparian trees provide deep root

systems that hold soil in place, thereby stabilizing streambanks and reducing erosion. And,

riparian forests offer a tremendous diversity of

habitat. Habitat layers provided by trees,

shrubs, and grasses make these areas critical to

life stages of over half of all native Bay species.

Erosion Control - Erosion and sediment control

produces significant costs during development

and in maintenance to communities down the

road. Buffers mitigate some of these costs for

free and add quantifiable and non-quantified

benefits.

• Current state and local requirements for

erosion and sediment control (ESC) increase

the cost of development. On a typical site,
Section XII

12-4

costs of ESC average $500 to $1500 per

cleared acre. Forest conservation, riparian

buffers, and clustering sharply reduce ESC

costs and provide services for free.

• Average costs for subdivision developments

include clearing (forest) $4000 per acre, and

sediment control $800 per acre. However,

forest conservation keeps soil on site, resulting in less time and labor re-grading,

stabilizing, and re-landscaping the site.

• It costs $10 to $11.5 million annually to

dredge and dispose sediments deposited into

Baltimore Harbor to keep it navigable.

Sediment produced by forestland is the lowest of all land uses.

Flooding - When floods pass through a forested

stream corridor or flood plain, the roughness of

the forest and its lush vegetation help to reduce

the energy of the water flow, thereby reducing

damage to riverbanks and the effects of downstream flooding. Forests reduce the quantity of

water for stormwater.

• Retaining forest area and buffers has reduced stormwater costs in Fairfax County,

VA, by $57 million.

• Observations made after the 1993 floods in

the Midwest showed that where forests were

retained in the flood plain or where levees

had overgrown with trees, damage to the

levee system and the river were less than areas maintained in grass or farmland. Although these benefits are difficult to put a

price on, property damage exceeded $50,000

to $250,000/mile.

• Similar observations of damage to river

banks and adjacent farmlands were recorded

following floods in Virginia in 1994-95

where statewide damage totaled more than

$10 million.

Increased Property Values - Frequently seen

as a “loss,” forests and buffers have been found

to increase the value of property, and to provide

important environmental and recreational benefits.

• Property values grow with trees. When surveyed by the Bank of America Mortgage, real

estate agents say that homes with treed lots

are 20 percent more salable.

• In Maryland, the Forest Conservation Act is

working. Forest and buffers are being conserved, and developers say that they are receiving 10 to 15 percent premiums for lots

adjacent to forest and buffers.

• A recent economic study done for areas in

southern California states that home prices

increase an average of 17 percent because of

trees and buffers.

• Builders in Amherst, MA, reported that

added costs of forest retention on site are

always recouped in increased sales prices.

Recreational Greenways - Linear forests along

our rivers attract revenue and are an important

recreation resource to communities.

• Housing prices were 32 percent higher when

located next to a greenbelt buffer in Boulder,

CO. In one neighborhood, increased property value of $5.4 million attributable to the

greenway results in additional annual property tax revenues of over $500,000.

• Greenways offer business opportunities.

Evidence shows that the quality of life for a

community is an increasingly important factor in corporate relocation decisions.

Greenways are often cited as an important

contributor to quality of life.

• According to a 1995 attitude survey, 77 percent of Maryland resident respondents said

that it is important to have natural areas

close to where they work and live. Almost

half said that they would be inclined to move

if existing open space in their community

were lost.

Wildlife Habitat - Buffers provide valuable

wildlife habitat. Many species use riparian areas at various stages of their life cycles and as

travel corridors. Organic matter produced by

riparian trees is the foundation of the food web

in most stream environments.
Section XII

12-5

• Each mile of 100-foot buffer on both sides of

a stream protects 24 acres of high-quality

habitat along shorelines and creeks.

• Tourists and residents place a high premium

on wildlife watching. A 1994 report says

that nearly 60 percent of suburban residents

actively engage in wildlife viewing near their

homes and are willing to pay premiums for

locations in settings that attract wildlife.

• In 1989, the Maryland Department of Economic and Employment Development

(DEED) estimated the economic importance

of the Chesapeake Bay to be $678 billion to

the economies of Maryland and Virginia

through commercial fishing, marine trade,

tourism, port activities, and land values.

• Marylanders spent $270 million observing,

feeding, and photographing wildlife in 1991

as reported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service.

• The Department of Natural Resources of

Maryland reports that $133 million was

spent in the 1991-1992 hunting season.

Hunting-related industries support an estimated 4,600 jobs in the state.

Timber Production

In 1992, timber products composed the largest

portion of the total agricultural crop value in the

United States. The total value is listed at $23.8

billion, passing corn and soybeans as the leading

agricultural commodity. Figure 12-1 shows the

percentage breakdown of the value of agricultural crops and timber in 1992.

Due to the high value of timber products, harvest level changes can dramatically affect local

economies. All regions of the United States,

including the Chesapeake Bay drainage area,

help supply the demand for forest products.

Four of the top five states in the United States in

terms of volume of hardwood growing stock are

in the Bay – (#1) Pennsylvania, (#3) Virginia,

(#4) New York, and (#5) West Virginia. In Virginia, $9.8 billion per year is generated by the

sale of forest products. In Pennsylvania, the

timber industry employs 94,000 people in 2,200

locations with an annual payroll of $2.3 billion.

In West Virginia, the business volume from the

wood-products industry totals $3.2 billion annuVALUE OF MAJOR U.S. AGRICULTURAL 

CROPS & TIMBER, 1992

Hay

9%

Fruits & Nuts

9%

Wheat

7%

All Other

25%

Timber

21%

Corn

18% Soybeans

11%

Total

$111 Billion

Figure 12 - 1. Timber value estimated from Forest Service Timber Cut/Sold Reports

adjusted for value added to local points of delivery. (Source: USDA Economic Research Service Crop Values.)
Section XII

12-6

ally. Table 12-1 is an example of recent stumpage and millage values for Southeastern Pennsylvania. Timber products produced include

sawlogs, pulpwood, firewood, posts, and fence

rails.

Crop Alternatives and Specialty Forest

Products - Trees and other alternative products

grown in the streamside forest can bring big rewards.

• Aromatics - Essential oils are concentrated

in plant leaves, flowers, seeds, bark, and

roots. Examples of trees cultivated for their

oils include cedar, sweet birch, and sassafras. These oils are used for scenting soaps,

polishes, deodorants, and personal care

products. They are at the core of a $10 billion a year flavoring and cosmetic industry.

Cedar oil is especially profitable at 25 metric tons produced per year at about $9.50

per pound (1978 price).

• Cooking Wood: smoke wood and flavor

wood - Woods such as alder, apple, and

cherry are used as flavor enhancers in grill

cooking either in homes or restaurants. Annual gross sales in cooking wood are estimated at $18 million to $20 million.

Unfortunately, profit margins are thin with a

retail price of $3 to $3.50 for a 5-pound bag,

but a profit of only $0.06 to $0.08 per bag.

• Nuts - Nut trees are an excellent alternative

crop that can be raised in the riparian corridor. They include acorns, black walnuts,

butternuts, pecans, and hickory nuts. Black

walnut meat can bring $6 a pound or more,

while uncracked nuts range from $0.75 to

$1.25 per pound.

• Wildlife Recreation - The management of

forests for recreation and wildlife-based enterprises has good potential benefits to private landowners. Both consumptive and

non-consumptive uses can be developed,

from access for hunting and fishing to photography and informal field education of

school children. In Maryland, deer and bird

hunting fees to private landowners range

from $3 to $5 per acre per year, and up to

$80 per hunter per day for waterfowl hunting

access.

• Weaving and Dying Materials - A great variety of native materials that grow in or near

woodlands and buffers can be used for

weaving, decorating, and dyeing. While few

are used on a commercial scale, many products can be used to produce a cottage indusTable 12 - 1

Southeastern Pennsylvania Average Prices of Selected Species, September 1996

International 1⁄4 Inch Rule

SPECIES STUMPAGE PRICES

Thousand board-feet

MILL PRICES

Thousand board-feet

northern red oak $419 $579

white oak $314 $551

mixed oak $324 $517

black cherry $248 $800

white ash $386 $406

hard maple $235 $625

soft maple $149 $300

yellow-poplar $210 $383

miscellaneous hardwoods $142 $300

pine - hemlock $109 $270
Section XII

12-7

try, such as weaving and basket making.

Species that offer good material include bark

from alder, brown ash, birch, hickory, poplar, and willow. Also popular are native

vines from bittersweet, honeysuckle, and

Virginia creeper.

• Shiitake Mushrooms - The shiitake has been

popular for centuries in Japan, where it is

known as the forest mushroom. It originally

grew wild on the shii tree, which is closely

related to the oak. During the last 20 years,

hundreds of shiitake growers have begun

cultivating the mushroom in the United

States. Since the 1940’s, worldwide demand

for shiitake mushrooms has placed its market

volume second only to that of the common

white mushroom. Its market potential is

great because of its unusually high nutritional value and the fact that it can be grown

in every part of the country. Shiitakes are

grown using oak logs, particularly white

oak, that have been thinned from woodlots.

Retail prices are about $9-$12 a pound.

• Decorative Cones - A wide variety of cones

are used in floral, wreath, and potpourri

products. They are used in gift and fragrance items, as ornaments and table decorations, and in a variety of small niche

products, such as jewelry, grave blankets,

and bird feeders. Cones can be dipped in

wax and used as fire starters and decorations, or crushed and molded into Presto-log

shapes for fire starters. Cones from hemlock, loblolly pine, white pine, red pine, and

spruce are all marketable. Landowners can

make $7-$24 per bushel, depending on the

species.

• Ginseng - Ginseng is a wild forest herb that

was first discovered in China 5,000 years

ago. Ginseng is used as a medicinal plant –

mainly the root. Ginseng acts as an antidepressant, increases resistance to disease,

and improves both physical and mental performance. American wild ginseng is so much

sought after that much of it has disappeared.

It sells for as much as $360 per dried pound,

and over $70 million worth of ginseng root,

both wild and cultivated, is now exported

annually.

Other examples of special products are listed in

Table 12-2.

Costs Associated with Riparian

Forest Buffers

The Costs of Establishment and Management

The Natural Resources Conservation Service

defines a riparian forest buffer strip as an area of

trees and shrubs, at least 50 feet wide, located

between cropland and watercourses. The riparian buffer is effective in controlling erosion and

attached nutrients, reducing instream sediment

loads during flooding, reducing nutrients in

overland and subsurface flow, moderating

stream temperatures, and providing habitat.

One tool that can be used for establishment

planning is the riparian forest buffer specification developed in 1990 by the USDA Forest

Service. That specification, as described in this

manual, outlines three distinct zones. Zone 1 is

nearest the streambank, has a recommended

fixed 15-foot width, and is a no management

zone to achieve streambank stabilization. Zone

2 is recommended to be at least 60-feet wide

and is geared to nutrient removal. Zone 3 is

hoped to be 20-feet wide and consists of dense

grasses and forbs to convert concentrated water

flow to uniform sheet flow. With this basic

outline we can begin to plan establishment

costs, and then, estimate maintenance cost for a

10-year period. The costs shown in Table 12-3

are derived from USDA Forest Service, Stewardship Incentive Program (SIP) cost-share rate

structure guidance for SIP Practice 6 - Riparian

and Wetland Protection and Improvement for

Various States within the Northeastern Area.

All costs shown are the price of practices installed and include labor.
Section XII

12-8

Table 12 - 2

Special Forest Products of the Northeastern United States

(Adapted from Inside Agroforestry, Winter 1996 Issue)

Specialty Products Examples Use

Food Shiitake and matsuki mushrooms food, medicinals

Black locust and plum honey food, candy

Walnuts, acorns, pecans, and

Pinyon pine nuts

food, dyes

Blueberries, huckleberries, and

other berries

food, dyes

Maple, birch, and boxelder sap syrups, candy

Specialty Items Cedar and pine oils aromatics, crafts

Poplar, willow, and switchgrass

biomass plantings

fuel, paper

Cedar, poplar, and willow residues mulches, animal bedding, litter

products

Walnut crotches, wormy chestnut,

diamond willow, and cedar veneer

wood, decorations and carvings

Decoratives Club fern, Spanish moss, and other

mosses

decorations, craft projects

Wild grape, kudzu, vine maple, and

other vines

crafts

Medicinals Ginseng longevity, general strengthening,

teas, herbs

Goldenseal eyewash, laxative, tonic hemorrhagic

Herbs Slippery elm bark food flavoring, laxative

Elder flowers food flavoring, eye and skin health
Section XII

12-9

Table 12 - 3

Riparian Forest Buffer Installation Estimated Costs

COMPONENT MATERIALS UNIT

ESTIMATED

COST

ESTABLISHMENT

Preparation Light site prep

 - mow, disking acre $12.00

Planting Tree Seedlings

8x8 spacing; 430 trees/acre acre $495.00

(Hardwoods - $1.15/seedling)

12-18' seedling with labor included ----------

Subtotal $507.00

MAINTENANCE

Reinforcement Seedlings 50/acre acre $58.00

Planting Year 2 after establishment ----------

$58.00

TOTAL COST Planting and Establishment acre $565.00

OPTIONAL COSTS

Establishment

Shelters ($5.00/tree Installed) acre $2150.00

Fencing (1 acre=282 linear feet) acre $564.00

Maintenance

Competition control

 - Herbicide treatment acre $54.00

 - mowing acre $12.00

** Labor cost included in estimates could be saved with help by volunteers for establishment.

Economic Impacts of Riparian

Forest Buffers

The cost impacts of riparian buffers are site specific and determined by a variety of factors.

Such considerations as dominant-land use, landowner objectives, and opportunity costs or foregone production, dictate the total cost that

retaining or restoring riparian forest will impose. Following are three hypothetical scenarios that are intended to illustrate economic

impacts for “typical” situations in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed - a coastal plain agricultural field, a forestry site, and a tract of new

subdivision development near an urban center.

Thanks goes to Dr. Ian Hardie, University of

Maryland; John Long and Patty Engler, NRCS,

and Scott Crafton, Virginia Chesapeake Bay

Local Assistance Department for their assistance and review of these scenarios.
Section XII

12-10

SCENARIO # 1: AGRICULTURAL FIELD

Figure 12 - 2. Agricultural Field: Riparian Forest Buffer Establishment.
Section XII

12-11

This example occurs in the Coastal Plain area of Maryland and is a hypothetical farm. The costs of riparian forest buffers on agricultural lands include buffer establishment, maintenance, and the opportunity

cost of installing a buffer – foregone income from lost production in the riparian area.

Scenario:

A 140-acre farm field located on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. The landowner manages

the field in a two-crop (corn, soybeans), 2-year rotation. The field has 1307 feet of perennial and intermittent streams running through it. The farmer has agreed to establish a 50-

foot wide forest buffer on both sides of the stream on the advice of his NRCS District Conservationist. The result will be a 3-acre riparian buffer.

Assumptions:

æ Yield over the entire field. In many cases the area adjacent to a stream or river is considered marginal land because of erosion or drought-prone soils, steep or rolling slopes, poor drainage, and low

soil fertility. However, in some cases this area is influenced by the flood plain and can be highly

productive. Therefore, we assume a consistent yield.

æ No existing buffer. The buffer to be established is calculated for both sides of stream at 50'.

æ Land Capability Class - IIe or IIIe (few to moderate limitations).

æ Production costs represent variable and fixed costs.

Income to the Farmer:

This amount represents the cost to the producer in lost crop income. Installing a forest buffer changes

the land use for a long period of time. Therefore, total net income is the net present value of crop income

for 20 years with a discount rate of 4 percent, the length of time before one may see a return from the

new timber resource. Net income above variable and fixed costs is 1996 Crop Budgets of $84.00 per

acre and assumes crop price/yields for corn ($3.60/100) and soybeans ($7.85/35) from MD Cooperative

Extension Service.

Figures are shown in dollars per acre. Dollars/acre

Net Income ..................................................................................................................... $1,141.00

Cost of Buffer Establishment and Maintenance:

Installing a forest buffer involves site preparation, tree planting, and some second year reinforcement

planting. Additional maintenance is sometimes employed to reduce competition and promote tree

growth. Refer to preceding cost sheet for itemized costs.

Cost of Forest Buffer......................................................................................................... $565.00

Total Cost of Riparian Forest Buffer to the Landowner ................................$1,706.00
Section XII

12-12

Incentive Programs that Reduce Costs of Forest Buffers to Landowners

State and federal programs exist which cost-share best management practices (BMP) and the establishment of riparian forest buffers on agricultural lands. These programs can frequently be

combined, or “piggy-backed,” into a financial assistance package. An examination of programs

and incentives available for buffers in the Bay states appears later in this chapter. Below are examples of program combinations for each state and the bottom-line cost over a 20-year period to

the private landowner if these programs are used. These figures are net present values for direct

comparison to landowner costs.

Maryland:

æ Conservation Reserve Program (CRP)

æ 50% cost-share reduces buffer installation cost (one time) ......................................... $283.00

æ Annual rental payments - $81/acre (15 years) ............................................................. $901.00

æ Riparian Forest Buffer 20% incentive and $5 maintenance (15 years) ....................... $235.00

æ MD Buffer Incentive Program - $300/acre (one time) ............................................................. $300.00

THE COST TO A MARYLAND LANDOWNER PER ACRE ................................................................. $0.00

The Maryland landowner makes $13.00 per acre

Virginia:

æ CRP package .......................................................................................................................... $1,419.00

æ Woodland Buffer Filter Area - $100/acre (one time) ............................................................... $100.00

THE COST TO A VIRGINIA LANDOWNER PER ACRE ................................................................. $187.00

The Virginia landowner loses income per acre over a 20-year period

Pennsylvania:

æ CRP package .......................................................................................................................... $1,419.00

æ Streambank Fencing Program

(if >12-foot buffer, then fencing provided for free) -----------

THE COST TO A PENNSYLVANIA LANDOWNER PER ACRE ..................................................... $287.00

The Pennsylvania landowner loses income per acre over a 20-year period.

DISCUSSION:

æ State and federal conservation programs can reduce or eliminate landowner costs for restoring riparian buffers on their land. This scenario shows that cost-share and incentive programs can lead to

break even or better over a 20-year period. However, crop income opportunity is still lost as time

continues.

æ Riparian forests can provide additional and diversified economic returns to the agricultural producer. For example, timber that is selectively harvested can still provide annual equivalent of

$8.00/acre (red oak - 60-year rotation) to $34.00/acre (loblolly pine – 35-year rotation). Also, allowing hunting access can return $3.00-$5.00 in lease fees per acre every year.
Section XII

12-13

SCENARIO # 2: FOREST SITE

Figure 12 - 3. Forest: Streamside Management Zone Designation.
Section XII

12-14

This example occurs in the Coastal Plains area of Virginia's western shore. It was selected because it is

based on an actual situation encountered by a leading forest products company in the region working

with a private landowner. The costs, or in this case the foregone income, to retain the forest buffer are

from the private landowner perspective.

Scenario:

A 54-acre land parcel in private non-industrial land ownership located in the Middle Neck

region of Virginia. It is a mixed pine/hardwood site with 3920 feet of perennial stream running through the area scheduled for timber harvesting. A local ordinance requires a 50-

foot wide buffer or streamside management zone to protect water quality. The result is a

4.5 acre total area impacted by retaining the buffer.

Income from Timber Production:

Income figures are shown per acre. Reforestation is optional in this region because natural regeneration

occurs well on these sites. The reforestation cost is included to show potential costs to the landowner,

and it assumes that they may choose selected species management.

æ Gross Timber Income (per acre) ............................................................................... $1,268.00

æ Production Costs to Landowner (per acre)

Harvest - payment to logger (estimate of labor, equipment

 maintenance, hauling, insurance, FOB)..................................................................-634.00

Reforestation - species enhancement/management (optional) ....................................-200.00

æ Net Income to Landowner.......................................................................................... $434.00

Cost of a Buffer to the Landowner

The figures in Table 12-4 show the income potential of the entire 54-acre land parcel and the impact of

lost income for using alternative harvesting techniques within the 4.5-acre forest buffer. The preferred

management approach is to clearcut the entire parcel. Each alternative harvesting technique reflects the

adjusted Total Return, the exact dollar change (loss) and percentage change in return to the landowner.

Total returns were calculated at $634.00 per acre to reflect the impact of the buffer on the timber sale

only.

Table 12 - 4

Cost of Buffer to Landowner Using Various Management Regimes

Harvesting Alternatives Total Return Change % Change

1. Total clearcut of the entire parcel $34,250

2. Partial Cut - All sawtimber in Buffer

(>50% basal area)

$33,991 ($259) -1.00%

3. Partial Cut - High quality in sawtimber in

Buffer (< or = 50% basal area)

$31,602 ($2,648) -7.70%

4. No Harvest in Buffer $28,531 ($5,719) -16.70%
Section XII

12-15

Program Opportunities – Reforestation and Buffer Implementation

For private landowners, state and federal programs exist which cost-share reforestation, best management practices (BMP), and establishment of riparian forest buffers. These programs can frequently be combined, or “piggy-backed,” into a financial assistance package. An examination of

programs and incentives available for buffers in the Bay states appears later in this chapter. Below

are examples of program combinations for each state that reduce the costs of buffers on private

lands and the total net income if these programs are used.

Federal Programs:

æ Stewardship Incentive Program: 65% cost-share (includes riparian zone enhancement)

æ Conservation Reserve Program: 50% cost-share (new added incentive for riparian areas)

æ Environmental Quality Incentives Program: 75% cost-share (includes riparian forest buffers)

æ Public Law 96-451: 10 percent investment tax credit up to $10,000 for reforestation

Virginia:

æ Water Quality Law: The state’s voluntary BMP guidelines recommend a 50-foot wide buffer on

which 50 percent of the basal area in the buffer can be harvested.

æ Woodland Erosion Stabilization: Cost-share provided to establish permanent vegetation on eroding

areas of forestry sites, but grass and legumes are commonly used.

æ A combination of federal programs would reduce reforestation costs by $170.00 per acre.

æ SIP cost-share (65 percent) = $150.00

æ Federal Tax incentive = $20.00 per year for 7 years

This would raise Net Income per acre to ...................................................................................... $604.00

Maryland:

æ Forest Harvest Guidelines: A minimum 50-foot wide no-cut buffer is required for perennial streams.

If Buffer Management Plan is implemented, selective harvesting is allowed.

æ Buffer Incentive Program: $300 per acre of buffer one-time payment.

æ Woodland Incentive Program: Cost-share 50 percent private forest management activities.

æ Reforestation/Timber Stand Improvement Tax Deduction: Small forestry operation can deduct from

adjusted gross income double cost of reforestation activities, including buffers.

æ A combination of federal and state programs would eliminate cost of reforestation.

æ With Buffer Management Plan - 60 percent basal area harvestable = $380.00

æ SIP cost-share (65 percent) = $150.00

æ MD BIP ($300/acre)= $300.00

This would raise Net Income per acre to ...................................................................................... $830.00

Pennsylvania:

æ Voluntary Guidelines: There are no mandatory requirements in the riparian zone on private forestland, although a 50-foot buffer is recommended.

æ A combination of federal programs would reduce reforestation cost to $170.00 per acre

This would raise Net Income per acre to ...................................................................................... $604.00
Section XII

12-16

DISCUSSION:

æ Added incentives such as preferential tax treatment of riparian areas and conservation easements

that allow selective harvest of streamside timber would reduce costs further.

æ Allowing forest management within the riparian forest buffer or Streamside Management Zones is

an effective way to protect water quality and provide economic return to private landowners. Forestry activities are a compatible land use with environmental protection and open space retention. It

keeps the land economically viable and provides multiple benefits.

SCENARIO #3: SUBDIVISION DEVELOPMENT SITE

Figure 12 - 4. Development: Riparian Forest Buffer Retention/Establishment.

This example occurs in the Tidewater area of Virginia and is therefore subject to Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act (CBPA) regulations. It was selected because of CBPA’s recognition of riparian buffer areas

as important to conserve during the development process, and its flexible guidelines to protect the resource while allowing development. The guidelines stress that development is expected to minimize land
Section XII

12-17

disturbance and impervious cover while preserving indigenous (native) vegetation to the degree possible,

consistent with an approved project plan. The CBPA criteria tend to affect how a project is planned and

need not result in increased project costs.

Although hypothetical, this scenario is based on an actual project included in a “Study of the Cost of

Complying with the Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act Regulations” prepared by Chesapeake Bay Local

Assistance Department of Virginia. Circumstances vary from site-to-site that can impact costs such as

steep slopes, erosion control devices, and stormwater management requirements. This scenario illustrates the impact of preserving a 50-foot buffer adjacent to a perennial stream only.

Scenario:

A single family small subdivision in the Virginia Chesapeake Bay Preservation Area with a

Resource Protection Area (a bordering stream) on the project site. The 17.6-acre subdivision contains 44 platted lots according to current zoning, and it is subject to Designation

and Management Regulations.

Zoning Allowances:

æ Minimum lot size .................................................................................................................. 9000 sq.ft.

æ Current Number of Platted Buildable Lots ................................................................................ 44 Lots

æ Finished Lot Price..................................................................................................................... $61,000

æ Total Sale Value .................................................................................................... $2,684,000

Cost Impact of Retaining 50-Foot Wide Buffer

The previous illustration shows retaining the riparian buffer on the project site.

æ 50-foot buffer Possible Result - 1 lost lot ........................................................................ $61,000

Additional Elements and Cost Estimates for CBPA and Buffer

These elements are shown to illustrate the range of planning, engineering, and facilities that

could be included to meet the performance criteria of CBPA. Most are already required by state

erosion and sediment control laws. However, the integration of buffers and other natural systems

can actually reduce development costs and add value to the site.

æ Site Plan, Erosion Control Plan (already required) ....................................................................... $0.00

æ Water Quality Stormwater Plan (engineering time) .................................................................. $650.00

æ Installation and maintenance of erosion control devices (already required) ................................ $0.00

æ Installation of on-site stormwater controls (excluded on this site)................................................ $0.00

æ Minimize land disturbance and natural vegetation removal ......................................................... $0.00

(could show a net savings)

æ Review fees (could be $0) ............................................................................................................ $0.00
Section XII

12-18

TOTAL COST TO DEVELOPER .............................................................................. $61,650.00

Implementing 50-foot wide buffer results in:

1 lot lost @ $61,000 each = $61,000 + $650 (added costs)

Total Per-lot Cost $61,000÷43 lots = ......................................................................... $1,434.00

Buffer Cost as a Percentage of Total Value $61,650 ÷ $2,684,000.00 = ..................-2.3%

DISCUSSION:

æ The impact of the costs in this example reflects the application of buffer requirements to a subdivision that was platted prior to implementation of CBPA regulatory requirements, and therefore, did

not account for those requirements in the planning and layout of the lots. Consultants suggest that

an alternative plat plan, that accounted for CBPA rules such as the buffer requirement, might still

accommodate 44 lots. Local subdivision rules, allowing for clustering, or zoning rules, allowing for

density compensation for buffers (i.e. allowing the same number of slightly smaller lots to be platted

than would be allowed if no buffers were implemented), could eliminate the risk of lost lots.

æ Market research indicates that the value of lots where buffers are present is often 5% or higher than

the value of lots where no buffers are present. That would result in a $3,050.00 premium for each

lot sold adjacent to the buffer.
Section XII

12-19

Comparison of Trees, Row Crops, and Pasture on Land with

Class IIIe Capability

Item Row Crops Pasture Trees

Cash Flow Annual Annual Revenues and

expenses occur

periodically

Income Tax Ordinarily taxable Ordinary taxable Amortization and

Treatment income income investment credit

on reforestation

costs

Supply/Demand Oversupply of most Oversupply of USDA predicted

Outlook crops; low prices beef; fluctuating shortage of high

prices quality timber;

price increasing

Market Usually must sell at current price; Multiple products

relatively perishable product can be held for

good markets

Financial At current prices, rates of return Better than longReturns from are below interest earned on saving term Certificate

Investment account and may be negative of Deposit

Soil Conservation Requires expensive Moderate Excellent: builds

Protection from maintenance maintenance soil

Erosion

Drought High risk of loss Moderate risk, Low risk, once

of investment percent loss of established

vegetative cover

Management Annual intensive Moderate time Very low time

time and labor requirement requirement

Investment One year 1 to 10 years Usually longer

Length than 15 years

prior to thinning

Source: USDA Soil Conservation Service and USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry. Forest Management: A Viable Alternative on Marginal Croplands Eligible for the Conservation Reserve Program, Fiscal Year 1991.
Section XII

12-20

Finance Tools and Economic

Incentives

Because so much of the protection of riparian

areas relies on voluntary participation, a central

element of riparian forest buffer conservation

and restoration involves economic incentives to

landowners and developers. The financial benefit a landowner receives can have a significant

impact on his or her willingness to protect and

restore riparian buffers. Incentives programs are

delivered through a host of agents such as Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS),

Farm Service Agency (FSA), the

USDA Forest Service, state and local natural resource agencies, private

industry, and citizen groups, and are

designed to provide technical and

financial assistance directly to landowners and communities. In developed areas, zoning, land use, and

stormwater provisions may provide

opportunities for greater use of riparian forest buffers. In October

1996, the Riparian Forest Buffer

Panel recommended to the Chesapeake Executive Council to enhance

incentives and “Develop and promote an adequate array of incentives

for landowners and developers to

encourage voluntary riparian buffer

retention and restoration.” This is

an overview of several financial

tools and incentive programs that

exist in the Chesapeake Bay states.

A complete analysis of state and

federal stream protection programs

and identified gaps appears in Section XIV of this handbook.

Recognized Cost-Share

Programs

Although productivity is often a priority for

those whose livelihood depends on the land, a

balance needs to be struck between productivity

and natural resource protection. For stream

protection on agricultural land, site-specific

management and integration of a range of conservation practices are the rule. There are many

best management practices (BMPs) that can be

applied to farms to protect water quality, and

financial support is available to help landowners

offset costs to install such practices. Table 12-5

is a list of some federal cost-share programs that

are frequently used to encourage riparian forest

conservation and restoration and can be combined with state programs to increase incentives

and reduce costs to landowners.

Maryland has the Buffer Incentive Program,

Woodland Incentive Program, and Maryland

Agriculture Water Quality Cost-share Program.

Virginia has the Woodland Buffer Filter Area

and Loafing Lot Management System. Pennsylvania has the Streambank Fencing Program.

Table 12 - 5

Recognized Cost-Share Programs

Program Agency Eligibility

Conservation

Reserve Program

NRCS HEL land, wetlands, wildlife forested riparian areas. 50% cost-share,

annual payments up to $50,000 for

10-15 years, 20% incentive for trees

and continuous sign-up.

Forestry

Incentives

Program

NRCS/

USFS

Up to 65% cost-share for tree planting and prep. Area must be 10-100

acres.

Stewardship

Incentive

Program

USFS Private forests 1-1000 acres. Up to

65% cost-share for SIP practices including riparian & wetland protection and improvement. Maintain for

10 years.

Environmental

Quality

Incentives

Program

NRCS Agricultural land, including forests.

Up to 75% cost-share for riparian

forest buffers and related practices.

Must sign long-term agreement.

Wetlands

Reserve Program

NRCS Riparian areas can be restored. Up

to 75% cost-share of restoration activity. Maintain for at least 10 years.
Section XII

12-21

Tax Incentives & Credits

Tax incentives and credits are frequently identified as a desirable approach to encourage resource conservation. Property and income tax

relief can be a powerful tool to balance maintaining economic viability of resource-land use

and the protection of valuable water resources.

The Riparian Forest Buffer Panel saw this and

recommended to the Chesapeake Executive

Council that tax strategies be examined as an

incentive to landowners to conserve and restore

riparian areas.

The Bay states of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and

Virginia have some type of preferential tax assessment program for land kept in resource use

or open space, such as prime agricultural land or

private woodlots. These programs reduce the

assessed value of the land, resulting in lower

property taxes, but often lack any definition for

riparian area protection. On the other hand, federal income tax credits exist and can include

reforestation efforts in riparian areas. Table 12-

6 has examples of tax incentive programs in the

Bay states. Call the state forestry or agriculture

agency for more information about the programs

and eligibility of your land.

Table 12 - 6

Tax Incentive Programs

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

FEDERAL:

Public Law 96-451 Provides federal income tax incentives to reduce

reforestation costs. The law permits up to $10,000

of capitalized reforestation costs each year to be eligible for an investment tax credit and 7-year amortization.

MARYLAND:

Reforestation/Timber

Stand Improvement

Tax Deduction

Program

Allows landowners of small forestry operations to

deduct from their adjusted gross income double the

costs of reforestation.

Forest Conservation

and Management

Program

Provides special tax assessments on forestland, if

landowner agrees to adhere to a forest stewardship

plan.

Agricultural Use

Assessment

Provides a preferential assessment on the value of

land in agricultural use. Woodlots can also receive

an agricultural assessment.

VIRGINIA:

Use-Value Assessment Counties provide preferential assessments on agricultural and forestlands.

PENNSYLVANIA:

Farmland and Forest

Land Assessment Act

(Clean and Green Act)

County can grant a preferential assessment for 10 or

more contiguous acres of land devoted to agriculture, forest reserve, or open space.
Section XII

12-22

Conservation Easements

Many landowners find that placing their land in

an easement is a smart financial strategy for

themselves and their families. It is also a way to

contribute to protecting their local environment.

Conservation easements are a “market-based”

approach to land conservation. They offer landowners who sell certain rights to their property a

high portion of fair market value as compensation, can yield significant tax savings to those

who donate land, and allow them to retain private ownership.

A conservation easement is a voluntary legal

agreement between a willing property owner

and a qualified party, such as a land trust, public

agency, or conservation organization. Each

easement is individual and is tailored to the particular property and the interests of the owner.

The specific rights a property owner forgoes

when granting a conservation easement are

spelled out in an easement document. The

owner and prospective easement holder identify

the areas that the owner wants to protect and the

rights and restrictions on use that are necessary

to meet those goals – deciding together what can

and cannot be done to the property.

To understand the easement concept, think of

owning land as holding a bundle of rights. The

landowner may sell or give away the whole

bundle, or just one or two of those rights. These

include the right to construct buildings, to subdivide the land, to restrict access, or to harvest

timber. If the goal is to preserve a natural area,

for example, an easement may prohibit construction and activities that would destroy the

protected area. On the other hand, many easements do not require public access and even the

most restrictive easement usually allows continued farming and forestry.

A conservation easement can be written so that

it lasts forever. This is known as a perpetual

easement. Where state laws allow, an easement

can be written for a specific period of years, and

it is known as a term easement. Only gifts of

perpetual easements, however, can qualify a

donor for income and estate tax benefits. And,

the easement runs with the land – that is, the

original owner and all future owners are bound

by its restrictions. It is recorded at the county or

town records office so that future owners will

learn about the easement when they obtain title

reports.

Conservation easements can reduce a property owner's income tax. According to Internal Revenue Code Section 170(h) a donated

conservation easement is a tax-deductible

charitable gift, provided that it is perpetual and

is donated “exclusively for conservation purposes” to a qualified conservation organization

or public agency. Conservation purposes are

defined by the IRS as the:

• preservation of land areas for outdoor recreation by, or the education of, the general

public;

• protection of relatively natural habitats of

fish, wildlife, plants, or similar ecosystems;

• preservation of open space – including

farmland and forestland – for scenic enjoyment or pursuant to an adopted-governmental

policy. In either case, such open space preservation must yield a significant public benefit; and

• preservation of historically important land

areas or buildings.

Conservation easements can reduce a property owner's estate taxes. If the owner grants a

perpetual easement before his or her death, the

property must be valued in the estate at its lowered, restricted value. To the extent that the restricted value is lower than the unrestricted

value, the value of the estate is reduced, and

thus subject to less taxes. Also, if owners donate

the land into an easement during their lifetime,

they also realize income tax savings. If owners

do not want to restrict the property during their

life, they can still specify the conservation

easement in their will and receive the same reduced tax results.

Conservation easements can reduce an

owner's property tax. If a conservation easement reduces the development potential of the

property, it may reduce the level of assessment
Section XII

12-23

and the amount of the owner’s property taxes.

State law and local assessments may influence

or determine actual property tax relief to easement grantors.

Unfortunately, the application of conservation

easements to the protection of riparian forest

zones is not frequently used. State land protection programs, perhaps coupled with federal

programs, may provide for riparian area protection and restoration easements in the future. For

more information on current programs to protect

your land through conservation easement and

how to receive tax benefits, contact your state

agricultural, forestry agency, or local land trust.

References

Brabec, E. 1992. Trees make cents. Scenic

America Technical Information Series, Volume

1, No. 1. Annapolis MD. 8p.

Brabec, E. 1992. On the value of open spaces.

Scenic America Technical Information Series,

Volume 1, No. 2. Annapolis MD. 8p.

Chesapeake Bay Local Assistance Department.

1992. Study of the costs of complying with the

Chesapeake Bay preservation act regulations.

Richmond, VA. 42p.

Chesapeake Bay Foundation. 1996. A dollars

and sense partnership: economic development

and environmental protection. Annapolis, MD.

21p.

Cooksey, R.A. and A. Todd. 1996. Conserving

the forests of the Chesapeake: the status and

trends, and importance of forests for the Bay’s

sustainable future. Tech. Paper-03-96. Radnor,

PA. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area.

35p.

Lipton, D.W., K. Wellman, I.C. Sheifer, and

R.F. Weiher. 1995. Economic valuation of

natural resources - a handbook for coastal resource policymakers. NOAA Coastal, Ocean

Program Decision Analysis Series No.5. NOAA

Coastal Ocean Office, Silver Spring, MD. 131p.

McPherson, E.G., D. Nowak, and R.A. Rowntree. 1994. Chicago’s urban forest ecosystem:

results of the Chicago urban forest climate project. Gen. Tech. Report NE-186. Radnor, PA.

USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 201p.

Thomas, M.G. and D.R. Schumann. 1993. Income opportunities in special forest products -

self-help suggestions for rural entrepreneurs.

Ag. Info. Bulletin-666. Washington, D.C.

USDA Forest Service. 206p.

USDA Forest Service. 1991. Forest management - a viable alternative on marginal croplands eligible for the conservation reserve

program. Tech. Transfer Brochure. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area and Soil Conservation Service. 12p.
Section XIII

Information and Education Strategies

Introduction ........................................................................................................13-1

Natural Resource Professional Training.............................................................13-1

Landowner Information and Education..............................................................13-2

Working with Volunteers ...................................................................................13-6

Working with the Media ....................................................................................13-6

Information Resources .......................................................................................13-7

References ..........................................................................................................13-9
Section XIII

13-1

Introduction

This section discusses natural resource professional training; and information and education

for working with landowners, volunteers, and

the media. It includes a list of valuable publications that can be used as informational tools

for education strategies.

Natural Resource Professional

Training

There is a great opportunity for educating both

landowners and natural resource professionals

about the functions, values, proper use, establishment, enhancement, and maintenance of

riparian forest buffers. Natural resource professionals should be given the opportunity to

sharpen their skills and gain new knowledge

on riparian forest buffers prior to any aggressive landowner awareness and implementation

program.

 

As already stated in earlier sections, the science of riparian forest buffers is complex, and

new knowledge is being gained everyday

through research. This new research and

knowledge needs to be transferred into the

field where land managers are dealing with

private landowners and planning and zoning issues. Public agencies and other groups should

offer continuing education sessions on riparian

buffers.

To be successful, training sessions on riparian

buffers should be at least two days in length, with

both classroom and field studies. This approach

will educate resource professionals through lectures, presentations, active participation in discussions, and hands-on activities in the field. Both of

these components (classroom and field study) are

extremely important in this learning process.

 

The training sessions should be organized by local

steering committees, so that local needs are addressed. To obtain a wide cross section of participants, these steering committees should consist of

a wide and diverse membership. Course curriculum should be consistent from state to state, recognizing uniqueness in physiographic regions and

forest types. Handbooks and fact sheets will be

necessary for the program participants to use as

study guides and future reference.

Materials for workshop participants should include the following to assist the resource professionals when dealing with riparian forest buffer

issues and needs in their local areas:

Information and Education Strategies
Section XIII

13-2

• Information on the scientific knowledge to

date.

• This handbook.

• Fact sheets on the functions and values of

riparian forest buffers (suitable for photocopying).

• Locations of demonstration sites and a

brief history of each site to describe the

reasons for the buffer.

• Plant materials list (including trees, shrubs,

and grasses) for establishing riparian forest

buffers.

• Possible cost-share or tax-based programs

to assist in establishing, enhancing, or

maintaining these buffers.

• Resource professional list (names, addresses, and phone numbers) for technical

assistance needs.

• Nursery list for local plant material needs.

• Videos available with a brief description of

content.

• Other training opportunities available.

• Any other research-based information that

the steering committee may find useful in

their local area.

If these continuing educational programs are

offered through the State Cooperative Extension Service, there may be an opportunity to

establish graduate credits, as well as continuing forestry education (CFE) credits. Many

professional groups offer this, such as the Society of American Foresters (SAF). Every

effort should be made to involve a wide range

of program participants in this educational

opportunity. For example, the Resource Conservation and Development (RC&D) Councils, The Nature Conservancy, Izaak Walton

League, Soil & Water Conservation Districts,

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, State and

Federal Forest and Wildlife Agencies, Natural

Resources Conservation Service, Cooperative

Extension Service, Trout Unlimited, and local

Land Conservancy Groups should be asked to

participate.

Demonstration sites for field study need to be

identified and/or established strategically

throughout each state. These demonstration sites

will be used for both the field study exercises with

the resource professionals and later for private

landowners to observe and study. Depending on

needs and funding opportunities, there may be an

additional opportunity for some applied research

to occur within these demonstration plots. When

locating these demonstration areas, try to establish

a diverse type, such as: one already established,

one that is presently being established, maintenance examples, urban and rural settings, agricultural and forest settings, different forest or tree

types, and different functional values (i.e. water

quality versus wildlife habitat).

Landowner Information and

Education

Information and education activities are essential

to a successful riparian forest management effort.

Successful information and education strategies

will result in landowners actively managing and

protecting their riparian areas. Such efforts will

also ensure public acceptance of the Bay Programs

in both rural and urban areas.

Workshops

Once natural resource professionals have the opportunity to attend these training programs, actions should be taken to organize landowner

educational programs. These landowner programs

will depend on local needs (i.e. rural or urban

audience). Landowner workshops can be conducted throughout each state to focus on riparian

forest buffers. In addition, presentations on the

functions and values of riparian forest buffers can

be incorporated into existing forestry seminars or

programs.
Section XIII

13-3

Tours and Demonstration Sites

 

When conducting landowner workshops, there

should be an effort made to commit part of a

day to a field visit of the local demonstration

site. Bus tours of local demonstration sites

can also be designed to educate decisionmakers, landowners, and/or private citizen

volunteers. Many people find this type of

educational approach more valuable than sitting in a classroom listening to a lecture. Research has shown that more people learn by

actively being involved in hands-on learning

experiences.

There are several projects within the Chesapeake Bay that can serve as demonstration

areas for educational purposes. Some of the

sites are:

1. Donegal Creek Restoration Project, Lancaster County, PA – The Lancaster

County Conservation District and the

Donegal Fish and Conservation Association have teamed up to restore 6.7 miles of

limestone trout stream in the northwest

corner of the county. Contact: Mark

Metzler at 717-299-5361.

2. Hampshire County Riparian Task Force,

Hampshire County, WV – The task force

has established four riparian forest buffer

demonstration sites in the county. All

sites are fenced and planted with native

seedlings. One demonstration site is pristine and fenced to show how a healthy riparian forest functions. Contact: Roger

Boyer, Potomac Headwaters RC&D

Council at 304-267-8953.

3. Headwaters of the Shenandoah River:

Riparian Easement Program, Augusta

County, VA – Five easements have been established in the three counties of the Shenandoah Region. Riparian areas have a

management plan that includes livestock exclusion and protection of the area. Contact:

Robert Whitescarver at 540-248-4328.

4. Riparian Greenway System, Newport News,

VA – The city committed to the establishment

of a riparian greenway system that is included

in its Comprehensive Plan Map. The greenway includes more than 7,000 feet of stream

that will be protected. Contact: Paul Miller at

804-247-8428.

5. Small Habitat Improvement Program in Urban Areas, Washington, DC – The Watts

Branch of the Anacostia River has had two

miles of riparian forest buffers re-established.

More than 1,000 stormdrains were stenciled

with the message “Don’t Dump – Anacostia

River Drainage.” Contact: Lynn Stabenfeldt

at 202-962-3363.

6. Difficult Run Watershed, Fairfax County, VA

– Priority areas were identified in the watershed, and impaired flood plain areas were targeted for tree planting. About 8,000 tree

seedlings have been planted, and a 150-foot

wide buffer was established near a residential

subdivision. Contact: Judy Okay at 703-324-

1489.

Find out about other local demonstration areas

that can be visited, or consider establishing a

demonstration site in the local area.

Landowners also enjoy raft, boat, or canoe trips

on streams. In agricultural areas, it has been

shown that these trips give farmers new understanding about riparian ecosystems. Each boat or

canoe has a natural resource professional and one

or two landowners who can share with each other

concerns, points of view, and values. The day can

be enjoyed by stopping at a nice area along the

stream for lunch. These trips are organized and

advertised during the warm months of the year.
Section XIII

13-4

Videos

 

In addition to training opportunities, riparian

forest buffer videos should be developed to

address local needs. One such video titled

“Riparian Forest Buffers: the Link Between

Land and Water” has been developed to provide an overview for landowners and managers on the functions and values of riparian

areas. An additional goal of the video is to

motivate landowners to take action, either

through establishing, enhancing, or maintaining a buffer or via a planning and zoning concern. Either way, the video is educational,

with the private citizen as the audience. The

length of the video is 21 minutes.

If under 30 minutes, videos can also be shown

on cable and educational TV. This would

give the video a greater range of exposure to a

larger audience. Additional videos targeted to

urban audiences or detailing techniques for

stream restoration and buffer planting may be

needed. Riparian forest buffer videos should

be made available to landowners to view at

their leisure. These videos can be shown at

local community service clubs, such as the

Rotary, Ruritan, Lions, and federation of

women’s clubs.

Disseminating Information

There are several ways to reach the public

about riparian forest buffers and programs that

affect the forests of the Bay. Use special

events, such as Earth Day or Arbor Day, to

distribute information at large gatherings.

Sometimes a natural disaster really wakes

people up about the forces of nature and the

need to manage and protect our forests. For

example, after the effects of gypsy moths,

fires, hurricanes, or floods are felt and dealt with,

there may be a time to introduce the concepts of

riparian forests and good stewardship to landowners. Some examples of methods of dissemination

are:

• Flyers distributed by volunteers who go doorto-door

• Inserts in local newspapers

• Inserts in utility bills

• Newspaper special editions

• New articles

• Articles by natural resource professionals

• Television and radio news

• Direct mailings

• Public meetings

• Conservation district or extension service

newsletters

Fact sheets are useful, and can be used as inserts

or direct mailings. Fact sheets should accompany

the videos and presentations. These fact sheets

should cover the following subjects:

• Cost-share programs

• Federal/state income tax and property tax programs

• Technical assistance available

• Plant material listings

• Locations of nurseries to obtain planting materials

• Wildlife habitat needs

• Cross references of food, cover, and nesting

• Specific values of plant materials

• Functions and values – utilizing the three-zone

concept

• Description of water quality functions in different physiographic regions

There may be other fact sheet needs identified by

the local steering committee or cooperative extension service.
Section XIII

13-5

Public Meetings

There are several occasions for holding public

meetings – to announce a new program, to get

input on planning decisions, to promote cooperation and partnerships, or to face the wrath

of stakeholders after a decision has been

made. An effective meeting achieves goals,

maximizes time, makes decisions, tells everyone their responsibilities, lets everyone contribute who wants to, and supports varying

opinions. Effective public meetings take careful planning.

Planning for the Meeting

Follow these steps:

1. Gather input and ideas from colleagues

and landowners. List them as ideas,

goals, or inputs.

2. Use these ideas to list agenda items,

and put them in priority order.

3. Develop an agenda, putting the most

important items first.

4. Decide the desired outcome of the

meeting. For example, what, if any,

decisions are to be made? Is it for information only? Are concerns to be

raised and noted?

5. State the desired outcome or goal next

to each item on the agenda.

6. Reserve the room and equipment.

7. Decide whom to invite to the meeting.

Some participants may only be interested in portions of the meeting.

8. Allocate a set time for each agenda

item.

9. Circulate the agenda to participants.

10. Assign a person to prepare and present

each agenda item at the meeting.

11. Assemble information packets to be

handed out at the meeting.

Conducting the Meeting

Landowners and stakeholders are taking time from

their busy lives to attend the meeting. Make sure

it is time well spent by following these guidelines:

1. START ON TIME. Do not wait for a particular speaker. If a person is late, rearrange the agenda item so the speaker can

address it after arriving.

2. Stick to the agenda items.

3. Make sure events of the meeting are recorded.

4. If you get bogged down, save the item for

last, or defer it to another meeting.

5. Do not make the meeting too long. If you

have several agenda items, you should

schedule another meeting to address more

issues.

6. Schedule a short break after one hour.

Awards and Recognition

 

Recognition and awards programs can be set up to

recognize landowners and/or citizens who have

participated in educational programs; taken action

to establish, enhance, or maintain a riparian forest

buffer; taken steps to change a land planning or

zoning issue involving riparian forest buffers; or

gone above and beyond the normal establishment,

enhancement, and maintenance of riparian buffers.
Section XIII

13-6

These awards and recognition programs will

assist in program acceptance and program delivery. Citizens and landowners will be appropriately acknowledged for their efforts and

positive actions, and they will feel good about

what they have done.

Working with Volunteers

There are opportunities, especially in urban

areas, for using volunteers in planting riparian

forest buffers, cleaning trash from riparian

areas, improving wildlife habitat, distributing

information, conducting landowner outreach,

and other tasks. Volunteers are part of the

general public. They must understand what is

being done in riparian areas, why it is necessary, and that it is being done correctly.

Using volunteers requires planning and coordination. Volunteer projects should be site

specific and require only one or two days to

complete. Following are some guidelines:

• Solicit volunteers; they usually do not seek

out specific projects.

• Choose volunteers who are interested in or

who will benefit from the project. Volunteers will have a sense of ownership in the

project if allowed to help.

• When asking for volunteers, clearly define

why the project is important, and give

complete information on when, where, and

what to bring, including food and clothing.

• Contact local organizations for help. Ask a

member to distribute flyers about the project and round-up volunteers for you.

• Welcome each volunteer on the day of the

project. Check to see that each one has

what he needs. Train each group of volunteers on project essentials.

• Check on volunteers throughout the day.

• Involve the media, making sure the credit

goes to the volunteers.

• Thank the volunteers in a special way.

Working with the Media

In order to convey the importance of the work that

is being accomplished in the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed, it is sometimes necessary for the natural resources manager to work with the media –

newspapers, television, and radio. The media is

used to introduce a new program, to summarize

results of a recent study, or to announce a landowner workshop. Governmental agencies and

non-profit organizations have their own rules and

guidelines in working with the media that must be

followed, but there are general things to remember

– the most important of which is to take a PROACTIVE POSITION.

General guidelines for talking to a reporter:

• Be polite, and never lose your temper.

• Use a helpful, informative demeanor.

• Know what you’re talking about; be sure the

information you give is accurate.

• Be honest about not knowing the answer to a

particular question; offer to find out.

• Always tell the truth. If you are not allowed to

give information, state why.

• Stick to your area of expertise and responsibility.

• Answer questions, but always return to your

main theme.

• Ask the reporter to repeat a question if you are

unclear about it.

• Put the event or issue into proper context. If

you accomplished a “first” in the watershed,

say so.

• Stick to the facts, and keep your opinions to

yourself.

• Anticipate the reporter’s needs, and bring

along fact sheets.

• Repeat messages. Each time a message is repeated, the chances of it being in the final story

increase.

• Respect reporter’s time and deadlines.
Section XIII

13-7

• Call back when you promised.

• Keep track of what was said during the

interview.

• Watch closely for the resulting story.

A good pro-active tool to use is the news release, but use them sparingly and only when

there is something truly newsworthy to announce. Work on establishing a lasting relationship with a person at the newspaper who

writes about natural resource issues. These

are guidelines to follow in writing a news release:

• Make sure the announcement is newsworthy and of wide interest.

• Decide what media should receive it.

• Limit the length to one or two pages.

• Write in an “inverted pyramid” style. The

most important information goes in the

first paragraph, followed by progressively

less important material.

• Use only one topic of information per

paragraph.

• Use the past tense.

• Remember to address the “5 W’s” and

“H”. Who, what, when, where, why, and

how.

• Every news release should have a title,

date, and location of announcement.

• Use some direct quotes, after seeking permission from the speaker.

• List a contact and phone number for further information.

• If the news release is going to a TV or Radio station, consider an audio or video clip

to accompany the release.

Information Resources

The following is a partial list of information

resources and where to obtain them. They are

helpful in getting the message out about the

importance of riparian forest buffers.

Fact Sheets

Riparian Forest Buffers in the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-

YOUR-BAY.

Pequea-Mill Creek Information Series:

• Barnyard Runoff Management

• Streambank Fencing

• Farmstead Assessment

• Pequea-Mill Creek Cost-Share Practices

• Nutrient Management Planning

• Rotational Lot Management System

• Integrated Crop Management

• Constructing Mud-Free Cow Lanes

• Pasture Watering Systems

• Financial Assistance for Practices

• Sample Nutrient Management Plan and

Guidelines

• Stream and Waterway Crossings

• Benefits of Streambank Fencing

Contact Jerry Martin, Cooperative Extension

Service, at 717-396-9423.

Directive

Chesapeake Executive Council Directive No. 94-

1: Riparian Forest Buffers (October 1994). Call

1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY

Video

Riparian Forest Buffers: The Link Between Land

& Water. Prepared by the University of Maryland

Cooperative Extension Service. This 21-minute

video serves as an introduction to the concept of

forest buffers and how they benefit the environment. Copies of the video are available from the

University of Maryland Cooperative Extension

Service at 410-827-8056. The cost is $15 each.

Publications

Conserving the Forests of the Chesapeake: The

Status, Trends, and Importance of Forests for the

Bay’s Sustainable Future. Prepared by Richard

Cooksey and Albert Todd. (1996). USDA Forest
Section XIII

13-8

Service publication NA-TP-03-96. The publication provides historical background, importance of the forests, status of the Bay’s forest,

trends in forest change, forest conservation

issues, and recommendations for ensuring the

forest’s future. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-

YOUR-BAY.

Streamside Forests: The Vital, Beneficial Resource. Prepared by the University of Maryland Cooperative Extension Service and the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (1988). This

publication provides an overview of the many

benefits provided by streamside forests, the

historic loss of the resource, and what can be

done to restore it. Copies can be obtained

from the Cooperative Extension Service at

410-827-8056 or the USDI Fish and Wildlife

Service at 410-573-4500.

Riparian Forest Buffers: Function and Design

for Protection and Enhancement of Water Resources. Prepared by David J. Welsch.

(1991). USDA Forest Service publication

NA-PR-07-91. This publication provides a

comprehensive description of the functions of

riparian forest buffers and guidelines for their

establishment. This publication can be ordered for $2.00 from the Superintendent of

Documents at 202-512-1800. The stock number is 001-001-00657-2.

The Role and Function of Forest Buffers in

the Chesapeake Bay Basin for Nonpoint

Source Management. Prepared by the Forestry Workgroup, Nutrient Subcommittee,

Chesapeake Bay Program. (February 1993).

Publication number CBP/TRS 91/93. This

publication is a position paper intended to

provide information for planning for control

of nonpoint source pollutants reaching the

Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. The components and functions of a forest buffer are

described, research needs identified, and specific goals and recommendations regarding the

use of these buffers offered. Call 1-800-662-

2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Forestry and the Chesapeake Bay Program.

Prepared by the Forestry Workgroup. (March

1993). CSC.NPS1C.3/93. This color brochure was produced as general information about

forests and the Bay, the problems occurring in the

Bay, several solutions, and where to get assistance. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOURBAY.

Riparian Forest Buffers: Restoring and Managing a Vital Chesapeake Resource: Proceedings

from the October 5-6, 1994. Conference in Ellicott City, MD. Prepared by the Forestry Workgroup and the Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake

Bay Program (October 1994). Publication Number EPA 903-R-95-008. This conference was intended to expand the level of both technical and

practical knowledge related to forest buffer use

and to stimulate interest and new energy to address many of the issues of forest buffer implementation in the field. The format of

presentations and exhibits attempted to represent

the different issues and solutions that are often

unique to different land use settings in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-

800-YOUR-BAY.

An Analysis of Riparian Forest Buffer Policies in

Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. An Issues

and Action report prepared by the Chesapeake

Bay Commission. (January 1995). This paper

examines existing state and federal programs,

policies, and regulations to determine their effectiveness in promoting the maintenance and restoration of riparian forests. Call 1-800-662-2747 or

1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Water Quality Functions of Riparian Forest

Buffer Systems in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.

Prepared by the Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake Bay Program. (August 1995). Publication

Number EPA 903-R-95-004, CBP/TRS 134/95.

This document is a research synthesis, focusing on

the existing Riparian Forest Buffer System specification developed by the USDA. The report

contains a general review of riparian forest and

grass vegetated filter strip literature, and uses this

literature to help determine the applicability of the

forest buffer system recommended by the USDA.

Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Riparian Forest Buffers. Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay White Paper. (January 1996). This

publication describes the current state of scientific
Section XIII

13-9

knowledge regarding the functions of riparian

forest buffers in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOURBAY.

Forest and Riparian Buffer Conservation:

Local Case Studies from the Chesapeake Bay

Program. Prepared by the Forestry Workgroup, Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake

Bay Program. (August 1996). USDA Forest

Service Publication NA-TP-07-96. This publication, intended as a resource for local organizations, is a collection of case studies that

highlight accomplishments of local governments and citizen organizations in recognizing

the importance of forests to their communities

and taking action to retain and restore them. It

illustrates innovative riparian buffer and forest

conservation programs initiated and implemented on the local level by private citizens.

Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Final Report and Adoption Statement of the

Riparian Forest Buffer Panel. Prepared by

the Riparian Forest Buffer Panel and presented to the Chesapeake Executive Council.

(October 1996). Publication Number EPA

903-R-96-015, CBP/TRS 158/96. This document contains the findings of the Riparian

Forest Buffer Panel and the Panel’s recommendations to the Chesapeake Executive

Council, including a riparian forest buffer

definition, specific policies, and suggested

actions. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-

YOUR-BAY.

Riparian Forest Buffer Panel Report: Technical Support Document. Prepared by the Riparian Forest Buffer Panel Technical Team,

Chesapeake Bay Program. (October 1996).

Publication Number EPA 903-R-97-007. This

document is a compilation of the information

used during the Riparian Forest Buffer Panel

process, including scientific background,

findings, issues addressed, the public involvement process, and participants in the

panel process. Call 1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-

YOUR-BAY.

Restoring a Bay Resource: Riparian Forest

Buffer Demonstration Sites. Prepared by the Forestry Workgroup, Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake Bay Program. (January 1997). Publication

Number EPA 903-R-97-001, CBP/TRS 159/97.

This document is a compilation of demonstration

sites for riparian forest buffers in agricultural, rural, and urban settings. For each demonstration

site, a project description, background, monitoring

scheme, and contact information is provided. Call

1-800-662-2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Chesapeake Bay Riparian Forest Buffer Inventory. Prepared by Rick Day and Paul Richards,

Pennsylvania State University (March 1997), for

the Chesapeake Bay Program. This document describes the results of an inventory of the extent of

forest cover adjacent to streams and rivers in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed using a geographic

information system (GIS) approach. Call 1-800-

662-2747 or 1-800-YOUR-BAY.

Chesapeake Bay Riparian Handbook: A Guide for

Establishing and Maintaining Riparian Forest

Buffers. This handbook was edited by Roxane

Palone and Albert Todd (May 1997) for the Forestry Workgroup, Nutrient Subcommittee, Chesapeake Bay Program. Publication NA-TP-02-97.

This document, intended to provide technical assistance for field personnel, provides detailed information on the planning, design, establishment,

and maintenance of riparian forest buffers in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed. Call 1-800-662-2747

or 1-800-YOUR-BAY; or the USDA Forest Service at 304-285-1592.

References

Grey, G.W. 1993. A handbook for tree board

members. National Arbor Day Foundation. Nebraska City, NE.

McLoughlin, B. 1990. Communicate with power:

encountering the media. Barry McLoughlin Associates, Inc. New York, NY.

McLoughlin, B. 1996. Communicate with power:

making effective presentations. Barry McLoughlin Associates, Inc. New York, NY.
Section XIV

Appendices

1. USDA Forest Service Specification-Riparian Forest Buffer............................14-1

2. Natural Resources Conservation Service

Conservation Practice Standard Riparian Forest Buffer ..............................14-2

3. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

Maryland Conservation Practice Standard Riparian Forest Buffer..............14-3

4. Program Contacts in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed ......................................14-4

5. Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs ........................................14-5

6. Excerpts from the Chesapeake Bay Riparian Forest Buffer Inventor .............14-6

7. Native Plant Guide for Planting Along Streams and Ponds .............................14-7

8. Sources of Planting Stock.................................................................................14-8

9. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map....................................................................14-9

10. Sources of Tree Shelters .................................................................................14-10

11. Companies that Provide Materials and Services in the Areas of Streambank

 Stabilization, Erosion and Sediment Control, and Geotextiles..................14-11

12. Herbicide Labels .............................................................................................14-12
Section XIV

14 - 1

APPENDIX 1

USDA Forest Service

Specification

Riparian Forest Buffer
Section XIV

USDA FOREST SERVICE RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER

SPECIFICATION

Definition

An area of trees and other vegetation located in areas adjoining and upgradient from surface water bodies

and designed to intercept surface runoff, wastewater, subsurface flow, and deeper groundwater flows

from upland sources for the purpose of removing or buffering the effects of associated nutrients,

sediment, organic matter, pesticides, or other pollutants prior to entry into surface waters and ground

water recharge areas.

Scope

This specification establishes the minimally acceptable requirements for the reforestation of open lands,

and renovation of existing forest to be managed as Riparian Forest Buffers for the purposes stated.

Purpose

To remove nutrients, sediment, animal-derived organic matter, and some pesticides from surface runoff,

subsurface flow, and near root zone groundwater by deposition, absorption, adsorption, plant uptake,

denitrification, and other processes, thereby reducing pollution and protecting surface water and

groundwater quality.

Conditions Where Practice Applies

Subsurface nutrient buffering processes, such as denitrification, can take place in the soil wherever

carbon energy, bacteria, oxygen, temperature, and soil moisture is adequate. Nutrient uptake by plants

occurs where the water table is within the root zone. Surficial filtration occurs anywhere surface

vegetation and forest litter are adequate.

The riparian forest buffer will be most effective when used as a component of a sound land management

system including nutrient management and runoff, and sediment and erosion control practices. Use of

this practice without other nutrient and runoff, sediment and erosion control practices can result in

adverse impacts on buffer vegetation and hydraulics including high maintenance costs, the need for

periodic replanting, and the carrying of excess nutrients and sediment through the buffer by concentrated

flows.

This practice applies on lands:

1. adjacent to permanent or intermittent streams which occur at the lower edge of upslope cropland,

grassland or pasture;

2. at the margins of lakes or ponds which occur at the lower edge of upslope cropland, grassland or

pasture;

3. at the margin of any intermittent or permanently flooded, environmentally sensitive, open water

wetlands which occur at the lower edge of upslope cropland, grassland or pasture;
Section XIV

4. on karst formations at the margin of sinkholes and other small groundwater recharge areas

occurring on cropland, grassland, or pasture.

 Note: In high sediment production areas (8-20 in./100 yrs.), severe sheet, rill, and gully erosion

must be brought under control on upslope areas for this practice to function correctly.

Design Criteria

Riparian Forest Buffers

Riparian forest buffers will consist of three distinct zones and be designed to filter surface runoff as

sheet flow and downslope subsurface flow, which occurs as shallow groundwater. For the purposes

of these buffer strips, shallow groundwater is defined as: saturated conditions which occur near or

within the root zone of trees, and other woody vegetation and at relatively shallow depths where

bacteria, oxygen, and soil temperature contribute to denitrification. Streamside Forest Buffers will

be designed to encourage sheet flow and infiltration and impede concentrated flow.

Zone 1

Location

Zone 1 will begin at the top of the streambank and occupy a strip of land with a fixed width of fifteen

feet measured horizontally on a line perpendicular to the streambank.

Purpose

The purpose of Zone 1 is to create a stable ecosystem adjacent to the water's edge, provide soil/water

contact area to facilitate nutrient buffering processes, provide shade to moderate and stabilize water

temperature encouraging the production of beneficial algal forms, and to contribute necessary

detritus and large woody debris to the stream ecosystem.

Requirements

Runoff and wastewater to be buffered or filtered by Zone 1 will be limited to sheet flow or

subsurface flow only. Concentrated flows must be converted to sheet flow or subsurface flows prior

to entering Zone 1. Outflow from subsurface drains must not be allowed to pass through the riparian

forest in pipes or tile, thus circumventing the treatment processes. Subsurface drain outflow must be

converted to sheet flow for treatment by the riparian forest buffer, or treated elsewhere in the system

prior to entering the surface water.

Dominant vegetation will be composed of a variety of native riparian tree and shrub species and such

plantings as necessary for streambank stabilization during the establishment period. A mix of

species will provide the prolonged stable leaf fall and variety of leaves necessary to meet the energy

and pupation needs of aquatic insects.

Large overmature trees are valued for their detritus and large woody debris. Zone 1 will be limited

to bank stabilization and removal of potential problem vegetation. Occasional removal of extreme

high value trees may be permitted where water quality values are not compromised. Logging and

other overland equipment shall be excluded except for streamcrossings and stabilization work.

Livestock will be excluded from Zone 1 except for designed stream crossings.
Section XIV

Zone 2

Location

Zone 2 will begin at the edge of Zone 1 and occupy an additional strip of land with a minimum width

of 60 feet measured horizontally on a line perpendicular to the streambank. Total minimum width of

Zones 1 & 2 is therefore 75 feet. Note that this is the minimum width of Zone 2 and that the width of

Zone 2 may have to be increased as described in the section "Determining the Total Width of Buffer"

to create a greater combined width for Zones 1 & 2.

Purpose

The purpose of Zone 2 is to provide necessary contact time and carbon energy source for buffering

processes to take place, and to provide for long term sequestering of nutrients in the form of forest

trees. Outflow from subsurface drains must not be allowed to pass through the riparian forest in pipe

or tile, thus circumventing the treatment processes. Subsurface drain outflow must be converted to

sheet flow for treatment by the riparian forest buffer, or treated elsewhere in the system prior to

entering the surface water.

Requirements

Runoff and wastewater to be buffered or filtered by Zone 2 will be limited to sheet flow or

subsurface flow only. Concentrated flows must be converted to sheet flow or subsurface flows prior

to entering Zone 2.

Predominant vegetation will be composed of riparian trees and shrubs suitable to the site, with

emphasis on native species, and such plantings as necessary to stabilize soil during the establishment

period. Nitrogen-fixing species should be discouraged where nitrogen removal or buffering is

desired. Species suitability information should be developed in consultation with state and federal

forestry agencies, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and USDI Fish and Wildlife Service.

Specifications should include periodic harvesting and timber stand improvement (TSI) to maintain

vigorous growth and leaf litter replacement, and to remove nutrients and pollutants sequestered in the

form of wood in tree boles and large branches. Management for wildlife habitat, aesthetics, and

timber are not incompatible with riparian forest buffer objectives as long as shade levels and

production of leaf litter, detritus, and large woody debris are maintained. Appropriate logging

equipment recommendations shall be determined in consultation with the state and federal forestry

agencies.

Livestock shall be excluded from Zone 2 except for necessary designed stream crossings.

Zone 3

Location

Zone 3 will begin at the outer edge of Zone 2 and have a minimum width of 20 feet. Additional

width may be desirable to accommodate land-shaping and mowing machinery. Grazed or ungrazed

grassland meeting the purpose and requirements stated below may serve as Zone 3.
Section XIV

Purpose

The purpose of Zone 3 is to provide sediment filtering, nutrient uptake, and the space necessary to

convert concentrated flow to uniform, shallow, sheet flow through the use of techniques such as

grading and shaping, and devices such as diversions, basins, and level lip spreaders.

Requirements

Vegetation will be composed of dense grasses and forbs for structure stabilization, sediment control,

and nutrient uptake. Mowing and removal of clippings are necessary to recycle sequestered

nutrients, promote vigorous sod, and control weed growth.

Vegetation must be maintained in a vigorous condition. The vegetative growth must be hayed,

grazed, or otherwise removed from Zone 3. Maintaining vigorous growth of Zone 3 vegetation must

take precedence and may not be consistent with wildlife needs.

Zone 3 may be used for controlled intensive grazing when conditions are such that earthen water

control structures will not be damaged.

Zone 3 may require periodic reshaping of earth structures, removal or grading of accumulated

sediment, and reestablishment of vegetation to maintain effectiveness of the riparian buffer.

Determining Need For Protection

Buffers should be used to protect any body of water which will not be:

• treated by routing through a natural or artificial wetland determined to be adequate treatment;

• treated by converting the flow to sheet flow and routing it through a forest buffer at a point lower

in the watershed.

Determining Total Width of the Buffer

Note that while not specifically addressed, slope and soil permeability are components of the following

buffer width criteria.

Each of the following criteria is based on methods developed, or used by persons conducting research on

riparian forests.

Streamside Buffers

The minimum width of streamside buffer areas can be determined by any number of methods

suitable to the geographic area.

1. Based on soil hydrologic groups as shown in the county soil survey report, the width of Zone

2 will be increased to occupy any soils designated as Hydrologic Group D and those soils of

Hydrologic Group C which are subject to frequent flooding. If soils of Hydrologic Groups A

or B occur adjacent to intermittent or perennial streams, the combined width of Zones 1 & 2

may be limited to the 75 foot minimum.
Section XIV

2. Based on area, the width of Zone 2 should be increased to provide a combined width of

Zones 1 & 2 equal to one third of the slope distance from the streambank to the top of the

pollutant source area. The effect is to create a buffer strip between field and stream which

occupies approximately one third of the source area.

3. Based on the Land Capability Class of the buffer site as shown in the county soil survey, the

width of Zone 2 should be increased to provide a combined width of Zones 1 & 2 as shown

below.

 Capability Class Buffer Width

 Cap. I, II e/s, V 75'

 Cap. III e/s, IV e/s 100'

 Cap. VI e/s, VII e/s 150'

Pond and Lake-Side Buffer Strips

The area of pond or lake-side buffer strips should be at least one-fifth the drainage area of the

cropland and pastureland source area. The width of the buffer strip is determined by creating a

uniform width buffer of the required area between field and pond. Hydrologic Group and Capability

Class methods of determining width remain the same as for streamside buffers. Minimum widths

apply in all cases.

Environmentally Sensitive Wetlands

Some wetlands function as nutrient sinks. When they occur in fields or at field margins, they can be

used for renovation of agricultural surface runoff and/or drainage. However, most wetlands adjoining

open water are subject to periodic flushing of nutrient-laden sediments and, therefore, require riparian

buffers to protect water quality.

Where open water wetlands are roughly ellipsoid in shape, they should receive the same

protection as ponds.

Where open water wetlands exist in fields as seeps along hillslopes, buffers should consist of

Zones 1, 2 & 3 on sides receiving runoff and Zones 1 & 3 on the remaining sides. Livestock

must be excluded from Zones 1 & 2 at all times and controlled in Zone 3. Where Zones 1 & 3

only are used, livestock must be excluded from both zones at all times, but hay removal is

desirable in Zone 3.

Vegetation Selection

Zone 1 & 2 vegetation will consist of native streamside tree species on soils of Hydrologic Groups D and

C and native upland tree species on soils of Hydrologic Groups A and B.

Deciduous species are important in Zone 2 due to the production of carbon leachate from leaf litter

which drives bacterial processes that remove nitrogen, as well as, the sequestering of nutrients in the

growth processes. In warmer climates, evergreens are also important due to the potential for nutrient

uptake during the winter months. In both cases, a variety of species is important to meet the habitat

needs of insects important to the aquatic food chain.
Section XIV

Zone 3 vegetation should consist of perennial grasses and forbs.

Species recommendations for vegetated buffer areas depend on the geographic location of the buffer.

Suggested species lists should be developed in collaboration with appropriate state and federal forestry

agencies, the Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. Species

lists should include trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes, forbs, as well as site preparation techniques.

Fertilizer and lime, helpful in establishing buffer vegetation, must be used with caution and are not

recommended in Zone 1.

Maintenance Guidelines

General

Buffers must be inspected annually and immediately following severe storms for evidence of

sediment deposit, and erosion, or concentrated flow channels. Prompt corrective action must be

taken to stop erosion and restore sheet flow.

The following should be avoided within the buffer areas: excess use of fertilizers, pesticides, or other

chemicals; vehicular traffic or excessive pedestrian traffic; and removal or disturbance of vegetation

and litter inconsistent with erosion control and buffering objectives.

Zone 1 vegetation should remain undisturbed except for removal of individual trees of extremely

high value or trees presenting unusual hazards such as potentially blocking culverts.

Zone 2 vegetation, undergrowth, forest floor, duff layer, and leaf litter shall remain undisturbed

except for periodic cutting of trees to remove sequestered nutrients; to maintain an efficient filter by

fostering vigorous growth; and for spot site preparation for regeneration purposes. Controlled

burning for site preparation, consistent with good forest management practices, could also be used in

Zone 2.

Zone 3 vegetation should be mowed and the clippings removed as necessary to remove sequestered

nutrients and promote dense growth for optimum soil stabilization. Hay or pasture uses can be made

compatible with the objectives of Zone 3.

Zone 3 vegetation should be inspected twice annually, and remedial measures taken as necessary to

maintain vegetation density and remove problem sediment accumulations.

Stable Debris

As Zone 1 reaches 60 years of age, it will begin to produce large stable debris. Large debris, such as

logs, create small dams which trap and hold detritus for processing by aquatic insects, thus adding

energy to the stream ecosystem, strengthening the food chain, and improving aquatic habitat.

Wherever possible, stable debris should be conserved.

Where debris dams must be removed, try to retain useful, stable portions which provide detritus

storage.

Deposit removed material a sufficient distance from the stream so that it will not be refloated by high

water.
Section XIV

Planning Considerations

1. Evaluate the type and quantity of potential pollutants that will be derived from the drainage area.

2. Select species adapted to the zones based on soil, site factors, and possible commercial goals such as

timber and forage.

3. Plan to establish trees early in the dormant season for maximum viability.

4. Be aware of visual aspects and plan for wildlife habitat improvement if desired.

5. Consider provisions for mowing and removing vegetation from Zone 3. Controlled grazing may

 be satisfactory in Zone 3 when the filter area is dry and firm.

Developed by David Welsch and Thomas Iivari
Section XIV

14 - 2

APPENDIX 2

Natural Resources Conservation Service

Conservation Practice Standard

Riparian Forest Buffer


Section XIV

14 - 3

APPENDIX 3

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service

Maryland Conservation Practice Standard

Riparian Forest Buffer


















Section XIV

14 - 4

APPENDIX 4

Program Contacts in the

Chesapeake Bay Watershed
Section XIV

APPENDIX 4

Program Contacts in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed

STATE FORESTERS

Delaware

E. Austin Short III

Department of Agriculture Forest Service

2320 S. DuPont Highway

Dover, DE 19901-5515

302-739-4811

Forest Stewardship Program, Stewardship Incentive Program, Urban and Community Forestry

Program, Fire Protection Program, Forestry Incentives Program

Maryland

James Mallow

Department of Natural Resources

Forestry, Wildlife & Heritage Service

580 Taylor Avenue, E-1

Annapolis, MD 21401-2397

410-974-3776

Forest Conservation Act, Forest Stewardship Program, Stewardship Incentive Program,

Reforestation Act, Buffer Incentive Program, Woodland Incentive Program, Special Rivers

Project, Tree-mendous Maryland, Urban and Community Forestry Program, Forest

Conservation and Management Program, Reforestation/Timber Stand Improvement Tax

Deduction (TAXMOD) Program

New York

Frank Dunstan

Division of Lands and Forests

50 Wolf Road

Albany, NY 12233-4250

518-457-2475

Forest Stewardship Program, Stewardship Incentive Program, Forestry Incentives Program,

Urban and Community Forestry Program

Pennsylvania

James Grace

Bureau of Forestry

PO Box 8552

400 Market Street

Harrisburg, PA 17105-8552

717-787-2703

Forest Stewardship Program, Stewardship Incentive Program, Forestry Incentives Program,

Urban and Community Forestry Program
Section XIV

Virginia

James W. Garner

VA Department of Forestry

PO Box 3758

Charlottesville, VA 22903

804-977-6555

Agricultural BMP Cost-share Program, Use/Value Taxation, Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act,

Water Quality Law (“Bad Actor” Law), Forest Stewardship Program, Stewardship Incentive

Program, Forestry Incentives Program, Urban and Community Forestry Program

West Virginia

Robert Whipkey

Forestry Division

1900 Kanawha Boulevard East

Charleston, WV 25305-0180

304-558-3446

Logging Sediment Control Act, Forestry Incentives Program, Forest Stewardship Program,

Stewardship Incentive Program

USDA FOREST SERVICE

Albert Todd

Richard Cooksey

410 Severn Avenue, Suite 109

Annapolis, MD 21403

410-267-5705, 5706

Chesapeake Bay Program

Roxane Palone

Karen Sykes

Northeastern Area

180 Canfield Street

Morgantown, WV 26505

304-285-1592

Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act (PL-566), Resource Conservation and Development

Program, Economic Action Programs

Gerard Hertel, Forest Health Programs

Lloyd Casey, Reforestation Tax Incentive, PL-96-451

Northeastern Area

5 Radnor Corporate Center, Suite 200

Radnor, PA 19087-4585

610-975-4124
Section XIV

DELAWARE

Natural Resources Conservation Service

1203 College Park Drive

Suite A

Dover, DE 19901-8713

302-678-4160

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act

Farm Service Agency

1201 College Park Drive

Suite 101

Dover, DE 19904

302-678-2547

MARYLAND

Farm Service Agency

8335 E. Guilford Road

Columbia, MD 21046

410-381-4550

Natural Resources Conservation Service

339 Busch’s Frontage Road, Suite 301

Annapolis, MD 21401

410-757-0861

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act

Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Commission

45 Calvert Street, 2nd floor

Annapolis, MD 21401

410-974-2426

Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Act

Maryland Department of the Environment

Tawes State Office Building, B-3

580 Taylor Avenue

Annapolis, MD 21401

410-974-3265

Nontidal Wetlands Act
Section XIV

MARYLAND (Cont.)

Chief Planner

Maryland Office of Planning

Comprehensive Planning

301 W. Preston Street

Baltimore, MD 21201-2365

410-767-4562

Economic Growth, Resource, Protection and Planning Act

University of Maryland

Cooperative Extension Service

Wye Research and Education Center

PO Box 169

Queenstown, MD 21658

410-827-8056

Maryland Department of Assessments and Taxation

Real Property Division

300 West Preston Street, Room 511

Baltimore, MD 21201

410-767-1199

Agricultural Use Assessment

NEW YORK

Farm Service Agency

441 S. Salina Street

Suite 356

Syracuse, NY 13202

315-477-6303

Natural Resources Conservation Service

The Galleries of Syracuse

441 S. Salina Street

Suite 354

Syracuse, NY 13202-2450

315-477-6504

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act
Section XIV

PENNSYLVANIA

Natural Resources Conservation Service

Suite 340

One Credit Union Place

Harrisburg, PA 17110-2993

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act

Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission

450 Robinson Lane

Bellefonte, PA 16823-9616

814-359-5100

Adopt-a-Stream Program

Pennsylvania Game Commission

Bureau of Land Management

2001 Elmerton Avenue

Harrisburg, PA 17110-9797

Streambank Fencing Program

Farm Service Agency

One Credit Union Place, Suite 320

Harrisburg, PA 17110

717-782-4457

Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture

Bureau of Farmland Protection

2301 N. Cameron Street

Harrisburg, PA 17110-9408

Farmland and Forest Land Assessment Act (“Clean and Green”)

Pennsylvania Office of Water Management

Bureau of Watershed Conservation

PO Box 8555

Harrisburg, PA 17105-8555

717-787-5267

Stormwater Management Act (Act 167 of 1968);Federal Clean Water Act (PL-92-500), Federal Coastal

Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL-92-583), Section 319 Non point source pollution prevention program,

PA Chesapeake Bay Program; Bay Financial Assistance Funding Program

Pennsylvania Office of Water Management

Bureau of Water Quality Protection

PO Box 8465

Harrisburg, PA 17105-8465

717-787-2666

Clean Streams Law, Federal Clean Water Act, Pennsylvania Sewage Facilities Act, Dam Safety and

Encroachments Act, Conservation District Law
Section XIV

VIRGINIA

USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service

1606 Santa Rosa Road

Richmond, VA 23229-5014

804-287-1691

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act

Farm Service Agency

1606 Santa Rosa Road

Culpepper Building, Suite 138

Richmond, VA 23229

804-287-1522

WEST VIRGINIA

Natural Resources Conservation Service

75 High Street, Room 301

Morgantown, WV 26505

304-291-4152

Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Reserve Program, Forestry Incentives

Program, Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, Farmland Protection

Program, Swampbuster, Conservation Farm Option, Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act

Farm Service Agency

75 High Street, Room 239

PO Box 1049

Morgantown, WV 26505

304-253-2510
Section XIV

14 - 5

APPENDIX 5

Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Act Forest Conservation Act Nontidal WType Regulatory, State (MD) Regulatory, State (MD) Regulatory, Purpose Controls development within 1,000 feet of tidal waters.

100-foot mandatory buffer required for all tidal waters,tidal wetlands, and tributary streams in Critical Area.Exemptions for agricultural/silvicultural land.

Protects forest cover from development by limitingforest clearing. Requiring replanting where needed."Priority areas" for retainment/replanting include50-foot buffer areas streams.

Mandatory 2required arothan 5,000 sforested/natwhere wetlastream.

RFB Emphasis Yes No NoProt. Level Indefinite Indefinite Duration of Admin. Agency Critical Area Commission, MD DNR Local counties and municipalities with planning

and zoning authority and MD DNR - ForestService.

MD DepartmResources A

Participation Mandatory Mandatory MandatoryEnforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate to Barriers Inconsistent implementation and interpretation by local

jurisdictions.Does not enjoy universal acceptance at the local level.

Requires more preconstruction planning.Inconsistent implementation at the local level.Needs to be streamlined to better recognize localdevelopment regulations and standard forestmanagement practices.

Spotty enforpersonnel.

$ Level/Source Varies by local county Varies by local county. DNR-Forest Service

General Fund @ $80,000/yr

Water ResouFund

Benefits Protects the riparian forests on the 60 Timber Harvest

Plans submitted to local Forest Conservancy DistrictBoards annually.Protects riparian forests by restricting development in the1000' Critical Area.Creates zoning with limits on lot size, etc.Requires an approved Timber Harvest plan for allharvests within the Critical Area.The first 50' from mean high tide is a no cut buffer; thenext 50' may be thinned selectively or clear-cut in thecases of Loblolly pine and yellow-poplar if a BufferManagement Plan is prepared by a licensed forester aspart of the Timber Harvest Plan.

Conserves the forestland base.Prioritizes forest mitigation by encouraging riparianbuffer planting.Riparian forests are considered high priority areasfor forest retention.Provides long-term protection and management ofriparian forest buffers as part of the tract.

Allows for mthrough the Conserves rwetland valu
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Economic Growth, Resource Protection, and Planning

Act

Reforestation Act Chesapeake Bay 

Type Regulatory, State (MD) Regulatory, State (MD) Regulatory, State Purpose Encourages riparian protection as part of each county's

requirement to develop "sensitive areas element" incomprehensive plans.

Minimizes forest loss, replaces unavoidable lossesfrom highway construction projects. Highest priorityon forests near/adjacent to streams.

Establishes "presbetween 50% - 6Stream areas, wefoot buffer arounfor agricultural lcutting.

RFB Emphasis No No Yes, where there Prot. Level Indefinite Indefinite IndefiniteAdmin. Agency Local counties and municipalities that have planning

and zoning authority with approval of Maryland Officeof Planning.

MD DNR-Forest Service Chesapeake Bay 

working with locordinances.

Participation Mandatory Mandatory MandatoryEnforcement Adequate Adequate Inadequate local Barriers Inconsistent implementation at the local level.

Needs to be streamlined to better recognize localdevelopment regulations and standard forestmanagement practices.Insufficient support resources at the local level ($ &people).

Requires more preconstruction planning.Differences between forest values and riparian buffervalues is not distinguished.

Public perception and a form of a “

$ Level/Source Varies by local county. MD DNR-Forest Service General Funds @

$30,000/yr.

State General Fumillion made avathrough 50/50 mLocal jurisdictiofor plan review.

Benefits Conserves the forestland base by allowing for a

comprehensive review of the forest resource.Prioritizes forest mitigation by encouraging riparianbuffer planting.Riparian forests are considered high priority areas forforest retention.Provides long-term protection and management ofriparian forest buffers as part of the tract.

Mitigated the loss of forestland including riparianareas.Encourages mitigation to occur in riparian areas as apriority.

Improved land uImprovement in conservation plaReduces NPS poconserving ripari
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Dams Safety and Encroachments Act Local Zoning Ordinances Forest Harvest Guidelines WaType Regulatory, State (PA) Regulatory, State (MD, VA, PA) Regulatory, State (MD) RePurpose Regulates development in wetlands,

stream areas by requiring permit fromthe Department of EnvironmentalProtection. Applicants must avoid,minimize, or mitigate impacts. Nospecific buffer requirements.

Forty-two percent of counties inMaryland have regulations requiringstream buffers of 50 to 100 feet ondeveloped land (exclusive of CriticalAreas).All tidewater counties in Virginia haveadopted Chesapeake Bay PreservationAct regulations into local zoningordinances, which extends thedesignation of protection areas to allother areas of the county.Some municipalities in Pennsylvaniahave ordinances which restrict timberharvesting altogether.

Minimum 50-foot forested, selective-cutbuffer required around all perennialstreams. 60% crown cover or 60 squarefeet of basal area per acre must beevenly retained.

 Mcut strecovacreqube 

RFB Emphasis No Yes (MD, VA), No (PA) No NoProt. Level Indefinite Indefinite Duration of regulated activity DuAdmin. Agency Department of Environmental

Protection, Bureau of Land and WaterConservation, and local soil and waterconservation districts.

Local counties Local Soil Conservation Districts, local

counties, and the Maryland Departmentof the Environment.

VA 

Participation Mandatory Mandatory Mandatory MaEnforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate AdBarriers Burdensome paperwork N/A Varying requirements by county.

Inconsistent implementation by county.Burdensome paperwork.

La

$ Level/Source Department of Environmental

Protection, Bureau of Land and WaterConservation, and local soil and waterconservation districts.

Varies by local county Local Soil Conservation Districts, local

counties, and the Maryland Departmentof the Environment. Information notavailable for forest harvesting.

VA 

Benefits Reduced NPS pollution Protect and Maintain riparian forest

buffersConserves forestland base.

Reduce nonpoint source pollution.Protect and maintain stream integrityand bank stability.

Re
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Special Protection Streams Logging Sediment Control ActType Regulatory, State (PA) Regulatory, State (WV)Purpose Mandatory forested buffers required for

commercial logging operations on stateforestlands around streams designated for "specialprotection" by the Bureau of Water QualityManagement (100-foot selective-cut buffer) or asWilderness Trout Streams by the PennsylvaniaFish and Boat Commission (200-foot no-cutbuffer).

To protect and maintain forest water and siteproductivity by minimizing soil erosion fromareas disturbed during timber harvestingoperations.

RFB Emphasis Yes NoProt. Level Indefinite IndefiniteAdmin. Agency Bureau of Water Quality Management or Fish and

Boat Commission

WV Division of Forestry

Participation Mandatory MandatoryEnforcement Adequate AdequateBarriers N/A Takes foresters away from management activities.$ Level/Source Bureau of Water Quality Management or Fish and

Boat Commission

Fees collected

Benefits Reduced NPS pollution.

Maintain water quality for fish habitat.

Reduced erosion and sedimentation.
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Buffer Incentive Program Virginia Agricultural BMP Cost-Share

Program

Virginia Agricultural BMP Cost-SharProgram

Practice N/A Woodland Buffer Filter Area Loafing Lot Management System Type Incentive, State (MD) technical and

financial assistance.

Incentive, State (VA) technical andfinancial assistance

Incentive, State (VA) technical andfinancial assistance.

Purpose One-time payments of $300 per acre for

planting and maintenance of minimum 50-foot forested buffers alongstreams/shorelines.

One-time payments of $100 per acre toestablish minimum 50-foot forested buffersalong streams. Permitted only on crop andpasture land that has recently been inproduction.

Cost-share for rotational grazing systeRequires a minimum 25-foot fenced baround streams.

RFB Emphasis Yes Yes No Prot. Level 10 year practice lifespan 10 year practice lifespan 10 year practice lifespan Admin. Agency MD DNR-Forest Service VA Department of Conservation and

Recreation through the soil and waterconservation districts.

VA Department of Conservation andRecreation through the soil and waterconservation districts.

Participation Voluntary, 30 sites/yr, averaging 175 acres. Voluntary, 3 sites/yr for 15 acres. Voluntary, 10 sites/yr @ 75% c/s up t

$7,500 per applicant.

Enforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate Barriers Burdensome paperwork; payment

insufficient for commercial farmowner/operators.

Lack of information and education toimprove public awareness.Perceived risk of practice loss due to floodrisk.

Expensive to install.With the cap, the cost-share is often neven 50% of the total actual cost.

$ Level/Source MD DNR-Forest Service @ 111,000/yr. VA Department of Conservation and

Recreation via Federal Funds through aCBI Grant, average $1.1 million/yr.

VA Department of Conservation andRecreation via Federal Funds through CBI Grant, average $1.1 million/yr.

Benefits Creation and maintenance of RFBs for 10

years.Reduction of NPS pollution.

Creation of riparian forest buffers.Reduction of NPS pollution.Payment can be “piggybacked” onto othercost-share practices.

Stream bank stabilization from livestoImproved herd health.Creation of riparian forest buffers.Reduction of NPS pollution.
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Environmental Quality Incentives

Program

Environmental Quality Incentives Program Environmental Quality Incentives Prog

Practice Permanent Vegetative Cover (SL1) Stream Protection (WP2) Riparian Forest Buffer Establishment (WType Incentive, Federal (MD, VA, PA)

technical and financial assistance.

Incentive, Federal (MD, VA, PA) technicaland financial assistance.

Incentive, Federal (CFSA) technical anfinancial assistance.

Purpose Cost-share for establishing trees, grasses,

shrubs in eroding areas, includingriparian zone.

Cost-share for establishing permanentvegetative cover, which can include trees,along the banks of streams, as well asrelated items such as remote wateringsystems, stream crossings for livestock, andstream fencing.

Provides a number of cost-share practicdesigned to solve soil, water, and relateenvironmental problems in agricultural including small woodlands. Most notabMinimum 95-foot forested Riparian BuStrips.

RFB Emphasis No No Yes Prot. Level 10 year practice lifespan 10 year practice lifespan 10 year practice lifespan Admin. Agency Farm Services Agency Farm Services Agency Farm Services Agency Participation Voluntary, MD 35 farms for 613 acres

 PA 265 farms for 3,165 acres

Voluntary, MD 8 farms for 191 acres/yr

 PA 30 farms for 360 acres/yr VA 4 farms for 81.2 acres/yr

Voluntary 

Enforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate Barriers Insufficient funds.

Burdensome paperwork.

Insufficient funds.Burdensome paperwork.

Buffer requirements perceived as too wInsufficient funding.Burdensome paperwork.

$ Level/Source Community Credit Corporation, funds

vary from year to year.

Community Credit Corporations, fundsvary from year to year.

Community Credit Corporations, funds from year to year.

Benefits Reduce nonpoint source pollution. Reduce nonpoint source pollution.

Establish and protect riparian forest buffers.

Reduce nonpoint source pollution.Establish and protect riparian forest buf
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Wetlands Reserve Program Woodland Incentive Program Virginia Agricultural BMP Cost-Share

Program

Practice N/A N/A Woodland Erosion Stabilization Type Incentive, Federal (CFSA) technical and

financial assistance.

Incentive, State (MD) technical andfinancial assistance.

Incentive, State (VA) technical andfinancial assistance.

Purpose Allows farmers to sell permanent or 30

year easements to U.S.D.A. Cost-share torestore altered wetlands to naturalcondition. Eligible land includes priorconverted cropland, farmed wetlands,riparian areas along streams or watercourses that link protected wetlands.

Cost-share provided to non-industrialprivate woodland owners for tree planting,including riparian forest buffer establishment.

Cost-share to establish permanentvegetation on eroding areas on forestharvesting sites.

RFB Emphasis Yes No No Prot. Level Indefinite 15 year practice lifespan 5 year practice lifespan Admin. Agency Natural Resources Conservation Service MD DNR-Forest Service Department of Conservation & Recreat

through the local soil and waterconservation districts.

Participation Voluntary Voluntary (Tree planting not distinguished

from buffer planting.)

Voluntary, 20-30 sites/yr for 65-80 acre

Enforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate Barriers Long term nature of agreement

Insufficient funds, not available in allstatesBurdensome paperwork

Cost-share payment 15% less than otheravailable programs.

Some sites no longer eligible because thare now captured by the “Bad Actor” LPublic Awareness

$ Level/Source Natural Resources Conservation Service,

varies year to year.

MD DNR-Forest Service @ $60,000/yrGeneral Funds.

VA Department of Conservation andRecreation via Federal Funds through aCBI Grant, average $1.1 million/yr.

Benefits Protects wetlands and riparian forests. Establishment and maintenance of riparian

forest buffers.

Reduce nonpoint source pollution.Improved wildlife habitat.
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Forestry Incentives Program Stewardship Incentive Program Special Rivers Project Type Incentive, Federal (CFSA) technical and

financial assistance.

Incentive, Federal (USFS/CFSA) technicaland financial assistance.

Incentive, Federal (EPA, Bay Program)technical assistance.

Purpose Cost-share for tree planting, including in

forested wetlands and riparian areas onprivate, non-industrial forestland.

Cost-sharing for tree planting, streamfencing, riparian and wetland improvement,tree shelters, and fisheries habitatimprovement on non-industrial privateforestland.

Fosters forest stewardship and bestmanagement practices in both rural andurban watersheds to improve water quaLimited to the Susquehanna, Monocacyand Anacostia river basins.

RFB Emphasis No Yes, for SIP 6 No Prot. Level 10 year practice lifespan 10 year practice lifespan N/A Admin. Agency Farm Services Agency and the State

Forestry Agencies.

US Forest Service and Farm ServicesAgency through the State forestry agencies.

Environmental Protection Agency throuthe Maryland Department of theEnvironment and the DNR- Forest Serv

Participation Voluntary, MD 60 sites/yr for 2,300 acres Voluntary SIP 6:

MD 3.5 applications for 25 acres/yrVA 4.0 applications for 20 acres/yrPA 3.0 applications for 16.6 acres/yr

Voluntary 

Enforcement Adequate Adequate N/A Barriers Insufficient funding.

Lack of stable fund source.10 acre minimum requirement.

Insufficient funding.Lack of stable fund source.Burdensome paperwork.

Insufficient funding via a CBI Grant.Limited personnel due to high turnover

$ Level/Source Consolidated Farm Services Agency, MD

FY94 $126,000FY95 $ 63,000.

SIP 6 MD average $6,000/yr. Environmental Protection Agency throu

the Maryland Department of theEnvironment and the DNR- Forest Serv@ $190,000/yr.

Benefits Establishment and maintenance of

riparian forest buffers.Vigorous growth promoting increasednutrient uptake and an increase of buffereffectiveness.

Riparian forest buffer and wetlandestablishment.Reduce nonpoint source pollution.Protect and maintain stream integrity andbank stability.

Sustainable multiple use management.BMPs used during forest harvesting.Riparian forest buffer and wetlandestablishment.Reduce nonpoint source pollution.Protect and maintain stream integrity anbank stability.
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Forest Conservation and Management

Program

Reforestation/Timber Stand ImprovementTax Deduction (TAXMOD) Program

Agricultural Use Assessment 

Type Incentive, State (MD) Incentive, State (MD) Incentive, State (MD) Purpose Special tax assessments on forestland, if

the landowner agrees to adhere to a foreststewardship plan.

Allows landowners of small forestryoperations to deduct double the costsassociated with reforestation activities,including those in the riparian zone.

Preferential assessment on value of landused for agriculture. Woodlots can alsoreceive an agricultural assessment. Nospecific requirements for riparian areas

RFB Emphasis No No No Prot. Level 15 year agreement. 15 year maintenance requirement. 3 years with compliance checks and

verification.

Admin. Agency DNR-Forest Service and Department of

Assessment and Taxation

DNR-Forest Service and Office ofTreasurer

Department of Assessment and Taxatio

Participation Voluntary, 60 sites/yr for 1,500 acres Voluntary Voluntary Enforcement Adequate Adequate Adequate Barriers Fees and penalties.

Short-term ownership trend.Burdensome paperwork.

Lack of public awareness.Burdensome paperwork.

Lack of public awareness.Little or no demand in rural areas wheragricultural use assessment is common.

$ Level/Source Program funded by participants. N/A N/A Benefits Protects forestland base.

Reduced carrying costs for participants.Sustainable multiple use management.BMPs used during forest harvesting.Establishment and maintenance ofriparian forest buffers recommended.

More tree planting and riparian forestbuffer establishment.Reduced carrying costs.

Protects forestland base.Reduced carrying costs for participantsSustainable multiple use management.BMPs used during forest harvesting.Establishment and maintenance of riparforest buffers recommended.
Bay Area Riparian Forest Buffer-Related Programs

Program Farmland and Forestland Assessment Act

("Clean and Green Act")

Public Law 96-451

Type Incentive, State (PA) Incentive, Federal (IRS)Purpose County can grant a preferential

assessment for ten or more contiguousacres of land devoted to agricultural,forest reserve, or open space purposes.Can apply to land in the riparian zone,although no specific requirements inriparian areas.

Federal tax incentives to reducereforestation costs. Can includereforestation efforts in riparian areas.

RFB Emphasis No NoProt. Level 10 year agreement N/AAdmin. Agency Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture

through local jurisdictions.

Internal Revenue Service

Participation Voluntary VoluntaryEnforcement Adequate AdequateBarriers Perception of loss of property rights.

Penalties for non-compliance.

Lack of public awareness.Burdensome paperwork.

$ Level/Source N/A N/ABenefits Conservation of Open Space.

Protects forest and agriculture land base.Reduces carrying costs.

More tree planting and riparian forestbuffer establishment.Reduced carrying costs.
Section XIV

14 - 6

APPENDIX 6

Excerpts from the

Chesapeake Bay Riparian Forest Buffer

Inventory
Section XIV

APPENDIX 6

Excerpts from the Chesapeake Bay Riparian Forest Buffer Inventory

Introduction

This Geographical Information System (GIS) assessment and analysis was conducted by The

Pennsylvania State University, Land Analysis Laboratory, Department of Agronomy, College of

Agricultural Sciences, with Dr. Rick L. Day as the principal investigator. 

The purpose of the project was to evaluate the extent, location, and condition of forest cover next to

the streams, rivers, and shorelines throughout the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. The Chesapeake Bay

drainage encompasses 64,000 square miles and has over 110,000 miles of waterways. Using a GIS

approach, the purpose was to provide information that would be useful to resource managers, policy

decision-makers, and scientists. The completed inventory produced the following benefits:

æ A determination of the extent and location of riparian for the entire Chesapeake Bay Watershed –

each state within the basin and each subwatershed.

æ A riparian forestland cover GIS layer that is compatible for each state and the Bay Program.

æ A useful tool for resource managers to target forest buffer and habitat restoration projects.

æ A foundation or baseline of information useful for future monitoring and more detailed surveys.

The products produced as a result of the project include:

æ A GIS land use/land cover data layer of riparian forests for the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, with

separate a file for each state and subwatershed in ARC/INFO format.

æ Statistical summaries of stream miles and percentage of riparian forest within 100 feet and 300 feet

of each stream in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed, and of land use for each subwatershed, state,

and the entire Bay basin.

æ Map sets of the percentage of riparian forest cover for each subwatershed.

æ A detailed accuracy assessment using aerial photography and field verification.

How Do You Use the Inventory?

The results of the inventory indicate that approximately 59.8 percent of the streams, rivers, and

shorelines in the Bay watershed have at least 100 feet of forest buffer on one side. That leaves about

40 percent of the basin with less than 100 feet of forest buffer, or none at all, on both sides. The

accuracy assessment confirmed the validity of the inventory methodology with an average absolute

error of only 5 to 8 percent. However, predicting forest buffers between 100 feet and 300 feet was

most difficult and saw as much as 18 percent error.
Section XIV

Reviewing the enclosed tables along with subwatershed maps is the most effective way to gain

perspective from the inventory. Also, looking at a state or subwatershed in isolation is probably better

than making general assumptions for the Bay in total. Because the data for streams are not consistent

for each state across the Bay watershed, comparison of watersheds within a state will yield the best

results. This is consistent with the goal of this project to provide information useful to the states in the

Bay watershed and from which management and policy decisions can be made.

Table 2 summarizes the extent of riparian forest buffers for each state within the Bay watershed. 

Table 3 summarizes the condition for the 54 8-digit hydrologic units for the Chesapeake Bay

Watershed. It divides the watershed into major river drainages. The table offers information on total

stream miles and forest buffer cover for 100 feet and 300 feet on one side and both sides in stream

miles and percentage of forest buffer. Table 5 summarizes riparian forest buffer statistics for each 11-

digit subwatershed in Maryland. Table 7 summarizes riparian forest buffer statistics for each 11-digit

subwatershed in Pennsylvania. Table 9 summarizes riparian forest buffer statistics for each 11-digit

subwatershed in Virginia. 


Table 2. Riparian forest buffer statistics for each state in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

State Stream length Both sides 300' + Both sides 100' - 300' One side 300' + One side 100' - 300' 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % 

Deleware 1091 1.0 326 29.8 572 52.4 558 51.2 638 58.5 

Maryland1 16756 14.9 4487 26.8 8032 47.9 7658 45.7 9050 54.0 

New York2 8015 7.1 2006 25.0 3744 46.7 3699 46.2 4353 54.3 

Pennsylvania 47585 42.2 17720 37.2 26938 56.6 26750 56.2 30450 64.0 

Virginia3 34381 30.5 11971 34.8 17857 51.9 18216 53.0 20065 58.4 

West Virginia 4956 4.4 1840 37.1 2582 52.1 2671 53.9 2913 58.8 

Chesapeake Bay Total 112784 100.0 38350 34.0 59726 53.0 59553 52.8 67470 59.8 

NOTES: 1. Does not include the District of Columbia

2. 1:100,000 scale streams only. Does not include intermittant streams.3. Mixed 1:100,000 and 1:24,000 scale streams. Not all areas include intermittant streams.





  

  

  

 








Table 3. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 8-digit hydrologic units in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Watershed HUC code Stream length Both sides 300' + Both sides 100' - 300' One side 300' + One sid

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

UPPER SUSQUEHANNA 2050101 3399 2.96 801 23.6 1573 46.3 1554 45.7 185CHENANGO 2050102 2226 1.94 662 29.7 1115 50.1 1102 49.5 127OWEGO-WAPPASENING 2050103 1786 1.56 426 23.9 782 43.8 773 43.3 90TIOGA 2050104 1824 1.59 487 26.7 942 51.7 928 50.9 110CHEMUNG 2050105 1500 1.31 314 20.9 660 44.0 655 43.7 77UPPER SUSQUEHANNA-TUNKHANNOCK 2050106 4498 3.92 1176 26.1 2243 49.9 2235 49.7 262UPPER SUSQUEHANNA-LACKAWANNA 2050107 3478 3.03 1349 38.8 2136 61.4 2117 60.9 239UPPER WEST BRANCH SUSQUEHANNA 2050201 3379 2.94 2068 61.2 2598 76.9 2737 81.0 282SINNEMAHONING 2050202 2183 1.90 1466 67.1 1707 78.2 1733 79.4 180MIDDLE WEST BRANCH SUSQUEHANNA 2050203 1428 1.24 995 69.7 1129 79.1 1151 80.6 118BALD EAGLE 2050204 1480 1.29 643 43.5 875 59.1 888 60.0 97PINE 2050205 1893 1.65 1062 56.1 1324 70.0 1366 72.1 143LOWER WEST BRANCH SUSQUEHANNA 2050206 3994 3.48 1627 40.7 2346 58.7 2349 58.8 260LOWER SUSQUEHANNA-PENNS 2050301 3459 3.01 746 21.6 1417 41.0 1357 39.2 172UPPER JUNIATA 2050302 1942 1.69 849 43.7 1220 62.8 1229 63.3 136RAYSTOWN 2050303 2465 2.15 939 38.1 1383 56.1 1419 57.6 157LOWER JUNIATA 2050304 2962 2.58 1067 36.0 1617 54.6 1606 54.2 184LOWER SUSQUEHANNA-SWATARA 2050305 3834 3.34 911 23.8 1735 45.3 1621 42.3 206LOWER SUSQUEHANNA 2050306 5063 4.41 946 18.7 2119 41.8 1934 38.2 251UPPER CHESAPEAKE BAY 2060001 263 0.23 2 0.8 9 3.5 9 3.3 1CHESTER-SASSAFRAS 2060002 1981 1.73 347 17.5 845 42.7 749 37.8 97GUNPOWDER-PATAPSCO 2060003 2162 1.88 629 29.1 1185 54.8 1140 52.7 134SEVERN 2060004 702 0.61 197 28.1 312 44.5 308 43.8 34CHOPTANK 2060005 1739 1.51 212 12.2 518 29.8 460 26.5 60PATUXENT 2060006 1770 1.54 678 38.3 1124 63.5 1079 60.9 123BLACKWATER-WICOMICO 2060007 1031 0.90 71 6.9 187 18.2 169 16.4 22NANTICOKE 2060008 1451 1.26 349 24.1 658 45.3 637 43.9 73POCOMOKE 2060009 1172 1.02 277 23.7 447 38.1 448 38.2 49SOUTH BRANCH POTOMAC 2070001 2033 1.77 788 38.7 1003 49.3 1045 51.4 111NORTH BRANCH POTOMAC 2070002 2476 2.16 1080 43.6 1483 59.9 1530 61.8 163CACAPON-TOWN 2070003 1984 1.73 982 49.5 1353 68.2 1392 70.2 149CONOCOCHEAGUE-OPEQUON 2070004 4038 3.52 1238 30.7 2031 50.3 1971 48.8 232
Table 3. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 8-digit hydrologic units in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Watershed HUC code Stream length Both sides 300' Both sides 100' One side 300' One 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH 2070005 1666 1.45 479 28.8 658 39.5 649 38.9 75NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH 2070006 1135 0.99 381 33.5 516 45.5 520 45.9 57SHENANDOAH 2070007 449 0.39 72 16.1 131 29.2 138 30.7 16MIDDLE POTOMAC-CATOCTIN 2070008 1826 1.59 386 21.1 866 47.5 804 44.0 102MONOCACY 2070009 2225 1.94 437 19.6 963 43.3 852 38.3 115MIDDLE POTOMAC-ANACOSTIA-OCCOQUAN 2070010 1690 1.47 415 24.6 825 48.8 783 46.3 95LOWER POTOMAC 2070011 2731 2.38 1157 42.4 1618 59.3 1637 59.9 175GREAT WICOMICO-PIANKATANK 2080102 1066 0.93 408 38.2 543 50.9 563 52.8 59RAPIDAN-UPPER RAPPAHANNOCK 2080103 1923 1.68 477 24.8 786 40.9 785 40.8 91LOWER RAPPAHANNOCK 2080104 2102 1.83 851 40.5 1211 57.6 1246 59.3 133MATTAPONI 2080105 1626 1.42 892 54.8 1200 73.8 1228 75.5 128PAMUNKEY 2080106 2473 2.15 1000 40.4 1443 58.3 1481 59.9 159YORK 2080107 616 0.54 147 23.9 243 39.5 267 43.2 29LYNNHAVEN-POQUOSON 2080108 1482 1.29 88 5.9 206 13.9 209 14.1 27WESTERN LOWER DELMARVA 2080109 813 0.71 35 4.3 111 13.7 106 13.0 14UPPER JAMES 2080201 3137 2.73 1540 49.1 1951 62.2 1998 63.7 211MAURY 2080202 1051 0.92 403 38.3 576 54.8 584 55.5 63MIDDLE JAMES-BUFFALO 2080203 3357 2.92 1403 41.8 2026 60.3 2092 62.3 225RIVANNA 2080204 1000 0.87 272 27.2 463 46.3 477 47.6 54MIDDLE JAMES-WILLIS 2080205 1525 1.33 536 35.1 857 56.2 883 57.9 97LOWER JAMES 2080206 2819 2.46 795 28.2 1306 46.3 1339 47.5 149APPOMATTOX 2080207 2505 2.18 1115 44.5 1654 66.1 1696 67.7 182




Table 5. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Maryland

ID Watershed Md-ID Stream Length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

1 BROAD CREEK 2120205 62.0 0.33 19.3 26.3 37.8 54.4 36.7 50.7 43.1 7 POCOMOKE SOUND 2130201 150.8 0.80 9.8 31.5 30.2 66.4 29.1 63.9 37.7 8 LOWER POCOMOKE RIVER 2130202 201.8 1.07 69.3 42.5 126.2 61.0 127.9 62.5 138.8 9 UPPER POCOMOKE RIVER 2130203 125.8 0.67 56.7 31.2 72.8 61.0 72.8 59.3 75.5 

10 DIVIDING CREEK 2130204 57.4 0.30 40.9 26.4 49.9 35.4 50.2 37.2 51.3 11 NASSAWANGO CREEK 2130205 60.2 0.32 34.9 6.5 44.4 20.0 44.3 19.3 46.2 12 TANGIER SOUND 2130206 215.1 1.14 0.5 34.4 2.8 62.5 2.6 63.4 4.2 13 BIG ANNEMESSEX RIVER 2130207 115.7 0.61 6.0 45.0 17.4 57.8 17.9 57.9 22.3 14 MANOKIN RIVER 2130208 204.4 1.08 23.9 71.2 50.0 86.9 48.4 87.4 59.1 15 LOWER WICOMICO RIVER 2130301 206.9 1.10 15.1 57.9 47.9 73.8 41.3 73.7 55.8 16 MONIE BAY 2130302 73.2 0.39 3.3 0.2 6.0 1.3 5.9 1.2 6.8 17 WICOMICO CREEK 2130303 44.4 0.24 6.1 5.2 14.3 15.0 12.6 15.5 16.7 18 WICOMICO RIVER HEAD 2130304 62.6 0.33 14.3 11.7 32.2 24.5 29.5 23.7 36.1 19 NANTICOKE RIVER 2130305 404.4 2.14 50.6 7.3 101.0 23.2 97.2 19.9 117.4 20 MARSHYHOPE CREEK 2130306 291.7 1.55 60.1 4.5 136.3 8.2 128.3 8.1 154.8 21 FISHING BAY 2130307 499.1 2.64 10.9 13.8 28.6 32.3 26.0 28.3 37.0 22 TRANSQUAKING RIVER 2130308 246.6 1.31 22.1 22.9 58.7 51.4 54.3 47.2 72.9 23 HONGA RIVER 2130401 212.2 1.12 6.1 12.5 8.8 25.0 9.7 24.0 11.3 24 LITTLE CHOPTANK 2130402 222.7 1.18 4.8 20.6 11.0 46.7 12.3 44.0 14.6 25 LOWER CHOPTANK 2130403 603.0 3.20 15.6 2.2 78.3 5.7 63.7 5.2 101.9 26 UPPER CHOPTANK 2130404 539.7 2.86 100.9 9.0 245.8 23.8 217.8 22.0 278.7 27 TUCKAHOE CREEK 2130405 352.1 1.87 51.3 2.9 124.6 4.2 105.5 4.6 147.5 28 EASTERN BAY 2130501 104.8 0.56 0.7 2.1 3.9 5.0 3.6 5.5 5.7 29 MILES RIVER 2130502 133.6 0.71 5.2 2.6 18.3 13.0 15.2 10.6 23.8 30 WYE RIVER 2130503 175.2 0.93 11.5 18.7 44.7 45.5 36.5 40.4 55.2 31 KENT NARROWS 2130504 49.9 0.26 0.1 14.6 2.0 35.4 1.9 30.0 3.2 32 LOWER CHESTER RIVER 2130505 201.0 1.06 9.4 0.7 33.7 3.7 29.7 3.4 41.1 33 LANGFORD CREEK 2130506 93.3 0.49 6.8 3.9 25.4 13.7 20.1 11.4 29.9 34 CORSICA RIVER 2130507 65.4 0.35 9.8 6.6 32.4 25.5 23.5 20.8 36.0 35 SOUTHEAST CREEK 2130508 99.8 0.53 14.1 0.3 50.7 3.9 40.2 3.8 58.0 36 MIDDLE CHESTER RIVER 2130509 88.6 0.47 7.9 4.7 31.5 16.8 25.6 14.8 36.1 37 UPPER CHESTER RIVER 2130510 219.9 1.17 42.2 7.3 108.8 27.2 94.3 21.6 124.2 

    



    

    
Table 5. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Maryland

ID Watershed Md-ID Stream Length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

38 KENT ISLAND BAY 2130511 34.1 0.18 0.5 15.1 2.6 49.5 1.8 36.0 3.2 39 LOWER ELK RIVER 2130601 95.5 0.51 24.6 14.1 41.2 50.8 41.2 40.3 46.4 40 BOHEMIA RIVER 2130602 76.4 0.41 11.8 8.9 35.3 35.6 33.2 29.0 42.6 41 UPPER ELK RIVER 2130603 81.7 0.43 33.2 19.2 48.5 49.5 50.4 42.9 52.8 42 BACK CREEK 2130604 29.4 0.16 5.4 1.5 12.7 7.5 11.9 5.4 14.5 43 LITTLE ELK CREEK 2130605 39.5 0.21 12.9 25.7 27.4 43.2 25.2 43.2 30.8 44 BIG ELK CREEK 2130606 26.2 0.14 13.4 15.5 21.2 46.2 20.9 43.4 22.9 45 CHRISTIANA RIVER 2130607 1.0 0.01 0.2 40.7 0.5 59.4 0.5 61.7 0.6 46 NORTHEAST RIVER 2130608 116.3 0.62 46.0 18.3 74.5 43.2 72.7 40.3 80.7 47 FURNACE BAY 2130609 41.8 0.22 11.9 32.5 24.3 69.2 22.3 63.7 27.8 48 SASSAFRAS RIVER 2130610 143.8 0.76 16.2 51.1 51.3 80.7 44.7 79.7 62.9 49 STILLPOND-FAIRLEE 2130611 110.6 0.59 11.1 20.7 39.1 53.8 34.6 53.4 46.2 50 BUSH RIVER 2130701 49.4 0.26 18.6 39.6 31.2 64.1 29.5 62.5 34.4 51 LOWER WINTERS RUN 2130702 21.9 0.12 6.3 28.4 13.3 58.1 12.8 53.4 15.4 52 ATKISSON RESERVOIR 2130703 56.4 0.30 19.7 11.3 38.3 35.7 36.9 31.1 42.9 53 BYNUM RUN 2130704 25.4 0.13 8.7 10.0 16.5 35.3 15.6 31.3 18.4 54 ABERDEEN PROVING GROUND 2130705 39.5 0.21 12.3 37.6 17.8 63.2 17.6 59.8 19.0 55 SWAN CREEK 2130706 36.1 0.19 13.4 28.7 25.3 60.9 24.1 58.4 27.5 56 GUNPOWDER RIVER 2130801 67.3 0.36 2.6 34.9 9.3 68.0 10.4 65.5 12.2 57 LOWER GUNPOWDER FALLS 2130802 49.1 0.26 15.9 34.2 26.3 65.1 26.2 61.4 29.8 58 BIRD RIVER 2130803 35.3 0.19 3.4 31.1 11.4 45.0 11.0 44.5 13.5 59 LITTLE GUNPOWDER FALLS 2130804 78.9 0.42 32.5 37.2 56.5 70.0 53.8 66.7 62.0 60 LOCH RAVEN RESERVOIR 2130805 426.4 2.26 174.4 3.9 288.4 13.8 278.5 15.5 318.1 61 PRETTYBOY RESERVOIR 2130806 136.4 0.72 36.0 32.5 74.3 53.5 75.0 53.4 86.3 62 MIDDLE RIVER BROWNS 2130807 35.2 0.19 0.2 9.8 1.6 32.4 2.0 31.1 2.4 63 BACK RIVER 2130901 89.2 0.47 3.2 41.2 14.1 71.6 11.7 68.2 18.8 64 BODKIN CREEK 2130902 25.9 0.14 1.6 40.9 5.1 67.7 5.3 65.3 5.9 65 BALTIMORE HARBOR 2130903 163.2 0.87 2.1 26.4 11.9 54.4 10.5 55.0 15.2 66 JONES FALLS 2130904 93.2 0.49 21.2 0.5 44.8 4.5 40.8 5.7 52.0 67 GWYNNS FALLS 2130905 109.0 0.58 18.0 3.6 44.0 15.8 40.3 13.1 54.0 68 PATAPSCO RIVER - L.N. BR. 2130906 220.7 1.17 76.1 6.2 126.7 19.5 125.0 20.5 142.1 69 LIBERTY RESERVOIR 2130907 350.3 1.86 110.9 1.3 222.7 7.3 215.3 6.4 250.1 

    



    

    
Table 5. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Maryland

ID Watershed Md-ID Stream Length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

70 PATAPSCO RIVER - S. BR. 2130908 203.6 1.08 55.5 22.7 120.1 48.1 113.8 43.8 138.3 71 MAGOTHY RIVER 2131001 85.7 0.45 5.3 16.5 18.2 40.4 16.7 37.0 21.8 72 SEVERN RIVER 2131002 173.5 0.92 32.2 34.5 62.7 57.4 60.3 56.7 71.2 73 SOUTH RIVER 2131003 131.5 0.70 43.5 31.7 61.8 63.6 60.3 61.5 65.0 74 WEST RIVER 2131004 80.7 0.43 13.7 27.3 27.4 59.0 26.2 55.9 31.1 75 WEST CHESAPEAKE BAY 2131005 220.5 1.17 86.5 6.1 118.1 21.3 120.7 19.5 127.8 76 PATUXENT RIVER - FERRY LDG. TO MOUT

H 2131101 763.3 4.04 285.9 18.6 430.0 36.1 425.8 34.7 461.0 

77 PATUXENT RIVER - RT. 214 TO FERRY LD

G 2131102 234.6 1.24 78.9 33.1 152.6 47.0 145.1 45.8 170.1 

78 WESTERN BRANCH 2131103 110.1 0.58 37.2 17.0 66.7 33.9 64.2 32.5 74.6 79 PATUXENT RIVER - UPPER 2131104 161.9 0.86 84.6 39.2 123.5 53.6 119.7 54.7 132.3 80 LITTLE PATUXENT RIVER 2131105 186.2 0.99 54.4 37.5 106.0 56.3 95.7 55.8 120.9 81 PATUXENT RIVER - MIDDLE 2131106 111.8 0.59 45.1 33.6 80.0 65.1 74.4 61.8 89.2 82 ROCKY GORGE DAM 2131107 121.6 0.64 51.7 33.8 85.3 60.6 85.0 58.3 93.1 83 BRIGHTON DAM 2131108 177.8 0.94 59.1 52.3 112.3 76.3 102.8 74.0 126.1 84 POTOMAC RIVER - L. TIDAL 2140101 256.3 1.36 39.6 29.2 64.6 57.0 64.9 51.4 75.1 85 POTOMAC RIVER 2140102 71.7 0.38 27.3 40.3 34.8 71.5 37.3 66.5 38.6 86 'ST. MARY''S RIVER' 2140103 174.4 0.92 67.7 42.6 94.7 70.1 95.0 69.9 100.7 87 BRETON BAY 2140104 80.5 0.43 33.0 33.3 46.5 63.2 46.4 57.8 49.4 88 ST. CLEMENT BAY 2140105 81.3 0.43 27.9 15.5 41.4 25.2 40.2 25.3 43.9 89 WICOMICO RIVER 2140106 187.9 1.00 64.8 38.1 98.5 48.6 96.3 52.0 105.5 90 GILBERT SWAMP 2140107 101.0 0.54 52.8 38.8 76.7 54.3 75.6 54.5 81.7 91 ZEKIAH SWAMP 2140108 241.8 1.28 154.4 41.0 202.3 57.7 198.7 57.7 210.8 92 PORT TOBACCO RIVER 2140109 89.8 0.48 40.7 34.3 58.8 50.9 58.7 49.5 63.2 93 NANJEMOY CREEK 2140110 138.4 0.73 73.6 34.5 91.0 52.4 92.5 51.3 95.8 94 MATTAWOMAN CREEK 2140111 158.6 0.84 82.7 52.3 114.0 76.0 115.5 74.8 122.8 95 POTOMAC RIVER - U. TIDAL 2140201 36.9 0.20 10.4 63.8 19.3 83.7 18.0 82.2 22.8 96 POTOMAC RIVER - MO CTY. 2140202 198.4 1.05 50.0 45.4 110.9 65.5 112.7 65.4 132.2 97 PISCATAWAY CREEK 2140203 70.1 0.37 29.7 53.2 53.0 65.8 49.9 66.9 57.6 98 OXEN CREEK DR. 2140204 9.8 0.05 0.9 52.2 4.1 71.9 3.2 72.9 4.7 99 ANACOSTIA RIVER 2140205 166.2 0.88 39.4 28.1 78.9 52.2 71.7 48.9 91.6 

100 ROCK CREEK 2140206 52.5 0.28 18.3 25.2 37.0 55.9 32.4 56.8 40.2 101 CABIN JOHN CREEK 2140207 20.9 0.11 6.8 42.4 13.5 75.6 11.3 71.2 14.9 

    



    

    
Table 5. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Maryland

ID Watershed Md-ID Stream Length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles 

102 SENECA CREEK 2140208 195.7 1.04 60.1 9.3 124.7 41.5 112.4 32.6 139.6 103 POTOMAC RIVER 2140301 119.3 0.63 7.7 23.7 34.2 47.5 32.8 43.2 45.5 104 LOWER MONOCACY RIVER 2140302 743.0 3.94 151.5 34.8 327.2 70.4 301.3 61.7 389.0 105 UPPER MONOCACY RIVER 2140303 518.7 2.75 118.3 32.6 220.6 64.7 199.3 54.1 263.4 106 DOUBLE PIPE CREEK 2140304 410.2 2.17 47.2 30.7 152.9 63.7 124.2 57.5 190.1 107 CATOCTIN CREEK 2140305 209.5 1.11 35.0 6.5 81.1 28.7 71.9 27.5 98.0 108 POTOMAC RIVER 2140501 194.9 1.03 24.0 20.4 64.2 44.0 68.7 40.6 87.8 109 ANTIETAM CREEK 2140502 230.7 1.22 27.9 22.8 67.6 42.5 58.1 38.4 83.5 110 MARSH RUN 2140503 16.3 0.09 1.0 11.5 2.5 37.3 2.1 30.3 3.3 111 CONOCOCHEAQUE CREEK 2140504 89.4 0.47 2.2 16.7 11.6 38.7 10.4 34.3 16.3 112 LITTLE CONOCOCHEAQUE 2140505 20.4 0.11 4.8 12.3 9.1 33.0 8.6 35.2 10.9 113 LICKING CREEK 2140506 39.8 0.21 25.1 12.1 33.6 29.3 34.5 25.2 35.9 114 TONOLOWAY CREEK 2140507 3.8 0.02 0.8 5.9 2.7 15.3 2.8 12.8 3.2 115 POTOMAC RIVER - AL CTY. 2140508 123.9 0.66 38.3 2.4 61.4 13.0 71.8 11.6 79.6 116 LITTLE TONOLOWAY CREEK 2140509 23.5 0.12 11.5 23.6 18.7 44.6 19.0 42.3 20.4 117 SIDELING HILL CREEK 2140510 32.7 0.17 23.8 63.1 28.2 84.5 28.4 86.8 29.2 118 FIFTEEN MILE CREEK 2140511 81.4 0.43 66.0 20.5 73.0 70.4 74.2 73.3 75.5 119 TOWN CREEK 2140512 125.5 0.67 58.9 30.9 87.3 49.6 89.9 57.9 96.9 120 POTOMAC RIVER - L.N. BR. 2141001 340.6 1.81 129.8 48.8 187.4 79.8 193.2 81.0 212.3 121 EVITTS CREEK 2141002 73.6 0.39 22.7 72.9 36.2 86.3 38.4 87.0 42.1 122 WILLS CREEK 2141003 107.2 0.57 48.1 81.1 67.7 89.6 70.4 91.1 75.5 123 GEORGES CREEK 2141004 117.9 0.62 61.2 46.9 85.9 69.6 87.1 71.6 92.1 124 POTOMAC RIVER - U.N. BR. 2141005 219.4 1.16 88.5 38.1 126.9 55.0 135.2 56.7 141.7 125 SAVAGE RIVER 2141006 244.3 1.29 111.0 30.8 130.7 49.1 133.1 52.1 135.2 128 DEEP CREEK LAKE 5020203 8.7 0.05 1.1 44.9 2.4 63.1 2.5 65.7 2.6 130 MAIN BAY WATERSHED 2999 140.1 0.74 0.2 51.9 1.4 72.9 2.1 73.9 2.9 131 CONOWINGO DAM 2120204 34.8 0.18 14.8 40.4 21.3 57.8 21.8 61.6 22.7 132 L. SUSQUEHANNA RIVER 2120201 73.3 0.39 19.3 45.4 39.9 53.5 37.2 54.5 43.8 133 DEER CREEK 2120202 266.9 1.41 94.2 12.8 169.7 27.7 163.6 28.3 192.5 134 OCTORARO CREEK 2120203 66.2 0.35 20.8 0.1 44.0 1.0 42.3 1.5 49.7 

   



   

   




Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

1 2050101220 5.6 0.01 0.5 8.3 1.7 30.8 2.2 40.4 2.4 43.1 3.2 56.2 2050101230 4.2 0.01 1.3 31.4 2.6 60.9 2.5 58.8 2.9 69.4 1.3 30.3 2050101250 198.3 0.42 63.9 32.2 107.6 54.2 111.2 56.1 123.4 62.2 74.9 37.4 2050101280 159.2 0.34 46.4 29.1 80.4 50.5 80.5 50.6 91.7 57.6 67.5 42.45 2050101290 140.4 0.30 34.4 24.5 62.8 44.7 64.2 45.7 72.6 51.7 67.7 48.6 2050101320 180.6 0.38 42.4 23.5 89.3 49.4 89.7 49.6 106.2 58.8 74.4 41.7 2050101340 13.2 0.03 2.3 17.4 5.3 40.1 4.9 37.4 6.1 46.1 7.1 53.8 2050101370 6.3 0.01 1.5 23.3 2.3 37.3 2.4 38.2 2.6 41.3 3.7 58.79 2050103050 68.5 0.14 18.8 27.4 35.9 52.4 35.8 52.3 40.9 59.7 27.6 40.

10 2050103090 42.3 0.09 12.4 29.3 22.1 52.1 21.1 49.9 24.7 58.3 17.7 41.711 2050103190 146.8 0.31 32.1 21.9 64.7 44.0 64.4 43.9 75.6 51.5 71.2 48.12 2050103200 2.2 0.00 0.1 3.1 0.4 19.5 0.4 16.1 0.5 23.8 1.7 76.13 2050103210 67.4 0.14 15.0 22.3 31.8 47.2 31.1 46.1 38.0 56.3 29.4 43.714 2050103220 3.6 0.01 0.1 4.0 1.5 41.0 1.2 32.7 1.7 47.9 1.9 52.15 2050104010 117.6 0.25 29.4 25.0 61.6 52.4 57.5 48.9 73.2 62.2 44.4 37.16 2050104020 233.1 0.49 74.8 32.1 132.2 56.7 129.7 55.6 154.4 66.2 78.8 33.16 2050104110 28.2 0.06 8.3 29.6 16.7 59.4 16.2 57.7 19.5 69.2 8.7 30.17 2050104130 380.3 0.80 88.9 23.4 201.6 53.0 194.3 51.1 238.7 62.8 141.6 37.18 2050104170 518.6 1.09 148.1 28.6 247.1 47.7 250.9 48.4 292.5 56.4 226.1 43.19 2050105190 46.1 0.10 2.2 4.8 10.4 22.7 10.6 23.1 14.2 30.8 31.9 69.20 2050105200 40.4 0.09 2.0 5.0 11.7 29.1 9.4 23.2 15.7 38.9 24.7 61.21 2050105230 93.3 0.20 20.6 22.1 45.0 48.3 45.8 49.1 53.1 56.9 40.2 43.22 2050105240 52.3 0.11 6.4 12.3 20.3 38.8 20.5 39.2 25.2 48.2 27.1 51.23 2050105270 73.3 0.15 13.4 18.2 33.1 45.1 32.4 44.2 39.4 53.8 33.9 46.24 2050106010 322.9 0.68 78.2 24.2 170.0 52.7 160.0 49.5 201.3 62.4 121.5 37.25 2050106020 181.5 0.38 104.0 57.3 131.9 72.7 137.5 75.7 142.9 78.7 38.6 21.26 2050106030 450.9 0.95 117.3 26.0 231.7 51.4 224.8 49.9 274.0 60.8 176.9 39.27 2050106040 238.5 0.50 41.6 17.4 101.9 42.7 101.0 42.4 121.9 51.1 116.6 48.28 2050106050 371.4 0.78 61.9 16.7 144.1 38.8 140.8 37.9 176.8 47.6 194.7 52.429 2050106060 156.5 0.33 23.4 14.9 61.7 39.4 60.2 38.5 76.9 49.2 79.6 50.30 2050106070 348.6 0.73 71.9 20.6 152.7 43.8 154.8 44.4 182.2 52.3 166.4 47.731 2050106080 252.3 0.53 49.7 19.7 117.8 46.7 113.6 45.0 136.6 54.2 115.6 45.32 2050106090 245.1 0.52 138.6 56.5 175.3 71.5 180.8 73.8 190.1 77.5 55.1 22.

    



    



    

    
Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

33 2050106100 167.0 0.35 46.2 27.7 93.6 56.0 94.2 56.4 108.0 64.7 59.0 35.34 2050106110 235.8 0.50 66.3 28.1 129.4 54.9 129.8 55.1 150.8 64.0 84.9 36.35 2050106120 611.4 1.29 128.0 20.9 281.6 46.1 284.8 46.6 339.4 55.5 272.0 44.36 2050106130 193.2 0.41 105.4 54.6 142.2 73.6 144.0 74.6 153.5 79.5 39.7 20.37 2050106140 566.0 1.19 111.0 19.6 246.9 43.6 244.8 43.2 298.2 52.7 267.9 47.38 2050107010 755.2 1.59 289.5 38.3 439.2 58.1 446.4 59.1 494.2 65.4 261.0 34.39 2050107020 282.0 0.59 79.0 28.0 139.1 49.3 141.3 50.1 165.5 58.7 116.5 41.40 2050107030 467.0 0.98 213.3 45.7 319.6 68.4 324.1 69.4 355.9 76.2 111.1 23.41 2050107040 302.7 0.64 147.3 48.7 205.7 67.9 206.5 68.2 220.4 72.8 82.3 27.42 2050107050 220.9 0.46 111.6 50.5 163.9 74.2 164.9 74.6 179.3 81.2 41.5 18.43 2050107060 137.6 0.29 48.1 34.9 85.8 62.4 82.1 59.6 95.3 69.3 42.3 30.744 2050107070 414.3 0.87 170.3 41.1 268.9 64.9 265.0 64.0 296.7 71.6 117.6 28.445 2050107080 271.9 0.57 146.2 53.8 203.4 74.8 201.1 73.9 216.2 79.5 55.7 20.46 2050107090 155.4 0.33 49.1 31.6 89.9 57.8 86.2 55.5 102.4 65.9 53.0 34.47 2050107100 418.2 0.88 68.2 16.3 185.8 44.4 164.6 39.4 232.8 55.7 185.4 44.48 2050201010 293.6 0.62 165.1 56.2 227.6 77.5 237.7 81.0 249.0 84.8 44.6 15.49 2050201020 144.6 0.30 109.1 75.4 126.5 87.4 127.6 88.2 131.1 90.6 13.6 9.450 2050201030 612.2 1.29 331.0 54.1 428.1 69.9 447.7 73.1 469.2 76.6 142.9 23.451 2050201040 790.4 1.66 495.6 62.7 623.6 78.9 657.0 83.1 677.1 85.7 113.3 14.52 2050201050 613.5 1.29 350.5 57.1 468.5 76.4 510.6 83.2 525.8 85.7 87.7 14.53 2050201060 154.7 0.33 127.0 82.1 139.5 90.1 141.4 91.4 142.7 92.2 12.1 7.54 2050201070 711.6 1.50 452.9 63.6 537.1 75.5 573.7 80.6 582.2 81.8 129.4 18.55 2050202010 176.3 0.37 115.4 65.5 131.8 74.8 134.2 76.1 138.1 78.3 38.2 21.756 2050202020 543.6 1.14 357.1 65.7 425.7 78.3 435.8 80.2 457.4 84.1 86.2 15.57 2050202030 719.3 1.51 514.7 71.6 597.2 83.0 601.3 83.6 623.6 86.7 95.7 13.58 2050202040 596.8 1.26 377.1 63.2 443.6 74.3 452.0 75.7 472.4 79.2 124.4 20.59 2050202050 136.3 0.29 89.4 65.6 97.1 71.3 98.1 72.0 104.5 76.7 31.8 23.60 2050203010 518.5 1.09 388.0 74.8 433.1 83.5 444.6 85.8 452.7 87.3 65.7 12.761 2050203020 203.0 0.43 129.4 63.7 148.8 73.3 152.5 75.1 159.2 78.4 43.8 21.62 2050203030 132.3 0.28 114.5 86.5 121.5 91.8 122.7 92.7 123.4 93.3 8.9 6.763 2050203040 577.8 1.22 362.3 62.7 425.7 73.7 432.0 74.8 454.2 78.6 123.6 21.464 2050204010 215.7 0.45 38.2 17.7 71.7 33.2 67.2 31.1 86.4 40.0 129.3 60.0

    



    



    

    
Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

65 2050204020 370.3 0.78 233.8 63.1 283.9 76.7 303.5 82.0 310.8 83.9 59.5 16.66 2050204030 269.7 0.57 109.8 40.7 148.3 55.0 143.3 53.1 164.5 61.0 105.2 39.067 2050204040 616.8 1.30 255.8 41.5 364.3 59.1 369.2 59.9 405.4 65.7 211.4 34.68 2050204050 0.8 0.00 0.8 100.0 0.8 100.0 0.8 100.0 0.8 100.0 0.0 0.069 2050205010 154.0 0.32 118.3 76.8 133.7 86.8 136.5 88.7 138.1 89.7 15.9 10.70 2050205020 421.6 0.89 250.9 59.5 321.1 76.2 324.2 76.9 339.6 80.5 82.0 19.71 2050205030 146.3 0.31 59.2 40.5 86.8 59.3 86.0 58.8 96.0 65.6 50.3 34.472 2050205040 225.2 0.47 101.7 45.1 134.6 59.7 142.5 63.3 153.1 68.0 72.1 32.073 2050205050 346.9 0.73 180.0 51.9 238.4 68.7 247.1 71.2 262.3 75.6 84.6 24.474 2050205060 582.7 1.23 342.1 58.7 398.5 68.4 417.3 71.6 433.8 74.4 148.9 25.75 2050206010 167.4 0.35 97.8 58.4 128.3 76.7 128.4 76.7 135.7 81.1 31.7 18.76 2050206020 620.9 1.31 334.2 53.8 436.7 70.3 442.2 71.2 470.9 75.8 150.0 24.77 2050206030 300.0 0.63 189.2 63.1 232.7 77.6 243.3 81.1 248.3 82.8 51.7 17.78 2050206040 186.4 0.39 65.7 35.3 111.0 59.6 112.0 60.1 126.5 67.9 59.9 32.79 2050206050 594.6 1.25 328.1 55.2 417.4 70.2 426.1 71.7 447.4 75.2 147.2 24.80 2050206060 408.1 0.86 116.6 28.6 187.2 45.9 189.6 46.5 219.1 53.7 189.0 46.81 2050206070 196.1 0.41 50.5 25.7 107.7 54.9 105.4 53.8 126.7 64.6 69.4 35.482 2050206080 282.8 0.60 124.9 44.2 179.0 63.3 185.9 65.7 198.4 70.2 84.4 29.83 2050206090 125.1 0.26 61.3 49.0 89.3 71.4 85.8 68.6 96.4 77.1 28.7 22.84 2050206100 262.6 0.55 97.5 37.1 151.8 57.8 146.4 55.7 168.0 64.0 94.6 36.85 2050206110 273.0 0.57 40.4 14.8 83.4 30.6 74.7 27.4 102.5 37.5 170.5 62.86 2050206120 533.8 1.12 105.8 19.8 197.2 37.0 184.9 34.6 237.2 44.4 296.6 55.87 2050301010 257.4 0.54 62.7 24.4 113.2 44.0 108.6 42.2 134.2 52.1 123.2 47.88 2050301020 137.4 0.29 56.7 41.3 74.0 53.8 73.5 53.5 80.2 58.4 57.2 41.89 2050301030 418.1 0.88 118.9 28.4 200.7 48.0 193.5 46.3 232.4 55.6 185.7 44.490 2050301040 626.1 1.32 194.6 31.1 281.9 45.0 281.0 44.9 327.2 52.3 298.9 47.791 2050301050 284.0 0.60 56.7 20.0 104.3 36.7 108.7 38.3 129.1 45.5 154.9 54.92 2050301060 224.1 0.47 39.6 17.7 91.7 40.9 92.1 41.1 111.2 49.6 112.9 50.493 2050301070 112.4 0.24 22.7 20.2 58.8 52.4 52.4 46.6 70.5 62.7 41.9 37.94 2050301080 232.4 0.49 10.9 4.7 54.2 23.3 41.2 17.7 77.1 33.2 155.2 66.95 2050301090 241.1 0.51 64.4 26.7 119.3 49.5 110.3 45.7 137.1 56.9 104.0 43.96 2050301100 873.4 1.84 106.9 12.2 299.8 34.3 276.3 31.6 407.2 46.6 466.2 53.4

    



    



    

    
Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

97 2050302010 305.4 0.64 103.0 33.7 153.6 50.3 155.2 50.8 177.3 58.1 128.1 41.98 2050302020 164.3 0.35 71.5 43.5 106.0 64.6 105.5 64.2 118.0 71.9 46.2 28.99 2050302030 367.6 0.77 101.8 27.7 178.3 48.5 186.1 50.6 219.5 59.7 148.2 40.

100 2050302040 131.7 0.28 42.0 31.9 66.0 50.1 63.9 48.5 74.6 56.6 57.1 43.4101 2050302050 461.6 0.97 252.2 54.6 344.1 74.6 348.3 75.5 376.6 81.6 84.9 18.4102 2050302060 126.0 0.27 62.1 49.3 87.1 69.1 86.6 68.7 97.0 76.9 29.1 23.103 2050302070 233.3 0.49 140.7 60.3 178.7 76.6 178.3 76.4 188.7 80.9 44.6 19.104 2050302080 135.3 0.28 55.3 40.9 83.1 61.4 86.1 63.7 93.9 69.4 41.4 30.105 2050303010 404.0 0.85 171.8 42.5 255.0 63.1 254.2 62.9 282.6 69.9 121.4 30.106 2050303020 159.8 0.34 59.7 37.4 82.4 51.5 80.5 50.3 90.7 56.7 69.1 43.107 2050303030 343.6 0.72 96.7 28.2 161.0 46.9 157.5 45.8 186.3 54.2 157.3 45.107 2050303040 209.8 0.44 81.7 38.9 138.2 65.9 138.0 65.8 157.5 75.1 52.2 24.109 2050303050 481.1 1.01 187.1 38.9 273.1 56.8 283.0 58.8 314.1 65.3 167.0 34.7110 2050303060 236.9 0.50 68.3 28.8 99.2 41.9 99.1 41.8 111.1 46.9 125.7 53.111 2050303070 214.4 0.45 110.3 51.4 148.5 69.3 149.4 69.7 161.4 75.3 53.0 24.7112 2050303080 407.5 0.86 167.8 41.2 229.2 56.2 259.0 63.6 273.9 67.2 133.6 32.113 2050304010 204.7 0.43 89.1 43.5 117.1 57.2 121.0 59.1 134.2 65.5 70.5 34.114 2050304020 242.0 0.51 135.9 56.2 188.6 77.9 189.8 78.4 202.4 83.6 39.6 16.4115 2050304030 106.0 0.22 38.0 35.9 61.5 58.1 60.6 57.2 70.5 66.5 35.5 33.116 2050304040 341.8 0.72 146.4 42.8 215.5 63.1 220.4 64.5 244.7 71.6 97.1 28.4117 2050304050 249.2 0.52 71.0 28.5 97.8 39.2 98.4 39.5 118.8 47.7 130.4 52.118 2050304060 138.6 0.29 74.0 53.4 92.0 66.3 91.2 65.8 98.5 71.0 40.2 29.0119 2050304070 171.9 0.36 42.2 24.5 66.7 38.8 65.3 38.0 74.2 43.2 97.7 56.120 2050304080 254.9 0.54 62.4 24.5 112.9 44.3 104.1 40.8 136.5 53.5 118.4 46.121 2050304090 599.9 1.26 227.8 38.0 354.7 59.1 349.0 58.2 398.9 66.5 201.1 33.122 2050304100 130.1 0.27 28.7 22.1 55.0 42.3 56.2 43.2 65.1 50.1 65.0 49.123 2050304110 162.3 0.34 70.4 43.4 109.7 67.6 105.4 64.9 121.1 74.7 41.1 25.124 2050304120 311.8 0.66 69.5 22.3 126.0 40.4 121.7 39.1 153.6 49.3 158.1 50.7125 2050305010 511.7 1.08 186.8 36.5 277.2 54.2 273.1 53.4 317.5 62.1 194.1 37.126 2050305020 261.2 0.55 100.1 38.3 163.5 62.6 153.5 58.7 183.7 70.3 77.5 29.127 2050305030 447.7 0.94 106.6 23.8 213.9 47.8 192.2 42.9 256.6 57.3 191.1 42.7128 2050305040 259.5 0.55 16.4 6.3 70.7 27.2 61.1 23.5 98.4 37.9 161.1 62.

    



    



    

    
Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

129 2050305050 386.5 0.81 128.8 33.3 213.0 55.1 209.9 54.3 246.5 63.8 140.0 36.130 2050305060 314.4 0.66 107.9 34.3 176.2 56.0 173.2 55.1 200.4 63.7 114.0 36.131 2050305070 169.5 0.36 8.0 4.7 34.0 20.1 29.5 17.4 45.9 27.1 123.6 72.132 2050305080 97.1 0.20 7.9 8.1 17.6 18.1 15.8 16.3 21.7 22.4 75.4 77.133 2050305090 508.2 1.07 48.7 9.6 157.7 31.0 127.4 25.1 202.1 39.8 306.1 60.134 2050305100 802.7 1.69 185.0 23.0 387.4 48.3 360.9 45.0 459.5 57.2 343.2 42.135 2050306010 165.7 0.35 13.6 8.2 52.1 31.5 43.1 26.0 65.8 39.7 99.9 60.136 2050306020 406.3 0.86 69.7 17.2 172.5 42.5 146.8 36.1 209.0 51.4 197.4 48.137 2050306030 238.9 0.50 29.8 12.5 107.4 45.0 83.7 35.0 130.6 54.7 108.3 45.138 2050306040 152.4 0.32 15.2 10.0 61.6 40.4 45.6 29.9 74.8 49.1 77.6 50.139 2050306050 304.5 0.64 82.7 27.2 146.3 48.0 138.1 45.3 175.6 57.7 128.9 42.140 2050306060 204.3 0.43 37.7 18.4 97.4 47.7 88.7 43.4 116.1 56.9 88.1 43.141 2050306070 327.3 0.69 43.2 13.2 121.6 37.2 107.5 32.8 146.6 44.8 180.8 55.142 2050306080 229.5 0.48 15.9 6.9 67.1 29.3 49.2 21.4 85.6 37.3 143.8 62.143 2050306090 233.1 0.49 35.2 15.1 77.1 33.1 69.1 29.6 93.4 40.1 139.7 59.144 2050306100 83.5 0.18 11.3 13.5 26.2 31.3 23.6 28.3 30.8 36.8 52.8 63.145 2050306110 438.2 0.92 31.9 7.3 92.9 21.2 81.9 18.7 114.6 26.1 323.6 73.146 2050306120 285.4 0.60 44.6 15.6 93.9 32.9 85.3 29.9 109.5 38.4 175.9 61.147 2050306150 248.8 0.52 92.6 37.2 169.4 68.1 161.4 64.9 188.4 75.7 60.4 24.148 2050306160 691.9 1.46 143.1 20.7 287.3 41.5 287.5 41.6 346.2 50.0 345.6 50.149 2050306180 194.9 0.41 38.1 19.5 81.8 42.0 75.8 38.9 97.5 50.0 97.4 50.0150 2050306200 43.1 0.09 9.3 21.7 20.5 47.6 18.4 42.6 24.1 56.0 18.9 44.0151 2050306220 246.0 0.52 53.7 21.8 109.7 44.6 104.4 42.5 129.5 52.7 116.5 47.152 2060002020 82.3 0.17 23.2 28.2 50.9 61.9 45.7 55.6 57.1 69.4 25.2 30.153 2060002040 21.0 0.04 2.9 13.6 10.8 51.7 9.4 44.7 12.7 60.6 8.3 39.4155 2060002080 13.2 0.03 2.1 16.2 5.7 43.2 4.7 35.4 6.6 49.5 6.7 50.156 2060003120 18.2 0.04 1.3 7.4 4.5 24.7 3.5 19.2 5.6 30.9 12.6 69.157 2070002070 408.9 0.86 213.0 52.1 274.9 67.2 281.6 68.9 295.8 72.3 113.1 27.158 2070002130 155.5 0.33 80.0 51.4 103.2 66.4 106.8 68.7 113.1 72.7 42.4 27.159 2070003060 213.9 0.45 131.9 61.7 169.3 79.2 171.3 80.1 179.2 83.8 34.7 16.160 2070003100 31.2 0.07 22.5 72.2 26.9 86.1 27.0 86.5 28.2 90.2 3.1 9.

   



   



   

   
Table 7. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Pennsylvania.

ID 11 digit HUC code Stream length Both sides 300'+ Both sides 100-300' One side 300'+ One side 100-300' Both sides <100'

miles % miles % miles % miles % miles % miles %

161 2070003130 229.2 0.48 129.9 56.7 178.5 77.9 178.1 77.7 190.5 83.1 38.7 16.162 2070004010 234.4 0.49 47.4 20.2 101.8 43.4 88.1 37.6 121.2 51.7 113.2 48.163 2070004020 345.2 0.73 92.7 26.8 151.9 44.0 138.9 40.2 175.6 50.9 169.6 49.164 2070004030 475.6 1.00 172.2 36.2 268.6 56.5 254.1 53.4 303.8 63.9 171.7 36.165 2070004120 363.2 0.76 192.2 52.9 282.5 77.8 279.2 76.9 303.8 83.7 59.4 16.166 2070004220 530.9 1.12 274.9 51.8 402.2 75.8 400.2 75.4 431.7 81.3 99.2 18.7167 2070004310 106.5 0.22 9.1 8.5 29.4 27.6 25.0 23.5 38.6 36.3 67.8 63.168 2070004400 162.8 0.34 49.3 30.3 64.0 39.3 61.7 37.9 70.8 43.5 92.0 56.169 2070009030 114.9 0.24 53.7 46.8 77.1 67.1 74.7 65.1 85.0 74.0 29.9 26.0170 2070009040 436.7 0.92 69.3 15.9 187.6 43.0 155.8 35.7 225.8 51.7 210.9 48.

   



   



   

   




Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

A01 POTOMAC RIVER/PINEY RUN/DUTCHMAN CREEK 2070008 51 0.15 12.4 24.4 26.0 51.1 26.6 5A02 CATOCTIN CREEK 2070008 136 0.39 18.6 13.7 52.2 38.5 45.4 3A03 POTOMAC RIVER/LIMESTONE BRANCH 2070008 75 0.22 10.8 14.3 27.0 35.8 25.4 3A04 UPPER GOOSE CREEK/GAP RUN 2070008 113 0.32 21.2 18.8 45.9 40.8 41.6 3A05 MIDDLE GOOSE CREEK/PANTHER SKIN CREEK 2070008 126 0.36 27.0 21.4 63.3 50.1 59.9 4A06 NORTH FORK GOOSE CREEK 2070008 66 0.19 9.3 14.2 25.1 38.4 21.9 3A07 BEAVERDAM CREEK 2070008 75 0.21 14.6 19.6 35.4 47.4 32.2 4A08 LOWER GOOSE CREEK/LITTLE RIVER 2070008 165 0.47 32.5 19.7 69.6 42.2 64.7 3A09 POTOMAC RIVER/BROAD RUN 2070008 132 0.38 26.7 20.2 58.6 44.3 55.1 4A10 SUGARLAND RUN 2070008 36 0.10 6.2 17.3 16.6 46.3 14.7 4A11 POTOMAC RIVER/DIFFICULT RUN 2070008 144 0.41 47.8 33.2 91.3 63.4 91.0 6A12 POTOMAC RIVER/FOURMILE RUN/PIMMIT RUN 2070010 47 0.14 3.9 8.1 14.5 30.5 10.8 2A13 CAMERON RUN 2070010 48 0.14 3.6 7.5 15.0 31.4 11.1 2A14 POTOMAC RIVER/DOGUE CREEK/LITTLE HUNTING CREEK 2070010 54 0.16 6.6 12.1 16.6 30.5 15.2 2A15 ACCOTINK CREEK 2070010 82 0.23 19.3 23.7 39.8 48.8 35.2 4A16 POHICK CREEK 2070010 58 0.16 14.5 25.2 31.2 54.1 29.2 5A17 UPPER CEDAR RUN/LICKING RUN 2070010 160 0.46 26.1 16.3 62.6 39.0 61.1 3A18 LOWER CEDAR RUN/TOWN RUN 2070010 151 0.43 50.3 33.2 80.5 53.2 79.2 5A19 BROAD RUN/KETTLE RUN 2070010 208 0.59 43.6 21.0 89.0 42.8 85.2 4A20 UPPER OCCOQUAN RIVER/LAKE JACKSON 2070010 50 0.14 21.9 43.7 33.6 67.2 34.7 6A21 UPPER BULL RUN/LITTLE BULL RUN 2070010 141 0.40 40.0 28.3 82.2 58.2 76.9 5A22 CUB RUN 2070010 74 0.21 15.9 21.6 33.7 45.8 30.4 4A23 LOWER BULL RUN/POPES HEAD CREEK 2070010 76 0.22 27.8 36.4 47.8 62.6 48.6 6A24 OCCOQUAN RIVER - RESERVOIR 2070010 70 0.20 14.8 21.0 33.8 48.1 35.7 5A25 POTOMAC RIVER/LOWER OCCOQUAN RIVER/NEABSCO CREEK 2070010 102 0.29 21.8 21.3 43.0 42.0 43.7 4A26 POTOMAC RIVER/QUANTICO CREEK/CHOPAWAMSIC CREEK 2070011 167 0.48 89.9 53.7 113.4 67.8 115.5 6A27 UPPER AQUIA CREEK/BEAVERDAM RUN 2070011 93 0.27 53.7 57.7 70.6 75.8 73.5 7A28 LOWER AQUIA CREEK 2070011 53 0.15 11.5 21.7 21.2 40.2 22.3 4A29 POTOMAC RIVER/POTOMAC CREEK 2070011 203 0.58 104.0 51.2 135.1 66.5 140.2 6A30 POTOMAC RIVER/UPPER MACHODOC CREEK 2070011 110 0.31 52.7 48.0 65.5 59.7 69.1 6A31 POTOMAC RIVER/MATTOX CREEK/POPES CREEK/ROSIER CREEK 2070011 166 0.47 59.0 35.5 83.4 50.2 85.6 5A32 POTOMAC RIVER/NOMINI CREEK/LOWER MACHODOC CREEK 2070011 185 0.53 47.6 25.7 74.0 40.0 75.3 4

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

A33 POTOMAC RIVER/YEOCOMICO RIVER 2070011 147 0.42 42.3 27.8 73.6 48.4 72.7 4A34 POTOMAC RIVER/COAN RIVER/LITTLE WICOMICO RIVER 2070011 210 0.60 33.9 14.1 69.6 29.0 76.8 3B01 UPPER NORTH FORK SOUTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER/LAUREL FORK 2070001 39 0.11 25.7 65.2 27.7 70.4 28.6 7B02 UPPER SOUTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER 2070001 49 0.14 5.2 10.8 9.5 19.5 10.6 2B03 UPPER SOUTH FORK SOUTH BRANCH POTOMAC RIVER 2070001 8 0.02 1.1 13.9 2.8 33.8 3.3 3B04 SLEEPY CREEK 2070004 29 0.08 12.0 41.2 16.7 57.1 16.8 5B05 UPPER BACK CREEK/ISAACS CREEK 2070004 115 0.33 36.6 31.9 60.4 52.7 62.1 5B06 HOGUE CREEK 2070004 61 0.17 19.9 32.7 29.6 48.8 29.8 4B07 LOWER BACK CREEK/BRUSH CREEK/BABBS RUN 2070004 68 0.19 17.8 26.1 32.6 47.7 34.2 5B08 UPPER OPEQUON CREEK 2070004 72 0.21 5.1 7.1 20.7 28.7 17.1 2B09 LOWER OPEQUON CREEK 2070004 99 0.28 2.8 2.8 18.4 18.6 15.7 1B10 UPPER MIDDLE RIVER 2070005 36 0.10 0.2 0.4 1.6 4.5 1.2 B11 MIDDLE RIVER/JENNINGS BRANCH 2070005 54 0.15 20.0 37.1 27.3 50.6 27.9 5B12 MIDDLE RIVER/LEWIS CREEK 2070005 59 0.17 0.7 1.2 9.9 16.9 8.3 1B13 MOFFETT CREEK 2070005 17 0.05 2.2 12.9 2.9 16.9 3.1 1B14 CHRISTIANS CREEK 2070005 73 0.21 2.7 3.7 11.5 15.8 10.4 1B15 LOWER MIDDLE RIVER 2070005 37 0.11 0.3 0.9 3.9 10.5 2.7 B16 UPPER NORTH RIVER 2070005 69 0.20 58.0 84.2 62.5 90.8 64.0 9B17 MIDDLE NORTH RIVER 2070005 35 0.10 3.7 10.8 8.2 23.9 7.5 2B18 BRIERY BRANCH 2070005 38 0.11 19.6 52.1 22.8 60.7 23.4 6B19 MOSSY CREEK 2070005 14 0.04 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.2 B20 UPPER DRY RIVER 2070005 95 0.27 86.0 91.0 88.7 93.8 90.1 9B21 LOWER DRY RIVER 2070005 15 0.04 1.5 9.9 3.3 21.3 3.3 2B22 MUDDY CREEK 2070005 28 0.08 3.0 10.8 4.1 14.5 4.1 1B23 LOWER NORTH RIVER 2070005 69 0.20 0.1 0.1 1.7 2.5 1.7 B24 LONG GLADE CREEK 2070005 17 0.05 0.0 0.0 0.2 1.3 0.3 B25 COOKS CREEK 2070005 14 0.04 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.0 B26 BLACKS RUN 2070005 11 0.03 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.0 B27 PLEASANT RUN 2070005 6 0.02 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 B28 NAKED CREEK 2070005 19 0.06 0.4 1.9 0.9 4.8 1.3 B29 MILL CREEK 2070005 16 0.05 0.1 0.5 0.7 4.4 0.6 B30 UPPER SOUTH RIVER 2070005 62 0.18 18.8 30.5 26.1 42.4 25.5 4

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

B31 MIDDLE SOUTH RIVER/BACK CREEK 2070005 108 0.31 52.6 48.8 67.6 62.7 68.9 6B32 LOWER SOUTH RIVER 2070005 105 0.30 31.6 30.0 52.7 50.1 47.1 4B33 UPPER SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER 2070005 49 0.14 24.7 50.8 27.6 56.8 27.3 5B34 CUB RUN 2070005 17 0.05 2.9 16.8 5.0 28.8 4.2 2B35 SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/ELK RUN/BOONE RUN 2070005 134 0.38 39.2 29.3 49.7 37.1 50.2 3B36 NAKED CREEK 2070005 42 0.12 23.1 55.1 27.9 66.5 28.0 6B37 SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/CUB RUN 2070005 94 0.27 22.6 24.0 34.2 36.3 34.4 3B38 SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/MILL CREEK 2070005 57 0.16 7.0 12.2 14.2 24.9 13.9 2B39 HAWKSBILL CREEK 2070005 74 0.21 14.8 19.9 23.9 32.2 22.9 3B40 SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/GOONEY RUN 2070005 149 0.43 36.8 24.6 64.6 43.3 63.3 4B41 LOWER SOUTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER 2070005 53 0.15 6.6 12.3 13.8 25.9 12.9 2B42 UPPER NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/GERMAN RIVER 2070006 73 0.21 41.5 56.8 52.5 71.7 53.3 7B43 NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/LITTLE DRY RIVER 2070006 71 0.20 49.9 70.0 54.9 77.0 55.8 7B44 NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/SHOEMAKER RIVER 2070006 74 0.21 36.0 48.5 45.8 61.6 47.2 6B45 NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/HOLMANS CREEK 2070006 86 0.25 0.3 0.3 3.4 4.0 3.1 B46 LINVILLE CREEK 2070006 42 0.12 0.3 0.8 1.2 2.8 1.3 B47 SMITH CREEK 2070006 88 0.25 15.2 17.2 23.3 26.4 22.5 2B48 NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/MILL CREEK 2070006 87 0.25 23.3 26.9 31.4 36.3 31.9 3B49 STONY CREEK 2070006 127 0.36 41.9 32.9 62.6 49.1 63.9 5B50 NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/NARROW PASSAGE CREEK 2070006 90 0.26 10.3 11.4 19.3 21.4 19.1 2B51 LOWER NORTH FORK SHENANDOAH RIVER/TUMBLING RUN 2070006 69 0.20 8.9 12.8 16.3 23.4 16.4 2B52 UPPER CEDAR CREEK 2070006 119 0.34 73.9 62.0 98.9 83.1 99.2 8B53 LOWER CEDAR CREEK 2070006 102 0.29 24.0 23.5 39.3 38.5 38.2 3B54 PASSAGE CREEK 2070006 98 0.28 53.6 54.4 64.8 65.9 65.8 6B55 UPPER SHENANDOAH RIVER 2070007 92 0.26 16.3 17.8 29.0 31.6 30.5 3B56 CROOKED RUN 2070007 67 0.19 7.5 11.2 16.8 25.1 18.7 2B57 SHENANDOAH RIVER/SPOUT RUN 2070007 104 0.30 22.6 21.8 39.1 37.7 38.5 3B58 LOWER SHENANDOAH RIVER 2070007 69 0.20 15.0 21.6 22.7 32.7 23.5 3C01 CHESAPEAKE BAY/GREAT WICOMICO RIVER 2080102 190 0.54 75.8 20.7 119.1 32.4 128.1 3C02 DRAGON SWAMP 2080102 303 0.86 221.6 73.2 275.8 91.1 277.6 9C03 PIANKATANK RIVER 2080102 63 0.18 49.0 31.5 69.1 44.4 76.5 4

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

C04 CHESAPEAKE BAY/EAST RIVER/NORTH RIVER 2080102 291 0.83 30.7 8.9 49.0 14.2 56.7 1C05 WARE RIVER 2080102 152 0.43 56.3 37.2 83.2 54.9 85.8 5C06 CHESAPEAKE BAY/SEVERN RIVER 2080102 131 0.37 9.2 7.0 12.6 9.6 13.2 1C07 CHESAPEAKE BAY/BACK RIVER/POQUOSON RIVER 2080108 366 1.04 9.8 2.5 30.5 7.7 32.1 C08 LYNNHAVEN RIVER/LITTLE CREEK 2080108 334 0.95 37.4 10.5 70.0 19.6 70.9 1C09 POCOMOKE RIVER/PITTS CREEK 2060009 45 0.13 9.9 22.0 19.9 44.5 19.7 4C10 CHESAPEAKE BAY/HOLDENS CREEK 2080109 418 1.19 17.0 4.1 48.7 11.7 44.4 1C11 CHESAPEAKE BAY/ONANCOCK CREEK 2080109 135 0.39 0.9 0.7 6.3 4.7 5.3 C12 PUNGOTEAGUE CREEK 2080109 39 0.11 4.4 11.1 8.1 20.6 8.4 2C13 NANDUA CREEK/OCCOHANNOCK CREEK/NASSAWADOX CREEK 2080109 253 0.72 8.7 3.4 26.4 10.4 26.8 1C14 CHESAPEAKE BAY/HUNGARS CREEK 2080109 94 0.27 1.9 2.0 10.6 11.4 10.1 1C15 CHERRYSTONE INLET/KINGS CREEK 2080109 51 0.14 1.0 2.1 6.1 12.1 6.2 1C16 CHESAPEAKE BAY/OLD PLANTATION CREEK 2080109 45 0.13 0.8 1.7 5.5 12.3 5.2 1D06 MAGOTHY BAY/MOCKHORN BAY 2080109 3 0.01 0.0 0.5 0.2 8.0 0.3 1E01 UPPER RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/THUMB RUN/JORDAN RIVER 2080103 150 0.43 39.8 26.5 68.4 45.5 68.8 4E02 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/CARTER RUN/GREAT RUN 2080103 207 0.59 56.6 27.3 96.2 46.5 94.4 4E03 HUGHES RIVER 2080103 55 0.16 18.8 34.2 23.1 42.1 23.1 4E04 UPPER HAZEL RIVER 2080103 94 0.27 23.4 25.0 37.4 39.9 38.1 4E05 UPPER THORNTON RIVER 2080103 84 0.24 26.4 31.4 39.4 47.0 40.2 4E06 LOWER THORNTON RIVER 2080103 68 0.19 7.6 11.3 19.5 28.9 20.3 3E07 LOWER HAZEL RIVER/MUDDY RUN/INDIAN RUN 2080103 88 0.25 18.9 21.4 35.2 39.9 33.7 3E08 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/MARSH RUN 2080103 116 0.33 16.4 14.2 40.6 35.1 38.4 3E09 MOUNTAIN RUN 2080103 131 0.37 10.4 7.9 28.6 21.8 29.3 2E10 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/DEEP RUN/ROCK RUN 2080103 120 0.34 54.2 45.3 77.3 64.7 80.8 6E11 UPPER RAPIDAN RIVER/CONWAY RIVER 2080103 71 0.20 36.0 50.6 40.5 56.9 41.5 5E12 RAPIDAN RIVER/SOUTH RIVER 2080103 63 0.18 12.6 19.9 19.7 31.2 19.7 3E13 RAPIDAN RIVER/BLUE RUN/BEAUTIFUL RUN 2080103 123 0.35 11.9 9.6 32.7 26.5 30.8 2E14 UPPER ROBINSON RIVER/WHITE OAK RUN 2080103 90 0.26 26.2 29.1 32.2 35.7 33.6 3E15 LOWER ROBINSON RIVER/CROOKED RUN/DEEP RUN 2080103 121 0.35 16.5 13.6 31.2 25.8 31.9 2E16 RAPIDAN RIVER/CEDAR RUN 2080103 70 0.20 12.0 17.2 25.5 36.4 20.2 2E17 RAPIDAN RIVER/MINE RUN/MOUNTAIN RUN 2080103 157 0.45 41.4 26.4 73.5 47.0 71.4 4E18 LOWER RAPIDAN RIVER 2080103 116 0.33 47.6 41.2 65.1 56.3 68.3 5

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

E19 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/MOTTS RUN 2080104 78 0.22 33.9 43.4 51.9 66.5 58.0 7E20 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/MASSAPONAX CREEK 2080104 152 0.43 53.2 35.0 88.7 58.4 87.0 5E21 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/MILL CREEK/GOLDENVALE CREEK 2080104 372 1.06 163.7 44.0 238.5 64.1 246.2 6E22 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/OCCUPACIA CREEK/PEEDEE CREEK 2080104 330 0.94 113.4 34.3 167.0 50.5 165.0 4E23 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/CATPOINT CREEK/PISCATAWAY CREEK 2080104 484 1.38 235.6 48.7 309.1 63.9 313.0 6E24 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/TOTUSKEY CREEK 2080104 174 0.50 85.1 49.0 112.2 64.6 115.2 6E25 RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/LAGRANGE CREEK/LANCASTER CREEK 2080104 298 0.85 98.9 33.2 143.2 48.0 148.8 4E26 LOWER RAPPAHANNOCK RIVER/CORROTOMAN RIVER 2080104 260 0.74 81.0 25.1 123.0 38.2 139.0 4F01 UPPER SOUTH ANNA RIVER 2080106 93 0.27 22.2 23.8 38.1 40.8 37.7 4F02 SOUTH ANNA RIVER/ROUNDABOUT CREEK 2080106 149 0.42 62.7 42.1 89.4 60.1 93.0 6F03 SOUTH ANNA RIVER/TAYLORS CREEK 2080106 280 0.80 142.1 50.7 199.3 71.2 201.0 7F04 LOWER SOUTH ANNA RIVER 2080106 97 0.28 42.1 43.3 68.1 70.1 70.2 7F05 NEWFOUND RIVER 2080106 61 0.17 32.9 54.0 47.9 78.6 48.4 7F06 UPPER NORTH ANNA RIVER 2080106 168 0.48 52.4 31.2 75.7 45.0 79.5 4F07 LAKE ANNA/PAMUNKEY CREEK 2080106 304 0.87 58.3 17.6 104.4 31.5 117.1 3F08 CONTRARY CREEK 2080106 30 0.09 10.8 35.8 14.6 48.4 16.2 5F09 LOWER NORTH ANNA RIVER/NORTHEAST CREEK 2080106 204 0.58 132.7 60.1 175.9 79.7 178.1 8F10 UPPER LITTLE RIVER 2080106 83 0.24 36.6 43.9 55.0 66.0 56.3 6F11 LOWER LITTLE RIVER 2080106 122 0.35 74.5 61.3 99.1 81.5 100.7 8F12 UPPER PAMUNKEY RIVER/MECHUMPS CREEK 2080106 163 0.47 71.4 43.7 103.7 63.5 105.5 6F13 MIDDLE PAMUNKEY RIVER/BLACK CREEK/TOTOPOTOMOY CREEK 2080106 411 1.17 203.0 49.3 287.2 69.8 288.5 7F14 LOWER PAMUNKEY RIVER 2080106 307 0.88 68.0 22.1 101.8 33.2 108.0 3F15 NI RIVER 2080105 83 0.24 45.7 55.4 61.5 74.5 63.0 7F16 PO RIVER 2080105 133 0.38 81.4 61.3 102.4 77.1 105.6 7F17 UPPER MATTAPONI RIVER/PONI RIVER 2080105 137 0.39 75.4 55.1 102.6 75.0 106.1 7F18 MATTA RIVER 2080105 90 0.26 56.5 62.9 72.3 80.4 73.5 8F19 SOUTH RIVER 2080105 93 0.26 55.0 59.3 71.6 77.3 72.1 7F20 POLECAT CREEK 2080105 89 0.25 48.9 54.8 64.6 72.4 66.0 7F21 MATTAPONI RIVER/HERRING CREEK/CHAPEL CREEK 2080105 305 0.87 188.8 61.8 252.7 82.8 256.6 8F22 MARACOSSIC CREEK/BEVERLY RUN 2080105 248 0.71 152.3 61.5 199.4 80.5 205.1 8F23 MATTAPONI RIVER/GARNETTS CREEK 2080105 204 0.58 91.8 45.0 140.0 68.6 142.0 6

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

F24 MATTAPONI RIVER/COURTHOUSE CREEK 2080105 142 0.40 54.2 38.3 78.3 55.2 81.7 5F25 LOWER MATTAPONI RIVER 2080105 103 0.29 41.9 40.5 54.5 52.7 55.6 5F26 UPPER YORK RIVER/POROPOTANK RIVER/QUEEN CREEK/WARE CREEK 2080107 442 1.26 125.0 28.1 198.9 44.7 217.5 4F27 LOWER YORK RIVER/CARTER CREEK/KING CREEK 2080107 182 0.52 22.6 12.4 44.4 24.5 48.8 2G01 JAMES RIVER/FALLING CREEK/PROCTORS CREEK 2080206 229 0.65 43.0 18.8 102.0 44.5 96.7 4G02 JAMES RIVER/TURKEY ISLAND CREEK/FOURMILE CREEK 2080206 228 0.65 55.5 24.4 89.4 39.3 93.2 4G03 JAMES RIVER/POWELL CREEK/WEST RUN/BAILEY CREEK 2080206 244 0.70 80.5 33.0 118.5 48.5 124.1 5G04 JAMES RIVER/WARDS CREEK/UPPER CHIPPOKES CREEK 2080206 257 0.73 77.0 30.0 113.4 44.2 120.0 4G05 UPPER CHICKAHOMINY RIVER/UPHAM BROOK/STONY RUN 2080206 154 0.44 43.4 28.3 84.2 54.8 80.7 5G06 CHICKAHOMINY RIVER/WHITE OAK SWAMP/BEAVERDAM CREEK 2080206 293 0.83 154.8 52.9 216.4 74.0 218.3 7G07 CHICKAHOMINY RIVER/RUMLEY MARSH 2080206 175 0.50 90.4 51.6 120.1 68.6 123.7 7G08 LOWER CHICKAHOMINY RIVER/MORRIS CREEK/LOWER DIASCUND CREEK 2080206 278 0.79 120.2 22.0 221.6 40.5 233.9 4G09 UPPER DIASCUND CREEK/DIASCUND CREEK RESERVOIR 2080206 91 0.26 37.9 41.6 52.3 57.5 55.4 6G10 JAMES RIVER/POWHATAN CREEK/GRAYS CREEK 2080206 286 0.82 102.2 28.3 168.8 46.8 174.4 4G11 JAMES RIVER/PAGEN RIVER/WARWICK RIVER/CHUCKATUCK CREEK 2080206 650 1.85 76.5 11.8 181.8 28.0 188.7 2G12 SPEIGHTS RUN/LAKE COHOON/LAKE MEADE/LAKE KILBY 2080208 82 0.23 11.5 9.5 28.6 23.6 30.1 2G13 NANSEMOND RIVER/BENNETT CREEK 2080208 254 0.72 25.1 9.9 50.6 19.9 48.6 1G14 WESTERN BRANCH RESERVOIR 2080208 90 0.26 16.6 10.3 42.6 26.6 45.0 2G15 HAMPTON ROADS/ELIZABETH RIVER 2080208 489 1.39 11.5 2.4 33.0 6.7 34.2 H01 JAMES RIVER/REED CREEK 2080203 189 0.54 92.0 48.8 109.4 58.0 112.8 5H02 PEDLAR RIVER 2080203 177 0.51 111.0 62.6 132.7 74.8 136.4 7H03 JAMES RIVER/BLACKWATER CREEK/IVY CREEK 2080203 220 0.63 59.4 27.0 102.7 46.7 104.4 4H04 HARRIS CREEK 2080203 87 0.25 34.4 39.3 52.9 60.6 55.2 6H05 JAMES RIVER/BEAVER CREEK/BECK CREEK 2080203 303 0.86 114.8 38.0 180.9 59.8 188.5 6H06 WRECK ISLAND CREEK 2080203 90 0.26 32.0 35.5 55.1 61.2 54.3 6H07 BENT CREEK 2080203 43 0.12 20.9 48.5 29.0 67.5 30.5 7H08 JAMES RIVER/DAVID CREEK 2080203 123 0.35 58.8 47.7 83.4 67.7 86.4 7H09 UPPER TYE RIVER 2080203 210 0.60 90.9 43.2 127.6 60.7 132.6 6H10 PINEY RIVER 2080203 115 0.33 54.1 47.0 72.4 62.9 72.8 6H11 UPPER BUFFALO RIVER 2080203 155 0.44 50.0 32.3 79.7 51.5 84.7 5H12 LOWER BUFFALO RIVER 2080203 95 0.27 41.5 43.8 66.3 69.9 68.0 7H13 LOWER TYE RIVER/RUCKER RUN 2080203 97 0.28 35.4 36.6 52.6 54.3 54.9 5

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

H14 JAMES RIVER/SYCAMORE CREEK 2080203 136 0.39 62.1 45.5 85.1 62.4 88.7 6H15 NORTH FORK ROCKFISH RIVER/SOUTH FORK ROCKFISH RIVER 2080203 152 0.43 64.8 42.6 90.6 59.6 91.6 6H16 LOWER ROCKFISH RIVER 2080203 253 0.72 120.7 47.8 159.6 63.2 168.5 6H17 JAMES RIVER/TOTIER CREEK/ROCK ISLAND CREEK 2080203 188 0.53 65.6 35.0 102.4 54.6 106.0 5H18 NORTH FORK HARDWARE RIVER/SOUTH FORK HARDWARE RIVER 2080203 107 0.31 33.9 31.5 52.5 48.9 55.4 5H19 HARDWARE RIVER 2080203 91 0.26 25.7 28.3 47.8 52.7 50.1 5H20 JAMES RIVER/BEAR GARDEN CREEK/SOUTH CREEK 2080203 159 0.45 52.0 32.7 80.9 50.8 83.4 5H21 UPPER SLATE RIVER 2080203 241 0.69 137.6 57.0 189.5 78.5 192.8 7H22 LOWER SLATE RIVER 2080203 126 0.36 45.8 36.4 72.9 57.8 73.7 5H23 MECHUMS RIVER 2080204 136 0.39 35.7 26.3 67.4 49.8 68.2 5H24 MOORMANS RIVER 2080204 76 0.22 37.5 49.1 51.6 67.6 51.1 6H25 BUCK MOUNTAIN CREEK 2080204 38 0.11 10.0 26.5 15.5 41.2 16.0 4H26 SOUTH FORK RIVANNA RIVER/IVY CREEK 2080204 71 0.20 14.5 20.3 30.9 43.3 33.4 4H27 NORTH FORK RIVANNA RIVER/SWIFT RUN/PREDDY CREEK 2080204 198 0.56 40.6 20.6 70.9 35.8 76.3 3H28 UPPER RIVANNA RIVER/MOORES CREEK 2080204 70 0.20 16.3 23.2 28.4 40.3 27.7 3H29 MIDDLE RIVANNA RIVER/BUCK ISLAND CREEK 2080204 115 0.33 31.4 27.2 51.0 44.3 53.0 4H30 MECHUNK CREEK 2080204 87 0.25 19.2 22.0 37.5 43.0 37.6 4H31 LOWER RIVANNA RIVER/BALLINGER CREEK 2080204 153 0.44 46.2 30.2 76.9 50.3 79.6 5H32 CUNNINGHAM CREEK 2080204 56 0.16 21.0 37.5 32.6 58.4 33.7 6H33 JAMES RIVER/DEEP CREEK/MUDDY CREEK 2080205 286 0.82 89.0 31.1 145.3 50.8 155.1 5H34 BYRD CREEK 2080205 165 0.47 60.6 36.6 98.0 59.2 101.2 6H35 UPPER WILLIS RIVER 2080205 178 0.51 78.7 44.2 116.3 65.4 118.9 6H36 LOWER WILLIS RIVER 2080205 269 0.77 118.2 44.0 179.8 66.9 183.5 6H37 BIG LICKINGHOLE CREEK 2080205 110 0.31 37.9 34.4 63.0 57.2 64.3 5H38 JAMES RIVER/BEAVERDAM CREEK/FINE CREEK 2080205 166 0.47 49.1 29.5 83.2 50.0 87.8 5H39 JAMES RIVER/TUCKAHOE CREEK/NORWOOD CREEK 2080205 350 1.00 102.3 29.2 171.8 49.0 172.4 4I01 UPPER JACKSON RIVER 2080201 110 0.31 27.5 25.0 45.5 41.3 46.7 4I02 BACK CREEK 2080201 116 0.33 39.0 33.7 51.9 44.9 54.4 4I03 LAKE MOOMAW/HUGHES DRAFT 2080201 72 0.20 26.2 36.5 34.3 47.9 36.6 5I04 JACKSON RIVER/FALLING SPRING CREEK 2080201 111 0.32 55.1 49.7 66.1 59.6 68.4 6I05 CEDAR CREEK 2080201 44 0.13 24.1 54.8 29.9 68.0 31.4 7I06 COVE CREEK/SWEET SPRINGS CREEK 2080201 16 0.05 5.5 34.2 7.0 43.6 6.9 4

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

I07 DUNLAP CREEK 2080201 144 0.41 85.6 59.3 102.6 71.1 105.1 7I08 OGLE CREEK 2080201 70 0.20 31.2 44.5 38.5 54.8 40.6 5I09 LOWER JACKSON RIVER/WILSON CREEK/KARNES CREEK 2080201 166 0.47 102.7 61.8 120.6 72.6 122.3 7I10 UPPER POTTS CREEK 2080201 115 0.33 77.3 67.1 89.8 78.0 91.4 7I11 LOWER POTTS CREEK 2080201 124 0.35 74.3 60.0 92.0 74.4 93.1 7I12 UPPER COWPASTURE RIVER 2080201 67 0.19 29.3 43.7 39.5 59.0 41.6 6I13 BULLPASTURE RIVER 2080201 82 0.23 17.9 21.9 27.8 34.1 28.6 3I14 COWPASTURE RIVER/THOMPSON CREEK/DRY RUN 2080201 77 0.22 32.4 42.1 50.8 66.0 51.4 6I15 STUART RUN 2080201 52 0.15 21.1 41.0 33.1 64.3 35.1 6I16 COWPASTURE RIVER/MILL CREEK 2080201 83 0.24 48.7 58.7 60.8 73.3 62.7 7I17 LOWER COWPASTURE RIVER/SIMPSON CREEK/PADS CREEK 2080201 121 0.34 81.5 67.6 96.7 80.2 98.3 8I18 UPPER JAMES RIVER/SINKING CREEK/MILL CREEK 2080201 156 0.44 76.1 48.9 99.9 64.1 102.4 6I19 UPPER CRAIG CREEK 2080201 180 0.51 124.0 69.0 141.1 78.5 142.9 7I20 MEADOW CREEK 2080201 12 0.04 1.9 15.0 3.3 26.6 3.6 2I21 JOHNS CREEK 2080201 193 0.55 121.9 63.0 146.4 75.7 149.2 7I22 LOWER CRAIG CREEK/PATTERSON CREEK/LOWER BARBOURS CREEK 2080201 207 0.59 119.2 57.5 158.2 76.3 159.8 7I23 UPPER BARBOURS CREEK 2080201 50 0.14 42.2 83.7 45.5 90.4 46.0 9I24 JAMES RIVER/LAPSLEY RUN 2080201 118 0.34 27.3 23.1 48.4 41.0 51.5 4I25 CATAWBA CREEK 2080201 192 0.55 61.7 32.2 87.4 45.6 90.8 4I26 LOONEY CREEK/MILL CREEK 2080201 116 0.33 20.4 17.5 33.4 28.7 34.7 2I27 JAMES RIVER/JENNINGS CREEK 2080201 130 0.37 60.3 46.3 73.3 56.3 73.5 5I28 JAMES RIVER/ELK CREEK/CEDAR CREEK 2080201 106 0.30 51.7 48.8 67.9 64.1 69.4 6I29 UPPER CALFPASTURE RIVER 2080202 83 0.24 52.9 64.0 64.1 77.5 65.7 7I30 LOWER CALFPASTURE RIVER/MILL CREEK 2080202 129 0.37 57.0 44.3 82.8 64.4 83.8 6I31 BRATTONS RUN 2080202 43 0.12 31.4 72.3 37.6 86.5 37.8 8I32 LITTLE CALFPASTURE RIVER 2080202 80 0.23 27.6 34.3 44.7 55.6 44.0 5I33 UPPER MAURY RIVER/KERRS CREEK 2080202 133 0.38 37.8 28.4 58.6 43.9 59.9 4I34 HAYS CREEK 2080202 91 0.26 17.5 19.3 31.1 34.3 31.4 3I35 MIDDLE MAURY RIVER/MILL CREEK 2080202 66 0.19 9.4 14.2 20.5 30.9 19.6 2I36 SOUTH RIVER 2080202 153 0.44 77.6 50.7 94.7 61.8 96.9 6I37 LOWER MAURY RIVER/POAGUE RUN 2080202 98 0.28 40.2 41.0 48.9 49.8 48.8 4I38 BUFFALO CREEK 2080202 174 0.50 51.4 29.5 93.2 53.5 95.7 5

     






Table 9. Riparian forest buffer statistics for 11-digit hydrologic units in Virginia.

ID Watershed HUC code Stream Length Both 300'+ Both 100'-300' One side 300'

miles % miles % miles % miles % 

J01 UPPER APPOMATTOX RIVER 2080207 314 0.90 144.4 46.0 222.2 70.7 225.9 7J02 BUFFALO CREEK/SPRING CREEK 2080207 184 0.52 81.5 44.3 118.2 64.3 123.4 6J03 SANDY RIVER 2080207 65 0.19 29.2 44.9 43.9 67.5 44.4 6J04 BUSH RIVER 2080207 98 0.28 47.4 48.4 68.6 70.0 70.1 7J05 BRIERY CREEK 2080207 67 0.19 18.8 28.2 31.4 47.1 32.4 4J06 APPOMATTOX RIVER/BIG GUINEA CREEK/SAYLERS CREEK 2080207 249 0.71 101.6 40.8 165.5 66.4 168.7 6J07 APPOMATTOX RIVER/SKINQUARTER CREEK/ROCKY FORD CREEK 2080207 174 0.50 81.7 46.8 122.5 70.2 124.7 7J08 FLAT CREEK 2080207 178 0.51 79.3 44.7 122.0 68.7 123.2 6J09 NIBBS CREEK 2080207 35 0.10 10.8 30.4 21.4 60.4 21.6 6J10 APPOMATTOX RIVER/SMACKS CREEK/SAPPONY CREEK 2080207 85 0.24 46.8 54.9 61.3 71.9 63.8 7J11 DEEP CREEK 2080207 316 0.90 147.2 46.6 214.2 67.8 219.2 6J12 LAKE CHESDIN/WINTERPOCK CREEK/WINTICOMACK CREEK 2080207 129 0.37 73.4 57.1 95.3 74.1 98.6 7J13 NAMOZINE CREEK 2080207 92 0.26 57.2 61.8 71.4 77.3 72.6 7J14 LAKE CHESDIN/WHIPPONOCK CREEK 2080207 75 0.21 16.9 22.7 33.3 44.7 38.2 5J15 LOWER APPOMATTOX RIVER/ASHTON CREEK 2080207 160 0.46 31.0 19.4 64.2 40.1 64.0 4J16 UPPER SWIFT CREEK/SWIFT CREEK RESERVOIR 2080207 102 0.29 55.0 54.0 70.7 69.5 72.9 7J17 LOWER SWIFT CREEK 2080207 183 0.52 93.2 50.9 129.0 70.5 133.2 7K15 LITTLE NOTTOWAY RIVER 3010201 1 0.00 0.0 3.2 0.2 25.4 0.3 3

     










Section XIV

14 - 7

APPENDIX 7

Native Plant Guide for

Planting Along Streams and Ponds
NATIVE PLANT GUIDE FOR PLANTING ALONG STREAMS AND PO

PLANT NAME HARDINESS

ZONE

FORM AVAILABLE INUNDATION

TOLERANCE

WILDLIFE VALUE 

Trees and ShrubsAmerican beechFagus grandifolia

5,6 deciduous tree no no high; mammals and birds prefers sh

American hollyIlex opaca

5,6 persistent tree yes limited high; songbirds-food,

cover, nesting

Coastal Pl

American hornbeamCarpinus caroliniana

4,5 deciduous tree yes limited moderate; food, browse common i

Piedmont 

ArrowwoodViburnum dentatum

3,4 deciduous shrub yes yes high; songbirds and

mammals

grows bes

BaldcypressTaxodium distichum

3,4 deciduous tree yes yes little food value; perching

site for waterfowl

forested Cnormal ra

BayberryMyrica pensylvanica

4,5,6 deciduous shrub yes yes high; nesting, food,

cover; persistent berries

Coastal Plslightly ac

Butternut hickoryCarya cordiformis

4,5,6 deciduous tree no no high; food moist soils 

Black cherryPrunus serotina

5,6 deciduous tree yes no high; fruit is eaten by

many birds

temporariinfestation

Black walnutJuglans nigra

5,6 deciduous tree yes limited high; food temporari

wetlands; 

BlackgumNyssa sylvatica

4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes high; songbirds, egrets,

herons, raccoons, owls

difficult to shade

Black willowSalix nigra

3,4,5 deciduous tree yes yes high; browse and cavities rapid grow

sun

ButtonbushCephalanthusoccidentalis

2,3,4,5 deciduous shrub yes yes high; ducks and

shorebirds; seeds, nectar,and nesting

full sun to areas

Chestnut oakQuercus prinus

5,6 deciduous tree no no high; cover, browse, food gypsy mot
PLANT NAME HARDINESS

ZONE

FORM AVAILABLE INUNDATION

TOLERANCE

WILDLIFE VALUE 

Common chokecherryPrunus virginiana

5,6 deciduous tree no no high; birds, mammals;

food and cover

prefers dr

Common spicebushLindera benzoin

3,4,5 deciduous shrub yes yes very high; songbirds shade and 

good unde

Eastern cottonwoodPopulus deltoides

4,5 deciduous tree yes yes moderate; cover and food shallow ro

invasive r

Eastern hemlockTsuga canadensis

5,6 coniferous tree yes yes moderate; cover and

some food

tolerates asoil

Eastern hophornbeamOstrya virginiana

5,6 deciduous tree yes limited moderate; food and

browse

tolerates a

Eastern larchLarix laricina

3,4 deciduous tree no yes low; nest tree and seeds rapid init

Eastern redcedarJuniperus virginiana

4,5,6 coniferous tree yes no high; food for birds, some

cover

full sun to wetlands, 

ElderberrySambucus canadensis

3,4,5,6 deciduous shrub yes yes extremely high; food and

cover for birds andmammals

full sun to 

Flowering dogwoodCornus florida

6 deciduous tree yes no high; bird food prefers ri

anthracno

FringetreeChionanthus virginicus

3,4,5 deciduous shrub or

small tree

yes limited moderate; food and cover full sun to 

Green ashFraxinus pennsylvanica

4,5 deciduous tree yes yes moderate; songbirds rapid gro

sun to par

HackberryCeltis occidentalis

5,6 deciduous tree yes limited high; food and cover full sun to 

Hazel alderAlnus serrulata

3,4,5 deciduous tree no yes high; food and cover rapid gro

Loblolly pinePinus taeda

5,6 coniferous tree yes limited moderate; food, nesting

for squirrels

Coastal Psoil condi
PLANT NAME HARDINESS

ZONE

FORM AVAILABLE INUNDATION

TOLERANCE

WILDLIFE VALUE 

Mountain-laurelKalmia latifolia

6 evergreen shrub no no low; cover and nectar;

foliage is toxic to deer

partial sha

Pin oakQuercus palustris

3,4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes high; mast gypsy mot

prefers su

Red chokeberryAronia arbutifolia

3,4,5 deciduous shrub no yes moderate; songbirds bank stab

Red mapleAcer rubrum

3,4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes high; seeds and browse rapid grow

Red oakQuercus rubra

5,6 deciduous tree yes no high; food and cover gypsy mot

sandy soil

River birchBetula nigra

3,4,5 deciduous tree yes yes low; but good cavities bank eros

Scarlet oakQuercus coccinea

5,6 deciduous tree yes no high; food and cover gypsy mot

ServiceberryAmelanchier arborea

4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes high; nesting, cover and

food for birds andmammals

prefers pawetlands a

Silky dogwoodCornus amomum

3,4,5 deciduous shrub yes yes high; songbirds and

mammals

shade and stabilizer

SourwoodOxydendrum arboreum

5,6 deciduous tree yes no moderate; food ornament

Swamp white oakQuercus bicolor

3,4,5 deciduous tree yes yes high; mast full sun to 

tree

SweetgumLiquidambar styraciflua

4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes moderate; songbirds tolerates a

shade

SycamorePlatanus occidentalis

4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes low; food, cavities for

nesting

rapid growalluvial fo

White ashFraxinus americana

5,6 deciduous tree yes no high; food all light co

White oakQuercus alba

5,6 deciduous tree yes limited high; food and cover gypsy mot

soils

Willow oakQuercus phellos

4,5,6 deciduous tree yes yes high; mast full sun to 

temporari
PLANT NAME HARDINESS

ZONE

FORM AVAILABLE INUNDATION

TOLERANCE

WILDLIFE VALUE 

WinterberryIlex verticillata

3,4,5 deciduous shrub yes yes high; cover and fruit for

birds; holds berries intowinter

full sun to areas

Witch-hazelHamamelis virginiana

4,5 deciduous shrub yes no low; food for squirrels,

deer, and ruffed grouse

prefers sh

Yellow-poplarLiriodendron tulipifera

5,6 deciduous tree yes no moderate; seeds and nest

sites

full sun to rapid grow

Wetland PlantsArrow arumPeltandra virginica

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot high; berries are eaten by

wood ducks

full sun to 

Arrowhead/DuckpotatoSaggitaria latifolia

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot moderate; tubers and

seeds eaten by ducks

aggressive 

BroomsedgeAndropogon virginicus

2,3 emergent yes up to 3 inches high; songbirds and

browsers; winter foodand cover

tolerant opartial sha

Bushy beardgrassAndropogon glomeratus

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot unknown requires f

CattailTypha spp.

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot low; except as cover aggressive

volunteer

CoontailCeratophyllumdemersum

1 submergent no yes low food value; good

habitat and shelter forfish and invertebrates

free floati

Common three-squareScirpus pungens

2 emergent yes up to 6 inches high; seeds, cover for

waterfowl and songbirds;high metal removal

fast colonidryness; f

DuckweedLemna spp.

1,2 submergent/

emergent

yes yes high; food for waterfowl

and fish

high meta

Lizard’s tailSaururus cernuus

2 emergent yes up to 1 foot low; except wood ducks rapid grow
PLANT NAME HARDINESS

ZONE

FORM AVAILABLE INUNDATION

TOLERANCE

WILDLIFE VALUE 

Marsh hibiscusHibiscus moscheutos

2,3 emergent yes up to 3 inches low; nectar full sun; c

PickerelweedPontederia cordata

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot moderate; ducks; nectar

for butterflies

full sun to 

Pond weedPotamogeton pectinatus

1 submergent yes yes extremely high;

waterfowl, marsh andshorebirds

removes h

Rice cutgrassLeersia oryzoides

2,3 emergent yes up to 3 inches high; food and cover full sun to 

stabilizati

SedgesCarex spp.

2,3,4 emergent yes up to 3 inches high; waterfowl,

songbirds

many wet

Soft-stem bulrushScirpus validus

2,3 emergent yes up to 1 foot moderate; good cover

and food

fun sun; aremoval

SmartweedPolygonum spp.

2,3,4 emergent yes up to 1 foot high; waterfowl,

songbirds; seeds andcover

fast coloniperfoliatum

Soft rushJuncus effusus

2,3,4 emergent yes up to 3 inches moderate tolerates w

SpatterdockNuphar luteum

2 emergent yes up to 3 feet moderate for food; high

for cover

fast colonilevels

SwitchgrassPanicum virgatum

2,3,4,5,6 perimeter yes up to 3 inches high; seeds, cover for

waterfowl and songbirds

tolerates w

Sweet flagAcorus calamus

2,3 perimeter yes up to 3 inches low drought to

tolerates a

WaterweedElodea canadensis

1 submergent yes yes low good wate

copper, m

Wild celeryValisneria americana

1 submergent yes yes high; food for waterfowl tolerant o

loads; hab

Wild riceZizania aquatica

2 emergent yes up to 1 foot high; food for birds prefers fu
Section XIV

14 - 8

APPENDIX 8

Sources of Planting Stock
Section XIV

1

APPENDIX 8

Sources of Planting Stock

The following are Plant Materials Centers operated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Once they have fulfilled their obligations to the NRCS, they may be able to sell excess plant materials.

Rose Lake Plant Materials Center

7472 Stoll Road

East Lansing, MI 48823

Phone: 517-641-6300

Big Flats Plant Materials Center

RR #1, Box 360A # 352

Corning, NY 14830

Phone: 607-562-8400

(willows, red-osier dogwood, buttonbush)

Elsberry Plant Materials Center

Rt. 1 Box 9

Elsberry, MO 63343

Phone: 573-898-2012

Cape May Plant Materials Center

1536 Route 9 North

Cape May Courthouse

Cape May, NJ 08210

Phone: 609-465-5901

The Bureau of Forestry, Pennsylvania has one nursery in operation.

Alex Day, Superintendent

Penn Nursery

RD#1, Box 127

Spring Mills, PA 16875

Phone: 814-364-5150

The Pennsylvania Game Commission has one nursery in operation. Plants are provided free of charge to

landowners who cooperate in the Game Commission’s programs.

Howard Nursery

Pennsylvania Game Commission

197 Nursery Road

Howard, PA 16841

Phone: 814-355-4434
Section XIV

2

The state of Delaware has one nursery in operation.

DE Department of Agriculture

2320 South DuPont Highway

Dover, DE 19901

Phone: 302-739-4811

800-282-8685

The State of Maryland has one nursery in operation.

Preston Tree Nursery

3424 Gallagher Road

Preston, MD 21655

Phone: 410-673-2467

800-873-3763

The Division of Forestry, West Virginia, has one nursery in operation.

Clements State Tree Nursery

PO Box 8

West Columbia, West Virginia 25287

Phone: 304-675-1820

(white pine, Scots pine, Virginia pine, black locust, Norway spruce, Japanese larch, Siberian crabapple,

gray/silky dogwood, black walnut, purpleosier willow, Chinese chestnut, chinquapin, red oak)

The Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of Forestry, operates one state nursery.

Augusta Forestry Center

PO Box 160

Crimora, VA 24431

Phone: 703-363-7000

There are numerous private nurseries that supply bulk plant stock for conservation plantings. Some that

are used by natural resource managers who work in the watershed are:

Austree East, Inc.

PO Box 6121

Annapolis, MD 21403

800-258-7336

410-269-7541

C. P. Daniels

PO Box 119

Waynesboro, GA 30830

404-554-2446

Environmental Concern

PO Box P

210 West Chew Avenue

St. Michaels, MD 21663

410-745-9620

Flickinger’s Nursery

Sagamore, PA 16250

800-368-7381
Section XIV

3

Hess’ Nurseries, Inc.

P. O. Box 326

Cedarville, NJ 08311

609-447-4213

Hillis Nursery Co., Inc.

Rt. 2, Box 142

McMinnville, TN 37110

615-668-4364

Holly Hill Farms

P. O. Box 1

Earleville, MD 21919

410-275-2805

Kester’s Wild Game Food Nurseries, Inc.

PO Box 516

Omro, WI 54963

414-685-2929

Lawyer Nursery, Inc.

950 Highway 200 West

Plains, MT 59859

406-826-3881

Musser Forests, Inc.

PO Box 340

Indiana, PA 15701

412-465-5686

Octoraro Wetland Nurseries, Inc.

PO Box 24

Oxford, PA 19363

717-529-3160

Oikos Tree Crops

PO Box 19425

Kalamazoo, MI 49019

616-624-6233

Red Oak Nurseries, Inc.

Rt. 2 Box 375

Montross, VA 22520

804-493-8282

800-541-0905

F. W. Schumacher Co., Inc.

36 Spring Hill Road

Sandwich, MA 02563-1023

508-888-0659

Sharp Brothers Seed Co.

PO Box 140

Healy, KS 67850

316-398-2231

Sylva Native Nursery & Seed Co.

1927 York Road

Timonium, MD 21093

301-560-2504

Vans Pines, Inc.

7550 144th Avenue

West Olive, MI 49460-9707

Warren County Nursery, Inc.

6492 Beersheba Highway

McMinnville, TN 37110

615-668-8941

Western Maine Nurseries, Inc.

Fryeburg, ME 04037

800-447-4745

Wild Earth Native Plant Nursery

49 Mead Avenue

Freehold, NJ 07728

908-780-5661

Bill Wolter

Owens Station Shooting Preserve

RD#1 Box 101C

Greenwood, DE 19950

302-349-4478

302-349-4334
Section XIV

14 - 9

APPENDIX 9

USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map
Hardiness Zone Map

ZONE 2ZONE 3

ZONE 4ZONE 5ZONE 6ZONE 7ZONE 8ZONE 9ZONE 10

-50 to -40 â â

-40 to -30 â â-30 to -20 â â-20 to -10 â â

-10 to -0 â â

0 to 10 â â

10 to 20 â â20 to 30 â â30 to 40 â â

AVERAGE ANNUAL

MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
Section XIV

14 - 10

APPENDIX 10

Sources of Tree Shelters
Section XIV

APPENDIX 10

SOURCES OF TREE SHELTERS

TUBEX Tree Shelters

(now marketed as Supertubes)

Treessentials Company

PO Box 7097

75 Bidwell Street, Suite 105

St. Paul, MN 55107

800-248-8239

TreePee

Baileys

44650 Hwy 101

PO Box 550

Laytonville, CA 95454

707-984-6133

Tree Pro

Tree Pro Tree Protectors

445 Lourdes Lane

Lafayette, IN 47905

317-463-1011

Tree Pro

James L. McConnell

3699 Wentworth Lane

Lilburn, GA 30247

404-923-1681

Tree Sentry

Tree Sentry

PO Box 607

Perrysburg, OH 43552

419-874-1159

BLUE-X

All Season Wholesale Nursery

10656 Sheldon Woods Way

Elk Grove, CA 95624

916-689-0902

Charles Thomas

3120 High Street

Sacramento, CA 95815

Other

Quadra Tree Shelters

Albert Kubiske

3825 Highridge Road

Madison, WI 53704

608-837-9093

International Reforestation Suppliers

John Ellis

PO Box 5547

2100 Broadway

Eugene, OR 97405

Norplex, Inc.

Joe Mack

111 3rd Street, NW

Auburn, WA 98003
Section XIV

14 - 11

APPENDIX 11

Companies that Provide Materials and Services in the

Areas of Streambank Stabilization,

Erosion and Sediment Control, and

Geotextiles
Section XIV

APPENDIX 11

Companies that Provide Materials and Services

in the Areas of

Streambank Stabilization, Erosion and Sediment Control,

and Geotextiles

Advanced Drainage Systems, Inc.

3300 Riverside Drive

Columbus, OH 43221

Phone: 614-457-3051

FAX: 614-459-0169

A. H. Harris & Sons, Inc.

321 Ellis Street

New Britain, CT 06051

Phone: 860-223-3772

FAX: 860-224-8400

American Excelsior Co.

PO Box 5067

Arlington, TX 76011

Phone: 817-640-1555

FAX: 817-649-7816

Amoco Fabrics and Fibers Company

900 Circle 75 Parkway, Suite 300

Atlanta, GA 30339

Phone: 800-445-SPEC

FAX: 770-956-2430

Atlantic Construction Fabrics, Inc.

1801-A Willis Road

Richmond, VA 23237

Phone: 800-448-3636

FAX: 804-271-3074

Attala Lining Systems, Inc.

PO Drawer 1138

Kosciusko, MS 39090

Phone: 601-289-1659

FAX: 601-289-3993

Belton Industries, Inc.

8613 Roswell Road

Atlanta, GA 30350

Phone: 800-225-4099

FAX: 770-992-6361

Bonded Fiber Products, Inc.

2748 Tanager Avenue

Commerce, CA 90040

Phone: 213-726-7820

FAX: 213-726-1087

Bradley Industrial Textiles, Inc.

PO Box 254

Valparalso, FL 32580

Phone: 904-678-6111

FAX: 904-729-1052

Buckley Powder Company

42 Inverness Drive East

Englewood, CO 80112

Phone: 303-790-7007

FAX: 303-790-7033

Carriff Corporation, Inc.

810 NC 24/27 West

Midland, NC 28107

Phone: 800-845-5184

FAX: 704-888-1246

Carthage Mills

4243 Hunt Road

Cincinnati, OH 45242

513-794-1600

Phone: 800-543-4430

FAX: 513-794-3434
Section XIV

C.F.P. Inc.

PO Box 567

Pineville, NC 28134

Phone: 803-548-3148

FAX: 803-548-0037

Civil Engineered Products

PO Box 12194

Charlotte, NC 28220-2194

Phone: 803-802-3705

FAX: 803-802-3705

C & K Industries

3451 E. Maiden Road

Maiden, NC 28650

Phone: 704-428-8042

FAX: 704-428-0830

Construction Techniques, Inc.

PO Box 360007

Cleveland, OH 44136

Phone: 800-563-5047

Phone: 216-572-8300

FAX: 216-572-5533

Dandy Products, Inc.

2011R Harrisburg Pike

Grove City OH 43123

Phone: 614-875-2284

Phone: 800-591-2284

FAX: 614-875-6305

Eastern Products, Inc.

1162 Sycamore Lane

Mahwah, NJ 07430

Phone: 800-934-0809

FAX: 201-934-8686

Environmental Design & Construction

7787 West Mom’s Street

Indianapolis, IN 46231

Phone: 317-243-6326

FAX: 317-243-6247

Fluid Systems

1245 Corporate Boulevard, Suite 300

Aurora, IL 60504

Phone: 800-346-9107

FAX: 630-898-1179

GSE Lining Technology, Inc.

19103 Gundle Road

Houston, TX 77073-3598

Phone: 800-435-2008

Phone: 281-443-8564

FAX: 281-875-6010

Huesker Inc.

PO Box 411529

Charlotte, NC 28241

Phone: 704-588-5500

FAX: 704-588-5988

Integra Plastics, Inc.

500 12th Street, SE

Madison, SD 57042

Phone: 800-578-5257

FAX: 605-256-2629

Kan Du Manufacturing

1710 Madison

Maywood, IL 60153

Phone: 708-681-0370

FAX: 708-681-0373

Lafayette Farm & Industry

27180 Red School Road

Cuba City, WI 53807

Phone: 608-744-3434

FAX: 608-744-3733

Land Use Environmental Corp.

2576 Sound Avenue

Baiting Hollow, NY 11933

Phone: 516-727-2400

FAX: 516-727-2605

LINQ Industrial Fabrics, Inc.

2550 West Fifth North Street

Summersville, SC 29483

Phone: 803-873-5800

FAX: 803-875-8276

Manhattan Environmental, Inc.

111 W. 5th Street, Suite 810

Tulsa, OK 74103

Phone: 918-582-7078

FAX: 918-582-1025
Section XIV

MPC Containment Systems, Ltd.

4834 South Oakley

Chicago, IL 60609

Phone: 773-927-4120

FAX: 773-650-6028

National Seal Company

1245 Corporate Boulevard, Suite 300

Aurora, IL 60504

Phone: 630-898-1161

FAX: 630-898-6556

Nilex Corporation

6810 S. Jordan Road

Englewood, CO 80112

Phone: 303-766-2000

FAX: 303-766-1110

North American Green

14649 Highway 41 North

Evansville, IN 47711

Phone: 800-772-2040

FAX: 812-867-0247

Novaweld

12150 Race Street, Unit L-104

Northglenn, CO 80241

Phone: 303-452-0872

FAX: 303-452-2733

Pallen Enterprises, Inc.

1695 Farmer Road

Conyers, GA 30207

Phone: 770-922-1812

FAX: 770-922-1897

Presto Products Co.

670 N. Perkins Street

Appleton, WI 54913-2399

Phone: 414-739-9471

FAX: 414-738-1418

RoLanka International Inc.

6476 Mill Court

Morrow, GA 30260

Phone: 800-760-3215

Phone: 770-961-0331

FAX: 770-961-1480

Solmax Geosynthetics

4691 Commercial Drive, Suite 345

New Hartford, NY 13413

Phone: 315-853-8930

FAX: 315-853-8944

Synthetic Industries/Geosynthetic Products

4019 Industry Drive

Chattanooga, TN 37416

Phone: 800-621-0444

Phone: 423-899-0444

FAX: 423-899-7619

Tenax Corporation

4800 East Monument Street

Baltimore, MD 21205

Phone: 410-522-7000

FAX: 410-522-7015

Webtec Inc.

PO Box 241166

Charlotte, NC 28224

Phone: 800-438-0027

FAX: 704-394-7946

Wickoren & Associates

17096 West 295th Street

Paola, KS 66071

Phone: 913-294-4618

FAX: 913-294-3457
Section XIV

14 - 12

APPENDIX 12

Herbicide Labels
Specimen Label

For the control of woody plants and broadleaf weeds

on rights-of-way, industrial sites, non-crop areas, nonirrigation ditch banks, forests, and wildlife openings,

including grazed areas on these sites.

Active Ingredient:

triclopyr: 3,5,6-trichloro-2-

pyridinyloxyacetic acid,

butoxyethyl ester.............................................................. 61.6%

Inert Ingredients ............................................................................... 38.4%

Total ............................................................................................... 100.0%

Contains petroleum distillates

Acid Equivalent:

triclopyr - 44.3% - 4 lb/gal

EPA Reg. No. 62719-40

Precautionary Statements

Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals

Keep Out of Reach of Children

CAUTION PRECAUCION

Si usted no entiende la etiqueta, busque a alguien para que se la explique a

usted en detalle. (If you do not understand the label, find someone to explain

it to you in detail.)

Harmful If Swallowed, Inhaled, Or Absorbed Through Skin

Avoid contact with eyes, skin, or clothing. Avoid breathing mists or

vapors. Avoid contamination of food.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Some materials that are chemical-resistant to this product are listed below. If

you want more options, follow the instructions for category E on an EPA

chemical resistance category selections chart.

WPS Uses: Applicators and other handlers who handle this pesticide

for any use covered by the Worker Protection Standard (40 CFR Part

170) -- in general, agricultural-plant uses are covered -- must wear:

• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants

• Chemical-resistant gloves such as Barrier Laminate, Nitrile Rubber,

Neoprene Rubber, or Viton

• Shoes plus socks

Non-WPS Uses: Applicators and other handlers who handle this

pesticide for any use NOT covered by the Worker Protection Standard

(40 CFR Part 170) -- in general, only agricultural-plant uses are

covered by the WPS -- must wear:

• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants

• Shoes plus socks

Follow manufacturer's instructions for cleaning/maintaining PPE. If no such

instructions for washables, use detergent and hot water. Keep and wash

PPE separately from other laundry.

User Safety Recommendations

Users should:

• Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco, or

using the toilet.

• Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside. Then wash

thoroughly and put on clean clothing.

First Aid

If on skin: Flush skin with plenty of water. Get medical attention if irritation

persists.

If swallowed: Do not induce vomiting. Call a physician.

Environmental Hazards

This pesticide is toxic to fish. Do not apply directly to water, to areas where

surface water is present, or to intertidal areas below the mean high water

mark. Do not contaminate water when disposing of equipment washwaters.

Physical or Chemical Hazards

Do not use or store near heat or open flame. Do not cut or weld

container.

Notice: Read the entire label. Use only according to label directions.

Before buying or using this product, read “Warranty Disclaimer” and

“Limitation of Remedies” elsewhere on this label.

In case of emergency endangering health or the environment involving this

product, call 1-800-992-5994. If you wish to obtain additional product

information, visit our web site at www.dowagro.com.

Agricultural Chemical: Do not ship or store with food, feeds, drugs or

clothing.

Directions for Use

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in a manner inconsistent

with its labeling.

Read all Directions for Use carefully before applying.

Do not use for manufacturing or formulating.
2

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or other persons,

either directly or through drift. Only protected handlers may be in the area

during application. For any requirements specific to your state or tribe,

consult the agency responsible for pesticide regulation.

Agricultural Use Requirements

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and with the Worker

Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170. This standard contains requirements

for the protection of agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and

greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It contains

requirements for training, decontamination, notification, and emergency

assistance. It also contains specific instructions and exceptions pertaining to

the statements on this label about personal protective equipment (PPE) and

restricted-entry interval. The requirements in this box only apply to uses of

this product that are covered by the Worker Protection Standard.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the restricted

entry interval (REI) of 12 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is permitted under the

Worker Protection Standard and that involves contact with anything that has

been treated, such as plants, soil, or water, is:

• Coveralls

• Chemical-resistant gloves such as Barrier Laminate, Nitrile Rubber,

Neoprene Rubber, or Viton

• Shoes plus socks

Storage and Disposal

Do not contaminate water, food, or feed by storage or disposal. Open

dumping is prohibited.

Storage: Store above 28°F or agitate before use.

Pesticide Disposal: Pesticide, spray mixture, or rinse water that cannot be

used according to label instructions must be disposed of according to

applicable federal, state, or local procedures.

Plastic Container Disposal: Triple rinse (or equivalent). Then offer for

recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill,

or by incineration, or, if allowed by state and local authorities, by burning. If

burned, stay out of smoke.

Metal Container Disposal: Triple rinse (or equivalent). Then offer for

recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill,

or by other procedures approved by state and local authorities.

Container Disposal for Refillable Containers: Replace the dry

disconnect cap, if applicable, and seal all openings which have been opened

during use. Return the empty container to a collection site designated by

Dow AgroSciences. If the container has been damaged and cannot be

returned according to the recommended procedures, contact the Dow

AgroSciences Customer Service Center at 1-800-258-1470 to obtain proper

handling instructions.

General: Consult federal, state, or local disposal authorities for approved

alternative procedures.

General Information

Garlon* 4 herbicide is recommended for the control of unwanted woody

plants and annual and perennial broadleaf weeds in forests, and on non-crop

areas including industrial manufacturing and storage sites, rights-of-way

such as electrical power lines, communication lines, pipelines, roadsides and

railroads, fence rows, non-irrigation ditch banks, and around farm buildings.

Use on these sites may include application to grazed areas as well as

establishment and maintenance of wildlife openings.

General Use Precautions

Agricultural Use Requirements for Forestry Uses: For use of this

product on forestry sites, follow PPE and Reentry restrictions in the

Agricultural Use Requirements section of this label.

Use Requirements for Non-cropland Areas: No Worker Protection

Standard worker entry restrictions or worker notification requirements apply

when this product is applied to non-cropland.

In Arizona: The state of Arizona has not approved Garlon 4 for use on

plants grown for commercial production; specifically forests grown for

commercial timber production, or on designated grazing areas.

Chemigation: Do not apply this product through any type of irrigation

system.

Other Precautions:

• When applying this product in tank mix combination, follow all applicable

use directions and precautions on each manufacturer’s label.

• Do not apply on ditches used to transport irrigation water. Do not apply

where runoff or irrigation water may flow onto agricultural land as injury to

crops may result.

• Do not apply this product using mist blowers unless a drift control additive,

high viscosity inverting system, or equivalent is used to control spray drift.

• Sprays applied directly to Christmas trees may result in conifer injury.

When treating unwanted vegetation in Christmas tree plantations, care

should be taken to direct sprays away from conifers.

• Do not apply Garlon 4 directly to, or otherwise permit it to come into direct

contact with grapes, tobacco, vegetable crops, flowers, or other desirable

broadleaf plants and do not permit spray mists containing it to drift onto

them.

• It is permissible to treat non-irrigation ditch banks, seasonally dry wetlands,

flood plains, deltas, marshes, swamps, bogs, and transitional areas

between upland and lowland sites. Do not apply to open water such as

lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams, creeks, salt water bays, or estuaries.

Avoid Injurious Spray Drift

Applications should be made only when there is little or no hazard from spray

drift. Very small quantities of spray, which may not be visible may seriously

injure susceptible plants. Do not spray when wind is blowing toward

susceptible crops or ornamental plants near enough to be injured. It is

suggested that a continuous smoke column at or near the spray site or a

smoke generator on the spray equipment be used to detect air movement,

lapse conditions, or temperature inversions (stable air). If the smoke layers

or indicates a potential of hazardous spray drift, do not spray.

Aerial Application (Helicopter Only): For aerial application on rights-ofway or other areas near susceptible crops, use an agriculturally registered

spray thickening drift control additive as recommended by the manufacturer

or apply through the Microfoil† boom, Thru-Valve boom, or equivalent drift

control system. Thickened sprays prepared by using high viscosity invert

systems or other drift reducing systems may be utilized if they are made as

drift-free as are mixtures containing an agriculturally registered thickening

agent or applications made with the Microfoil boom or Thru Valve boom. If a

spray thickening agent is used, follow all use recommendations and

precautions on the product label. Do not use a thickening agent with the

Microfoil boom, Thru Valve boom, or other systems that cannot

accommodate thick sprays.
3

†Reference within this label to a particular piece of equipment produced by

or available form other parties is provided without consideration for use by

the reader at its discretion and subject to the reader's independent

circumstances, evaluation, and expertise. Such reference by Dow

AgroSciences is not intended as an endorsement of such equipment, shall

not constitute a warranty (express or implied) of such equipment, and is

not intended to imply that other equipment is not available and equally

suitable. Any discussion of methods of use of such equipment does not

imply that the reader should use the equipment other than is advised in

directions available from the equipment's manufacturer. The reader is

responsible for exercising its own judgment and expertise, or consulting

with sources other than Dow AgroSciences, in selecting and determining

how to use its equipment.

With aircraft, drift can be lessened by applying a coarse spray; by using a

spray boom no longer than 3/4 the rotor length; by spraying only when wind

velocities are low; or by using an approved drift control system. Keep

operating spray pressures at the lower end of the manufacturer's

recommended pressures for the specific nozzle type used. Low pressure

nozzles are available from spray equipment manufacturers. Select nozzles

and pressures which provide adequate plant coverage, but minimize the

production of fine spray particles.

Ground Equipment: To aid in reducing spray drift potential when making

ground applications near susceptible crops or other desirable broadleaf

plants, Garlon 4 should be applied through large droplet producing

equipment, such as the Radiarc sprayer or in thickened spray mixtures using

an agriculturally registered drift control additive, or high viscosity invert

systems. When using a spray thickening or inverting additive, follow all use

directions and precautions on the product label. With ground equipment,

spray drift can be reduced by keeping the spray boom as low as possible; by

applying 20 gallons or more of spray per acre; and by spraying when wind

velocity is low. Do not apply with nozzles that produce a fine droplet spray.

Keep operating spray pressures at the lower end of the manufacturer's

recommended pressures for the specific nozzle type used. Low pressure

nozzles are available from spray equipment manufacturers. Select nozzles

and pressures which provide adequate plant coverage, but minimize the

production of fine spray particles.

High Volume Leaf-Stem Treatment: To minimize spray drift, keep sprays

no higher than brush tops and keep spray pressures low enough to provide

coarse spray droplets. A spray thickening agent may be used to reduce

spray drift.

Grazing and Haying Restrictions

Grazing or harvesting green forage:

1) Lactating dairy animals

Two quarts per acre or less: Do not graze or harvest green forage

from treated area for 14 days after treatment.

Greater than 2 to 6 quarts per acre: Do not graze or harvest green

forage until the next growing season.

2) Other Livestock

Two quarts per acre or less: No grazing restrictions.

Greater than 2 to 6 quarts per acre: Do not graze or harvest green

forage from treated area for 14 days after treatment. Note: If less

than 25% of a grazed area is treated, there is no grazing restriction.

Haying (harvesting of dried forage):

1) Lactating dairy animals

Do not harvest hay until the next growing season.

2) Other Livestock

Two quarts per acre or less: Do not harvest hay for 7 days after

treatment.

Greater than 2 to 4 quarts per acre: Do not harvest hay for 14 days

after treatment.

Greater than 4 quarts per acre: Do not harvest hay until the next

growing season.

Slaughter Restrictions:

Withdraw livestock from grazing treated grass or consumption of treated hay

at least 3 days before slaughter. This restriction applies to grazing during the

season following treatment or hay harvested during the season following

treatment.

Plants Controlled by Garlon 4

Woody Plants Controlled

alder chinquapin madrone scotch broom

arrowwood choke cherry maples sumac

ash cottonwood mulberry sweetbay

magnolia

aspen Crataegus

(hawthorn)

oaks sweetgum

bear clover

(bearmat)

dogwood persimmon sycamore

beech Douglas-fir pine tanoak

birch elderberry poison ivy thimbleberry

blackberry elm poison oak tree-of-heaven

blackgum gallberry poplar (Ailanthus)†

boxelder† gorse salmonberry tulip poplar

Brazilian

pepper

hazel salt-bush wax myrtle

buckthorn hickory

(Braccharis

spp.)

wild rose

cascara hornbeam salt-cedar† willow

Ceanothus kudzu†† sassafras winged elm

cherry locust

†For best control, use either a basal bark or cut stump treatment.

††For complete control, retreatment may be necessary.

Annual and Perennial Broadleaf Weeds Controlled

black medic curly dock matchweed sweet clover

bull thistle dandelion mustard vetch

burdock field bindweed Oxalis wild carrot

Canada thistle goldenrod plantain (Queen

Anne's lace)

chicory ground ivy purple

loosestrife

wild lettuce

clover lambsquarters ragweed wild violet

creeping

beggarweed

lespedeza smartweed yarrow
4

Table 1 (Maximum Application Rate): The following table is provided as a

guide to the user to achieve the proper rate of Garlon 4 without exceeding the

maximum use rate of 8 quarts per acre:

Spray Volume Per

Acre

Quarts of Garlon 4

 Per 100 Gallons of

Spray

(Not to Exceed 8

qt/Acre)

400 2

300 2.7

200 4

100 8

50 16

20 40

10 80

Approved Uses

Foliar Applications

Use Garlon 4 at rates of 1 to 8 quarts per acre to control broadleaf weeds

and woody plants. In all cases use the amount specified in enough water to

give uniform and complete coverage of the plants to be controlled. The

recommended order of addition to the spray tank is water, spray thickening

agent (if used), surfactant (if used), additional herbicide (if used), and Garlon

4. If a standard agricultural surfactant is used, use at a rate of 1 to 2 quarts

per acre. Use continuous adequate agitation.

Before using any recommended tank mixtures, read the directions and all

precautions on both labels.

For best results applications should be made when woody plants and weeds

are actively growing. When hard-to-control species such as ash, blackgum,

choke cherry, elm, maples (other than vine or big leaf), oaks, pines, or

winged elm are prevalent, and during applications made during late summer

when the plants are mature, or during drought conditions, use the higher

rates of Garlon 4 alone or in combination with Tordon* 101 Mixture herbicide.

When using Garlon 4 in combination with 3.8 pounds per gallon 2,4-D low

volatile ester herbicide generally the higher rates should be used for

satisfactory brush control.

Use the higher dosage rates when brush approaches an average of 15 feet

in height or when the brush covers more than 60% of the area to be treated.

If lower rates are used on hard-to-control species, resprouting may occur the

year following treatment.

On sites where easy to control brush species dominate, rates less than those

recommended may be effective. Consult state or local extension personnel

for such information.

Foliar Treatment With Ground Equipment

High Volume Foliar Treatment

For control of woody plants, use Garlon 4 at the rate of 1 to 3 quarts per 100

gallons of spray mixture, or Garlon 4 at 1 to 3 quarts may be tank mixed with

labeled rates of 2,4-D low volatile ester herbicide, Tordon 101 Mixture

herbicide, or Tordon K herbicide and diluted to make 100 gallons of spray.

Apply at a volume of 100 to 400 gallons of total spray per acre depending on

size and density of woody plants. Coverage should be thorough to wet all

leaves, stems, and root collars. See Table 1 for relationship between spray

volume and maximum application rate. When tank mixing, follow applicable

use directions and precautions on each manufacturer’s label.

Low Volume Foliar Treatment

To control susceptible woody plants, mix up to 20 quarts of Garlon 4 in 10 to

100 gallons of finished spray. The spray concentration of Garlon 4 and total

spray volume per acre should be adjusted according to the size and density

of target woody plants and kind of spray equipment used. With low volume

sprays, use sufficient spray volume to obtain uniform coverage of target

plants including the surfaces of all foliage, stems, and root collars (See

General Use Precautions). For best results, a surfactant should be added to

all spray mixtures. Match equipment and delivery rate of spray nozzles to

height and density of woody plants. When treating tall, dense brush, a truck

mounted spray gun with spray tips that deliver up to 2 gallons per minute at

40 to 60 psi may be required. Backpack or other types of specialized spray

equipment with spray tips that deliver less than 1 gallon of spray per minute

may be appropriate for short, low to moderate density brush. See Table 1 for

relationship between mixing rate, spray volume and maximum application

rate.

Tank Mixing: As a low volume foliar spray, up to 12 quarts of Garlon 4 may

be applied in tank mix combination with labeled rates of Tordon K or Tordon

101 Mixture in 10 to 100 gallons of finished spray.

Broadcast Applications With Ground Equipment

Make application using equipment that will assure thorough and

uniform coverage at spray volumes applied.

Woody Plant Control

Foliage Treatment: Use 4 to 8 quarts of Garlon 4 in enough water to make

5 or more gallons per acre of total spray, or Garlon 4 at 1 1/2 to 3 quarts may

be combined with labeled rates of 2,4-D low volatile ester, Tordon 101

Mixture, or Tordon K in sufficient water to make 5 or more gallons per acre of

total spray.

Broadleaf Weed Control

Use Garlon 4 at rates of 1 to 4 quarts in a total volume of 5 or more gallons

per acre as a water spray mixture. Apply at any time weeds are actively

growing. Garlon 4 at 0.25 to 3 quarts may be tank mixed with labeled rates

of 2,4-D amine or low volatile ester, Tordon K, or Tordon 101 Mixture to

improve the spectrum of activity. For thickened (high viscosity) spray

mixtures, Garlon 4 can be mixed with diesel oil or other inverting agent.

When using an inverting agent, read and follow the use directions and

precautions on the product label.

Aerial Application (Helicopter Only)

Aerial sprays should be applied using suitable drift control (See "General

Use Precautions").

Foliage Treatment (Utility and Pipeline Rights-of-Way)

Use 4 to 8 quarts of Garlon 4 alone, or 3 to 4 quarts Garlon 4 in a tank mix

combination with labeled rates of 2,4-D low volatile ester Tordon 101 Mixture

or Tordon K and apply in a total spray volume of 10 to 30 gallons per acre.

Use the higher rates and volumes when plants are dense or under drought

conditions.

Basal Bark and Dormant Brush Treatments

To control susceptible woody plants in rights-of-way, and other non-crop

areas, and in forests, use Garlon 4 in oil or oil-water mixtures prepared and

applied as described below. When preparing mixtures, use as oils either a

commercially available basal oil, diesel fuel, No. 1 or No. 2 fuel oil, or

kerosene. Substitute other oils or diluents only as recommended by the oil or

diluent's manufacturer. When mixing with a basal oil or other oils or diluents,

read and follow the use directions and precautions on the product label

prepared by the oil or diluent's manufacturer.
5

Oil Mixture Sprays

Add Garlon 4 to the required amount of oil in the spray tank or mixing tank

and mix thoroughly. If the mixture stands over 4 hours, reagitation is

required.

Oil Mixtures of Garlon 4 and Tordon K: Tordon K and Garlon 4 may be

used in tank mix combination for basal bark treatment of woody plants.

These herbicides are incompatible and will not form a stable mixture when

mixed together directly in oil. Stable tank mixtures for basal bark application

can be made if each product is first combined with a compatibility agent prior

to final mixing in the desired ratio.

(See product bulletin for mixing instructions.)

Oil-Water Mixture Sprays

First, premix the Garlon 4, oil and surfactant in a separate container. Do not

allow any water or mixtures containing water to get into the Garlon 4 or the

premix. Fill the spray tank about half full with water, then slowly add the

premix with continuous agitation and complete filling the tank with water.

Continue moderate agitation.

Note: If the premix is put in the tank without any water, the first water added

may form a thick "invert" (water in oil) emulsion which will be hard to break.

Basal Bark Treatment

To control susceptible woody plants with stems less than 6 inches in basal

diameter, mix 1 to 5 gallons of Garlon 4 in enough oil to make 100 gallons of

spray mixture. Apply with knapsack sprayer or power spraying equipment

using low pressure (20-40 psi). Spray the basal parts of brush and tree

trunks to a height of 12 to 15 inches from the ground. Thorough wetting of

the indicated area is necessary for good control. Spray until runoff at the

ground line is noticeable. Old or rough bark requires more spray than

smooth young bark. Apply at any time, including the winter months, except

when snow or water prevent spraying to the ground line.

Low Volume Basal Bark Treatment

To control susceptible woody plants with stems less than 6 inches in basal

diameter, mix 20 to 30 gallons of Garlon 4 in enough oil to make 100 gallons

of spray mixture. Apply with a backpack or knapsack sprayer using low

pressure and a solid cone or flat fan nozzle. Spray the basal parts of brush

and tree trunks in a manner which thoroughly wets the lower stems, including

the root collar area, but not to the point of runoff. Herbicide concentration

should vary with size and susceptibility of species treated. Apply at any time,

including the winter months, except when snow or water prevent spraying to

the ground line or when stem surfaces are saturated with water.

Garlon 4 Plus Tordon K in Oil Tank Mix: Garlon 4 and Tordon K may be

applied as a low volume basal bark treatment to improve control of certain

woody species such as ash, elm, maple, poplar, aspen, hackberry, oak,

oceanspray, birch, hickory, pine, tanoak, cherry, locust, sassafras, and

multiflora rose. (See product bulletin for mixing instructions.)

Streamline Basal Bark Treatment (Southern States)

To control or suppress susceptible woody plants for conifer release, mix 20

to 30 gallons of Garlon 4 in enough oil to make 100 gallons of spray mixture.

Apply with a backpack or knapsack sprayer using equipment which provides

a directed straight stream spray. Apply sufficient spray to one side of stems

less than 3 inches in basal diameter to form a treated zone that is 6 inches in

height. When the optimum amount of spray mixture is applied, the treated

zone should widen to encircle the stem within approximately 30 minutes.

Treat both sides of stems which are 3 to 4 inches in basal diameter. Direct

the spray at bark that is approximately 12 to 24 inches above ground. Pines

(loblolly, slash, shortleaf, and Virginia) up to 2 inches in diameter breast

height (dbh) can be controlled by directing the spray at a point approximately

4 feet above ground. Vary spray mixture concentration with size and

susceptibility of the species being treated. Best results are achieved when

applications are made to young vigorously growing stems which have not

developed the thicker bark characteristic of slower growing, understory trees

in older stands. This technique is not recommended for scrub and live oak

species, including blackjack, turkey, post, live, bluejack and laurel oaks, or

bigleaf maple. Apply from approximately 6 weeks prior to hardwood leaf

expansion in the spring until approximately 2 months after leaf expansion is

completed. Do not apply when snow or water prevent spraying at the desired

height above ground level.

Low Volume Stem Bark Band Treatment (North Central and Lake

States)

To control susceptible woody plants with stems less than 6 inches in basal

diameter, mix 20 to 30 gallons of Garlon 4 in enough oil to make 100 gallons

of spray mixture. Apply with a backpack or knapsack sprayer using low

pressure and a solid cone or flat fan nozzle. Apply the spray in a 6 to 10 inch

wide band that completely encircles the stem. Spray in a manner that

completely wets the bark, but not to the point of runoff. The treatment band

may be positioned at any height up to the first major branch. For best results

apply the band as low as possible. Spray mixture concentration should vary

with size and susceptibility of species to be treated. Applications may be

made at any time, including winter months.

Thinline Basal Bark Treatment

To control susceptible woody plants with stems less than 6 inches in

diameter, apply Garlon 4 either undiluted or mixed at 50-75% v/v with oil in a

thin stream to all sides of the lower stems. The stream should be directed

horizontally to apply a narrow band around each stem or clump. Use a

minimum of 2 to 15 milliliters of Garlon 4 or oil mixture with Garlon 4 to treat

single stems and from 25 to 100 milliliters to treat clumps of stems. Use an

applicator metered or calibrated to deliver the small amounts required.

Dormant Stem Treatment

Dormant stem treatments will control susceptible woody plants and vines

with stems less than 2 inches in diameter. Plants with stems greater than 2

inches in diameter may not be controlled and resprouting may occur. This

treatment method is best suited for sites with dense, small diameter brush.

Dormant stem treatments of Garlon 4 can also be used as a chemical sidetrim for controlling lateral branches of larger trees that encroach onto

roadside, utility, or other rights-of-way.

Mix 4 to 8 quarts of Garlon 4 in 2 to 3 gallons of crop oil concentrate or other

recommended oil and add this mixture to enough water to make 100 gallons

of spray solution. Use continuous adequate agitation. Apply with Radiarc,

OC or equivalent nozzles, or handgun using 70 to 100 gallons of spray per

acre to ensure uniform coverage of stems. Garlon 4 may be mixed with 4

quarts of Weedone 170 herbicide to improve the control of black cherry and

broaden the spectrum of herbicidal activity. In western states, apply anytime

after woody plants are dormant. In other areas apply anytime within 10

weeks of budbreak, generally February through April. Do not apply to wet or

saturated bark as poor control may result.

Cut Stump Treatment

To control resprouting of cut stumps of susceptible species, mix 20 to 30

gallons of Garlon 4 in enough oil to make 100 gallons of spray mixture. Apply

with a backpack or knapsack sprayer using low pressures and a solid cone

or flat fan nozzle. Spray the root collar area, sides of the stump, and the

outer portion of the cut surface including the cambium until thoroughly wet,

but not to the point of runoff. Spray mixture concentration should vary with

size and susceptibility of species treated. Apply at any time, including in

winter months, except when snow or water prevent spraying to the ground

line.

Treatment of Cut Stumps in Western States

To control resprouting of salt-cedar and other Tamarix species, bigleaf

maple, tanoak, Oregon myrtle, and other susceptible species, apply undiluted
6

Garlon 4 to wet the cambium and adjacent wood around the entire

circumference of the cut stump. Treatments may be applied throughout the

year; however, control may be reduced with treatment during periods of

moisture stress as in late summer. Use an applicator which can be

calibrated to deliver the small amounts of material required.

Note: All basal bark and dormant brush treatment methods may be used to

treat susceptible woody species on range and permanent pasture land

provided that no more than 1.5 quarts of Garlon 4 are applied per acre.

Large plants or species requiring higher rates of Garlon 4 may not be

completely controlled.

Forest Management Applications

For broadcast applications apply the recommended rate of Garlon 4 in a total

spray volume of 5 to 25 gallons per acre by air or 10 to 100 gallons per acre

by ground. Use spray volumes sufficient to provide thorough coverage of

treated foliage. Use application systems designed to prevent spray drift to

off-target sites. Nozzles or additives that produce larger droplets may require

higher spray volumes to provide adequate coverage.

Plant Back Interval for Conifers: Conifers planted sooner than 1 month

after treatment with Garlon 4 at less than 4 quarts per acre or sooner than 2

months after treatment at 4 to 8 quarts per acre may be injured. When tank

mixtures of herbicides are used for forest site preparation, labels for all

products in the mixture should be consulted and the longest recommended

waiting period observed.

Broadcast Treatments for Forest Site Preparation (Not For Conifer

Release)

Southern States Including Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida,

Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma,

South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia: To control susceptible

woody plants and broadleaf weeds, apply Garlon 4 at a rate of 4 to 8 quarts

per acre. To broaden the spectrum of woody plants and broadleaf weeds

controlled, apply 2 to 4 quarts per acre of Garlon 4 in tank mix combination

with labeled rates of Tordon 101 Mixture or Tordon K. Tordon 101 Mixture

and Tordon K are not registered for use in the states of California and

Florida. Where grass control is also desired, Garlon 4, alone or in

combination with Tordon K or Tordon 101 Mixture, may be tank mixed with

labeled rates of other herbicides registered for grass control in forests. Use

of tank mix products must be in accordance with the most restrictive of label

limitations and precautions. No label application rates should be exceeded.

Garlon 4 cannot be tank mixed with any product containing a label prohibition

against such mixing.

In Western, Northeastern, North Central, and Lake States (States Not

Listed Above As Southern States): To control susceptible woody plants

and broadleaf weeds, apply Garlon 4 at a rate of 3 to 6 quarts per acre. To

broaden the spectrum of woody plants and broadleaf weeds controlled, apply

1.5 to 3.0 quarts per acre of Garlon 4 in tank mix combination with labeled

rates of Tordon 101 Mixture, Tordon K, or 2,4-D low volatile ester. Tordon

101 Mixture and Tordon K are not registered for use in the states of

California and Florida. Where grass control is also desired, Garlon 4, alone

or in tank mix combination with Tordon 101 Mixture or Tordon K, may be

applied with labeled rates of other herbicides registered for grass control in

forests. When applying tank mixes, follow applicable use directions and

precautions on each product label.

Applications for Site Preparation in Southern Coastal Flatwoods: To

control susceptible broadleaf weeds and woody species such as gallberry

and wax-myrtle, and for partial control of saw-palmetto, apply 2 to 4 quarts

per acre of Garlon 4. To broaden the spectrum of species controlled to

include fetterbush, staggerbush, titi, and grasses, apply 2 to 3 quarts per

acre of Garlon 4 in tank mix combination with labeled rates of Arsenal

Applicator's Concentrate herbicide. Where control of gallberry, wax-myrtle,

broadleaf weeds, and grasses is desired, 2 to 3 quarts per acre of Garlon 4

may be applied in tank mix combination with labeled rates of Accord

herbicide.

These treatments may be broadcast during site preparation of flat planted or

bedded sites or, on bedded sites, applied in bands over the top of beds. For

best results, make applications in late summer or fall. Efficacy may not be

satisfactory when applications are made in early season prior to August.

Note: Do not apply after planting pines.

Applications for Conifer Release

Note: Applications for conifer release may cause temporary damage and

growth suppression where contact with conifers occurs; however, injured

conifers should recover and grow normally. Over-the-top spray applications

can kill pines.

Directed Sprays

To release conifers from competing hardwoods and brush such as red

maple, sugar maple, striped maple, sweetgum, red and white oaks, ash,

hickory, alder, birch, aspen, pin cherry, Ceanothus spp., blackberry,

chinquapin, and poison oak, mix 4 to 20 quarts of Garlon 4 in enough water

to make 100 gallons of spray mixture. This spray should be directed onto

foliage of competitive hardwoods using knapsack or backpack sprayers with

flat fan nozzles or equivalent any time after the hardwoods and brush have

reached full leaf size, but before autumn coloration. The majority of treated

hardwoods and brush should be less than 6 feet in height to ensure

adequate spray coverage. Care should be taken to direct spray solutions

away from conifer foliage, particularly foliage of desirable pines. See Table 1

for relationship between mixing rate, spray volume and maximum application

rate.

Broadcast Applications for Mid-Rotation Understory Brush Control in

Southern Coastal Flatwoods Pine Stands (Ground Equipment Only)

For control of susceptible species such as gallberry and wax-myrtle and

broadleaf weeds, apply 2 to 4 quarts per acre of Garlon 4. To broaden the

spectrum of woody plants controlled to include fetterbush, staggerbush, and

titi, apply 2 to 3 quarts per acre of Garlon 4 in tank mix combination with

labeled rates of Arsenal Applicator's Concentrate. Saw-palmetto will be

partially controlled by use of Garlon 4 at 4 quarts per acre or by mixtures of

Garlon 4 at 2 to 3 quarts per acre in tank mix combination with either Arsenal

Applicator's Concentrate or Escort herbicide.

These mixtures should be broadcast applied over target understory brush

species, but to prevent injury to pines, make applications underneath

the foliage of pines. It is recommended that sprays be applied in 30 or

more gallons per acre of total volume. For best results, make applications in

late summer or fall. Efficacy may not be satisfactory when applications are

made in early season prior to August.

Broadcast Applications for Conifer Release in the Pacific Northwest

and California

On Dormant Conifers Before Bud Swell (Excluding Pines): To control

or suppress deciduous hardwoods such as vine maple, bigleaf maple, alder,

scotch broom, or willow before leaf-out or evergreen hardwoods such as

madrone, chinquapin, and Ceanothus spp., use Garlon 4 at 1 to 2 quarts per

acre. Diluents used may be diesel or fuel oil. Or, water plus 1 to 2 gallons

per acre of diesel oil or a suitable surfactant or oil substitute at

manufacturer's recommended rates may be used.

On Conifer Plantations (Excluding Pines) After Hardwoods Begin

Growth and Before Conifer Bud Break ("Early Foliar" Hardwood

Stage): Use Garlon 4 at 1.0 to 1.5 quarts alone or plus 2,4-D low volatile

ester herbicide in water carrier to provide no more than 3 pounds acid
7

equivalent per acre from both products. After conifer bud break, these

sprays may cause more serious injury to the crop trees. Use of a surfactant

may cause unacceptable injury to conifers especially after bud break.

On Conifer Plantations (Excluding Pines) After Conifers Harden Off In

Late Summer and While Hardwoods Are Still Growing Actively: Use

Garlon 4 at rates of 1.0 to 1.5 quarts per acre alone or plus 2,4-D low volatile

ester to provide no more than 3 pounds acid equivalent per acre from both

products. Treat as soon after conifer bud hardening as possible so that

hardwoods and brush are actively growing. Use of oil, oil substitute, or

surfactant may cause unacceptable injury to the conifers.

Broadcast Applications for Conifer Release in the Eastern United

States

To release spruce, fir, red pine, and white pine from competing hardwoods

such as red maple, sugar maple, striped maple, alder, birch (white, yellow,

and grey), aspen, ash, pin cherry, and Rubus spp. and perennial and annual

broadleaf weeds, use Garlon 4 at rates of 1.5 to 3.0 quarts per acre alone or

plus 2,4-D amine or low volatile ester to provide no more than 4 pounds acid

equivalent per acre from both products. Applications should be made in late

summer or early fall after conifers have formed their overwintering buds and

hardwoods are in full leaf and prior to autumn coloration.

Broadcast Applications for Conifer Release in the Lake States Region

To release spruce, fir, and red pine from competing hardwoods such as

aspen, birch, maple, cherry, willow, oak, hazel, and Rubus spp. and

perennial and annual broadleaf weeds, use Garlon 4 at rates of 1.5 to 3.0

quarts per acre. Applications should be made in late summer or early fall

after conifers have formed their overwintering buds and hardwoods are in full

leaf and prior to autumn coloration.

Warranty Disclaimer

Dow AgroSciences warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label and is reasonably fit for the purposes stated on the

label when used in strict accordance with the directions, subject to the

inherent risks set forth below. Dow AgroSciences MAKES NO OTHER

EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR

FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR ANY OTHER EXPRESS

OR IMPLIED WARRANTY.

Inherent Risks of Use

It is impossible to eliminate all risks associated with use of this product.

Plant injury, lack of performance, or other unintended consequences may

result because of such factors as use of the product contrary to label

instructions (including conditions noted on the label, such as unfavorable

temperature, soil conditions, etc.), abnormal conditions (such as excessive

rainfall, drought, tornadoes, hurricanes), presence of other materials, the

manner of application, or other factors, all of which are beyond the control of

Dow AgroSciences or the seller. All such risks shall be assumed by buyer.

Limitation of Remedies

The exclusive remedy for losses or damages resulting from this product

(including claims based on contract, negligence, strict liability, or other legal

theories), shall be limited to, at Dow AgroSciences' election, one of the

following:

1. Refund of purchase price paid by buyer or user for product bought, or

2. Replacement of amount of product used

Dow AgroSciences shall not be liable for losses or damages resulting from

handling or use of this product unless Dow AgroSciences is promptly notified

of such loss or damage in writing. In no case shall Dow AgroSciences be

liable for consequential or incidental damages or losses.

The terms of the "Warranty Disclaimer" above and this "Limitation of

Remedies" cannot be varied by any written or verbal statements or

agreements. No employee or sales agent of Dow AgroSciences or the seller

is authorized to vary or exceed the terms of the "Warranty Disclaimer" or this

"Limitation of Remedies" in any manner.

*Trademark of Dow AgroSciences LLC

Dow AgroSciences LLC • Indianapolis, IN 46268 U.S.A.

Label Code: D02-102-023

Replaces Label: D02-102-022

EPA-Accepted 07/22/97

Revisions:

Minor corrections to EPA accepted text dated 7-22-97
Specimen Label

For controlling unwanted trees via cut surface

treatments in forests and non-cropland areas such as

fence rows, roadsides, and rights-of-way.

Active Ingredient(s):

picloram: 4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid,

 triisopropanolamine salt ................................................ 5.4%

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid,

 triisopropanolamine salt† .............................................. 20.9%

Inert Ingredients ............................................................................ 73.7%

Total ........................................................................................... 100.0%

Acid equivalents:

picloram - 3.0%

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - 11.2%

†Isomer Specific by AOAC Method No. 978.05 (15th Ed.)

EPA Reg. No. 62719-31

Keep Out of Reach of Children

Precautionary Statements

Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals

WARNING AVISO

Si usted no entiende la etiqueta, busque a alguien para que se la explique a

usted en detalle. (If you do not understand the label, find someone to explain

it to you in detail.)

Causes Substantial But Temporary Eye Injury • Harmful If Swallowed,

Inhaled, Or Absorbed Through Skin

Do not get in eyes or on clothing. Avoid contact with skin.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Some materials that are chemical-resistant to this product are listed below. If

you want more options, follow the instructions for category C on an EPA

chemical resistance category selections chart.

Applicators and other handlers, including persons repairing or

cleaning equipment, must wear:

• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants

• Chemical-resistant gloves such as Barrier Laminate, Butyl Rubber, Nitrile

Rubber, Neoprene Rubber, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), or Viton

• Shoes plus socks

• Protective eyewear

• For containers over 1 gallon, but less than 5 gallons: Mixers and

loaders who do not use a mechanical system (such as probe and pump or

spigot) to transfer the contents of this container must wear coveralls or a

chemical-resistant apron in addition to other required PPE.

Discard clothing and other absorbent materials that have been drenched or

heavily contaminated with this product's concentrate. Do not reuse them.

Follow manufacturer's instructions for cleaning/maintaining PPE. If no such

instructions for washables, use detergent and hot water. Keep and wash

PPE separately from other laundry. After each day of use, clothing or PPE

must not be reused until it has been cleaned.

Engineering Controls Statements

For containers of 5 gallons or more: Do not open pour from this

container. A mechanical system (such as probe and pump or spigot) must

be used for transferring the contents of this container. If the contents of a

non-refillable pesticide container are emptied, the probe must be rinsed

before removal. If the mechanical system is used in a manner that meets the

requirements listed in the Worker Protection Standard (WPS) for agricultural

pesticides [40 CFR 170.240(d) (4)], the handler PPE requirements may be

reduced or modified as specified in the WPS.

User Safety Recommendations

Users should:

• Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco or using

the toilet.

• Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside. Then wash

thoroughly and put on clean clothing.

• Remove PPE immediately after handling this product. Wash the outside

of gloves before removing. As soon as possible, wash thoroughly and

change into clean clothing.

First Aid

If in eyes: Flush with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical

attention.

If on skin: Wash with plenty of soap and water. Get medical attention.

Contains ethylene glycol.

If swallowed: Call a doctor or get medical attention. Do not induce

vomiting. Drink promptly a large quantity of milk, egg whites, gelatin solution,

or if these are not available, drink large quantities of water. Avoid alcohol.

If inhaled: Remove victim to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial

respiration, preferably mouth-to-mouth. Get medical attention.

Environmental Hazards

Drift or runoff may adversely affect non-target plants. Do not apply directly to

water, to areas where surface water is present or to intertidal areas below the

mean high water mark. Do not contaminate water when disposing of

equipment washwaters.

Picloram is a chemical which can travel (seep or leach) through soil and

under certain conditions has the potential to contaminate groundwater which

may be used for irrigation and drinking purposes. Users are advised not to

apply picloram where soils have a rapid to very rapid permeability throughout

the profile (such as loamy sand to sand) and the water table of an underlying

aquifer is shallow or to soils containing sinkholes over limestone bedrock,

severely fractured surfaces, and substrates which would allow direct

introduction into an aquifer. Your local agricultural agencies can provide

further information on the type of soil in your area and the location of

groundwater.
2

An aquifer is defined as "an underground, saturated, permeable, geologic

formation capable of producing significant quantities of water to a well or

spring. It is the ability of the saturated zone, or portion of that zone, to yield

water which makes it an aquifer" (American Chemical Society, 1983).

Physical or Chemical Hazards

Do not use or store near heat or open flame. Do not cut or weld

container.

Notice: Read the entire label. Use only according to label directions.

Before buying or using this product, read “Warranty Disclaimer” and

“Limitation of Remedies” elsewhere on this label.

In case of emergency endangering health or the environment involving this

product, call 1-800-992-5994. If you wish to obtain additional product

information, visit our web site at www.dowagro.com.

Agricultural Chemical: Do not ship or store with food, feeds, drugs or

clothing.

Directions for Use

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in a manner inconsistent

with its labeling.

Read all Directions for Use carefully before applying.

Use undiluted only as indicated below.

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or other persons,

either directly or through drift. Only protected handlers may be in the area

during application. For any requirements specific to your state or tribe,

consult the agency responsible for pesticide regulation.

Agricultural Use Requirements

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and with the Worker

Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170. This Standard contains requirements

for the protection of agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and

greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It contains

requirements for training, decontamination, notification, and emergency

assistance. It also contains specific instructions and exceptions pertaining to

the statements on this label about Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), and

restricted entry interval. The requirements in this box only apply to uses of

this product that are covered by the Worker Protection Standard.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the restricted

entry interval (REI) of 48 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is permitted under the

Worker Protection Standard and that involves contact with anything that has

been treated, such as plants, soil, or water, is:

• Coveralls

• Chemical-resistant gloves such as Barrier Laminate, Butyl Rubber, Nitrile

Rubber, Neoprene Rubber, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), or Viton

• Shoes plus socks

• Protective eyewear

Storage and Disposal

Do not contaminate water, food, fertilizer or feed by storage or disposal.

Storage: Keep container tightly closed when not in use.

Pesticide Disposal: Pesticide wastes are toxic. Improper disposal of

excess pesticide, spray mixture, or rinsate, is a violation of Federal law and

may contaminate groundwater. If these wastes cannot be disposed of by use

according to label instructions, contact your state pesticide or environmental

control agency, or the hazardous waste representative at the nearest EPA

regional office for guidance.

Rinse application equipment after use, at least three times with water, and

dispose of rinse water in a non-cropland area away from water supplies.

Metal Container Disposal: Do not reuse container. Triple rinse (or

equivalent). Puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or by other

procedures approved by state and local authorities.

Plastic Container Disposal: Do not reuse container. Triple rinse (or

equivalent). Puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or by incineration,

or, if allowed by state and local authorities, by burning. If burned, stay out of

smoke.

Consult federal, state, or local disposal authorities for approved alternative

procedures.

General Information

Tordon RTU herbicide is a ready-to-use product that is effective in cut

surface applications for killing unwanted trees and preventing undesirable

sprouting of cut trees in forest and other non-crop areas such as fence rows,

roadsides and rights-of-way.

General Use Precautions

Use this product only as specified on this label.

Be sure that use of this product conforms to all applicable regulations.

Tordon RTU is highly active as a herbicide, is water soluble, can move with

surface runoff water, and can remain phytotoxic for a year or more if it gets

into the soil.

Tordon RTU should not be applied on residential or commercial lawns

or near ornamental trees and shrubs. Untreated trees can occasionally

be affected by root uptake of herbicide through movement into the top soil or

by excretion of the product from the roots of nearby treated trees. Do not

apply Tordon RTU within the root zone of desirable trees unless such injury

can be tolerated.

Do not contaminate cropland, water, or irrigation ditches.

Do Not Contaminate Water Intended for Irrigation or Domestic Purposes. To

avoid injury to crops or other desirable plants, do not treat or allow spray drift

or run-off to fall onto banks or bottoms of irrigation ditches, either dry or

containing water, or other channels that carry water that may be used for

irrigation or domestic purposes. Do not apply to snow or frozen ground.

Do not rotate food or feed crops on treated land if they are not registered for

use with picloram until an adequately sensitive bioassay or chemical test

shows that no detectable picloram is present in the soil.

Do not apply on or in the vicinity of sensitive crops of desirable broadleaf

plants. Small amounts can cause injury to plants.

Do not allow careless application or spray drift. Do not permit any spray or

spray drift to contact desirable plants. Use only gravity flow or very low spray

pressure.

Do not remove product from original container except to apply as indicated

under Use Directions.

Mixing and Loading: Most cases of groundwater contamination involving

phenoxy herbicides such as 2,4-D have been associated with mixing/loading

and disposal sites. Caution should be exercised when handling 2,4-D

pesticides at such sites to prevent contamination of groundwater supplies.

Use of closed systems for mixing or transferring this pesticide will reduce the

probability of spills. Placement of the mixing/loading equipment on an

impervious pad to contain spills will help prevent groundwater contamination.
3

Woody Plants Controlled by Tordon RTU

ailanthus elm maples

alder firs oaks

aspen green ash pecan

birch gum persimmon

cedar hawthorn serviceberry

cherry hickory sourwood

dogwood hornbeam sweetbay

Approved Uses

Forest Uses

Agricultural Use Requirements for Forest Use: For the following forestry

uses, follow PPE and Reentry instructions in the "Agricultural Use

Requirements" section of this label.

Non-crop Uses Such As Fence Rows, Roadsides

and Rights-of-Way

Use Requirements for Non-cropland Areas: No Worker Protection

Standard worker entry restrictions or worker notification requirements apply

when this product is applied to non-cropland areas.

Application Methods

Tree Injection Treatment

Use 1 milliliter of undiluted Tordon RTU solution through the bark completely

around the tree trunk at intervals of 2 to 3 inches between edges of the

injector wounds. Make injections near ground level when using the tree

injector or 2 to 4 feet above the ground when using a Hypohatchet Injector or

similar device. Treatments can be made in any season. Maples should not

be treated during the spring sap flow. With some difficult to control species

such as dogwood, hickory, sugar maple, bigleaf maple, tanoak, and some

firs, application to a continuous cut rather than to spaced cuts may be more

uniformly effective. Note: No Worker Protection Standard worker entry

restrictions or worker notification requirements apply when this

product is directly injected into agricultural plants.

Frill or Girdle Treatment

Make a single hack girdle or "frill" of overlapping axe cuts through the bark

completely around the tree as close to the ground as feasible. Spray or paint

the injured surface with undiluted Tordon RTU, using enough volume to wet

treated areas.

Stump Treatment

Spray or paint the cut surfaces of freshly cut stumps and stubs with

undiluted Tordon RTU. The cambium area next to the bark is the most vital

area to wet.

Warranty Disclaimer

Dow AgroSciences warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label and is reasonably fit for the purposes stated on the

label when used in strict accordance with the directions, subject to the

inherent risks set forth below. Dow AgroSciences MAKES NO OTHER

EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR

FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR ANY OTHER EXPRESS

OR IMPLIED WARRANTY.

Inherent Risks of Use

It is impossible to eliminate all risks associated with use of this product.

Plant injury, lack of performance, or other unintended consequences may

result because of such factors as use of the product contrary to label

instructions (including conditions noted on the label, such as unfavorable

temperature, soil conditions, etc.), abnormal conditions (such as excessive

rainfall, drought, tornadoes, hurricanes), presence of other materials, the

manner of application, or other factors, all of which are beyond the control of

Dow AgroSciences or the seller. All such risks shall be assumed by buyer.

Limitation of Remedies

The exclusive remedy for losses or damages resulting from this product

(including claims based on contract, negligence, strict liability, or other legal

theories), shall be limited to, at Dow AgroSciences' election, one of the

following:

1. Refund of purchase price paid by buyer or user for product bought, or

2. Replacement of amount of product used

Dow AgroSciences shall not be liable for losses or damages resulting from

handling or use of this product unless Dow AgroSciences is promptly notified

of such loss or damage in writing. In no case shall Dow AgroSciences be

liable for consequential or incidental damages or losses.

The terms of the "Warranty Disclaimer" above and this "Limitation of

Remedies" cannot be varied by any written or verbal statements or

agreements. No employee or sales agent of Dow AgroSciences or the seller

is authorized to vary or exceed the terms of the "Warranty Disclaimer" or this

"Limitation of Remedies" in any manner.

*Trademark of Dow AgroSciences LLC

Dow AgroSciences LLC • Indianapolis, IN 46268 U.S.A.

Label Code: D01-046-006

Replaces Label: 112-46-004

EPA-Accepted 07/21/95

Revisions:

DowElanco notified the EPA that its legal name will change to Dow

AgroSciences LLC effective January 1, 1998. The following label changes

are being made via non-notification as a result of this company name

change:

• Company name changed from DowElanco to Dow AgroSciences

 LLC (logo, trademark reference, address line, warranty statement)

• Emergency telephone number updated to include a web site

 address (PR Notice 97-4)

The name of this product and its EPA registration number remain the same.

No other changes are being made to the label at this time.
H - 63085

Escort®

herbicide

“......... A Growing Partnership With Nature”

®

®
Escort®

herbicide

Dry Flowable

Active Ingredient By Weight

Metsulfuron methyl 

Methyl 2-[[[[(4-methoxy-6-methyl-

-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)amino]-

carbonyl]-amino]sulfonyl]benzoate} 60%

Inert Ingredients 40%

TOTAL 100%

EPA Reg. No. 352-439

IMPORTANT

DO NOT USE ON FOOD OR FEED CROPS EXCEPT AS

RECOMMENDED BY THIS LABEL OR SUPPLEMENTAL LABELING. Injury to or loss of desirable trees

or other plants may result from failure to observe the

following: Do not apply "Escort" Herbicide (except as

recommended), or drain or flush equipment on or near

desirable trees or other plants, or on areas where their roots

may extend or in locations where the chemical may be

washed or moved into contact with their roots. Do not use

on lawns, walks, driveways, tennis courts, or similar areas.

Prevent drift of spray to desirable plants. Do not contaminate any body of water, including irrigation water. Keep

from contact with fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides and

seeds.

Following an "Escort" application, do not use sprayer for

application to crops. This is extremely important, as low

rates of "Escort" can kill or severely injure most crops

(except small grains).

1

KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

CAUTION

STATEMENT OF 

PRACTICAL TREATMENT

In case of contact with eyes, immediately flush with plenty

of water. If on skin, wash with plenty of soap and water.

Get medical attention if irritation persists.

For medical emergencies involving this product, call

toll free 1-800-441-3637.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

HAZARDS TO HUMANS 

AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

CAUTION! Causes eye irritation. Avoid contact with

skin, eyes or clothing. Avoid breathing dust or spray mist. 

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Applicators and other handlers must wear:

Long-sleeved shirt and long pants.

Shoes plus socks.

Follow manufacturer's instructions for cleaning/maintaining PPE. If no such instructions for washables, use

detergent and hot water. Keep and wash PPE separately

from other laundry.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Do not apply directly to water, or to areas where surface

water is present, or to intertidal areas below the mean high

water mark. Do not contaminate water when disposing of

equipment washwaters.

This herbicide is injurious to plants at extremely low

concentrations. Nontarget plants may be adversely

effected from drift and run-off.

USER SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS

Users should: Wash hands before eating, drinking,

chewing gum, using tobacco or using the toilet.
GENERAL INFORMATION

Do not use this product in California nor in the following

counties of Colorado: Saguache, Rio Grande, Alamosa,

Costilla and Conejos.

Du Pont "Escort" Herbicide is a dispersible granule to be

mixed in water and applied as a foliar spray for control of

unwanted woody plants and annual and perennial broadleaf

weeds, basal soil treatment of multiflora rose, for preemergence and postemergence industrial weed control, and for the

growth suppression of certain desirable grasses in noncrop

areas such as airports, highways, roadsides, utility and

pipeline rights-of-ways, petroleum tank farms, storage areas,

pumping installations, plant sites, industrial turf, roadside turf,

railroad rights-of-way and fence rows.

Do not apply to open water (such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers,

streams, creeks, salt water bays or estuaries) nor while water

is present in fresh water wetlands (such as marshes, swamps,

bogs or potholes) nor to salt water marshes within tidal areas

nor to areas where the herbicide is likely to move into water

(such as insides of ditches, steep banks along waterways or

impervious substrates) nor to areas near desirable plants

where roots of these plants may extend. It is permissible to

treat the berm of ditches, seasonally dry flood plains, deltas,

marshes, swamps, bogs and transitional areas between upland

and lowland sites.

Warm, moist conditions following treatment promote the

activity of "Escort", while cold, dry conditions may reduce or

delay activity. Weeds and brush hardened off by cold weather

or drought stress may not be controlled. Degree of control and

duration of effect are dependent on the rate used, sensitivity

and size of target species, as well as soil moisture and soil

temperature.

Following the use of "Escort", some naturally-occurring

biotypes of pest species listed on this label may not be effectively controlled. Biotypes are individuals of the species

which have a slightly different genetic makeup. Resistant

biotypes may look exactly the same as susceptible biotypes

but are able to survive a use rate several times higher than

needed to control susceptible biotypes. To delay the occurrence of resistant biotypes, use "Escort" in tank mixes and/or

sequential treatments with other registered herbicides

effective on the same broadleaf weed species. Do not let

weed escapes go to seed; time postemergence treatments

before seed formation. Respray problem areas in a timely and

effective manner using a herbicide with a different mode of

action.

"Escort" is noncorrosive, nonflammable, nonvolatile and does

not freeze.

MODE OF ACTION

"Escort" rapidly stops growth of susceptible plant species;

however, typical symptoms (discoloration) may not be noticeable for several weeks after application, depending on

growing conditions and susceptibility. Weeds absorb "Escort"

through both the foliage and roots resulting in visual effects

progressing from growth inhibition to reddish-purplish

coloration, chlorosis, necrosis, vein discoloration and death of

terminal. Initial effects are usually seen 2 or 3 weeks

following application; however, the final effects on weeds are

evident at about 4 to 6 weeks after application. On brush,

ultimate effects occur during the season after treatment.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of federal law to use this product in a

manner inconsistent with its labeling.

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or

other persons, either directly or through drift. Only protected

handlers may be in the area during application. For any

requirements specific to your State or Tribe, consult the agency

responsible for pesticide regulation.

"Escort" Herbicide should be used only in accordance with

recommendations on this label or in separate published Du

Pont recommendations available through local suppliers..

Du Pont will not be responsible for losses or damages

resulting from the use of this product in any manner not

specifically recommended by Du Pont. User assumes all

risks associated with such nonrecommended use.

Du Pont "Escort" Herbicide is recommended as a postemergence application for control of brush and certain perennial

broadleaf weeds and preemergence and postemergence for

weed control on noncropland. "Escort" is also recommended

for weed control on established, unimproved, industrial turf

and native perennial grasses. On fescue/bluegrass turf,

"Escort" is recommended for growth suppression and

seedhead inhibition. 

For tank mixes, use the most restrictive limitations from

labeling of both products.

Consult your chemical supplier, applicator, consultant,

appropriate state agricultural extension service representative or your local Du Pont representatives for specific

recommendations.

AGRICULTURAL USES

AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling

and with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR

part 170. This Standard contains requirements for

the protection of agricultural workers on farms,

forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of

agricultural pesticides. It contains requirements for

training, decontamination, notification, and

emergency assistance. It also contains specific

instructions and exceptions pertaining to the statements on this label about personal protective

equipment(PPE) and restricted-entry interval. The

requirements in this box only apply to uses of this

product that are covered by the Worker Protection

Standard.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas

during the restricted entry interval (REI) of 4 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is

permitted under the Worker Protection Standard and

that involves contact with anything that has been

treated, such as plants, soil, or water, is:

Coveralls.

Shoes plus socks.

2
WEED AND BRUSH CONTROL

CONIFER PLANTATIONS

SITE PREPARATION

Loblolly Pine and Slash Pine Only

For control of blackberry and other broadleaf weeds (see

listing under Non-crop Weed Control), apply 1/2 to 1-1/2

ozs "Escort" per acre (plus surfactant) by air or ground

equipment. Treat blackberry plants after they have reached

full leaf, but before leaf tissue has hardened in the fall. Use

sufficient spray volume for complete coverage of these

plants. For control of diffuse knapweed, Japanese honeysuckle, palmetto, black cherry and black locust, apply 3-1/3

ozs "Escort" per acre (plus surfactant).

For broader spectrum control, tank mix with:

• "Arsenal" (as registered) for dewberry, greenbrier, honeysuckle, morningglory, poison ivy, redvine, trumpet

creeper, wild grape, sumac, beech, aspen, black gum, box

elder, chinaberry, dogwood, hickory, persimmon, red

maple, sassafras, sourwood, sweetgun, yellow poplar and

others (see container label).

• "Velpar" L (as registered) for bracken fern, ash, aspen,

balsam, blackgum, cherry, poplar, birch, box elder,

brambles, cherry (black and pin), elm, winged elm,

hawthorne, hazel, honeysuckle, oaks (red, black and

white), and willow(see container label).

• "Accord" (or "Roundup"3 both as registered) for

blackgum, braken fern, cherry, Virginia creeper,

dewberry, honeysuckle, black locust, persimmon, poison

ivy, sassafras, sourwood, sumac, sweet gum, hawthorn,

trumpet creeper, wax myrtle and others (see container

label).

• "Oust" at 2 to 3 ozs per acre (loblolly pine only) for many

herbaceous annual broadleaves and grasses, such as,

fireweed, horseweed, common ragweed, annual

sowthistle, black mustard, bur clover, sweet clover, curly

dock, barnyardgrass, panicums, reed canarygrass,

pokeweed, signalgrass and others (see container label).

Apply to seedling weeds.

Douglas Fir

For control of blackberry and other broadleaf weeds, apply

1/2 to 1 oz "Escort" per acre (plus surfactant) in the spring.

Douglas fir may be transplanted in treated areas the next

season.

For broader spectrum control, "Escort" should be tankmixed with "Velpar" L Herbicide. Use "Velpar" L as

directed on the package for ground equipment.

RELEASE

Loblolly Pine (established plantations)

For control of blackberry, apply 1/2 to 1-1/2 ozs "Escort"

per acre in a minimum of 10 gals water per acre by air or

ground equipment, plus surfactant. Treat plants when they

have reached full leaf but before leaf tissue has hardened in

the fall. Treatment will also control many annual broadleaf

weeds (see Weed Control); best results occur when annuals

are treated in the seedling stage.

For broader spectrum control, "Escort" should be tankmixed as follows:

• "Arsenal" - Apply 1/2 to 1-1/2 ozs "Escort" plus 1 pt

"Arsenal" (plus surfactant) per acre. Apply during

summer to late fall (preferred) as described on the

"Arsenal" container label. The combination controls or

improves control of blackberry, black gum, elm, winged

elm, and cherry and controls many weeds as shown on

product labels. 

• "Velpar" L (or "Velpar") - For brush control and herbaceous weed control (see container labels for species

controlled), apply 1/2 to 1-1/2 ozs "Escort" plus 1-1/2 to 6

qts "Velpar" L (or equivalent "Velpar") per acre. Do not

use surfactant.

• "Oust" at 2 to 3 ozs per acre for herbaceous weed control.

Do not use surfactant. Apply late winter through spring

after the soil has settled around the pines. 

Do not apply where conifers are suffering from loss of vigor

caused by insects, disease, drought, winter damage, or other

stresses, as injury may result. Excessive injury may result

to conifers less than 4 years of age from transplanting on

coarse-textured soils, and less than 3 years of age from

transplanting on medium and fine-textured soils. Use on

gravelly or rocky soils and exposed subsoils may cause

injury or mortality to conifers. Poor weed and brush control

may occur from application made when the soil is saturated

with water and rain is imminent within 24 hours. Do not

use on poorly drained or marshy sites but it may be used

where pines are planted on beds. A foam-reducing agent

may be added at the recommended rate, if needed.

Apply as a full coverage spray to foliage and stems. Total

spray volume per acre will depend upon plant height and

density of growth and the type of equipment used. See "

Recommended Minimum Spray Volumes."

Loblolly pine may be transplanted into treated areas 4

months after application; slash pine the following season, at

least 6 months after application; Douglas fir the following

season after treatment of "Escort".

For application of "Escort" alone or in combination on

loblolly pine and slash pine, follow directions on the

package label of the companion product in addition to

"Escort" directions above; see labels for additional plants

controlled. Follow all restrictions on labeling of both

products in the tank mixes.

"Escort" is not recommended for weed control to facilitate

the harvesting of pine straw.

Livestock may graze treated areas 0 days after application

of up to and including 1 2/3 oz "Escort" per acre. For

combinations, use the most restrictive recommendation of

products used.

3
NON-AGRICULTURAL USES

NON-CROP (INDUSTRIAL) WEED CONTROL

"Escort" is recommended for use for general weed control on

non-crop, industrial sites such as airports, military installations,

fence rows, roadsides and associated rights-of-ways, lumberyards, petroleum tank farms, pipeline and utility rights-of-ways,

pumping installations, railroads, storage areas, plant sites and

other similar areas including governmental and private lands.

When applied at lower dosage rates (as listed below), "Escort"

provides short term control of weeds listed; usage at higher rates

increases length and degree of weed control. Combinations with

other herbicides such as 2,4-D, dicamba, Karmex® DF, Hyvar®

X and Krovar® I DF increases the spectrum of weeds controlled.

Bare ground objectives can be achieved with higher rates of

"Escort" plus residual-type companion herbicides.

"Escort" may be applied preemergence or postemergence to the

weeds, but for best results, apply postemergence to young,

actively growing weeds (less than 2" tall or 2" across) at any time

of the year, except when ground is frozen. For postemergence

treatment add surfactant.

"Escort" should be used during seasons when rainfall normally

occurs as moisture is required to move "Escort" into the root

zone of weeds before they develop an established root system.

Preemergence treatments control or suppress weeds through root

uptake, while postemergence works through root uptake and

foliar uptake. Under limited rainfall conditions, "Escort" may not

provide satisfactory weed control.

Treated soils should be left undisturbed to reduce the potential

for "Escort" movement by soil erosion due to wind or water.

Injury to crops may occur when treated soil is blown or moved

onto land used to produce crops.

Rate selection is based on weed species, weed size and soil

texture. Use the higher rates on established plants and on fine

textured soils, and lower rates on smaller weeds and coarse

textured soils.

Since the degree of control and duration of effect will vary with

the amount of chemical applied, soil texture, soil pH, soil organic

matter, weed size, rainfall and other conditions, it is suggested

that users limit their first use to small areas.

For broadcast spray, apply "Escort" in a minimum of 10 gallons

of water per acre. Spray volumes of 20 to 40 gallons per acre and

pressures of 25 to 35 psi are preferred. Use coarse spray nozzles.

NON-AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS

The requirements in this box apply to uses of this product

that are NOT within the scope of the Worker Protection

Standard for agricultural pesticides (40 CFR Part170). The

WPS applies when this product is used to produce agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries, or greenhouses.

Non-crop industrial weed control and selective weed

control in turf (industrial, unimproved only) are not

within the scope of the Worker Protection Standard.

4

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM SPRAY VOLUMES

PRODUCT VOLUME - GALS/ACRE RATE

SITE PREPARATION SPRAY AERIAL - HELICOPTER NONIONIC SURFACTANT 

FOR LOBLOLLY AND SLASH PINES GROUND ONLY* QTS/100 GALS

"Escort" 10 10 1 

"Escort" + "Arsenal" 15 10 1 

"Escort" + "Velpar" L 25 10 1

"Escort" + "Accord" or Roundup 10 10 2 

"Escort" + "Oust" 15 10 1

PRODUCT VOLUME - GALS/ACRE RATE

SITE PREPARATION SPRAY AERIAL - HELICOPTER NONIONIC SURFACTANT

FOR DOUGLAS FIR GROUND ONLY* QTS/100 GALS

"Escort" 10 10 1

"Escort" + "Velpar" L 25 10 1

PRODUCT VOLUME - GALS/ACRE RATE

RELEASE SPRAY AERIAL - HELICOPTER NONIONIC SURFACTANT

FOR LOBLOLLY PINE GROUND ONLY* QTS/100 GALS

"Escort" 10 10 1

Pines established 1 yr.

"Escort" + Arsenal" 15 10 1

Pines established 2 yrs.

"Escort" + "Oust" 10 10 0

Pines established 1 yr.

"Escort" + "Velpar" L 25 10 0

Pines established 1 yr.

*Do not apply by air (helicopter) within 200 feet of any homestead, agricultural land or other desirable plantings.Extreme care much be

taken to prevent drift or runoff to homesteads, desirable plantings, agricultural land or any body of water.Do not apply when weather

conditions favor drift from treated areas.
Application may also be made with a hand gun using 100 to 300

gals water per acre (as needed for coverage of weed growth).

Use the following rates of "Escort" (including surfactant at

0.25% to 0.5% by volume) to control weeds listed:

1/3 to 1/2 ounce "Escort"/acre

1/2 to 1 ounce "Escort"/acre

1 ounces"Escort"/acre

1 to 2 ounces "Escort"/acre

1 1/2 to 2 ounces "Escort"/acre

3 to 4 ounces

*Suppression

SPECIAL WEED PROBLEMS

Since kochia, Russian thistle and prickly lettuce are known to

have biotypes resistant to "Escort", tank mixture combinations

should be used involving herbicides with different modes of

action such as "Karmex" DF, "Hyvar" X, and "Krovar" I DF.

These weeds should not be allowed to form mature seed and

should be treated postemergence with herbicides registered

for control of these weeds such as 2, 4-D and dicamba.

SELECTIVE WEED CONTROL IN TURF 

(INDUSTRIAL, UNIMPROVED ONLY)

"Escort" is recommended for use on unimproved industrial

turf where certain grasses are well-established and desired as

ground cover. An application of "Escort" may cause

temporary discoloration of the grasses.

Applications can be made anytime, except when ground is

frozen. Apply uniformly with properly calibrated ground

equipment, using 10 to 100 gallons of spray solution per acre.

Sprayer pressures of 25 to 35 psi are preferred.

Avoid overlapping and shut off spray booms while starting,

turning, slowing or stopping when spraying. Extreme care

must be taken to prevent drift; add a drift control agent to

reduce drift use at least 10 gals water per acre.

Do not apply "Escort" to turf that is under stress from

drought, insects, disease, cold temperatures or poor fertility,

as injury may result.

Do not apply to turf less than 1 year old.

Do not use on bahiagrass turf , as severe injury will result.

Use the lower rates for minimum effect (chlorosis) of turf,

particularly fescue and ryegrass.

Livestock may graze treated areas 0 days after application of

up to and including 1 2/3 oz "Escort" per acre. Do not use on

grasses grown for seed

FESCUE/BLUEGRASS: Apply 1/4 to 1/2 ounce "Escort"

per acre. Sequential applications made during the same or

consecutive growth periods (spring and fall) may result in

excessive injury to turf. When a spring application is made a

second application may be made during the summer after full

seedhead maturation and the beginning of summer dormancy..

CRESTED WHEATGRASS AND SMOOTH BROME:

Apply 1/4 to 1 ounce "Escort" per acre for weed control in

these grasses. Some chlorosis or stunting may occur following

the application.

BERMUDAGRASS: Apply 1/4 to 2 ounces "Escort" per acre

for weed control.

Some chlorosis or stunting may occur following the application.

Treatments listed will control the following weeds:

1/4 to 1/3 ounce "Escort"/acre 

1/3 to 2 ounces "Escort"/acre

(See listing under "NON-CROP WEED CONTROL")

Bittercress

Bur buttercup

Blue mustard

Chickweed

Chicory

Field pennycress

Redstem filaree

Wild carrot

Kudzu

Dunecap larkspur Tall larkspur

Bull thistle

Common tansy

Field bindweed*

Poison hemlock 

Scotch thistle

Scouringrush

Salsify

Snowberry

Musk thistle

Perrenial Pepperweed Teasel

Blackberry

Broom snakeweed

(apply fall-spring)

Buckhorn plantain

Canada thistle*

Curly dock

Dyer's woad

Gorse

Common sunflower

Prostrate knotweed

Hoary cress (whitetop)

Multiflora rose and

other wild roses

Rosering gaillardia

Annual broomweed

Annual sowthistle

Aster

Bahiagrass

Beebalm

Bittercress

Bitter sneezeweed

Blackeyed-susan

Blue mustard

Bur buttercup

Chicory

Clover 

Cocklebur

Common chickweed

Common groundsel

Common mullein

Common purslane

Common yarrow

Conical catchfly

Corn cockle

Cow cockle

Crownvetch

Dandelion

Dogfennel

False chamomile

Fiddleneck tarweed

Field pennycress

Flixweed

Goldenrod

Gumweed

Henbit

Lambsquarters

Marestail

Maximillion

sunflower

Miners lettuce

Pennsylvania

smartweed

Plains coreopsis

Plantain

Redroot pigweed

Redstem filaree

Rough fleabane

Shepherd's purse

Smallseed falseflax

Smooth pigweed

Sweet clover

Tansymustard

Treacle mustard

Tumble mustard

Wild carrot

Wild lettuce

Wild mustard

Wooly croton

Wood sorrel

Yankeeweed

5
GROWTH SUPPRESSION 

AND SEEDHEAD INHIBITION ("Chemical Mowing")

Fescue/Bluegrass: "Escort" is recommended for use on

unimproved turf in noncropland areas for growth suppression and seedhead inhibition of well-established turf. Apply

1/4 to 1/2 ounce "Escort" after at least 2 to 3 inches of new

growth has emerged until seed stalk (boot) appearance. For

improved performance, apply 1/4 to 1/3 ounce "Escort" plus

1/8 to 1/4 pint "Embark" 2-S1 per acre. Addition of a

nonionic surfactant at 0.25% by volume (1 qt per 100 gals)

provides maximum performance, but may temporarily

increase chlorosis of turf.

SELECTIVE WEED 

CONTROL IN NATIVE GRASSES

BLUE GRAMA, BLUESTEMS (BIG, LITTLE, PLAINS,

SAND, WW SPAR), BROMEGRASSES (MEADOW),

BUFFALOGRASS, GREEN SPRANGLETOP, INDIANGRASS, KLEINGRASS, LOVEGRASSES (ATHERSTONE, SAND, WEEPING, WILMAN), ORCHARDGRASS, SIDEOATS GRAMA, SWITCHGRASS

(BLACKWELL), WHEATGRASS (BLUEBUNCH,

INTERMEDIATE, PUBESCENT SIBERIAN, SLENDER,

STREAMBANK, TALL, THICKSPIKE, WESTERN),

AND WILDRYE GRASS (RUSSIAN):

Apply 1/10 oz "Escort" in a minimum of 10 gals water per

acre; add 0.25% surfactant by volume where weeds have

emerged.

New Seedings

Apply preplant or preemergence where soil (seed bed) has

been cultivated. Do not treat orchardgrass or Russian

wildrye grass.

Established Grasses

Treat when in the seedling stage for control of:

* Weed suppression is a visual reduction in weed competition (reduced population or vigor) as compared to

untreated area. Degree of suppression will vary with size

of weed and environmental conditions following

treatment.

BRUSH CONTROL

Foliar applications should be made after brush is fully

leafed until the beginning of fall leaf coloration. Complete

coverage of all foliage and stems is required for brush

control. Effectiveness may be reduced if rainfall occurs

within 24 hours after application.

High Volume Foliar Ground Applications: Apply as a

full coverage spray to foliage, stems and limbs using up to

400 gallons of total spray per acre depending on plant

species, height and density of growth and on the type of

spray equipment used. On tall, dense brush, it is often

necessary to spray from both sides to obtain adequate

coverage. Use the following amounts of "Escort" per 100

gallons of water (include surfactant at 1 quart/100 gallons)

and spray to runoff for control of:

1/2 to 1 Ounce*

1 to 2 Ounces*

* Where mixed stands occur, use the higher rate for the

most difficult-to- control species.

For broader spectrum of control, "Escort" may be tank

mixed with Du Pont Krenite® S, "Arsenal"2, triclopyr or

glyphosate using labeled use rates for each product.

"Escort" at 1/2 to 1 oz plus "Krenite" S at 1 1/2 to 3 gals

(plus surfactant) per 100 gals water provides improved

control of black cherry and red maple; do not exceed 6 gals

"Krenite" S per acre.

Low Volume Foliar Ground Applications: Apply 1 to 3

ounces "Escort" per acre in 25 to 50 gals of water plus

0.25% surfactant by volume for control of ash, cherry, elm,

winged elm, black locust, red oak, tuliptree and mulberry.

For improved control of black cherry and red maple, apply

1/2 to 2 ozs "Escort" plus 1-1/2 to 3 gals "Krenite" S (plus

surfactant) per acre.

Spotgun Basal Soil Treatment: For control of multiflora

rose, prepare a spray suspension of "Escort" using 1 ounce

product per gallon of water. Mix vigorously until "Escort" is

dispersed and agitate periodically while applying the spray

suspension.

Apply the spray preparation with an exact-delivery hand

gun applicator. This equipment delivers a thin stream of a

predetermined volume when triggered. Apply at the rate of

4 milliliters for each 2 feet of rose canopy diameter. Direct

the treatment to the soil within 2 feet of the stem union of

the rose to be controlled. When treating large plants and

more than one delivery of "Escort" dispersion is required,

make applications on opposite sides of the plant.

Applications should be made from early spring to summer,

when the ground is not frozen.

Elder

Oaks

Ocean spray

(Holodiscus)

Osage orange

Red maple

Cottonwood

Ash

Aspen

Blackberry

Cherry

Elm

Hawthorn

Multiflora rose

Salmonberry

Snowberry

Thimbleberry

Wild roses

Willow

Bur buttercup (testiculate)

Common purslane

Common sunflower*

Cutleaf eveningprimrose*

Flixweed*

Lambsquarters*-

-common and slimleaf

Marestail*

Pigweed

- redroot and tumble

Snow speedwell

Tansymustard*

Tumble mustard (Jim Hill)

6
USE PRECAUTIONS

Do not apply to any body of water, including streams, irrigation water or wells. Do not apply where runoff water

may flow onto agricultural land, as injury to crops may

result.

Do not apply "Escort" during periods of intense rainfall or

to water-saturated soils as off-target movement may occur.

Do not apply to impervious substrates such as paved or

highly compacted surfaces nor to frozen ground as offtarget movement will occur.

Do not allow spray to drift onto adjacent crops or other

desirable plants or trees as injury may occur.

Do not use on lawns, golf courses, athletic fields, commercial sod operations, or other high-maintenance, fine

turfgrass areas.

Do not apply this product through any type of irrigation

system.

In areas where sensitive crops are grown, make applications

to soils whose surface has been settled by rain. Do not treat

powdery dry soil or light sandy soils, when there is little

likelihood of rainfall soon after treatment, as wind may

cause off-target movement.

Following an "Escort" application, do not use sprayer for

application to crops. This is extremely important, as low

rates of "Escort" can kill or severely injure most crops

except small grains.

SPRAY PREPARATION

Fill the spray tank half full of water and, with agitator

running, add the proper amount of "Escort". Finish adding

the required amount of water. Continuous agitation is

required to keep the product in suspension. For postemergence applications, a nonionic surfactant of at least 80%

active ingredient should be added(unless specified

otherwise) to improve wetting and/or contact activity. To

minimize drift, a drift control agent may be added at the

recommended label rate. "Escort" spray preparations may

degrade in acidic solutions below pH 7 if not used in 24

hours; they are stable in alkaline solutions. Thoroughly

reagitate before using. Tank mixes with other registered

herbicides should be tested for compatibility before full

scale mixing.

Sprayer Agitation: Use mechanical or bypass agitation to

thoroughly mix the spray solution. After initial mixing, do

not use excessive agitation when using a surfactant as

foaming problems may result. To avoid foaming problems,

use antifoam agents.

SPRAYER CLEANUP

Immediately after spraying, thoroughly remove all traces of

"Escort" from mixing and spray equipment as follows:

1. Drain tank, rinse interior surfaces of tank; then flush tank,

boom and hoses with clean water for a minimum of 5

minutes.

2. Partially fill the tank with clean water, then add cleaning

solution*. Complete filling of the tank with clean water.

Flush solution through boom, hoses, and nozzles, then

allow to sit for 15 minutes with agitation running: then

drain.

3. Repeat Step 2.

4. Repeat Step 1.

5. Nozzles, screens, and strainers should then be removed

and cleaned separately.

6. To remove traces of cleaning solution, rinse the tank thoroughly with clean water and flush through hoses and

boom.

7. Flush boom and hoses with clean water for 5 minutes just

prior to using the sprayer for the first time after the

"Escort" application.

* Use any of the following cleaning solutions:

1. One gallon ammonia (containing 3% active ingredient)

per 100 gallons of water.

2. Nutra-sol4 (carefully read and follow Nutra-sol label

directions).

3. Loveland Spray Tank Cleaner5 (carefully read and

follow Loveland Spray Tank Cleaner label directions).

4. Tank-Aid6 (carefully read and follow Tank-Aid label

directions).

CAUTION: Do not use chlorine bleach with ammonia.

All traces of liquid fertilizer containing ammonia,

ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulphate must be rinsed

with water from the mixing and application equipment

before adding chlorine beach solution. Failure to do so will

release a gas with a musty chlorine odor which can cause

eye, nose, throat and lung irritation. Do not clean

equipment in an enclosed area.

NOTICE TO BUYER: Purchase of this material does not

confer any rights under patents of countries outside of the

United States.

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

Storage: Store product in original container only. Do

not contaminate water, other pesticides, fertilizer, food

or feed in storage.

Product Disposal: Do not contaminate water, food or

feed by disposal or cleaning of equipment. Wastes

resulting from the use of this product may be disposed

of on site or at an approved waste disposal facility.

Container Disposal: Triple rinse (or equivalent) the

container and then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or puncture and dispose of in a sanitary land

fill, or by incineration, or, if allowed by state and local

authorities, by burning. If burned, stay out of smoke.

7
[1] Registered trademark of PBI-Gordon Corp.

[2] Registered trademark of American Cyanamid Company.

[3] Registered trademark of Monsanto Company

[4] Sold by Thomas G. Kilfoil

[5] Registered trademark of Loveland Tank Cleaner

[6] Manufactured for Cornbelt Chemical Company

SL - 534 9017 12/18/96

NOTICE OF WARRANTY

Du Pont warrants that this product conforms to the

chemical description on the label thereof and is reasonably fit for purposes stated on such label only when

used in accordance with directions under normal use

conditions. It is impossible to eliminate all risks inherently associated with the use of this product. Crop

injury, ineffectiveness, or other unintended consequences may result because of such factors as weather

conditions, presence of other materials, or the manner

of use or application, all of which are beyond the

control of Du Pont. In no case shall Du Pont be liable

for consequential, special or indirect damages resulting

from the use or handling of this product. All such risks

shall be assumed by the buyer. DU PONT MAKES

NO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR

FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE NOR

ANY OTHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED

WARRANTY EXCEPT AS STATED ABOVE.

8

© 1997 E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Agricultural Products, Wilmington, Delaware 19898
H - 63401 

Oust®

herbicide

“......... A Growing Partnership With Nature”

®

®
“OUST” HERBICIDE HIGHLIGHTS

• OUST is recommended for preemergence and

postemergence control of many annual and perennial

grasses and broadleaf weeds. 

• OUST is recommended for conifer and hardwood site

preparation and release; applications may be made by

ground equipment or helicopter.

• OUST is recommended for general weed control in

noncrop industrial sites; applications must be made using

ground equipment.

• For best results, apply postemergence to young, actively

growing weeds under favorable moisture conditions at

any time of the year, except when the ground is frozen.

• Do not apply more than 8 oz per acre per year.

• Use a drift control agent when spraying near cropland,

open water, or desirable vegetation.

• OUST can be tank mixed with other herbicides for use in

forestry and noncrop sites; when tank mixing, use the

most restrictive limitations from labeling of both

products. 

• Consult label text for complete instructions. Always read

and follow label directions for use.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Environmental Conditions and Biological Activity . . 2

Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DIRECTIONS FOR USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AGRICULTURAL USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FORESTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Weeds Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Conifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Conifer Site Preparation

—Application Before Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . 3

Conifer Release

—Application After Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Hardwoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Hardwood Site Preparation

—Application Before Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . 3

Hardwood Release

—Application After Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Important Precautions—Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NON-AGRICULTURAL USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

NON-AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . 4

NONCROP (INDUSTRIAL) SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Areas of 20” or Less Annual Rainfall . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Weeds Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Broadleaf Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Areas of 20” or More Annual Rainfall . . . . . . . . 4

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Weeds Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Broadleaf Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Specific Weed Problems

—Noncrop (Industrial) Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Kochia, Russian Thistle, and Prickly Lettuce . . . 5

Tank Mix Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Under Asphalt and Concrete Pavement . . . . . . . 5

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Application Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Tank Mix Combinations

—Under Asphalt and Concrete Pavement . . . . . . 5

Important Precautions—Under Asphalt Only 5

TURF, INDUSTRIAL (UNIMPROVED ONLY) 6

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Bermudagrass Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Weeds Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Tank Mix Combinations

—Bermudagrass (South Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Centipedegrass Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Bahiagrass Release and Seedhead Suppression . 6

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Smooth Brome and Crested Wheatgrass

Release and Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Weeds Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Important Precautions

—Industrial, Unimproved Turf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

SPRAY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Broadcast Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Air (Forestry Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

MIXING INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

SPRAYER CLEANUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

SPRAY DRIFT MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Importance of Droplet Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Controlling Droplet Size—General Techniques . . . 7

Controlling Droplet Size—Helicopter Only . . . . . . 7

Boom Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Temperature and Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Temperature Inversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Shielded Sprayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

NOTICE OF WARRANTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Oust®

herbicide

Dispersible Granules

Active Ingredient By Weight

Sulfometuron methyl

{Methyl 2-[[[[(4,6-dimethyl-2-

pyrimidinyl)amino]-carbonyl]amino]

sulfonyl]benzoate} 75%

Inert Ingredients 25%

TOTAL 100%

EPA Reg. No. 352-401

GENERAL INFORMATION

DuPont OUST® Herbicide is a dispersible granule that is

mixed in water and applied as a spray. OUST controls

many annual and perennial grasses and broadleaf weeds in

forestry and noncrop sites. 

OUST may be used for general weed control on industrial

noncrop sites and for selective weed control in certain types

of unimproved turf grasses on industrial sites. It can also be

used for selective weed control in forest site preparation and

in the release of several types of pines and certain

hardwoods.

OUST controls weeds by both preemergence and

postemergence activity. Preemergence treatments control or

suppress weeds through root uptake while postemergence

control works through root and foliar uptake. The best

results are obtained when the application is made before or

during the early stages of weed growth before weeds

develop an established root system. Moisture is required to

move OUST into the root zone of weeds for preemergence

control. When rainfall is low, OUST may not provide

satisfactory control. 

It is noncorrosive, nonflammable, nonvolatile, and does not

freeze.

KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

CAUTION

STATEMENT OF 

PRACTICAL TREATMENT

IF IN EYES: Flush eyes with plenty of water. Call a

physician if irritation persists.

For medical emergencies involving this product, 

call toll free 1-800-441-3637.

1

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS 

HAZARDS TO HUMANS 

AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

CAUTION! Causes (moderate) eye injury (irritation).

Avoid contact with eyes or clothing.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Applicators and other handlers must wear:

Long-sleeved shirt and long pants.

Shoes plus socks.

Follow manufacturer's instructions for cleaning/maintaining

PPE. If no such instructions for washables, use detergent and

hot water. Keep and wash PPE separately from other

laundry.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Do not apply directly to water, or to areas where surface

water is present, or to intertidal areas below the mean high

water mark. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of

equipment or disposal of equipment washwaters.

USER SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS

USERS SHOULD: Wash hands before eating,

drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco or using the

toilet.
For best postemergence results, apply OUST to young,

actively growing weeds. The use rate depends upon the

weed species, weed size at application, and soil texture. The

degree and duration of control may depend on the

following:

• weed spectrum and infestation intensity

• weed size at application

• environmental conditions at and following treatment

• soil pH, soil moisture, and soil organic matter

Use a high rate on established plants and on fine-textured

soils and a lower rate on smaller weeds and coarse-textured

soils.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 

AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

OUST is absorbed by both the roots and foliage of plants,

rapidly inhibiting the growth of susceptible weeds. Two to 3

weeks after application to weeds, leaf growth slows, and the

growing points turn reddish-purple. Within 4 to 6 weeks of

application, leaf veins and leaves become discolored, and

the growing points subsequently die. 

Warm, moist conditions following application accelerate the

herbicidal activity of OUST; cold, dry conditions delay the

herbicidal activity. In addition, weeds hardened-off by

drought stress are less susceptible to OUST.

Rainfall is needed to move OUST into the soil for

preemergence weed control, but postemergence weed

control may be reduced if rainfall occurs too soon after

application.

RESISTANCE

When herbicides with the same mode of action are used

repeatedly over several years to control the same weed

species in the same field, naturally-occurring resistant weed

biotypes may survive a correctly applied herbicide

treatment, propagate, and become dominant in that field.

These resistant weed biotypes may not be adequately

controlled. Cultural practices such as tillage, preventing

weed escapes from going to seed, and using herbicides with

different modes of action within and between crop seasons

can aid in delaying the proliferation and possible dominance

of herbicide resistant weed biotypes.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of federal law to use this product in a

manner inconsistent with its labeling.

OUST should be used only in accordance with recommendations on this label or in separately published DuPont

recommendations.

DuPont will not be responsible for losses or damages

resulting from the use of this product in any manner not

specifically recommended by DuPont. User assumes all

risks associated with such nonrecommended use.

Do not use on food or feed crops.

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers

or other persons, either directly or through drift. Only

protected handlers may be in the area during application.

For any requirements specific to your State or Tribe, consult

the agency in your State responsible for pesticide regulation.

AGRICULTURAL USES

Application Information

OUST is recommended to control many broadleaf weeds

and grasses in forestry sites. Apply by ground equipment or

by air (helicopter only).

Application Timing

Apply OUST before herbaceous weeds emerge or shortly

thereafter. Apply only during seasons when rainfall is

sufficient to activate the herbicide in the soil.

FORESTRY

AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and

with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170.

This Standard contains requirements for the protection of

agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and

greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It

contains requirements for training, decontamination, notification, and emergency assistance. It also contains specific

instructions and exceptions pertaining to the statements on

this label about personal protective equipment(PPE) and

restricted-entry interval. The requirements in this box only

apply to uses of this product that are covered by the Worker

Protection Standard.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during

the restricted entry interval (REI) of 4 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is

permitted under the Worker Protection Standard and that

involves contact with anything that has been treated, such

as plants, soil, or water, is:

Coveralls.

Waterproof gloves.

Shoes plus socks.

2
Weeds Controlled

OUST effectively controls the following weeds when applied at

the use rates indicated for the respective crop species:

See also weeds controlled under Application

Information—Noncrop (Industrial) Sites

Application Rates

Apply OUST at the rates indicated by region. Use a low rate

on coarse-textured soils (i.e., loamy sands, sandy loams)

and a higher rate on fine-textured soils (i.e. sandy clay

loams and silty clay loams).

CONIFERS

Conifer Site Preparation

—Application Before Transplanting

Make all applications before transplanting to control

herbaceous weeds.

Southeast—Apply 2 to 8 oz per acre for loblolly, longleaf,

slash, and Virginia pine. Transplant longleaf pine at least 60

days after treatment.

Northeast and Lake States—Apply 2 to 4 oz per acre for

black spruce. Transplant at least 13 months after treatment. 

Apply 2-1/2 to 4 oz OUST plus Accord1 (as registered) for

larch and tamarack. Transplant the following spring or

summer but not less than 8 months after treatment.

West—Apply 2 to 4 oz per acre for coastal redwood,

Douglas fir, grand fir, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine,

western larch, western white pine, and white fir. For

ponderosa pine in California and other arid areas, apply in

the fall and transplant the following spring.

Conifer Release

—Application After Transplanting

Apply OUST after transplanting to control herbaceous weeds. 

Southeast—Apply 2 to 8 oz per acre for loblolly, longleaf,

slash or Virginia pine. Apply 1 to 1 1/2 oz per acre for

eastern white pine.

Tank Mix Combinations (Southeast only)—To control a

broader spectrum of weeds in stands of loblolly, longleaf, or

slash pine, apply 2 to 4 oz of OUST plus 2 to 3 pt of DuPont

Velpar L Herbicide or 2/3 to 1 lb of DuPont Velpar DF

Herbicide. Tank mix may injure or kill trees when applied

during high humidity and temperature.

To enhance control of bermudagrass and Johnsongrass in

stands of loblolly pine, apply 2 oz of OUST plus 4 to 6 fl oz

of Arsenal2 Applicators Concentrate. For the best results,

make the application during late winter through spring when

weeds first emerge. Arsenal may temporarily inhibit pine

growth if it is applied when pine is actively growing.

For control of many annual weeds particularly on cropland

conversion areas, apply 2 to 4 oz of OUST plus 4 to 8 pt of

Aatrex3 4L per acre. Use the higher rates on medium to fine

texture soils where organic matter exceeds 2%. Use only on

tree species specifically listed on both the OUST and

“Aatrex 4L” labels. 

Northeast and Lake States—Apply 2 to 8 oz per acre for

jack or Virginia pine. Apply 1 to 1-1/2 oz per acre for

eastern white pine. Apply 1-1/2 to 3 oz per acre for white

spruce. Make applications when trees are dormant.

Applications at budbreak and later stages of active growth

may severely injure or kill trees.

West—Apply 2 to 4 oz per acre for coastal redwood, Douglas

fir, grand fir, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, western larch,

or western white pine. Applications made after dormancy

break in the spring and before the final resting bud has

hardened in the fall may severely injure or kill trees. For

ponderosa pine in California and other arid areas, treatments

applied over the top of transplant stock in the first year

outplanted should be made in the fall, following transplanting

in the spring after the final resting bud has hardened, or the

following spring (second year outplanted).

HARDWOODS

Hardwood Site Preparation

—Application Before Transplanting

Apply 3 to 5 oz on sites where northern red oak, white oak,

chestnut oak, American sycamore, ash (white or green), red

maple, sweetgum, or yellow poplar are to be planted. Make

all applications before transplanting.

Hardwood Release

—Application After Transplanting

Apply 1 to 4 oz per acre in stands of American sycamore, ash

(white or green), bald cypress, oaks (such as chestnut,

northern red, southern red, overcup, pin, swamp chestnut,

cherrybark, water, white, pin, etc.), red maple, sweetgum, or

yellow poplar.

OUST should be applied before the hardwood tree seedlings

or transplants break dormancy (bud swell stage). Applications

made over the top after the trees have broken dormancy may

injure or kill the trees.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS—FORESTRY ONLY

• Applications of OUST made to trees, conifers, or

hardwoods that are suffering from loss of vigor caused by

insects, diseases, drought, winter damage, animal damage,

excessive soil moisture, planting shock, or other stresses,

may injure or kill the trees.

• Applications of OUST made for release (trees present)

should only be made after adequate rainfall has closed the

planting slit and settled the soil around the roots following

transplanting.

• Do not apply OUST to conifers or hardwoods grown for

Christmas trees or ornamentals.

Chickweed

Crabgrass

Dogfennel

Fescue

Fireweed (willowweed)

Goldenrod

Horseweed

Kentucky bluegrass

Nutsedge (yellow)

Panicums (broadleaf,

fall, narrow)

Pokeweed

Ragweed

Shepherd’s purse

White snakeroot

Yellow sweetclover

3
• If a surfactant is used with OUST, allowing the spray to

contact tree foliage may injure or kill trees. The user

assumes all responsibility for tree injury if a surfactant is

used with OUST treatments applied after planting.

• OUST applications may result in damage and mortality to

other species of trees when they are present on sites with

those listed in the preceding recommendations for forestry

uses.

• Use on hardwood trees growing in soils having a pH of 7 or

greater may injure or kill the trees.

• Careful consideration must be given by an experienced

and knowledgeable forester to match the requirements of

the hardwood tree species to the conditions of the site.

Treatment of species mismatched to the site may injure or

kill the trees.

• OUST is not recommended for use on poorly drained or

marshy sites, but it may be used where plantings are on

raised beds.

NON-AGRICULTURAL USES

Application Information

OUST is recommended for use for general weed control on

noncrop, industrial sites such as airports, military installations, fence rows, roadsides and associated rights-of-way,

lumberyards, petroleum tank farms, pipeline and utility

rights-of-way, pumping installations, railroads, storage

areas, plant sites, and other similar areas including governmental and private lands. Apply by ground equipment only

unless directed otherwise by supplemental labeling.

Combination with other herbicides broadens the spectrum of

weeds controlled. In addition, total vegetation control can

be achieved with higher rates of OUST plus residual-type

companion herbicides. To improve the control of weeds,

add surfactant at 0.25% by volume.

AREAS OF 20” OR LESS ANNUAL RAINFALL

(ARID AREAS)

Application Timing

Apply OUST as a preemergence or early postemergence spray

during the rainy season when weeds are actively germinating or

growing. 

Weeds Controlled

OUST effectively controls the following broadleaf weeds and

grasses when applied at the rates shown. 

Application Rates

Apply OUST at the rates indicated by weed type. When applied

at lower rates, OUST provides short-term control of weeds

listed; when applied at higher rates, weed control is extended.

Broadleaf Weeds—1-1/3 to 2 oz per acre

Grasses (up to 6 to 12” tall)—1-1/3 to 2 oz per acre

Grasses —2 to 3 oz per acre

The weeds listed in Areas Of 20” Or More Annual Rainfall

can also be controlled in arid areas; however, OUST must be

applied at 3 to 8 oz per acre to control those weeds. These higher

rates also provide control of severe infestations and longer term

control of weeds listed for arid areas.

AREAS OF 20” OR MORE ANNUAL RAINFALL

Application Timing

Apply OUST as a preemergence or early postemergence spray

during the rainy season when weeds are actively germinating or

growing.

Weeds Controlled

OUST effectively controls the following broadleaf weeds and

grasses when applied at the rates shown.

Application Rates

Apply OUST at the rates indicated by weed type. When applied

at lower rates, OUST provides short term control of weeds

listed; when applied at higher rates, weed control is extended.

Smooth brome

Annual bluegrass

Barnyardgrass

Cheat

Foxtail barley 

Foxtail fescue

Italian ryegrass 

Jointed goatgrass 

Red brome

Reed Canarygrass

Ripgut brome 

Seashore saltgrass

Signalgrass

Yellow foxtail

Annual sowthistle

Black mustard

Buckhorn plantain 

Burclover

Carolina geranium

Chickweed 

Common mallow

Common speedwell

Common yarrow 

Curly dock 

Prickly coontail

Seaside heliotrope

Spreading orach 

Sunflower 

Western ragweed

Whitestem filaree

NONCROP (INDUSTRIAL) SITES

NON-AGRICULTURAL USE

REQUIREMENTS

The requirements in this box apply to uses of this

product that are NOT within the scope of the Worker

Protection Standard for agricultural pesticides (40 CFR

Part170). The WPS applies when this product is used to

produce agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries,

or greenhouses.

Selective non-crop industrial weed control and weed

control in turf(industrial, unimproved only) are not

within the scope of the Worker Protection Standard.

4
Broadleaf Weeds—3 to 5 oz per acre

Broadleaf Weeds—6 to 8 oz per acre

Grasses—3 to 5 oz per acre

Grasses—6 to 8 oz per acre

Johnsongrass

For short-term (up to 3 months) control of johnsongrass, apply

early postemergence. Repeat treatment if additional control is

desired or if regrowth occurs.

Note: Use the higher level of recommended dosage ranges

under the following conditions: 

• heavy weed growth

• soils containing more than 2-1/2% organic matter

• high soil moisture areas, such as along road edges or railroad

shoulders

Specific Weed Problems

—Noncrop (Industrial) Sites

Kochia, Russian Thistle, and Prickly Lettuce

Since biotypes of kochia, Russian thistle, and prickly lettuce are

known to be resistant to OUST, tank mixture combinations with

herbicides having different modes of action, such as KARMEX

DF, HYVAR X or KROVAR I DF, must be used. In areas where

resistance is known to exist, these weeds should be treated

postemergence with other herbicides registered for their control,

such as 2,4-D or dicamba. Do not allow kochia, Russian thistle,

or prickly lettuce to form mature seed.

TANK MIX COMBINATIONS

To improve preemergence to early postemergence control of

weeds and grasses, add 2 to 8 oz of OUST per acre to the

recommended rates of the following herbicides: DuPont

HYVAR® X Herbicide, DuPont KARMEX® DF Herbicide,

DuPont KROVAR® I DF Herbicide, DuPont VELPAR® L

Herbicide, DuPont VELPAR® Herbicide, DuPont ESCORT®

Herbicide (do not use in California), DuPont TELAR®

Herbicide, glyphosate, dicamba, or 2,4-D. 

Apply OUST plus a companion herbicide at the rates and timing

as shown on package labels for target weeds. For application

method and other use specifications, use the most restrictive

directions for the intended combination.

Do not tank mix OUST with DuPont HYVAR® XL Herbicide.

UNDER ASPHALT AND CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Application Information

OUST can be used to control weeds under asphalt and concrete

pavement, such as that used in parking lots, highway shoulders,

median strips, roadways, and other industrial sites. 

OUST will not control tubers, rhizomes, woody vegetation such

as small trees, brush or woody vines. 

OUST should only be used in an area that has been prepared

according to good construction practices. Use sufficient water

to ensure uniform coverage, generally 100 gal per acre. Agitate

the tank continuously to keep OUST in suspension.

Application Timing

OUST should be applied immediately before paving to avoid

lateral movement of the herbicide as a result of soil movement

due to rainfall or mechanical means. 

Application Rate

Apply OUST at 4 to 8 oz per acre. Use a higher rate on hard-tocontrol weeds and for long-term control. 

Tank Mix Combinations

—Under Asphalt and Concrete Pavement

For broader spectrum control or for an extended period of

control under asphalt or concrete pavement, OUST may be

applied as a tank mix with HYVAR X at 6 to 15 lb per acre or

KROVAR I DF at 7 to 15 lb per acre.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS—UNDER ASPHALT ONLY

• Do not use OUST under pavement in residential properties

such as driveways, or in recreational areas, including jogging

or bike paths, tennis courts, or golf cart paths.

• Desirable plants may be injured if their roots extend into

treated areas or if planted in treated areas.

Alta fescue

Annual bluegrass

Annual ryegrass

Bahiagrass

Barnyardgrass

Downy brome

Fescue

Foxtails (except green)

Foxtail barley

Indiangrass

Italian ryegrass

Kentucky bluegrass

Little barley

Red brome

Red fescue

Reed canarygrass

Ripgut brome

Ryegrass

Smooth brome

Sprangletop (annual)

Wheat (volunteer)

Bedstraw

Canada thistle 

Curly dock

Redstem filaree

Goldenrod

Horsetail (Equisetum)

Kudzu 

Musk thistle

Turkey mullein

Wild blackberry 

Bouncingbet

Burclover

Carolina geranium

Common chickweed

Common dandelion

Common speedwell

Common yarrow

Crimson clover

Dogfennel

Hoary cress (whitetop)

Little mallow

Mustard

Ox-eye daisy

Pepperweed

Pigweed

Purple starthistle

Ragweed

Sowthistle (annual)

Sunflower

Sweet clover

Tansymustard

Tansy ragwort

Tumble mustard

Vetch

Wild carrot

Wild oats

Yellow rocket

5
Application Information

OUST is recommended to control weeds on unimproved

industrial turf, on roadsides, or on other noncrop sites where the

turf is well established as a ground cover. Applications may

temporarily suppress grass growth and inhibit seedhead

formation (chemical mowing).

Bermudagrass Release

Application Timing

Apply OUST after bermudagrass has broken dormancy and is

well established, usually 30 days after initial spring flush. If

additional applications are necessary, apply OUST again during

late spring to early summer. On established weeds, apply OUST

1 to 2 weeks after mowing for the best results.

OUST may also be applied in late fall or early winter. Use the

lower rates on small seedling weeds and a higher rate on larger

weeds. Also, refer to the listing of Weeds Controlled under

Noncrop (Industrial) Weed Control.

Weeds Controlled

OUST may be used to control the following weeds when

applied at the use rates shown.

Late Spring to Early Summer—1 to 2 oz/acre

Spring to Fall—2 to 3 oz/acre

Late Fall to Early Winter—1 to 4 oz/acre

Tank Mix Combinations—Bermudagrass (South Only)

Apply 1 to 2 oz OUST per acre as a tank mix with 3 to 4 lb

active ingredient of MSMA per acre on well-established

bermudagrass during the summer. Refer to the MSMA package

label for a list of additional weeds that may be controlled. Two

or more sequential applications of MSMA alone may be

necessary to maintain weed control.

Centipedegrass Release 

Application timing 

Apply 1 to 2 ounces of OUST in the fall or early winter, or in

the early summer following greenup of the centipede. Refer to

the listing of Weeds Controlled under Bermudagrass Release.

Bahiagrass Release 

and Seedhead Suppression

Application Timing

Apply 1/2 to 1 oz OUST per acre to turf after green-up and

before seedheads emerge (boot stage). Ensure that desirable

grasses are well-established at application, as premature

treatment may result in top kill and stand reduction of desirable

turf. Make only one application per year.

Smooth Brome and Crested Wheatgrass 

Release and Suppression

Application Timing

Apply 1 oz OUST per acre to turf after green-up and before

seedheads emerge (boot stage). Ensure that desirable grasses are

well-established at application, as premature treatment may

result in top kill and stand reduction of desirable turf. Make

only one application per year.

Weeds Controlled

OUST may be used to control the following weeds when

applied at the use rates shown.

Late Spring to Early Summer—1 oz/acre

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS

—INDUSTRIAL, UNIMPROVED TURF

• Excessive injury to turf may result if a surfactant is used with

OUST applications made to actively growing turf. The user

assumes all responsibility for turf injury if a surfactant is used

with OUST treatments applied to actively growing turf.

• OUST may temporarily discolor or cause top kill of turf

grasses. Applications made while turf is dormant may delay

green-up in the spring.

• Annual retreatments may reduce vigor, particularly at the

higher recommended rates, where bahiagrass, crested

wheatgrass and smooth brome are grown.

• OUST application on turf that is under stress from drought,

insects, disease, cold temperatures or late spring frost, may

result in injury.

• Do not apply OUST to turf within 1 year of planting as stand

reduction may result.

SPRAY EQUIPMENT

Following an OUST application, do not use sprayer for

application to agricultural or ornamental crops. The mixing and

application equipment must be used for forestry and noncrop

applications only. This is extremely important as low rates of

OUST can kill or severely injure most crops.

BROADCAST APPLICATION

Ground

Use 15 to 40 gal of water per acre when applying OUST as a

broadcast application. Select a spray volume and delivery

system that will ensure thorough coverage and a uniform spray

pattern. Be sure the sprayer is calibrated before use. Avoid

overlapping and shut off spray booms while starting, turning,

slowing, or stoping to avoid injury to desired species.

Downy Brome

Foxtail

Goldenrod

Carolina geranium

Common chickweed

Fescue

Little barley

Wild blackberry

Johnsongrass

Carolina Geranium

Fescue

Foxtail

Goldenrod

Spotted Spurge

Wild carrot

TURF, INDUSTRIAL (UNIMPROVED ONLY)

6
Air (Helicopter Only)

Use 5 to 15 gal of water per acre when applying OUST. Select a

spray volume and delivery system that will ensure thorough

coverage and a uniform spray pattern. Do not use fixed-wing

aircaft. Be sure the sprayer is calibrated. Avoid overlapping and

shut off spray booms while starting, turning or slowing to avoid

injury to desired species.

MIXING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Fill spray tank 1/2 full of water.

2. With the agitator running, add the proper amount of OUST.

3. If using a companion product, add the recommended amount.

4. For postemergent applications, add the proper amount of

spray adjuvants (i.e. surfactants, drift control agents, etc.).

5. Add the remaining water.

6. Agitate the spray tank thoroughly.

Use the spray preparation within 24 hours to avoid product

degradation. If the spray preparation is left standing, agitate it

thoroughly before using.

SPRAYER CLEANUP

Thoroughly clean all mixing and spray equipment

following applications of OUST as follows:

1. Drain tank; thoroughly rinse spray tanks, boom, and hoses

with clean water. 

2. Fill the tank with clean water and 1 gal of household

ammonia (contains 3% active) for every 100 gal of water.

Flush the hoses, boom, and nozzles with the cleaning

solution. Then add more water to completely fill the tank.

Circulate the cleaning solution through the tank and hoses

for at least 15 min. Flush the hoses, boom, and nozzles

again with the cleaning solution, and then drain the tank. 

Equivalent amounts of an alternate-strength ammonia

solution or a commercial cleaner can be used in the

cleanout procedure. If a commercial cleaner is used,

carefully read and follow the individual cleaner

instructions.

3.Remove the nozzles and screens and clean separately in a

bucket containing cleaning agent and water. 

4.Repeat step 2. 

5.Rinse the tank, boom, and hoses with clean water. 

6. Dispose of the rinsate on a labeled site or at an approved

waste disposal facility. If a commercial cleaner is used

follow the directions for rinsate disposal on the label.

Notes:

1. Caution: Do not use chlorine bleach with ammonia as

dangerous gases will form. Do not clean equipment in an

enclosed area.

2. Steam-cleaning aerial spray tanks is recommended before

performing the above cleanout procedure to facilitate the

removal of any caked deposits. 

3.When OUST is tank mixed with other pesticides, all

required cleanout procedures should be examined and the

most rigorous procedure should be followed.

SPRAY DRIFT MANAGEMENT

The interaction of many equipment and weather-related factors

determines the potential for spray drift. The applicator is

responsible for considering all these factors when making

application decisions.

AVOIDING SPRAY DRIFT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF

THE APPLICATOR.

IMPORTANCE OF DROPLET SIZE

The most effective way to reduce drift potential is to apply large

droplets (>150 - 200 microns). The best drift management

strategy is to apply the largest droplets that provide sufficient

coverage and control. The presence of sensitive species nearby,

the environmental conditions, and pest pressure may affect how

an applicator balances drift control and coverage. APPLYING

LARGER DROPLETS REDUCES DRIFT POTENTIAL, BUT

WILL NOT PREVENT DRIFT IF APPLICATIONS ARE

MADE IMPROPERLY OR UNDER UNFAVORABLE

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS! See Wind,

Temperature and Humidity, and Temperature Inversions

sections of this label.

Controlling Droplet Size - General Techniques

• Volume - Use high flow rate nozzles to apply the highest

practical spray volume. Nozzles with higher rated flows

produce larger droplets.

• Pressure - Use the lower spray pressures recommended for

the nozzle. Higher pressure reduces droplet size and does not

improve canopy penetration. WHEN HIGHER FLOW

RATES ARE NEEDED, USE A HIGHER-CAPACITY

NOZZLE INSTEAD OF INCREASING PRESSURE.

• Nozzle Type - Use a nozzle type that is designed for the

intended application. With most nozzle types, narrower spray

angles produce larger droplets. Consider using low-drift

nozzles.

Controlling Droplet Size - Aircraft 

• Number of Nozzles - Use the minimum number of nozzles

with the highest flow rate that provide uniform coverage.

• Nozzle Orientation - Orienting nozzles so that the spray is

emitted backwards, parallel to the airstream will produce

larger droplets than other orientations.

• Nozzle Type - Solid stream nozzles (such as disc and core

with swirl plate removed) oriented straight back produce

larger droplets than other nozzle types.

BOOM LENGTH AND HEIGHT

• Boom Length (aircraft) - For helicopters use a boom length

and position that prevents droplets from entering the rotor

vortices.

• Boom Height (aircraft) - Application more than 10 ft above

the canopy increases the potential for spray drift.

• Boom Height (ground) Setting the boom at the lowest

labeled height (if specified) which provides uniform coverage

reduces the exposure of droplets to evaporation and wind.

The boom should remain level with the crop and have

minimal bounce. 

WIND

Drift potential increases at wind speeds of less than 3 mph (due

to variable direction and inversion potential) or more than 10

mph. However, many factors, including droplet size and

equipment type determine drift potential at any given wind

speed. AVOID GUSTY OR WINDLESS CONDITIONS.

7
Note: Local terrain can influence wind patterns. Every

applicator should be familiar with local wind patterns and how

they effect spray drift. 

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

When making applications in hot and dry conditions, set up

equipment to produce larger droplets to reduce effects of

evaporation.

SURFACE TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS

Drift potential is high during a surface temperature inversion.

Surface inversions restrict vertical air mixing, which causes

small suspended droplets to remain close to the ground and

move laterally in a concentrated cloud. Surface inversions are

characterized by increasing temperature with altitude and are

common on nights with limited cloud cover and light to no

wind. They begin to form as the sun sets and often continue

into the morning. Their presence can be indicated by ground

fog; however, if fog is not present, inversions can also be

identified by the movement of smoke from a ground source or

an aircraft smoke generator. Smoke that layers and moves

laterally in a concentrated cloud (under low wind conditions)

indicates a surface inversion, while smoke that moves upward

and rapidly dissipates indicates good vertical air mixing.

SHIELDED SPRAYERS

Shielding the boom or individual nozzles can reduce the

effects of wind. However, it is the responsibility of the

applicator to verify that the shields are preventing drift and

not interfering with uniform deposition of the product.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS

Injury to or loss of desirable trees or other plants may result

from failure to observe the following:

• If equipment is drained or flushed on or near desirable trees or

other plants, or on areas where their roots may extend, or in

locations where the chemical may be washed or moved into

contact with their roots.

• Treatment of powdery, dry soil or light, sandy soil when there

is little likelihood of rainfall soon after treatment may result in

off target movement and possible damage to susceptible crops

when soil particles are moved by wind or water. Injury to

crops may result if treated soil is washed, blown, or moved

onto land used to produce crops. Exposure to OUST may

injure or kill most crops. Injury may be more severe when the

crops are irrigated.

• Applications made where runoff water flows onto agricultural

land may injure crops. Applications made during periods of

intense rainfall, to soils saturated with water, surfaces paved

with materials such as asphalt or concrete, or soils through

which rainfall will not readily penetrate may result in runoff

and movement of OUST. Do not treat frozen soil. Treated soil

should be left undisturbed to reduce the potential for OUST

movement by soil erosion due to wind or water.

Do not use on lawns, walks, driveways, tennis courts, or similar

areas.

Keep from contact with fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, and

seeds.

Do not apply in or on irrigation ditches or canals including their

outer banks.

Do not apply through any type of irrigation system.

Do not use the equipment used to mix or apply OUST on crops.

The mixing and application equipment may be used for forestry

and noncrop applications only.

If noncrop or forested sites treated with OUST are to be

converted to a food, feed, or fiber agricultural crop, or to a

horticultural crop, do not plant the treated sites for at least one

year after the OUST application. To avoid damage to crops

planted in these areas, and to ensure complete OUST dissipation

in treated sites, soil samples should be quantitatively analyzed,

and a bioassay should be conducted before planting.

Do not use this product in the following counties of Colorado:

Saguache, Rio Grande, Alamosa, Costilla and Conejos.

NOTICE TO BUYER: Purchase of this material does not

confer any rights under patents of countries outside of the

United States.

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

STORAGE: Store product in original container only. Do

not contaminate water, other pesticides, fertilizer, food or

feed in storage.

PRODUCT DISPOSAL: Do not contaminate water, food

or feed by disposal. Wastes resulting from the use of this

product may be disposed of on site or at an approved waste

disposal facility.

CONTAINER DISPOSAL: Triple rinse (or equivalent)

the container. Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or

puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or by

incineration, or, if allowed by state and local authorities, by

burning. If burned, stay out of smoke.

8
1 Registered trademark of Monsanto Company

2 Registered trademark of American-Cyanamide Company

3 Registered trademark of Ciba-Geigy Corporation.

SL - 628 9048 3/27/98

LIMITATION OF

WARRANTYAND LIABILITY

NOTICE: Read This Limitation of Warranty and Liability

Before Buying or Using This Product. If the Terms Are Not

Acceptable, Return the Product at Once, Unopened, and the

Purchase Price Will Be Refunded.

It is impossible to eliminate all risks associated with the use

of this product. Such risks arise from weather conditions,

soil factors, off target movement, unconventional farming

techniques, presence of other materials, the manner of use

or application, or other unknown factors, all of which are

beyond the control of DuPont. These risks can cause:

ineffectiveness of the product; crop injury, or; injury to nontarget crops or plants.

DuPont does not agree to be an insurer of these risks.

WHEN YOU BUY OR USE THIS PRODUCT, YOU

AGREE TO ACCEPT THESE RISKS.

DuPont warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label thereof and is reasonably fit for the

purpose stated in the Directions for Use, subject to the

inherent risks described above, when used in accordance

with the Directions for Use under normal conditions.

DUPONT MAKES NO OTHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED

WARRANTY OF FITNESS OR OF

MERCHANTABILITY OR ANY OTHER EXPRESS OR

IMPLIED WARRANTY.

IN NO EVENT SHALL DUPONT OR SELLER BE

LIABLE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL

OR SPECIAL DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE USE

OR HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT. BUYER'S OR

USER'S BARGAINED-FOR EXPECTATION IS CROP

PROTECTION. THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF THE

USER OR BUYER AND THE EXCLUSIVE LIABILITY

OF DUPONT OR SELLER, FOR ANYAND ALL

CLAIMS, LOSSES, INJURIES OR DAMAGES

(INCLUDING CLAIMS BASED ON BREACH OF

WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, TORT

OR STRICT LIABILITY), WHETHER FROM FAILURE

TO PERFORM OR INJURY TO CROPS OR OTHER

PLANTS, AND RESULTING FROM THE USE OR

HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT, SHALL BE THE

RETURN OF THE PURCHASE PRICE OF THE

PRODUCT, OR AT THE ELECTION OF DUPONT OR

SELLER, THE REPLACEMENT OF THE PRODUCT.

DuPont or its Ag Retailer must have prompt notice of any

claim so that an immediate inspection of buyer's or user's

growing crops can be made. Buyer and all users shall

promptly notify DuPont or a DuPont Ag Retailer of any

claims, whether based on contract, negligence, strict

liability, other tort or otherwise or be barred from any

remedy.

This Limitation of Warranty and Liability may not be

amended by any oral or written agreement.

9

For product information call 1-888-6-DUPONT

© 1998 E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Agricultural Products, Wilmington, Delaware 19898
H - 63378

Velpar® ULW

herbicide

“......... A Growing Partnership With Nature”

®

®
TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Environmental Conditions and

Biological Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

DIRECTIONS FOR USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AGRICULTURAL USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Agricultural Use Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FORESTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Application Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Use Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 1. Use Rates for Site Preparation . . . . . 2

Table 2. Use Rates for Conifer Release . . . . . 3

Plants Controlled—Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Important Precautions—Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NON-AGRICULTURAL USES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Non-Agricultural Use Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

NONCROP, INDUSTRIAL BRUSH CONTROL . . 4

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Application Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Use Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Plants Controlled—Noncrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Important Precautions—Noncrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NOTICE OF WARRANTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Velpar® ULW

herbicide

Soluble Granules

Active Ingredient By Weight

Hexazinone

[3-cyclohexyl-6-(dimethylamino)

-1-methyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4(1H,3H)-dione] 75%

Inert Ingredients 25%

TOTAL 100%

EPA Reg. No. 352-450

GENERAL INFORMATION

DuPont VELPAR® ULW Herbicide is a special granular

product that is used to control undesirable woody and

herbaceous plants in reforestation and noncrop sites. It is

applied dry to the soil surface in a broadcast pattern.

Velpar ULW is noncorrosive to equipment.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 

AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Rainfall dissolves the VELPAR ULW granules, releasing the

active ingredient (hexazinone) into the root zone, where it is

absorbed during periods of vigorous plant growth. On

herbaceous plants, symptoms usually appear within 3 to 4 weeks

after activation by moisture. Activity may be reduced when

vegetation is dormant, semidormant, or under stress. On woody

plants, symptoms usually appear within 4 to 8 weeks after

activation by moisture. Defoliation and subsequent refoliation

may occur, but susceptible plants are killed. Results may

develop slowly, and maximum effects may not be achieved until

12 to 24 months after activation.

The degree and duration of control may depend on the following:

• use rate

• soil texture

• pest spectrum and size at application

• environmental conditions at and following treatment

1

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS(continued)

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Applicators and other handlers must wear:

Long-sleeved shirt and long pants.

Waterproof gloves.

Shoes plus socks.

Protective eyewear.

Discard clothing and other absorbent materials that have

been drenched or heavily contaminated with this product's

concentrate. Do not reuse them. Follow manufacturer's

instructions for cleaning/maintaining PPE. If no such

instructions for washables, use detergent and hot water.

Keep and wash PPE separately from other laundry.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

Do not apply directly to water, or to areas where surface

water is present, or to intertidal areas below the mean high

water mark. Do not contaminate water when disposing of

equipment washwaters.

The active ingredient, hexazinone, in this product is

known to leach through soil into ground water under

certain conditions as a result of agricultural use. Use of

this chemical in areas where soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow, may result in

ground-water contamination.

USER SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS

USERS SHOULD: Wash hands before eating, drinking,

chewing gum, using tobacco or using the toilet. 

KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

DANGER PELIGRO

Si usted no entiende la etiqueta, busque a alguien para que

se la explique a usted en detalle. (If you do not understand

this label, find someone to explain it to you in detail.)

STATEMENT OF 

PRACTICAL TREATMENT

IF IN EYES: Hold eyelids open and flush with steady, gentle

stream of water for 15 minutes. Get medical attention.

IF ON SKIN: Wash with plenty of soap and water. Get

medical attention if irritation persists.

IF SWALLOWED: Call a physician or poison control

center. Do not induce vomiting. Drink promptly a large

quantity of milk, egg whites, gelatin solution or if these are

not available, drink large quantities of water. Avoid

alcohol.

NOTE TO PHYSICIAN: Probable mucosal damage

may contraindicate the use of gastric lavage.

For medical emergencies involving this product, 

call toll free 1-800-441-3637.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

HAZARDS TO HUMANS 

AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

DANGER! CAUSES EYE DAMAGE.

Corrosive, causes irreversible eye damage. Harmful if

swallowed. Do not get in eyes or on clothing. Wash

thoroughly with soap and water after handling.
DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of federal law to use this product in a manner

inconsistent with its labeling.

VELPAR ULW should be used only in accordance with

recommendations on this label or in separate published DuPont

recommendations available through local suppliers.

The correct use rates by crop and geographical area,

specified on the label, and proper mixing/loading site

considerations and application procedures must be followed

to minimize potential for hexazinone movement into ground

water. We encourage you to consult with your state

Department of Agriculture, Extension Service, or other

pesticide lead agency for information regarding soil

permeability, aquifer vulnerability, and best management

practices for your area.

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or

other persons, either directly or through drift. Only protected

handlers may be in the area during application. For any

requirements specific to your state or tribe, consult the agency

responsible for pesticide regulation.

AGRICULTURAL USES

VELPAR ULW is recommended for site preparation and conifer

release in areas where the following crop species will be grown:

• Loblolly pine • Slash pine

• Longleaf pine • Virginia pine

• Shortleaf pine

APPLICATION INFORMATION

VELPAR ULW is recommended for general brush control for

site preparation and conifer release in forested areas. It may be

applied using ground equipment, and, where permitted, aerial

equipment. Use rates and other application information are

described in the various use categories.

VELPAR ULW should be applied as a broadcast treatment only.

APPLICATION TIMING

For best results, apply in the spring after the danger of a killing

frost has passed. Weeds and brush should be actively growing at

application. Weed and brush control is dependent on sufficient

rainfall following treatment to activate VELPAR ULW.

APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

VELPAR ULW can be applied using appropriately modified

ground equipment or aerial equipment. A Solo® backpack

equipped with a granular applicator that has been modified to

handle recommended use rates is recommended (for site

preparation only). For aerial application, apply the VELPAR

ULW granules directly using the DuPont ULW Applicator by

helicopter only for site preparation and release. 

All application equipment should be adjusted to ensure that

distribution across the treatment swath is uniform.

Thoroughly clean all traces of VELPAR ULW Herbicide

from application equipment immediately after use. Wash

equipment thoroughly with water.

USE RATES

Velpar ULW use rates for site preparation and conifer release are

shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The rates are based on

soil texture and weed species. Use the lower rates on coarsetextured soils and soils low in organic matter; use the higher

rates on fine-textured soils and on soils high in organic matter.

Use the higher rates where hard-to-kill species predominate.

TABLE 1. USE RATES FOR SITE PREPARATION

Soil Texture VELPAR ULW 

Description (lb per acre)

Sand, 

Loamy Sand, 

Sandy Loam 2.5 to 4

Loam, 

Sandy Clay Loam, 

Silt Loam 4 to 5.33

Clay Loam, 

Sandy Clay, 

Silty Clay Loam, 

Silty Clay, Clay 5.33 to 6.33

FORESTRY

AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling

and with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part

170. This Standard contains requirements for the

protection of agricultural workers on farms, forests,

nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural

pesticides. It contains requirements for training,

decontamination, notification, and emergency

assistance. It also contains specific instructions and

exceptions pertaining to the statements on this label

about personal protective equipment(PPE) and

restricted-entry interval. The requirements in this box

only apply to uses of this product that are covered by

the Worker Protection Standard.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas

during the restricted entry interval(REI) of 24 hours. 

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is

permitted under the Worker Protection Standard and

that involves contact with anything that has been

treated, such as plants, soil, or water, is :

Coveralls

Waterproof gloves

Shoes plus socks

Protective eyewear

2
TABLE 2. USE RATES FOR CONIFER RELEASE

Soil Texture VELPAR ULW 

Description (lb per acre)

Sand, 

Loamy Sand, 

Sandy Loam 1 to 2

Loam, 

Sandy Clay Loam, 

Silt Loam 2 to 3

Clay Loam, 

Sandy Clay, 

Silty Clay Loam, 

Silty Clay, Clay 3 to 4

PLANTS CONTROLLED—FORESTRY

VELPAR ULW controls the following herbaceous and woody

plants when applied at the rates shown in Tables 1 (site

preparation) and 2 (conifer release):

Herbaceous Plants

Annual Bluegrass Goldenrod*

Barnyardgrass Heath aster*

Bentgrass Horseweed*

Catsear (false dandelion) Orchardgrass*

Common groundsel Oxeye daisy

Common ragweed Ryegrass

Curly dock* Smartweed

Dandelion* Velvetgrass

Fescue* Wild carrot

Fleabane Willowweed*(fireweed)

Foxtail

Woody Plants

American elder Hornbeam

Ashes* (green, white) Mulberry

Birch Multiflora rose

Blackgum* Red maple*

Brambles (such as blackberry Oaks (such as post, 

dewberry, raspberry) southern red, turkey, 

Cherry* (black, choke) water and white)

Dogwood* (flowering) Russian olive

Eastern red cedar* Sumac*

Elm Sweetgum 

Hawthorn Wild plum

Hickory* Willow

Honeysuckle

* Partial control; use the higher rates for the soil textures

indicated in Table 1 or 2.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS—FORESTRY

• Do not cut for forage or hay nor graze domestic animals

on treated areas for 60 days following application.

• On tracts of land where various soil types are present and

VELPAR ULW rate selection is difficult, conifer damage

or less-than-expected vegetation suppression may occur

due to the rate differences required for various soil types.

• Injury to or loss of desirable trees or other plants may

result if VELPAR ULW

- granules drift onto desirable plants,

- is applied on or near desirable trees or other plants, or

areas where the roots may extend,

- if equipment washwater is drained or flushed on or near

desirable trees or other plants, on areas where their roots

may extend, or

- is applied in locations where the chemical may be

washed or moved into contact with roots of desirable

trees or other plants.

• Following harvest, stumps and injured trees should be

allowed sufficient time to adequately resprout before

VELPAR ULW application.

• Where burning is desired in site preparation applications,

burn only after the residual stand is completely defoliated

(at least twice), allowing for sufficient root uptake of

VELPAR ULW.

• Do not apply to frozen soil.

• Poor weed and brush control may result from the

following:

- use on poorly drained sites

- applications made when the soil is saturated with water

- applications to soils high in organic matter (greater 

than 5%)

- spring applications that do not receive adequate rainfall

for activation

- uneven distribution of product across the treatment swath

• Excessive conifer injury may occur when VELPAR ULW

is applied for release in the following situations:

- on trees that show poor vigor, or damage by insects,

disease, winter injury drought, or other stress conditions

- on any soil containing less than 1% organic matter

- on loamy sand or sandy loam with less than 2% organic

matter

- on conifers growing on gravelly or rocky soils, exposed

subsoils or clay knobs, or sand or sandy soil with 85%

or more sand

- on conifer species not listed on this label

- on southern pines outplanted less than 4 years on coarsetextured soils or less than 3 years on fine-textured soils

- in an uneven distribution pattern of product across the

treatment swath

3
NON-AGRICULTURAL USES

VELPAR ULW is recommended for the control of

undesirable woody plants in noncrop sites.

APPLICATION INFORMATION

VELPAR ULW is recommended for general brush control in

noncrop areas such as railroads, highways, utility and

pipeline rights-of-way, petroleum tank farms, storage areas,

industrial plant sites, and other similar areas. 

VELPAR ULW should be applied as a broadcast treatment

using ground application only.

APPLICATION TIMING

Apply VELPAR ULW from late winter through summer,

from pre-budbreak through periods of active growth, when

adequate rainfall can be expected for activation. In areas

where the soil remains frozen during the winter, and spring

rains are usually inadequate for soil activation, a fall or

winter treatment may be applied before the soil freezes.

APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

VELPAR ULW should be applied using appropriately

modified ground equipment only. A Solo® backpack

equipped with a granular applicator that has been modified

to handle prescribed use rates is recommended.

All application equipment should be adjusted to ensure that

distribution across the treatment swath is uniform.

Thoroughly clean all traces of VELPAR ULW Herbicide

from application equipment immediately after use. Wash

equipment thoroughly with water.

USE RATES

VELPAR ULW use rates for woody plants are shown in

Plants Controlled—Noncrop. Use the lower rates on

coarse-textured soils and soils low in organic matter; use the

higher rates on fine-textured soils and on soils high in

organic matter. 

PLANTS CONTROLLED—NONCROP

VELPAR ULW controls the following woody plants when

applied at the rates shown:

5 1/3 to 10 2/3 lb per acre

Alder Hackberry Persimmon*

American elm Hawthorn Privet*

Ash* Hazel Red maple*

Aspen Hickory* Sassafrass*

Balsam poplar Huisache Small soapweed

Black cherry Juniper Snowbrush

Blackgum* Lotebush Sourwood*

Birch Locust Sumac

Catclaw acacia Manzanita Sweet bay

Chinaberry* Mesquite Sweet gum

Chinese elm Mulberry Whitebrush

Chinese tallow* Multiflora rose Whitehorn

Deerbrush Myrtle Wild plum

Dogwood Oaks Willow

Eastern red cedar* Osage orange Yellow poplar*

* Difficult to control

3 2/3 to 5 1/3 lb per acre 

Brazilian pepper

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS—NONCROP

• Do not use on lawns, walks, driveways, tennis courts, or

similar residential areas.

• Do not cut for forage or hay nor graze domestic animals on

treated areas for 60 days following application. For rates

above 8 lb per acre, do not cut for forage or hay nor graze

domestic animals for 1 year.

• Injury to or loss of desirable trees or other plants may result if

VELPAR ULW

- granules drift onto desirable plants,

- is applied on or near desirable trees or other plants, or areas

where the roots may extend,

- if equipment washwater is drained or flushed on or near

desirable trees or other plants, on areas where their roots

may extend, or

- is applied in locations where the chemical may be washed or

moved into contact with roots of desirable trees or other

plants.

• Following mechanical cutting or clearing, stumps and injured

trees should be allowed sufficient time to adequately resprout

before VELPAR ULW application.

NONCROP, INDUSTRIAL BRUSH CONTROL

NON-AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS

The requirements in this box apply to uses of this

product that are NOT within the scope of the Worker

Protection Standard for agricultural pesticides (40 CFR

Part 170). The WPS applies when this product is used to

produce agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries,

or greenhouses.

Noncrop, Industrial Brush Control, as described on this

label, is not within the scope of the Worker Protection

Standard.

4
• Poor brush control may result from the following:

- use on poorly drained or marshy sites

- applications made when the soil is saturated with water

- applications to soils high in organic matter (greater than 5%)

- applications that do not receive adequate rainfall for

activation

- uneven distribution of product across the treatment swath

- treatment of target plants that are under stress

• Do not use on frozen soils.

• Do not use on soil with 85% or more sand and less than 1%

organic matter.

NOTICE TO BUYER: Purchase of this material does

not confer any rights under patents of countries outside of

the United States.

SL - 208-1 9038 6/30/95

LIMITATION OF

WARRANTY AND LIABILITY

NOTICE: Read This Limitation of Warranty and Liability

Before Buying or Using This Product. If the Terms Are

Not Acceptable, Return the Product at Once, Unopened,

and the Purchase Price Will Be Refunded.

It is impossible to eliminate all risks associated with the

use of this product. Such risks arise from weather

conditions, soil factors, off target movement, unconventional farming techniques, presence of other materials, the

manner of use or application, or other unknown factors, all

of which are beyond the control of DuPont. These risks

can cause: ineffectiveness of the product; crop injury, or;

injury to non-target crops or plants.

DuPont does not agree to be an insurer of these risks.

WHEN YOU BUY OR USE THIS PRODUCT, YOU

AGREE TO ACCEPT THESE RISKS.

DuPont warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label thereof and is reasonably fit for the

purpose stated in the Directions for Use, subject to the

inherent risks described above, when used in accordance

with the Directions for Use under normal conditions.

DUPONT MAKES NO OTHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED

WARRANTY OF FITNESS OR OF

MERCHANTABILITY OR ANY OTHER EXPRESS OR

IMPLIED WARRANTY.

IN NO EVENT SHALL DUPONT OR SELLER BE

LIABLE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL

OR SPECIAL DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE

USE OR HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT. BUYER'S

OR USER'S BARGAINED-FOR EXPECTATION IS

CROP PROTECTION. THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF

THE USER OR BUYER AND THE EXCLUSIVE

LIABILITY OF DUPONT OR SELLER, FOR ANY AND

ALL CLAIMS, LOSSES, INJURIES OR DAMAGES

(INCLUDING CLAIMS BASED ON BREACH OF

WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, TORT

OR STRICT LIABILITY), WHETHER FROM FAILURE

TO PERFORM OR INJURY TO CROPS OR OTHER

PLANTS, AND RESULTING FROM THE USE OR

HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT, SHALL BE THE

RETURN OF THE PURCHASE PRICE OF THE

PRODUCT, OR AT THE ELECTION OF DUPONT OR

SELLER, THE REPLACEMENT OF THE PRODUCT.

DuPont or its Ag Retailer must have prompt notice of any

claim so that an immediate inspection of buyer's or user's

growing crops can be made. Buyer and all users shall

promptly notify DuPont or a DuPont Ag Retailer of any

claims, whether based on contract, negligence, strict

liability, other tort or otherwise or be barred from any

remedy.

This Limitation of Warranty and Liability may not be

amended by any oral or written agreement.

STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

STORAGE: Store product in original container only.

Do not contaminate water, other pesticides, fertilizer,

food or feed in storage.

PRODUCT DISPOSAL: Do not contaminate

water, food or feed by disposal. Wastes resulting from

the use of this product may be disposed of on site or at

an approved waste disposal facility.

CONTAINER DISPOSAL: Triple rinse (or

equivalent) the container. Then offer for recycling or

reconditioning, or puncture and dispose of in a sanitary

landfill, or by incineration, or, if allowed by state and

local authorities, by burning. If burned, stay out of

smoke.

5

For product information call 1-888-6-DUPONT

© 1998 E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Agricultural Products, Wilmington, Delaware 19898
Complete Directions for Use

in Forestry and Utility Rights-of-Way

EPA Reg. No. 524-326

AVOID CONTACT WITH FOLIAGE, GREEN

STEMS, EXPOSED NON-WOODY ROOTS, OR

FRUIT OF CROPS, DESIRABLE PLANTS AND

TREES, SINCE SEVERE INJURY OR DESTRUCTION WILL RESULT.

Accord is a registered trademark of Monsanto Company. 

1998-1 21002V6-5/CG

Read the entire label before using this product. 

Use only according to label instructions. 

Read ‘’LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY’’ before buying or using.

If terms are not acceptable, return at once unopened.

REFORMULATION IS PROHIBITED. SEE CONTAINER LABEL FOR

REPACKAGING LIMITATIONS.

LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY

This Company warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label and is reasonably fit for the purposes set

forth in the Complete Directions for Use label booklet (‘’Directions’’)

when used in accordance with those Directions under the conditions

described therein. NO OTHER EXPRESS WARRANTY OR IMPLIED

WARRANTY OF FITNESS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR MERCHANTABILITY IS MADE. This warranty is also subject to the conditions and limitations stated herein.

Buyer and all users shall promptly notify this Company of any claims

whether based in contract, negligence, strict liability, other tort or otherwise.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage from use

or handling which results from conditions beyond the control of this

Company, including, but not limited to, incompatibility with products

other than those set forth in the Directions, application to or contact

with desirable vegetation, unusual weather, weather conditions

which are outside the range considered normal at the application site

and for the time period when the product is applied, as well as

weather conditions which are outside the application ranges set forth

in the Directions, application in any manner not explicitly set forth in

the Directions, moisture conditions outside the moisture range specified in the Directions, or the presence of products other than those

set forth in the Directions in or on the soil, crop or treated vegetation.

THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF THE USER OR BUYER, AND THE LIMIT OF

THE LIABILITY OF THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER FOR ANY

AND ALL LOSSES, INJURIES OR DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE

USE OR HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT (INCLUDING CLAIMS BASED IN

CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, OTHER TORT OR OTHERWISE) SHALL BE THE PURCHASE PRICE PAID BY THE USER OR

BUYER FOR THE QUANTITY OF THIS PRODUCT INVOLVED, OR, AT THE

ELECTION OF THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER, THE REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY, OR, IF NOT ACQUIRED BY PURCHASE,

REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY. IN NO EVENT SHALL THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER BE LIABLE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR SPECIAL DAMAGES.

Buyer and all users are deemed to have accepted the terms of this

LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY which may not be varied by any

verbal or written agreement.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals

Keep out of reach of children.

CAUTION!

HARMFUL IF INHALED.

Avoid breathing spray mist.

FIRST AID: IF INHALED, remove individual to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration, preferably mouth-to-mouth. Get medical attention.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Applicators and other handlers must wear: long-sleeved shirt and

long pants and shoes plus socks. Follow manufacturer’s instructions

for cleaning/maintaining PPE. If no such instructions for washables,

use detergent and hot water. Keep and wash PPE separately from

other laundry.

In case of an emergency involving this product,

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

Environmental Hazards

Do not contaminate water when disposing of equipment washwaters.

Treatment of aquatic weeds can result in oxygen depletion or loss due

to decomposition of dead plants. This oxygen loss can cause fish suffocation. 

In case of: SPILL or LEAK, soak up and remove to a landfill. 

Physical or Chemical Hazards

Spray solutions of this product should be mixed, stored and applied

only in stainless steel, aluminum, fiberglass, plastic and plastic-lined

steel containers.

DO NOT MIX, STORE OR APPLY THIS PRODUCT OR SPRAY SOLUTIONS

OF THIS PRODUCT IN GALVANIZED STEEL OR UNLINED STEEL

(EXCEPT STAINLESS STEEL) CONTAINERS OR SPRAY TANKS. This

product or spray solutions of this product react with such containers

and tanks to produce hydrogen gas which may form a highly combustible gas mixture. This gas mixture could flash or explode, causing serious personal injury, if ignited by open flame, spark, welder’s

torch, lighted cigarette or other ignition source.

ACTIVE INGREDIENT:

*Glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine, 

in the form of its isopropylamine salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5%

INERT INGREDIENTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.5%

100.0%

*Contains 480 grams per litre or 4 pounds per U.S. gallon of

glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine, in the form of its isopropylamine salt. Equivalent to 356 grams per litre or 3 pounds per

U.S. gallon of the acid, glyphosate.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in any manner

inconsistent with its labeling. For any requirements specific to your

State or Tribe, consult the agency responsible for pesticide regulation.

User Safety Recommendation

Users should:

• Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using

tobacco or using the toilet.

1

This sample label is current as of August 25, 1997. The product descriptions and recommendations provided in this sample label are for

background information only. Always refer to the label on the product before using Monsanto or any other agrichemical product.

Specimen label formatted for electronic distribution by CDMS
For more product information, call toll free 1-800-332-3111. 

Storage and Disposal

Do not contaminate water, foodstuffs, feed or seed by storage or disposal.

STORAGE: STORE ABOVE 10°F (-12°C) TO KEEP PRODUCT FROM

CRYSTALLIZING. 

Crystals will settle to the bottom. If allowed to crystallize, place in a

warm room 68°F (20°C) for several days to redissolve and roll or

shake container or recirculate in mini-bulk containers to mix well

before using. For bulk containers, see container label. 

DISPOSAL: Wastes resulting from the use of this product that cannot be used or chemically reprocessed should be disposed of in a

landfill approved for pesticide disposal or in accordance with applicable Federal, state or local procedures. 

Emptied container retains vapor and product residue. Observe all

labeled safeguards until container is cleaned, reconditioned or

destroyed. 

(See the individual container labels for disposal information) 

GENERAL INFORMATION

This product, a water soluble liquid, mixes readily with water and

surfactant to be applied as a foliar spray for the control or destruction of most herbaceous and woody plants. 

This product moves through the plant from the point of foliage contact to and into the root system. Visible effects on most herbaceous

weeds occur within 7 days but on most woody plants may not occur

for 30 days or more.

After any site disturbance, such as logging, mechanical brush

removal or mowing, allow stump sprouts, resprouts and foliar

regrowth from woody brush and perennial herbaceous weeds sufficient time to regrow before treatment. 

Always use the higher recommended rates of this product and surfactant when treating dense, multicanopied sites of woody vegetation

or difficult-to-control woody and herbaceous plants. 

Reduced control may result when woody brush, trees and herbaceous weeds are treated under poor growing conditions caused by

drought, disease or insect damage. Reduced control may result if the

foliage of undesirable vegetation is covered with dust at the time of

treatment. 

Rainfall occurring within 6 hours after application may reduce effectiveness. Heavy rainfall within 2 hours after application may wash

the chemical off the foliage and a repeat treatment may be required.

When this product comes in contact with soil (on the soil surface or

as suspended soil or sediment in water) it is bound to soil particles.

When used in accordance with label directions, once this product is

bound it is not available for plant uptake and will not harm off-site

vegetation where roots grow into the treatment area or if the soil is

transported off-site. When used in accordance with label directions,

the strong affinity of this product to soil particles prevents this product from leaching out of the soil profile and entering ground water.

The affinity between this product and soil particles remains until this

product is degraded, which is primarily a biological degradation

process carried out under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions by

soil microflora. 

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage in connection with the use or handling of mixtures of this product with herbicides or other materials that are not expressly recommended in this

label. Mixing this product with herbicides or other materials not recommended in this label may result in reduced performance.

FORESTRY SITE PREPARATION

AND UTILITY RIGHTS-OF-WAY

This product is recommended for the control or partial control of

woody brush, trees and herbaceous weeds. This product is labeled

for use in forestry and utility sites. This product is also recommended

for use in preparing or establishing wildlife openings within these

sites and maintaining logging roads, and for side trimming along utility rights-of-way. 

In forestry, this product is recommended for use in site preparation

prior to planting any tree species, including Christmas trees and silvicultural nursery sites. 

In utilities, this product is recommended for use along electrical

power, pipeline and telephone rights-of-way, and in other utility sites

associated with these rights-of-way, such as substations. 

APPLICATION RATES AND TIMING

SPRAY VOLUME

APPLICATION ACCORD

® GAL/A

BROADCAST

Aerial 2 to 10 qts/a 5 to 30

Ground 2 to 10 qts/a 10 to 60

SPRAY-TO-WET

Handgun, Backpack, 3/4% to 2% by volume spray-to-wet

Mistblower

LOW VOLUME DIRECTED SPRAY

Handgun, Backpack, 5% to 10% by volume partial coverage*

Mistblower

*For low volume directed spray applications, coverage should be

uniform with at least 50 percent of the foliage contacted. Coverage

of the top one-half of the plant is important for best results.

In forestry site preparation and utility rights-of-way applications, this

product requires use with a nonionic surfactant. Use a nonionic surfactant with greater than 80 percent active ingredient and labeled for

use with herbicides. Use of this product without surfactant will result

in reduced performance. See the “MIXING AND APPLICATION

INSTRUCTION” section of this label for more information. 

Mix 2 or more quarts of the nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of

spray solution (0.5 percent or more by spray volume). Use of surfactant concentrations greater than 1.5 percent by spray volume with

handgun applications or 2.5 percent by spray volume with broadcast

applications is not recommended. 

Use higher rates of this product within the recommended range for

control or partial control of woody brush, trees and hard-to-control

perennial herbaceous weeds. For best results, apply to actively growing woody brush and trees after full leaf expansion and before fall

color and leaf drop. Increase rates within the recommended range for

control of perennial herbaceous weeds any time after emergence and

before seedheads, flowers or berries appear.

Use the lower rates of this product within the recommended range for

control of annual herbaceous weeds and actively growing perennial

herbaceous weeds after seedheads, flowers or berries appear. Apply

to the foliage of actively growing annual herbaceous weeds any time

after emergence. 

This product has no herbicidal or residual activity in the soil. Where

repeat applications are necessary, do not exceed 10.6 quarts of this

product per acre per year. 

TANK MIXTURES

Tank mixtures of this product may be used to increase the spectrum

of vegetation controlled. When tank mixing, read and carefully

observe the label claims, cautionary statements and all information

on the labels of both products used. Use according to the most

restrictive precautionary statements for each product in the mixture.

Any recommended rate of this product may be used in a tank mix. 

NOTE: For forestry site preparation, make sure the tank-mix product

is approved for use prior to planting the desired species. Observe

planting interval restrictions. For side trimming treatments in utility 

Non-Agricultural Use Requirements

The requirements in this box apply to uses of this product that are

NOT within the scope of the Worker Protection Standard for agricultural pesticides (40 CFR Part 170). The WPS applies when this

product is used to produce agricultural plants on farms, forests,

nurseries, or greenhouses. 

Uses of this product in utility rights-of-way and all other utility

sites are not within the scope of the Worker Protection Standard

requirements. Requirements in the Agricultural Use Requirement

box do not apply to utility uses. Follow all other label requirements

for applications to utility sites. 

Agricultural Use Requirements

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and with the

Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170. This Standard contains requirements for the protection of agricultural workers on

farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It contains requirements for training, decontamination, notification, and emergency assistance. It also

contains specific instructions and exceptions pertaining to the

statements on this label about personal protective equipment

(PPE) and restricted-entry interval. The requirements in this box

only apply to uses of this product that are covered by the Worker

Protection Standard. 

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or

other persons, either directly or through drift. Only protected

handlers may be in the area during application.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the

restricted entry interval (REI) of 4 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is permitted

under the Worker Protection Standard and that involves contact

with anything that has been treated, such as plants, soil, or water,

are: coveralls, waterproof gloves and shoes plus socks.

2
rights-of-way, tank mixtures with ArsenalTM 2WSL are not recommended. For side trimming treatments, it is recommended that this

product be used alone as recommended, or as a tank mixture with

GarlonTM 4. 

PRODUCT BROADCAST RATE USE SITES

Arsenal Applicators 2 to 16 fl oz/a Forestry site

Concentrate preparation

OustTM 1 to 4 oz/a Forestry site

preparation,

Utility sites

Garlon 3A*, Garlon 4 1 to 4 qts/a Forestry site

preparation, 

Utility sites

Arsenal 2WSL 2 to 32 fl oz/a Utility sites

PRODUCT SPRAY-TO-WET RATES USE SITES

Arsenal Applicators 1/32% to 1/2% by volume Forestry site 

Concentrate preparation

Arsenal 2WSL 1/32% to 1/2% by volume Utility sites

PRODUCT LOW VOLUME DIRECTED SPRAY RATES USE SITES

Arsenal Applicators 1/8% to 1/2% by volume Forestry site

Concentrate preparation

Arsenal 2WSL 1/8% to 1/2% by volume Utility sites

*Ensure that Garlon 3A is thoroughly mixed with water according to

label directions before adding this product. Have spray mixture agitating at the time this product is added to avoid spray compatibility problems.

For control of herbaceous weeds, use the lower recommended tank

mixture rates. For control of dense stands or tough-to-control woody

brush and trees, use the higher recommended rates. 

Arsenal is a trademark of American Cyanamid Company.

Oust is a trademark of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.

Garlon is a trademark of DowElanco Products Company.

FORESTRY CONIFER AND

HARDWOOD RELEASE

DIRECTED SPRAY AND SELECTIVE EQUIPMENT

This product may be applied as a directed spray or by using selective equipment in forestry conifer and hardwood sites, including

Christmas tree plantations and silvicultural nurseries. Mix 2 to 6

quarts of a nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution (0.5

to 1.5 percent by spray volume) for all spray applications. Use a surfactant with greater than 80 percent active ingredient.

In hardwood plantations, tank mixtures with Oust may be used. In

pine plantations, tank mixtures with Garlon 4 or Arsenal AC may be

used. Comply with all site restrictions, forestry species limitations

and precautions on the tank mix product label.

Avoid contact of spray, drift, mist or drips with foliage, green bark or

non-woody surface roots of desirable species.

See all sections in the “APPLICATION EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES” portion of this label for specific equipment recommendations and precautions. 

For spray-to-wet applications, use a 2 percent spray solution for the

control of undesirable woody brush and trees. To control herbaceous

weeds, use a 1 to 2 percent solution. 

For low volume directed spray applications, use a 5 to 10 percent

spray solution. Coverage should be uniform with at least 50 percent

of the foliage contacted. Coverage of the top one-half of the

unwanted vegetation is important.

For equipment calibrated for broadcast applications, use 2 to 10

quarts of this product per acre. Apply in 10 to 60 gallons of clean

water per acre. Shielded application equipment may be used to avoid

contact of the spray solution with desirable plants. Shields should be

adjusted to prevent spray contact with the foliage or green bark of

desirable vegetation.

Wiper application equipment may be used. See the “SELECTIVE

EQUIPMENT” portion of this label for equipment and rate recommendations.

BROADCAST SPRAY

Except where specifically recommended below, use only where

conifers have been established for more than one year. 

APPLICATION MUST BE MADE AFTER FORMATION OF FINAL

CONIFER RESTING BUDS IN THE FALL OR PRIOR TO INITIAL BUD

SWELLING IN THE SPRING. 

Injury may occur to conifers treated for release, especially where

spray patterns overlap or the higher rates are applied. Damage can be

accentuated if applications are made when conifers are actively

growing, or are under stress from drought, flood water, improper

planting, insects, animal damage or diseases. 

This product may require use with a surfactant. Unless otherwise

recommended in this section of this label, use EntryTM II surfactant at

10 to 30 fluid ounces per acre. Follow the instructions under the

“MIXING” portion of the “MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS”

section of this label. 

For release of the following conifer species outside the

Southeastern United States:

Douglas fir Pines*

Pseudotsuga menziesii Pinus spp.

Fir Redwood, California**

Abies spp. Sequoia spp.

Hemlock** Spruce

Tsuga spp. Picea spp.

**Includes all species except loblolly pine, longleaf pine, shortleaf

pine or slash pine.

**Use of a surfactant is not recommended for release of hemlock

species or California redwood. In mixed conifer stands, injury to

these species may result if a surfactant is used. 

Apply 1 to 2 quarts of this product per acre as a broadcast spray.

NOTE: For release of Douglas fir with this product or recommended

tank mixtures of this product, Entry II or a nonionic surfactant recommended for over-the-top foliar sprays may be used. To avoid possible conifer injury, Entry II rates should not exceed 20 fluid ounces

per acre at elevations above 1500 feet, or 10 fluid ounces per acre

in the coastal range or at elevations below 1500 feet in Washington

and Oregon. Nonionic surfactants may be used at 2 fluid ounces per

acre at elevations above 1500 feet, or 1 fluid ounce per acre in the

coastal range or at elevations below 1500 feet. Use of surfactant

rates exceeding those listed above may result in unacceptable

conifer injury and are not recommended. Ensure that the nonionic

surfactant has been adequately tested for Douglas fir safety before

use.

In Maine, up to 3 quarts per acre of this product may be used for the

control of difficult species. 

To release Douglas fir, and pine and spruce species at the end of the

first growing season (except in California), apply 1 to 1.5 quarts of this

product per acre. Ensure that the conifers are well hardened off. 

OUST TANK MIXTURES—To release jack pine, white pine and white

spruce, apply 1 to 2 quarts of this product with 1 to 3 ounces (1 to

1.5 for white pine) of Oust per acre. Make applications to actively

growing weeds as a broadcast spray over the top of established

conifers. Applications at these rates should be made after formation

of conifer resting buds in the late summer or fall. 

ARSENAL APPLICATORS CONCENTRATE TANK MIXTURES—This

product may be tank mixed with Arsenal Applicators Concentrate for

release of Douglas fir. Use 1 to 1 1/2 quarts of this product tank

mixed with 2 to 6 fluid ounces of Arsenal per acre. For release of balsam fir and red spruce, apply a mixture of 2 quarts of this product

and 1 to 2 1/2 fluid ounces of Arsenal Applicators Concentrate per

acre.

For release of the following conifer species in the Southeastern

United States:

Loblolly pine Slash pine

Pinus taeda Pinus elliottii

Eastern white pine Virginia pine

Pinus strobus Pinus virginiana

Shortleaf pine Longleaf pine

Pinus echinata Pinus palustris

Apply 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 quarts of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray during late summer or early fall after the conifers have hardened off. For applications at the end of the first growing season, use

1 quart per acre of this product alone or in a recommended tank mixture.

ARSENAL APPLICATORS CONCENTRATE TANK MIXTURES—Apply 1

to 2 quarts of this product with 2 to 16 fluid ounces of Arsenal

Applicators Concentrate per acre as a broadcast spray for conifer

release. Use only on conifer species that are labeled for over-the-top

sprays for both products. Use the higher recommended rates for

dense, tough-to-control woody brush and trees. 

Read and carefully observe the label claims, cautionary statements

and all information on the labels of each product used in these tank

mixtures. Use according to the most restrictive precautionary statements for each product in the mixture. 

Entry is a trademark of Monsanto Company.

HERBACEOUS RELEASE 

When applied as directed, this product plus listed residual herbicides

provides postemergence control of the annual weeds and control or

suppression of the perennial weeds listed in this label, and residual

3
control of the weeds listed in the residual herbicide label. Make

applications to actively growing weeds as a broadcast spray over the

top of labeled conifers. 

Oust tank mixtures—To release loblolly pines, apply 16 to 24 fluid

ounces of this product, plus 2 to 4 ounces of Oust per acre. 

To release slash pines, apply 12 to 16 fluid ounces of this product,

plus 2 to 4 ounces of Oust per acre. 

Mix up to 3.2 fluid ounces per acre of Entry II with the recommended

rate of this product plus Oust. Applications can be made over newly

planted pines after the emergence of herbaceous weeds in the spring

or early summer. Best results are obtained from applications made

in May and June. 

Weed control may be reduced if water volumes exceed 25 gallons per

acre for these treatments. 

Atrazine tank mixtures—To release Douglas fir, apply 1 quart of

this product, plus 4 pounds a.i. of atrazine per acre. Apply only over

Douglas fir that has been established for at least one full growing

season. Apply in the early Spring, usually mid-March through early

April. Injury will occur if applications are made after bud swell in the

Spring. Do not add surfactant to this mix for this use. 

Always read and follow the manufacturer’s label recommendations

for all herbicides and surfactants used. 

WETLAND SITES

This product may be used in and around water (aquatic areas) and

wetlands found in forestry and in power, telephone and pipeline

rights-of-way sites, including where these sites are adjacent to or

surrounding domestic water supply reservoirs, supply streams, lakes

and ponds. Read and observe the following before making applications in and around water. 

Consult local public water control authorities before applying this

product in and around public water. Permits may be required to treat

in such areas. 

There is no restriction on the use of treated water for irrigation, recreation or domestic purposes. 

NOTE: Do not apply this product directly to water within 1/2 mile upstream of an active potable water intake in flowing water (i.e., river,

stream, etc.) or within 1/2 mile of an active potable water intake in

a standing body of water such as lake, pond or reservoir. To make

aquatic applications around and within 1/2 mile of active potable

water intakes, the water intake must be turned off for a minimum

period of 48 hours after the application. These aquatic applications

may be made ONLY in those cases where there are alternative water

sources or holding ponds which would permit the turning off of an

active potable water intake for a minimum period of 48 hours after

the applications. This restriction does not apply to intermittant inadvertent overspray of water in terrestrial use sites.

Do not spray open bodies of water where woody brush, trees and

herbaceous weeds do not exist. The maximum application rate of 5

quarts per acre must not be exceeded in a single over-water broadcast application except as follows, where any recommended rate

may be applied: 

• Stream crossings in utility rights-of-way

• Where applications will result in less than 20 percent of the total

water area being treated. 

MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS

APPLY THESE SPRAY SOLUTIONS IN PROPERLY MAINTAINED AND

CALIBRATED EQUIPMENT CAPABLE OF DELIVERING DESIRED VOLUMES. HANDGUN APPLICATIONS SHOULD BE PROPERLY DIRECTED

TO AVOID SPRAYING DESIRABLE PLANTS. NOTE: REDUCED RESULTS

MAY OCCUR IF WATER CONTAINING SOIL IS USED, SUCH AS WATER

FROM PONDS AND UNLINED DITCHES. 

MIXING

This product mixes readily with water. Mix spray solutions of this

product as follows: Fill the mixing or spray tank with the required

amount of water while adding the required amount of this product

(see the “DIRECTIONS FOR USE” and “WEEDS CONTROLLED” sections of this label). For tank mixtures, add the tank-mix product

before adding this product. If tank mixing with Garlon 3A, ensure that

the Garlon 3A is well mixed with at least 75 percent of the total spray

volume before adding this product to avoid incompatibility. Near the

end of the filling process, add the required surfactant and mix well.

Maintain an air break between the filling hose and the spray solution

and remove the hose from the tank immediately after filling to avoid

siphoning back into the water source. During mixing and application,

foaming of the spray solution may occur. To prevent or minimize

foam, avoid the use of mechanical agitators, terminate by-pass and

return lines at the bottom of the tank and, if needed, use an approved

antifoam or defoaming agent. 

APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

AND TECHNIQUES

ATTENTION

AVOID DRIFT. EXTREME CARE MUST BE USED WHEN APPLYING THIS

PRODUCT TO PREVENT INJURY TO DESIRABLE PLANTS AND CROPS. 

Do not allow the herbicide solution to mist, drip, drift or splash onto

desirable vegetation since minute quantities of this product can

cause severe damage or destruction to the crop, plants or other

areas on which treatment was not intended. The likelihood of plant

or crop injury occurring from the use of this product is greatest when

winds are gusty or in excess of 5 miles per hour or when other conditions, including lesser wind velocities, will allow spray drift to

occur. When spraying, avoid combinations of pressure and nozzle

type that will result in splatter or fine particles (mist) which are likely

to drift. AVOID APPLYING AT EXCESSIVE SPEED OR PRESSURE. 

NOTE: Use of this product in any manner not consistent with this

label may result in injury to persons, animals or crops, or other unintended consequences. When not in use, keep container closed to prevent spills and contamination. ■ AERIAL EQUIPMENT ■

This product is recommended for application by helicopter only in

forestry sites and utility rights-of-way. Use the recommended rates

of this product and surfactant in 5 to 30 gallons of spray solution per

acre as a broadcast spray. 

IN CALIFORNIA, AERIAL APPLICATION MAY ONLY BE MADE IN NONRESIDENTIAL, FORESTRY SITES AND CHAPARRAL AREAS. 

AVOID DRIFT—DO NOT APPLY DURING INVERSION CONDITION,

WHEN WINDS ARE GUSTY, OR UNDER ANY OTHER CONDITION WHICH

WILL ALLOW DRIFT; DRIFT WILL CAUSE DAMAGE TO ANY VEGETATION CONTACTED TO WHICH TREATMENT IS NOT INTENDED. TO

PREVENT INJURY TO ADJACENT DESIRABLE VEGETATION, APPROPRIATE BUFFER ZONES MUST BE MAINTAINED. 

Coarse sprays are less likely to drift; therefore, do not use nozzles or

nozzle configurations which dispense spray as fine droplets. 

Drift control additives may be used for forestry site preparation and

utility rights-of-way applications. When a drift control additive is

used, read and carefully observe the cautionary statements and all

other information appearing on the additive label. The use of a drift

control agent for conifer and herbaceous release applications may

result in conifer injury and is not recommended.

PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF THIS PRODUCT TO UNCOATED STEEL

SURFACES MAY RESULT IN CORROSION AND POSSIBLE FAILURE OF

THE PART. The maintenance of an organic coating (paint) which

meets aerospace specification MIL-C-38413 may prevent corrosion.

To prevent corrosion of exposed parts, thoroughly wash aircraft after

each day of spraying to remove residues of this product accumulated

during spraying or from spills. Landing gear are most susceptible. ■ GROUND BROADCAST EQUIPMENT

■

This product is recommended for broadcast applications using suitable ground equipment in forestry sites, utility sites and utility rightsof-way. Use the recommended rates of this product plus surfactant

in 10 to 60 gallons of clean water per acre as a broadcast spray.

Check for even spray distribution throughout the spray pattern. ■BACKPACK, HANDGUN OR MISTBLOWER EQUIPMENT

■

This product is recommended for application through backpack,

handgun or hand-held mistblower* equipment. For spray-to-wet

applications, coverage should be uniform and complete, but not to

the point of runoff. 

This product can be used for low volume directed sprays for spot

treatment of trees and brush. It is most effective in areas where

there is a low density of undesirable trees or brush. If a straight

stream nozzle is used, start the application at the top of the targeted

vegetation and spray from top to bottom in a lateral zigzag motion.

For flat fan and cone nozzles and with mistblowers, mist the application over the foliage of the targeted vegetation. Small, open

branched trees need only be treated from one side. If the foliage is

thick or there are multiple root sprouts, applications must be made

from several sides to ensure adequate spray coverage. 

It is suggested that the recommended amount of this product and

surfactant be mixed in a larger container and then added to the

sprayer. 

*This product is not registered in California or Arizona for use in

mistblowers. ■ SELECTIVE EQUIPMENT

■

This product may be applied through shielded sprayers or wiper

application equipment. This equipment may be used to selectively

control undesirable vegetation without harming desirable vegetation. 

4
Shielded sprayers direct the herbicide solution onto weeds while

shielding desirable vegetation from the spray solution. Any recommended rate or tank mixture of this product may be used employing

this equipment. 

Wiper applicators physically wipe product directly onto undesirable

vegetation. Care should be taken to avoid wiping desirable vegetation. Use a 33 to 100 percent solution of this product, diluted in water

for wiper applications. Use a 33 percent solution for wick or gravity

feed systems. Higher concentrations may be used in pressurized systems that are capable of handling thicker solutions. Addition of a

nonionic surfactant at a rate of 10 percent by volume of total herbicide solution is recommended. 

WEEDS CONTROLLED

When applied as recommended under the conditions described, this

product CONTROLS, PARTIALLY CONTROLS or SUPPRESSES most

woody brush, trees and herbaceous weeds, some of which are listed

below. 

WOODY BRUSH AND TREES

WOODY BRUSH AND TREES (continued)

HERBACEOUS WEEDS

Bahiagrass

Paspalum notatum

Balsamapple

Momordica charantia

Barnyardgrass

Echinochloa crus-galli

Bassia, fivehook

Bassia hyssopifolia

Bermudagrass

Cynodon dactylon

Bindweed, field

Convolvulus arvensis

Bluegrass, Kentucky

Poa pratensis

Brackenfern

Pteridium aquilinum

Brome

Brome spp.

Bromegrass, smooth

Bromus inermis

Broomsedge

Andropogon spp. 

Buttercup

Ranunculus spp.

Cheat

Bromus secalinus

Chickweed, mouseear

Cerastium vulgatum

Clover, red

Trifolium pratense

Clover, white

Trifolium repens

Cocklebur

Xanthium strumarium

Crabgrass

Digitaria spp.

Dallasgrass

Paspalum dilatatum

Dock, curly

Rumex crispus

Dwarfdandelion

Krigia cespitosa

Falseflax, smallseed

Camelina microcarpa

Fescue

Festuca spp.

Fiddleneck

Amsinckia spp.

Flaxleaf fleabane

Conyza bonariensis

Fleabane

Erigeron spp.

Foxtail

Setaria spp.

Groundsel, common

Senecio vulgaris

Guineagrass

Panicum maximum

Horsenettle

Solanum carolinese

Horseweed/Marestail

Conyza canadensis

Johnsongrass

Sorghum halepense

Kikuyugrass

Pennisetum clandestinum

Knapweed

Centaurea repens

Kochia

Kochia scoparia

Lambsquarters, common

Chenopodium album

Lespedeza: common,

sericea

Lespedeza striata

Lespedeza cuneata

Lettuce, prickly

Lactuca serriola

Morningglory

Ipomoea spp.

Muhly, wirestem

Muhlenbergia frondonsa

Mullein, common

Verbascum thapsus

Mustard, blue

Chorispora tenella

Mustard, tansy

Descurainia pinnata

Mustard, tumble

Sisymbrium altissimum

Mustard, wild

Sinapis arvensis

Napiergrass

Pennisetum purpureum

Nightshade, silverleaf

Solanum elaeagnifolium

Nutsedge: purple, yellow

Cyperus rotundus

Cyperus esculentus

Oats, wild

Avena fatua

Orchardgrass

Dactylis glomerata

Panicum

Panicum spp.

Pampasgrass

Cortaderia jubata

Pennycress, field

Thlaspi arvense

Pigweed, redroot

Amaranthus retroflexus

Pigweed, smooth

Amaranthus hybridus

Sourwood

Oxydendrum arboreum

Sumac

Rhus vernix

Sweetgum

Liquidambar styraciflua

Swordfern

Polystichum munitum

Tallowtree, Chinese

Sapium sebiferum

Tan Oak

Lithocarpus densiflorus

Thimbleberry

Rubus parviflorus

Tobacco, tree

Nicotiana glauca

Trumpetcreeper

Campsis radicans

Waxmyrtle, southern

Myrica cerifera

Willow

Salix spp.

Alder

Alnus spp.

Ash

Fraxinus spp.

Aspen, quaking

Populus tremuloides

Bearmat (Bearclover)

Chamaebatia foliolosa

Beech

Fagus grandifolia

Birch

Betula spp.

Blackberry

Rubus spp.

Blackgum

Nyssa spp.

Bracken

Pteridium spp.

Broom:

French

Cytisus monspessulanus

Scotch

Cytisus scoparius

Buckwheat, California

Eriogonum fasciculatum

Cascara

Rhamnus purshiana

Catsclaw

Acacia greggi

Ceanothus

Ceanothus spp.

Chamise

Adenostoma fasciculatum

Cherry:

Bitter

Prunus emarginata

Black

Prunus serotina

Pin

Prunus pensylvanica

Coyote brush

Baccharis consanguinea

Creeper, Virginia

Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Dewberry

Rubus trivialis

Dogwood

Cornus spp.

Elderberry

Sambucus spp.

Elm

Ulmus spp.

Eucalyptus, bluegum

Eucalyptus globulus

Hasardia

Haplopappus squamosus

Hawthorn

Crataegus spp.

Hazel

Corylus spp.

Hickory

Carya spp.

Holly, Florida; Brazilian

Peppertree

Schinus terebinthifolius

Honeysuckle

Lonicera spp.

Hornbeam, American

Carpinus caroliniana

Kudzu

Pueraria lobata

Locust, black

Robina pseudoacacia

Madrone

Arbutus menziesii

Manzanita

Arctostaphylos spp. 

Maple

Acer spp.

Monkey Flower

Mimulus guttatus

Oak

Quercus spp.

Persimmon

Diospyros spp.

Pine

Pinus spp.

Poison Ivy

Rhus radicans

Poison Oak

Rhus toxicodendron

Poplar, yellow

Liriodendron tulipfera

Prunus

Prunus spp. 

Raspberry

Rubus spp.

Redbud, eastern

Cercis canadensis

Rose, multiflora

Rosa multiflora

Sage, black

Salvia mellifera

Sagebrush, California

Artemisia californica

Salmonberry

Rubus spectabilis

Saltbush; Sea myrtle

Baccaharis halimifolia

Sassafras

Sassafras albidum

5
HERBACEOUS WEEDS (continued)

INJECTION AND

CUT STUMP APPLICATIONS

Woody brush and trees may be controlled using injection or cut

stump applications of this product in forestry and utility right-of-way

sites. 

INJECTION APPLICATIONS

Apply the equivalent of 1 ml of this product per each 2 inches of trunk

diameter. This is best achieved by applying a 25 to 100 percent concentration of this material either to a continuous frill around the tree

or as cuts evenly spaced around the tree below all branches. As tree

diameter increases in size, better results are achieved by applying

diluted material to a continuous frill or more closely spaced cuttings.

Avoid application techniques that allow runoff to occur from frill or

cut areas in species that exude sap freely after frills or cutting. In

these species, make frill or cut at an oblique angle so as to produce

a cupping effect and use undiluted material. For best results, avoid

applications during peak sap flow in the Spring.

CUT STUMP TREATMENTS

Woody vegetation may be controlled by treating freshly cut stumps of

trees and resprouts with this product. Apply this product using suitable equipment to ensure coverage of the entire cambium. Cut vegetation close to the soil surface. Apply a 50 to 100 percent solution

of this product to the freshly cut surface immediately after cutting. Delays in application may result in reduced performance. For

best results, avoid applications during peak sap flow in the Spring.

When used according to directions for cut stump application, this

product will CONTROL, PARTIALLY CONTROL or SUPPRESS most

woody brush and tree species, some of which are listed below:

Alder Oak

Alnus spp. Quercus spp.

Coyotebrush Poplar

Baccharis consanguinea Populus spp.

Dogwood Saltcedar

Cornus spp. Tamarisk spp.

Eucalyptus Sweetgum

Eucalyptus spp. Liquidambar styraciflua

Hickory Sycamore

Carya spp. Platanus occidentalis

Madrone Tan Oak

Arbutus menziesii Lithocarpus densiflorus

Maple Willow

Acer spp. Salix spp.

Product protected by U.S. Patent No. 4,405,531. 

Other patents pending. No license granted 

under any non-U.S. patent(s).

©MONSANTO COMPANY 1998

MONSANTO COMPANY

ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI 63167 U.S.A.

Quackgrass

Agropyron repens

Ragweed, common

Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Ragweed, giant

Ambrosia trifida

Reed, giant

Arundo donax

Ryegrass, perennial

Lolium perenne

Saltcedar

Tamarix spp.

Sandbur, field

Cenchrus spp.

Shepherd’s-purse

Capsella bursa-pastoris

Signalgrass, broadleaf

Brachiaria platyphylla

Smartweed, Pennsylvania

Polygonum pensylvanicum

Sowthistle, annual

Sonchus oleraceus

Spanishneedles 

Bidens bipinnata

Spurry, umbrella

Holosteum umbellatum

Starthistle, yellow

Centaurea solstitialis

Stinkgrass

Eragrostis cilianensis

Thistle, Canada

Cirsium arvense

Thistle, Russian

Salsola kali

Vaseygrass

Paaspalum urvillei

Velvetgrass

Holcus spp.

Witchgrass

Panicum capillare

6
Read the entire label before using this product. 

Use only according to label instructions. 

Read “LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY”

before buying and using. If terms are not acceptable, return at once unopened.

REFORMULATION OR REPACKAGING IS

PROHIBITED.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

Keep out of reach of children. 

DANGER!

CAUSES EYE BURNS. 

CAUSES SKIN IRRITATION. 

HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED. 

MAY CAUSE ALLERGIC SKIN REACTION.

Do not get in eyes, on skin or on clothing. 

Wear goggles or face shield and rubber gloves

when transferring and mixing. 

Wash thoroughly with soap and water after

handling.

FIRST AID: IF IN EYES, immediately flush with

plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention.

IF ON SKIN, immediately flush with plenty of

water while removing contaminated clothing. As

soon as soap is available, wash thoroughly with

soap and water. Wash clothing before reuse.

Sensitized persons should avoid further contact

and reuse of contaminated clothing. Get medical

attention.

IF SWALLOWED, this product will cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. Immediately dilute by

swallowing water or milk. Get medical attention.

In case of an emergency involving this product, 

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE 

EntryTM II is recommended for use only with

Accord® herbicide and tank mixtures of Accord

for forestry conifer release (woody and herbaceous), forestry site preparation and utility

rights-of-way applications.

For conifer release, use up to 10 fluid ounces of

this product per quart of Accord applied per

acre.* Do not exceed 30 fluid ounces per acre of

this product for conifer release.

For herbaceous release treatments in newly

planted pines in the Southeastern United States,

use up to 6 fluid ounces of this product per acre.

For site preparation, utility rights-of-way, and

post-directed sprays in established conifer sites,

apply a minimum of 1 percent (4 quarts per 100

gallons of spray solution) by spray volume. Use

of concentrations of this product greater than 3

percent by spray volume with handheld applicators or 3 percent by spray volume with broadcast

applications is not recommended.

This product should not be used in excess of

32 fluid ounces per acre when making broadcast

applications in and around water.

*In the Southeastern United States, up to 20

fluid ounces per acre of this product may be

used with any recommended rate of Accord.

MIXING INSTRUCTIONS

Before using this product, read the entire label

for Accord. All instructions on that label must be

followed.

Fill the spray tank two-thirds (2/3) full with clean

water. Add the recommended rate of Accord or

tank mixture of Accord, followed by the recommended amount of this product. Fill spray tank to

desired level. Ensure that the spray solution is

thoroughly mixed. If needed, use an approved

antifoam or defoaming agent.

Storage and Disposal

Do not contaminate water, food or feed by storage or disposal.

STORAGE: Store in original container. In case of

leak or spill, use absorbent materials to contain

liquids and dispose of wastes.

DISPOSAL: Wastes of this product may cause

eye burns. If these wastes cannot be disposed of

by use according to the label instructions, dispose of in a hazardous waste facility.

Emptied container retains vapor and product

residue. Observe all labeled safeguards until

container is destroyed.

Do not reuse container. Return emptied container

per the Monsanto container return program. If

not returned, triple rinse container, then puncture

and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or by incineration, or, if allowed by state and local authorities,

by burning. If burned, stay out of smoke.

LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY

This Company warrants that this product conforms to the chemical description on the label

and is reasonably fit for the purposes set forth in

the Complete Directions for Use ("Directions")

when used in accordance with those Directions

under the conditions described therein. NO

OTHER EXPRESS WARRANTY OR IMPLIED

WARRANTY OF FITNESS FOR PARTICULAR

PURPOSE OR MERCHANTABILITY IS MADE.

This warranty is also subject to the conditions

and limitations stated herein.

Buyer and all users shall promptly notify this

Company of any claims whether based in contract,

negligence, strict liability, other tort or otherwise.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or

damage from use or handling which results from

conditions beyond the control of this Company,

including, but not limited to, incompatibility with

products other than those set forth in the

Directions, application to or contact with desirable

vegetation, unusual weather, weather conditions

which are outside the range considered normal at

the application site and for the time period when

the product is applied, as well as weather conditions which are outside the application ranges set

forth in the Directions, application in any manner

not explicitly set forth in the Directions, moisture

conditions outside the moisture range specified in

the Directions, or the presence of products other

than those set forth in the Directions in or on the

soil, crop or treated vegetation.

THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF THE USER OR

BUYER, AND THE LIMIT OF THE LIABILITY OF

THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER FOR

ANY AND ALL LOSSES, INJURIES OR DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE USE OR HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT (INCLUDING CLAIMS

BASED IN CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, STRICT

LIABILITY, OTHER TORT OR OTHERWISE)

SHALL BE THE PURCHASE PRICE PAID BY THE

USER OR BUYER FOR THE QUANTITY OF THIS

PRODUCT INVOLVED, OR, AT THE ELECTION OF

THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER, THE

REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY, OR, IF NOT

ACQUIRED BY PURCHASE, REPLACEMENT OF

SUCH QUANTITY. IN NO EVENT SHALL THIS

COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER BE LIABLE

FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR

SPECIAL DAMAGES.

Buyer and all users are deemed to have accepted

the terms of this LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY which may not be varied by any verbal or

written agreement.

PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONING AGENT:

Ethoxylated tallow amine . . . . . . . . . . 35.0%

INERT INGREDIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.0%

100.0%

The substance listed below is identified as a hazardous

chemical under the criteria of the OSHA Hazard

Communications Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200):

Ethoxylated tallow amine, 

CAS Reg. No. 61791-26-2

MONSANTO COMPANY 

ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI 63167 U.S.A.

CA Reg. No. 524-50021

© MONSANTO COMPANY 1997 

TMTrademark of Monsanto Company. 

®Registered trademark of Monsanto Company.

43011V2-2/CG

In case of an emergency involving this product,

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

SURFACTANT FOR USE WITH ACCORD® HERBICIDE AND TANK

MIXTURES OF ACCORD IN FORESTRY AND UTILITY RIGHTS-OF-WAY.

THIS PRODUCT ENHANCES BRUSH AND WEED CONTROL AND CAN

BE USED FOR CONIFER RELEASE APPLICATIONS.

This sample label is current as of June 12, 1996. The product descriptions and recommendations provided in this sample label are

for background information only. Always refer to the label on the product before using Monsanto or any other agrichemical product.
Complete Directions for Use

in Aquatic and Other Noncrop Sites.

EPA Reg. No. 524-343

AVOID CONTACT WITH FOLIAGE, GREEN STEMS,

EXPOSED NON-WOODY ROOTS, OR FRUIT OF

CROPS, DESIRABLE PLANTS AND TREES, SINCE

SEVERE INJURY OR DESTRUCTION MAY RESULT.

RODEO is a registered trademark of Monsanto Company.

1998-1 21061W3-1/CG

Read each of these sections of this label for essential product performance information.

Read the entire label before using this product.

Use only according to label instructions.

Read “LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY” before buying or using. If

terms are not acceptable, return at once unopened.

REFORMULATION IS PROHIBITED. SEE INDIVIDUAL CONTAINER LABEL

FOR REPACKAGING LIMITATIONS.

LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY

This Company warrants that this product conforms to the chemical

description on the label and is reasonably fit for the purposes set forth in

the Complete Directions for Use label booklet (“Directions”) when used in

accordance with those Directions under the conditions described therein.

NO OTHER EXPRESS WARRANTY OR IMPLIED WARRANTY OF FITNESS FOR

PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR MERCHANTABILITY OR ANY OTHER EXPRESS

OR IMPLIED WARRANTY IS MADE. This warranty is also subject to the conditions and limitations stated herein.

Buyer and all users shall promptly notify this Company of any claims

whether based in contract, negligence, strict liability, other tort or

otherwise.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage from use or

handling which results from conditions beyond the control of this

Company, including, but not limited to, incompatibility with products other

than those set forth in the Directions, application to or contact with desirable vegetation, unusual weather, weather conditions which are outside

the range considered normal at the application site and for the time period

when the product is applied, as well as weather conditions which are outside the application ranges set forth in the Directions, application in any

manner not explicitly set forth in the Directions, moisture conditions outside the moisture range specified in the Directions, or the presence of

products other than those set forth in the Directions in or on the soil or

treated vegetation.

THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF THE USER OR BUYER, AND THE LIMIT OF THE

LIABILITY OF THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER FOR ANY AND ALL

LOSSES, INJURIES OR DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE USE OR HANDLING OF THIS PRODUCT (INCLUDING CLAIMS BASED IN CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, OTHER TORT OR OTHERWISE) SHALL BE THE

PURCHASE PRICE PAID BY THE USER OR BUYER FOR THE QUANTITY OF

THIS PRODUCT INVOLVED, OR, AT THE ELECTION OF THIS COMPANY OR

ANY OTHER SELLER, THE REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY, OR, IF NOT

ACQUIRED BY PURCHASE, REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY. IN NO

EVENT SHALL THIS COMPANY OR ANY OTHER SELLER BE LIABLE FOR ANY

INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, OR SPECIAL DAMAGES.

Buyer and all users are deemed to have accepted the terms of this LIMIT

OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY which may not be varied by any verbal or

written agreement.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals

Keep out of reach of children.

CAUTION!

HARMFUL IF INHALED.

Avoid breathing spray mist.

Remove contaminated clothing and wash clothing before reuse.

Wash thoroughly with soap and water after handling.

FIRST AID: IF INHALED, remove individual to fresh air. If not breathing

give artificial respiration, preferably mouth-to-mouth. Get medical attention.

In case of an emergency involving this product,

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

Environmental Hazards

Do not contaminate water when disposing of equipment washwaters.

Treatment of aquatic weeds can result in oxygen depletion or loss due to

decomposition of dead plants. This oxygen loss can cause fish suffocation.

In case of: SPILL or LEAK, soak up and remove to a landfill.

Physical or Chemical Hazards

Spray solutions of this product should be mixed, stored and applied using

only stainless steel, aluminum, fiberglass, plastic and plastic-lined steel

containers.

DO NOT MIX, STORE OR APPLY THIS PRODUCT OR SPRAY SOLUTIONS OF

THIS PRODUCT IN GALVANIZED STEEL OR UNLINED STEEL (EXCEPT

STAINLESS STEEL) CONTAINERS OR SPRAY TANKS. This product or spray

solutions of this product react with such containers and tanks to produce

hydrogen gas which may form a highly combustible gas mixture. This gas

mixture could flash or explode, causing serious personal injury, if ignited

by open flame, spark, welder’s torch, lighted cigarette or other ignition

source.

ACTIVE INGREDIENT:

*Glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine,

in the form of its isopropylamine salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.8%

INERT INGREDIENTS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.2%

100.0%

*Contains 648 grams per litre or 5.4 pounds per U.S. gallon of the active

ingredient, glyphosate, in the form of its isopropylamine salt. Equivalent

to 480 grams per litre or 4 pounds per U.S. gallon of the acid, glyphosate.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in any manner inconsistent with its labeling.

For more product information, call toll-free 1-800-332-3111.

Storage and Disposal

Do not contaminate water, foodstuffs, feed or seed by storage or disposal.

See container label for STORAGE AND DISPOSAL instructions. 

GENERAL INFORMATION

This product, a water-soluble liquid, mixes readily with water and nonionic

surfactant to be applied as a foliar spray for the control or destruction of

many herbaceous and woody plants.

This product moves through the plant from the point of foliage contact to

and into the root system. Visible effects on most annual weeds occur

within 2 to 4 days but on most perennial brush species may not occur for

7 days or more. Extremely cool or cloudy weather following treatment may

slow the activity of this product and delay visual effects of control. Visible

effects are a gradual wilting and yellowing of the plant which advances to

complete browning of above-ground growth and deterioration of underground plant parts.

Unless otherwise directed on this label, delay application until vegetation

has emerged and reached the stages described for control of such vegetation under the “WEEDS CONTROLLED” section of this label.

Unemerged plants arising from unattached underground rhizomes or root

stocks of perennials or brush will not be affected by the spray and will

continue to grow. For this reason best control of most perennial weeds or

brush is obtained when treatment is made at late growth stages

approaching maturity.

Always use the higher rate of this product per acre within the recommended range when vegetation is heavy or dense.

1

This sample label is current as of July 9, 1997. The product descriptions and recommendations provided in this sample label are for

background information only. Always refer to the label on the product before using Monsanto or any other agrichemical product.

®

Specimen label formatted for electronic distribution by CDMS
Do not treat weeds or brush under poor growing conditions such as drought

stress, disease or insect damage, as reduced control may result. Reduced

results may also occur when treating weeds or brush heavily covered with

dust.

Reduced control may result when applications are made to any weed or

brush species that have been mowed, grazed or cut, and have not been

allowed to regrow to the recommended stage for treatment.

Rainfall or irrigation occurring within 6 hours after application may reduce

effectiveness. Heavy rainfall or irrigation within 2 hours after application

may wash the product off the foliage and a repeat treatment may be

required.

When this product comes in contact with soil (on the soil surface or as

suspended soil or sediment in water) it is bound to soil particles. Under

recommended use situations, once this product is bound to soil particles,

it is not available for plant uptake and will not harm off-site vegetation

where roots grow into the treatment area or if the soil is transported offsite. Under recommended use conditions, the strong affinity of this product to soil particles prevents this product from leaching out of the soil

profile and entering ground water. The affinity between this product and

soil particles remains until this product is degraded, which is primarily a

biological degradation process carried out under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions by soil microflora. 

This product does not provide residual weed control. For subsequent

residual weed control, follow a label-approved herbicide program. Read

and carefully observe the cautionary statements and all other information

appearing on the labels of all herbicides used.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage in connection

with the use or handling of mixtures of this product or other materials that

are not expressly recommended in this label. Mixing this product with herbicides or other materials not recommended in this label may result in

reduced performance.

ATTENTION

AVOID DRIFT. EXTREME CARE MUST BE USED WHEN APPLYING THIS

PRODUCT TO PREVENT INJURY TO DESIRABLE PLANTS AND CROPS.

Do not allow the herbicide solution to mist, drip, drift or splash onto desirable vegetation since minute quantities of this product can cause severe

damage or destruction to the crop, plants or other areas on which treatment was not intended. The likelihood of plant or crop injury occurring

from the use of this product is greatest when winds are gusty or in excess

of 5 miles per hour or when other conditions, including lesser wind velocities, will allow spray drift to occur. When spraying, avoid combinations of

pressure and nozzle type that will result in splatter or fine particles (mist)

which are likely to drift. AVOID APPLYING AT EXCESSIVE SPEED OR PRESSURE.

NOTE: Use of this product in any manner not consistent with this label

may result in injury to persons, animals or crops, or other unintended consequences. When not in use, keep container closed to prevent spills and

contamination.

MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS

APPLY THESE SPRAY SOLUTIONS IN PROPERLY MAINTAINED AND CALIBRATED EQUIPMENT CAPABLE OF DELIVERING DESIRED VOLUMES.

HAND-GUN APPLICATIONS SHOULD BE PROPERLY DIRECTED TO AVOID

SPRAYING DESIRABLE PLANTS. NOTE: REDUCED RESULTS MAY OCCUR IF

WATER CONTAINING SOIL IS USED, SUCH AS WATER FROM PONDS AND

UNLINED DITCHES.

MIXING

This product mixes readily with water. Mix spray solutions of this product as

follows: fill the mixing or spray tank with the required amount of water while

adding the required amount of this product (see “DIRECTIONS FOR USE”

and “WEEDS CONTROLLED” sections of this label). Near the end of the filling process, add the required surfactant and mix well. Remove hose from

tank immediately after filling to avoid siphoning back into the water source.

During mixing and application, foaming of the spray solution may occur. To

prevent or minimize foam, avoid the use of mechanical agitators, place the

filling hose below the surface of the spray solution, terminate by-pass and

return lines at the bottom of the tank and if needed use an approved antifoam or defoaming agent.

Keep by-pass line on or near bottom of tank to minimize foaming. Screen

size in nozzle or line strainers should be no finer than 50 mesh. Carefully

select correct nozzle to avoid spraying a fine mist. For best results with

conventional ground application equipment, use flat fan nozzles. Check for

even distribution of spray droplets.

When using this product, mix 2 or more quarts of a nonionic surfactant per

100 gallons of spray solution. Use a nonionic surfactant labeled for use

with herbicides. The surfactant must contain 50 percent or more active

ingredient.

Always read and follow the manufacturer’s surfactant label recommendations for best results.

These surfactants should not be used in excess of 1 quart per acre when

making broadcast applications.

Colorants or marking dyes approved for use with herbicides may be added

to spray mixtures of this product. Colorants or dyes used in spray solutions

of this product may reduce performance, especially at lower rates or dilutions. Use colorants or dyes according to the manufacturer’s label recommendations. 

Clean sprayer and parts immediately after using this product by thoroughly flushing with water and dispose of rinsate according to labeled use

or disposal instructions.

Carefully observe all cautionary statements and other information appearing in the surfactant label.

APPLICATION EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES

■ AERIAL EQUIPMENT ■

See the supplemental label for use of this product by air in California.

Use the recommended rates of this product and surfactant in 3 to 20 gallons of water per acre as a broadcast spray, unless otherwise specified.

See the “WEEDS CONTROLLED” section of this label for specific rates.

Aerial applications of this product may only be made as specifically recommended in this label.

AVOID DRIFT — DO NOT APPLY DURING INVERSION CONDITIONS, WHEN

WINDS ARE GUSTY OR UNDER ANY OTHER CONDITION WHICH WILL

ALLOW DRIFT. DRIFT MAY CAUSE DAMAGE TO ANY VEGETATION CONTACTED TO WHICH TREATMENT IS NOT INTENDED. TO PREVENT INJURY

TO ADJACENT DESIRABLE VEGETATION, APPROPRIATE BUFFER ZONES

MUST BE MAINTAINED.

Coarse sprays are less likely to drift; therefore, do not use nozzles or nozzle configurations which dispense spray as fine spray droplets. Do not

angle nozzles forward into the airstream and do not increase spray volume

by increasing nozzle pressure.

Drift control additives may be used. When a drift control additive is used,

read and carefully observe the cautionary statements and all other information appearing in the additive label.

Ensure uniform application—To avoid streaked, uneven or overlapped

application, use appropriate marking devices.

Thoroughly wash aircraft, especially landing gear, after each day of spraying to remove residues of this product accumulated during spraying or

from spills. PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF THIS PRODUCT TO UNCOATED

STEEL SURFACES MAY RESULT IN CORROSION AND POSSIBLE FAILURE

OF THE PART. LANDING GEAR ARE MOST SUSCEPTIBLE. The maintenance

of an organic coating (paint) which meets aerospace specification MIL-C38413 may prevent corrosion.

■ BOOM EQUIPMENT ■

For control of weed or brush species listed in this label using conventional boom equipment—Use the recommended rates of this product and surfactant in 3 to 30 gallons of water per acre as a broadcast

spray, unless otherwise specified. See the “WEEDS CONTROLLED” section

of this label for specific rates. As density of vegetation increases, spray

volume should be increased within the recommended range to ensure

complete coverage. Carefully select correct nozzle to avoid spraying a fine

mist. For best results with ground application equipment, use flat fan nozzles. Check for even distribution of spray droplets.

■ HAND-HELD and HIGH-VOLUME EQUIPMENT ■

Use Coarse Sprays Only

For control of weeds listed in this label using knapsack sprayers or

high-volume spraying equipment utilizing handguns or other suitable nozzle arrangements—Prepare a 3/4 to 2 percent solution of this

product in water, add a nonionic surfactant and apply to foliage of vegetation to be controlled. For specific rates of application and instructions for

control of various annual and perennial weeds, see the “WEEDS

CONTROLLED” section in this label.

Applications should be made on a spray-to-wet basis. Spray coverage

should be uniform and complete. Do not spray to point of runoff.

This product may be used as a 5 to 8 percent solution for low-volume

directed sprays for spot treatment of trees and brush. It is most effective

in areas where there is a low density of undesirable trees or brush. If a

straight stream nozzle is used, start the application at the top of the targeted vegetation and spray from top to bottom in a lateral zig-zag motion. 2
Ensure that at least 50 percent of the leaves are contacted by the spray

solution. For flat fan and cone nozzles and with hand-directed mist blowers, mist the application over the foliage of the targeted vegetation. Small,

open-branched trees need only be treated from one side. If the foliage is

thick or there are multiple root sprouts, applications must be made from

several sides to ensure adequate spray coverage. 

Prepare the desired volume of spray solution by mixing the amount of this

product in water, shown in the following table:

Spray Solution

Amount of Rodeo®

Desired

Volume 3/4% 1% 11⁄4% 11⁄2% 5% 8%

1 Gal 1 oz. 11⁄3 oz. 12⁄3 oz. 2 oz. 6 oz. 101⁄4 oz.

25 Gal 11⁄2 pt. 1 qt. 11⁄4 qt. 11⁄2 qt. 5 qt. 2 gal.

100 Gal 3 qt. 1 gal. 11⁄4 gal. 11⁄2 gal. 5 gal. 8 gal.

2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce

For use in knapsack sprayers, it is suggested that the recommended amount

of this product be mixed with water in a larger container. Fill sprayer with the

mixed solution and add the correct amount of surfactant.

WEEDS CONTROLLED

ANNUAL WEEDS

Apply to actively growing annual grasses and broadleaf weeds.

Allow at least 3 days after application before disturbing treated vegetation.

After this period the weeds may be mowed, tilled or burned.

See “DIRECTIONS FOR USE”, “GENERAL INFORMATION” and “MIXING

AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS” for labeled uses and specific application instructions.

Broadcast Application—Use 1 1/2 pints of this product per acre plus 2 or

more quarts of a nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution if

weeds are less than 6 inches tall. If weeds are greater than 6 inches tall,

use 2 1/2 pints of this product per acre plus 2 or more quarts of an approved

nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution.

Hand-Held, High-Volume Application—Use a 3/4 percent solution of

this product in water plus 2 or more quarts of a nonionic surfactant per

100 gallons of spray solution and apply to foliage of vegetation to be controlled.

When applied as directed under the conditions described in this label, this

product plus nonionic surfactant WILL CONTROL the following ANNUAL

WEEDS:

*Apply 3 pints of this product per acre.

**Apply with hand-held equipment only.

Annual weeds will generally continue to germinate from seed throughout

the growing season. Repeat treatments will be necessary to control later

germinating weeds.

PERENNIAL WEEDS

Apply this product as follows to control or destroy most vigorously growing perennial weeds. Unless otherwise directed, allow at least 7 days after

application before disturbing vegetation.

Add 2 or more quarts of a nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution to the rates of this product given in this list. See the “GENERAL

INFORMATION”, “DIRECTIONS FOR USE” and “MIXING AND APPLICATION”

sections in this label for specific uses and application instructions.

NOTE: If weeds have been mowed or tilled, do not treat until regrowth has

reached the recommended stages. Fall treatments must be applied before

a killing frost.

Repeat treatments may be necessary to control weeds regenerating from

underground parts or seed.

When applied as recommended under the conditions described, this product plus surfactant WILL CONTROL the following PERENNIAL WEEDS:

Alfalfa

Medicago sativa

Alligatorweed*

Alternanthera philoxeroides

Anise/Fennel

Foeniculum vulgare

Artichoke, Jerusalem

Helianthus tuberosus

Bahiagrass

Paspalum notatum

Bermudagrass

Cynodon dactylon

Bindweed, field

Convolvulus arvensis

Bluegrass, Kentucky

Poa pratensis

Blueweed, Texas

Helianthus ciliaris

Brackenfern

Pteridium spp.

Bromegrass, smooth

Bromus inermis

Canarygrass, reed

Phalaris arundinacea

Cattail

Typha spp.

Clover, red

Trifolium pratense

Clover, white

Trifolium repens

Cogongrass

Imperata clylindrica

Cordgrass

Spartina spp.

Cutgrass, giant*

Zizaniopsis miliacea

Dallisgrass

Paspalum dilatatum

Dandelion

Taraxacum officinale

Dock, curly

Rumex crispus

Dogbane, hemp

Apocynum cannabinum

Fescue

Festuca spp.

Fescue, tall

Festuca arundinacea

Oats, wild

Avena fatua

Panicum

Panicum spp.

Pennycress, field

Thlaspi arvense

Pigweed, redroot

Amaranthus retroflexus

Pigweed, smooth

Amaranthus hybridus

Ragweed, common

Ambrosia artemisiifolia

Ragweed, giant

Ambrosia trifida

Rocket, London

Sisymbrium irio

Rye

Secale cereale

Ryegrass, Italian*

Lolium multiflorum

Sandbur, field

Cenchrus spp.

Shattercane

Sorghum bicolor

Shepherd’s-purse

Capsella bursa-pastoris

Signalgrass, broadleaf

Brachiaria platyphylla

Smartweed, Pennsylvania

Polygonum pensylvanicum

Sowthistle, annual

Sonchus oleraceus

Spanishneedles*

Bidens bipinnata

Stinkgrass

Eragrostis cilianensis

Sunflower

Helianthus annuus

Thistle, Russian

Salsola kali

Spurry, umbrella

Holosteum umbellatum

Velvetleaf

Abutilon theophrasti

Wheat

Triticum aestivum

Witchgrass

Panicum capillare

Balsamapple**

Momordica charantia

Barley

Hordeum vulgare

Barnyardgrass

Echinochloa crus-galli

Bassia, fivehook

Bassia hyssopifolia

Bluegrass, annual

Poa annua

Bluegrass, bulbous

Poa bulbosa

Brome

Bromus spp.

Buttercup

Ranunculus spp.

Cheat

Bromus secalinus

Chickweed, mouseear

Cerastium vulgatum

Cocklebur

Xanthium strumarium

Corn, volunteer

Zea mays

Crabgrass

Digitaria spp.

Dwarfdandelion

Krigia cespitosa

Falseflax, smallseed

Camelina microcarpa

Fiddleneck

Amsinckia spp.

Flaxleaf fleabane

Conyza bonariensis

Fleabane

Erigeron spp.

Foxtail

Setaria spp.

Foxtail, Carolina

Alopecurus carolinianus

Groundsel, common

Senecio vulgaris

Horseweed/Marestail

Conyza canadensis

Kochia

Kochia scoparia

Lambsquarters, common

Chenopodium album

Lettuce, prickly

Lactuca serriola

Morningglory

Ipomoea spp.

Mustard, blue

Chorispora tenella

Mustard, tansy

Descurainia pinnata

Mustard, tumble

Sisymbrium altissimum

Mustard, wild

Sinapis arvensis

3
**Partial control.

**Partial control in southeastern states. See specific recommendations

below.

Alligatorweed—Apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 1 1/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment to provide

partial control of alligatorweed. Apply when most of the target plants are

in bloom. Repeat applications will be required to maintain such control.

Bermudagrass—Apply 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply

when target plants are actively growing and when seedheads appear.

Bindweed, field / Silverleaf Nightshade / Texas Blueweed—Apply 6 to

7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray west of the

Mississippi River and 4 1/2 to 6 pints of this product per acre east of the

Mississippi River. With hand-held equipment, use a 1 1/2 percent solution. Apply when target plants are actively growing and are at or beyond

full bloom. For silverleaf nightshade, best results can be obtained when

application is made after berries are formed. Do not treat when weeds are

under drought stress. New leaf development indicates active growth. For

best results apply in late summer or fall.

Brackenfern—Apply 4 1/2 to 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 to 1 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Apply to fully expanded fronds which are at least 18 inches long.

Cattail—Apply 4 1/2 to 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when

target plants are actively growing and are at or beyond the early-to-full

bloom stage of growth. Best results are achieved when application is

made during the summer or fall months.

Cogongrass—Apply 4 1/2 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray. Apply when cogongrass is at least 18 inches tall and

actively growing in late summer or fall. Allow 7 or more days after application before tillage or mowing. Due to uneven stages of growth and the

dense nature of vegetation preventing good spray coverage, repeat treatments may be necessary to maintain control.

Cordgrass—Apply 4 1/2 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 to 2 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Schedule applications in order to allow 6 hours before treated plants are

covered by tidewater. The presence of debris and silt on the cordgrass

plants will reduce performance. It may be necessary to wash targeted

plants prior to application to improve uptake of this product into the plant. 

Cutgrass, giant—Apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 1 percent solution with hand-held equipment to provide partial control of giant cutgrass. Repeat applications will be required to maintain such control, especially where vegetation is partially submerged in

water. Allow for substantial regrowth to the 7 to 10-leaf stage prior to

retreatment.

Dogbane, hemp / Knapweed / Horseradish—Apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with

hand-held equipment. Apply when target plants are actively growing and

most have reached the late bud-to-flower stage of growth. For best

results, apply in late summer or fall.

Fescue, tall—Apply 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 1 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when

target plants are actively growing and most have reached the boot-tohead stage of growth. When applied prior to the boot stage, less desirable

control may be obtained.

Guineagrass—Apply 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when

target plants are actively growing and when most have reached at least

the 7-leaf stage of growth.

Johnsongrass / Bluegrass, Kentucky / Bromegrass, smooth /

Canarygrass, reed / Orchardgrass / Ryegrass, perennial / Timothy /

Wheatgrass, western — Apply 3 to 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre

as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when target plants are actively growing and most have

reached the boot-to-head stage of growth. When applied prior to the boot

stage, less desirable control may be obtained. In the fall, apply before

plants have turned brown.

Lantana—Apply this product as a 3/4 to 1 percent solution with handheld equipment. Apply to actively growing lantana at or beyond the bloom

stage of growth. Use the higher application rate for plants that have

reached the woody stage of growth.

Loosestrife, purple—Apply 4 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 to 1 1/2 percent solution using hand-held equipment.

Treat when plants are actively growing at or beyond the bloom stage of

growth. Best results are achieved when application is made during summer or fall months. Fall treatments must be applied before a killing frost.

Lotus, American—Apply 4 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Treat when

plants are actively growing at or beyond the bloom stage of growth. Best

results are achieved when application is made during summer or fall

months. Fall treatments must be applied before a killing frost. Repeat

treatment may be necessary to control regrowth from underground parts

and seeds.

Maidencane / Paragrass—Apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Repeat treatments will be required, especially to vegetation partially submerged in water. Under these conditions, allow for regrowth to the 7 to 10-

leaf stage prior to retreatment.

Milkweed, common—Apply 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Apply when target plants are actively growing and most have reached the

late bud-to-flower stage of growth.

Nutsedge: purple, yellow—Apply 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre as

a broadcast spray, or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment

to control existing nutsedge plants and immature nutlets attached to

treated plants. Apply when target plants are in flower or when new nutlets

can be found at rhizome tips. Nutlets which have not germinated will not

be controlled and may germinate following treatment. Repeat treatments

will be required for long-term control.

Pampasgrass—Apply a 1 1/2 percent solution of this product with handheld equipment when plants are actively growing.

Guineagrass

Panicum maximum

Hemlock, poison

Conium maculatum

Horsenettle

Solanum carolinense

Horseradish

Armoracia rusticana

Ice Plant

Mesembryanthemum

crystallinum

Johnsongrass

Sorghum halepense

Kikuyugrass

Pennisetum clandestinum

Knapweed

Centaurea repens

Lantana

Lantana camara

Lespedeza: common, serices

Lespedeza striata

Lespedeza cuneata

Loosestrife, purple

Lythrum salicaria

Lotus, American

Nelumbo lutea

Maidencane

Panicum hematomon

Milkweed

Asclepias spp.

Muhly, wirestem

Muhlenbergia frondosa

Mullein, common

Verbascum thapsus

Napiergrass

Pennisetum purpureum

Nightshade, silverleaf

Solanum elaeagnifolium

Nutsedge: purple, yellow

Cyperus rotundus

Cyperus esculentus

Orchardgrass

Dactylis glomerata

Pampasgrass

Cortaderia jubata

Paragrass

Brachiaria mutica

Phragmites**

Phragmites spp.

Quackgrass

Agropyron repens

Reed, giant

Arundo donax

Ryegrass, perennial

Lolium perenne

Smartweed, swamp

Polygonum coccineum

Spatterdock

Nuphar luteum

Starthistle, yellow

Centaurea solstitialis

Sweet potato, wild*

Ipomoea pandurata

Thistle, artichoke

Cynara cardunculus

Thistle, Canada

Cirsium arvense

Timothy

Phleum pratense

Torpedograss*

Panicum repens

Tules, common

Scirpus acutus

Vaseygrass

Paspalum urvillei

Velvetgrass

Holcus spp.

Waterhyacinth

Eichornia crassipes

Waterlettuce

Pistia stratiotes

Waterprimrose

Ludwigia spp.

Wheatgrass, western

Agropyron smithii

4
Phragmites—For partial control of phragmites in Florida and the counties of other states bordering the Gulf of Mexico, apply 7 1/2 pints per acre

as a broadcast spray or apply a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held

equipment. In other areas of the U.S., apply 4 to 6 pints per acre as a

broadcast spray or apply a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment

for partial control. For best results, treat during late summer or fall months

when plants are actively growing and in full bloom. Due to the dense

nature of the vegetation, which may prevent good spray coverage and

uneven stages of growth, repeat treatments may be necessary to maintain

control. Visual control symptoms will be slow to develop.

Quackgrass / Kikuyugrass / Muhly, wirestem—Apply 3 to 4 1/2 pints

of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution

with hand-held equipment when most quackgrass or wirestem muhly is at

least 8 inches in height (3 to 4-leaf stage of growth) and actively growing.

Allow 3 or more days after application before tillage.

Reed, giant / ice plant—For control of giant reed and ice plant, apply a

1 1/2 percent solution of this product with hand-held equipment when

plants are actively growing. For giant reed, best results are obtained when

applications are made in late summer to fall.

Spatterdock—Apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray

or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when most

plants are in full bloom. For best results, apply during the summer or fall

months.

Sweet potato, wild—Apply this product as a 1 1/2 percent solution using

hand-held equipment. Apply to actively growing weeds that are at or

beyond the bloom stage of growth. Repeat applications will be required.

Allow the plant to reach the recommended stage of growth before retreatment.

Thistle: Canada, artichoke—Apply 3 to 4 1/2 pints of this product per

acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held

equipment for Canada thistle. To control artichoke thistle, apply a 2 percent solution as a spray-to-wet application. Apply when target plants are

actively growing and are at or beyond the bud stage of growth.

Torpedograss—Apply 6 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 3/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held

equipment to provide partial control of torpedograss. Use the lower rates

under terrestrial conditions, and the higher rates under partially submerged or a floating mat condition. Repeat treatments will be required to

maintain such control.

Tules, common—Apply this product as a 1 1/2 percent solution with

hand-held equipment. Apply to actively growing plants at or beyond the

seedhead stage of growth. After application, visual symptoms will be slow

to appear and may not occur for 3 or more weeks.

Waterhyacinth—Apply 5 to 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or apply a 3/4 to 1 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Apply when target plants are actively growing and at or beyond the early

bloom stage of growth. After application, visual symptoms may require 3

or more weeks to appear with complete necrosis and decomposition usually occurring within 60 to 90 days. Use the higher rates when more rapid

visual effects are desired.

Waterlettuce—For control, apply a 3/4 to 1 percent solution of this product with hand-held equipment to actively growing plants. Use higher rates

where infestations are heavy. Best results are obtained from mid-summer

through winter applications. Spring applications may require retreatment.

Waterprimrose—Apply this product as a 3/4 percent solution using

hand-held equipment. Apply to plants that are actively growing at or

beyond the bloom stage of growth, but before fall color changes occur.

Thorough coverage is necessary for best control.

Other perennials listed on this label—Apply 4 1/2 to 7 1/2 pints of this

product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Apply when target plants are actively

growing and most have reached early head or early bud stage of growth.

WOODY BRUSH AND TREES

When applied as recommended under the conditions described, this product plus surfactant CONTROLS or PARTIALLY CONTROLS the following

woody brush plants and trees:

**Partial control

**See below for control or partial control instruction.

NOTE: If brush has been mowed or tilled or trees have been cut, do not

treat until regrowth has reached the recommended stage of growth.

Buckwheat, California*

Eriogonum fasciculatum

Cascara*

Rhamnus purshiana

Catsclaw*

Acacia greggi

Ceanothus

Ceanothus spp.

Chamise

Adenostoma fasciculatum

Cherry:

Bitter

Prunus emarginata

Black

Prunus serotina

Pin

Prunus pensylvanica

Coyote brush

Baccharis consanguinea

Creeper, Virginia*

Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Dewberry

Rubus trivialis

Dogwood

Cornus spp.

Elderberry

Sambucus spp.

Elm*

Ulmus spp.

Eucalyptus, bluegum

Eucalyptus globulus

Hasardia*

Haplopappus squamosus

Hawthorn

Crataegus spp.

Hazel

Corylus spp.

Hickory

Carya spp.

Holly, Florida;

Brazilian Peppertree

Schinus terebinthifolius

Honeysuckle

Lonicera spp.

Hornbeam, American

Carpinus caroliniana

Kudzu

Pueraria lobata

Locust, black*

Robinia pseudoacacia

Manzanita

Arctostaphylos spp.

Maple:

Red**

Acer rubrum

Sugar

Acer saccharum

Vine*

Acer circinatum

Monkey Flower*

Mimulus guttatus

Oak:

Black*

Quercus velutina

Northern pine

Quercus palustris

Post

Quercus stellata

Red

Quercus rubra

Southern red

Quercus falcata

White*

Quercus alba

Persimmon*

Diospyros spp.

Poison Ivy

Rhus radicans

Poison Oak

Rhus toxicodendron

Poplar, yellow*

Liriodendron tulipifera

Prunus

Prunus spp.

Raspberry

Rubus spp.

Redbud, eastern

Cercis canadensis

Rose, multiflora

Rosa multiflora

Russian-olive

Elaeagnus angustifolia

Sage: black, white

Salvia spp.

Sagebrush, California

Artemisia californica

Salmonberry

Rubus spectabilis

Salt cedar*

Tamarix spp.

Saltbush, Sea myrtle

Baccharis halimifolia

Sassafras

Sassafras aibidum

Sourwood*

Oxydendrum arboreum

Sumac:

Poison*

Rhus vernix

Smooth*

Rhus glabra

Winged*

Rhus copallina

Sweet gum

Liquidambar styraciflua

Swordfern*

Polystichum munitum

Tallowtree, Chinese

Sapium sebiferum

Thimbleberry

Rubus parviflorus

Tobacco, tree*

Nicotiana glauca

Trumpetcreeper

Campsis radicans

Waxmyrtle, southern*

Myrica cerifera

Willow

Salix spp. Alder

Alnus spp.

Ash*

Fraxinus spp.

Aspen, quaking

Populus tremuloides

Bearclover, Bearmat

Chamaebatia foliolosa

Birch

Betula spp.

Blackberry

Rubus spp.

Broom:

French

Cytisus monspessulanus

Scotch

Cytisus scoparius 5
Apply the recommended rate of this product plus 2 or more quarts of a

nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution when plants are

actively growing and, unless otherwise directed, after full-leaf expansion.

Use the higher rate for larger plants and/or dense areas of growth. On

vines, use the higher rate for plants that have reached the woody stage of

growth. Best results are obtained when application is made in late summer or fall after fruit formation.

In arid areas, best results are obtained when application is made in the

spring or early summer when brush species are at high moisture content

and are flowering. Ensure thorough coverage when using hand-held

equipment. Symptoms may not appear prior to frost or senescence with

fall treatments.

Allow 7 or more days after application before tillage, mowing or removal.

Repeat treatments may be necessary to control plants regenerating from

underground parts or seed. Some autumn colors on undesirable deciduous species are acceptable provided no major leaf drop has occurred.

Reduced performance may result if fall treatments are made following a

frost.

See the “DIRECTIONS FOR USE” and “MIXING AND APPLICATION

INSTRUCTIONS” sections in this label for labeled use and specific application instructions.

Applied as a 5 to 8 percent solution as a directed application as described

in the “HAND-HELD AND HIGH-VOLUME EQUIPMENT” section, this product will control or partially control all species listed in this section of this

label. Use the higher rate of application for dense stands and larger woody

brush and trees.

Apply the product as follows to control or partially control the following

woody brush and trees.

Alder / Blackberry / Dewberry / Honeysuckle / Oak, Post / Raspberry—

For control, apply 4 1/2 to 6 pints per acre as a broadcast spray or as a

3/4 to 1 1/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Aspen, Quaking / Hawthorn / Trumpetcreeper—For control, apply 3 to

4 1/4 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 to 1

1/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Birch / Elderberry / Hazel / Salmonberry / Thimbleberry—For control,

apply 3 pints per acre of this product as a broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Broom: French, Scotch—For control, apply a 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 percent

solution with hand-held equipment.

Buckwheat, California / Hasardia / Monkey Flower / Tobacco, Tree—

For partial control of these species, apply a 3/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution

of this product as a foliar spray with hand-held equipment. Thorough coverage of foliage is necessary for best results.

Catsclaw—For partial control, apply a 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution

with hand-held equipment when at least 50 percent of the new leaves are

fully developed.

Cherry: Bitter, Black, Pin / Oak, Southern Red / Sweet Gum /

Prunus—For control, apply 3 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 1 to 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Coyote brush—For control, apply a 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution with

hand-held equipment when at least 50 percent of the new leaves are fully

developed.

Dogwood / Hickory / Salt cedar—For partial control, apply a 1 to 2 percent solution of this product with hand-held equipment or 6 to 7 1/2 pints

per acre as a broadcast spray. 

Eucalyptus, bluegum—For control of eucalyptus resprouts, apply a 1 1/2

percent solution of this product with hand-held equipment when resprouts

are 6 to 12-feet tall. Ensure complete coverage. Apply when plants are

actively growing. Avoid application to drought-stressed plants. 

Holly, Florida / Waxmyrtle, southern—For partial control, apply this

product as a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Kudzu—For control, apply 6 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast

spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment. Repeat

applications will be required to maintain control.

Maple, Red—For control, apply as a 3/4 to 1 1/4 percent solution with

hand-held equipment when leaves are fully developed. For partial control,

apply 2 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray.

Maple, Sugar / Oak: Northern Pin, Red—For control, apply as a 3/4 to

1 1/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment when at least 50 percent

of the new leaves are fully developed.

Poison Ivy / Poison Oak—For control, apply 6 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as a 1 1/2 percent solution with

hand-held equipment. Repeat applications may be required to maintain

control. Fall treatments must be applied before leaves lose green color.

Rose, multiflora—For control, apply 3 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Treatments should be made prior to leaf deterioration by leaf-feeding

insects.

Sage, black / Sagebrush, California / Chamise / Tallowtree,

Chinese—For control of these species, apply a 3/4 percent solution of

this product as a foliar spray with hand-held equipment. Thorough coverage of foliage is necessary for best results.

Saltbush, Sea myrtle—For control, apply this product as a 1 percent

solution with hand-held equipment.

Willow—For control, apply 4 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a

broadcast spray or as a 3/4 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

Other woody brush and trees listed in this label—For partial control,

apply 3 to 7 1/2 pints of this product per acre as a broadcast spray or as

a 3/4 to 1 1/2 percent solution with hand-held equipment.

AQUATIC

AND OTHER NONCROP SITES

When applied as directed and under the conditions described in the “WEEDS

CONTROLLED” section in this label, this product will control or partially control the labeled weeds growing in the following industrial, recreational and

public areas or other similar aquatic and terrestrial sites.

Aquatic Sites—This product may be applied to emerged weeds in all

bodies of fresh and brackish water which may be flowing, nonflowing or

transient. This includes lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, estuaries, rice levees, seeps, irrigation and drainage ditches, canals, reservoirs, wastewater

treatment facilities, wildlife habitat restoration and management areas,

and similar sites.

If aquatic sites are present in the noncrop area and are part of the

intended treatment, read and observe the following directions:

This product does not control plants which are completely submerged or have a majority of their foliage under water.

There is no restriction on the use of treated water for irrigation, recreation

or domestic purposes.

Consult local state fish and game agency and water control authorities

before applying this product to public water. Permits may be required to

treat such water.

NOTE: Do not apply this product directly to water within 1/2 mile upstream of an active potable water intake in flowing water (i.e., river,

stream, etc.) or within 1/2 mile of an active potable water intake in a

standing body of water such as lake, pond or reservoir. To make aquatic

applications around and within 1/2 mile of active potable water intakes,

the water intake must be turned off for a minimum period of 48 hours after

the application. The water intake may be turned on prior to 48 hours if the

glyphosate level in the intake water is below 0.7 parts per million as determined by laboratory analysis. These aquatic applications may be made

ONLY in those cases where there are alternative water sources or holding

ponds which would permit the turning off of an active potable water intake

for a minimum period of 48 hours after the applications. This restriction

does not apply to intermittent inadvertant overspray of water in terrestrial

use sites.

For treatments after drawdown of water or in dry ditches, allow 7 or more

days after treatment before reintroduction of water to achieve maximum

weed control. Apply this product within 1 day after drawdown to ensure

application to actively growing weeds.

Floating mats of vegetation may require retreatment. Avoid wash-off of

sprayed foliage by spray boat or recreational boat backwash or by rainfall

within 6 hours of application. Do not re-treat within 24 hours following the

initial treatment.

Applications made to moving bodies of water must be made while

traveling upstream to prevent concentration of this herbicide in water.

When making any bankside applications, do not overlap more than 1 foot

into open water. Do not spray in bodies of water where weeds do not exist.

The maximum application rate of 7 1/2 pints per acre must not be

exceeded in any single broadcast application that is being made over

water.

When emerged infestations require treatment of the total surface area of

impounded water, treating the area in strips may avoid oxygen depletion

due to decaying vegetation. Oxygen depletion may result in fish kill.

6
Other Noncrop-Type Sites—This product may be used to control the

listed weeds in terrestrial noncrop sites and/or in aquatic sites within

these areas. 

Airports

Golf Courses

Habitat Restoration & Management Areas

Highways & Roadsides

Industrial Plant Sites

Lumberyards

Parking Areas

Parks

Petroleum Tank Farms

Pipeline, Power, Telephone & Utility Rights-of-Way

Pumping Installations

Railroads

Schools

Storage Areas

Similar Sites

WILDLIFE HABITAT RESTORATION 

AND MANAGEMENT AREAS

This product is recommended for the restoration and/or maintenance of

native habitat and in wildlife management areas. 

Habitat Restoration and Maintenance—When applied as directed,

exotic and other undesirable vegetation may be controlled in habitat management areas. Applications may be made to allow recovery of native

plant species, to open up water to attract waterfowl, and for similar broadspectrum vegetation control requirements in habitat management areas.

Spot treatments may be made to selectively remove unwanted plants for

habitat enhancement. For spot treatments, care should be exercised to

keep spray off of desirable plants. 

Wildlife Food Plots—This product may be used as a site preparation

treatment prior to planting wildlife food plots. Apply as directed to control

vegetation in the plot area. Any wildlife food species may be planted after

applying this product, or native species may be allowed to reinfest the

area. If tillage is needed to prepare a seedbed, wait 7 days after applying

this product before tilling to allow for maximum effectiveness.

WIPER APPLICATIONS

For wick or wiper applications, mix 1 gallon of this product with 2 gallons

of clean water to make a 33 percent solution. Addition of a nonionic surfactant at a rate of 10 percent by volume of total herbicide solution is recommended. 

Wiper applications can be used to control or suppress annual and perennial weeds listed on this label. In heavy weed stands, a double application

in opposite directions may improve results. See the “WEEDS

CONTROLLED” section in this label for recommended timing, growth stage

and other instructions for achieving optimum results.

CUT STUMP APPLICATION

Woody vegetation may be controlled by treating freshly cut stumps of trees

and resprouts with this product. Apply this product using suitable equipment to ensure coverage of the entire cambium. Cut vegetation close to

the soil surface. Apply a 50 to 100 percent solution of this product to

freshly cut surface immediately after cutting. Delay in applying this

product may result in reduced performance. For best results, trees should

be cut during periods of active growth and full leaf expansion.

When used according to directions for cut stump application, this product

will CONTROL, PARTIALLY CONTROL or SUPPRESS most woody brush and

tree species, some of which are listed below:

*This product is not approved for this use on these species in the state of

California. 

INJECTION AND FRILL APPLICATIONS

Woody vegetation may be controlled by injection or frill application of this

product. Apply this product using suitable equipment which must penetrate into living tissue. Apply the equivalent of 1 ml of this product per 2

to 3 inches of trunk diameter. This is best achieved by applying 25 to 100

percent concentration of this product either to a continuous frill around the

tree or as cuts evenly spaced around the tree below all branches. As tree

diameter increases in size, better results are achieved by applying dilute

material to a continuous frill or more closely spaced cuttings. Avoid application techniques that allow runoff to occur from frill or cut areas in

species that exude sap freely after frills or cutting. In species such as

these, make frill or cut at an oblique angle so as to produce a cupping

effect and use undiluted material. For best results, applications should be

made during periods of active growth and full leaf expansion.

This treatment WILL CONTROL the following woody species:

Oak Sweet gum

Quercus spp. Liquidambar styraciflua

Poplar Sycamore

Populus spp. Platanus occidentalis

This treatment WILL SUPPRESS the following woody species:

Black gum* Hickory

Nyssa sylvatica Carya spp.

Dogwood Maple, red

Cornus spp. Acer rubrum

*This product is not approved for this use on this species in the state of

California. 

RELEASE OF BERMUDAGRASS OR

BAHIAGRASS ON NONCROP SITES

RELEASE OF DORMANT BERMUDAGRASS AND BAHIAGRASS

When applied as directed, this product will provide control or suppression

of many winter annual weeds and tall fescue for effective release of dormant bermudagrass or bahiagrass. Make applications to dormant

bermudagrass or bahiagrass.

For best results on winter annuals, treat when weeds are in an early

growth stage (below 6 inches in height) after most have germinated. For

best results on tall fescue, treat when fescue is in or beyond the 4 to 6-

leaf stage.

WEEDS CONTROLLED

Rate recommendations for control or suppression of winter annuals and

tall fescue are listed below.

Apply the recommended rates of this product in 10 to 25 gallons of water

per acre plus 2 quarts nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of total spray

volume.

WEEDS CONTROLLED OR SUPPRESSED*

NOTE: C = Control

S = Suppression

RODEO® FLUID OZ/ACRE

WEED SPECIES 6 9 12 18 24 48

Barley, little S CCCCC

Hordeum pusillum

Bedstraw, catchweed S CCCCC

Galium aparine

Bluegrass, annual S CCCCC

Poa annua

Alder

Alnus spp.

Coyote brush*

Baccharis consanguinea

Dogwood*

Cornus spp.

Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus spp.

Hickory*

Carya spp.

Madrone

Arbutus menziesii

Maple*

Acer spp.

Oak

Quercus spp.

Poplar*

Populus spp.

Reed, giant

Arundo donax

Salt cedar

Tamarix spp.

Sweet gum*

Liquidambar styraciflua

Sycamore*

Platanus occidentalis

Tan oak

Lithocarpus densiflorus

Willow

Salix spp.

7
WEEDS CONTROLLED OR SUPPRESSED* (continued)

NOTE: C = Control

S = Suppression

RODEO® FLUID OZ/ACRE

WEED SPECIES 6 9 12 18 24 48

Chervil S CCCCC

Chaerophyllum tainturieri

Chickweed, common S CCCCC

Stellaria media

Clover, crimson •S S CCC

Trifolium incarnatum

Clover, large hop •S S CCC

Trifolium campestre

Speedwell, corn S CCCCC

Veronica arvensis

Fescue, tall ••••SS

Festuca arundinacea

Geranium, Carolina ••S S CC

Geranium carolinianum

Henbit •S CCCC

Lamium amplexicaule

Ryegrass, Italian ••S C CC

Lolium multiflorum

Vetch, common ••S C CC

Vicia sativa

*These rates apply only to sites where an established competitive turf is

present.

RELEASE OF ACTIVELY GROWING BERMUDAGRASS

NOTE: USE ONLY ON SITES WHERE BAHIAGRASS OR BERMUDAGRASS

ARE DESIRED FOR GROUND COVER AND SOME TEMPORARY INJURY OR

YELLOWING OF THE GRASSES CAN BE TOLERATED.

When applied as directed, this product will aid in the release of bermudagrass by providing control of annual species listed in the “WEEDS

CONTROLLED” section in this label, and suppression or partial control of

certain perennial weeds.

For control or suppression of those annual species listed in this label, use

3/4 to 2 1/4 pints of this product as a broadcast spray in 10 to 25 gallons

of spray solution per acre, plus 2 quarts of a nonionic surfactant per 100

gallons of total spray volume. Use the lower rate when treating annual

weeds below 6 inches in height (or length of runner in annual vines). Use

the higher rate as size of plants increases or as they approach flower or

seedhead formation.

Use the higher rate for partial control or longer-term suppression of the

following perennial species. Use lower rates for shorter-term suppression

of growth.

Bahiagrass Johnsongrass**

Dallisgrass Trumpetcreeper*

Fescue (tall) Vaseygrass

**Suppression at the higher rate only.

**Johnsongrass is controlled at the higher rate.

Use only on well-established bermudagrass. Bermudagrass injury may

result from the treatment but regrowth will occur under moist conditions.

Repeat applications in the same season are not recommended, since

severe injury may result.

BAHIAGRASS SEEDHEAD 

AND VEGETATIVE SUPPRESSION

When applied as directed in the “NONCROP SITES” section in this label,

this product will provide significant inhibition of seedhead emergence and

will suppress vegetative growth for a period of approximately 45 days with

single applications and approximately 120 days with sequential applications.

Apply this product 1 to 2 weeks after full green-up of bahiagrass or after

the bahiagrass has been mowed to a uniform height of 3 to 4 inches.

Applications must be made prior to seedhead emergence. Apply 5 fluid

ounces per acre of this product, plus 2 quarts of an approved nonionic

surfactant per 100 gallons of total spray volume in 10 to 25 gallons of

water per acre.

Sequential applications of this product plus nonionic surfactant may be

made at approximately 45-day intervals to extend the period of seedhead

and vegetative growth suppression. For continued vegetative growth suppression, sequential applications must be made prior to seedhead emergence.

Apply no more than 2 sequential applications per year. As a first sequential application, apply 3 fluid ounces of this product per acre plus nonionic

surfactant. A second sequential application of 2 to 3 fluid ounces per acre

plus nonionic surfactant may be made approximately 45 days after the

last application.

ANNUAL GRASS GROWTH SUPPRESSION

For growth suppression of some annual grasses, such as annual ryegrass,

wild barley and wild oats growing in coarse turf on roadsides or other

industrial areas, apply 3 to 4 ounces of this product in 10 to 40 gallons of

spray solution per acre. Mix 2 quarts of a nonionic surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution. Applications should be made when annual grasses

are actively growing and before the seedheads are in the boot stage of

development. Treatments made after seedhead emergence may cause

injury to the desired grasses.

Product is protected by U.S. Patent No. 4,405,531. Other patents are

pending. No license granted under any non-U.S. patent(s).

EPA Reg. No. 524-343

In case of an emergency involving this product, 

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

©MONSANTO COMPANY 1998

MONSANTO COMPANY

ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, 63167 U.S.A. 21061W3-1/CG

8
The complete broad spectrum

postemergence professional herbicide

for industrial, turf and ornamental

weed control.

Complete Directions for Use

EPA Reg. No. 524-475

AVOID CONTACT OF HERBICIDE WITH

FOLIAGE, GREEN STEMS, EXPOSED

NON-WOODY ROOTS OR FRUIT OF

CROPS, DESIRABLE PLANTS AND

TREES, BECAUSE SEVERE INJURY OR

DESTRUCTION IS LIKELY TO RESULT.

Roundup is a registered trademark of Monsanto Company.

1998-1 21136W4-1/CG

Read the entire label before using this product.

Use only according to label instructions.

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in any manner inconsistent with its labeling.

Not all products recommended on this label are registered for

use in California. Check the registration status of each product in California before using.

Read the “LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY’’ statement

at the end of the label before buying or using. If terms are not

acceptable, return at once unopened.

REFORMULATION IS PROHIBITED. SEE INDIVIDUAL CONTAINER LABEL FOR REPACKAGING LIMITATIONS.

1.0 INGREDIENTS

ACTIVE INGREDIENT:

*Glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine,

in the form of its isopropylamine salt . . . . . . . . . . 41.0%

INERT INGREDIENTS (including surfactant): . . . . . . 59.0%

100.0%

*Contains 480 grams per litre or 4 pounds per U.S. gallon of

the active ingredient glyphosate, in the form of its isopropylamine salt. Equivalent to 356 grams per litre or 3 pounds

per U.S. gallon of the acid, glyphosate.

This product is protected by U.S. Patent No. 4,405,531. Other

patents pending. No license granted under any non-U.S.

patent(s).

2.0 IMPORTANT PHONE

NUMBERS

1. FOR PRODUCT INFORMATION OR ASSISTANCE IN USING

THIS PRODUCT, CALL TOLL-FREE, 

1-800-332-3111

2. IN CASE OF AN EMERGENCY INVOLVING THIS PRODUCT, OR

FOR MEDICAL ASSISTANCE, CALL COLLECT, DAY OR NIGHT, 

(314)-694-4000

3.0 PRECAUTIONARY 

STATEMENTS

3.1 Hazards to Humans and

Domestic Animals

Keep out of reach of children.

CAUTION!

CAUSES EYE IRRITATION.

Avoid contact with eyes or clothing.

FIRST AID: IF IN EYES, flush with plenty of water. Get medical attention if irritation persists.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS: This product is considered to be relatively nontoxic to dogs and other domestic animals; however,

ingestion of this product or large amounts of freshly sprayed

vegetation may result in temporary gastrointestinal irritation

(vomiting, diarrhea, colic, etc.). If such symptoms are

observed, provide the animal with plenty of fluids to prevent

dehydration. Call a veterinarian if symptoms persist for more

than 24 hours.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Applicators and other handlers must wear: long-sleeved

shirt and long pants, shoes plus socks. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning/maintaining Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE). If there are no such instructions for washables, use detergent and hot water. Keep and wash PPE

separately from other laundry.

When handlers use closed systems, enclosed cabs or aircraft

in a manner that meets the requirements listed in Worker

Protection Standard (WPS) for agricultural pesticides [40

CFR 170.240 (d) (4-6)], the handler PPE requirements may

be reduced or modified as specified in the WPS.

3.2 Environmental Hazards

Do not apply directly to water, to areas where surface water

is present or to intertidal areas below the mean high water

mark. Do not contaminate water when disposing of equipment washwaters.

3.3 Physical or Chemical

Hazards

Spray solutions of this product should be mixed, stored and

applied using only stainless steel, aluminum, fiberglass, plastic or plastic-lined steel containers.

DO NOT MIX, STORE OR APPLY THIS PRODUCT OR SPRAY

SOLUTIONS OF THIS PRODUCT IN GALVANIZED STEEL OR

UNLINED STEEL (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEEL) CONTAINERS

OR SPRAY TANKS. This product or spray solutions of this

product react with such containers and tanks to produce

hydrogen gas which may form a highly combustible gas mixture. This gas mixture could flash or explode, causing serious

personal injury, if ignited by open flame, spark, welder’s

torch, lighted cigarette or other ignition source.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE

It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in any manner inconsistent with its labeling. For any requirements specific to your State or Tribe, consult the agency responsible for

pesticide regulations.

User Safety Recommendations:

Users should:

• Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using

tobacco or using the toilet.

• Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside.

Then wash thoroughly and put on clean clothing.

1

This sample label is current as of April 21, 1997. The product descriptions and recommendations provided in this sample label are for

background information only. Always refer to the label on the product before using Monsanto or any other agrichemical product.

R

Specimen label formatted for electronic distribution by CDMS
4.0 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

Do not contaminate water, foodstuffs, feed or seed by storage

or disposal.

See container label for STORAGE AND DISPOSAL instructions. 5.0 GENERAL INFORMATION

Product Description: This product is a postemergent, systemic herbicide with no soil residual activity. It gives broad

spectrum control of many annual weeds, perennial weeds,

woody brush and trees. It is formulated as a water-soluble

liquid containing surfactant and no additional surfactant is

needed or recommended.

Environmental Fate: When this product comes in contact

with the soil it is bound to soil particles. When used in accordance with label directions, once this product is bound it is

not available for plant uptake and will not harm off-site vegetation where roots grow into the treatment area or if the soil

is transported off-site. The strong affinity of this product to

soil particles prevents this product from leaching out of the

soil profile and entering ground water. The affinity between

this product and soil particles remains until this product is

degraded, which is primarily a biological degradation process

carried out under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions by

soil microflora.

Time to Symptoms: This product moves through the plant

from the point of foliage contact to and into the root system.

Visible effects on most annual weeds occur within 2 to 4

days, but on most perennial weeds may not occur for 7 days

or more. Extremely cool or cloudy weather following treatment may slow activity of this product and delay development of visual symptoms. Visible effects are a gradual wilting

and yellowing of the plant which advances to complete

browning of above-ground growth and deterioration of

underground plant parts.

Mode of Action in Plants: The active ingredient in this product inhibits an enzyme found only in plants that is essential to

formation of specific amino acids.

Cultural Considerations: Reduced control may result when

applications are made to annual or perennial weeds that have

been mowed, grazed or cut, and have not been allowed to

regrow to the recommended stage for treatment.

Rainfastness: Heavy rainfall soon after application may wash

this product off of the foliage and a repeat application may be

required for adequate control.

No Soil Activity: Weeds must be emerged at the time of

application to be controlled by this product. Weeds germinating from seed after application will not be controlled.

Unemerged plants arising from unattached underground rhizomes or root stocks of perennials will not be affected by the

herbicide.

Volatility: Roundup Pro is non-volatile. Therefore, it cannot

move as a vapor after application to affect nearby vegetation.

Toxicology: Exposure to workers and other applicators generally is expected to pose minimal risks based on results of

short-term toxicity studies. Glyphosate has been thoroughly

tested and determined not to cause cancer or other adverse

long-term health effects.

Tank Mixing: This product does not provide residual weed

control. For subsequent residual weed control, follow a labelapproved herbicide program. Read and carefully observe the

cautionary statements and all other information appearing on

the labels of all herbicides used. Use according to the most

restrictive label directions for each product in the mixture.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage in

connection with the use or handling of mixtures of this product with herbicides or other materials that are not expressly

recommended in this label. Mixing this product with herbicides or other materials not recommended on this label may

result in reduced performance.

Annual Maximum Use Rate: The combined total of all treatments must not exceed 10.6 quarts of this product per acre

per year.

ATTENTION

AVOID CONTACT OF HERBICIDE WITH FOLIAGE, GREEN

STEMS, EXPOSED NON-WOODY ROOTS OR FRUIT OF

CROPS, DESIRABLE PLANTS AND TREES, BECAUSE

SEVERE INJURY OR DESTRUCTION IS LIKELY TO RESULT.

AVOID DRIFT. EXTREME CARE MUST BE USED WHEN

APPLYING THIS PRODUCT TO PREVENT INJURY TO DESIRABLE PLANTS AND CROPS.

Do not allow the herbicide solution to mist, drip, drift or

splash onto desirable vegetation since minute quantities of

this product can cause severe damage or destruction to the

crop, plants or other areas on which treatment was not

intended. The likelihood of injury occurring from the use of

this product increases when winds are gusty, as wind velocity increases, when wind direction is constantly changing or

when there are other meteorological conditions that favor

spray drift. When spraying, avoid combinations of pressure

and nozzle type that will result in splatter or fine particles

(mist) which are likely to drift. AVOID APPLYING AT EXCESSIVE SPEED OR PRESSURE.

NOTE: Use of this product in any manner not consistent with

this label may result in injury to persons, animals or crops, or

other unintended consequences. Keep container closed to

prevent spills and contamination. 6.0 MIXING

Clean sprayer parts immediately after using this product by

thoroughly flushing with water.

NOTE: REDUCED RESULTS MAY OCCUR IF WATER CONTAINING SOIL IS USED, SUCH AS VISIBLY MUDDY WATER

OR WATER FROM PONDS AND DITCHES THAT IS NOT

CLEAR. 6.1 Mixing with Water

This product mixes readily with water. Mix spray solutions of

this product as follows: Fill the mixing or spray tank with the

required amount of water. Add the recommended amount of

this product near the end of the filling process and mix well.

Use caution to avoid siphoning back into the carrier source.

Use approved anti-back-siphoning devices where required by

state or local regulations. During mixing and application,

foaming of the spray solution may occur. To prevent or minimize foam, avoid the use of mechanical agitators, terminate

by-pass and return lines at the bottom of the tank and, if

needed, use an approved anti-foam or defoaming agent. 6.2 Tank Mixing Procedure

When tank mixing, read and carefully observe label directions, cautionary statements and all information on the labels

of all products used. Add the tank-mix product to the tank as

Non-Agricultural Use Requirements

The requirements in this box apply to uses of this product

that are NOT within the scope of the Worker Protection

Standard (40 CFR Part 170) for agricultural pesticides.

The WPS applies when this product is used to produce

agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries or greenhouses.

Keep people and pets off treated areas until spray solution

has dried to prevent transfer of this product onto desirable

vegetation.

Agricultural Use Requirements

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and

with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170. This

Standard contains requirements for the protection of agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of agricultural pesticides. It contains

requirements for training, decontamination, notification and

emergency assistance. It also contains specific instructions

and exceptions pertaining to the statements on this label

about Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and restricted

entry interval. The requirements in this box only apply to

uses of this product that are covered by the Worker

Protection Standard. 

Do not apply this product in a way that will contact workers or other persons, either directly or through drift. Only

protected handlers may be in the area during application.

Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas

during the restricted entry interval (REI) of 4 hours.

PPE required for early entry to treated areas that is permitted under the Worker Protection Standard and that

involves contact with anything that has been treated, such

as plants, soil or water, is: coveralls, waterproof gloves,

shoes plus socks.

2
directed by the label. Maintain agitation and add the recommended amount of this product.

Maintain good agitation at all times until the contents of the

tank are sprayed. If the spray mixture is allowed to settle,

thorough agitation may be required to resuspend the mixture

before spraying is resumed.

Keep by-pass line on or near the bottom of the tank to minimize foaming. Screen size in nozzle or line strainers should

be no finer than 50 mesh.

Always predetermine the compatibility of labeled tank

mixtures of this product with water carrier by mixing small

proportional quantities in advance.

Refer to the “Tank Mixing” section of “GENERAL INFORMATION” for additional precautions. 6.3 Mixing for Hand-held

Sprayers

Prepare the desired volume of spray solution by mixing the

amount of this product in water as shown in the following table:

Spray Solution

Desired Amount of Roundup PRO

Volume

1

/2% 1% 1

1

/2% 2% 5% 10%

1 Gal

2

/3 oz 1

1

/3 oz 2 oz 2

2

/3 oz 6

1

/2 oz 13 oz

25 Gal 1 pt 1 qt 1

1

/2 qt 2 qt 5 qt 10 qt

100 Gal 2 qt 1 gal 1

1

/2 gal 2 gal 5 gal 10 gal

2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce

For use in knapsack sprayers, it is suggested that the recommended amount of this product be mixed with water in a

larger container. Fill sprayer with the mixed solution. 6.4 Colorants or Dyes

Agriculturally-approved colorants or marking dyes may be

added to this product. Colorants or dyes used in spray solutions of this product may reduce performance, especially at

lower rates or dilution. Use colorants or dyes according to the

manufacturer’s recommendations. 7.0 APPLICATION EQUIPMENT

AND TECHNIQUES

Do not apply this product through any type of irrigation system.

APPLY THESE SPRAY SOLUTIONS IN PROPERLY MAINTAINED AND CALIBRATED EQUIPMENT CAPABLE OF DELIVERING DESIRED VOLUMES. 7.1 Aerial Equipment

DO NOT APPLY THIS PRODUCT USING AERIAL SPRAY

EQUIPMENT EXCEPT UNDER CONDITIONS AS SPECIFIED

WITHIN THIS LABEL.

FOR AERIAL APPLICATION IN CALIFORNIA, REFER TO THE

FEDERAL SUPPLEMENTAL LABEL FOR AERIAL APPLICATIONS IN THAT STATE FOR SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS,

RESTRICTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS. This product plus

OustTM, BanvelTM or 2,4-D tank mixtures may not be applied by

air in California.

AVOID DRIFT—DO NOT APPLY DURING LOW-LEVEL

INVERSION CONDITIONS, WHEN WINDS ARE GUSTY OR

UNDER ANY OTHER CONDITION WHICH FAVORS DRIFT.

DRIFT IS LIKELY TO CAUSE DAMAGE TO ANY VEGETATION

CONTACTED TO WHICH TREATMENT IS NOT INTENDED. TO

PREVENT INJURY TO ADJACENT DESIRABLE VEGETATION,

APPROPRIATE BUFFER ZONES MUST BE MAINTAINED.

Avoid direct application to any body of water.

Use the recommended rates of this herbicide in 3 to 25 gallons of water per acre.

Coarse sprays are less likely to drift; therefore, do not use

nozzles or nozzle configurations which dispense spray as fine

spray droplets. Do not angle nozzles forward into the

airstream and do not increase spray volume by increasing

nozzle pressure.

Drift control additives may be used. When a drift control additive is used, read and carefully observe the cautionary statements and all other information appearing on the additive

label.

Ensure uniform application—To avoid streaked, uneven or

overlapped application, use appropriate marking devices.

PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF THIS PRODUCT TO UNCOATED

STEEL SURFACES MAY RESULT IN CORROSION AND

POSSIBLE FAILURE OF THE PART. The maintenance of an

organic coating (paint) which meets aerospace specification

MIL-C-38413 may prevent corrosion. To prevent corrosion of

exposed parts, thoroughly wash aircraft after each day of

spraying to remove residues of this product accumulated

during spraying or from spills. Landing gear are most susceptible. 7.2 Ground Broadcast

Equipment

Use the recommended rates of this product in 3 to 40 gallons

of water per acre as a broadcast spray unless otherwise specified. As density of weeds increases, spray volume should be

increased within the recommended range to ensure complete

coverage. Carefully select proper nozzles to avoid spraying a

fine mist. For best results with ground application equipment,

use flat fan nozzles. Check for even distribution of spray

droplets. 7.3 Hand-Held and 

High-Volume Equipment

Apply to foliage of vegetation to be controlled. For applications made on a spray-to-wet basis, spray coverage should

be uniform and complete. Do not spray to the point of runoff.

Use coarse sprays only.

For control of weeds listed in the “Annual Weeds” section of

“WEEDS CONTROLLED,” apply a 0.5 percent solution of this

product to weeds less than 6 inches in height or runner length.

For annual weeds over 6 inches tall, or unless otherwise specified, use a 1 percent solution. Apply prior to seedhead formation in grass or bud formation in broadleaf weeds. 

For best results, use a 2 percent solution on harder-to-control

perennials, such as bermudagrass, dock, field bindweed,

hemp dogbane, milkweed and Canada thistle.

For low volume directed spray applications, use a 5 to 10 percent solution of this product for control or partial control of

annual weeds, perennial weeds, or woody brush and trees.

Spray coverage should be uniform with at least 50 percent of

the foliage contacted. Coverage of the top one half of the

plant is important for best results. To ensure adequate spray

coverage, spray both sides of large or tall woody brush and

trees, when foliage is thick and dense, or where there are

multiple sprouts. 7.4 Selective Equipment

This product may be applied through recirculating spray

systems, shielded applicators, hooded sprayers, wiper applicators or sponge bars after dilution and thorough mixing with

water to listed weeds growing in any noncrop site specified

on this label.

A recirculating spray system directs the spray solution onto

weeds growing above desirable vegetation, while spray solution not intercepted by weeds is collected and returned to the

spray tank for reuse.

A shielded or hooded applicator directs the herbicide solution

onto weeds, while shielding desirable vegetation from the

herbicide.

A wiper or sponge applicator applies the herbicide solution

onto weeds by rubbing the weed with an absorbent material

containing the herbicide solution.

AVOID CONTACT OF HERBICIDE WITH DESIRABLE VEGETATION AS SERIOUS INJURY OR DEATH IS LIKELY TO OCCUR.

Applicators used above desired vegetation should be

adjusted so that the lowest spray stream or wiper contact

point is at least 2 inches above the desirable vegetation.

Droplets, mist, foam or splatter of the herbicide solution settling on desirable vegetation is likely to result in discoloration,

stunting or destruction.

Better results may be obtained when more of the weed is

exposed to the herbicide solution. Weeds not contacted by

the herbicide solution will not be affected. This may occur in

dense clumps, severe infestations or when the height of the

weeds varies so that not all weeds are contacted. In these

instances, repeat treatment may be necessary.

Shielded and hooded applicators

Use nozzles that provide uniform coverage within the treated

3
area. Keep shields on these sprayers adjusted to protect

desirable vegetation. EXTREME CARE MUST BE EXERCISED

TO AVOID CONTACT OF HERBICIDE WITH DESIRABLE VEGETATION.

Wiper applicators and sponge bars

Equipment must be designed, maintained and operated to

prevent the herbicide solution from contacting desirable vegetation. Operate this equipment at ground speeds no greater

than 5 mph. Performance may be improved by reducing

speed in areas of heavy weed infestations to ensure adequate

wiper saturation. Better results may be obtained if 2 applications are made in opposite directions.

Avoid leakage or dripping onto desirable vegetation. Adjust

height of applicator to ensure adequate contact with weeds.

Keep wiping surfaces clean. Be aware that, on sloping

ground, the herbicide solution may migrate, causing dripping

on the lower end and drying of the wicks on the upper end of

a wiper applicator.

Do not use wiper equipment when weeds are wet.

Mix only the amount of solution to be used during a 1-day

period, as reduced activity may result from use of leftover

solutions. Clean wiper parts immediately after using this

product by thoroughly flushing with water.

For Rope or Sponge Wick Applicators—Solutions ranging

from 33 to 75 percent of this product in water may be used.

For Porous-Plastic Applicators and pressure-feed

systems—Solutions ranging from 33 to 100 percent of this

product in water may be used.

When applied as recommended, this product CONTROLS the

following weeds:

Corn, volunteer Sicklepod

Panicum, Texas Spanishneedles

Rye, common Starbur, bristly

Shattercane

When applied as recommended, this product SUPPRESSES

the following weeds:

Beggarweed, Florida Ragweed, common

Bermudagrass Ragweed, giant

Dogbane, hemp Smutgrass

Dogfennel Sunflower

Guineagrass Thistle, Canada

Johnsongrass Thistle, musk

Milkweed Vaseygrass

Nightshade, silverleaf Velvetleaf

Pigweed, redroot 7.5 Injection Systems

This product may be used in aerial or ground injection spray

systems. It may be used as a liquid concentrate or diluted

prior to injecting into the spray stream. Do not mix this product with the undiluted concentrate of other products when

using injection systems unless specifically recommended. 7.6 CDA Equipment

The rate of this product applied per acre by controlled droplet

application (CDA) equipment must not be less than the

amount recommended in this label when applied by conventional broadcast equipment. For vehicle-mounted CDA equipment, apply 3 to 15 gallons of water per acre.

CDA equipment produces a spray pattern which is not easily

visible. Extreme care must be exercised to avoid spray or drift

contacting the foliage or any other green tissue of desirable

vegetation, as damage or destruction is likely to result. 8.0 SITE AND USE

RECOMMENDATIONS

Detailed instructions follow alphabetically, by site.

Unless otherwise specified, applications may be made to control any weeds listed in the annual, perennial and woody

brush tables. Refer also to the “SELECTIVE EQUIPMENT”

section. 8.1 Cut Stumps

Cut stump treatments may be made on any site listed on this

label. This product will control many types of woody brush

and tree species, some of which are listed below. Apply this

product using suitable equipment to ensure coverage of the

entire cambium. Cut trees or resprouts close to the soil surface. Apply a 50 to 100 percent solution of this product to the

freshly-cut surface immediately after cutting. Delays in

application may result in reduced performance. For best

results, applications should be made during periods of active

growth and full leaf expansion.

Alder Saltcedar

Eucalyptus Sweetgum

Madrone Tan oak

Oak Willow

Reed, giant

DO NOT MAKE CUT STUMP APPLICATIONS WHEN THE

ROOTS OF DESIRABLE WOODY BRUSH OR TREES MAY BE

GRAFTED TO THE ROOTS OF THE CUT STUMP. INJURY

RESULTING FROM ROOT GRAFTING IS LIKELY TO OCCUR

IN ADJACENT WOODY BRUSH OR TREES. 8.2 General Noncrop Areas

and Industrial Sites

Use in areas such as airports, apartment complexes,

Christmas tree farms, ditch banks, dry ditches, dry canals,

fencerows, golf courses, industrial sites, lumberyards, manufacturing sites, office complexes, ornamental nurseries,

parks, parking areas, petroleum tank farms and pumping

installations, railroads, recreational areas, residential areas,

roadsides, sod or turf seed farms, schools, storage areas,

utility substations, warehouse areas, other public areas, and

similar industrial and noncrop sites.

General weed control, Trim-and-edge and Bare ground

This product may be used in general noncrop areas. It may

be applied with any application equipment described in this

label. This product may be used to trim-and-edge around

objects in noncrop sites, for spot treatment of unwanted vegetation and to eliminate unwanted weeds growing in established shrub beds or ornamental plantings. This product may

be used prior to planting an area to ornamentals, flowers, turfgrass (sod or seed), or prior to laying asphalt or beginning

construction projects.

Repeated applications of this product may be used, as weeds

emerge, to maintain bare ground.

This product may be tank mixed with the following products.

Refer to these products’ labels for approved noncrop sites

and application rates.

ARSENALTM PLATEAUTM

BANVEL PRINCEPTM DF

BARRICADETM 65WG PRINCEP LIQUID

DIURON RONSTARTM 50 WP

ENDURANCETM SAHARATM

ESCORTTM SIMAZINE

KARMEXTM DF SURFLANTM

KROVARTM I DF TELARTM

OUST VANQUISHTM

PENDULUMTM 3.3 EC 2,4-D

PENDULUM WDG

Oust, Banvel and 2,4-D tank mixtures may not be applied by

air in California.

When applied as a tank mixture for bare ground, this product

provides control of the emerged annual weeds and control or

partial control of emerged perennial weeds, woody brush and

trees.

For control or partial control of the following perennial weeds,

apply 1 to 2 quarts of this product plus 2 to 4 ounces of Oust

per acre.

Bahiagrass Fescue, tall

Bermudagrass Johnsongrass

Broomsedge Poorjoe

Dallisgrass Quackgrass

Dock, curly Vaseygrass

Dogfennel Vervain, blue

Chemical mowing—Perennials

This product will suppress perennial grasses listed in this

section to serve as a substitute for mowing. Use 8 fluid

ounces of this product per acre when treating tall fescue, fine

fescue, orchardgrass or quackgrass covers. Use 6 fluid

ounces of this product per acre when treating Kentucky bluegrass. Apply treatments in 10 to 40 gallons of spray solution

per acre.

4
Use only in areas where some temporary injury or discoloration of perennial grasses can be tolerated.

Chemical mowing—Annuals

For growth suppression of some annual grasses, such as

annual ryegrass, wild barley and wild oats growing in coarse

turf on roadsides or other industrial areas, apply 4 to 5 fluid

ounces of this product in 10 to 40 gallons of spray solution

per acre. Applications should be made when annual grasses

are actively growing and before the seedheads are in the boot

stage of development. Treatments may cause injury to the

desired grasses.

Dormant turfgrass

This product may be used to control or suppress many winter annual weeds and tall fescue for effective release of dormant bermudagrass and bahiagrass turf. Treat only when turf

is dormant and prior to spring greenup.

Apply 8 to 64 fluid ounces of this product per acre. Apply the

recommended rates in 10 to 40 gallons of water per acre. Use

only in areas where bermudagrass or bahiagrass are desirable ground covers and where some temporary injury or discoloration can be tolerated. 

Treatments in excess of 16 fluid ounces per acre may result

in injury or delayed greenup in highly maintained areas, such

as golf courses and lawns. DO NOT apply tank mixtures of

this product plus Oust in highly maintained turfgrass areas.

For further uses, refer to the “ROADSIDES” section of this

label, which gives rates for dormant bermudagrass and

bahiagrass treatments.

Actively growing bermudagrass

This product may be used to control or partially control many

annual and perennial weeds for effective release of actively

growing bermudagrass. DO NOT apply more than 16 fluid

ounces of this product per acre in highly maintained turfgrass

areas. DO NOT apply tank mixtures of this product plus OUST

in highly maintained turfgrass areas. For further uses, refer to

the “ROADSIDES” section of this label, which gives rates for

actively growing bermudagrass treatments. Use only in areas

where some temporary injury or discoloration can be tolerated.

Turfgrass renovation, seed, or sod production

This product controls most existing vegetation prior to renovating turfgrass areas or establishing turfgrass grown for

seed or sod. For maximum control of existing vegetation,

delay planting or sodding to determine if any regrowth from

escaped underground plant parts occurs. Where repeat treatments are necessary, sufficient regrowth must be attained

prior to application. For warm-season grasses such as

bermudagrass, summer or fall applications provide the best

control. Where existing vegetation is growing under mowed

turfgrass management, apply this product after omitting at

least one regular mowing to allow sufficient growth for good

interception of the spray. 

Do not disturb soil or underground plant parts before treatment. Tillage or renovation techniques such as vertical

mowing, coring or slicing should be delayed for 7 days after

application to allow translocation into underground plant

parts.

Desirable turfgrasses may be planted following the above

procedures.

Hand-held equipment may be used for spot treatment of

unwanted vegetation growing in existing turfgrass. Broadcast

or hand-held equipment may be used to control sod remnants or other unwanted vegetation after sod is harvested.

Do not feed or graze turfgrass grown for seed or sod

production for 8 weeks following application. 8.3 Habitat Management

Habitat restoration and management

This product may be used to control exotic and other undesirable vegetation in habitat management and natural areas,

including rangeland and wildlife refuges. Applications can be

made to allow recovery of native plant species, prior to planting desirable native species, and for similar broad spectrum

vegetation control requirements. Spot treatments can be

made to selectively remove unwanted plants for habitat management and enhancement.

Wildlife food plots

This product may be used as a site preparation treatment

prior to planting wildlife food plots. Any wildlife food species

may be planted after applying this product, or native species

may be allowed to repopulate the area. If tillage is needed to

prepare a seedbed, wait 7 days after application before tillage

to allow translocation into underground plant parts. 8.4 Injection and Frill

(Woody Brush and Trees)

This product may be used to control woody brush and trees

by injection or frill applications. Apply this product using suitable equipment which must penetrate into the living tissue.

Apply the equivalent of 1 ml of this product per each 2 to 3

inches of trunk diameter at breast height (DBH). This is best

achieved by applying a 50 to 100 percent concentration of

this product either to a continuous frill around the tree or as

cuts evenly spaced around the tree below all branches. As

tree diameter increases in size, better results are achieved by

applying diluted material to a continuous frill or more closely

spaced cuttings. Avoid application techniques that allow

runoff to occur from frilled or cut areas in species that exude

sap freely. In species such as this, make the frill or cuts at an

oblique angle to produce a cupping effect and use a 100 percent concentration of this product. For best results, application should be made during periods of active growth and after

full leaf expansion. This product will control many species,

some of which are listed below:

Control Partial Control

Oak Black gum

Poplar Dogwood

Sweetgum Hickory

Sycamore Maple, red

8.5 Ornamentals and Plant

Nurseries, Christmas

Trees

Post-directed, Trim-and-edge

This product may be used as a post-directed spray around

established woody ornamental species such as arborvitae,

azalea, boxwood, crabapple, euonymus, fir, douglas fir,

jojoba, hollies, lilac, magnolia, maple, oak, privet, pine,

spruce and yew. This product may also be used to trim and

edge around trees, buildings, sidewalks and roads, potted

plants and other objects in a nursery setting.

Desirable plants may be protected from the spray solution by

using shields or coverings made of cardboard or other impermeable material. THIS PRODUCT IS NOT RECOMMENDED

FOR USE AS AN OVER-THE-TOP BROADCAST SPRAY IN

ORNAMENTALS AND CHRISTMAS TREES. Care must be

exercised to avoid contact of spray, drift or mist with foliage

or green bark of established ornamental species.

Site preparation

This product may be used prior to planting any ornamental,

nursery or Christmas tree species.

Greenhouse/Shadehouse

This product may be used to control weeds growing in and

around greenhouses and shadehouses. Desirable vegetation

must not be present during application and air circulation

fans must be turned off. 8.6 Parks, Recreational and

Residential Areas

This product may be used in parks, recreational and residential areas. It may be applied with any application equipment

described in this label. This product may be used to trim-andedge around trees, fences, paths, around buildings, sidewalks, and other objects in these areas. This product may be

used for spot treatment of unwanted vegetation. This product

may be used to eliminate unwanted weeds growing in established shrub beds or ornamental plantings. This product may

be used prior to planting an area to ornamentals, flowers, turfgrass (sod or seed), or prior to laying asphalt or beginning

construction projects. 

All of the instructions in the “GENERAL NONCROP AREAS

AND INDUSTRIAL SITES” section apply to park and recreational areas.

5
8.7 Railroads

All of the instructions in the “GENERAL NONCROP AREAS

AND INDUSTRIAL SITES” section apply to railroads.

Bare ground, Ballast and Shoulders, Crossings, and Spot

treatment

This product may be used to maintain bare ground on railroad ballast and shoulders. Repeat applications of this product may be used, as weeds emerge, to maintain bare ground.

This product may be used to control tall-growing weeds to

improve line-of-sight at railroad crossings and reduce the

need for mowing along rights-of-way. For crossing applications, up to 80 gallons of spray solution per acre may be

used. This product may be tank mixed with the following

products for ballast, shoulder, spot, bare ground and crossing treatments:

ARSENAL KROVAR I DF

BANVEL OUST

DIURON SAHARA

ESCORT SPIKETM

GARLONTM 3A TELAR

GARLON 4 VANQUISH

HYVARTM X 2,4-D

Brush control

This product may be used to control woody brush and trees

on railroad rights-of-way. Apply 4 to 10 quarts of this product per acre as a broadcast spray, using boom-type or boomless nozzles. Up to 80 gallons of spray solution per acre may

be used. Apply a 3/4 to 2 percent solution of this product

when using high-volume spray-to-wet applications. Apply a 5

to 10 percent solution of this product when using low volume

directed sprays for spot treatment. This product may be

mixed with the following products for enhanced control of

woody brush and trees:

ARSENAL GARLON 4

ESCORT TORDONTM

K

GARLON 3A

Bermudagrass release

This product may be used to control or partially control many

annual and perennial weeds for effective release of actively

growing bermudagrass. Apply 1 to 3 pints of this product in

up to 80 gallons of spray solution per acre. Use the lower rate

when treating annual weeds below 6 inches in height (or runner length). Use the higher rate as weeds increase in size or

as they approach flower or seedhead formation. These rates

will also provide partial control of the following perennial

species:

Bahiagrass Johnsongrass

Bluestem, silver Trumpetcreeper

Fescue, tall Vaseygrass

This product may be tank-mixed with Oust. If tank-mixed, use

no more than 1 to 3 pints of this product with 1 to 2 ounces

of Oust per acre. Use the lower rates of each product to control annual weeds less than 6 inches in height (or runner

length) that are listed in this label and the Oust label. Use the

higher rates as annual weeds increase in size and approach

the flower or seedhead stages. These rates will also provide

partial control of the following perennial weeds: 

Bahiagrass Fescue, tall

Blackberry Johnsongrass

Bluestem, silver Poorjoe

Broomsedge Raspberry

Dallisgrass Trumpetcreeper

Dewberry Vaseygrass

Dock, curly Vervain, blue

Dogfennel

Use only on well-established bermudagrass. Bermudagrass

injury may result from the treatment, but regrowth will occur

under moist conditions. Repeat applications in the same season are not recommended, since severe injury may occur. 8.8 Roadsides

All of the instructions in the “GENERAL NONCROP AREAS

AND INDUSTRIAL SITES” section apply to roadsides.

Shoulder treatments

This product may be used on road shoulders. It may be

applied with boom sprayers, shielded boom sprayers, highvolume off-center nozzles, hand-held equipment, and similar

equipment.

Guardrails and other obstacles to mowing

This product may be used to control weeds growing under

guardrails and around signposts and other objects along the

roadside.

Spot treatment

This product may be used as a spot treatment to control

unwanted vegetation growing along roadsides.

Tank mixtures

This product may be tank-mixed with the following products

for shoulder, guardrail, spot and bare ground treatments:

BANVEL PRINCEP LIQUID

DIURON RONSTAR 50WP

ENDURANCE SAHARA

ESCORT SIMAZINE

KROVAR I DF SURFLAN

OUST TELAR

PENDULUM 3.3 EC VANQUISH

PENDULUM WDG 2,4-D

PRINCEP DF

See the “GENERAL NONCROP AREAS AND INDUSTRIAL

SITES” section of this label for general instructions for tank

mixing. 

Release of Bermudagrass or Bahiagrass

Dormant applications

This product may be used to control or partially control many

winter annual weeds and tall fescue for effective release of

dormant bermudagrass or bahiagrass. Treat only when turf is

dormant and prior to spring greenup. This product may also

be tank-mixed with Oust for residual control. Tank mixtures

of this product with Oust may delay greenup.

For best results on winter annuals, treat when plants are in an

early growth stage (below 6 inches in height) after most have

germinated. For best results on tall fescue, treat when fescue

is at or beyond the 4- to 6-leaf stage.

Apply 8 to 64 fluid ounces of this product per acre alone or in

a tank mixture with 1/4 to 1 ounce per acre of Oust. Apply the

recommended rates in 10 to 40 gallons of water per acre. Use

only in areas where bermudagrass or bahiagrass are desirable ground covers and where some temporary injury or discoloration can be tolerated. To avoid delays in greenup and

minimize injury, add no more than 1 ounce of Oust per acre

on bermudagrass and no more than 0.5 ounce of Oust per

acre on bahiagrass and avoid treatments when these grasses

are in a semi-dormant condition.

Actively growing bermudagrass

This product may be used to control or partially control many

annual and perennial weeds for effective release of actively

growing bermudagrass. Apply 1 to 3 pints of this product in

10 to 40 gallons of spray solution per acre. Use the lower rate

when treating annual weeds below 6 inches in height (or runner length). Use the higher rate as weeds increase in size or

as they approach flower or seedhead formation. These rates

will also provide partial control of the following perennial

species:

Bahiagrass Johnsongrass

Bluestem, silver Trumpetcreeper

Fescue, tall Vaseygrass

This product may be tank-mixed with Oust. If tank-mixed, use

no more than 1 to 2 pints of this product with 1 to 2 ounces

of Oust per acre. Use the lower rates of each product to control annual weeds less than 6 inches in height (or runner

length) that are listed in this label and the Oust label. Use the

higher rates as annual weeds increase in size and approach

the flower or seedhead stages. These rates will also provide

partial control of the following perennial weeds: 

Bahiagrass Fescue, tall

Bluestem, silver Johnsongrass

Broomsedge Poorjoe

Dallisgrass Trumpetcreeper

Dock, curly Vaseygrass

Dogfennel Vervain, blue

Use only on well-established bermudagrass. Bermudagrass

injury may result from the treatment, but regrowth will occur

under moist conditions. Repeat applications of the tank mix

in the same season are not recommended, since severe injury

may occur.

Actively growing bahiagrass

For suppression of vegetative growth and seedhead inhibition

of bahiagrass for approximately 45 days, apply 6 fluid ounces

6
of this product in 10 to 40 gallons of water per acre. Apply 1

to 2 weeks after full greenup or after mowing to a uniform

height of 3 to 4 inches. This application must be made prior

to seedhead emergence.

For suppression up to 120 days, apply 4 fluid ounces of this

product per acre, followed by an application of 2 to 4 fluid

ounces per acre about 45 days later. Make no more than 2

applications per year.

A tank mixture of this product plus Oust may be used. Apply

6 fluid ounces of this product plus 0.25 ounce of Oust per

acre 1 to 2 weeks following an initial spring mowing. Make

only one application per year. 9.0 WEEDS CONTROLLED

Always use the higher rate of this product per acre within the

recommended range when weed growth is heavy or dense or

weeds are growing in an undisturbed (noncultivated) area.

Reduced results may occur when treating weeds heavily

covered with dust. For weeds that have been mowed, grazed

or cut, allow regrowth to occur prior to treatment.

Refer to the following label sections for recommended rates for

the control of annual and perennial weeds and woody brush and

trees. For difficult to control perennial weeds and woody brush

and trees, where plants are growing under stressed conditions,

or where infestations are dense, this product may be used at 5

to 10 quarts per acre for enhanced results. 9.1 Annual Weeds

Use 1 quart per acre if weeds are less than 6 inches in height

or runner length and 1.5 quarts to 4 quarts per acre if weeds

are over 6 inches in height or runner length or when weeds

are growing under stressed conditions.

For spray-to-wet applications, apply a 0.5 percent solution of

this product to weeds less than 6 inches in height or runner

length. Apply prior to seedhead formation in grass or bud formation in broadleaf weeds. For annual weeds over 6 inches

tall, or for smaller weeds growing under stressed conditions,

use a 1 to 2 percent solution. Use the higher rate for toughto-control species or for weeds over 24 inches tall.

WEED SPECIES

*When using field broadcast equipment (aerial applications

or boom sprayers using flat fan nozzles) these species will

be controlled or partially controlled using 1 pint of this product per acre. Applications must be made using 3 to 10 gallons of carrier volume per acre. Use nozzles that ensure

thorough coverage of foliage and treat when weeds are in an

early growth stage. 9.2 Perennial Weeds

Best results are obtained when perennial weeds are treated

after they reach the reproductive stage of growth (seedhead

initiation in grasses and bud formation in broadleaves). For

non-flowering plants, best results are obtained when the

plants reach a mature stage of growth. In many situations,

treatments are required prior to these growth stages. Under

these conditions, use the higher application rate within the

recommended range.

Ensure thorough coverage when using spray-to-wet treatments using hand-held equipment. When using hand-held

equipment for low volume directed spot treatments, apply a

5 to 10 percent solution of this product.

Allow 7 or more days after application before tillage.

Weed Species Rate Hand-Held

(QT/A) % Solution

Alfalfa* 1 2

Alligatorweed* 4 1.5

Anise (fennel) 2-4 1-2

Bahiagrass 3-5 2

Bentgrass* 1.5 2

Bermudagrass 5 2

Bermudagrass, water 

(knotgrass) 1.5 2

Bindweed, field 4-5 2

Bluegrass, Kentucky 2 2

Blueweed, Texas 4-5 2

Brackenfern 3-4 1-1.5

Bromegrass, smooth 2 2

Bursage, woolly-leaf — 2

Canarygrass, reed 2-3 2

Cattail 3-5 2

Clover; red, white 3-5 2

Cogongrass 3-5 2

Dallisgrass 3-5 2

Dandelion 3-5 2

Dock, curly 3-5 2

Dogbane, hemp 4 2

Fescue (except tall) 3-5 2

Fescue, tall 1-3 2

German ivy 2-4 1-2

Guineagrass 3 1

Horsenettle 3-5 2

Horseradish 4 2

Iceplant 2 1.5-2

Jerusalem artichoke 3-5 2

Johnsongrass 2-3 1

Kikuyugrass 2-3 2

Knapweed 4 2

Lantana — 1-1.25

Lespedeza 3-5 2

Milkweed, common 3 2

Muhly, wirestem 2 2

Mullein, common 3-5 2

Napiergrass 3-5 2

Nightshade, silverleaf 2 2

Nutsedge; purple, yellow 3 1-2

Orchardgrass 2 2

Pampasgrass 3-5 1.5-2

Paragrass 3-5 2

Pepperweed, perennial 4 2

Phragmites* 3-5 1-2

Poison hemlock 2-4 1-2

Quackgrass 2-3 2

Redvine* 2 2

Reed, giant 4-5 2

Ryegrass, perennial 2-3 1

Smartweed, swamp 3-5 2

Spurry, umbrella*

Starthistle, yellow

Stinkgrass*

Sunflower*

Teaweed/Prickly sida

Texas panicum*

Velvetleaf

Virginia copperleaf

Virginia pepperweed*

Wheat*

Wild oats*

Witchgrass*

Woolly cupgrass*

Yellow rocket

Annoda, spurred

Barley*

Barnyardgrass*

Bittercress*

Black nightshade*

Bluegrass, annual*

Bluegrass, bulbous*

Bassia, fivehook

Brome, downy*

Brome, Japanese*

Browntop panicum*

Buttercup*

Carolina foxtail*

Carolina geranium

Cheatgrass*

Chervil*

Chickweed*

Cocklebur*

Copperleaf, hophornbeam

Corn*

Corn speedwell*

Crabgrass*

Dwarfdandelion*

Eastern mannagrass*

Eclipta*

Fall panicum*

Falsedandelion*

Falseflax, smallseed*

Fiddleneck

Field pennycress*

Filaree

Fleabane, annual*

Fleabane, hairy

(Conyza bonariensis)*

Fleabane, rough*

Florida pusley

Foxtail*

Goatgrass, jointed*

Goosegrass

Grain sorghum (milo)*

Groundsel, common*

Hemp sesbania

Henbit

Horseweed/Marestail

(Conyza canadensis)

Itchgrass*

Johnsongrass, seedling

Junglerice

Knotweed

Kochia

Lambsquarters*

Little barley*

London rocket*

Mayweed

Medusahead*

Morningglory

(Ipomoea spp.)

Mustard, blue*

Mustard, tansy*

Mustard, tumble*

Mustard, wild*

Oats

Pigweed*

Plains/Tickseed coreopsis*

Prickly lettuce*

Purslane, common

Ragweed, common*

Ragweed, giant

Red rice

Russian thistle

Rye*

Ryegrass*

Sandbur, field*

Shattercane*

Shepherd’s-purse*

Sicklepod

Signalgrass, broadleaf*

Smartweed, ladysthumb*

Smartweed, Pennsylvania*

Sowthistle, annual

Spanishneedles

Speedwell, purslane*

Sprangletop*

Spurge, annual

Spurge, prostrate*

Spurge, spotted*

7
Weed Species Rate Hand-Held

(QT/A) % Solution

Spurge, leafy* — 2

Sweet potato, wild* — 2

Thistle, artichoke 2-3 1-2

Thistle, Canada 2-3 2

Timothy 2-3 2

Torpedograss* 4-5 2

Trumpetcreeper* 2-3 2

Vaseygrass 3-5 2

Velvetgrass 3-5 2

Wheatgrass, western 2-3 2

*Partial control 9.3 Woody Brush and Trees

Apply this product after full leaf expansion, unless otherwise

directed. Use the higher rate for larger plants and/or dense

areas of growth. On vines, use the higher rate for plants that

have reached the woody stage of growth. Best results are

obtained when application is made in late summer or fall after

fruit formation.

In arid areas, best results are obtained when applications are

made in the spring to early summer when brush species are

at high moisture content and are flowering.

Ensure thorough coverage when using spray-to-wet treatments using hand-held equipment. When using hand-held

equipment for low volume directed-spray spot treatments,

apply a 5 to 10 percent solution of this product.

Symptoms may not appear prior to frost or senescence with

fall treatments.

Allow 7 or more days after application before tillage, mowing

or removal. Repeat treatments may be necessary to control

plants regenerating from underground parts or seed. Some

autumn colors on undesirable deciduous species are acceptable provided no major leaf drop has occurred. Reduced performance may result if fall treatments are made following a

frost.

Broadcast Hand-Held

Weed Species Rate Spray-to-Wet

(QT/A) % Solution

Alder 3-4 1-1.5

Ash* 2-5 1-2

Aspen, quaking 2-3 1-1.5

Bearmat (Bearclover)* 2-5 1-2

Beech* 2-5 1-2

Birch 2 1

Blackberry 3-4 1-1.5

Blackgum 2-5 1-2

Bracken 2-5 1-2

Broom; French, Scotch 2-5 1.5-2

Buckwheat, California* 2-4 1-2

Cascara* 2-5 1-2

Catsclaw* — 1-1.5

Ceanothus* 2-5 1-2

Chamise* 2-5 1

Cherry; bitter, black, pin 2-3 1-1.5

Coyote brush 3-4 1.5-2

Dogwood* 2-5 1-2

Elderberry 2 1

Elm* 2-5 1-2

Eucalyptus — 2

Florida holly (Brazilian Peppertree)* 2-5 1-2

Gorse* 2-5 1-2

Hasardia* 2-4 1-2

Hawthorn 2-3 1-1.5

Hazel 2 1

Hickory* 2-5 1-2

Honeysuckle 3-4 1-1.5

Hornbeam, American* 2-5 1-2

Kudzu 4 2

Locust, black* 2-4 1-2

Madrone resprouts* — 2

Manzanita* 2-5 1-2

Maple, red 2-4 1-1.5

Maple, sugar — 1-1.5

Monkey flower* 2-4 1-2

Oak; black, white* 2-4 1-2

Oak, post 3-4 1-1.5

Oak; northern, pin 2-4 1-1.5

Oak, Scrub* 2-4 1-1.5

Oak; southern red 2-3 1-1.5

Broadcast Hand-Held

Weed Species Rate Spray-to-Wet

(QT/A) % Solution

Persimmon* 2-5 1-2

Pine 2-5 1-2

Poison ivy 4-5 2

Poison oak 4-5 2

Poplar, yellow* 2-5 1-2

Redbud, eastern 2-5 1-2

Rose, multiflora 2 1

Russian olive* 2-5 1-2

Sage, black 2-4 1

Sage, white* 2-4 1-2

Sage brush, California 2-4 1

Salmonberry 2 1

Saltcedar* 2-5 1-2

Sassafras* 2-5 1-2

Sourwood* 2-5 1-2

Sumac; poison, smooth, winged* 2-4 1-2

Sweetgum 2-3 1-1.5

Swordfern* 2-5 1-2

Tallowtree, Chinese — 1

Tan oak resprouts* — 2

Thimbleberry 2 1

Tobacco, tree* 2-4 1-2

Trumpetcreeper 2-3 1-1.5

Vine maple* 2-5 1-2

Virginia creeper 2-5 1-2

Waxmyrtle, southern* 2-5 1-2

Willow 3 1

*Partial control

10.0 LIMIT OF WARRANTY

AND LIABILITY

Monsanto Company warrants that this product conforms to

the chemical description on the label and is reasonably fit for

the purposes set forth in the Complete Directions for Use

label booklet (“Directions”) when used in accordance with

those Directions under the conditions described therein. NO

OTHER EXPRESS WARRANTY OR IMPLIED WARRANTY OF

FITNESS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR MERCHANTABILITY IS MADE. This warranty is also subject to the conditions

and limitations stated herein.

Buyer and all users shall promptly notify this Company of any

claims whether based in contract, negligence, strict liability,

other tort or otherwise.

Buyer and all users are responsible for all loss or damage

from use or handling which results from conditions beyond

the control of this Company, including, but not limited to,

incompatibility with products other than those set forth in the

Directions, application to or contact with desirable vegetation, unusual weather, weather conditions which are outside

the range considered normal at the application site and for

the time period when the product is applied, as well as

weather conditions which are outside the application ranges

set forth in the Directions, application in any manner not

explicitly set forth in the Directions, moisture conditions outside the moisture range specified in the Directions, or the

presence of products other than those set forth in the

Directions in or on the soil, crop or treated vegetation.

THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY OF THE USER OR BUYER, AND

THE LIMIT OF THE LIABILITY OF THIS COMPANY OR ANY

OTHER SELLER FOR ANY AND ALL LOSSES, INJURIES OR

DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE USE OR HANDLING OF

THIS PRODUCT (INCLUDING CLAIMS BASED IN CONTRACT,

NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, OTHER TORT OR OTHERWISE) SHALL BE THE PURCHASE PRICE PAID BY THE USER

OR BUYER FOR THE QUANTITY OF THIS PRODUCT

INVOLVED, OR, AT THE ELECTION OF THIS COMPANY OR

ANY OTHER SELLER, THE REPLACEMENT OF SUCH QUANTITY, OR, IF NOT ACQUIRED BY PURCHASE, REPLACEMENT

OF SUCH QUANTITY. IN NO EVENT SHALL THIS COMPANY

OR ANY OTHER SELLER BE LIABLE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL,

CONSEQUENTIAL OR SPECIAL DAMAGES.

Upon opening and using this product, buyer and all users are

deemed to have accepted the terms of this LIMIT OF WARRANTY AND LIABILITY which may not be varied by any verbal or written agreement. If terms are not acceptable, return

at once unopened.

8
Escort, Hyvar, Karmex, Krovar, Oust, and Telar are trademarks of

E.I. duPont de Nemours and Company.

Garlon, Spike, Surflan and Tordon are trademarks of DowElanco.

Barricade, Endurance, Princep, and Vanquish are trademarks of

Novartis Corporation.

Ronstar is a trademark of Rhone-Poulenc, Inc.

Arsenal, Pendulum, Plateau, and Sahara are trademarks of

American Cyanamid Company.

Banvel is a trademark of BASF Ltd.

This product is protected by U.S. Patent No. 4,405,531.

Other patents pending. 

No license granted under any non-U.S. patent(s)

EPA Reg. No. 524-475

In case of an emergency involving this product,

Call Collect, day or night, (314) 694-4000.

©MONSANTO COMPANY 1998

MONSANTO COMPANY

ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, 63167 U.S.A.

21136W4-1/CG

9