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NOTES ON

WESTERN RANGE

FORBS:

Equisetaceae

through

Fumariaceae

By

William A. Dayton

Formerly Chief, Division of Dendrology

and Range Forage Investigations, Forest Service

Forest Service

U. S. Department of Agriculture

Washington, D. C.
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction '

Horsetail family (Equisetaceae) 2

Clubmoss family (Lycopodiaceae) 5

Polypody family (Polypodiaceae) "^

Lily family (Liliaceae) 12

Iris family (Iridaceae) 5^

Orchid family (Orchidaceae) 61

Nettle family (Urticaceae) 62

Buckwheat family (Polygonaceae) 64

Goosefoot family ( Chenopodiaceae ) 85

Amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) 98

Four-o'clock family (Nyctaginaceae, syn. Allioniaceae) .- 105

Portulaca family ( Portulacaceae) 116

Pink family (Caryophyllaceae) 123

Buttercup family (Ranunculáceas) 143

Barberry family (Berberidaceae) 206

Poppy family (Papaveráceas) 207

Fumitory family (Fumariaceae) 216

Literature cited 224

Index 235

Issued February 1960

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. C. - Price $1.75

II
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NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS:

EQUISETAGEAE THROUGH

FUMARIAGEAE

By WILLIAM A. DAYTON

Formerly Chief, Division of Dendrology and Range

Forage Investigations, Forest Service'^

INTRODUCTION

Annotated range plant collecting by the Forest Service began

in 1907. These earliest collections, however, were deposited in the

United States National Herbarium. In 1910 the Forest Service

Herbarium in Washington, D.C., w^as started. This assemblage of

annotated vv^estern range plant specimens is, almost without question, the largest in the country. It represents the work of well over

a thousand employees and is of considerable importance taxonomically, but primarily it is a mine of information on the distribution,

ecology, economic values, and life history of perhaps 10,000 or so

range plants inhabiting the 11 Far Western States. The serial numbering of these plants, now reaching about 125,000 specimens,

started August 4, 1911, there being no record of those submitted

prior to that date.

Economic notes were prepared, chiefly by the writer, for about

3,000 species, mostly on cards. In addition, during reconnaissance

for mapping vegetation of certain national forests of special grazing importance, some members of the crews also annotated range

plants on cards and prepared palatability tables. These manuscript notes and data on collection forms of Forest Service Herbarium plant specimens, as well as personal observations and research, furnish the basis for this handbook.

Range vegetation is customarily divided into four categories:

grasses, grasslike plants (primarily sedges and rushes), forbs

(weeds) ,2 and shrubs (woody plants). Among these, forbs are by

iMr. Dayton retired in December 1955 and served from then until his death

on October 20, 1958, as a Collaborator with the Forest Service.

^Unfortunately, in dealing with this group of plants we enter the field of

semantics. The western stockman's term "weed" covers nongrasslike herbs

whether palatable or nonpalatable, injurious or harmless, desirable or undesirable. And, from an etymological standpoint, "forb" is objectionable. The

Greek from which it is anglicized means food—especially forage or fodder, and

applies primarily to grasses; moreover, its widened usage to cover plants which

do not produce forage and may even be harmful, is naturally quite arbitrary.

Despite all this, the term is now widely sanctioned by usage.

1
2 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

far the most numerous. Unlike the other three groups, they seldom

dominate other vegetation, but rather are found as admixtures m

grasslands or in the understories of forest and brush types.

Exceptions, of course, are found in temporary associations, such as

the first and second "weed stages," as aftermath of destructive

grazing and erosion, described by Sampson (l??)/'

Of all plant families, grasses admittedly are the most important

for range forage, and their poisonous or otherwise undesirable

species are relatively few. Forbs (range weeds), on the other

hand, vary enormously in palatability, and they embrace a large

majority of our poisonous plants. However, because of their great

number, diversity, and ubiquity, they are of great importance to

all kinds of livestock and herbivorous wildlife but perhaps especially so to sheep. The genera and species annotated for the various

families included here were selected on the basis of importance

(for grazing, as poisonous plants, etc.) ; interest (peculiarities,

miscellaneous values) ; and commonness and abundance. Because

only about one-fourth of the range forbs in the 11 Far Western

States are covered here, it is hoped that someone will carry this

work to completion.

Although this handbook is concerned primarily with vascular

plants, the nonvascular algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, and liverworts are perhaps worthy of mention. Certain algae, such as species of the genera ISostoc and Anabaena, often cause bad odors and

taste in water and are frequently, but apparently incorrectly (151,

p. 186), accused of poisoning livestock. Some parasitic fungi,

.«uch as rusts and smuts, may be injurious to livestock, as is moldy

hay. Squirrels and other wildlife are fond of mushrooms and other

edible fungi, and cattle and other livestock sometimes crop mushrooms (Agnricus spp., et al.). The fondness of swine for truffles

is well known. The writer is not aware of any case where domestic

livestock have voluntarily eaten amanitas and other toxic fungi.

In the tundras of the Arctic, reindeermoss [Cladonia rangiferina

(L.) Web.] and related species are noted as highly important forage for reindeer, caribou, muskox, and other native herbivores

(199), and in Scandinavia these small shrublike lichens are harvested for cattle (122, 150). Bearded tree lichens, such as species

of Vsnea and Alectoria, when abundant and dry, may be serious

forest fire hazards. One of the very few parmelias growing on bare

soil, in the Rocky Mountains east to Nebraska and North Dakota,

is Parmelia molliiiscula Ach. This gray-green lichen blows into

drifts and, on winter range where better feed is unavailable or

scarce, it may be eaten by livestock, especially sheep and cattle ;

it causes paralysis of the hind legs (15).

HORSETAIL FAMILY (EQUISETACEAE)

This is a monotypic family, now represented solely by the genus

Eguisetum, although in the Carboniferous epoch the family was

richly developed, vast forests of tree calamites entering into the

^Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 224.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 3

composition of our coalbeds of today. The generic name Equisetum, while perhaps not classical Latin, is unquestionably ancient;

it derives from Latin equus (horse) + seta (bristle, or strong,

coarse hair, horsehair being seta equina). The famous pre-Linnean

botanist Tournefort, in his Institutiones Rei Herbariae, says that

the name derives "a foliorum forma" (i. e., the form of the leaves) ;

presumably the numerous fine branches are referred to.

Horsetail (Equisetum)

This genus, often also called scouring-rush, consists of about

25 species, mostly occupying wet or moist sites, widely distributed

in the Northern Hemisphere; a few species, however, are more

localized. Horsetails are somewhat rushlike plants, perennial from

dark-colored, extensively creeping and branching rootstocks

(rhizomes). The aerial stems, mostly erect, may be annual or

perennial; they are cylindrical, fluted and silicious, with solid

joints (nodes) and mostly hollow internodes, often with whorled

branches at the nodes. The small leaves are united lengthwise

into sheathlike structures ("sheaths") at the stemjoints, or nodes,

their tips ("teeth") fused together or free. The minute fruiting

spores are provided with four spiral ribbonlike "elaters" which

assist in their propulsion when ripe, and are produced in small,

stalked, shieldlike sporangia borne in conelike fruiting spikes at

the tips of the fertile stems.

Horsetail species are largely distinguished by such characters

as size and robustness of stems, likeness or unlikeness of sterile

and fertile stems, number of angles or grooves in stems, color and

persistence of aerial stems, relative size of stem cavities, and number of leaves at a node. Horsetails, as a rule, are not highly regarded as range forage but frequently may be an important constituent in wild hay. When fed in large quantities, however, a number

of the species are known to cause scours and sometimes paralysis

and death. Horses are the class of stock most usually affected.

Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense L. ), as the scientific name

arvense (of fields) indicates, inhabits fields, old meadows, roadsides, railroad embankments and the like, and ranges from Greenland and Newfoundland to Alaska and south to California, New

Mexico, northeastern Kansas, Kentucky, and North Carolina ; also

Europe and Asia. The plant is highly variable; its aerial stems

are annual, the sterile and fertile stems differing so markedly as

to have the appearance of belonging to two different plants. The

short-lived fertile stems appear early in the spring before the

sterile stems; they are pale brown or flesh color, usually unbranched, seldom more than about 10 inches high, bearing at the

tip a single narrow fruiting cone; the sheaths are 8 to 12 toothed.

The bright green, slender sterile stems are longitudinally 6 to

14 furrowed, from 4 inches to 2 feet (rarely 3 feet) high ; the

loose whitish sheaths are chaffy and alaout 12 toothed ; the num.erous branches are sharply 4 (occasionally 3) angled, with

4-toothed sheaths. As the fertile stems wither and disappear soon

after the spores are shed, the sterile stage is the aspect usually
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

seen in the field. The plant is often common in sandy soils, particularly where there is a good supply of moisture at least during

most of the growing season. It is seldom eaten on the range except accidentally as when mixed with hay.

Chesnut and Wilcox (39, p. 13i) refer to the plant's reputation

of being poisonous to horses but indicate that no cases of poisoning have been reported of it from Montana where it is sometimes

common. They state that "the plant, if deleterious, is evidently

so only on account of its harsh scouring action in the mouth and

intestinal tract." Long (123, pp. 8^-85) reviews considerable

literature on this plant and cites authorities both to the effect that

the green plant appears to be harmless and also that horses can be

fatally poisoned by it. A case of sheep poisoning was reported

from a national forest in Wyoming in which this species was suspected. Apparently there is room for further study of this common plant.

Meadow horsetail (Equisetum pratense Ehrh.)—pratense means

of meadows—is closely related and rather similar to the preceding

species. It is characteristic of moist meadows, rich woods and the

like, often in limestone formations, widely distributed from Newfoundland and New Brunswick to Alaska and south to Montana,

Colorado, North Dakota, Iowa, Michigan, and New Jersey; also

in Europe and Asia. Compared with field horsetail the paler

green, more slender mostly 3- (instead of 4-) angled stems have

the hollow central part much narrower (about a sixth of the stem

diameter), the internodes rougher, with 3 rows of small silicious

bristles on each of the 8 to 20 ridges, the teeth of the branch sheaths

shortly triangular (deltoid) instead of lance shaped. The fertile

stems are more persistent, becoming branched with age, and not

soon withering except at the top. The palatability to range livestock is negligible to low; there appears to be no record of its

poisoning range animals.

Another related species is marsh horsetail (Equisetum palustre

L.), a boreal plant of circumpolar distribution, occurring in

Europe, Asia and, in North America, from Newfoundland and

Labrador to Alaska and south to Oregon, Wyoming, Nebraska,

Minnesota, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, in marshes (as the Latin

name palustre indicates), wet woods, along shores, etc., often in

limestone areas. Both fertile and sterile stems are alike, green,

slender, conspicuously 5 to 10 angled and grooved, with very small

central cavity, and loose dilated sheaths with dark, usually whitemargined teeth.

Perhaps marsh horsetail has been more thoroughly studied from

the toxicological standpoint than any other species of the genus.

Long (123) states that European investigations have shown that

the young shoots, which incidentally contain the least silica, are

much more poisonous than the old stems, and that a dangerous

nerve-poisoning alkaloid, eqnisetin, has been isolated from this

particular species. He further states that young animals appear

to succumb sooner than older ones ; that grain-fed animals are

more resistant than others, and that the milk yield of cattle appears
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 5

to be affected by the plant, loss in both quality and quantity being

noted.

Five other range species of this genus worthy of mention because of local abundance, though probably negligible or nearly so

as forage except in cases of overstocking or where eaten in hay,

are as follows:

1. Common scouring-rush (Equisetum hyemale L.), the species

name signifying "winter" because of the evergreen habit, usually

occurs on moist sandy sites almost throughout North America and

in Europe and Asia. Fertile and sterile stems are alike, mostly

unbranched, about 18 to 40 ridged, 1 to 4 feet high, with narrow

central cavities, the fruiting terminal cones tipped by a firm dark

point; the relatively short sheaths usually have two black bands,

the teeth jointed and usually deciduous. This, like the species listed

next, was formerly much used for scouring floors.

2. Closely related to Equisetum hymale, and by many considered a large variety of it, is stout (or giant) scouring-rush [E.

praealtum Raf., syns. E. robustum A. Br., E. hyeinale var. robustum

(A. Br.) A. A. Eaton, and perhaps E. hyemale var. affine (Engelm.)

A. A. Eaton]. This grows in colonies and has stout erect stems

often 5 to 10 feet high and 1 inch thick and ranges from Newfoundland and Quebec to southern Alaska and south to California,

Florida, and central Mexico, also in Asia. Pammel (151, pp. 323-

325) describes poisoning of cattle and horses by this plant under

the name equisetosis. Some writers retain the original spelling

prealtum of Rañnesque ; evidently praealtum, indicating something

comparatively taller, was intended.

3. Another closely related species is smooth horsetail (Equisetum laevigatum A. Br.), growing in about neutral soils from

Ontario to British Columbia, and south to California, Texas,

Illinois, and Virginia; also in Mexico and Central America. It

has relatively smooth stems of one type, 10 inches to 31/2 feet tall,

the sheaths widened upwards, mostly with a single black band,

the teeth soon falling ; the fruiting cones are sharp pointed.

4. Kansas horsetail (Equisetum kansanum SchafFn.) is considered by some confluent with E. laevigatum. It has soft weak

rather smooth stems with relatively large cavities, growing up to

about 314 feet high, the fruiting cones blunt and rounded, and

occurs mostly in sandy soils from Michigan to southern British

Columbia and south to California, Texas, and into northern

Mexico.

5. Variegated horsetail (Equisetum, variegatum. Schleich.), with

slender stems 8 to 16 inches tall, occupies neutral to slightly alkaline sites from Greenland, Newfoundland and Labrador to Alaska

and south to Oregon, Nevada, Colorado, Nebraska, Wisconsin,

Illinois, and Pennsylvania ; also in Europe and Asia. The sheath

teeth are whitish or white margined.

GLUBMOSS FAMILY (LYGOPODIAGEAE)

Unless one includes in this family, as a few botanists do, the

small family Psilotaceae (represented in Florida and Australia),
6 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

and except for a rare Australian species of another widely distributed genus, Lycopodiaceae consists only of the clubmoss genus

(Lycopodium),'^ with about 600 species chiefly found in tropical

mountains. Lycopodium is one of the oldest of all living plant

genera, extending backwards in an unbroken line almost as far as

the Palaeozoic. It is related to the large fossil lycopod tree genus

Lepidodendron, the most important contributor to the coal deposits of southern Illinois, an aftermath of carboniferous forests

of 300 million years ago or so (5).

About 15 species of clubmosses occur in the United States, at

least 6 or 7 of which have well-marked varieties. They are perennial evergreen somewhat mosslike plants, with underground or

trailing and also erect 2-branching stems, the true roots produced

from the underside of the stems which are in contact with the

ground. The leaves are small, crowded, mostly 4 to 10 ranked. The

reproductive spores are in spore-cases (sporangia) borne in the

axils of special leaves (sporophyUs) which are usually rather different from the rest of the foliage and often borne in terminal conelike appendages. The species are distinguished by habit, leaf characters and number of leaf ranks, presence or absence of sporophyll

cones, etc.

The majority of our native clubmosses occur also in the Far

Western States, often in moist or dry woods. Their palatability to

domestic livestock is nil. Some of the species, particularly groundcedar (Lycopodium complanatum L., and its variety flabelUfortne

Fern.), a boreal and eastern species getting into Washington,

Idaho, and Montana, and groundpine (L. obscurum Í,.), another

boreal and Asiatic species getting as far south as some of the

Eastern States and the Northwestern States, both often called

"crowfoot," are in much demand as Christmas, decorations. Practically all the species are also in ornamental cultivation. Clubmoss

spores are often used as an easy means of comparative measurement on a microscope slide ; they have a fairly uniform diameter

of about 40 microns (211). A subject worthy of further study is

the possible relationship of the highly flammable spores of clubmosses to some forest fires of obscure origin.

Runningpine (Lycopodium clavatum L.), with a somewhat similar distribution to that of the two species mentioned above, was

formerly an important drug plant, the light oily sulfur-yellow

powdery 4-sided spores (known as "vegetable sulfur") being used

as a dusting powder for infants, a diuretic, etc. But this medicinal use according to the latest edition of the United States Dispensatory (H7) "has fallen into complete desuetude." The spores

were formerly used also for flashlight powders, and the Chinese

used those of some of their native species in the manufacture of

fireworks. The spores of L. clavatum are still in commercial use in

pharmacy in pill manufacture for facilitating rolling and for preventing adhesion (216).

^The generic name (from Greek lukos, wolf, + pous, podos, foot) corresponds with another common name of clubmosses, "wolffoot."
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 7

POLYPODY FAMILY (POLYPODIAGEAE)

Unless, as some botanists prefer, two other groups—the woodfern (Aspidiaceae) and brake (Pteridaceae) families—are separated from it, the polypody family of ferns,^ embracing about 200

genera and an estimated 5,600 to 7,000 species, largely tropical, is

much the largest family in the great plant division Pteridophyta,

ferns and fern allies. A great majority of Western United States

ferns belong to Polypodiaceae, where about 22 genera and 110

species of this family occur, the number of genera and species increasing toward the south.

As in all the higher, or vascular spore-bearing plants (ferns,

horsetails, clubmosses, etc.) members of this family are characterized by what is commonly called "alternation of generations," i.e.,

each species exists in two entirely different phases, the sexual

stage (prothallus, or gavietophyte) and the asexual stage (sporophyte). The conspicuous sporophyte stage is the familiar "fern"

plant of everyday life, the one ordinarily described in the manuals

and other literature. The spores, or powdery fruiting bodies of the

sporophyte, give rise on germination to the gametophyte, or sexual

stage, and are borne in rounded organs called sporangia; these

sporangia in the Polypodiaceae are stalked, assembled in clusters

(sori) of characteristic shapes, the sori frequently with a more or

less lidlike covering, the indusium.

All United States Polypodiaceae are herbaceous, perennial from

creeping or erect, hairy or scaly rootstocks. Their fronds, or leaves,

come up from the ground in the spring coiled like a bishop's

crosier; they are occasionally simple and entire but are usually

more or less cut or divided and are frequently simply or compoundly pinnate or pinnatifid; fertile (spore-bearing) and sterile

leaves may be similar or unlike. As a rule these plants are not

important as forage plants, at least for domestic livestock. Bracken, annotated later, is one of the very few range ferns that is at

once of good size, widely distributed, common, and abundant.

Maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum L.), a well-known graceful

fern, occurs in every province of Canada and in every State of the

United States except for the southern fringe of States from Florida

to Texas and Arizona. From the Rocky Mountain region westward

it chiefly occurs in the variety aleuticum Rupr., the type of which

came from the Aleutian Islands. The species is also found in

Siberia, China, Japan, northern India, and parts of colder and

temperate Asia.

The plant is perennial from a slender creeping chaffy muchrooting rootstock, the fronds or leaves 8 to 20 inches high, forking

at the summit of the shiny brownish or blackish leafstalk (stipe),

the downcurving branches bearing on one side several slender

spreading pinnate divisions, the ultimate "leaflets" (pinnules)

^The word fern in various spellings (such as fern, ferns, fearne, fern, and

varn) is the basis of an almost innumerable number of place and family names.

With Latin pinna and Sanskrit pama it is cognate with feather, featherlike

leaves being a characteristic feature of this family.
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

numerous, short stalked, obliquely triangular-oblong, entire on the

lower margin, cleft and fruiting on the upper margin. The Aleutian or western variety differs from the typical form in its stouter

puberect rootstock, fewer narrower and more erect leaf divisions

(pinnae), and more deeply cleft pinnules, or "leaflets."

The plant is always local in occurrence, where it may be plentiful, usually occurring in moist rich shaded wooded sites, frequently

on or near streams, from near sea level. The forage value to

domestic livestock is negligible or slight ; it is reported to be eaten

by mountain goats in winter to some extent. It is prized as an

ornamental in cultivation.

Malefern [Dryopieris filix-mas (L.) Schott, syn. Aspidium filixmas (L.) Swartz], a large plant up to 4 feet high, ranges from

Greenland, Newfoundland, and Labrador to Alaska and south to

California, Mexico, western Texas, western Oklahoma, South Dakota, northern Michigan, Ontario, and Vermont; also in Europe,

Asia, and north Africa, mostly in woods, upland pastures and

rocky slopes, chiefly in limestone or slatey sites. The rootstocks

are thick and more or less erect; the somewhat leathery fronds

are more or less twice pinnate, 1 to 3 feet long, and 6 to 11 inches

wide ; the fruiting dots (sori) are rounded kidney shape and

borne near the midveins.

The plant ordinarily is not touched by domestic livestock; it is

undoubtedly more or less poisonous, the active principle appearing

to be filicic acid (28,123). Malefern is, however, an important

medicinal plant, the rootstocks (rhizomes) and stalk (stipe) bases

being a vermifuge and a standard remedy for tapeworm, for

which purpose the closely related leather woodfern [Dryopieris

marginalis (L.) A. Gray], sometimes called marginal shieldfern,

of southern Canada and the Eastern States as far west as Arkansas

and Oklahoma, is often substituted. A common but useless adulterant of this drug is the rootstock of ladyfern [Athyrium filixfemina (L.) Roth], a delicate fern growing almost throughout

Canada and the United States as well as in temperate Europe and

Asia, and reported to be fair elk and deer feed on the Olympic

National Forest, Wash. Ladyfern is known to contain filicic acid

and, for that fact, if it were palatable to domestic livestock, might

be injurious.

Bulb cloakfern [ISotholaena sinuata (Lag.) Kaulf.], a rather

small fern, occurs in rock crevices, rocky loams, and in canyons,

in weed and brush types, often on limestone, from western Oklahoma and western Texas, through New Mexico and Arizona, to

southern California and south, through Mexico, Central America,

the West Indies, and South America as far as Chile. As might be

expected from its enormous range, it is extremely variable and

numerous varieties and other segregates have been proposed.

Kearney and Peebles (109) refer to NothoJaena sinuata as very

common in Arizona between 3,000 and 7,000 feet. The fronds,

about 4 to 12 inches high, are simply pinnate with coarsely lobed

leaflets often of an oblong type, densely covered with scurfy scales

(paleaceous) below and with star-shaped scales above which tend
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 9

to disappear with age; the frond stalks have rusty-woolly tufts

at the base and arise from a thickened woody rootstock with bulblike swellings. This fern has not been observed to be grazed on

national forests.

A smaller variety of this plant with much smaller, rounder, and

untoothed or few-toothed leaflets (pinnae) is called jimmyfern

and was formerly identified as Notholaena sinuata var. integerrima

Hook. However, in 1942 Kearney and Peebles (109) indicated that

this variety is confined to Mexico and that United States material

so-called is var. crenata Lemmon (syn. N. cochisensis Goodding).

In a later edition of their work (110) they called this plant var.

cochisensis (Goodd.) Weatherby.

Jimmyfern [_ISotholaena sinuata var. cochisensis (Goodd.) Weatherby] is now known to be an important Southwestern stock-poisoning plant. Its toxic character was proved in 1942 by Mathews (138)

although, strange to say, in 1945 (139) his experiments indicated

that the typical form of N. sinuata is not toxic; this seems to

strengthen his argument that the toxic form should be considered

a distinct species as Goodding originally proposed.

Jimmyfern is evidently in need of full study, especially in view

of its enormous range and great variability. Sperry, et al. (184)

indicate that control of the plant is difficult; losses usually occur

in winter ; death may occur suddenly ; the disease occurs in sheep,

goats, and cattle in that order of severity ; and it is important that

livestock have ready access to water in areas where jimmyfern

is prevalent. The common name arises from the trembling nervousness ("jimmies") which affected animals exhibit.

Licorice-fern [Polypodiuni glycyrrhiza D.C. Eaton, syns. P.

occidentale (Hook.) Maxon, P. vulgäre var. occidentale Hook.] is

a Pacific coastal fern, from Alaska to San Mateo County, Calif.,

growing on trees, logs, and rocks in moist spruce, fir, hemlock,

Douglas-fir, and redwood types. Its thin pinnatifid fronds are 8

inches to 21/^ feet long. The rootstocks have a licoricelike flavor

and are relished by children; also locally roasted and used as a

confection. Apparently it has not forage importance.

Giant hoUyfern [Polystichum munitum (Kaulf.) Presl, syn.

Aspidium munitum Kaulf.], a rather coarse, chiefly Pacific coastal

fern, is often abundant in wet forests from Alaska to California

but occurs inland to British Columbia, northern Idaho, and northv/estern Montana. The fern, tufted, once-pinnate fronds, 1 to 5

feet long, arise from a stout woody ascending rootstock, their

stalks (stipes) copiously brown-glossy-chaffy; the pinnae ("leaflets") are lance shaped, tapered, and margined with incurved,

sharp, bristly teeth. Burtt-Davy (34-) reports that, in northwestern California, this plant "is eaten readily by calves and stock

for a day or two after feeding on clover on the ranges." Giant

hollyfern is often called "swordfern" and "Christmas-fern" [names

probably better applied, respectively, to the genus Nephrolepis

and to the eastern P. acrostichoides (Michx.) Schott]. This and

other species of the genus are frequently collected as Christmas

greens.
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Bracken [Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, syn. Pteris aquilina

L. ] (fig. 1), "the most widely distributed of all ferns" (Eaton)

occurs, in various varieties and forms, almost throughout the

world. In North America it is "everywhere" (Underwood). This

fern is perennial from stout, blackish, cordlike, widely creeping

rootstocks. The stalks (stipes) are solitary, straw color to brownish, erect, rigid, swollen, and discolored at the base, naked (not

chaffy as in many ferns) ; the fronds, or leaves, more or less triangular in outline, about IV2 to 7 feet long (occasionally even

larger) and 1 to 31/2 feet wide, divided into 3 main divisions

(témate) these 3 bra"nches each again divided into opposite segments (bipiymate), and these segments further divided into opposite oblong, or lance-shaped ultimate divisions (pinnules), the

uppermost pinnules undivided, the lower more or less cleft.

Bracken occurs in this country in at least two common varieties,

western bracken (Pteridium aquilinum var. pubescens Underw.)

and eastern bracken [var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw., syn. P.

latiusculum (Desv.) Maxon]. Western bracken ranges from Quebec to Alaska and south to California, South Dakota, and northern

Michigan. The tips of its rootstocks (rhizomes) are dark haired,

the coverings (indusia) of the narrow spore clusters (sori) are

hairy (villous) or fringed (ciliate), the leaves are more or less

silky hairy or woolly, especially beneath, and the pinnules are

borne nearly at right angles to the axes of their leaf branches

(pinnae). Eastern bracken occurs in Europe, Asia, and eastern

North America, south into Mexico, and as far west as Oklahoma

and the Rocky Mountains. The tips of its rootstocks are whitish

hairy, the fruiting indusia are hairless (glabrous) and not fringed,

the leaves are hairless or only slightly pubescent, and the

pinnules are broader and borne obliquely.

Bracken grows in a variety of sites, in both moist and fairly

dry and poor soils, but attains its most luxurious growth in thicketlike stands in rich bottom lands. In the western range country it

probably reaches its greatest abundance and size in Douglas-fir

areas west of the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon

and is also very abundant in parts of Idaho and California ; it

ranges from near sea level up to about 10,000 feet in Colorado.

In the Southwest it usually occurs in mountain parks and along

streams where the soil is moist and fertile. It is common along

roadsides, field borders, in openings and parks of the ponderosa

pine and aspen types, and is a frequent invader of burns and cutover areas. An aggressive plant, because of its extensive system

of rootstocks and voluminous spore production, it often becomes

a pestiferous weed and difficult to eradicate in cultivated fields

and pastures. When dry in the fall it may become a serious fire

hazard. Bracken is often called brake; however, brake is better

applied to the large, chieñy tropical Old World genus Pteris.

As a rule bracken is regarded as of distinctly minor importance

on the range, if not actually unpalatable to livestock; however,

under some circumstances it may be rather extensively grazed by

all kinds of stock, especially after frost in the fall. Burtt-Davy
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 11

F-293563

FIGURE 1.—Western bracken (Pteridium aquUmiim var. puhescens Underw.).

From left to right: Rootstock and stipe base; frond; two (enlarged) sori, or

clusters of spore sacs (sporangia), the left one dischai-ging fruiting spores;

underside of pinnule tip (enlarged).
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(Slf, p. 63) speaks of the rootstocks being eaten by swine. However, it has a rather long history as a possible stock-poisoning

plant. Müller (H3) states that bracken ["Adlerfarn (kraut)"]

straw, or hay ("Häcksel") may cause serious illness in horses,

including nervousness, loss of equilibrium, dilated pupils, reddening and later yellowing of the conjunctiva of the eyes, slowing of pulse, and, in at least one observed case, death. Long (123)

adds: "Continental authorities say that bracken contains the

poisonous Pteritannic acid, which is identical with the Filicic acid

of the Male Fern (Aspidium filix-mas)." Pott (162, 2:21A) writes

that, in Germany, when bracken is abundant on heathland or in

dry woods and eaten by cattle, bloody urine results or, with

horses, nervous symptoms ("Gehirnleiden") appear, occasionally

with fatal results.

Lawrence (116) states that horses may acquire a taste for

bracken, and that "fern staggers" due to this plant are the most

common poisonous-plant effect in western Oregon; it is slow

acting, as symptoms do not appear until after a month or so of

feeding on hay in which bracken constitutes about a third or

more. This happens especially in dry seasons and when good hay

is scarce or unobtainable. The disease has been recognized in

western Oregon since pioneer days and horse fatalities are reported

almost every year from it, especially in the foothills of the Cascade

and Coast Mountains. Glover and Robbins (82) list bracken as

"the only fern in Colorado that is suspected of being poisonous."

Deerfern, or elkfern [Struthiopteris spicant (L.) Weis, syn.

Blechnum spicant (L.) J. E. Smith], one of numerous ferns locally

known as "swordfern" and the only species of its large genus

native to this country, occurs in Europe and Asia and, in our

Pacific area, in moist coastal forests from Alaska to Santa Cruz,

Calif. The numerous tufted pinnate fronds grow in a circle, the

taller fertile fronds in the center and from 6 inches to about 5 feet

tall. It is reported to be the principal winter deer feed on the

Chugach National Forest, southern Alaska, being abundant in

sheltered places where only heavy snows cover it lightly. On the

Olympic Peninsula of Washington it is said to be good to very

good fall, winter, and spring elk and deer forage and also eaten

slightly by cattle.

Other fern genera common in the western range country are

spleenwort (Asplenium spp.), lipfern (Cheilanth.es spp.), bladderfern (Cystopteris spp.), cloakfem (Notholaena spp.), cliffbrake

(Pellaea spp.), Woodsia spp., and chainfern (Woodwardia spp.).

Some of these have value as ground cover and as ornamentals

but their forage value is chiefly nil.

LILY FAMILY (LILIAGEAE)

This is one of the largest and best known families of flowering

plants; a conservative estimate gives about 39 genera and 311

species native to the 11 Far Western States, the family being especially well developed in California. The onion genus (Allium),
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 13

with about 83 species in the western range area, is the largest

group. Great diversity exists among botanists as to where the

limits of this family should be drawn ; some separate one or more

of the seven subfamilies mentioned in this discussion into distinct

families ; others remove some of the genera mentioned into different families. It is believed, however, that the treatment presented

here approximates majority botanical opinion.

With the exception of the dracaena subfamily (Dracaenoideae),

many of which are arborescent or shrubby, the genus Smilax

(mostly more or less woody vines), and certain species of Asj^aragus, members of the lily family are usually perennial herbs,

arising from a bulb, corm, rootstock, or crown with fibrous roots.

The leaves are typically rather narrow but may be broad (as in

false-hellebore, Veratrum), basal or alternating in two ranks on

the stem, or sometimes whorled (as in some lilies and fritillaries).

The flowers are often showy and more or less colored, and are

usually 6 parted, the 3 lower segments ("sepals") and the upper

3 ("petals") mostly similar in appearance (except in Calochortus

and Trillium); ordinarily there are 6 stamens (1 opposite each

perianth segment) but 3 of these are sometimes sterile and reduced to staminodia, and in the beadruby genus (Maianthemum)

there are 4 perianth parts and 4 stamens; pistils are 3 or sometimes 1 and the ovary superior ; the fruit is usually a 3-lobed

podlike capsule (which may sometimes be fleshy and more or less

edible in Yucca), splitting when ripe typically down the middle

of the back (dorsal suture) of each carpel (loculicidal dehiscence)

or dividing at the partitions (septicidal dehiscence), or else the

fruit may be a berry (as in asparagus and Solomonseal).

The lily family is usually separated from the amaryllis ( Amaryllidaceae) and iris (Iridaceae) families, both of which have inferior

ovaries. The amaryllis family has the flowers mostly in umbels

(which is one of the reasons some botanists place the onion genus

and the Brodiaea group in that family), the tube of the flower

more or less fused with the ovary, 6 stamens and inturned (introrse) anthers. The iris family has flowers in a spathe, 2-ranked

clasping (equitant) leaves, 3 stamens and outward-turned (extrorse) anthers.

With perhaps a few minor exceptions the lily family, aside from

the onion genus (Allium) and the poisonous plants in the bunchflower subfamily (Melanthioideae)—deathcamas, false-hellebore,

toñeldia, etc., is not of major importance from the range livestockfeed standpoint. The family is notable for the great number of

species with large and showy, often bright-colored and fragrant

flowers and is one of the most important groups in ornamental

horticulture. Several species of Allium, the garden onion, chives,

garlic, leek and shallot, are cultivated as vegetables, in addition

to garden asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.).

The lily family also contains a number of official drug plants,

including Mediterranean aloes (Aloe barbadensis Mill., syn. "A.

vera" of authors, not L.), Cape aloes (A. ferox Mill.), Perry aloes

(A. perryi Baker), autumn-crocus (Colchicutn autumnale L.) from
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

which colchicine is derived, lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis

L.), saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.), tlrug sahadilla (Schoenocaulon officinale A. Gray), Mexican sarsaparilla (Smilax aristalochiaefolia Mill., syn. S. medica Schlecht. & Cham.), Jamaica

sarsaparilla (S. regelii Killip & Morton), India tlrugsquill (Vrginea

indica Kunth), shore drugsquill [Vrginea maritima (L.) Baker,

syns. Scilla maritima L., U. scilla Steinheil], and false-hellebore

(Veratrum spp.)- Notes on range species of yucca are provided

elsewhere (5U,20Jt).

Authorities differ as to the organizational breakdown of this

large family into subfamilies and tribes. For convenience the

Dalla Torre and Harms (i8) sequence is here employed, because

it is made familiar by use in most of our botanical manuals and

larger herbaria.

ONION SUBFAMILY (ALLIOIDEAE)

ONION TRIBE (ALLIEAE)

Onion (AIlium)

This, the largest genus of the lily family with about 500 species,

is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere ; it is represented

in the western range area by about 88 species and is especially well

represented in California, Oregon, and the Intermountain region.

Onions reproduce freely both from seed and underground parts

and often grow in dense patches, especially in moist meadows but

they occupy sites varying from rather dry plains and foothills

to thickets and woodlands. They are perennial, mostly bulbous,

stemless (save for the flower stalk) herbs with the characteristic

onionlike (alliaceous) smell and taste. It has been shown that

this is due to an essential oil "specific for each species" (160).

The deep rose to white flowers have a 6-parted perianth (or,

as some botanists prefer, 3 sepals and 3 petals), free or slightly

united at the base, borne in a simple bracted umbel at the apex of an

erect, leafless scape. The leaves are mostly linear, flat or round in

cross section (terete). In collecting onions care should be taken

to get good representation of the parts underground since these

have great diagnostic value, especially in regard to the presence or

absence of rootstocks, and the character of the bulbcoats, whether

fibrous, membranous, netlike (reticulated), etc.

Most onions are eaten greedily by cattle and sheep but only

occasionally by horses. Unless grazed judiciously they are objectionable for dairy cows because the volatile oils flavor the milk.

The different species vary considerably in size and amount of

herbage. Some small species spring up quickly after the snow melts

but wither and blow away with the coming of dry summer weather.

A few species, especially the introduced ones, remain green during

the season. Wild onions furnish green succulent herbage early

in the spring, when their palatability is especially high. Some

stockmen make the mistake of turning their livestock onto the
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 15

range in order to utilize onions before the main crop of forage

plants has developed sufficiently to justify grazing. Such a practice

is injurous to the more permanent vegetation on which proper

seasonal use of the range should be based. Elk in Yellowstone

Park and elsewhere feed extensively on onions, especially in spring.

Bears dig up and eat the bulbs; Indians also utilized these bulbs

as a source of food.

A number of onion species are cultivated as vegetables : garden

onion (Allinm cepa L. ), shallot (A. ascalonicutn L. ), chives (A.

schoenoprasiiTn L.) a variety [sibiriciim (L.) Hartm.] of which

is native on western ranges, garlic (A. sativum L.), and leek (A.

porrum L.), Garlic is also an official drug plant (216) and the

United States Dispensatory (H7) indicates that the native

Canada garlic (A. canadense L.), which gets as far west as South

Dakota, Colorado, and Texas and is a familiar weed in lawns and

other cultivated grounds, is an acceptable substitute for it. Pipal

(157) reports that the death in June 1917 of five cows and a

heifer near Lafayette, Ind., appeared to be the result of eating

Canada garlic but it seems difficult to accept this plant as definitely

toxic. Another well-known pestiferous weed is field (or meadow)

garlic (A. vineale L.) with tubular leaves. A number of species

of Allitim are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., the yellow-flowered

lily leek, or moly (A. moly L,.), the blue-flowered blueglohe onion

(A. caeruleum Pall.)? and the white-flowered Naples onion (A.

neapolitanum Cyr.).

Tapertip onion (Alliutn acnminatum Hook.), occurring on sagebrush plains, rich meadows, rocky foothills, and mountain slopes,

from British Columbia to Montana, Colorado, Arizona, and California, has dark-colored outer bulbcoats with 4- to 6-angled and

raised reticulations, or network. The flattened leaves are shorter

than the 4- to 12-inch-high flowerstalk. The flowers are dark

rose to reddish purple, the segments tapertipped and longer than

the stamens, the three upper and inner ones ("petals") minutely

toothed on the margins. The plant is highly palatable to sheep

and cattle, but it usually grows scatteringly and its foliage is

rather scant.

Shortstyle onion (Allium brevistylum S. Wats.) ranges in foothills or along mountain streams up to subalpine elevations (in

Colorado between 6,500 and 9,000 feet), from Montana to Colorado and Utah. The bulbs are elongated and oblique, covered with

a thin papery membrane and surmount a woody rootstock. The

flowers are rose colored or purplish pink, the stalk (scape) 6 to 24

inches high. While not of great abundance it is fairly common

and highly palatable to cattle and sheep, at least in the earlier

stages of growth.

Rather closely related to shortstyle onion is Pacific onion (Allium validum S. Wats.) (fig. 2), known also as alpine meadow,

large, swamp, and tall onion, one of the largest and coarsest of

the range species of this genus, which occurs from Washington to

Idaho, Nevada, and California, between about 5,000 and 11,000

feet, typically in subalpine or alpine meadows or swamps. Its
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 2.—Pacific onion {Allimn validmn S. Wats.).

white-coated, not netted, narrow bulbs are produced on a long

rootstock; the stout 2-edged flattened scape, or flower stalk, is

1 to 3 feet high, the leaves long flat and linear, and the flowers

rose color to almost white. It is good sheep and cattle forage where

it occurs but is usually limited in abundance.

One of the most common and widely distributed species of American onions is nodding onion (Allium cernuum Roth, syns. A.

neomexicanum Rydb., A. recurvatum Rydb.) (fig. 3), which ranges

from British Columbia south to Lane County, Oreg., New Mexico,

Missouri, Kentucky, and the mountains of northern Alabama and

Georgia, and north to New York. In the range area it is found in

meadows, sagebrush plains, foothills and rocky slopes but is most

frequent in moist to dry sandy loams up to about 7,000 feet elevation, mainly in the ponderosa pine belt. Rarely it grows in almost

pure stands but is usually associated with such plants as yarrow,

dandelion, deathcamas, and bluegrass and fescue species, or grows

among willows or on the border of timber or aspen-fir stands.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 17

F-287103

FIGURE 3.—Nodding onion {Allium

cernuum Roth).
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Nodding onion grows from a long-necked, narrow, membranouscoated bulb, the bulbs usually clustered on a short rootstock. The

usually pink (occasionally white or nearly so) nodding inflorescence, with protruding stamens, is very characteristic, overtopping

the flattened linear, ridged leaves, on a stalk 4 to 24 inches high.

Flowers appear from May to the latter part of July, the plants

maturing and drying up during July and the first half of August.

Nodding onion is highly palatable to both cattle and sheep during

its green stage, and only its relatively small size, evanescence and

usual lack of abundance prevent it from being classed among the

most important, early-season forage plants.

Idaho onion (Allium fibrillum M. E. Jones, syn. A. collinum

Dougl., not Gussone) (fig. 4) is a small onion, perennial from a

F-236008

FIGURE 4.—Idaho onion {Allium fihrillnm M. E. Jones, syn. A. collinum DougL,

not Gussome).

small, almost spherical not at all rhizomatous bulb 14 to % inches

thick; the outer bulbcoats are net veined (reticulated), without

fibers until old, the vein nets (reticulations) irregular, narrow,

contorted with wavy or curving sides, often reddish, in age becoming fiber-fringed (fimbrillate—whence the specific name fibrillum.) The 2 or 3 leaves are rather narrowly linear, 3 to 6 inches

long. The white flowers are in a small, terminal, flat-topped umbel,

subtended by 2 ovate bracts less than i/j inch long, the 6 petallike

segments abruptly sharp tipped, 14 inch or a little more long, the

3 outer segments ovate, the 3 inner ones lance shaped and untoothed ; the stamens are very short, only about half as long as the
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 19

floral Segments. The fruiting capsules are slightly ridged but

hardly crested.

Idaho onion, often locally abundant, occurs on scablands and

high ridges from extreme western Montana, through Idaho to

eastern Washington and eastern Oregon. Sampson (176), as a

result of his studies in the upland ranges of the Blue Mountains of

northeastern Oregon, reports that, of the local wild onions, this

"is the most important * * * (it) is the earliest of the species,

doubtless from the fact that it is almost entirely confined to scablands * * * It is valuable only as an early range plant, and by

August 1, like most other onions in similar situations, completes

its growing period, dries up, and disappears."

Geyer onion (Alliiim geyeri S. Wats.) ranges from British

Columbia to eastern Oregon, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and the Black Hills of western South Dakota. It is named

for its discoverer, the German botanist and explorer Charles A.

Geyer (78), who traveled and collected extensively in the West

between 1835 and 1845. The (usually 3) rather slender leaves,

usually shorter than the 6- to 24-inch-high, slightly 2-edged flower

stalk (scape), are produced from a fibrous-coated, ovoid, or elongated bulb. The flowers are pink or pinkish, the ovary minutely

crested with six small knoblike excrescences.

This onion is usually found in moist to wet meadows or along

rocky streambanks in the ponderosa pine type. Supervisor C. A.

Ballinger of the old Sioux (now Caster) National Forest (w. S.

Dak.—e. Mont.) reported that this "is found in greatest abundance

on gumbo or clay soils; is one of the first plants to make its appearance in the spring, and is eaten by cattle and sheep. Where

there is little else growing, cattle will eat it until their flesh is so

permeated with the odor of onions that it is unfit to eat. Butter

and milk from them is likewise tainted."

Some of the other common native western range onions that

locally provide considerable early feed for sheep and cattle are as

follows: In the Pacific area, twinleaf onion (Allium anceps Kell.) ;

in California or extending into southern Oregon, dusky onion (A.

campanulatum S. Wats.), sickleleaf onion (A. falcifolium Hook.

& Arn.) and serrate onion—referring to the sawtoothlike markings of the bulbcoats—(A. serratum S. Wats.); in the Rocky

Mountains, Brandegee onion (A. brantlegei S. Wats.) and textile

onion (A. textile Neis. & Macbride, not J. & C. Presl) ; in the

Intermountain region, twincrest onion (A. bisceptrum S. Wats.,

syn. A. palmeri S. Wats.) ; in the Inland Empire area, extending

south into northern Utah, Tolmie onion (A. tolmiei Baker) ; in

the Southwest, Kunth onion (A. kunthii Don, syn. A. scaposum

Benth.). Also, ranging in a vast area in northern Europe and

Asia and, in North America, from Newfoundland, Labrador, and

Quebec to Alaska and south to Oregon, Colorado, the Great Lakes

region, New York, and Maine, is a native variety of chives, Siberian chives (A. schoenoprasum var. sihiriciim (L.) Hartni., syn.

A. sihiricum L.), with tubular leaves and clustered, whitish-coated

bulbs.
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

The following genera and species, rather closely related to

onions, are perhaps worthy of mention as constituents of the range

flora, although their forage value is definitely minor not so much

because of unpalatability as on account of limited distribution and

abundance and the relatively small amount of herbage produced.

Purple funnel-lily (Androstephiiim breviflorum S. Wats.), ranging from southwestern Colorado to southern Utah and southern

California, has leaves longer than the naked flower stalk (scape)

and light violet-purple flowers. Another species, blue funnel-lily

[A. caeruleum (Scheele) Greene, syn. A. violaceum Torr.], in ornamental cultivation, occurs from Kansas to Texas. These two

United States species appear to comprise the genus Androstephiiim, a genus with bulblike corms, grasslike basal leaves, and springproduced flowers in an umbel (as in onions and members of the

parsnip family). The 6 flower segments (perianth, or corolla)

are united to about the middle or above into a funnellike tube, the

lobes flaring at the top; the 6 stamen stalks (filaments) are more

or less united into a tubular corona [to which Androstephiiim,

Latinized from the Greek prefix arS^o (man) -{- aT¿4>0'; (crown, or

garland) refers], with 2-toothed lobes between each of the

6-inturned (introrse) anthers.

Bloomeria (Bloomeria spp.) is a summer-flowering California

genus of two species, Cleveland bloomeria (B. clevelandii S. Wats.)

of the San Diego area, and darkstripe bloomeria [B. crocea (Torr.)

Coville], a coastal species (also in cultivation) getting into Lower

California. They have bulblike corms, "wheel-shaped" yellow

G-parted flowers on jointed stalks (pedicels), the petallike segments

2 to 3 nerved, and stamen stalks (filaments) with cup-shaped

winged appendages at base. Bloomeria commemorates Mr. H. G.

Bloomer, an early botanical curator of the California Academy of

Sciences. The species are often called "goldenstars," a name too

conflicting with goldenstar (Chrysogonum spp.) and goldstar

{Crocidiiim spp.).

Mexican-star (Milla biflora Cav.), the only known representative

of its genus, occurs in the oak belt and ponderosa pine type of

southern New Mexico and Arizona and south into southern Mexico,

v/here it was discovered and described by the Spanish botanist

Antonio Jose Cavanilles (1745-1804). Cavanilles named it after

the superintendent of the Royal Garden of Madrid, Don Julian

Milla. It has grasslike basal leaves from a bulb with fascicled tuberous roots below it; salverform, waxy-white (with green midvein) fragrant flowers about 2 inches across, solitary or in 2- or

3-flowered umbels; stigma large and prominent; stamens not

united, and the flower stalk (pedicel or scape, as the case may be)

somewhat swollen at the top. It is cultivated as an ornamental.

Muilla (Muilla spp.), which is just Alliicm spelled backwards,

is an onionlike California genus of 3 or 4 species. They have

father few, narrow, rounded leaves about the same length as the

flower stalk, arising from a bulblike corm. The individual flowers,

borne on long unjointed stalks (pedicels) in an umbel, are 6 parted!

the segments slightly united at base, without a tube, mostly 2
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 21

nerved, the 6 stamens brightly colored, with their sta\ks(filainenfs)

thickened, dilated or winged at the base, and with anthers attached by their middles (versatile). Probably the best known

species is sea muilla [M. marítima (Torr.) S. Wats.], a coastal and

inland valley species, chiefly on alkaline or serpentine soils, with

no glands on the perianth segments and bright purple anthers.

Texas falsegarlic (Nothoscordum texanum M. E. Jones), with

slightly fragrant, yellowish-white flowers tinged with purple, is

distributed from western Texas to southern Arizona and south

into northern Mexico, inhabiting dry gravelly plains and lower

slopes. A related species, yellow falsegarlic [IS. bivalve (L.) Britt.]

occurs in the Southeast, getting as far west as Nebraska and

Texas. Nothoscord^im, whose name derives from Greek voooç (bastard) + cn.ió8psoi' (garlic), in an onionlike genus of bulbous herbs

and differing chiefly in the total lack of alliaceous odor and with

the presence of more than two ovules in each ovary cell. Its generic

limits are in controversy. At least two of the species are in ornamental cultivation.

Brodiaea (Brodiaea)

Brodiaea, under a conservative nomenclature, is a west-American genus of about 31 species. Nomenclaturally it has been a bone

of contention. First, under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, Brodiaea (1810) is conserved as against the older

Hookera (1808). Both genera are based on the same type species

[5. coronaria (Salisb.) Jeps., syns. B. grandiflora J. E. Smith,

Hookera coronaria Salisb.]. Sir James Edward Smith, M. D.

(1759-1828) read his paper on Brodiaea before the Linnean Society of London on April 19, 1808, but it was not actually published

until 2 years later, naming it in honor of his wealthy patron and

fellow member of the Linnean Society, James Brodie of Scotland.

Another British botanist, Richard Anthony Salisbury (1761-

1829), had previously published Hookera, named for William

Hooker of the famous line of British botanists of that surname.

Smith knew that Salisbury had preceded him in naming this genus

and a bitter controversy arose between them, as Britten has pointed

out in his paper Hookera v. Brodiaea (32). In addition to the

confusion caused by these almost simultaneously published two

names for the same genus is the fact that this original generic

concept has been broken down since by many others into a dozen

or more other genera, among which are Calliprora, Dichelostemvia,

Dipterostemon, Hesperoscordiim, Macroscapa (syn. Stropholirion), and Triteleia. Those interested in the taxonomy and nomenclature of this group will ñnd, among others, the papers by Burbanck (33) and Hoover (98, 99), with their bibliographies, to be

of interest.

Brodiaea (including the segregates mentioned) occurs also in

South America. California, with about 22 species, is the center of

distribution. One species each is confined to Arizona and Washington ; also to Montana-Idaho-Utah, New Mexico-southern Utah,
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

and Washington-Oregon. The remainder of our native species inhabit the Inland Empire, Intermountain, and Pacific areas.

The herbage of brodiaeas is palatable to all classes of livestock,

at least until the flower heads mature. When the ground is wet

enough, grazing animals will often pull up the bulbs and eat them.

As a rule the plants are so scattered, rather evanescent, and the

leafage so limited in quantity that they are not a material factor in

range grazing capacity ; there are, however, limited localities where

brodiaeas are fairly valuable from the forage viewpoint.

Bluedicks brocliaea [Brodiaea capitata Bentli,, syns. Dichelosfemnia capitatum (Benth.) Wood, Dipterostemon capitatus

(Benth.) Rydb., Hookera capitata (Benth.) Kuntze] has an unusually wide range for this genus—from southern Oregon to

Utah, Arizona, and southern California. Its showy flower stalks

are 8 to 20 inches high with the umbel of bluish, violet or purple

flowers congested and somewhat headlike (capitate) .It is locally fairly common on rocky hillsides, flowering in April-June or,

in the south, as early as February-March.

Harvest brodiaea [Brodiaea coronaria (Salisb.) Jeps., syns. B.

grandiflora J. E. Smith, Hookera coronaria Salisb.], the botanical

type of both Brodiaea and Hookera, a violet-purple-flowered species ranging on plains, foothills and mountains between 200 and

8,000 feet, from British Columbia to California (west of the

Sierra Nevada), is reported to invade burns on certain forest

areas.

Douglas brodiaea [Brodiaea douglasii S. Wats., syns. Hookera

douglasii (S. Wats.) Piper, Triteleia grandiflora (J. E. Smith)

Lindl., B. grandiflora (Lindl.) Macbride, not B. grandiflora J. E.

Smith], with dark blue flowers, is found in sagebrush, bunchgrass, and ponderosa pine types, between elevations of about 2,100

and 8,300 feet from British Columbia to western Montana, western Wyoming, Utah, and Washington and Oregon (east of the

Cascades) ; it has not been observed in either Colorado or California. This species has been reported as a "good" forage plant

on one of the ranges of the Colville National Forest in northeastern

Washington.

The bulbs of brodiaeas formed, when abundant, a rather important source of food to the Indians and early settlers, and some

of them, in fact, have a very agreeable flavor. Chesnut (37) has

noted five species as being valued by the Indians of Mendocino

County, Calif. ; of Brodiaea capitata he says "the bulbs are eaten

raw, but are sweeter when cooked in ashes." Of B. coronaria, he

adds: "The brown-coated corm * * * jg greatly relished by sheep as

well as by the Indians. It is sweet after roasting for a day. The

Yuki name is ant-pot."

Chesnut has somewhat similar notes also for two California

species, grassnut brodiaea [Brodiaea laxa (Benth.) S. Wats., syns.

Hookera laxa (Benth.) 0. Kuntze, Triteleia laxa Benth.] and

longstalk brodiaea [B. peduncularis (Lindl.) S. Wats., syns. Hookera peduncularis (Lindl.) 0. Kuntze, Triteleia peduncularis I^indl.] ;

also for hyacinth brodiaea [ß. hyacinthina (LiiidL) Baker, syns.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 23

Hesperoscordum hyacinthimim Lindl., H. lacteum Lindl., Hookera

hyacinthina (Lindl.) 0. Kuntze, Triteleia hyacinthina (Lindl.)

Greene], the botanical type of the genus Hesperoscordum, with

flowers white with greenish or purplish midveins, and which

ranges from British Columbia and Vancouver Island to Washington, Idaho, Nevada, and California. More than 20 species of

brodiaea are in the horticultural trade as ornamentals (8, 10).

Very close botanically to the genus Brodiaea and perhaps to be

merged with it is the spectacular floral-firecracker (Brevoortia

ida-maia Wood), occurring in coastal and near-coastal forests of

northwestern California and southwestern Oregon. It has umbels

of showy scarlet tubular drooping flowers with an inner corona of

three dilated sterile stamens (staminodia). The genus, named

after J. Carson Brevoort, an early New York naturalist and

regent of the State University, is a prized ornamental.

ASPARAGUS SUBFAMILY (ASPARAGOIDEAE)

The type of this subfamily is the large Old World genus Asparagus, to which the garden asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.), the

florists' "smilax" (a gross misnomer), Smilax asparagus [A. asparagoides (L.) Wight] and numerous ornamentals belong. The

subfamily is represented in the western range country by the

following tribe.

SOLOMONSEAL TRIBE (POLYGONATAE)

This tribe is represented in the Far West by 7 genera of perennial herbs: beadlily (Clintonia), with 2 species; fairybells (Disporum), with 6 species; kruhsea (Kruhsea), a monotypic arctic

genus that reaches northern Washington ; beadmby (Maianthemum, syn. Unifolium)—Maianthemum (1780) is conserved, under

the International Code, against Unifoliimi (1757)—with 2 species;

Solomonseal (Polygonatum,), with one endemic species in New

Mexico and another eastern species which barely reaches the range

area from North Dakota to Oklahoma and Texas ; Solomonplume,

or false-Solomonseal (Smilacina, syn. Vagnera), with 5 species;

and twistedstalk (Streptopus), with 3 species.

In general these plants have alternate (basal in Clintonia or

sometimes solitary in Maianthemum), rather broad (often ovate)

leaves, and the fruit is a berry. All have a flower of six distinct

petallike parts, except Maianthemum which has four. Clintonia,

Kruhsea, Maianthemum, and Smilacina have the petallike floral

segments more or less spreading; in Disportim, Polygonatum, and

Streptopus the flowers of pendulous, and more or less bell-like.

In the two genera last named the flowers are axilliary, in the

others terminal and often paired or few except in Smilacina where

they are massed in panicles or racemes. Many of these plants are

ornamental; their palatability to domestic livestock is limited,

varying from nil to poor or at most fair. Deer are fond of the

berries of Solomonplume (Smilacina spp.).
24 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

A common representative of this group is fat Solomonplume

[Smilacina amplexicaulis Nutt., syn. Vaguera amplexicaidis

(Nutt.) Greene] (fig. 5), which ranges in moist wooded hillsides

up to the ponderosa pine, fir, and aspen types in the mountains,

from British Columbia and Alberta to Montana, New Mexico, and

California. It reaches a height of from 1 to 3Ví feet, has a stout

elongated rootstock, alternate ovate clasping leaves 2 to 6 inches

long, and (often dense) terminal panicle of white ñowers, and

red berries with purplish dots. Smilacina (1807) is conserved,

under the International Code, against Vaguera (1763).

F-47S3.50

FIGURE 5.—Fat Solomonplume

{Smilacina antple.ricaiiUs

Nutt.). Upper left, flower;

lower right, fruiting tip;

bottom, lower stem and rhizome.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 25

ASPHODEL SUBFAMILY (ASPHODELOIDEAE)

This subfamily is represented on the western range by three

herbaceous tribes.

ASPHODEL TRIBE (ASPHODELEAE)

This tribe includes 5 genera and 9 species of range plants of no

forage value. Torrey anthericuni (Anthericum torreyi Baker)

chiefly occurs in ponderosa pine forests from western Texas to

Arizona and south into Mexico. It belongs to a large, mostly Old

World genus, which includes the cultivated ornamental St. Bernard-lily (A. liliago L. ).

Amole soapplant [Chlorogaluin potneridianum (DC.) Kunth.

syn. Laothoë pomericUana (DC.) Raf.] is a coarse herb from a

deep-seated large bulb covered with blackish horsehairlike fibers ;

is has a cluster of wavy basal leaves up to 18 inches long and 1 inch

wide, a flower stalk up to 4 feet high with 1 or 2 greatly reduced

leaves, and a panicle of white, purple-striped flowers opening in

the late afternoon in midsummer when the leaves are drying. It

grows in valleys and on rocky hillsides from northern California

to southwestern Oregon. The bulbs contain saponin and have

been used as a soap substitute. It was an important plant to the

native Indians—see, for example, Chesnut (38) : they roasted and

ate the leaves, used the bulbs for soap and glue, the bulbcoat hairs

for stuffing mattresses, etc. Chlorogalum is a genus of 5 species,

almost confined to California, 1 species getting north into Oregon

and another into Lower California.

Eremocrinum (Eremocrinum albomarginatum M. E. Jones) is

found on dry "desert" areas and in the sagebrush type of southern

Utah and northern Arizona. The only species known of its (inonoiypic) genus, it is an evanescent plant, 6 to 12 inches high, from a

narrow somewhat bulbous base bearing below a cluster of fibrous

roots. The six perianth segments ("petals"), not united or only

slightly so, are white with green veins ; the flowers are borne in a

narrow erect panicle. The plant is rather attractive in bloom but

of no known economic value. The name Eremocrinum. is Greek

for "desert lily" and Jones (108) wished to call it by that name;

however, "desertlily" is a well-established name for the genus

Hesperocallis.

Odontostomum (Odontostomum hartwegii Torr.) is another

monotypic Californian species. It is a rather rare plant of dry

hillsides, from a deep-seated round corm about 1 inch in diameter.

The white or yellowish, somewhat tubular flowers are in a terminal

panicle. The name Odontostomum, meaning "toothed mouth,"

refers to the 6 somewhat toothlike sterile stamens (staminodia)

in the throat of the flowers, alternating with the 6 fertile stamens.

Rushlily (Schoenolirion) is a genus of 5 species, 3 eastern, and

2 in California and southern Oregon. They are somewhat rushlike

plants growing in moist meadows, near streams and the like, with

grasslike leaves and mostly narrow racemes or panicles of rather

small, 6-parted white or greenish flowers. Schoenolirion Durand
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(1855)—the name is Greek for "rush lily"—is conserved under

the International Code against Amblostima Raf. (1836) and

Oxytria Raf. (1836).

DAYLILY TRIBE (HEMEROCALLIDEAE)

Two range genera belong to this tribe, the type of which is the

cultivated daylily genus (Hemerocallis).

Desertlily (Hesperocallis undulata A. Gray) grows in the creosotebush and other desert types, mostly below 2,000-foot elevations, from southern Arizona to the Imperial Valley, southern

California, probably extending southward into Sonora. It is a

rather showy, bulbous perennial, with mostly basal leaves, the

bracted, funnel-shaped, whitish and green-striped, soon-withering

flowers up to nearly 2 inches long, borne on jointed pedicels in a

terminal raceme up to about a foot long. It is occasionally cultivated as an ornamental. It is of little or no forage value. The bulbs

are eaten by local Indians.

Common starlily, also known as "mountainlily," "sagelily," and

"sandlily" (Leucocrinum montanum Nutt.) is a low stemless plant

from a short, deep-seated rootstock, with linear leaves and sheathed

at the base with membranous or skinlike bracts. The 3 to 8 white,

fragrant, "starlike" flowers have a slender elongated basal tube

and are borne in a sessile umbel. It occurs, mostly in sandy soils

and often in sagebrush areas, from the Black Hills of western

South Dakota to Oregon, California, Utah, Colorado, and New

Mexico. It appears not to have been found in Washington, Idaho,

and Arizona. The roots are eaten by various Indians and are

reputed to have an agreeable flavor. Blankenship (27) reports

that the Crow Indians call the plant "ecopa." Ordinarily the forage

value is negligible, but occasionally the plant has been observed

to be limitedly cropped by sheep and cattle.

HERB-PARIS TRIBE (PARIDEAE)

This tribe is named for the Old World herb-Paris (Paris). It

includes two range genera.

The skunklily (Scoliopus) genus sometimes called "fetid adderstongue," consists of 2 species: 1 Californian and 1 Oregonian.

They inhabit moist coastal redwood and fir forests and are small

stemless plants with broad spotted leaves somewhat reminiscent

of those of fawnlily, or "adderstongue" (Erythronium). The small,

homely, ill-smelling flowers, with parts distinctly in 3's, are borne

on twisting stalks (pedicels)—referred to in the scientific name.

Of no forage value.

Trillium (Trillium), often called "wakerobin," is an ornamental

North American and Old World genus, with about 12 species in

the Eastern States and about seven species in the western range

States. The genus does not occur in New Mexico and Arizona.

The most widely distributed of the range species is Pacific trillium

(T. ovatum Pursh), which ranges in moist spots in spruce, aspen,

and ponderosa pine types from British Columbia to Montana,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 27

Colorado, Utah, and California. Like all trilliums this species has

a rootstock, an unbranched stem bearing a whorl of 3 leaves at the

summit and one showy 3-petaled, 3-sepaled flower. These plants

are seldom touched by domestic livestock and presumably are

more or less poisonous. All parts of the plant, especially the rootstocks and berries, have emetic properties. The rootstock of the

eastern purple trillium (T. erectum L.) is an official drug. A

number of the species are in ornamental cultivation.

DRACAENA SUBFAMILY (DRACAENOIDEAE)

This subfamily is represented in the western range country by

two tribes and three genera. The type of the subfamily is the

dracaeiia (Dracaena) genus, in turn typiñed by the dragontree, or

dragon dracaena (Dracaena draco L.) of the Canary Islands, of

which the most famous representative was the giant dragontree of

Tenerife Island. This giant tree was destroyed by a hurricane in

1868 and was reputed at that time to be the oldest living thing on

earth, its age having been estimated to date from the Great Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt, over 4,700 years before. Dragonsblood,

a gum exuded by the dragontree, was formerly much used in the

arts, as a red pigment in photoengraving, for varnish, etc.

NoLiNA TRIBE (NOLINEAE)

The western range representatives of this tribe belong to two

genera, both chiefly Mexican, and confined, so far as the United

States is concerned, to the area extending from western Texas to

southern California. Sotol (Dasylirion) is represented in the

United States by about 5 species, and nolina (NoUna), often

called "beargrass," which includes sacahuista f/V. microcarpa S.

Wats.), by about 5 species. Range notes for these two more or less

woody plant genera are given in Important Western Browse

Plants (54, p. 15). Bell and Castetter (16) mention the uses of

these plants by Southwestern Indians.

YUCCA TRIBE (YUCCEAE)

So far as the range area is concerned this largely woody tribe

consists of the genus yucca (Yucca), range notes for which are

given in Important Western Browse Plants (54) and the Range

Plant Handbook (204).

LILY SUBFAMILY (LILIOIDEAE)

SQUILL TRIBE (SGILLEAE)

This is the tribe to which the cultivated ornamental squills, also

called "bluebell," "scilla," and "star-hyacinth" (SciUa) and the

closely related sea-onion (Vrginea) genus belong. Shore drujjsquill [Urginea marítima (L.) Baker, syn. Scilla marítima L.],

of the Old World, is an oflficial drug plant but its chief economic

significance is the use of the bulbs as a standard rat poison, under
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

the trade name "red squill." The bulbs of India drugsquill [U.

indica (Roxb.) Kunth, syn. Scilla indica Roxb.] are a substitute.

Gamas (Camassia, syn. Quamasia)

This genus consists of about six species, with one exception

confined to the Far West. All are in ornamental cultivation. Northwestern Indians called them "quamash," from which English

camas is derived. They have various other vernacular names, including swamp-sego, wild-hyacinth, or blue camas—the last to

distinguish them from the poisonous, greenish or whitish flowered deathcamas (Zigadenus). Camases are perennial herbs from

coated bulbs, with long, narrow basal leaves and naked or bracted

stalks (scapes) up to about 2 feet high. The blue, purplish or

occasionally white flowers, in terminal racemes, appear chiefly

from May to July, each flower composed of 6 separate segments

in 2 series, with 6 included versatile anthers.

A very characteristic member of this genus is common camas

[Camassia quamash (Pursh) S. Wats., syns. C. esculenta Lindl. not

(Ker) Rob., Quamasia quamash (Pursh) Coville], ranging in

high mountain meadows where often abundant, from British

Columbia to Montana, Utah, and California. The dense stands of

waving flowers often give the distant appearance of a body of

water. The palatability of this and most other camases varies

from fair to fairly good, occasionally good for sheep. On the high

summer ranges camases are little grazed because they bloom, dry

up, and disappear before the sheep are moved to those ranges.

Camases ordinarily grow on sites too wet for sheep. If given a

choice, horses and cattle do not ordinarily graze camas, but they

frequently eat these plants along with other meadow forage and

the plants are not objectionable when cured in mixed native hav

(204).

The bulbs of camases, with one exception, are edible and were

an important source of food among western Indians, as Chesnut,

Coville, Havard, Leiberg, and others (38, ^7, 91, 118) have pointed

out. Geyer (78), in speaking of "Oregon Territory" Indians in

1843-4, says : "The digging of the Gamass bulb is a feast for old

and young * * * the young women vie with each other in collecting

the greatest possible quantity and best quality of Gamass, because

their fame for future good wives will depend much on the activity

and industry they show here; the young men will not overlook

these merits, and many a marriage is closed after the Gamass are

brought home." However, the bulb of a tall, pale-blue-flowered,

relatively broad-leaved Blue Mountains, Oregon, species Cusick

camas (Camassia cusickii S. Wats.), has a nauseating taste. This

species is named for its discoverer, W. C. Cusick, an early amateur botanist and collector of Union, Oreg.

TULIP TRIBE (TULIPEAE)

To this group belong the familiar Old World tulip (Tulipa) genus

and five range genera.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 29

Mariposa (Calochortus)

This attractive group of coatecl-bulboua herbs is confined to

southern British Columbia, the Western United States and Mexico.

California (especially) and Oregon are the center of distribution.

Ownbey (14-9) lists 57 species, of which about 45 occur in the

Western States. They occur from the dry open prairies and foothills to the higher moist and shady alpine meadows and woods.

They are rather fragile perennials with a few basal and somewhat

grasslike leaves, leafy stems, and showy terminal flowers. The

three inner and upper floral parts (petals) are much differentiated

from the three smaller greenish sepals beneath; there are 6

stamens in 2 series with the anther bases prolonged into a tubular

sheath, a sessile, persistant 3-lobed stigma, and fruiting capsules

splitting open along the partitions (septa), with numerous flattened seeds.

These characters have been considered by some botanists sufficient to place the genus in a separate family, Calochortaceae. The

genus is the western analogue of the Old World tulips and, for

that reason, the vernacular name mariposa-tulip is perhaps preferable to mariposa-lily. Many California authorities object to the

use of the name mariposa (Spanish for butterfly) except for members of the section Mariposa. These authorities chiefly use fairylantern, globetulip, pussy-ears, and star-tulip, respectively, for the

subsection PulcheUi, section Cijclobothra, subsection Elegantes,

and subsections Nitidi and Nudi. The small, fuzzy-petioled species

[such as C. coeruleus (Kell.) S. Wats, and C. elegans Pursh] are

often called cats-ears, pussy-ears, and bats-ears.

The generic name Calochortus is derived from Greek KaXa^

(beautiful) + Xapro^ (forage—especially grass), referring to the

beautiful flowers which run almost the entire gamut of the spectrum in color—white, cream, yellow, brown, orange, red, blue,

purple, violet or a mixture, the petals aften dark spotted or dotted

near the base. Many of the species are in ornamental cultivation.

Credit is due David Douglas (1799-1834), the eminent Scotch

botanical explorer, as pioneer popularizer of the mariposas, especially for ornamental gardening. He discovered several species

and introduced them into England.

The five species annotated below are among the commonest and

best known of the range mariposas, and have in general the minor

forage values indicated above for the genus as a whole.

The forage value of Calochortus is limited, chiefly due to scanty

evanescent herbage and the usual scattered and sparse stand. The

plants dry up shortly after blossoming. However, early in the

season, when fresh and succulent, the palatability of the herbage

is good for sheep and fair for cattle. Horses, however, as a rule,

nibble these plants only through accident or necessity. The bulbs

or mariposas are eaten by pocket gophers and other rodents, which

gather and store them for winter use ; they were eaten also by

Indians. Probably the bulbs of all the species are edible and those

of some of them [e.g., skyblue mariposa, C. coeruleus (Kell.) S.
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-478351

FIGURE 6.—Mariposa (Calochortits). A, Northwestern mariposa ( C. elegans

Pursh), with individual flower and petal; B, Gunnison mariposa (C. Gunnisonii S. Wats.), showing flowering and fruiting tip, individual flowers, and

petal with broad fringed basal gland; C, skyblue mariposa, or "pussy-ears"

[C. coeruleus (Kell.) S. Wats., syn. C. maweamis Leichtlin in part], with

individual hairy petal.

Wats., syn. C. maiveanus Leichtlin in part, a Californian "pussyears"] (fig. 6) have a rich, nutty flavor when roasted.

Ownbey (14-9) recognizes 3 sections and 12 subsections of Calochortus. His sections are EucalochorUis, with more or less rounded,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 31

3-wing-ed fruits and a aubumbellate inflorescence, the flowers often

and the fruits usually nodding; Mariposa, with narrower and

mostly 3-angled fruits, and membranous-coated bulbs; Cyclohothra, with fiber-netted bulbcoats and including among others,

the "fairy-lanterns" having nodding, rather globular flowers.

1. Northwestern mariposa (Calochortiis elegans Pursh) (fig. 6),

is of historical interest as the botanical type of the genus, the

earliest known and described species, originally collected by Capt.

Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis & Clark Expedition at the headwaters of the Kooskoosky River, Idaho. It (including its varieties)

is found from the Bitterroot Mountains of western Montana,

through (especially central) Idaho and southeastern British Columbia into Washington and Oregon (east of the Cascades) as far

as Siskiyou County, northern California. It is one of the two

(perhaps three) species of the genus found in British Columbia.

It occurs in ponderosa pine woods, pinegrass and other grass weed

meadows, slopes and ridges, between elevations of 2,000 and 7,000

feet—up to subalpine meadows.

It is a small plant, one of the so-called cats-ears, or pussy-ears,

about 2 to 8 inches tall, with a solitary basal leaf longer than the

stem; 1 to 3 (occasionally 4) erect or slightly nodding flowers with

the 3 petals white or greenish white above and purplish or bluish

at base, more or less densely beset and also fringe-margined with

soft hairs. The glandular pit at the base of each petal is covered on

its upper portion by a narrow fringed scale occupying about a

third of the width of the basal "claw." The fruiting capsules are

elliptical, rounded at each end, and more or less nodding.

2. Cunnison mariposa (Calochortiis gunnisonii S. Wats.)^ (fig. 6)

ranges from the Black Hills of western South Dakota to central

Montana and south to Colorado, eastern Utah, northern Arizona,

and eastern New Mexico. It has several slender often inrolled

leaves and a stem about 8 to 20 inches high, from a bulb without

bulblets. The flowers are large and showy, the white, cream-color,

lilac or purplish (in one variety, yellow) petals sometimes IV2

inches long, with Tpurple-dottecl bases. It occurs scatteringly in

sagebrush, woodland, and ponderosa pine types—up to about 7,500

feet in northern Arizona.

3. Sagebrush mariposa (Calochortiis macrocarpus Dougl.)

ranges from southern British Columbia to northern California,

northern Nevada, Idaho, and western Montana. The stems are

rather stout, bluish (glaucous) up to 20 inches high and often with

bulblets at the base ; the linear leaves become inrolled and recurved

at the tip. The flowers are large and showy, the 3 petals purple

with green stripes, up to 2 inches long, the sepals elongated and

narrow and the anthers slender. The fruiting capsules are linear,

lance shaped, up to 2 inches long, and erect. The plant grows on

"The plant is named for its discoverer and first collector, Lt. John Williams

Gunnison (1812-53) of the Army Engineers who (with Capt. Howard Stansbury) mapped the great Salt Lake region and met death by massacre in Utah.

Gunnison County, Gunnison River, and the Gunnison National Forest in western Colorado also commemorate him.
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

dry plains and slopes, usually in loose volcanic soils, up to the

ponderosa pine belt. Sometimes called "green-banded star-tulip."

4. Broadfruit mariposa (Calochortus nitidus Dougl., syn. C.

eurycarpus S. Wats.) is found in both dry and moist meadows and

in the ponderosa pine type, between elevations of about 3,000 and

6,500 feet, associated with grasses, bearberry, erigeron, larkspur,

lupine, spirea, yarrow, etc. Its range is southwestern Montana to

southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and Elko County, northern Nevada. It attains a height of 1 or 2 feet, with 1 or 2 basal

leaves. Inflorescence mostly in umbels of 2 to 4 large, erect, white

or cream-color to lavender or purple flowers. The fruiting capsules,

up to 1 inch long, are broadly winged.

5. Sego-lily (Calochortus nuttallii Torr.)'' is the most widely

distributed species of Calochortus, ranging, with its varieties,

from the western Dakotas as far as Oregon, California, northwestern New Mexico, Colorado, and western Nebraska. The plant

is one of the most conspicious and beautiful early-blooming flowers

of the semidesert and is unusually abundant in Utah, where it

often occurs in large, fairly dense stands. It thrives on rather

dry, sandy soils on the open sagebrush foothills and valleys, as well

as in open ponderosa pine stands at moderate elevations.

The bulblike roots of sego-lily were deemed a great delicacy by

the western Indians. This species ñgured prominently in the history of the Mormon Church (179). When Brigham Young and

his little band of followers emigrated into Salt Lake Valley in

1847, food was very scarce. It is reported that when the Mormon

pioneers in Utah faced famine conditions in 1848-49 due to the

inroads of crickets, drought, and frost on their grainfields, the

sego-lily was an outstanding means of tiding them over (17).

Before the flowers appear, the leaves of sego-lily are often confused with those of deathcamas (Zigadenus spp.), but may be

readily distinguished by the rounded troughlike cross section of

their U-shaped leaves, as opposed to the sharply V-shaped leaf of

deathcamas (20U).

Fawnlily (Erythronium)

Erythronium is a genus of low, short-stemmed herbs from deepseated, papery-covered bulblike corms, with mostly 2 basal leaves,

attractive solitary nodding flowers of various colors, 6 separate

perianth segments ("sepals" and "petals"), 6 stamens with baseattached anthers, and fruiting capsules splitting when ripe in

between the divisions (septa). Their forage value is largely

negligible; they are seldom observed to be grazed. The corms of

'Seg-o-lily—the spelling is preferable to "sago-lily"—derives its name from

the Indian word sego for the plant. Its specific name commemorates its discoverer, Thomas Nuttall (1786-1854), eminent English-American botanist,

dendrologist, ornithologist, and naturalist [the "Old Curious" of Dana's book

"Two Years Before the Mast" (66') ], who accompanied Nathaniel Wyeth on

his second expedition to the Pacific in 1834. Sego-lily is the oflficial State

flower of Utah.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 33

some species were eaten by Indians ; a number of the species are

cultivated as ornamentals.

There are about 23 species of fawnlily, 4 in Europe and Asia ;

3 in the Northeastern States ; 1 in the Southeastern States, and

15 in the Western States. The genus is absent from Arizona and

New Mexico. Applegate (6), in his monograph of the western

species says : "Over one third of the known species are concentrated within the limits of the old cretaceous 'Siskiyou Island' of

southwest Oregon and northwest California." These plants are

often called adderstongue, dogtooth-violet, glacierlily, and troutlily. The generic name (derived from a Greek word meaning

red) was given by Linnaeus because of the red flowers of the type

species (the only one known to him), the Eurasian dogtooth fawnlily (Erythronium dens-canis L. )

Perhaps the commonest of the range species is the yellow-flowered lambstongue fawnlily (Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh,

syns. E. giganteum Lindl., E. parviflorum S. Wats.) (fig. 7),

F-286860

FIGURE 7.—Lambstongue fawnlily (Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh, syns.

E. giganteum Lindl., E. parviflorum S. Wats.).

including its whitish-anthered, unequal-filamented var. pallidum

St. John (to which Applegate refers var. parviflorum S. Wats.,

not E. parviflorum S. Wats., and E. parviflortim Goodding in part)

and also the golden-anthered ssp. chrysandrum Applegate (to

which Applegate refers Goodding's type of his E. parviflorum).

E. grandiflorinn ranges from Vancouver Island and southern Brit-
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

ish Columbia, through Washington and Oregon, to northern California as far south (along the west coast) as Mendocino County

and eastward through Nevada, Utah, and western Colorado to

western Montana and southern Alberta. It has a great altitudinal

range from near sea level to at least 9,000 feet.

Applegate reports that the region of greatest abundance of

Erythronium grandiflovum is probably in open ponderosa pine

forests, cutover lands, prairies and cultivated fields of northern

Idaho. Chesnut (38) reports that the Wailaki Indians of California

"use the crushed corms as a poultice for boils and have a peculiar

superstition that, if they wash themselves with a decoction of it,

they can stop a rattlesnake from having dreams, which, they say,

make them more irritable and dangerous"; the bulbs are also

limitedly eaten. Unlike those of many species, the leaves of E.

grandiflorum are not mottled; in the typical form the anthers

are red.

Fritillary (Fritillaria)

This is a large, chiefly Asiatic genus of simple-stemmed herbs

perennial from bulbs with thick fleshy scales and which often

proliferate at the base into numerous rice-grainlike bulblets—

whence one of the vernacular names, "riceroot." The attractive

flowers are nodding, bell- or funnel-like, solitary or in racemes or

umbels, with 6 similar, frequently speckled or mottled segments

("petals"), a more or less 3-lobed stigma and 6 stamens attached

at their base below the ovary. The fruit is a somewhat papery

oblong or ovoid capsule, splitting between the three partitions

(septa) to discharge the flattened seeds which are arranged in

two rows in each cell. The genus, so far as North America is concerned, is confined to the western part, from Alaska and western

Canada southward, where about 17 species occur. Thirteen of

these species occur in California, which is the American center of

distribution for the genus. Many of these species are in ornamental cultivation.

The range forage significance of fritillaries may need further

study. Their.palatability is often reported as fair or occasionally

good but their value ordinarily is negligible or small, due to scattered stands and limited amount and evanescence of herbage. The

genus is called "poisonous" by Pammel (152, p. 377) but, to the

writer's knowledge, fritillaries have never been so accused on

national forest or other western ranges. Moreover, Anderson (i),

Gorman (83), Teit (198), and other authorities report the use by

Indians of the bulbs and ricelike bulblets of fritillaries as food,

both raw and roasted. Long (123) states that, although no definite

case of poisoning has been found in the literature, the European

Fritillaria meleagris L. is known to contain the bitter alkaloid

imperialine (C3r,HfioN04), which is a heart poison.

The books indicate that the generic name Fritillaria is derived

from Latin fritillus (dicebox). The name dates back at least as far

as the Belgian botanist Rembert Dodoens, or "Dodonaeus" (1517-

85). In 1583 Carolus Clusius (1526-1609), a nearly contemporary
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 35

Belgian botanist, wrote that the name originated with an Orleans

druggist named Noel Capperon. The Englishman John Gerard

wrote in his Herbal (1597) : "It hath been called Frittillaria, of

the table or boord upon which men plaie at chesse." Gerard evidently referred to the common checkered fritillary of Europe (F.

meleagris L.), which has checkered spots on its "petals." Incidentally, the Latin word for dice is different, aleae. It is difficult

for the writer to see the connection between a checkerboard pattern

and a dicebox unless, to be sure, medieval diceboxes were so patterned ; he wonders if there could possibly be a connection between

fritilla (Latin for a special gruel used in Roman sacrifices) and

the rice-grainlike roots of this genus. The two species briefly annotated below are perhaps the commonest, most widely distributed

and best known range species.

Purplespot fritillary (Fritillaria atropurpúrea Nutt.) ranges

from North Dakota to Nebraska, New Mexico, California, and

Washington, from plains to foothills and into the ponderosa pine

and aspen types, often in moist rich sites. The stems are slender,

4 to 16 inches high, leafless below, the stem leaves linear, alternate

or the uppermost whorled and bear one to several flowers dark

purple, mottled with yellowish green, or yellowish and thickly

mottled with maroon or purplish spots.

Yellow fritillary [Fritillaria púdica (Pursh) Spreng., syn. Ochrocodon pudicus (Pursh) Rydb.] (fig. 8), often called "yellowbell,"

is a plains and foothills plant, 3 to 12 inches high, occurring from

British Columbia to western Montana, Colorado, New Mexico,

California, and Washington. It has 1 to 5 narrow thickish leaves,

scattered or nearly whorled, and a usually solitary nodding yellow

flower.

Lily (Lilium)

The true lilies, a spectacular group of ornamental plants, are

chiefly represented in the Near East. About 14 species occur in the

western range country. They are perennial herbs from scaly

bulbs, with linear to narrowly oval leaves alternate, scattered or

whorled ; simple stems ; large and showy flowers (mostly with

shades of red, orange or yellow, sometimes white, often purple

spotted or dotted), the 6 segments (petals and sepals) free; 3-

lobed stigmas; 6 stamens with anthers attached by their middles

(versatile), and 3-celled, many-seeded fruiting capsules opening

between the partitions (loculicidaUy dehiscent).

The true lilies are negligible as forage plants but probably all

are in ornamental cultivation. Standardized Plant Names (111)

lists 82 species, 54 botanical varieties, and 161 horticultural varieties and clons in ornamental cultivation in this country ; doubtless

that list is incomplete. Stewart (192) reports that the lily genus is

"favorable material for studies in chromosome morphology, both

because of its large chromosomes and because—with the exception

of the triploid Lilium tigrinum—all the species reported are

diploid, with 24 chromosomes." Brief notes on three representative range lilies follow.
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-24.361Ï

FIGURE 8.—Yellow fritillary [Fritillaria púdica (Pursh) Spreng.], with

fruiting capsule.

1. Columbia lily (Lilium columbianum Hanson), also known as

Columbia tiger lily and Oregon lily, is found in moist meadows,

open ponderosa pine woods and the like, from Vancouver Island

and southern British Columbia south to western Idaho and Humboldt and Sierra Counties, Calif., chiefly in the coastal region. It

has a relatively small {lV-2 to 2 inches broad) ovoid bulb; a slender

stem 2 to 4 feet high ; leaves in whorls of 5 to 9 or more or the

uppermost and lowest leaves scattered ; and usually numerous

nodding flowers, the reñexed segments reddish orange and purple

spotted. Ingram Columbia lily (var. ingramii Hort.) of this species

is named after Douglas C. Ingram, a Forest Service oflScer of the

Paciñc Northwest Region, who perished in the Camas Creek fire

on the old Chelan (now Okanogan) National Forest, Wash., in

August 1929. Mr. Ingram, on the side, was an outstanding field

naturalist, plant collector, and lily fancier.

2. Chaparral lily (Lilium rubescens S. Wats.), known also as

chamise lily, lilac lily, and redwood lily, chiefly occurs in the coast
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 37

ranges from southwestern Oregon to Marin and Lake Counties,

Calif., in chamise, chaparral, and redwood types. The smooth

stems are 2 to 61/2 feet high, with about 3 to 8 lilac, almost white,

or rose-purple, erect or ascending, very fragrant funnelform flowers 11/2 to 2 inches long, with golden anthers.

3. Washington lily (Lilium ivashingtonianiim Kell.), often called

Shasta lily, one of the handsomest of American lilies, is native from

the Columbia River, Oregon, to the Sierra Nevada mountains of

California, mostly in rather dry chaparral types. The smooth or

slightly rough stems are up to 6 feet tall, with leaves in whorls of

about 6 to 12, II/2 to 5 inches long. The horizontal fragrant funnelform flowers, arranged in a raceme of up to about 20 flowers, are

white, becoming purplish and often somewhat dotted, the segments

about 3 to 4 inches long and narrowed below to a short claw. This

lily does not grow naturally in the State of Washington and commemorates Martha Washington (212).

Alplily [Lloydia serótina (L.) Sweet], a member of a small genus

of 4 or 5 species—all but this one confined to the Old World, is a

typical arctic-alpine plant of both hemispheres, occurring in the

Swiss Alps and other moist, rocky alpine situations in Europe, in

arctic western North America from Alaska south to Clatsop

County and the Blue Mountains of Oregon, Idaho, and western

Montana and further south, in the Rocky Mountains, to northern

New Mexico. It occurs in Nevada but apparently not in California.

It has been described (51) as "a quaint little plant, 2 to 6 inches

tall, the 'petals' mainly cream-white, but veined with green and

purple and often stained on the back with rose." It is negligible

as forage, but is occasionally cultivated as a rock-garden plant

(76). The genus is named for Edward Lloyd, a Welsh botanist.

BUNCHFLOWER SUBFAMILY

(MELANTH101DEAE)

This relatively small but widely distributed and important subfamily, treated by some botanists as a distinct family, Melanthiaceae, is represented in the Western States by 7 genera and about

25 species, attaining a fuller development in the East. Its members are leafy stemmed or scapose herbs, perennial from often

thick and elongated, sometimes tuberous rootstocks or else from

bulbs as in the genus Zigadeniis. As is so often the case in monocotyledons, the leaves of the western range Melanthioideae are

more or less grasslike except in Veratrum, where they tend more

to the ovate type.

The flowers are mostly rather small, white, greenish or yellowish but sometimes purplish; they have a superior ovary (or in

some species of Zigadeniis, partly inferior) 3 distinct styles, 6

stamens, a 6-parted perianth, and are arranged in terminal racemes, panicles or spikes. The fruiting capsules are 3 celled and

open along the partitions (septicidally dehiscent) except in Narthecium where the fruits open midway between the sutures (loculicidally dehiscent) and also occasionally in Xerophyllum, so that the
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

fruits sometimes appear to be 6 valved. The Melanthioideae may

also be divided [on the anthers] into two groups : One with 2-celled

anthers of an oblong-ovate type, and the other with 1-celled, heartor kidney-shaped anthers.

Members of this subfamily are characteristic, as a rule, of moist

to wet sites, especially in the mountains, occurring about seeps

and cool springs, on mossy streambanks, in wet meadows, and the

like. The genera Schoenocaulon and Xerophyllum, however, and

certain species of Zigadenus inhabit rather dry sites. It is open

to question, however, whether practically the whole family may

not be regarded as essentially hydrophytic; the mesophytic and

quasixerophytic species, which seem to be drought enduring, flourish also where there is abundance of moisture.

All plants of this family appear to have active chemical properties, and they are of much concern from the range standpoint.

All the species have either a history as stock-poisoning plants or

else are gravely under suspicion.

SwAMPPiNK TRIBE (HELONIEAE)

The type of this tribe is the eastern swamppink (Helonias búllala L,), a rather rare swamp plant, of a monotypic genus, with a

spikelike raceme of pink, rose or purplish flowers 4 to 12 inches

long; it is sometimes cultivated. The only western genus of the

tribe is the following :

Beargrass (Xerophyllum)

Tall coarse perennial herbs, often called turkeybeard, from a

thick woody rootstock, with linear leaves in a thick basal tuft and

also, reduced, on the stems ; dense terminal racemes of white flowers, and ovoid fruiting capsules which split between the partitions

(septa) and also sometimes between them (loculicidal dehiscence).

There are two or perhaps three species, the type being turkeybeard beargrass [Xerophyllum asphodeloides (L.) Nutt.] an eastern species growing chiefly in the coastal pine barrens and a

favorite ornamental bog plant of European gardens, indicating a

natural adaptability to moist sites. The generic name Xerophyllum,

from Greek xe7'on (dry) -|- phidlon (leaf), refers to the dry, harsh

rigid leaves.

Common beargrass [Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.]^ (fig. 9)

—sometimes called basketgrass, elkgrass, pinelily, soapgrass, and

squawgrass—is a rigid, tufted, evergreen, herbaceous perennial

plant, growing up to about SV-j to 6 feet high. It is widely distributed in the mountains from British Columbia to California, Nevada, and Montana. It is typically a plant of the higher elevations,

from 3,000 up to about 8,000 feet above sea level ; however, it appears at sea level on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington, probably because of the cooling effect of the ocean breezes.

«St. John (175) mentions the unsuccessful efforts of Suksdorf, pioneer

botanist of Washington State, to get the settlers to adopt Indian names for

many native plants, among them ¡/ei for Xerophi/Uitm tenax.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 39

F-306162

FIGURE 9. — Common beargrass [Xei'ophylhitn tenax

(Pursh) Nutt.]. Upperright, individual flower ; helow, fruiting capsule, showing persistent styles, the 6

withering persistent perianth segments ("petals")

and the 2 types of dehiscence.
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Common beargrass grows in all types of soils but best in mountain meadows and on well-drained slopes and ridges. It blooms m

the spring on the lower slopes and continues until snow falls around

the edges of snowbanks at high altitudes. The plant appears not to

bloom annually but possibly only once every 5 to 7 years ; presumably this is correlated with site characteristics.

The forage value of common beargrass is slight or perhaps negligible or problematic. The harsh, forbidding foliage, if better

forage is unavailable, is hardly tempting to grazing livestock but,

when snow lies on the ground and the projecting stems are sometimes almost the only visible herbage, these are occasionally

cropped by hungry cattle. Sheep crop the flowers and sometimes

nibble at the young leaves. Cattle and occasionally sheep pull the

leaves and chew oiï the lower white, tender part. Deer and elk eat

the plant sparingly the year around, especially the more tender

leaves (20i). However, in view of the prevailingly poisonous

character of this subfamily, it would not be surprising if scientific

research finds toxic properties in this plant. In this connection it

is of interest that sickness and losses have been attributed to this

source by cattlemen on and adjacent to the Shasta National Forest

in northern California.

Formerly, the Indians bleached and dried the long, fibrous leaves

of common beargrass for basketry and padding and roasted the

roots for food. Frederick Pursh (1774-1820), whose early North

American flora (16^) is a classic in early American botany and

who first described this species, called it tenax (meaning "tenacious") because "out its very tenacious leaves they (i.e., native

Indians) weave their watertight baskets, which they use for cooking their victuals in." Common beargrass is sometimes cultivated

as an ornamental.

When in bloom, common beargrass is one of the most conspicuous

and attractive mountain flowers and has appropriately been called

"The Great White Monarch of the Northwest." The flowers exude

a heavy, slightly unpleasant fragrance. The flower clusters occur

at the top of the stalk, are broad at the base, and taper to a blunt

point. Hundreds of creamy-white flowers are closely crowded together on slender, elongated white pedicels, their long stamens

giving the effect of being solid and appearing feathery. The wiry,

grasslike, rough-edged leaves are from 1 to 3 feet long, green on the

upper side but a pale gray underneath.

A rather dubious third species, Douglas beargrass (Xerophyllum

douglasii S. Wats.), with smaller flowers, narrower inflorescence,

slightly included stamens, and somewhat heart-shaped capsules, is

occasionally reported from western Montana to Oregon. Most

botanists regard it merely as a form or variant of X. tenax.

ToFiELDiA TRIBE (TOFIELDIEAE)

This tribe is represented in the Far West by 2 genera and 4

species.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 41

Bog-Asphodel (Narthecium, syn. Abama)

Nartheciutn is a small genus of five species : One each in Europewest Asia, east Asia, Northeastern United States, Southeastern

United States, and in the Pacific area of this country. They are

perennial bog plants from fibrous-rooted rootstocks, with basal

tufts of grasslike clasping (eqnitant) leaves, and racemes of small,

greenish or yellowish 6-parted ñowers with a somewhat 3-lobed

stigma and 6 woolly stamens. The fruiting capsules are slender

and beaked, with numerous tailed seeds.

The type of the genus is the Old World Narthecium ossifragiim

(L.) Huds., (syn. Anthericuvi ossifragiim L.) which Fernald in

the new Gray's Manual (69) says gets its name ossifragiim (Latin,

for bone-breaker) because it "was formerly supposed to break the

bones of sheep feeding on it." Müller (H3) and Long (123) mention that the plant contains the glucoside narthecin, has a record of

poisoning cattle and that "a cat died after drinking the milk of

an affected cow." The whole genus is under suspicion.

The significance of the name Narthecium seems to be controversial. Some say it is an anagram of Anthericum. Fernald (69)

explains it as derived from Greek narthekion, a small chest. Narthecium was first published by Dr. Paul Gerhard Heinrich Moehring (the eponym of our genus Moehringia), a physician and naturalist of Dantzig, Germany, in 1742 but, as that was 11 years

before Linnaeus' "Species Plantarum" was published, the name has

no legality under the Code. Moehring states that he derived the

name from Greek narthéx, the common giantfennel (Ferula cammunis L.) of the Old World, whose stems were used as rods in the

Bacchanalian processions and by ancient schoolmasters.

Some books use the generic name Abama Adans. (1763) in the

belief that Jussieu published Narthecium in 1789 ; however, Narthecium was validly published by Hudson in 1762 so that it is a

year older than Abama. The synonymous name Abama, by the

way, is derived from the Greek (a-, privative + béma, Doric bama,

footstep), signifying "unable to walk," referring to an ancient

belief that this plant caused lameness in cattle.

California bog-asphodel [ISartheciutn californicum Baker, syn.

Abama californica (Baker) Heller] occurs in springy and boggy

places in mountain meadows of the ponderosa pine belt from southwestern Oregon into California. It has slender stems 1 to 2 feet

high and narrow racemes of yellowish flowers. The writer knows of

no record of this plant being grazed ; because of the habitat it

would be more likely to be taken by cattle or horses than by sheep

but, in any event, it should be viewed with suspicion.

Tofieldia (Tofieldia)

Tofieldia, sometimes unfortunately called bog-asphodel, is a

widely distributed genus of perhaps 25 species, occurring in the

Arctic, North America, the Andes Mountains of South America,

also Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is named for Thomas Tofield

(1730-79), a British botanist. There are 3 species in Alaska, 1
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

species each in the Southeastern and Far Western States, and 3

species in the Eastern and Central States. Tofieldias are herbs

perennial from rootstocks, with chiefly basal, more or less

2-ranked and sheathing sedgelike leaves ; dense spikelike racemes

or panicles of small 6-parted white, greenish or yellowish flowers

with 6 stamens, 3 persistent styles, and 3-celled fruiting capsules

opening along the partitions (septa) with the withered flower segments persisting at the base. The western range species is tall

tofieldia.

Tall tofieldia, or western toñeldia (Tofieldia occidentalis S.

Wats., syn. T. intermedia Rydb.), ranges in marshes, wet meadows,

peat bogs, and other like sites from southern and southeastern

Alaska to western Montana, (Saskatchewan?), and western Wyoming and, along the Pacific, south to California. It is not known

to occur in Colorado or Utah and is in Nevada only in the Lake

Tahoe region, near the California border. The stems are solitary

or several, 4 inches to 2 feet high, sticky-pubescent toward the top

with black glands, and clothed at the base with fine short fibers

(the residue of old leaves and sheaths). The flowers vary from

pale greenish to yellowish white or yellow. The seeds have a taillike appendage.

The (typically Alaskan) form known as Tofieldia intennedia

Rydb. is smaller than T. occidentalis, has narrower and paler floral

segments, the inflorescence is less open, the bractlets subtending

the flowers are fused less than two-thirds of their length and are

fixed close to the flower instead of at the middle of the flower stalk

(pedicel) and, with the pedicels, are almost free from glandular

hairs; the capsules, moveover, are more rounded and are not

narrowed at the base. However, the intergradations between these

two species are so numerous and confusing that most botanists

today consider T. intermedia a synonym of the older T. occidentalis.

The forage values of tall tofieldia need further study. Occasional

reports are made that it is taken by cattle and sheep with fair or

fairly good relish, but it is quite possible that this plant has been

confused with associated sedges or other plants. There appears

to be no history of this genus as poisonous plants. However, because of the close relationship of these plants to known poisonous

plants such as bog-asphodel (Narthecium), crowpoison (Amynianthium), swamppink (Helonias), bunchflower (Melanthimn),

false-hellebore (Veratrum), and deathcamas (Zigadenus), it seems

safest to regard tofieldias with suspicion pending more positive

knowledge concerning them.

FALSE-HELLEBORE TRIBE (VERATREAE)

All the six known genera of this tribe possess species which are

known to contain toxic compounds. Four of these genera are represented in the western range area.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 43

Sabadilla (Schoenocaulon)

Drummond sabadilla (Schocnocniilon drumniondü A. Gray)^

is, save for S. dubium (Michx.) Small (syn. S. gracile A. Gray) of

the Coastal Plain of Florida and southern Georgia, the only species

of this genus occurring in the United States. It is confined to dry

plains and foothills up to the lower woodland type, chiefly in clay

soils, from western Texas to southern New Mexico and south into

Mexico. The plant has a narrow elongated bulb clothed with black

hairlike fibers. The leaves are all basal, elongated and grasslike.

The small, pale green narrow-petaled flowers occur in a terminal

spikelike raceme 4 to 24 inches long.

Drummond sabadilla, although it seems to have no history as a

stock-poisoning plant, should be watched on any range where it

may grow in appreciable stand because of its very close relationship to drug sabadilla [^Schoenocaulon officinale (Cham. &

Schlecht.) A. Gray, syns. Sabadilla ojficinarnvi Brandt & Ratzeb.,

Veratrum, sabadilla Retz.] of Mexico, Guatemala, (elsewhere in

Central America?) and northern South America, especially Venezuela. Sabadilla is an oflicial drug and insecticide (216). It contains

the poisonous alkaloid sabadillin (CmH.-.aNO») and, during World

War I assumed importance, especially in England in the manufacture of asphyxiating and tear-producing gas (1). The seeds,

which are highly toxic, contain, besides sabadilla, cevadine, veratric acid, etc. The plant is occasionally cultivated, but much of the

commercial crop is reported to be taken from wild plants in

Mexico and Venezuela (159). In the latter country it is used as an

insecticide for cattle and, also in an ointment, for human parasites. The powdered drug is also imported into Europe as a mordant for dyes, for tanning fine leathers, and in the manufacture of

disinfectants.

Stenanthium (Stenanthium)

Stenanthium is a small genus of bulbous herbs, with grasslike

leaves, racemes or panicles of somewhat bell-like, 6-parted flowers,

6 included stamens with kidney-shaped (reniforvi) anthers, and

3-celled, 3-beaked fruiting capsules opening along the partitions

(septa). Two species are eastern, one western, and there is one

species each in the Western States, Mexico, and Sakhalin Island,

eastern Asia. The genus seems to have no history as stock-poisoning plants, but its close relationships make it a fit object for suspicion. One eastern species featherfleece (Stenanthium robustum

S. Wats.), with large dense panicles of whitish flowers, is in ornamental cultivation; some botanists consider it merely a form

[forma robustum (S. Wats.) Palmer & Steyermark] of the other

eastern species, grassy stenanthium [S. graniineum (Ker) Morong]. It is taller and more robust than S. gramineum, with

^The species is named in honor of its discoverer and collector, Thomas

Drummond [(1790?)-1835], Scotch naturalist, nurseryman, and explorer, who

was associated with Franklin, Richardson, and other early arctic-America

explorers, and who was one of the first botanical collectors in Texas.
44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

broader leaves, denser panicles, and erect instead of nodding

fruiting capsules.

Western stenanthium [Stenanthium occidentale A. Gray, syn.

StenantheUa occidentalis (A. Gray) Rydb.], sometimes called

featherbell and mountainbell, ranges in moist or wet places, such

as streambanks and high mountain swamps, in the ponderosa pme

belt to timberline, from British Columbia and Alberta to western

Montana and south, through Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, to

the mountains of Trinity County, northern California. It is a

rather attractive plant in bloom, with narrow, mostly basal grasslike leaves, a slender stem 6 to 24 inches high, with a raceme of

nodding, rather bell-like, brownish or dull purplish flowers appearing in July and August. It is not known to be grazed.

False-Hellebore (Veratrum)

There are perhaps 9 valid species of Veratrum in this country,

5 in the West, 3 in the East, besides one endemic in Florida. At

least 45 species have been proposed from the Old World, especially

in Japan, China, Korea, Mongolia, and Siberia. The genus undoubtedly needs monographing by a conservative botanist.

The false-hellebores are tall, robust herbs, with unbranched

leafy stems arising from a short, thick, brownish or black, poisonous rootstock,i° which is sometimes covered with a layer of coarse

fibrous dead leaf sheaths of previous years. The true roots, descending from the rootstock, are few or numerous, "ropy"

branched, and dark colored externally. The blackish color of the

roots and rootstock conceivably might account for the generic

name Veratrum, as that word seems to be derived from Latin

vere (truly) + atrum (black). The alternate leaves are large,

broad—of an ovate or lance-ovate type—coarse, plaited or folded,

heavily ribbed, stemless or contracted to a broad sheath at the base,

and are gradually smaller and narrower near the top of the stalk.

The numerous and relatively large flowers are dull white, greenish, yellowish or purplish, borne in showy terminal and elongated

panicles. These plants have 6 persistent petallike parts and 6

stamens ; the capsule is 3-celled, each cell containing several to

many broad-winged seeds. The lower flowers are often male

staminate) only or the staminate and female (pistillate) flowers

may occur on separate plants.

The confusion between true hellebore (Hellehorus) of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) and the liliaceous false-hellebore

(Veratrum) genus is very ancient. Greek physicians used the

rootstocks of "hellebore" (helUboros) for various purposes, but

primarily as a remedy for insanity, and the Greek verb helleboriáo

(literally, "to need hellebore") was applied to a person who was

losing his mind. These oldtime medical men distinguished two

i^The toxicologieal literature on this genus is extensive, among which the

following may be considered as representative: Chesnut and Wilcox (39, p.

119-121), Pammel (152, p. 381-382), Hall and Yates (88, p. 2U3-2UU), Glover

and Robbins (82, p. 25-27), Gail and Hahner (77, p. 5-6), Sampson (176,

p. 38-40, 58-59), Fleming (72, p. 35-36), and Muenscher (lU, p. ^5-^8).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 45

chief types of hellebore : Christmas-rose, or black hellebore (Helleborus niger L.) and "white hellebore," or white false-hellebore

(Veratrum album L.). It seems probable that the Veratrum of

the ancient Romans was Helleborus niger, at least in large part,

which, incidentally, has blackish roots. To avoid confusion, it

seems desirable to restrict the English name "hellebore" to the

plant genus now known as Helleborus, and to call the genus now

known as Veratruvi "false-hellebore."

The common name "cornlily" indicates the similarity of falsehellebore leaves and their stalk arrangement to corn; sometimes

heard for these plants are the names "cow-cabbage," "rarebell,"

and "wild corn" ; the name skunkcabbage, no doubt, alludes to the

general resemblance of the young plants to the true skunkcabbage

[Symplocarpus foetidus (L.) Nutt., syn. Spathijema foetida (L.)

Raf.], a foul-smelling, broad-leaved herb of the Eastern United

States and eastern Asia and belonging to the arum family. In the

West "skunkcabbage" is also applied to another bog plant, the

related American yellow-skunkcabbage (Lysichitum americanum

Huh. & St. John), ranging from southern and southeastern Alaska

to British Columbia, Idaho, western Montana, the Yellowstone

National Park or northwestern Wyoming and south, through

Washington and Oregon, to California. In the past this species

has been confused with the related L. camtschatcense (L.) Schott

of northeastern Asia (101).

The roots of American false-hellebore (Veratrum viride Alton),

an eastern species, and of white false-hellebore (V. album L.) of

Europe yield a powerful (and more or less toxic) drug which is

used as a heart and arterial sedative (14-7). This drug contains

various related alkaloids, including cevadine (C32H53NO8), which

has a burning taste, produces violent sneezing, and dilates the

pupils; jervine (C26H37NO3), which is mildly toxic, and veratrine,

which is a mixture of alkaloids, chiefly cevadine and veratridine

(CsTHjgNOii). Veratrine reduces the pulse power without reducing frequency, but an overdose results in very low pulse, nausea,

and muscular prostration. Probably the poisonous effect on livestock is similar although possibly more marked. There is chemical

evidence that similar properties reside in the roots of western

species of false-hellebore. Incidentally, the physiological effect of

black hellebore (Helleborus niger) is exactly opposite, as it is

a heart stimulant.

Western false-hellebore (Veratrum, californicum E. Durand, syn.

V. speciosum Rydb.) (fig. 10), the most common and widely distributed of the western range false-hellebores, occurs from southern British Columbia to California, New Mexico, Colorado, and

western Montana and is, therefore, native to all eleven Far Western

States. In the (especially older) literature it is often confused

with the Old World V. album and the eastern V. viride, which are

distinct species. The species, always conspicuous when a feature of

the landscape, is one of the largest herbaceous perennials of mountain meadows, marshy bottom lands, streambanks, and the like.

It is at its best as regards size and adundance in such sites, al-
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-306163

FIGURE 10.—Western falsehellebore (Veratritm califomicum E. Durand).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 47

though it also does well in shallow and coarse soils of moist or

springy slopes and flats.

Not infrequently this herb invades and dominates eroded but

moist flats and slopes, and in serious cases of depletion is sometimes one of the last perennial plants of the meadow association

to disappear. It ordinarily forms small irregular clumps and, as

a rule, inhabits open sunny sites. These clumps in some cases grow

together to form extensive patches, almost to the exclusion of other

herbaceous vegetation. The plant is mainly a native of the higher

mountains, usually being most abundant above 5,000 feet elevation,

from the ponderosa pine belt to timberline. It has been collected

at 3,000 feet in northwestern Oregon and at 11,000 feet in Colorado.

It appears as soon as the snow is gone and reaches maturity within

about 60 days.

The value of western false-hellebore as a forage plant for domestic livestock is subject to considerable variation ; investigators and

collectors may report it as excellent, unpalatable, or poisonous.

The roots and seeds of this plant are highly poisonous but are

seldom touched by livestock under range conditions ; the herbage,

when fresh and succulent, is undoubtedly more or less poisonous.

Horses and cattle can become very sick by eating any considerable

quantity of the fresh leaves; a few cases are on record also of

human beings having been unwittingly poisoned by using the

fresh leaves for "greens." After frost and after wilting, when the

leaves are turned brownish or reddish, the herbage appears to be

harmless and sheep will sometimes pick off the leaves or even eat

the plant down to the ground, especially the foliage and the pithy

part of the stalk, so that it then may be valuable sheep forage and,

to a less extent, for cattle.

In Colorado the species is practically worthless for cattle and

only poor forage for sheep, but in Montana and northern Idaho it

is fairly good for sheep. The herb is little used and rated as poor

forage for both cattle and sheep in the Intermountain States and

the Southwest. On properly grazed ranges in California and parts

of the Northwest it is fairly good for sheep, fair for cattle, and

worthless to poor for horses, with the use largely limited to spring

and fall. Sheep relish the young shoots, but like other classes of

livestock avoid the plant throughout the main growing season,

but graze it again after the foliage has been frosted and has become dry and brown. The use of western false-hellebore is very

much greater near bed grounds or driveways and where sheep or

cattle concentrate. At these areas and on overstocked ranges, the

use is frequently so complete that, by midsummer, the entire plant

is eaten to within a few inches of the soil. This concentrated use,

however, is usually regarded as a sign of serious overstocking.

In Montana, and probably elsewhere, elk and deer graze the plant

with impunity, at least during the fall and winter.

The poisonous materials are concentrated in the root and the

young shoots (89). As the plant matures, the poison decreases in

the aerial parts, so that the species is practically harmless at maturity or when killed by frost. Although all kinds of livestock may
48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

be poisoned, it is generally agreed that the danger is slight where

there is plenty of other forage and the animals have normal appetites. Poisoning usually occurs under some abnormal condition,

such as at driveways, bed grounds, overgrazed ranges, or gathering pastures, where hungry animals eat freely of this plant before

grazing other forage. Poisoned animals usually recover in a few

days, although in very serious cases they may die in a few hours.

However, on properly grazed ranges, or where western false-hellebore is mainly a fall feed, few animals are poisoned, and deaths are

almost unknown. Vansell and Watkins (205, pp. 168-170) report

that blossoms of western false-hellebore sometimes cause heavy

losses among honeybees, and that numerous ants, beetles, flies,

and other insects are killed by the flowers. Kennedy and Doten

(112, p. 1U2) mention the use of the flowers by sheep during June

and July on summer ranges of western Nevada.

The seeds are fatal to chickens, which occasionally pick them up.

Lambs are often poisoned by eating the large buds and the crown

when the plant first comes up in the spring. The symptoms of

poisoning include slobbering, throat burn, vomiting, extreme heart

depression, weak pulse, labored respiration, and general paralysis.

Death, when fatal results ensue, is from asphyxiation ; loss of sight

frequently occurs also. It is probable that the roots have the medicinal properties common to the genus. Remedies prescribed are

stimulants, such as digitalis, strychnine, atropine, spirits of glonion, etc. Tannic acid with alcohol, permanganate of potash, ammonia, raw linseed oil, lard, and soda are also reported to have

been administered with good results. Laudanum, morphine, and

chloral hydrate are used to alleviate pain. Warm water is administered to smaller animals to help vomiting and purging.

Western false-hellebore is a very distinctive plant, being stout

and up to 7 feet tall, with large, strongly veined, stemless leaves

and a long, showy, terminal flower cluster consisting of numerous

dull, white flowers. The leaves are frequently punctured by insects

and, as the season advances, tend to lose their shape and color. On

favorable sites, however, the foliage often remains green until

frost. After frost the plant turns brown and dry so that any such

disturbance as wind creates a harsh rustle of the leaves (20i).

The roots of the related eastern Veratrum viride, used as a commercial insecticide, are gathered in the Appalachian Mountains,

and it is of interest to note that V. californicum is now being exploited for that purpose. Supervisor Thomas (200) of the Mendocino National Forest reported (August 12, 1952) as follows:

"Quite by accident it was found that the root of this plant had particular

value in the preparation of a new drug used to combat high blood pressure.

This new drug was discussed in a feature article in a recent issue of the Saturday Evening Post. Experiments were carried out in the harvesting of this

product during the 1951 season and also in preparation of the medicine. These

experiments were so successful that the Riker Laboratories of Los Angeles

applied to the Forest Service for a permit to harvest 10,000 pounds of the root

during the 1952 season. An area of considerable size southwest of Plaskett

Meadows has been laid out and the work is being done by Ernest Yockey under

contract with the Riker Laboratories. The collection work is being carried out

in such a way as to minimize erosion. After the roots have been harvested,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 49

the area wm be sown to native grasses, which should improve the carrying

capacity for livestock and also reduce the danger of erosion. It is expected

that these sales will increase in future years and that many of our mountain

meadows will be improved as a result of this type of sale."

Eschscholtz false-hellebore IVeratrnm eschschollsii A. Gray, syn.

V. eschscholtzianum (Roem. & Schult.) Rydb.]" ranges from

Alaska to Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and Alberta ; it is in

British Columbia but doubtfully in Yukon. It occupies wet sites,

chiefly subalpine or subarctic and sometimes wooded swamps. It

is a thick-stemmed, thick-rooted herb 3 to 6I/0 feet high, with large,

mostly oval or oblong leaves 3 to 12 inches long, and green or

greenish flowers subtended by leaflike bractlets often equaling or

surpassing the flowers. When fresh, all parts of the herbage are

more or less acrid and poisonous ; the roots and seeds are doubtless

highly toxic. After frost the leaves are stripped off, especially by

sheep, with apparent impunity. Sheep are reported to have been

made "temporarily sick" after eating the plant to a considerable

extent in summer.

It is probable that the roots of Veratrum eschscholtzii may

have medicinal or insecticidal properties similar to those of the

eastern V. viride Alton, with which it is frequently confused in the

literature. The two species have entirely distinct ranges and there

are a number of botanical differences ; for example, V. eschscholtzii

has hairier leaves, shorter stamens, longer floral bracts, and the

lower panicle branches are longer and more drooping. It is also

frequently confused with V. californicum E. Durand, which has

largely a different range, nondrooping and denser panicles, nonfoliaceous floral bracts, and paler flowers with broader segments

("petals").

Fringed false-hellebore (Veratrum fimbriatum A. Gray), apparently confined to the California coast in Sonoma and Mendocino

Counties, is interesting because of the conspicuously fringed floral

segments, or "petals." Taylor (197) found that plants of this

species dug during or shortly before initial top growth in early

spring contained nearly twice as high percentages of crude alkaloids as were found in similar plants dug in July.

Deathcamas (Zigadenus, syns. Anticlea, Toxicoscordion,

Zygadenus)

Aside from more obvious synonyms and names clearly referable

to other genera, 38 species of Zigadenus have been proposed, 4

from Mexico and Central America, 2 from Japan, 1 from Siberia,

and the remainder from the United States. Of these 31 native

United States species, it is probable that more conservative botanists would not accept as valid more than about 15. The genus is

''Named after Johann Fredrich Eschscholtz (1793-1831), who accompanied,

as surgeon and naturalist, the celebrated Russian navigator and explorer,

Otto von Kotzebue (1787-1846)—after whom Kotzebue Sound on the northwest coast of Alaska is named—on some of his expeditions. Jepson (lOJt) and

Eastwood (62) have given accounts of Eschscholtz's plant collections in

California.
50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

widely distributed in North America from New Brunswick to

Alaska and south to Florida and Guatemala. Deathcamas is

represented by about 10 species in the 11 Far Western States, as

well as on rangelands in Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. These species occur from slightly above sea level (about 600

feet in California) up to 12,000 feet in Utah. They grow m almost

every type of soil and flourish in both dry and moist situations,

sometimes actually living in water. Some species grow in clumps

or patches, but the majority are mixed with a variety of other

herbaceous plants. Usually most species seek full sunlight, but a

few prefer shaded sites.

These plants, sometimes known as "poison-camases," "poisonsegos," "poison-soaproots," "white-camases," "zygadene," and

erroneously as "lobelias," are most commonly called deathcamases,

to distinguish them from the somewhat similar, edible (and mostly

blue-flowered) camases (Camassia spp., syn. Quamasia spp.) with

which they are often confused. The generic name Zigadenus^^ is

derived from the Greek words ^vyav (yoke) + áSriv (gland) and

refers to the characteristic, yoked, or paired petal glands of the type

species, Atlantic deathcamas (Z. glaberrimus Michx.) of the Eastern States. In the western species these two glands are united into

a single gland found at the base of each flower (perianth) segment.

Deathcamases are perennial herbs from bulbs and/or rootstocks

(rhizomes), with a leafy or leafless stem varying in height from a

few inches to 4 feet. The plants are smooth (glabrous) with long,

narrow, grasslike leaves arising from the base; sometimes the

leaves and stems are covered with a whitish bloom which rubs off

easily. The flowers are greenish white or yellowish in color, being

set rather closely in terminal racemes or panicles and are either

perfect or have male and female flowers as well (imperfect). The

flower clusters elongate as the plant matures. The six similar floral

segments (perianth) are divided to the base and bear one or two

glands. These flower parts wither but persist on the plant until the

fruiting capsules dehisce and the seeds are dispersed. The 6 stamens have 1-celled anthers and are either free to the base or attached to the petallike floral segments ; they are about the same

length as the segments. The styles are distinct to the base, and

the 3-lobed and 3-celled capsule splits from the top along the 3

partitions, releasing the numerous angled seeds.

Rydberg (170) in 1903 revived Kunth's genus Anticlea and published a new segregate Toxicoscordion, stating that, for consistency, Zigadenus should be divided into these three genera: (1)

Plants with a rootstock and two glands (Zigadenus) ; (2) plants

with a bulb and single gland, ovary wholly superior (Toxicoscordion); (3) plants with a bulb and single gland, ovary partly inferior (Anticlea); some species of Anticlea have the gland so

deeply lobed as almost to appear double. More conservative botanical opinion, however, prefers to regard these characters as of seci^The spelling Zygadeniis is preferable etymologically and commonest in

literature but, according to the Code of nomenclature, Michaux's original

spelling Zigadenus should be used.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 51

tional or subgeneric weight only, and to consider Anticlea and Toxicoscordion as synonyms of Zigadenus.

Presumably all species of Zigademis are more or less toxic both

for animals and man. The most common and important western

species are probably grassy deathcamaB (Z. gramineus Rytlb.),

meadow deathcamas (Z. venenosus S. Wats.), foothill deathcamas

[Z. paniculatus (Nutt.) S. Wats.], and mountain deathcamas (Z.

elegans Pursh). Of these grassy and meadow deathcamas are

the most dangerous. The more virulent species of deathcamas

cause the majority of sheep losses from poisonous plants on spring

and early summer ranges because they are green and succulent

far in advance of most others plants (129, 133). Plants of this

genus are usually dried up before the sheep reach the higher summer ranges, and hence, as a rule, are not then a source of temptation to that class of livestock. Cattle are seldom poisoned unless

forced to graze on heavily infested areas where other forage is

scarce. Horses rarely, if ever, eat deathcamas.

Marsh (129) gives the symptoms of deathcamas poisoning as

frothing at the mouth, nausea with vomiting, great weakness accompanied sometimes with nervousness and resulting in collapse

of the animal, which may lie without food for hours, or even days,

before death. White permanganate of potash, aluminum sulfate,

and bleeding have been recommended (39, 196) as remedies for

deathcamas poisoning, the only practical defense or control, under

range conditions, is to keep the animals away from heavily infested areas (131). All parts of these plants are more or less toxic

and sometimes very small quantities will produce injury. The

mature seeds are especially toxic but, fortunately, the plants are

dry and not very palatable at the time of seed dissemination (131,

U6).

Early western explorers frequently mentioned the poisonous

deathcamases and their likeness to camases, whose edible bulbs

were used extensively as food by the Indians. Despite the fact that

the Indians were familiar with the danger in deathcamas, many

cases of poisoning occurred among them. The Indians believed

that deathcamas bulbs possess medicinal value. Chemical analyses

(9A, 121t) have shown the presence of mixed alkaloids which hasten

the heartbeat and make it irregular, slow the respiration, cause

convulsions, and have a powerful purgative, emetic, and diuretic

action; also of an alkaloid called zygaderdne (CsoHcsNOio) which

behaves in general very much like the powerful heart-depressant

veratrine (C32H19NO11), a group of poisonus substances frequently

occurring in plants of the bunchflower family and which apparently does not cause convulsions (124). Additional toxic alkaloids

have been isolated from deathcamases by Prof. Jacobson of the

Nevada Agricultural College and others, and the toxicological

chemistry of these plants must still be regarded as in the investigative stage.

At certain stages of growth, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish deathcamas from such related but harmless plants as camas

(Camassia), onion (Allium), brodiaea (Brodiaea), and mariposa
52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(Calochortus). Deathcamases often grow in association with

onions and brodiaeas, or "wild hyacinths." During the early

spring, when these plants are about 3 to 4 inches high, they all

look very much alike. Onions can be identified easily by noting the

strong characteristic onion odor. If the onion odor is not present

and if, upon cutting a cross section of the leaf, the midrib is distinctly hollow, forming a hollow tube the length of the leaf, the

plant may be a brodiaea.

Camases usually are in bloom in the early spring and, as nearly

all of them have blue or bluish flowers, they are not likely to be

mistaken for deathcamas. After both camas and deathcamas are in

fruit, it may again be somewhat difficult to distinguish between

them. The leaves fold up lengthwise in deathcamas, while camas

leaves remain flat. The mature capsules of deathcamas are usually

smaller, more pointed and beaked, narrower in proportion to the

length, and split along the partitions separating the 3 cells, whereas the ripe capsules of camas split loculicidally down the midrib

on the back of the 3 cells. The mariposas (including sego-lily) are

easily distinguished as the majority of them have only one or

two basal leaves.

Mountain deathcamas [^Zigadenus elegans Pursh, syns. Anticlea

elegans (Pursh) Rydb., Z. chloranthus Richards., Z. coloradensis

Rydb.] ranges from Alaska south to eastern Oregon, Nevada,

Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, western Montana, and Manitoba.

This is a species mainly of wet mountain meadows, occasionally

40 inches tall, with relatively large and showy, whitish, creamcolored or yellowish flowers, the perianth segments ("petals")

about 3/8 inch (9-10 mm.) long, the basal glands reverse heart

shaped (obcordate), ovary partly inferior, the middle floral bracts

thin (scarious) margined and tipped, and the fruiting capsules

about twice as long as the flowers. It is often confused in literature with white deathcamas (Z. glaucus Nutt.), a wholly eastern

and midwestern species, which is closely related but quite distinct.

Marsh and Clawson (136) found that mountain deathcamas is

only about a seventh as toxic as Z. gramineiis and "while it may

poison livestock (it) probably does little or no damage under

practical range conditions."

Grassy deathcamas (Zigadenus gramineus Rydb., syns. Toxicoscordion gramineum Rydb., Z. intermedius Rydb.) ranges from

Saskatchewan to South Dakota, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and eastern

Washington. It appears to be absent from Oregon, California, Arizona, and New Mexico. It is a smooth bulbous plant 8 to 14 inches

high—rarely as low as 4 inches or as high as 20 inches, the linear

leaves 4 to 8 inches long and all provided with distinct membranous sheaths; the light yellow flowers have the 3 long-claived,

ovate, blunt-tipped petals somewhat heart shaped (subcordate) at

base, the 3 lower floral segments (sepals) broadly ovate, blunt

tipped and very short clawed at base; the margins of the basal

glands are not sharply defined; the ovary is wholly superior.

The species occurs on hills and meadows between elevations of

about 4,000 and 7,000 feet, usually in sandy or gravelly soils ; it is
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 53

found in scattering stand in sagebrush and open park areas and,

to a lesser extent, in open aspen and high benchlands. It was long

confused with the better known meadow deathcamas (Zigadenus

venenosus) and is now known to be even more poisonous. McLaughlin (126) found that an intravenous injection of an extract

of this plant resulted in a respiratory inhibition in sheep which, in

large doses, caused a form of asphyxia. Marsh and Clawson (129,

130) reported it as the most dangerous of all species of deathcamas.

Foothill deathcamas [Zigadenus paniculatiis (Nutt.) S. Wats.]

(fig. 11), sometimes called "panicled deathcamas," "panicled zygadene," and "sandcorn," ranges from Saskatchewan and Montana

to northwestern New Mexico, northern Arizona, Nevada, California (largely on the east side of the Sierra Nevada), Oregon,

Washington, and Idaho. It is a fairly stout perennial herb, occasionally as much as 30 inches high, from a large bulb. The sheathing leaves are 6 to 16 inches long, mostly from or near the base,

relatively broad (up to 10 mm., or % inch wide). The flowers,

pale yellow or greenish or yellowish white, are small, numerous,

in a dense terminal panicle; the perianth segments are small (not

over 5 mm., or Vs inch) long, abruptly contracted into a short

claw and sometimes almost heart shaped (stihcordate) at base,

rather sharp tipped, the upper margins of the obovate basal glands

thin, toothed, and not sharply defined ; the stamens are exserted

and the ovary superior.

The plant grows mostly on dry open hillsides between elevations

of 2,000 and 9,000 feet, occasionally on flats; its typical habitat

is loose sandy, gravelly or even rocky sites, but it is sometimes

found in moist to wet loamy or even clayey situations, generally

scattered and rather sparse but occasionally growing in a dense

stand. As a general rule livestock will not touch this plant except

when other feed is scarce. Losses are most apt to occur early in the

spring, for this is one of the first plants to appear. Marsh and

Clawson (129, 130) report that, although this plant is only about

one-third as poisonous as Zigadenus gramineus and Z. venenosus,

it "causes serious losses of sheep, more particularly in Utah and

Nevada."

Meadow deathcamas [Zigadenus venenosus S. Wats., syn. Toxicoscordion venenosum (S. Wats.) Rydb.] is found from British

Columbia to California, Utah, Nebraska, and South Dakota, its

altitudinal range extending from 1,400 to 8,000 feet. The species

prefers rich, moist bottom lands and lower foothills, but sometimes

grows on rocky sites. This plant does not ordinarily appear in pure

stands, but is very plentiful on some overgrazed ranges. It is a

smooth, bulbous perennial herb about 10 inches to 2 feet tall ; the

upper leaves are toithout sheaths; the inflorescence, about 4 to 8

inches long, is usually a simple raceme, elongating in fruit. The

small greenish or yellovdsh flowers, appearing during May and

June, have both sepals and petals distinctly clawed and more or less

heart shaped (subcordate) at base, the basal glands with a thick

toothed margin. Seed dissemination is largely in July and August.

The specific name venenosus is a Latin word meaning poisonous.
54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-216493

FIGURE 11.—Foothill deathcamas [Zigadenus paniculati(s (Nutt.) S. Wats.].

Flowering panicle at right; part of fruiting stalk at left.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 55

Meadow deathcamas is one of the most toxic of our western

range plants (132), probably the best known of all the deathcamases, and is responsible for the loss of thousands of sheep. It

is particularly dangerous on early spring ranges when it furnishes

green, succulent feed in advance of many other plants. The best

way to prevent losses is to herd the sheep away from the areas

which are heavily infested. Cultivation will kill meadow deathcamas, but good range management is probably the most practical

method of permanent control, especially if supplemented by the

seeding of suitable range grasses to crowd out the meadow deathcamas. Sheep are not likely to eat the plant if plenty of other forage is available. Losses seldom occur on the high summer range, as

there is then an abundance of other succulent forage and the

meadow deathcamas plants become dry and unpalatable before the

sheep arrive.

Fremont deathcamas (Zigadenus fremontii Torr,, syn. Z. douglasii Torr.), named for its discoverer, "The Pathfinder," General

John Charles Fremont, is a chiefly Pacific Coast Range species from

the Coquille River, Coos County, southwestern Oregon, south to at

least San Diego, Calif. It has large flowers for the genus, the white

or yellowish floral segments often being about one-half inch long.

Bailey's Cyclopedia (8) lists it as probably the most promising

species of the genus for ornamental cultivation. Marsh, Clawson

and Marsh (133) list it as poisonous, and a report from the Lassen

National Forest, Calif., states that local stockmen claim it to be

"deadly poison, the bulb especially" for both sheep and cattle.

SMILAX SUBFAMILY (SMILACOIDEAE)

This subfamily, considered by some botanists as a distinct family, is represented in this country by the following genus :

Srnilax, or Greenbrier (Smilax)

This is a very large genus, chiefly occurring in tropical America

and Asia. Most of the species are woody, often spiny and prickly

vines arising from thickened often tuberous rootstocks and climbing by tendrils from the leafstalks (petioles) ; the fruit is a berry.

There are two species only in the western range country, California

smilax or greenbrier [Smilax californica (A. DC.) A. Gray] of California and Oregon, a woody vine, and the herbaceous carrionflower

(S. herbácea L.), which is found over the greater part of the

United States and occurs in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains

regions, as well as in some areas of the East, in the much shorterpeduncled and woolly-veined S. herbácea var. lasioneuron (Hook.)

A. DC. [syns. S. lasioneuron Hook., Nemexia lasioneuron (Hook.)

Rydb.].

The western smilaxes, or greenbriers, are of no or very limited

forage value for domestic livestock, although hogs will sometimes

root up and eat the rhizomes. Some birds and rabbits will eat the

berries and deer may crop the leaves. The eastern species have

about the same values except that laurel smilax or greenbrier
56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(Smilax laurifolia L.) has been reported from southwest Georgia

as highly palatable to cattle. To the woodsman smilaxes are often

an egregious pest because of their spininess and impediment to

progress.

Tropical American species of Smilax, such as Mexican sarsaparilla (S. aristolochiaefolia Mill, syn. S. medica Cham. & Schlecht.)

and drug sarsaparilla (S. oßcinalis Kunth), are the source of commercial sarsaparilla. Certain Asiatic species, such as Java smilax

(S. macrocarpa Blume), and Ceylon smilax (S. zeylanica L.) are

being studied (64) for their apparent medicinal value in uremic

poisoning.

IRIS FAMILY (IRIDAGEAE)

The iris family, closely allied to the lily family, is composed of

herbaceous plants perennial from (often acrid) rootstocks (rhizomes), corms or bulbs. The leaves are relatively narrow, parallel

veined, equitant (i. e., overlapping in 2 rows) ; the flowers (often

large and showy) consist of 3 petals, 3 sepals, 3 stamens alternating with the petals, and a more or less inferior ovary vdth a

usually 3-lobed stigma. The fruit is a 3-celled capsule splitting between the partitions (loculicidally dehiscent), with many (often

large) seeds, the withering perianth (petals and sepals) falling

off from the summit. There are four range genera of the family,

provided (as possibly the majority of botanists agree) that Hydastylus and Nemastylis be regarded as distinct genera and provided that Olsynium. and Oreolirion be regarded as synonyms of

Sisyrinchium. The family appears to be relatively unimportant

on the range, though the members need further study from the

range viewpoint. Iridaceae include many important ornamentals ;

for example, Crocus and Gladiolus, as well as Iris, belong to this

family.

Iris (Iris)

Iris is an enormous, widespread genus, with perhaps 15 valid

species in the western range area, 12 of which are confined to the

Pacific region. Other common names are flag, flag-lily, fleur-de-lis,

snake-lily, and waterflag. Generally, irises are found in moist to

wet sites, or in situations where plenty of moisture is present early

in the season during the main growth period, despite that such

sites subsequently become very dry. However, the distribution of

irises in the West is spotted rather than general, although these

species frequently are so abundant on favorable sites that they

form nearly pure stands.

In general the palatability of irises to domestic livestock is zero.

They are sometimes important obstacles to range improvement, in

that they tend to increase on overgrazed areas adapted to their

growth, and when once established greatly retard the regeneration

of palatable forage species. The rhizomes of some species are

known to be poisonous and, if ever eaten, would be a source of

danger.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 57

The genus is of great commercial ornamental importance. The

American Iris Society has recognized some 19,000 named commercial varieties and hybrids which have been developed through intensive cultivation, and practically all natural species are in cultivation (111).

The Indians formerly used the tough, flexible fibers from the leaf

margins of certain species, such as Oregon iris (Iris tenax Dougl.)-,

in making strong twine for snares and nets. They also used the

rhizomes, or rootstocks of blueflag iris (I. versicolor L.), a widespread species in the Eastern United States, as a remedy for

stomach disorders. Henkel (93) states that the Indians are reputed to have grown this plant for its medicinal value and that

both Indians and whites used an extract of the rootstock of this

species as an alterative, diuretic, purgative, and as a remedy for

dropsy.

The rootstock is listed as an official drug in the United States Dispensatory (1A7). In 1895, Rusby (169) reported that the rootstocks of blueflag iris contain irisin (CnHmOg), a starchlike compound, an oleoresin, and an apparently toxic glucoside iridin

ÍC24H06O13). The rhizome in the fresh state possesses considerable potency as a cathartic and emetic. It has no odor, but the

taste is acrid and nauseous. In 1911 Power and Salway (163), in

further analysis of the roots of this species, disclosed that the principal compounds are yellow oil, isophthalic acid, salicylic acid,

tannin, sugar, and resins containing fatty acids.

In addition to Iris versicolor, the rootstocks of four other iris

species are hsted as official drugs (216; 111, p. 197), viz: German

iris (Iris germánica L. ) ; orrisroot iris (I. germánica var. florentina

Dykes, syn. /. florentina Ker not L., the latter an uncertain name) ;

sweet iris (I. pallida Lam.), and Virginia iris (I. virginica L.).

Commercial orrisroot (most of which is imported from Italy),

used in medicine, as a sachet powder, for dry shampoos, and for

cleaning teeth, is derived from the rhizomes of orrisroot iris and

sweet iris, mentioned above. The seeds of yellowflag iris (I. pseudacorus L.), an Old World species naturalized in the country, have

been used as a substitute for colfee.

By far the commonest and most widely distributed western

species of this genus is Rocky Mountain iris (Iris missoitriensis

iVutt.) (fig. 12), which ranges from North Dakota to British Columbia, southern California (Pacific range is mainly east of Cascades

and Sierra Nevada Divide), and New Mexico. It is the only native

iris in the entire Rocky Mountain area unless one or two segregates

of it are accepted. It is a perennial herb from thickened, dark,

fibrous-coated, underground rootstocks. The rather slender stems

are 8 to 20 (occasionally 40) inches tall, leafless or with but a single

leaf above the middle ; the showy, pale blue flowers are subtended

by two rather broad and contiguous, thin pale and dry (scarious)

bracts, the flower tube narrowed below and short (under 1/2 inch).

The plant is chiefly found in bottom lands or moist situations, in

meadows and parks, at elevations upward to 10,000 feet. It generally grows in small clumps or patches but, under favorable con-
58 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-236004

FIGURE 12.—Rocky Mountain iris (Iris missouyiensis Nutt.).

ditions, may occur in dense, nearly pure stands of considerable

size. However, it also frequently grows in such sites as gravelly

hillsides which dry out during the summer. This species flowers

from May to July, depending on latitude and elevation. If moisture

is available the plants remain green throughout the summer, otherv/ise they dry up in midsummer after seed matures.

Rocky Mountain iris is ordinarily worthless as a forage plant

but, when its stand is increasing, it may be an indicator of overgrazing, as its robust underground (undoubtedly more or less poisonous) rootstocks enable it to withstand trampling and to spread

rather rapidly when other vegetation is weakened. However, it

has been reported as good bear feed on the Santa Fe National Forest (New Mexico) and has been noted as nibbled after frost on the

Sitgreaves National Forest (Arizona). This species, when once

extensively established, greatly retards the revegetation of the

range by more palatable plants. It is a good soil binder but its

characteristic habitats, moist rich soils, are potentially capable of

supporting other plants of equal soil-holding qualities and of

greater forage value.

Coville (47) found that Klamath Indian medicine men sometimes used the rootstocks of this plant, mixed with the bulbs of

meadow deathcamas (Zigadenus venenostis S. Wats.) and a little

tobacco, as smoking material for their "patients." This induced
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 59

severe nausea and resulted in a heavy fee to make the sick man

well again.

The following two species may be cited as representative of the

group of native Pacific States irises :

1. Foothill iris (Iris hartwegii Baker), known also as Hartweg

iris and Sierra iris, is a small California iris, ranging chiefly in

foothills of the Coast Mountains and Sierra Nevada—in the latter

as far south as Kern County and, in the former, practically the

entire length of the State ; it also occurs up into the mixed conifer

type in the mountains. The species is a frequent associate of

deathcamas on dry ridges. The stems are 4 to 12 inches high, the

basal leaves equalling or surpassing them. There are usually two

flowers; they vary in color from yellow with lavender veins to

dark-veined forms with lilac on the border of the "petals" and the

inner part yellow; the stout floral tube is venj short (about 14 inch

long). The species, as do a number of western plants, commemorates Karl Theodor Hartweg (1812-71), a native of Germany and

early western botanical explorer and collector.

2. Tube iris (Iris macrosiphon Torr.), sometimes called "ground

iris," is a native of the California coastal ranges. It has a slender

rootstock; low slender somewhat flattened stems IV2 to 8 inches

high, the basal leaves much surpassing them ; linear-lance-shaped,

long-tapered bracts, and 1 or 2 bright blue or purplish flowers, the

floral tube very slender and elongated—IV2 to 3l^ inches long.

Neither of the above two species appears to have any forage significance; both are in ornamental cultivation.

Blue-Eyedgrass (Sisyrinchium)

There are perhaps 16 western range species of this genus, the

number depending on one's specific concept (for many segregates

have been proposed) and on whether or not are included the yellowflowered Oreolirion group and the monotypic, large-reddish-purplish-flowered Olsynium with filaments united at the base only.

These plants are relatively small herbs perennial from fibrous roots

and a short rhizome ; the leaves are linear and 2 edged or 2 winged ;

the flowers are mostly rather small, regular, blue or bluish except

in albino forms and in the Olsynmm and Oreolirion sections, in a

small, almost umbel-like cluster subtended by bracts (spathe), the

perianth segments ("petals") usually ending in a short point (apiculate), the pistil surrounded by the stamen tube. The fruiting capsules are globular but somewhat bluntly 3 angled, containing

small spherical seeds. Most of the species are characteristic of

moist meadows and streambanks but occasionally they occur in

drier places. Probably in general they are of slight or negligible

forage significance, but there appear to be exceptions and further

study of the matter is strongly indicated.

The following five briefly annotated species are among the most

typical range members of this genus :

1. Common blue-eyetlgrass (Sisyrinchium angustifolium Mill.,

syns. S. anceps Cav., S. gramineum Lam.), with narrow leaves

drying blackish, and often nearly equaling the stems, the two
60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

bracts of the spathe about the same length, is the most widespread

of our native species ; it ranges from Newfoundland and Quebec to

British Columbia and south to Montana, Colorado, Kansas, Texas,

and Florida. As a rule this plant is regarded as negligible from

the forage standpoint.

2. California blue-eyedgrass (Sisyrinchium bellum S. Wats.),

also known as western blue-eyedgrass and nigger-babies and, by

Spanish-speaking people, as "azalea" and "villela," is the common

blue-eyedgrass of California and Lower California, growing almost

everywhere in moist meadows and grassy hillsides from near sea

level to the ponderosa pine type but rare in desert and other dry

areas. The stems are about 4 to 20 inches high, noticeably overtopping the leaves, and are marked in this genus because of the

possession of one or more nodes, or joints, from each of which

proceed from 1 to 4 flower stalks.

The flowers are bluish or violet purple, with a yellow "eye," and

the 6 segments (petallike parts) are relatively broad, with 4 to 6

nerves, cut and toothed at the apex. The two spathe bracts are

nearly equal in length ; the stamen ñlaments are united to the top,

and the fruiting capsules are brownish green. According to present

knowledge, the forage value of this plant is unimportant; it is

sometimes cultivated as an ornamental, a situation suggested by

its scientific name beUmn (Latin adjective for beautiful). A related species, with the similar habit of branching stems, is stickypod blue-eyedgrass (S. radicatum Bickn.). It has elliptical glandular fruits. This species occurs in moist-wet sites from "desert" to

mountain types in Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and northern Arizona.

3. Douglas blue-eyedgrass [Sisyrinchium douglasii A. Dietr.,

syns. S. grandiflornm Dougl. (1830) not Cav. (1790), Olsynkim

douglasii (A. Dietr.) Bickn.] occurs along streams, in moist meadows, and the like from the big sagebrush to the ponderosa pine

and aspen types, from British Columbia to northern California,

Nevada, Utah, and Idaho. The plant is 6 to 14 inches high; the

stems are somewhat flattened but are not margined or winged ; the

basal leaves are much reduced and bractlike ; the outer bract of the

spathe is much elongated and overtops the flowers; the reddish

purple (rarely white) flowers, the largest among our native species,

appear early (March-April), the segments, or petal like parts up

to 20 mm., or ^-, inch long, the stamen stalks (filaments) are united

at the base only, the pistil stalk (style) much longer than the

stamens. The plant is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental ; it is

generally considered negligible as forage.

4. Idaho blue-eyedgrass (Sisyrinchitim idahoense Bickn.) (fig.

13) occurs in mostly low-altitude, moist grasslands from southern

British Columbia to western Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and

California. It is a fibrous-rooted perennial with slender, unbranched, mostly leafless, winged flowering stems 4 to 16 inches

high. The firm basal leaves, about half as long as the stems, are narrow (1 to 3.5 mm. broad). The flowers, on hairless (glabrous) stalks

vary from pale blue (almost white) to violet purple, with a small

yellow eye, the 6 perianth segments ("petals") about % to %,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 61

F-194458

FIGURE 13.—Idaho blue-eyedgrass {Sisyrinchium idahoetise Bickn.).

occasionally nearly % inch long, ending in a sharp tip (aristulate),

the ovary glandular ; the 2 spathe bracts dissimilar, green or somewhat purple, often deflexed, often shorter than the flowers, the

inner broader and shorter than the 1 to 2y2-inch-long outer bract.

The species apparently is of no forage significance.

5. Montana blue-eyedgrass (Sisyrinchium. occidentale Bickn.)

occurs from Montana and Idaho to Nevada, Utah, Wyoming,

Colorado, and New Mexico; possibly also in North Dakota. The

flower segments are one-half inch long or more, deep blue or purplish and rounded at the tip; the fruiting capsules are rounded

and smooth. Alkali blue-eyedgrass (S. halophilum Greene), growing in alkaline meadows of the sagebrush and woodland types of

Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada, is closely related but the flowers are

smaller, paler, the segments sharp tipped and the fruiting capsules

fine-hairy ('puheriilent). The forage value of both species generally

appears to be negligible but both have been observed to be limitedly

grazed by cattle.

ORCHID FAMILY (ORGHIDAGEAE)

This well-known family, represented in the western range area

by 16 genera and 70 species, is of little or no forage importance.

The family provides many cultivated ornamentals. Despite its immense size, it is of little economic interest. The roots of our native
62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

and widely distributed small yellow ladyslipper [Cypripedium calceolus var. parviflorum (Salisb.) Fern., syn. C. parviflorum Salisb.]

are an official drug used as an antispasmodic. The leaves of Bourbontea [Jumellea fragrans (Thouars) Schlechter, syn. Angraecum

fragrans Thouars], a native orchid of the Mascarene Islands (east

of Madagascar), furnish a fragrant, tealike beverage known as

Bourbon tea and faham tea, popular in France and elsewhere.

Mexico is the chief source of the familiar flavoring extract derived

from the "beans" or pods of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews).

Saleps, used as food and for their starches and gums, are derived

from the tubers of European species of Orchis and East Indies species of Eulophia.

NETTLE FAMILY (URTIGAGEAE)

So far as the western range is concerned this family consists of

three genera and about a dozen species. The only genus of any

range significance is Urtica. The family is closely related botanically to the elm-hackberry (Ulmaceae), mulberry-fig-Osage-orange

(Moraceae), and hemphops (Cannabinaceae) families which were,

in fact, included in Urticaceae in the older botanies. Our species

are annual or perennial herbs, more or less hispid or hairy (in two

genera with stinging hairs) ; leaves opposite or alternate, simple,

toothed or entire, with or without stipules ; flowers small, greenish,

in loose clusters from the leaf axils or in catkinlike spikes, perfect

or one-sexed, the sexes sometimes separated on individual plants ;

there are no petals ; the calyx is 2 to 5 (often 4) lobed, the (often 4)

stamens are coiled like a watchspring and, when released, are able

to fling the pollen for quite a distance ; the fruit is dry (an achene),

flattened of ovoid, covered by the persistent calyx, and with a

straight embryo. Ramie (Boehmeria nivea), the strongest of all

fibers, belongs to this family.

One of the genera, hesperocnide (Hesperocnide) consists of but

one Califomian species (there is another in Hawaii) ; it is an

opposite-leaved annual with stinging hairs, similar to the genus

Urtica but with technical floral distinctions, and apparently has no

range significance. It is sometimes called by the trite name "western nettle" (a translation of the Greek generic name).

A second genus is pellitory (Parietaria), with three range species. They are small annuals with alternate leaves, no stipules,

and no stinging hairs. Probably the best-known species is the Old

World wall pellitory (P. officinalis L.), common on walls and houses,

and formerly an official drug plant as a diuretic.

Nettle (Urtica)

This genus, with about eight range species, consists of annual

or perennial herbs, with opposite leaves of an ovate or lanceolate

type, having the borders sharply toothed or cut ; stipules present

at the base of the leafstalks ; flowers 4 parted, the segments of the

pistillate (female) flowers have the 2 outer ones usually smaller

than the 2 inner ones; the achenes are compressed. Nettles are
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 63

generally regarded as pests because of the stinging hairs, which

livestock (especially horses) and people tend to avoid.

The Old World bigsting nettle (Urtica dioica L.) and clog nettle

(V. urens L.), which are widely naturalized in this country, are

generally thought to be worse than our native species. The skin

rash caused by nettles is sometimes referred to as urticaria, though

that term is more often used by physicians for blotches, wheals,

or rash caused by some digestive disturbance or allergy. The reddening, intense burning, swelling and itching due to these plants

may remain for only a few minutes or last for hours ; the stinging

tips of the hairs break off under the skin.

Feldberg (68) claims that the irritating properties of Urtica

dioica are not due to formic acid, as has commonly been reported,

but to a combination of acetycholine and histamin (both of which,

incidentally, occur in ergot). Long (123) mentions the death of a

dog from this species reported in Berliner Tierärztliche Wochenschrift (1909). It is of interest in this connection that, in a letter

to me dated March 26, 1958, Dr. William L. Giles, Superintendent

of the Delta Branch Experiment Station, Stoneville, Miss., states

that "for the past year or two hunters in the Mississippi Delta

have been reporting cases of hunting dogs becoming lame and some

of them dying as a result of poisoning from the (locally very common) Urtica chamaedryoides Pursh."

With a few possible exceptions the palatability of nettles to

domestic livestock varies from nil to low; deer sometimes crop

them a little. Despite their unpopularity, nettles are not without

some economic interest. Smith (183), in annotating Urtica dioica,

says : "Cultivated in France as an early soiling crop for mules and

milch cows. The seeds are fed to horses. It grows in arid, sandy,

and stony land and in very cold places where few other crops

succeed."

Available analyses appear to indicate that nettles are high in protein. For example, Herbage Abstracts for March 1936, in furnishing notes from P. F. Medvedev's paper The Nettles of the U.S.S.R.:

Specific Composition, Distribution and Utilization (1934)

states : "Nettles, particularly annual forms, are superior to lucerne

or clover in mineral content, and to lucerne, Sudan grass * * * ¡n

protein * * * The plants are therefore excellent fodder and have

been so used in northern countries for many years. The presence

of vitamins A and C in the green forage renders it valuable ***"

Fernald and Kinsey (70) refer to the popularity of nettles among

country people in Europe, especially Scotland and Ireland, as a

potherb and for the former use of the flaxlike ñbers for making

sheets and tablecloths, for which purpose some considered it more

durable than linen. Occasional reports are heard of the use of

nettles as a spinach substitute in this country; one must assume

the plants are garnered with heavy gloves.

Perhaps the two commonest range species are narrowleaf nettle

(Urtica gracilis Alton) and Lyall nettle (U. lyalli S. Wats.). Narrowleaf nettle, sometimes called slender nettle, ranges from Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay region to Alaska and south to Cali-
64 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

fornia, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina. It occurs

in a variety of sites, waste places (fence rows, old fields, etc.),

damp woods, canyons, rich alluvial soils along streams, etc. In the

mountains it is found chiefly in the ponderosa pine belt, and is

often common locally. In Colorado is occurs between elevations of

4,000 and 9,000 feet. Livestock generally avoid it, and it is commonly regarded as worthless for forage.

Chesnut (37) refers to narrowleaf nettle covering thousands of

acres of reclaimed swampland in Michigan and Wisconsin, and

to the difliculties of cultivation due to its presence. Blankinship

(27) notes that the Sioux Indians called the root of this plant

"shanpi" or "wicaro nakum" and used it "as a remedy for retention

of urine" (reminiscent of the fact that the roots of the Old World

Vrtica dioica L. and [/. pilulifera L. have diuretic properties, fid",

Lyons). Blankinship continues: "the bark appears to have been

used for cordage and the young shoots were employed as a

potherb."

Lyall nettle (Vrtica lyallii S. Wats.), ranging along streams and

in bottom lands from Vancouver Island and British Columbia to

California, and Idaho, is similar to narrowleaf nettle but with considerably broader leaves. It is named for Dr. David Lyall, surgeon

botanist of the U.S. Canadian International Boundary Survey

(1858-60). Ordinarily it is regarded as worthless for forage.

BUCKWHEAT FAMILY (POLYGONACEAE)

This is a moderately large, rather widely distributed family,

represented in the western range area by about 12 genera and 315

species, of which the greater part, except perhaps for the genus

Eriogonum (which is particularly well developed in the Rocky

Mountain region), occur in California. The bulk of the 36 range

species of Chorizanthe (low, often prostrate or spreading annual

or perennial herbs) occur in California ; those species with awned

floral involucres are called "spineflower" and two species (Palmer

spineflower, C, palmeri S. Wats., and Turkish-rug, C. staticoides

Benth.) are occasionally cultivated as ornamentals in warm dry

areas. Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, syn.

F. sagittatum Gilib.) occurs as an occasional escape from

cultivation.

Four annuals of monotypic genera are confined to California:

jsoldcarpet (Gilmania luteola Coville, syn. Phyllogonum luteolum

Coville), hoUisteria (Hollisteria lanata S. Wats.), wooUyheads

(TSemacaulis denudata Nutt.), and pterostegia (Pterostegia drymarioides Fisch. & Mey.). In addition, there are in California two

other introduced annuals: Spiny emex [Emex spinosa (L.)

Campd.] from the Southern Hemisphere, and lastarriaea (Lastarriaea chilensis Remy) apparently from Chile. None of these annuals is known to have any particular forage significance.

From the range standpoint there are three important genera:

Eriogonum, Polygonum (including its segregates), and Rumex.

This importance is due more to the great number of species, wide
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 65

distribution, and abundance than to high palatability. In addition

to a number of cultivated ornamentals and buckwheat, the familycontains the garden rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum L.) and the

medicinal rhubarbs, especially sorrel rhubarb (R. palmatum L.),

the latter also grown as an ornamental foliage plant. Polygonaceae

are herbs, vines, shrubs or trees, with mostly alternate (sometimes

opposite or whorled) and entire leaves; the stipules usually united

into a sheathing tube (ocreae); small, 2- to 6-parted flowers, a

superior ovary, and a dry indéhiscent, 1-celled, 1-seeded fruit

(achene).

Eriogonum (Eriogonum)

Eriogonums form an exclusively North American genus ; there

are about 175 species in the 11 Far Western States, the Rocky

Mountains area being the chief center of distribution, and all but 4

species, outside of the comparatively few Mexican ones, occur between the Pacific Ocean and the Mississippi River. Various local

names are applied to these plants, including catsfoot, grouseweed,

Indian-tobacco, and wild buckwheat. Growth habit within the

genus is variable. The species may be annuals or perennial herbs,

undershrubs or shrubs. Most species have taproots ; some of the

undershrubs have spreading or prostrate stems which tend to

root at the joints or near the ends.

The herbaceous eriogonums frequently have but one main stem,

which may be either simple or branched and with or without leaves.

Those species inclined to be shrubby usually have several stems, but

often the flower-bearing parts are herbaceous, erect, and leafless

(scapelike). The leaves are simple and entire, and in many herbaceous species are basal, but they may also occur alternately or

in whorls on the stems. The small individual flowers are jointed

to a slender stalk (pedicel), with 6 segments in 2 rows, 9 stamens,

and 3 styles, and are arranged in umbels, heads, cymes, racemes or

other clusters, often compounded, various groups of flowers more

or less protruding from a 4- to 8-toothed or lobed involucre. The

fruit is a 3-angled or 3-winged achene.

The eriogonums appear at practically all elevations, from sea

level to above timberline. However, throughout their range they

are primarily plants of essentially dry situations preferring rocky,

sandy, and well-drained soils in regions of moderate or low rainfall,

and can even withstand long dry summers. Most of them grow in

exposed, sunny, and warm sites, even when associated with brush

or conifer and other woodland types. The genus is perhaps most

abundantly represented in the foothill areas, especially those bordering the deserts of the Intermountain, Southwestern, and California regions.

As a group, the eriogonums are inferior forage plants. Their

importance is due to abundance, wide geographic distribution, and

great number of species. Their use is limited largely to spring and

fall or winter. In the spring the new growth, especially in the

herbaceous species, is somewhat succulent, so that livestock tend to

crop it, or to nip off the flower heads as they develop. Because of
66 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

the absence of more palatable forage during the fall or winter, the

somewhat shrubby species are at least slightly grazed. Taken as a

whole, the eriogonums, so far as their herbage is concerned, probably average from worthless to poor for cattle, and from poor to

fair for sheep. Livestock, however, particularly sheep, are fond

of the flowering tops and frequently pick these off and ignore the

rest.

The eriogonums seldom form extensive patches or become the

dominant vegetation, but are characteristically scattered with

greater or less frequency among associated plants; exceptions to

this rule include the local concentration of some annual species on

depleted areas.

Economic notes for four shrubby eriogonums are given in Important Western Browse Plants (5J,.) and the Range Plant Handbook (20U). Brief notes on some of the commonest herbaceous

species follow.

Wing eriogonum (Eriogonum alatum Torr.) (fig. 14), a rather

coarse hairy herb perennial from an elongated thick taproot,

ranges from the Panhandle area of Texas, through western OklaF-305158

FIGURE 14.—Wing eriogonum (Eriogonum alatum Torr.) and nodding eriogonum (E. cernuum Nutt.).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 67

homa, Kansas, and Nebraska, to southern Wyoming, Utah, and

Arizona. The stout erect, usually single stem is 12 to 40 inches

high. The leaves are mainly in a basal tuft, of a reverse lanceshaped type with the broader end forward, hairy above, about 1

to 4 inches long, the stalks of old leaves persisting on the rootcrown. Greenish yellow flowers appear mainly during July and

August in open panicles. The fruits are 3 winged, relatively large

(about 1^ inch long) achenes.

Wing eriogonum occurs scatteringly from sagebrush plains to

foothills and, in the mountains, up to the ponderosa pine and

Engelmann spruce belts, chiefly in rather dry sandy soils. The

plant is seldom touched by cattle; the tops are the part chiefly

nibbled; when sufficiently abundant it is considered as a fair

species on southwestern goat and sheep ranges. The root was

used medicinally by certain Indians (109, 191).

There are two annuals of no importance for grazing but worthy

of mention because of commonness. (1) Nodding eriogonum

(Eriogonum cernuum Nutt.) (fig. 14) is often plentiful in waste

places and in overgrazed areas on plains, foothills, and canyons

upward to the spruce belt. It ranges from Alberta and Saskatchewan, to Nebraska, Kansas, New Mexico, California (Colorado

desert), and eastern Oregon. This annual grows from 6 to 16

inches high, with a much-branched inflorescence. The small

white or pinkish flowers are borne in numerous, characteristically

nodding, stalked clusters scattered along the branches of the inflorescence. (2) Broom eriogonum (E. vimineum Dougl.) has

several wiry branching stems, a somewhat broomlike appearance,

and is borne rather stifily erect. The rather few, stalkless, rosecolored, or yellowish flowers are clustered at the ends of the panicle

branches. Its range is from eastern Washington and Idaho south

to California »Arizona, and southwestern Utah.

Closely related to the preceding species (Eriogonum vimineum)

is sorrel eriogonum (E. polycladon Benth.) a densely white-wooly

annual with erect, many-branched stems from about 12 to 20 inches

high. Its numerous, bright rose-pink flowers, rather suggestive of

sorrel, are borne in slender, one-sided racemes. It occurs in dry,

open, sandy, or gravely plains and foothills from western Texas to

Arizona and northern Mexico and has a little local utility as a sheep

and cattle weed. Bidwell and Wooton (22) have published a chemical analysis of this plant. Kearney and Peebles (109) mention

that in southern Arizona it is "so common at roadsides and in

washes as to color the landscape in places with its tall gray stems

and pink flowers."

As a vegetable curiosity perhaps another annual (though occasionally it has a longer life span) should also be mentioned here,

viz desert-trumpet (Eriogonum inflatum Torr.). It ranges from

western Colorado (rare), Utah, Nevada, and New Mexico to California, being common along washes and on mesas and deserts.

As the Latin specific adjective suggests, the swollen tubular stems,

naked except for the basal leaves, are inflated and trumpetlike

near their ends. After the terminal, diffusely branched inflores-
68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

cences fall off (often as units) and are blown away, the remaining

stems whiten and tend to separate at the joints into pieces, which,

when strewn over the ground, have given rise to the names "cigaretteplant" and "Indianpipe weed." The young stems are reported to have been eaten raw by Indians (215).

In Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Utah is another common

annual, wirestem eriogonum (Eriogonum pharnaceoides Torr.).

This species has whorled linear leaves, wiry fine-hairy stems 4

to 12 inches high, and open whorl-bracted cymes of rose-colored

ñowers. It occurs chiefly in open woodland types. Despite its

small leafage and wiry character, it is cropped a little in summer

by sheep and cattle, and is considered to provide "fair" grazing

on the Sitgreaves National Forest (Arizona), which is approximately the type locality.

Mat eriogonum (Eriogonum caespitosum Nutt.) is a low, densely

matted or cushionlike plant occurring largely on dry mountain

slopes and especially in volcanic soils, from Montana and Idaho

south to eastern Oregon, California (east of the Sierra Nevada),

Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The leaves are basal, oval

or elliptic, white-woolly on both faces. The flowers are yellow,

turning purplish or reddish in age, hairy below, several together

in hairy or woolly, deeply lobed involucres solitary at the ends of

naked stems 1 to 3 inches tall. The plant has practically no forage

value, though sheep on summer range may occasionally nip off the

skimpy tops ; it serves locally as ground cover.

Rush eriogonum (Eriogonum elatum Dougl.) occurs naturally

on dry plains and gravely, rocky hillsides from Washington to

California, Nevada, and Idaho. It has rushlike, sometimes swollen

and almost leafless stems occasionally as high as Si/o or 4 feet, with

whitish or pinkish flowers at the ends of the branches ; root and

crown are woody. The large, long-stalked basal leaves somewhat

suggest those of a small arrowleaf balsamroot [Balsamorhiza

sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.]. The forage value is insignificant.

Yellow eriogonum (Eriogonum flavum Nutt.), perennial from a

dark-colored, thickened woody root, ranges from southwestern

British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan to the Black Hills of

western South Dakota, western Nebraska and Kansas, Colorado,

Utah, the Kaibab Plateau of northern Arizona, Nevada, California,

and Oregon. It has been reported from eastern Washington but

the record appears doubtful ; there is no record of its occurrence in

Montana and New Mexico. The silky-hairy stems are mostly 4 to

10 inches high, with thickish crowded spatula-shaped leaves permanently snowy-white-woolly beneath ; the flowering umbels have

bright yellow, densely pubescent flowers with a short stipelike

base.

The plant's usual habitat is rather dry hills, canyons, and mountains up to about 3,000 feet in the north and up to 12,000 feet in

the southern part of its range. A full-page illustration of this plant

will be found in Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana (39) where it

is listed among plants suspected by stockmen of poisoning ¡stock.

There is no evidence that any species of this genus is poisonous,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 69

and it seems likely that stockmen mistook it, because of the inflorescence, for some umbellifer, or "poison parsnip."

Very closely related to yellow eriogonum, so closely in fact that

some botanists consider it a mere variation [Eriogonum flavum

var. piperi (Greene) M. E. Jones]—is Piper eriogonum (E. piperi

Greene), named for the distinguished American botanist and

agronomist Charles Vancouver Piper (1867-1926). Its type locality is in the Blue Mountains of northwestern Oregon where it

has become conspicuously abundant on some badly depleted ranges.

It occurs on high open sunny sites from Washington and Oregon

to western Montana and northwestern Wyoming. Its chief differences from typical E. fiavum are in a more matted growth and

more greenish and larger flowers which are attenuated below into

a slender tubular base.

James eriogonum (Eriogonum jamesii Benth.), known locally as

antelope sage, ground chaparral, and redroot, a somewhat trailing

perennial from a woody base, 4 to 12 inches high, occurs on plains

and foothills from western and northern Texas to western Kansas,

Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The leaves are thickish, elliptical or spatula shaped, green above, the lower surfaces

(like the stems) densely gray- or white-woolly. The flowers are

whitish or cream color, with a narrowed stipelike base, arranged

in involucres which, in turn, are in irregularly branching cymes.

The plant is named for Dr. Edwin James (1797-1861), surgeonnaturalist with the S. H. Long expedition of 1819-20 to the Rocky

Mountains, and after whom the Rocky Mountain shrub genus

Edivinia (syn. Janiesia Torr. & Gray, not Raf.) is named. Almost

negligible as a forage plant.

Barestem eriogonum (Eriogonum nudum Dougl.) (fig. 15),

sometimes called tibinagua, grows scatteringly through dry hills,

valley flats, and mountain slopes from Washington to California

and Nevada. Davis does not include it in his Flora of Idaho (50)

but a peculiar form, tentatively referred to this species, has been

collected on the old Weiser (now Payette) National Forest, west

central Idaho. The species is variable and numerous varieties have

been proposed. The smooth and rather slender stems grow up to

about 3 feet tall, the basal leaves arising from a short woody crown ;

the leaves, slender stalked, are densely short-white-woolly beneath

but soon become hairless or nearly so on the upper surface. The

flowers are usually white but often tinged with rose (or yellowish

in some varieties), and are clustered on a repeatedly two- or threeforked inflorescence. The succulent stems are palatable when

young, but later in the season livestock rarely display interest in

the plant except perhaps to nibble at the flowers.

Cushion eriogonum (Eriogonum ovaUfoUum Nutt.), sometimes

called ovalleaf eriogonum or silverplant, ranges from the Kootenay

region of southeast British Columbia and Alberta southward to

New Mexico, Arizona, and California, especially on exposed, rather

rocky sites on plains and slopes from the sagebrush to the lodgepole pine and spruce belts. The flowers typically vary in color from

yellowish with green or pink veins to bright yellow turning pur-
70 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-305158

FIGURE 15.—Barestem eriogonum {Eriogoniim nuduvi Dougl.) ; redroot eriogonum (E. racemosuin Nutt. ); and sulfur eriogonum {E. umbellatiini

Torr.).

push in age ; however, some forms have whitish, pink, or wine-red

flowers and these color and other diiïerences have been considered

by some botanists as deserving varietal or even speciñc rank. The

low cushion of small, crowded, rounded, almost felty leaves from

the short, closely branched, woody caudex, and the numerous,

rather short and slender scapelike flower stalks with their single,

headlike flower clusters, constitute the characteristic growth habit

of the species. Although cushion eriogonum is cropped to some
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 71

extent by sheep and goats as fairly good winter forage, and on some

exposed sites is a valuable ground cover, the stand is often very

sparse.

Scragglytop eriogonum (Eriogonum proliferum Torr. & Gray)

occurs on river flats and also dry plains and slopes from the sagebrush type, through the pinyon-juniper belt, up to ponderosa pine

forest (occasionally higher), from eastern Washington and Idaho

south to Nevada and northeastern California. The woolly leafless

stems, 6 to 12 inches high, arise from a tufted woody crown; the

small, oval to nearly round leaf blades are white-woolly on both

faces. The flowers are white, turning purplish in late summer and

fall, without a stipelike base, there being several heads in an involucre, the central head sessile, arranged in a very irregular cyme,

some of whose branches are much longer than others. Of negligible or slight importance as forage.

Redroot eriogonum (Eriogonum racetnosum Nutt.) (fig. 15)

grows in canyons and on dry plains and hills from Colorado,

through Utah and Nevada, to southeastern California, and, through

Arizona and New Mexico, to western Texas. It has white-woolly

stems 12 to 30 inches or so high ; long-stalked leaves, densely whitewoolly beneath, abruptly narrowed or somewhat heart shaped at

the base, and crowded on the short branches of the woody crown

of a thick reddish taproot. The pink or white flowers, without a

stipelike base, are arranged in narrow racemelike cymes or these

again with racemelike branches separating in pairs at an angle of

about 35° to 45°. Hardly important as forage for domestic livestock but deer on the Kaibab National Forest (northern Arizona)

are reported to eat the stalks.

Sulfur eriogonum (Eriogonum umbellatum Torr.) is the typical

representative of the section of this genus which perhaps forms the

commonest and most abundant group within the genus (fig. 15).

It occurs in open dry sites in valleys and on mountain slopes up to

subalpine elevations, from southern British Columbia, through

Washington and Oregon, to California, and eastward to Coloi'ado,

Wyoming, and Montana. Like all members of the Umbellatae section it is a perennial herb from a tufted, more or less woody crown

and root, with leaves basal or clustered at the ends of the branches,

and hairless flowers with a stalked (stipelike) and jointed base

and arranged in simple or compound parsniplike clusters (umbels)

usually subtended by a whorl of leaflike bracts. As a rule the plant

has little forage value except for the fact that sheep pick off the

bright yellow, or sulfur-colored flowers, which appear from June

to August. The leaves are densely white-woolly beneath. Pammel

(151, p. il9), in referring to the local name of "silverplant" given

to this species, mentions the oldtime belief that this plant is an

indicator of the presence of silver and gold.

At least five other species of the Umbellatae section are sufficiently common to justify mention. As a rule they are not likely

to be grazed as long as more palatable plants are present ; however,

livestock, especially sheep, sometimes evince a fondness for their

flower and fruit heads. Three of these species have leaves densely
72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

white-woolly beneath and cream-colored flowers turning purplish

or reddish with age :

1. Northern eriogonum (Eriogonum compositum Dougl.)» ranging in rather dry often rocky sites from Washington and Idaho to

northern California; the oblong-ovate leaves are heart shaped at

base, the large flowering umbels compound.

2. Wyeth eriogonum (Eriogonum heracleoides Nutt.) (fig. 16),

originally collected by Nathaniel J. Wyeth (1802-56), the Boston

fur trader and explorer whom the naturalist Thomas Nuttall

accompanied on one of his western expeditions. It is sometimes

called "Indian-tobacco," has a wide range from British Columbia

to Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and California (Warner

Mountains), a woody base, the pubescence sometimes grayish or

tawny, and at least one whorl of leaves on the stems.

3. Subalpine eriogonum (Eriogonum subalpinum Greene) occurs on dry mountain slopes almost to timberline, from British

Columbia and Alberta south to Colorado, Utah, and Nevada. The

leafless stems are 4 to 12 inches high.

Two of the species have rich yellow flowers :

4. Greene eriogonum (Eriogonum neglectum Greene), in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada; it has green, at most only

moderately hairy herbage, and simple umbels.

5. Longray eriogonum [^Eriogonum steUatum Benth., syn. E.

umbellatum var. steUatiivi (Benth.) M. E. Jones], from Washington and Idaho to Colorado, Utah, and California, with a woody

base, leaves densely white-woolly beneath, and compound umbels.

Knotweed (Polygonum)

The generic name Polygonum, derived from Greek polu?, (many)

+ gomi (knee), referring to the swollen joints characteristic of

many species, is visualized differently by various botanists. The

more conservative treatment has been rather generally followed in

the more recent manuals and that, for convenience, is adopted here.

The following subgenera or sections (treated as distinct genera by

some botanists) are kept under Polygonum: Fleeceflower (Aconogonum), cornbind (Bilderdykia, syn. Tiniaria), bistort (Bistorta),

and ladysthumb or smartweed (Persicaria). Under this treatment Polygonum consists, so far as the 11 Far Western States are

concerned, of about 60 species, viz : Aconogonitm, 3 species ; Bilderdykia, 2 species; Bistorta, 3 species; Persicaria, 17 species; and

Polygonum proper, 35 species.

These Polygonum segregates—all are annual or perennial herbs,

though a few are somewhat woody at base—may roughly be distinguished as follows :

Plants vinelike and twining. Flowers in axillary clusters, with 5

calyx parts and 8 stamens; achenes (dry seedlike fruits) 3

angled, brown or black, granular or smooth and shining

Bilde7~dykia.

Plants not vinelike and twining.

Leaf blades jointed at base; sheathing stipules (ocreae) 2 lobed,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 73

F-77414

FIGURE 16.—Wyeth eriogonum {Eriogonum heracleoides Nutt.)- Note whorl of

leaves in the middle of the detached upper half of stem, at left.
74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

papery, becoming lacerate, or torn at apex ; calyx lobes 5 or 6 ;

stamens 3-8, included, at least the inner stamen stalks (filaments) dilated ; achenes 3 angled . Polygonum (restricted).

Leaf blades not jointed at base; ocreae not 2 lobed and lacerate

(sometimes bristle-fringed in Persicaria); stamen stalks

(filaments) slender, not dilated.

Sheathing stipules (ocreae) funnel shaped, oblique, more or

less open on side facing leaf. Stems branched, rather

coarse; all leaves on stems, lanceolate to ovate, often

crisped and fringed ; achenes 3 angled. Plants up to 6 feet

high, sometimes a little undershrubby . . Aconogomim.

Sheathing stipules (ocreae) cylindrical, not funnel shaped.

Stem base and rootstock thickened, woody, tw^isted and

often cormlike; ocreae obliquely cut at top, more or less

open on side facing leaf ; leaves mainly basal ; flowers in a

dense terminal spikelike raceme, 5 parted, white, pink

or rose, stamens exserted; achenes 3 angled (rarely lens

shaped) Bistorta.

Stem base and rootstock neither thick woody nor cormlike ;

roots ñbrous, slender stolons or rootstocks often present.

Ocreae squared at tip (truncate) ; flowers in one or more

dense or loose spikelike, erect or drooping racemes, white,

green, pink or red, peppery tasting in the "smartweeds"

and bland in the "ladysthumbs" ; achenes usually lens

shaped (occasionally, when styles are 3, 3 angled)

Persicaria.

This representative group, as here constituted, of the buckwheat family is widely distributed throughout the West and occurs

in diverse habitats, ranging from extremely dry to (especially in

Persicaria) very wet or marshy sites. As a class, these plants

abound on poor soils, or on areas where such disturbing influences

as overgrazing and trampling have depleted the perennial plant

cover. On the range they generally grow in greatest abundance in

the vicinity of depleted bedgrounds, saltgrounds, and other severely

abused sites. Some species are common weeds in cultivated ground ;

others appear along roadsides. Although generally ranking as

undesirable species, knotweeds often mantle denuded areas with a

fairly dense cover, which provides some soil protection.

The majority of knotweeds are hairless, much-branched, erect,

or sprawling herbs (a few species somewhat undershrubby). With.

basal or alternate, chiefly narrow leaves, with more or less tubular

stipules (ocreae), which sheath the stems at the nodes. The small

flowers are borne in clusters in the leaf axils or terminal or bunched

near the branch ends in spikes, racemes, or panicles. The flowers

lack petals; the outer flower parts (calyx) consist of 3 to 8 (often

•5) nearly separate, petallike sepals, which are pink, rose, white, or

greenish and with pale or brightly colored margins, with 3 to 8

stamens, and 3 (usually 2 in Persicaria) styles. The small, seedlike

fruits (achenes) are 3- (usually 2- in Persicaria) angled, brown or

black, and surrounded by the persistent calyx.

These species are mainly low in palatability, being practically
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 75

worthless as forage for cattle and horses, and only fair for sheep

and goats; occasionally, however, they furnish an appreciable

amount of sheep forage. Inferior forage quality explains why they

are cropped somewhat lightly even on heavily grazed ranges, but

as they produce an abundance of seed these plants tend to increase

and replace their betters which have succumbed to excessive grazing. Hence, a superfluity of knotweed on a range generally indicates destructive depletion from very severe overgrazing. The

achenes ("seeds") are an important source of food for birds and

rodents (136).

American bistort [Polygonum bistortoides Pursh, syn. Bistorta

bistortoides (Pursh) Small] (fig. 17), is a perennial herb about 10

to 28 inches high. The plant has a woody twisted rootstock, often

with a swollen cormlike crown ; an unbranched stem ; long-stalked,

lance- or linear-oblong, mainly basal leaves; and white to rosecolor flowers appearing chiefly in July and August, arranged in a

dense terminal spikelike raceme about 1/2 to 21/^ inches long, with

eight protruding stamens. It is widely distributed, ranging from

Montana to British Columbia and Alaska, and southward to California and New Mexico.

It grows in the mountains in wet meadows, swamps, around

seeps, in moist openings in the timber and in high, moist mountain

parks. It is most typically a plant of subalpine sites (Hudsonian

Zone) but it also occurs in meadows at lower elevations, extending

dovioi into the ponderosa pine (Transition Zone). It has been collected at elevations as low as 2,000 feet in Montana and as high as

13,000 feet in Colorado. In many localities it grows only as scattered individuals and does not make up any appreciable part of the

plant cover whereas in some restricted meadow and park areas, it

occurs in great abundance, occasionally being one of the dominant

plants.

American bistort, which is closely related and similar to European bistort (Polygonum bistorta L., syn. Bistorta major S. F.

Gray), is eaten by both cattle and sheep along with the grasses and

weeds found in its habitat. The palatability varies in different

localities ; in some places it is regarded as being worthless as forage

while in others it is eaten readily, especially by sheep. On the

average, this plant is considered to be low to fair as forage for

cattle and fair to fairly good for sheep. Deer and elk eat the foliage

and stems to a slight extent.

Viviparous bistort [Polygonum viviparum. L., syn. Bistorta vivipara (L.) S. F. Gray] is widely distributed in alpine or subarcticarctic moist-wet sites of the Northern Hemisphere; in North

America, it is found from Greenland to Alaska, up to the shores of

Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, and south to the Wallowa Mountains of northeastern Oregon, Idaho, in the Rocky Mountains to

New Mexico (the plant is doubtfully in Arizona), and Colorado;

farther east, the species occurs in the Black Hills of South Dakota,

in northern Minnesota and Michigan, and in New Hampshire.

The plant resembles Polygonum bistortoides but usually is somewhat smaller in size, the basal leaves oblong to lance shaped, 1 to 4
76 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-290023

FIGURE 17.—American bistort [Polygonum bistortoides Pursh, syn. Bistorta

bistortoides (Pursh) Small],

inches long- ; stem leaves lance shaped to linear ; the rose-colored

or white flowers in a typically slimmer and looser spikelike raceme

(1 to 4 inches long) than that of P. bistortoides; the fruits

(achenes) granular and dull. Presumably as a result of the short

growing season the plant usually develops bulblets rather than

fruits in the inflorescence, especially in the lower part. The plant
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 77

has a very limited palatability for cattle and the forage value is

nil to poor. In the Far North natives are fond of the thick rootstock and bulblets, eating them as "we would eat nuts and raisins"

(70).

Douglas knotweed (Polygoniim douglasii Greene) (fig. 18) is an

annual with very slender, erect but usually much-branched stems 8

to 20 inches tall bearing alternate, linear or narrowly lanceolate

leaves (the uppermost ones reduced to small bracts), and axillary

clusters of small, bell-shaped flowers whose sepals have white or

rose-colored margins. Its 3-sided, down-bent fruits are black and

shiny achenes. Douglas knotweed ranges from Ontario, Vermont,

and New York to the Yukon and British Columbia, and South to

California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and Nebraska. East of the

Rocky Mountains its distribution is local and there is some evidence that it is naturalized there. The plant memorializes its discoverer, David Douglas (1799-1834), the famous Scotch botanical

explorer of the Northwest.

Douglas knotweed occurs at practically all elevations and in

limited amounts in a great variety of sites and vegetal types.

It abounds on rocky, sandy, or impoverished soils, especially in

waste ground and on sites where trampling, excessive grazing, or

other destructive influences have largely destroyed the natural,

perennial vegetation. It is often, therefore, a reliable indicator of

overgrazing, being one of the primary species in the ruderal-earlyAveed-stage of plant succession (177).

Due largely to its wide range and diversity of habitats, Douglas

knotweed has a long period of flowering and maturing, flowers

generally appearing from June to September. Although a small

plant, it often produces more herbage than any of its associates

and, when abundant and during its green and succulent stage, may

have limited importance. The herb, however, is practically worthless as forage for cattle and horses and is only fair feed for sheep,

except on severely overgrazed areas, where it dominantly abounds

and is moderately cropped by sheep and limitedly by cattle. Under

such conditions it furnishes an amount of feed equal to that of

all the other annual weeds combined (178). Where proper range

conditions obtain, the species would seldom occur in sufficient

abundance to be significant. A low-value weedy annual such as

this, with shallow root system and strong seed habits, may, however, eventually be efficient in accumulating sufficient organic

matter to support more desirable perennial plants.

Botanically close to Douglas knotweed are the two following

annuals :

1. Mountain knotweed [Polygonutn montanum (Small) Greene,

syns. P. douglasii var. latifolium (Engelm.) Greene, P. douglasii

var. montanum Small], very similar to P. douglasii but with

broader (oblong to elliptic or oblong-lanceolate) leaves, the upper

bracts more leaflike, and probably a greater tendency to have the

stems ñower-bearing down to near the base. In high mountains, be-
78 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-24822B

FIGURE 18.—Douglas knotweed (Polygonum douglasii Greene).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 79

tween about 5,000 and 10,000 feet, Alberta to Washington, California, and New Mexico.

2. Saguache knotweed (Polygonum sawatchense Small), originally known from the Saguache Range in Colorado, similar to the

preceding but with erect fruits and much reduced upper leaves. In

dry meadows and on open slopes especially in the ponderosa pine

belt, from the Dakotas to Washington, California, and New Mexico. The forage significance of these two species is about the same as

that of Douglas knotweed.

Akin to the above are the two following prostrate species, with

stems leafy to the tips :

1. Prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare L.), sometimes

called "doorweed" and "knotgrass." A native of Europe and Asia,

now naturalized (possibly native in some areas) almost throughout the North American continent except in extreme arctic parts.

A very common weed in cultivated grounds, waste places, roadsides, overgrazed areas, and the like. Occurs between elevations of

4,000 and 8,000 feet in Colorado (171). As a rule this plant is

negligible or poor as forage and is often considered an indicator

of overgrazing. However, reports are sometimes received indicating that is is "much relished by stock" (158) and that it is a valuable forage high in crude protein (183).

2. Box knotweed (or shore knotweed) {^Polygonum buxiforme

Small, syn. P. aviculare var. buxiforme (Small) Robins.], another

matted annual, similar to prostrate knotweed but a little stouter,

with blunter, broader, thicker, more bluish, veinier leaves, more

conspicious sheaths, and with granular instead of wrinkled and

streaked "seeds" (achenes). It occurs from New Brunswick and

Ontario to British Columbia and Washington, south in the Rocky

Mountain area to Nevada and New Mexico, and east to Texas,

Missouri, Illinois, and Virginia. Perhaps it is hardly more than

a race of prostrate knotweed and, when more fully worked out, it

will be known from practically every State. On the range, it is generally regarded as an "early-weed-stage" plant.

The Persicaria section of the Polygonum genus is represented in

the Far West by about 17 species, many of them aquatic or semiaquatic. The species that have peppery-tasting herbage, especially

inflorescences, are known as smartweeds or by such names as "bitetongue," "pepperplant," and "water-pepper;" those of blander

taste are commonly called "ladysthumb." One Old World species,

naturalized in this country, princesplume ladysthumb [Polygonum

orientale L., syn. Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach] is commonly

cultivated as an ornamental ; it has been observed to be grazed by

deer in the Allegheny Mountains. The smartweed species are

normally unpalatable to domestic livestock.

The ladysthumbs, while unimportant as forage plants, occasionally have some minor value. The four range species, briefly annotated below, are fairly representative of this group :

1. Water ladysthumb [Polygonum amphibium L., syn. Persicaria amphibia (L.) S. F. Gray], known also as redshanks, tanweed, water persicaria, and water willowweed, is an extremely
80 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

variable species ; a number of species have been segregated from it,

but they seem to run into each other hopelessly. This perennial

floats in ponds and lakes and also grows erect on muddy banks and

in shallow water ; it has an enormous range—in Europe and Asia,

and in North America from Quebec to Alaska and south to California, New Mexico, Kentucky, and New Jersey.

In floating forms the stems may attain a length of as much as

20 feet. The leaves are mostly of an elliptical type, II/2 to 4 inches

long ; the flowers, bright rose colored with 5 exserted stamens and

a 2-cleft exserted pistil, are arranged in a dense, usually solitary,

spikelike raceme about 1/2 to 1 inch long. The plant has an astringent but not peppery taste and is seldom regarded as a forage

plant. Schneider (180) reports that this species has been "used in

tanning in the Western States; said to contain 18 per centum of

tannin. Used as a substitute for true sarsaparilla."

2. Of the very closely related bigroot ladysthumb [Polygonum

muhlenbergii S. Wats., syns. Persicaria muhlenbergii (S. Wats.)

Small, Polygonum emersum Britt.], a less strictly aquatic, purely

American species, with long rootstocks, more tapered leaves, and

longer inflorescence. Smith (183) reported "this is well regarded

as a forage plant for wet meadows and marshy places * * * Cattle

are very fond of it." This statement may reflect unusual local

conditions.

3. Glandular smartweed {^Polygonum omissutn Greene, syn.

Persicaria oviissa (Greene) Small] is an annual, 1 to 2 feet high,

beset with copious stalked glands, the leaves translucently dotted,

the fruits black and shining, rounded-ovate but almost flattened on

one side. It occurs in wet grounds, sinks, swamps, dried-up pond

and lake beds and the like, from the plains to middle elevations in

the mountains, from western Kansas to Colorado and New Mexico.

Ordinarily it is negligible as forage.

4. Spotted ladysthumb [Polygonum persicaria L., syns. Persicaria maculosa Rydb., P. mitis Gilib., P. persicaria (L.) Small] is

an annual, native to Europe, now widely naturalized almost

throughout Canada and the United States. It has narrow leaves

chiefly with a conspicuous dark spot, sheathing stipules (ocreae)

often short-fringed, numerous dense inflorescence, and smooth

black shining lens-shaped fruits. Occasionally grazed by range

sheep in summer but ordinarily negligible as forage.

Pokeweed fleeceflower \_Polygonum phytolaccaefolium Meissn.,

syn. Aconogonum phytolaccaefolium (Meissn.) Small] (fig. 19),

sometimes called "wild buckwheat," ranges from California (the

type locality) north to British Columbia and Alaska, Idaho, and

extreme western Montana ; also in eastern and northern Asia. It

is a large, stout, bushy-branched, rather succulent herbaceous perennial producing somewhat grooved stems 114 to 6 feet tall from

a deep, stout, coarse, fleshy, sparsely branched root. The numerous

oval leaves are fleshy to thin, somewhat crisped and fringed from

1 to nearly 7 inches long. The greenish or whitish panicles are both

terminal and axillary, the small greenish-white flowers 5 parted.

The fruit is a 3-angled achene.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 81

F-77369

FIGURE 19.—Pokeweed fleeceflower [Polygomtm phytolaccaefolivm Meissn.,

syn. Aconogonuin phytolaccaefolium (Meissn.) Small].
82 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Its typical habitat is in the subalpine to alpine zones in medium

moist, acid soils. Among the first high-range plants to start

growth, it ñowers from July to September and matures from

August to October. Sheep consume the flower clusters, tender

shoots, and leaves, which are usually produced in abundance by

July 15, as long as they are green and succulent. The fruits are

both relished and nutritious. Because of its large size and numerous leaves, the species produces an unusually large amount of forage per plant and therefore holds an important place on many

ranges.

Sampson (176) states that this plant withstands trampling remarkably well, and is promising for the revegetation of depleted

ranges under a system of deferred grazing, having reproduced

successfully in many places where natural revegetation experiments have been conducted.

Closely related to the above are the two following perennial

herbs, with thickened woody roots, decumbent or erect stems, inflorescences in 2- to 4-flowered axillary clusters, and providing

poor to fair sheep feed :

1. Davis knotweed [Polygonum davisiae Brewer, syn. Aconogonum davisiae (Brewer) Heller]i^ occurs on rocky slopes of high

mountains from Oregon to California; branching, about a foot

high, with stout reddish or purplish stems ; leaves numerous, lance

shaped to narrowly oval, 1 to 2 inches long.

2. Newberry knotweed (Polygonum neivberryi Small) ^* ranges

from Washington and Oregon to Mt. Shasta, northern California,

typical of dry rocky pumice or lava soil at alpine or subalpine elevations. For years it was confused with the preceding species but

the herbage is dull green and more or less pubescent-scurfy (not

bluish, glabrous, smooth or roughish or inconspicuously pubescent

as in P. davisiae); larger and broader, ovate and more distinctly

petioled leaves, the flowers (calyx) 5 parted to near the base,

instead of 5 cleft to the middle, and the fruits have the broader end

uppermost instead of the reverse.

Merriam (140) mentioned its occurrence on Mt. Shasta as

"Abundant from the lower edge of the Hudsonian Zone up to a

little above timberline, where its big green leaves are very conspicuous on the pale pumice soil and among the broken fragments

of gray lava rock. About the middle of September the leaves turn

red—often a deep handsome red—and begin to fall, so that by the

end of the month the plant has practically disappeared. Its buckwheatlike fruit is a favorite food of the mice inhabiting the higher

slopes." An observer on the Deschutes National Forest (Oregon)

i^Named for its discoverer and first collector, Nancy Jane Davis (1833-

1921), a founder and for 60 years principal of a school in Birmingham, Pa.

Miss Davis made important plant collections in California in 1863, 1893, and

1915.

"The plant's name commemorates Dr. John Strong Newberry (1822-93),

surgeon-naturalist of the Lts. Williamson, Abbott, and Ives' expeditions to

the Far West (1855-58), and who was distinguished as a botanist, geologfist,

and paleontologist.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 83

reported the forage value of the species as "low; eaten to a very

limited extend by sheep."

Dock (Rnmex)

Docks are annual or perennial, often large and coarse herbs,

mostly with thickened taproots. The alternate leaves have sheathing stipules and are mostly elongated. The small, greenish or reddish flowers, massed in small whorls, are crowded into compound,

often elongated inflorescences ; they have 6 sepals in 2 series, the

veiny outer 3 unchanged in fruit but persistent at the base of the

3 inner and enlarging ones which eventually clothe the 3-angled

fruits (achenes). Male and female flowers usually occur on separate plants. About 28 species of Rumex occur in the western

range country. The genus is taxonomically difficult and mature

fruits are sometimes necessary to be sure of the species.

Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.), naturalized from the Old

World, is now established in Alaska and virtually throughout

Canada and the United States, in waste places, overgrazed areas,

old fields, cultivated ground, etc., often as a troublesome weed. It

is perennial from slender running rootstocks, the stems 6 to 12

inches high, the long-stalked leaves eared at the base. The inflorescence is branched or simple, slender and spikelike, often reddish

or purplish. The foliage is highly acid; the forage value varies

from worthless to fair, the palatability is usually highest in early

spring and for sheep.

Closely related to sheep sorrel, and of about equal palatability,

is mountain sorrel (Rumex paucifolius Nutt.). It grows in mountain meadows and parks from British Columbia and Alberta to

California, Colorado, and Montana. The leaves are without earlike

basal lobes.

Curly dock (Rumex crispas L.), native to Europe and Asia, is

naturalized over the greater part of Canada and the United States.

It is a smooth, dark green herb, 12 to 40 inches tall, from a thick

yellowish taproot, which is an official drug containing chrysophanic

acid, or rumicin, used medicinally as a purgative, laxative, stomachic, and tonic. The leaves, up to 12 inches or so long, are oblong

or lanceolate, with wavy (crisped) margins; they are often locally

used as a potherb. The forage value varies from worthless to fair

or fairly good for sheep and cattle.

Canaigre (Rumex hymenosepalus Torr.) ranges in dry, often

sandy sites up to about 6,000 feet, from Wyoming to Utah, California, Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas and Oklahoma, and

south into northern Mexico. It is a smooth erect perennial from a

cluster of tuberous roots, the stems up to 40 inches high, the rather

fleshy and thick leaves of an elliptic or reverse lance-shaped type,

about 2 to 8 inches long. The 3 inner floral parts (sepals) are about

1/2 inch long in fruit, heart shaped at base and more or less reddish.

The forage value is mostly negligible. It is conspicuous in the

Southwest in winter and early spring, commencing to grow in January or February and blooming in March. Its tubers are used

locally for tanning skins, and a small tanning industry that used
84 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

this plant was once established at Deming, N. Mex. (2H). Analyses

of the dried roots have shown tannin content up to as high as

45.8 percent r^SJ.

Mexican dock (Rumex mexicanus Meissn.) is a plant of wide

range occurring from Labrador and Newfoundland to Pennsylvania, Kentucky and Missouri, west to British Columbia, California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, and south into

Mexico. It is a coarse, smooth, pale-green, short-lived perennial

herb with a thickened, woody taproot and tufted, simple or

branched stems from 1 to 3 feet high, bearing lance-shaped, untoothed alternate leaves. The flowers are numerous, greenish colored, borne on short stems in ascending, almost spikelike clusters.

Each of the three inner tubercled sepals has a triangular-rounded

wing that is delicately but distinctively veined.

It inhabits dry and rocky to moist and rich soils throughout a

wide range of elevations ; it is alkali-tolerant and is a common dock

along ditches and streams and in cultivated fields. Flowers appear

from May to September. Livestock sometimes take Mexican dock

to a moderate degree along with other weeds and grasses. Sheep

as a rule relish it more than cattle and, since it is a comparatively

large plant, it may constitute sufficient of the stand to be of appreciable importance. Sampson (177) places the plant among the

secondary species of the second-weed-stage of plant succession.

Willow dock (Rumex salicifolius Weinm.) is similar to Mexican dock and is often confused with it in the books. It perhaps

should be considered as confined to the coastal region from Vancouver Island to southern California. It has narrow, somewhat

willowlike leaves.

Western dock (Rumex occidentalis S. Wats.) is a large, coarse

perennial herb up to 6 feet high, ranging from Labrador and Quebec to Alaska, California (as far south as San Francisco Bay),

Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas; also in Minnesota and Maine.

The leaves are of a lance-shaped or ovate-lance-shaped type, up to

16 inches long, heart shaped at base. The flowers and fruit are

in a dense panicle up to 2 feet long ; the stalks (pedicels) are not

jointed to the fruits. It is essentially a bog or wet-site plant and

has been collected as high as 11,000 feet on the Medicine Bow

National Forest, Wyo. Of negligible or limited value as forage,

occasionally nibbled by cattle and sheep.

Veiny dock (Rumex venosas Pursh) ranges, mostly in sandy

soils and between elevations of about 4,000 and 8,000 feet, from

Washington to Manitoba and south to South Dakota, Kansas,

Missouri, Texas, Utah, Nevada, and northeastern California. The

ovate or oblong, fleshy and somewhat bluish leaves are up to 5

inches long; the erect stem is 6 to 16 inches high, erect or somewhat bent at base, from a thick, woody taproot. The three inner

floral parts (sejmls) are conspicuously net veined and the fruiting

wings are often more than an inch wide. It is sometimes fair sheep

feed.

Closely related to the true docks is the arctic or high-montane,

rocky-site alpine mountainsorrel [Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill, syn. O.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 85

reniformis Hook.] but differing botanically in having 4 (instead of

6) sepals; 2 (instead of 3) styles, and lens-shaped (instead of

triangular) fruits (achenes) with 2 broad wings. It occurs in

Europe and Asia and, in North America, from Greenland and Labrador to Alaska, south in the East to the White Mountains of New

Hampshire and, in the West, to California and New Mexico. It is

perennial, 2 to 12 inches high from a woody or leathery taproot,

the crown often branched. The leaves are rather few, basal or 1

or 2 on the stems, rounded kidney shaped, and have an acid, sorrellike taste. The small, reddish or greenish flowers are in narrow

racemes or in a raceme-branched panicle. Not important as a

forage plant but desirable as a preventive of scurvy in the Far

North; extensively used by Lapps, Eskimos, and other arctic

people as a salad plant or potherb ; whence the local name "scurvygrass."

GOOSEFOOT FAMILY (CHENOPODIAGEAE)

Aside from the more or less woody genera pickleweed (Allenrolfea), saltbush (Atriplex), winterfat (Eurotia), hopsage

(Grayia), greasewood (Sarcobatus), and zuckia (Ziickia), which

with the exception of the last are annotated in Im{)ortant Western

Range Plants (54) and the Range Plant Handbook (20Jf), and for

three limitedly naturalized herbs apparently of no appreciable

range forage significance—common beet (Beta vulgaris L.), flatweed Perubalm \Rouhieva multifida (L.) Moq.], and the garden

spinach (Spinacia olerácea L.)—the western range flora of this

family consists of 14 genera and about 70 species.

Chenopodiaceae are annual or perennal herbs or shrubs—a few

Old World species, small trees. The leaves are alternate (except

in Nitrophila and Salicorriia, and occasionally in Kochia and Sarcobatus), sometimes reduced to scales, often scurfy, mealy, or fleshy.

The flowers are petalless, small and homely, often greenish, the

persistent calyx 2- to 5-lol3ed or parted. The small dry indéhiscent

fruit (sometimes described as a "nutlet," sometimes as a "utricle")

has an embryo ring shaped, half ring shaped, folded, or spiral. As

a group, the family is notably salt and alkali tolerant.

Gilbert and colleagues (79) call attention to the fact that under

some circumstances certain weeds such as species of Chenopodium,

Kochia, and Salsola, may cause livestock poisoning or losses because of excessive accumulation of potassium nitrate (KNO?,), a

common form of "saltpeter." This is particularly likely to occur

in limy-shale soils and shade; the nitrate content tends to decrease with plant maturity.

Aphanisma (Aphanisma)

Aphanisma (Aphanisma blitoides Nutt.) is a smooth fleshy annual, up to 28 inches tall, with small stalkless untoothed leaves

having clasping bases ; small mostly 3-lobed flowers with 1 stamen,

and lens-shaped wrinkled seeds. It occurs on or near the sea

from southern California to northern Lower California and on the

offshore islands. The forage value is questionable.
86 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Goosefoot (Chenopodium)

With about 33 range species, Chenopodium is the largest range

genus in this family. The generic name Chevopodium derives from

Greek chen (goose) + pous, podos (foot), alluding to the shape of

the leaves of the type species, C. album L. Goosefoots are usually

white-mealy, often annual herbs, M'ith small greenish flowers

mostly clustered in spikelike branches of panicles; calyx mostly

5 lobed, later more or less enveloping the fruit but not developing

spines or wings; stamens mostly 5; styles mostly 2; seed lens

shaped, with a coiled embryo.

Good King Henry (Chenopodium bonus-henricus L.), a European perennial, is sometimes grown as a potherb ; Jerusalem-oak

goosefoot, or "feather geranium" (C. botrys L.), an Old World

annual, is cultivated chiefly because of its aromatic properties ; the

tropical American wormseed goosefoot, or "Mexican-tea [C. ambrosioides L., including the doubtfully distinct drug form, var.

anthelminticum (L.) A Gray], is an important vermifuge. Quinoa

(C, quinoa Willd.) "is a staple good of millions of South American

natives" (96), the highly nutritious seeds being used; quinoa is

limitedly grown in this country as a potherb.

The ñve species annotated below are reasonably representative

of the genus as it occurs on the western range :

1. Lambsquarters goosefoot (Chenopodium album L.) (fig. 20),

often called "pigweed" and "white goosefoot," is native to Europe

and Asia but is now naturalized and a common weed practically

throughout the United States, as well as Canada (except the

actually arctic parts) and has become established in Alaska. It

is a pale annual herb with a usually erect, grooved, much-branched

stem, up to 9 feet high, bearing numerous ovate, rhombic, or spearshaped leaves which are rounded or wedgelike at base, often

sharply or wavy-toothed, more or less white-mealy on both sides

and paler below. Small, greenish flowers in clustered spikes are

produced at the apex of the stem and in the axils of the leaves. The

black shiny seeds are borne horizontally, the outer coat (pericarp)

of the fruit closely adherent to the seed, the embryo a complete

ring.

The plant is of most frequent occurrence at lower and medium

elevations, in fields, along roadsides and in waste places. It varies

from poor to good sheep feed and, as a rule, is grazed to some extent by cattle. Undoubtedly it has some value to livestock generally

throughout its range, although not one of the more important

forage species. The young plants are, in many places, used as a

potherb. Blankenship (27) reports that some Montana Indians

grind the seeds into flour for use in making bread. Sampson (177)

reports it as one of the six most typical and abundant plants in the

first weed stage of plant succession in the Wasatch Mountains

area of Utah.

2. Related to lambsquarters goosefoot but smaller and darker is

dark goosefoot (Chenopodium atrovirens Rydb.), which occurs on

plains and foothill slopes from Montana and Idaho to Nevada, Utah,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 87

F-478352

FIGURE 20.—Lambsquarters goosefoot (Chenopodium alhuin L.)-

and Colorado. It has been attributed also to eastern Oregon, California, and New Mexico but this has occasioned controversy. The

plant is an erect annual, 20 inches high or less, simple or branched ;

the small (under 1.2 inches) oblong to ovate leaves are rounded to

wedgelike at base ; the flowers in short dense spikes. It is of little

value for sheep.
88 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

3. Fremont goosefoot (Chenopodiiim fremontii S. Wats.), named

for its discoverer, "The Pathfinder," Gen. John Charles Fremont

(1813-90), ranges from North Dakota to central British Columbia, Washington and Oregon (east of the Cascades), California,

northern Mexico, and western Texas. It is an annual, more green

than mealy, up to 30 inches or so high, with ovate-lance-shaped to

triangular-hastate, thin, often long-pointed leaves; the leafstalks

are at least half as long as the blades. The shiny black seeds are

borne horizontally, the outer fruit covering (¡pericarp) separatmg

freely from the seed. The plant ranks among the better goosefoots

in point of palatability. Griffiths (S5) and Kearney and Peebles

n09) mention that it is often abundant and produces a considerable amount of feed for both cattle and sheep on fall range in

Arizona.

4. Raggedleaf goosefoot [Chenopodium incisum Poir., syns.

Teloxys cornuta Torr., C. cornutum (Torr.) Benth. & Hook.]

ranges from southern Colorado and eastern Utah to Arizona, New

Mexico, and south into Mexico, occupying dry, often rocky places,

plains and foothills up to the woodland and lower ponderosa pine

belt, sometimes common in good soils; often grows thickly under

juniper and pinyon trees between elevations of about 4,000 and

7,500 feet. The plant is a glandular, sweet-scented, erect, branched,

often reddish herb 8 to 20 inches high. The pinnately lobed leaves

are % to nearly 2 inches long, the lobes lance shaped to oblong and

untoothed. The flowers are very minute in cymes from the leaf

axils; the seeds are only about 1/50 of an inch broad, bluntly margined, their embryos horseshoe shaped.

This plant has been observed to be moderately grazed by cattle

and horses on the Santa Fe National Forest (New Mexico). Stevenson (191) states that the Zuni Indians call the species hatechi,

meaning "strong-odor-leaf," and, after steeping it in water, inhale

the vapor as a headache remedy. Because of its fall coloration the

plant is sometimes called "bloodweed."

5. Slimleaf goosefoot (Chenopodium leptophyllum ISutt.) is

rather closely related to the common C. album. Its natural range

is dry plains and foothills from Manitoba and Alberta to eastern

Washington and south to California and western Texas. However,

it is an aggressive species and has become naturalized in the Eastern States and Europe. It has thickish, linear to narrowly oblong

leaves, short leafstalks less than a quarter as long as the blades,

and the outer fruit covering (pericarp) is free from the seed. Negligible to fair as a sheep and cattle weed.

Closely related to the goosefoots, and by some botanists generically merged with them, are the three range species of blite

(Blitum) (fig. 21), at least one of which is in every Western State.

They are smooth fleshy annuals with flowers clustered in roundish

heads which sometimes form an interrupted spike ; the flowers

(petalless calyces) become succulent and bright red in fruit, which

has suggested one of the common names, "strawberry blite." Sheep

relish blites in some sections which they scarcely touch them in

others, and cattle often consume a considerable part of these plants
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 89

F-478353

FIGURE 21.—Strawberry blite, or blite

goosefoot [Blitiim capitatum L., syn.

Chenopodinni capitatum (L.) Aschers.]. Fruiting: head and detached

utricle, or "seed" at lower right.
90 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

along with other more relished species. Due to scattered distribution and only slight to medium palatability, the species do not rank

high as range feed.

Tickseed, or bugseed (Corispermum) is a genus, so far as the

western range is concerned, of about 4 closely related species or,

according to some botanists, 3 or 4 are American races, forms or

varieties of the Old World hyssopleaf tickseed (C. hyssopifolium

L.), now rather widely naturalized (or perhaps native) in many

parts of this country. These are annual herbs, with stalkless untoothed leaves, the flowers consisting of very small 1- to 3-lobed

calyces arranged in spikes, the stamens 1 to 5, and the stigmas 2.

The fruit is a small, dry, flattened, rounded to eUiptical utricle,

with a sharp or narrow-winged margin, and strikingly suggestive

of a tick or "bug"—whence the scientiñc generic name (from

Greek Kopïs, bedbug, + airépixa, seed).

Shiny tickseed (Corispermum nitidum Kit.) differs little from

C. hysso-pifolium except in its much smaller shiny fruitsor "seeds."

It is a pale green, wiry, bushy annual, widely naturalized in this

country from Europe and is a "tumbleweed." It is reported as fair

or fairly good cattle feed on the Jornada Experimental Range in

southwestern New Mexico, when dried in the fall after first being

matured and dampened by summer rains.

Tumble ringwing [Cycloloma atriplicifoUum (Spreng.) Coult.]

is, perhaps with the exception of Russian-thistle, the most characteristic tumbleweed of the West. In the fall the plant breaks off

at the surface of the ground and the large, ball-like, aerial part is

blown about by the wind, often being carried great distances. In

this manner the seeds are disseminated over wide areas. In many

places, great walls of the plant may be seen where wire fences or

other similar obstructions have collected many individual plants.

Tumble ringwing is the only member of its genus, a bushybranched, pale green, annual herb, 6 to 20 inches high, becoming

dark purple with age, having lance-shaped or oblong, sharppointed, wavy-toothed leaves and numerous, loosely flowered spikes,

the flowers with 5 stamens, and a 5-lobed calyx. The small flattened-rounded fruits are partially covered by the persistent infolded lobes of the calyx and have a thin rounded wng below

(whence the generic name, from Greek KVKAOç, circle + x^jia, border) which assists in dissemination.

The species range, which has evidently increased in recent times,

includes the area from Manitoba to Ontario, Indiana, Illinois,

Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and southern

California. It is very common in fields, along roadsides and streambanks, on sandhills, and in waste places. So far as known the

plant is of no value whatever as forage, it is generally considered

a more or less pestiferous weed.

Hyssopleaf fivehook, or "smotherweed" [Enchinopsilon hyssopifolium (Pall.) Moq., syn. Bassia hyssopifoUa (Pall.) Kuntze]

is a prostrate or erect annual, more or less hairy throughout, with

branching stems 12 to 20 inches long; narrowly linear-lanceshaped leaves up to iy-> inches long; small flowers consisting of
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 91

a 5-lobed calyx, each lobe bearing a hooked spine (enabling the

fruit to catch on clothing, animal hair and wool, and the like),

the flowers arranged in small clusters in the leaf axils, the fruit

enclosed in the persistent and thickened calyx, with a small horizontal, lens-shaped seed.

The plant is adventive from Europe and the Caspian Sea area

and apparently extending its range here. It is now well established

in alkaline soils from eastern Washington to eastern California

and east into Nevada and Arizona ; it is also established in places

along the Atlantic coast. Some botanists prefer to retain it in the

genus Bassia. This plant is ordinarily regarded as a mere weed

but may have a little value as ground cover. As a range forage

plant it is generally considered negligible ; however, more data are

desired.

Kennedy (113) reports that analyses show this annual herb to

be higher in protein than alfalfa and far higher in ash, about the

same in ether extract, lower in fiber, and much lower in nitrogenfree extract. He adds that the stems get hard after flowering and

that it must be grazed early. Kearney and Peebles (109) cite L. L.

Stitt to the effect that a leaf bug (Lygiis sp.), which causes great

damage to crop plants, has this plant as its late-summer host.

An Asiastic plant unknown in this country until 1934 is Halogeton glomeratus (M. Bieb.) C. A. Mey. (fig. 22), which might appropriately be called Aral barilla, but is universally referred to in

this country by the Anglicized generic title halogeton. It is a fleshy

annual, with small, somewhat fingerlike leaves ending in a sharp

point ; flowers without corolla, 5 sepals, or calyx lobes ; 5 stamens,

and vertically borne seeds in a small flattened snaillike fruit

(utricle) subtended by the persistent and now winged sepals.

Gerald M. Kerr of the Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior, writes that "Halogeton produces what are

commonly called black seed and brown seed. The black type consists of a dark achene which is loosely held and in most cases will

ultimately separate from the bracts. This is the type shown in

figure 22 and labeled as having a persistent calyx. The calyx of

flowers producing black seed are, however, quite deciduous. The

brown seed or fruit is composed of a light brown achene tightly

enclosed by sepal bracts which are much more indurate and only

slightly winged, if at all. Commonly, these seed types occur together at the plant nodes with a black seed being positioned on

each side of a brown one."

This noxious plant is now widely distributed in the lower range

"desert" areas of the West and has become a serious sheep poisoning plant in the Inter mountain West. A historical sketch and bibliography will be found in (55). Since that publication (Nov. 1951),

three of the more important articles on halogeton are by Bohmont

(29), Tisdale and Zappetini (203), and by Cook and Stoddart (43).

It is to be hoped that none of the 11 known congeners of Halogeton

glomeratiis will become naturalized in this country.

Kochia (Kochia) is a genus of annual or perennial herbs or

undershrubby with a woody root and crown. The alternate or
92 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-478364

FIGURE 22.—Halogeton {Halogeton glomeratus) : A, Plant in late flower and

early fruit, "brown seed" fairly mature, "black seed" undeveloped ; D, foliage; C, leaf; D, fruit clusters; E, fruits and scales; F, individual fruit with

persistent calyx; G, scale subtending fruit.

occasionally opposite leaves are narrow and untoothed (entire) ;

the flowers are stalkless, single or clustered in the axils of bracts

and consist of a very small rounded 5-lobed calyx, the lobes incurved and producing in fruit a thin horizontal wing on the basal

part of each ; the 5 stamens are protruded. This essentially Old
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 93

World genus is represented in the western range area by about

four species, often occurring in alkaline sites. It is named in honor

of W. D. J. Koch (1771-1849), a German botanist who was director of the Erlangen Botanical Garden.

GreeninoUy kochia (Kochia americana S. Wals.), also known as

green molly, greenmolly summercypress, and redsage, is an undershrubby plant, 4 to 16 inches high, at first silky-pubescent, (at least

often) becoming smooth in age. It ranges from Wyoming to northern New Mexico and westward to California and Oregon. Nelson

(145) reports that this plant forms part of the spring forage in

the Red Desert of Wyoming, when the tender annual shoots are

eaten by livestock, the younger twigs being cropped to some extent

during the winter months also. In dry saline areas of the Great

Basin and Southwest the plant is sometimes fairly important winter sheep feed (22, 5i, 85).

Similar in forage significance to Kochia americana are the next

two (and very closely related) species:

1. California kochia [^Kochia Californica S. Wats., syn. K. americana var. californica (S. Wats.) M. E. Jones], also known as California summercypress and Mohave redsage, is found in alkali

desert sites, mostly within the creosotebush belt, in southern Nevada and adjacent eastern California, particularly the Mohave

Desert. It is hardly more than a form of K. americana, differing

in having the stems much-branched (instead of mostly simple) and

the leaves flat (instead of nearly cylindrical) and broader (1 to 3

mm., instead of about 1 mm. wide).

2. Gray kochia [Kochia vestita (S. Wats.) Rydb., syn. K. atnericana var. vestita S. Wats.], also known as hairy kochia, gray molly,

and gray summercypress, is found on alkaline flats from eastern

Oregon to California and west to Colorado and Wyoming. It also

is hardly more than a form of K. americana, differing chiefly in

being permanently pubescent or hairy.

Summercypress, or belvedere [Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad.],

a European bushy annual up to 5 feet high, is often grown as an

ornamental because of its cypresslike habit and because the common cultivated form of it turns crimson or purple in the summer

and fall. This has escaped from cultivation and is widely naturalized practically throughout the United States, chiefly in waste

and arid places. Little is known as to the value (if any) of this

plant as forage but it probably is negligible or minor.

Nuttall monolepis [Monolepis nuttalliana (Schult.) Greene] is

a low, somewhat succulent, more or less spreading, smooth (or

somewhat mealy when young) annual about 4 to 8 inches high with

alternate, lance-shaped, 3-lobed leaves about 1/2 to 2 inches long,

commonly with a large tooth on each side about the middle of the

blade. The small often reddish flowers are clustered in the leaf

axils and are characterized by being reduced to 1 scale or calyx

lobe, l(or no) stamen, and 2 styles. The small fruits are flattened,

the embryo a nearly complete ring. It occurs in moist alkaline or

dry soils from Minnesota to Manitoba, Alberta, British Columbia

and Alaska and south to California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
94 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

and Missouri. It has been reported also from Sonora, Patagonia,

and Siberia.

Occasionally, as in cultivated ground where it may be an objectionable weed, this plant grows in sufficient abundance to form an

almost continuous layer or mat. Particularly in the southern part

of its range, especially the Southwest where it is called "patota"

by Spanish-speaking people, it is good sheep forage. Thornber

(201) reports that, where abundant in valleys and extensive mesa

depressions, it is invariably closely grazed. Griffiths (85) considered it also as good feed for cattle in Arizona. Used as greens

and pinole by Arizona Indians (109).

There are two other less common and less widely distributed

native species of Monolepis. The generic name (from Greek /iovo?,

solitary, + Atmc, scale) refers to the flower's solitary sepal. The

species honors Thomas Nuttall (1786-1859), the well-known English-American botanist, ornothologist, and explorer.

Niterwort [Nitrophila occidentalis (Nutt.) S.Wats.] is distributed

from about the middle of eastern Oregon south into California east

of the Sierra Nevada and along the borders of western Nevada,

also in the lower Sacramento Valley and common in the San Joaquín Valley. It is a mostly low, smooth, oppositely branched herb

perennial from a sort of taproot or running rootstock which is

according to Jepson (105) "about the size of a pencil, penetrating

vertically (and often maintaining a uniform size) to a depth of 2

feet or more."

The angled and jointed stems, usually more or less decumbent

at the base and then ascending, bushy branched, are 3 to 8 or occasionally as much as 16 inches high. Unusual in this family, the

leaves are opposite, somewhat fleshy, the lowest ones broadly ovate

or oblong, up to ^4 inch long, somewhat persistent and becoming

dry and scalelike ; upper leaves linear, 14 to 1 inch long. The small

flowers are usually 5 lobed, in the axils of small (usually 2) bracts.

The small fruits are rounded and brownish, the seeds small, black,

and shining.

The plant occurs in moist, often black alkaline soils and near hot

springs, sometimes locally abundant and often associated with such

alkali-tolerant grasses as saltgrass (Distichlis), alkali muhly (Muhlenbergia asperifolia), and alkali cordgrass (Spartina gracilis).

This plant is the only known member of its genus ; it has a marked

salty taste, and little is knovm as regards its forage value (if any).

Classwort (Salicornia) is a genus of succulent, usually branched

annuals and perennials, with opposite leaves reduced to small

scales, the uppermost crowded into a terminal spike ; the herbage

often turns reddish or purplish. The small flowers are in threes,

sunk deeply in axillary pits. The genus is represented by about

seven species in the Far Western States, and its members rank

among the most salt- and alkali-tolerant of all plants. Rocky

Mountain glasswort (S. rubra A. Neis.), an annual (considered by

some indistinguishable from the Old World S. europaea L.), and

the perennial Utah glasswort (S. utahensis Tidestr.) are typically

the nearest plants to the vegetationless shores of the Great Salt
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 95

Lake. The plants have a very strong and bitter saline taste and

are usually not grazed. Unfortunately glassworts are often called

"samphire," a name which should be reserved for the Old World

fleshy maritime umbellifer Crithmum maritivnim L., whose leaves

are used as pickles.

Russian-thistle (Salsola kali var. tenuifolia Tausch, syn. S. pestifer A. Neis.) (fig. 23), one of the numerous annuals known as

"tumbleweed," a native of Eurasia, was a serious pest in the Russian wheat fields many years before it spread to the United States.

It was probably introduced into Bon Homme County, S. Dak., in

]886 as an impurity in flaxseed imported from Europe (58). The

few plants produced increased slowly and almost unnoticed for

several years, but after becoming acclimated spread rapidly, and

now this weed is widely distributed, especially in more arid parts,

over the United States and Canada (20^.).

Russian-thistle is a bushy-branched annual often 3 or 4 feet high

and 2 to 6 feet broad which is, at first, soft and succulent but becomes rigid with maturity. There are many sessile, slender, threadlike, mostly alternate leaves that become prickle tipped. Flowers

are small, papery, and inconspicuous, growing singly or several

together in the axils of the spiny leaf clusters, each flower composed of five sepals which, when in fruit, each have a broad, thin,

veiny, reddish, horizontal wing. After the plant flowers the leaves

wither and fall off and are replaced by short, stout spines in clusters of three ; the plant then increases rapidly in size and sends out

hard stiff branches. Often the leaves and outer branches become

bright red in late summer and fall. Later still, the plant breaks off

and becomes a tumbleweed.

Russian-thistle grows from sea level up to 8,500 feet, doing best

on high, dry land if not overly crowded by other plants. It does not

ordinarily occur in sloughs or lowlands, and makes no progress on

the native prairie, except where the sod has been broken by cultivation, overgrazing, prairie-dog holes, etc. This plant flourishes

also in rich, moist soils, but does not commonly occur there because

of competition from other plants. It is salt resistant and hence

grows well, though not exclusively, on alkali soils. It often forms

pure stands on cultivated or overgrazed areas.

On early spring ranges this species rates as fair forage for all

kinds of livestock. However, after the plant matures and the

sharp spines form, it is worthless. It cannot be considered as a

desirable forage plant on mountain ranges because livestock will

not eat it if other and better forage is obtainable. On winter ranges

it is often used by livestock after softening by winter storms. Russian-thistle is quite drought resistant and is extremely useful in

the western prarie States during drought years. In many of the

drought-stricken areas, this plant has been used successfully as

emergency feed to prevent livestock from starving.

If cut when in bloom, before the sharp spines form, Russianthistle makes good emergency hay. Even where cut after the spines

have hardened, it may be chopped up and fed as fodder or silage.

Westover (208) states that Russian-thistle is eaten readily by cattle
96 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

m

^

F-478355

FIGURE 23.—Russian-thistle (Salsola kali var. tenuifolia Tausch, syn. S.

pestifer A. Neis.). Individual flower (at top), fruiting calyx and utricle

with persistent styles (upper right).

in silage when cut nearly mature, mixed with half alfalfa one-third

bloom, the silage being in good condition when opened and with

a pleasant odor. If fed alone, especially during the fall, this plant

has a very laxative effect, which may make it a source of danger,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 97

particularly to cows in weak condition. This can be overcome by

supplemental feeding with grain hay, first-cutting alfalfa, corn

fodder, or straw (JfO, 60, 61).

According to chemical analyses Russian-thistle contains more

protein and carbohydrates than clover and as much or more ash

or mineral salts than alfalfa or prairie hay, but it is less palatable

and digestible than alfalfa. Its calcium and phosphorus content

(2.3 and 0.22 percent, respectively) are relatively rather high

(206). Feeding tests have shown that Russian-thistle, ground into

fodder, was 93.9 percent as valuable as cane fodder for fattening

lambs. Robbins and Boyack (167) report that this weed is a favorite host plant upon which the sugar beet webworm lays its

egs, the worms migrating from it to the beets.

An impure soda, known in the trade as "barilla," is obtained

from burning plants of Salsola and the closely related genera Salicornia and Che7iopodium. It is rather extensively imported into

this country from Spain and other Mediterranean countries.

The variety tenuifolia differs from typical Salsola kali L. (syn. S.

tragus L.), a maritime species of Europe and western Asia, chiefly

in its narrower leaves and perhaps a greater tendency to broader

fruiting calyces, but Fernald (69) adds "apparently showing no

constant differences from those of the typical form."

Seepweed (Suaeda)

Seepweeds, often called sea-blite, are more or less fleshy annual

or perennial herbs or undershrubs or shrubs found in salt marshes,

dry alkaline lake beds, seashores, and other alkaline or saline sites.

They have numerous alternate linear or cylindrical (terete), hut

not spiny leaves. The flowers are sessile in the axils of leaves or

bracts and consist of a fleshy 5-parted typically ivinpless but often

keeled or crested calyx ; stigmas, 2 or 3, stamens 5. The often black

and shining seeds have a flat spiral embryo. There are about 9

western range species of Suaeda of which 4 are more or less

shrubby ; for brief notes on the woody species see important Western Browse Plants (5i.).

Under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (IH)

Suaeda Forsk. (1775) is conserved as against Dondia Adans.

(1763). Suaeda is a Latinized form of Arabic smvayd, referring

to an Old World species of the genus. Kearney and Peebles (109)

mention the use of the leaves of these plants by Southwestern Indians for greens and medicine and of the seeds for "pinole." The

following are reasonably representative of the range species.

Pursh seepweed [Suaeda depressa (Pursh) S. Wats., syn. Dondia

depressa (Pursh Britt.], also known as Pursh's sea-blite, ranges

from southeastern British Columbia, southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, the Dakotas and western Minnesota, south to

western Texas and coastal southern California, thence north to

eastern Washington. In the typical form it is a prostrate annual

or short-lived perennial, but is erect or nearly so in the var. erecta

S. Wats. [syn. S. erecta (Heller) A. Neis., Dondia erecta (Heller)

A. Neis.] and up to 3 feet or so high. Intermediate, decumbent or
98 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

ascending forms occur. The leaves are broadest at the hase; the

calyx lobes have horned appendages; the usually dense spikes may

be short or long. In salt marshes and alkaline plains this plant may

occur in almost pure stands and represent a distinct vegetal type.

As vi^ith other species of Snaeda, reported palatabilities for Pursh

seepvi^eed vary greatly. It has been observed to be heavily grazed

at times and, when young, to be eaten by horses. Undoubtedly the

time of the year, association and availability of palatable grasses

and other plants, and salt hunger of animals are among the factors

that govern the divergences of opinion as regards the forage values

of seepweeds.

Black seepweed [Suaeda nigra (Raf.) J. F. Macbritle, syn. Dondia

nigra (Raf.) Standl.] ranges from eastern Oregon and Idaho,

through Nevada and Utah, into northern Mexico. It is an annual

or rarely perennial with slender, erect, ascending or spreading,

rather flexuous stems 8 to 30 inches high, the leaves narroived at

base, 14 to 1 inch long but reduced and bractlike in the inflorescence. The palatability of black seepweed is ordinarily regarded

as low.

Suaeda diffusa S. Wats. [syn. Dondia dijfusa (S. Wats.) Heller]

is probably indistinguishable from S. nigra. This spreading form

occurs from northeastern California and southeastern Oregon to

southern Montana, western Nebraska, western Texas, and New

Mexico.

Poison suckleya [Siickleya suckleyana (Torr.) Rydb., syns.

Obione suckleyana Torr., S. petiolaris A. Gray]^^ occurs from eastern Montana south to Wyoming, Colorado, and northern New

Mexico. It is a fleshy, prostrate or decumbent-ascending annual,

the herbage often somewhat reddish scurfy, with a taproot and

branched stems 4 to 16 inches long. The rounded to rhombic-ovate,

sharp- and wavy-toothed leaves are % to lYi inch wide. The flowers

are produced in the axils of leaves and bracts, the 4-parted male

flowers on top. The fruiting bracts closely invest the fruit, are

spear shaped with crested margins, and tip two toothed.

The plant inhabits sink holes, pond, irrigation ditch, and stream

borders, dry lake beds, and the like. While sometimes grazed by

cattle and sheep with apparent impunity, it is known to have

caused losses, due to hydrocyanic acid, to both kinds of stock.

The hydrocyanic acid content varies considerably, appearing to be

greatest in dry prairie sections and in soils rich in nitrates. Losses

have been particularly noted around noon near water where this

plant is plentiful and among nursing cows (193, 202).

AMARANTH FAMILY (AMARANTHACEAE)

This family consists of annual or perennial herbs (a few exotic

species are undershrubs or woody vines), with simple opposite or

i"'The genus is monotypic, this being the only species known. It is named

after its discoverer and first collector, Dr. George Suckley (1830-69), a

United States Anny surgeon of early Pacific railroad expeditions, and well

known as a naturalist and ornithologist.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 99

alternate leaves. The diminutive flowers consist of a 3- to 5- (occasionally 2-) lobed or parted, thin and dry calyx, with the same

number of stamens opposite the lobes, or sepals, and distinct or

united below into a tube ; the flowers are mostly aggregated into

axillary or terminal spikes, panicles, racemes, or heads ; stigmas, 2

or 3. The fruit is a small 1-seeded nutlet or utricle, the lens-shaped

seeds with a usually ringlike embryo. The range flora of this family

consists of 9 genera and about 30 species. They are mostly homely,

weedy plants. However, the family includes some rather common

though somewhat coarse ornamentals, including cockscomb (Celosía argéntea L.) and some species of Amarmithus, Gomphrena,

and Iresine, which will be mentioned under those genera.

Hopiweed (Acanthochiton wrightii Torr.) is a smooth annual

Southwestern herb, ranging from western Texas to Arizona and

south into Chihuahua; it is the only known species of the genus.

The branching stems are green and white striped. The small alternate leaves are narrow and awn tipped. Male and female flowers

are usually borne on separte plants; male flowers are in clusters crowded into bractless spikes, with five perianth segments

(sepals) ; the female flowers have no floral envelope, or perianth,

and are largely concealed by conspicuous heart-shaped, thin-margined, spine-tipped bracts, giving a prickly appearance.

The plant is often abundant in dry sandy places and sometimes

becomes a troublesome weed in gardens. On the Jornada Experimental Range in southern New Mexico the plant was found worthless for cattle. However, Kearney and Peebles (109) report that,

in Arizona, "while young the plants are relished by livestock." It

is an important species in the economy of the Hopi Indians. Hough

(100) states that it is known as the "ancient Hopi food," being

gathered and strung by them in long bunches, which hang in nearly

every house. The Hopi recount that this plant has warded off

famine a number of times, springing up as it does before the corn

is filled. Whiting (209) reports that it is "cooked as greens with

meat," either when fresh in the spring or later and dried.

Waterhemp (Acnida)

This is a genus of smooth annuals, with the sexes distinct, having

often elongated spikes or panicles of small greenish or yellowish

flowers; the male flowers have a 5-lobed calyx; the female flowers

are without a calyx. The fruit is a thin- or thick-margined 1-seeded

nutlet, or utricle. To some people these plants resemble

amaranth; others, hemp or nettle. The genus gets its scientific

name from the latter viewpoint as it is from the Greek meaning

"not nettle," having no stinging hairs. The group is somewhat

peculiar in this family, because the favored habitat of most species

is near or in water or in wet sites. There are two range species ;

the Forest Service has no report of either being grazed.

Tall waterhemp (^Acnida altissima Riddel!) ranges from Ontario

to Kentucky and west to Colorado and South Dakota, growing

along irrigation ditches, in flood plains, swampy places, and the

like. It is an erect branching herb up to ßi/o feet high, with lance-
100 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

shaped leaves broadest below the middle, the fruits opening irregularly, longer than the subtending bracts, the sepals of the male

flowers sharp tipped.

Tamarisk waterhemp [Acnida tamariscina (Nutt.) Wood] occurs

from Indiana to South Dakota, New Mexico, and Louisiana, often

in waste places and sandy ñelds but preferring moist sites. It

grows up to 5 feet high, has rhombic-oblong or oval leaves up to 4

inches long but the uppermost ones much reduced, the female spikes

slender and elongated, the fruits opening in a ring at the top, the

lobes of the male flowers shorter than the subtending bracts, long

tapered and with an elongated tip.

Creeping chaffflower \_Alternanthera repens (L.) Puntze, syn.

Achyranthes repens L.] is a matted, more or less prostrate perennial herb, with a thick woody root, widely distributed in the

warmer parts of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It is

thought to have invaded our Southern States from Mexico and is

now established from South Carolina to Florida and west to southern California. The leaves are opposite, oval or obovate and unequal in size. The flowers are in white-bracted short spikes from

the leaf axils. The five lobes of the small flowers are pubescent

with jointed hairs barbed at the tip. The plant is sometimes an

aggressive weed in cultivated ground and is not known to have

any forage value.

Amaranth (Amaranthiis)

The type genus and namesake of the family, often called "pigweed" and "hogweed" because relished by swine, and "redroot"

because of the root color of many species. There are about 17

western range species. Because they are aggressive, weedy plants,

it is difficult to give the distribution of the species with exactness ;

the range of many is undoubtedly spreading. They are coarse

annual herbs, with alternate stalked, untoothed (but sometimes

wavy-margined) leaves; the small greenish (occasionally purplish

or reddish) flowers occur in small compact clusters (glo merules),

these often arranged in spikes or panicles both terminal and from

the leaf axils.

The sexes may be distinct or male and female flowers borne on

the same plant ; the flowers consist of a calyx with 2 to 5 distinct

lobes, or sepals, the stamens with distinct stalks (filaments) and of

the same number as the sepals. The fruit (a nutlet or nitride) may

be nonsplitting (indéhiscent) or open ringlike (circumscissUe) at

the top, discharging the single, shiny seed. Strange to say, in view

of the coarse weedy character of the genus, at least two members

are cultivated as ornamentals: love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus

caudatus L.) and princess-feather (A. hybridus var. hypochondriacus Robins.).

Gilbert and colleagues (79) call attention to the fact that, under

some circumstances, certain weeds, such as species of Amaranthus,

may cause livestock poisoning or losses because of excessive accumulation of potassium nitrate (KNO3), a common form of "saltpeter." This is particularly likely to occur in limey-shale soils and
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 101

shade; the nitrate content tends to decrease with plant maturity.

Prostrate amaranth (Amaranthus graecizans L., Syn. A. blitoides

S. Wats.) is a prostrate, rather pale and relatively smooth, diffusely branched plant forming circular mats in cultivated and

waste places, the stems 6 inches to 3 feet long. The spatula-shaped

or obovate leaves are l^ to 1 inch long, narrowed at the base into

slender leafstalks. The 4- or 5-parted flowers are massed in small

axillary clusters shorter than the leaves, subtended by oblong or

lance-shaped bracts a little shorter than the flowers. The nearly

smooth fruits open by a lid ; the seeds are relatively large (1.6 mm.

wide). It has often been confused with the related A. albus L.

Amaranthus graecizans appears to be indigenous from Washington east to Utah and Colorado and south into New Mexico, California, and Mexico, but is now found in nearly every State and in

southern Canada, at least as a weed in cultivated ground. It is good

hog feed and, on the Jornada Experimental Range (southwest New

Mexico), has been reported as taken well by cattle.

Tumbleweed amaranth (Amaranthus albus L.) resembles A.

graecizans, and in some books they are treated as synonyms. This

species differs from A. graecizans in being branched but erect, 6

to 24 inches high ; it has much smaller seeds and much longer bracts

in the inflorescence. As in A. graecizans, the flowers are in small

axillary spikelike panicles shorter than the leaves. In the fall it is

a "tumbleweed," often found near fence rows and embankments

along with Russian-thistle and tickseed (Corispermnm). "Young

plants are leafy and rather succulent, but in age the stems become

rigid, yellowish, and covered with the very numerous spiny fruiting bracts and later, scale-like leaves which are also spiny-tipped"

(214).

In cultivated ground Amaranthus albus may be a troublesome

weed. It is a frequent invader of newly burned areas. Like A.

graecizans, it is sometimes used for ensilage. In the spring, when

succulent and tender, it may be taken well by cattle ; it sometimes

causes bloating. The small black seeds are an important ingredient

of the "pinole" meal used by Indians. Old settlers, as well as Indians, occasionally used this plant in the spring as a potherb.

Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Wats.), often called

"carelessweed," "redroot," and, by Spanish-speaking people,

"bledo" and "quelito," occurs from western Kansas and Colorado

south, through southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and

western Texas, to central Mexico. It occupies plains, foothills,

riverbanks, and valleys, and is often abundant and troublesome in

irrigated land.

This species is an erect, branching, rather coarse herb 2 to 4

feet high. The rhombic-lance-shaped or reverse ovate leaf blades

have conspicuously long stalks and are strongly veined beneath.

Spikes are elongated and rather thick ; the sexes are distinct ; the

lobes, or sepals of the male flowers are lance shaped and spiny

tipped ; those of the female flowers are clawed at the base, oblong

or spatula shaped, distinct or nearly so, and up to one-eighth inch
102 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

long ; the bracts subtending the flowers are awllike, sharp pointed

and longer than the flowers.

The plant germinates after the summer rains and is killed by

the first frost; it is regarded as fair to good summer cattle feed,

though sometimes causing bloating. It is said to be easily crowded

out where there is a good stand of native grasses. The species is

named for its discoverer, Edward Palmer (1831-1911), well-known

naturalist, explorer, and ethnobotanist.

Brayulinea {Brayulinea densa (Humb. & Bonpl.) Small] extends

from northern South America north, through Central America

and Mexico, to the southwestern border of the United States from

western Texas to southern Arizona. It is a prostrate, matted, cottony perennial from a thick, deep, woody taproot; the opposite

ovate leaves are cottony-pubescent beneath and unequal in size;

the small 5-parted flowers are in dense cottony clusters from the

leaf axils. The plant appears to be unpalatable to livestock and its

marked increase on the range may be an indication of overgrazing.

Dr. John K. Small (1869-1938) named the genus in honor of W. L.

Bray and E. B. Uline, monographers of the North American

Amaranthaceae.

Snakecotton (Froelichia)

Cotton-woolly or hairy, erect herbs, with opposite narrow sessile

leaves; inflorescence in spikes, the flowers 5-cleft, the segments

(sepals) united below, subtended by 3 thin bracts, the 5 stamens

united into a tube. The genus is represented in the western range

area by three species and is named in honor of Joseph Aloys Froelich (1766-1841), a German botanist. The plants furnish a limited

amount of forage of fair to good palatability for cattle and sheep.

They are sometimes called "cottonweed," a name better restricted

to the European composite, Diotis candidissima Desf.

Arizona snakecotton (Froelichia arizonica Thornber) is a perennial with a thick woody root, often somewhat branched, and with

thickish, reverse lance-shaped leaves. It occurs in grass types from

western Texas to southern Arizona and northern Mexico.

Florida snakecotton [Froelichia floridana (Nutt.) Moq.], a Southeastern species extending as far north as Delaware, and which

sometimes reaches a height of 6V2 feet, is represented farther west,

in the Great Plains and the eastern edge of the western range, by

the variety plains snakecotton [var. campestris (Small) Fernald,

syn. F. campestris Small] from South Dakota to Colorado, western

Texas, and New Mexico. The variety has leaves broadest in the

middle (instead of toward the base) and softer, shorter hairs on

the inflorescence stalks.

Slender snakecotton [Froelichia gracilis (Hook.) Moq.] grows

in sandy soils from western Texas to Arizona and northern Mexico.

It is a slender, rather spindly annual, with thin, basal or nearbasal, lance-shaped leaves, and fruits with two opposite lateral

rows of toothlike projections. Adventive along railroad tracks,

the plant has become locally established in the Eastern States.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 103

Blake (26) reports it as a very aggressive weed on a farm in Anne

Arundel County, Md.

Globe-Amaranth (Gomphrena)

Annual or perennial, small to medium-sized, leafy-stemmed or

bare-stemmed (scapose) herb. Leaves opposite or sometimes

whorled ; flowers in dense, often globular heads or spikes, conpicuously enclosed by thin, variously colored bracts. The small flowers

are 5 parted, the stamen stalks (filameyits) united into a long tube,

the 5 lobes of which are notched or 2-cleft at the tip. There are

three native range species and, in addition, the cultivated, ornamental common globe-amaranth (G. globosa L.)» a native of the

tropics, is occasionally naturalized. Palatability reports on these

plants are somewhat inconsistent and more data are desired. Kearney and Peebles (109) report that, in Arizona, "the plants * * *

grow on dry plains and slopes, usually with grasses (and) are eaten

freely by cattle and probably other livestock." The species are

sometimes called "ballclover" and "everlasting."

Tufted globe-amaranth (^Gomphrena caespitosa Torr.) is a low

tufted perennial, with a deep thick woody taproot, stems up to 6

inches high with broad leaves at the base only ; it occurs in New

Mexico, Arizona, Sonora, and Chihuahua.

Shining globe-amaranth (Gomphrena nítida Rothrock) is taller

than G. caespitosa, has leafy stems, the leaves of an elliptic to

ovate type, and the floral head usually subtended by two or more

leaves. The type specimen has shiny pearly-white heads but these

may be yellowish or pinkish. Unlike G. caespitosa and G. sonorae,

the inflorescence bractlets are crested. The plant ranges from western Texas to southeastern Arizona and northern Mexico.

Sonora globe-amaranth (Gomphrena sonorae Torr.), native to

Sonora and Arizona, is an annual or perennial, with leafy stems

and narrow leaves. As in G. nitida, the head is subtended by two

or more leaves.

Bloodleaf (Iresine)

This is a largely tropical genus of herbs, some tropical species

being shrubby. The leaves are opposite and stalked. The very

small, thin, 5-parted flowers are crowded into spikes that are arranged in panicles; the stamen stalks (filaments) are united at

the base into a sort of cup. The floral calyces in this genus are

beset with long woolly hairs and, from this fact, the British botanist Patrick Brown (1720-90) devised the generic name from the

Greek word eiresiôné, meaning a wreath of olive or laurel bound

round with wool, which was worn by Greek boys in two ancient

festivals, who sang a song called by the same name. Two South

American species, Herbst bloodleaf (/. herbstii Hook, f.) and Linden bloodleaf (I. lindenii Van Houtte) are much used as bedding

plants in landscape gardening because of their brilliant red foliage.

There is only one known range species of the genus, variable

bloodleaf (Iresine heterophylla Standl.), which ranges from westem Texas to southern Arizona and south into central Mexico. It is
104 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

a perennial up to about 40 inches high from a slender branching

woody rootstock ; the leaves are rather broad but vary greatly in

size and shape ; the yellowish or whitish flowers are in rather loose

terminal panicles of spikes. Kearney and Peebles (109) report its

occurrence in Arizona between elevations of 3,500 and 4,500 feet,

usually in woodland or shrubby types. Notes on the palatability

of this plant are lacking.

Tidestromia (Tidestromia)

This is a genus of more or less cottony or wooly, annual or perennial herbs or undershrubs, chiefly inhabiting dry sandy "desert"

areas. They are prostrate, ascending or erect, with opposite leaves

and bracted clusters (glomervles) of small, sessile, often yellowish

flowers from the axils of a cluster of small leaves. The flowers

consist of a 5-parted calyx, its lobes (sepals) united at the base ;

there are 5 stamens, their stalks (filaments) united below and often

some additional undeveloped and sterile stamens (staminodia) are

present; the stigmas are either simple or 2 lobed. In some species

the flowers are sweet scented—whence the name "honeysweet."

In the older books the plants are often listed under the synonymous name Cladothrix, but that is a genus of lichens and its

later use for a genus of flowering plants was illegitimate. There

are three range species. The genus was renamed by the American

botanist Paul C. Standley (1884-) in honor of Ivar Tidestrom

(1864-1956), well known as author of floras of Utah and Nevada

and of Arizona and New Mexico. The genus appears to have very

limited forage value for domestic livestock but more data on that

subiect are needed.

Woolly tidestromia {Tidestromia lanuginosa (Nutt.) Standl., syn.

Cladothrix lanuginosa Nutt.], ranging from Colorado, Utah, and

Nevada to Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, and south into northern Mexico, is a prostrate matted annual that has extended its

range northward and eastward at least as far as South Dakota

and v/estern Kansas. The leaves are of an ovate, obovate or spatula-shaped type and are tapered at the base.

The forge value of this species is ordinarily considered worthless or low. Park (153) speaks highly of the possibilities of this

plant for ornamental and protective planting in dry sandy soils

of Texas. Kearney and Peebles (109) state that "the whitish mats

of this plant are conspicuous soon after the summer rains on the

deserts in southern Arizona and are well adapted for checking the

blowing of sandy soils."

Honeysweet tidestromia [Tidestromia oblongifolia (S. Wats.)

Standl., syn. Cladothrix oblongifolia S. Wats.] inhabits dry sandy

"desert" areas from southern California to southern Nevada and

Arizona. It is a perennial from a woody taproot and is sometimes

almost an undershrub ; the herbage is hoary white with branched

(stellate) hairs ; it is a spreading-ascending plant, the stems 8 to 24

inches long, with oblong to broadly ovate leaves usually longer than

their stalks (petioles).

Shrubby tidestromia [Tidestromia suffritticosa (Torr.) Standl.,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 105

syn. Cladothrix sxiffruticosa (Torr.) Benth. & Hook.] is an undershrubby plant of western Texas, possibly southeastern New Mexico, and northern Mexico. The leaves are squared or rounded at the

base. Forage notes on it are lacking.

FOUR-O'CLOCK FAMILY (NYCTAGINACEAE,

SYN. ALLIONIACEAE)

This family, chiefly confined to warmer climates, consists of

annual and perennial herbs and undershrubs and, in the tropics,

also of woody vines, shrubs, and small trees. The stems often have

swollen joints; the leaves are mostly opposite. The flowers, often

showy, are subtended by bracts or these may be united into a

calyxlike involucre. The perianth, or immediate floral envelope

(and usually the showy part of the flower) suggests a true corolla

and may be bell, funnel, or salver shaped, 4 or 5 toothed or lobed

at the apex, the base of the lower, tubular part persistent, hardening and closely investing the fruit. The dry fruit is usually ribbed,

grooved or winged and envelops a free achene, or "seed."

To this family belong a considerable number of cultivated ornamentals, including the familiar four-o'clock, or "marvel-of-Peru"

(Mirabilis jalapa L.), the celebrated bouganvillea vines of the

tropics, and certain species of sandverbena (Abronia). The latest

monograph of our species of this family is by Standley (187) in

1918, in which 17 genera and 101 species are listed as occurring

in the western part of this country; however, majority botanical

opinion probably favors reduction of 4 of these genera and many

of the species to synonymy.

In addition, in southern Florida, is an herbaceous genus of this

family (Okenia) and 2 genera (Pisonia and Torrubia), listed in

Little's Check List (121), with 6 species, 4 of small trees and 2 of

shrubs. The 5 best-developed range genera of the family are :

Ab7-onia, with about 25 range species; Boerhaavia and Mirabilis,

with about 14 species each, and Acleisanthes and Oxybaphus, about

7 species each. The family name Nyctaginaceae has been formally

proposed for conservation.

Sandverbena (Abronia)

This is the best developed and perhaps most widely distributed

of the western genera of this family. The species are perennial

or sometimes annual, usually sticky-hairy, spreading, ascending or

erect herbs. The often thickish and fleshy leaves are opposite, untoothed or wavy margined, of a lance-shaped, elliptic or ovate type,

frequently oblique at the base. The flowers are several to numerous

in umbellike heads, more or less fragrant, white, pink, yellow or

red, salverform or funnelform, the tube long and slender, the

upper flaring part (limb) 5 lobed, subtended by an involucre of thin

bracts; stamens 5 (occasionally 4), small and included within the

flower tube. Fruit winged or deeply lobed, the wings or lobes thickish and opaque. Often showy plants and some of them in ornamen-
106 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

tal cultivation, growing naturally in sandy, sunny places, dry

streambeds, and the like.

The following- three species are reasonably representative of

the genus :

Redstem sandverbena (Abronia elliptica A. Neis.) ranges from

Wyoming (also in Gem County, Idaho) and Colorado to Utah and

northern and central Arizona and New Mexico. It has a thick

woody root and crown, trailing or semierect stems usually with a

peculiar reddish tinge, greenish-white flowers subtended by an

involucre of broad bracts which Standley (185) states "usually

have a reddish or purplish tinge below which is characteristic of

this species alone." The top-shaped, obscurely hairy fruit usually

has five narrow wings with rounded, blunt tips.

Mostly in "desert" areas; up to 8,000 feet in Colorado (90).

Collected in southeastern Utah as 7,000 feet, south slope, sandy

loam soil, in a grass-weed type. So far as known this plant has

little, if any, forage value but more data are desired. It is closely

related to the next species, of which some deem it to be a variety.

2. Snowball sandverbena (Abronia fragrans Nutt.) ranges from

South Dakota to Idaho, and south to Arizona, Mexico, Texas, Nebraska, and Iowa. It has very fragrant white flowers and diifers

from A. elliptica chiefly in the narrower inflorescence bracts and

the paler, different-shaped fruits that are squared at the top and

narrowed below. It is cultivated as an ornamental. The forage

value seems to be nil or very limited but more data are desired. The

thick farinaceous root is said to have been eaten occasionally by

Indians. It has been recommended as a perfumery plant (168,180).

3. Yellow sandverbena (Abronia latifoUa Eschsch.) occurs from

Vancouver Island and British Columbia to Santa Barbara County,

California. It is especially well developed on beaches and dunes

near the Pacific but is found farther inland on sandy soils. It is

a trailing, almost vinelike plant, with rooting stems and a stout,

spindle-shaped or cylindrical taproot up to 2 inches thick and 11/4

feet or so long, with ropelike, spongy branches often several feet

long. The leaves are round or nearly so. The flowers are yellow,

with a somewhat orangelike fragrance ; numerous, trumpet shaped

with 5 lobes, about i/o inch long. The fruit is leathery, broadly top

shaped, almost squared (trimcate) at the tip, with usually five

narrow, thick, hollow wings.

Smith (182) quotes Leckenby to the effect that this species "furnishes some pasturage for cattle, besides being an excellent soilbinder" ; aside from this note, palatability data on the plant appear

to be lacking. The species is used to illustrate the genus in Bailey's

(8) Cyclopedia of American Horticulture where it is stated that

the plant is useful as an ornamental "for baskets and rockeries."

Watson (207) and Schneider (180) indicate that the root is sometimes eaten by Indians.

Very close botanically to the genus Abronia is sandpuffs (Tripterocalyx). This is a group of 5 species occupying the area from

Utah and Nevada to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and northern

Mexico, except that 1 species reaches California and another [T.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 107

mieranthus (Torr.) Hook.] goes north as far as Montana, North

Dakota, and western Kansas. The forage values appear to be the

same as those of Abronia but more data are desired. They are

succulent annuals differing chiefly from Abronia in the flower

lobes and stamens being typically 4 (instead of 5), and in the conspicuous, thin, net veined, ñshscalelike wings completely covering

the body of the fruit.

Longtube angel-trumpet (Acleisanthes longiflora A. Gray)^^ is

a rather spectacular, woody-rooted, more or less trailing perennial

growing in "desert" sites from southern California to west Texas

and northern Mexico. The opposite leaves are entire or wavy

margined, thick, the blades somewhat triangular or rhombicovate

or lance shaped. The white or purple-tinged flowers, terminal or

from the leaf axils are usually solitary, fragrant, night blooming,

with a long slender tube 4 to 8 inches long, the tip flaring and 5

lobed. The fruit is cylindrical or oblong and 5 angled or ribbed.

Called in California "yerba-de-la-rabia." Data are lacking regarding the palatability of this plant, but it is probably not abundant enough to have any forage significance.

Acleisanthes is represented by seven (chiefly Texan) western

species. Parks (153) warmly recommends the ornamental cultivation of A. longiflora and also of the tree-climbing, smaller, and

late-afternoon flowering A. obtusa (Choisy) Standl. He also recommends for ornamental cultivation the annual, triangular-leaved,

brilliantly red-flowered Nyctaginia capitata Choisy, which he calls

"devils-bouquet." It is a relative of this family and is said to resist

the hottest, driest weather.

AUionia (Allionia, syns. Wedelia Loefl., not Jacq.,

Wedeliella)

Allionia^'' is a genus of prostrate-trailing annual or perennial

herbs, with opposite, stalked, mostly fleshy and untoothed or wavymargined leaves. The flowers are bell shaped or flaring (campanulate-rotate), usually in 3-flowered, stalked involucres. The fruits

are strongly flattened, oval or obovate in outline, the back (dorsal)

side with two rows of stalked glands, the margins usually toothed

and inbent over the back face.

Allionia and Oxybaphus are much confused in many of the books.

Umbrellawort (Oxbaphus) has very different fruit, which is not

^''Acleisanthes is derived from two Greek words plus alpha privative, signifying "flower not shut up," alluding to the lack of a basal involucre. The

name angel-trumpet for this genus is objected to by some, but the name does

not appear to be in use for other plants except for floripondio datura (Datura

arbórea L.) and perhaps also for the related angeltears datura (D.

suaveolens Humb. & Bonpl.), two tropical-American small trees or large

shrubs of the jimsonweed genus, which are often called "angels-trumpet," and

the former "reina-de-la-noche."

^''Allionia L. (1759) is conserved, under the International Code, as against

Wedelia Loefl. (1758). This also has enabled conservation of the otherwise

homonymous Wedelia Jacq. (1760) for a genus of composites. Wedehella

Cockerell (1909) was published to replace (the at that time untenable)

Wedelia Loefl.
108 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

at all flattened, distinctly 5 angled rather than with the margins

toothed and infolded ; the plants tend to be more ascending and

erect than prostrate-trailing as in allionia ; the involucres are conspicuously veined, usualy have more flowers than in allionia, and

become papery and greatly enlarged in fruit. There are three or

four range species of allionia, but trailing allionia is probably the

commonest and best known.

Trailing allionia [Allionia incarnata L., syns. A. divaricata Rydb.,

Wedelia incarnata (L.) Kuntze, Wedeliella incarnata (L.) Cockll.]

is often called "cartwheel," "gunaninpil," "purple-creeper," and

"trailing four-o'clock." This is a perennial trailing sticky herb,

the stems 4 to 30 inches long, found from western Texas to Colorado, Utah, Nevada, southeastern California and south, through

Arizona and New Mexico, to Mexico, the West Indies and, in South

America, as far as Chile and Argentina. Venezuela is the type

locality. The leaves are typically ovate or oblong. The small flowers

are rose colored or occasionally white, 3 in each of the 3-lobed

involucres. The leathery fruits are about Va inch long or a little

more and incurved. The plant is found in sandy soils, washes,

woods, valleys, canyons, riverbanks, dry hills, etc., from the paloverde-creosotebush type to the woodland type.

The palatability of trailing allionia varies with the season, and

the presence and available amount of more palatable grass and

other forage. Thornber (201) reported the plant to be of considerable value on many summer Arizona ranges. Smith (182)

stated that is "comes up from the seed after the summer rains in

* * * Arizona and New Mexico, and furnishes a palatable and

nutritious food for sheep and cattle. It stands pasturing well, and

usually ripens an abundance of seed."

Spiderling (Boerhaavia)

This is a genus of annual or perennial herbs, mostly branched

from the base and often with the stem joints sticky-banded. The

very small flowers (particularly so for this family) are in terminal

racemes, cymes, umbels or heads, from an involucre of distinct

bracts; the perianth, or conspicuous corollalike part of flower,

bell shaped to flaring, chiefly 5 lobed. The fruit is characteristically more or less club shaped and 5 (occasionally fewer) ribbed.

Named by Linnaeus for his patron and friend, the celebrated Dutch

physician, professor and savant of Leyden, Hermann Boerhaave

(1668-1738), teacher of Peter the Great.

The following two species are representative of the western

range members:

1. Scarlet spiderling (Boerhaavia coccínea Mill., syns. B. caribaea Jacq., B. viscosa Lag. & Rodr., B. viscosa var. oligadena

Heimerl) is a variable, widely distributed perennial herb—possibly

sometimes annual or biennial at the northern edge of its range,

ranging from tropical America to Florida, Texas, New Mexico,

and Arizona; reported as occasionally naturalized farther north.

It has many stout, sticky-hairy, trailing stems 1 to 5 feet long;

opposite, rounded, ovate or oblong leaves, either smooth or sticky,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 109

up to 21/2 inches long, pale below and often with a brown-dotted

margin.

The flowers are red to purplish, in cymes, the stamens 1 to 3.

The fruits are sticky, helping in their dissemination. In the

Southwest in sandy deserts, washes, along roadsides, old fields

and waste places, and also rather dry loamy sites, open grassweed

types, at medium and low elevations. Sometimes a troublesome

weed in gardens. It is ordinarily unpalatable to domestic livestock.

Forest Service employees in southeastern Arizona have reported

its value as "none."

2. Erect spiderling [Boerhaavia erecta L., syns. B. erecta var.

thornheri (M. E. Jones) Standl., B. thornberi M. E. Jones] occurs

from tropical America north to the southern part of the United

States from South Carolina to Florida, west to Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is an erect annual, often

branched from the base, the branches spreading and 1 to 4 feet

long. The leaves are of an ovate or triangular-ovate type, the lower

surfaces whitish to cottony and minutely black dotted.

The small flowers are white or purplish, on stalks usually more

than 2 mm. (^42 inch) long, in loose heads arranged in racemes

or umbels. The hairless, ribbed fruits are unwinged and with a

flattened tip. In the var. intermedia (M. E. Jones) Kearney & PeeMes (syn. B. intermedia M. E. Jones), the stems are shorter, the

inflorescence more compact and umbellike, and the fruits smaller.

In sandy or gravely soils, waste places, fields, roadsides, dry

washes, and the like, up to about 5,700 feet. Of little or no value ;

occasionally nibbled by sheep and cattle.

Slim spiderling (Boerhaavia gracillima Heimerl) (fig. 24) occurs

on sandy-gravelly-rocky plains and foothills, between elevations of

about 2,500 and 4,500 feet, from western Texas to Arizona and

south in Mexico to Lower California and Oaxaca. It is a muchbranched, slender-stemmed perennial from a thick woody root and

crown. The plant is hairless (glabrous) or somewhat puberulent,

never glandular. The flowers are red, solitary, on long slender

stalks (pedicels). The small fruits are beset with more or less

spreading hairs. It is not known to have any forage value.

Hermidium (Hermidium alipes S. Wats.) is the only known

member of its genus and occurs in lower foothills from California

to Nevada and Utah. It is a bluish, erect or ascending, rather stout

herb with paired (dichotomous) branches, perennial from a thick

woody taproot. The broad thick leaf blades are rounded to ovate

or oval, up to 3 inches long. The purplish-red or light-purple

flowers, up to 1 inch long, are in headlike clusters of about 6, each

flower attached to a large and leaflike bract. The fruit, about V4,

inch long, is a little narrowed at each end, smooth or a little roughened. A Forest Service employee found this plant "common in bare

spots in roads" in an area at 5,000 feet in western Utah. Forage

values of the species are probably negligible to low.

Watson (207) described the genus and species in the botany of

the King Exploration, where a fine plate of the plant appears.

The significance of the name Hermidium is a bit obscure ; appar-
lio AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-478356

FIGURE 24.—Slim spiderling {Boerhaavia gracillima Heimerl). Individual

flower and fruit (lower left-hand corner).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 111

ently it is a diminutive of Hermes (Mercury) and perhaps may

refer to a fancied resemblance of the large flower bracts to the

winged sandals or winged cap (petasos) of that Graeco-Roman

god.

Four-O'Glock (Mirabilis, syns. Allioniella, Hesperonia,

Qiiamoclidion)

This group consists of perennial herbs with thick woody roots

and usually broad leaves. The salver-shaped, funnelform or sometimes bell-like (campanulate), often brightly colored flowers are

solitary or several in a calyxlike involucre that does not become

conspicuously enlarged and papery in fruit; stamens 3 to 5. The

small hard fruits are not strongly 5 angled but may be 5 ribbed ;

they are smooth or minutely warty. Allioniella and Qiiamoclidion

(considered by some to be distinct genera) differ from typical

Mirabilis in having the involucres more than 1 flowered ; the

Allioniella and Hesperonia sections have a very short perianth

tube; Allioniella and Quamoclidion have a bell-like (campanulate)

flower (perianth).

The best known member of the genus is the common fouro'clock of the gardens (Mirabilis jalapa L.) which derives its

common name from the fact that its flowers open in the latter

part of the afternoon. Linnaeus obviously called the genus Mirabilis (meaning marvelous, or wonderful) because of the common

name then current "marvel-of-Peru." Before him Tournefort

called the genus Jalapa and Linnaeus attached that name to the

common four-o'clock, the root of which at one time was considered

a cathartic. Tournefort perhaps confused this plant with the quite

different true medicinal jalap [Exogonium jalapa (L.) Bâillon,

syns. Convolvulas jalapa L., Ipomoea jalapa Coxe (1830) not Pursh

(1814:), IpomoeapurgaHayne, Exogonium purga (Hayne) Lindl.].

Wishboneplant, or Bigelow four-o'clock \_Mirabilis bigelovii A.

Gray, syn. Hesperonia bigelovii (A. Gray) Standl.] is a very stickyhairy, erect or spreading perennial, somewhat undershrubby at

base. The leaves, a little less or a little more than 1 inch long, are

rounded to triangular ovate, somewhat heart shaped or rounded

at base. The white or pinkish flowers are l^ to 14 inch long, solitary in involucres about l^ inch long, their triangular lobes shorter

than the united lower part (tube). The plant occurs in desert

canyons and the like from southern Nevada, southern California,

and Arizona south into Sonora.

Mirabilis bigelovii is conspicuously repeatedly branched in pairs

(dichotomously)—giving an appearance of successive "wishbones"

—whence the common name. The scientific name commemorates

Dr. John Milton Bigelow (1804-78), U. S. Army surgeon with the

Mexican Boundary Survey of 1853 and the eponym of many western plants. The variety retrorsa (Heller) Munz [syns. M. retrorsa

Heller, Hesperonia retrorsa (Heller) Standl.] differs only in that

the lo-vi^er part of the stems is occasionally hairless (glabrous) and

the pubescence is rougher and downbent (retrorse). The plant

appears to be disregarded by domestic livestock.
112 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Longtube four-o'clock (Mirabilis longiflora L.) occurs from

western Texas to Arizona and south into Mexico. It is sometimes

as much as 5 feet high and is usually very sticky-hairy—at least in

the inflorescence. The conspicuous feature of the species is the

extraordinarily long (3 to 7 inches) and slender tube of the whitish (usually tinged with pinkish or purplish) flowers, with abruptly flaring mouth and long-exserted stamens. The var. wrightiana

(A. Gray) Kearney & Peebles (syn. M. tvrightiana A. Gray) differs

from the typical form of the species in that the leaves are usually

distinctly stalked (petioled) and the stems are minutely hairy

rather than conspicuously viscid, or sticky. This variety is named

for Charles Wright (1811-85), the well-known early botanical explorer of the Southwest.

The common four-o'clock (Mirabilis jalapa L.), native of tropical South America, Central America, and Mexico, is native also

in the United States in western Texas. It has escaped from cultivation in many parts of the world. So far as the writer knows

there is no reference to this plant in toxicological literature, but

Degener (57, Fam. 113) says that the seeds and roots are poisonous. He adds that "the mealy endosperm of the seeds was used in

Korea and Japan as face powder. The plant is still occasionally

used by the Hawaiians as a medicine, and the fruits are employed

in making necklaces."

Colorado four-o'clock [Mirabilis multiflora (Torr.) A. Gray, syn.

Quamoclidion multiflomm Torr.] (fig. 25) ranges from (western

and southern) Colorado and Utah to southern California, east,

through Arizona and New Mexico, to western Texas and south into

Mexico. A diffusely branched herb perennial from a deep, thickened woody root; stems stout, up to about 40 inches long. The

rose-colored to purplish-red and purple flowers are large (up to 2

inches long) and showy, up to 6 together in a large calyxlike involucre, whose 5 triangularly lobed bracts are united for at least

half their length. Flowering period, June to September. Fruit

hard, smooth, dark brown to black, not angled and not narrowed

at base.

Watson (207) notes "flowers open from four o'clock in the afternoon till nine in the morning." Mostly in partly shaded sites on

plains, foothills, and valleys, and in the mountains between about

4,000 and 9,000 feet. Although occasionally observed to be grazed

by goats, cattle, and sheep, the plant is generally regarded as having little or no forage value. However, it has excellent possibilities

for ornamental cultivation. Standley (186) has a fine photographic

plate (No. 77, opposite p. 411) of this plant in full bloom. Kearney

and Peebles (109) refer to reports that the Hopi Indians "eat the

root to induce visions" and that "the powdered root is used as

remedy for stomach ache."

Umbrellawort four-o'clock [Mirabilis oxybaphoides A, Gray, syns.

Allioniella oxybaphoides (A. Gray) Rydb., Quamoclidion oxybaphoides A. Gray], perennial from a thick fleshy root, occurs in the

woodland and ponderosa pine types from southern Colorado and

Utah to northern Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. The
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 113

F-209319

FIGURE 25.—Colorado four-o'clock (Mirabilis ynidtiflora (Torr.) A. Gray, syn.

Quamoclidion multiflorum Torr.).

herbage is sticky-hairy when young but becomes smoother as the

season advances ; the many branches are slender, green or whitish,

the plants often occurring in dense tufts up to 4 feet in diameter.

The small 1/4 to 2/5 inch long) flowers are 3 in a saucer-shaped involucre that enlarges in fruit ; they are bell-funnel-shaped, the tube

very short; stamens 3, their stalks (filaments) separate. The

plant is often abundant locally but scattered in occurrence. The

forage value is low or nil.
114 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Umbrellawort (Oxybaphus)

Perennial herbs, varying in habit from low and trailing to tall

and erect, with opposite and usually rather thick leaves. The

flowers are somewhat oblique, bell shaped to short funnelform,

small—less than 1 inch long, in 1- to 5-flowered calyxlike, united,

net-veined involucres conspicuously enlarging and becoming

papery in fruit; stamens 3 to 5, unequal in length. The fruit is 5

angled, constricted at the base, reverse egg shaped with the broader end uppermost ; mucilaginous when wet.

Sticky umbrellawort lOxyhaphus comatus (Small) Weatherby,

syns. Allionia comata Small, A. melanotricha Standl., 0. melanotrichus (Standl.) Weatherby] ranges from western Texas to extreme southwestern Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, and

south into Mexico, from foothills to the ponderosa pine and sprucefir belts. It is an erect, sticky-hairy perennial, 1 to 4 feet high, with

opposite leaves varying from elongated triangular to lance-ovate

or ovate, and usually li/o to 4 times longer than wide. The flowers

vary from purplish red "to pink. This plant has been reported to

be fair to good sheep and cattle feed from June to October.

Hairy umbrellawort [Oxybaphus hirsutas (Pursh) Sweet, syns.

Allionia hirsuta Pursh, A. pilosa (Nutt.) Rydb., Mirabilis hirsuta

(Pursh) Mac.M.] is an erect or decumbent, more or less hairystemmed perennial 1 to 4 feet high, with linear-lance-shaped to oblong leaves, purplish or pinkish flowers, and hairy fruit. It occurs

in dry sandy soils and has an unusually wide range in the United

States from Wisconsin and Minnesota south to Louisiana and

Texas, and west to New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana,

and Saskatchewan. Forage data on this plant are in some conflict,

and more data are desired. Biochemical studies in this family

might prove of considerable interest.

Narrowleaf umbrellawort [Oxybaphus linearis (Pursh) Robins.,

syns. Allionia divaricata Rydb., A. linearis Pursh, O. angustifolius Sweet] (fig. 26) is a typically bluish and smooth (at least

below) perennial herb, with slender erect stems up to 4 (rarely 5)

feet high, found from Illinois and Minnesota south to Louisiana

and Texas, and west to Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and eastern Montana. The inflorescence and fruit and often the upper parts of the

stems are more or less hairy.

In the typical form the thick, opposite stalkless (sessile), or

nearly so, leaves are linear or narrowly lance shaped V2 to 21/2

inches long; the small flowers are purplish or pinkish and appear

from June to October. The fruit is usually roughened between the

five ribs. The var. decipiens (Standl.) Kearney & Peebles (syn.

Allionia decipiens Standl.) has broader (sometimes ovate-lanceshaped), short-stalked leaves. The var. suhhispida (Heimerl)

Dayt. [syns. Allionia gausapoides Standl., A. linearis var. suhhispida (Heimerl) Standl., A. suhhispida (Heimerl) Standl., Mirabilis linearis var. suhhispida Heimerl] has densely hairy stems.

The plant occupies rather dry to medium moist, sandy or gravelly

soils—sometimes also heavy clays and moist rich loam—from
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 115

F-267247

FIGURE 26.—Narrowleaf umbrellawort [Oxybaphus linearis (Pursh) Robins.,

syns. Allionia divaricata Rydb., A. linearis Pursh, O. angustifoliiis Sweet].

A, Involucre and expanded flower; B, fruiting involucre and fruit.
116 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

"desert" areas to the ponderosa pine type, often in partly protected

sites, as under mesquite bushes or under cottonwoods in canyons.

As a rule, this plant is eaten only a little, if at all, by cattle and

sheep.

Scarlet umbrellawort [Oxybaphus coccínea Torr., syn. Allionia

coccínea (Torr.) Standl.] of woodland-grass and ponderosa pine

types, of Arizona, New Mexico, and Sonora, is rather closely related to 0. linearis. It has relatively large (up to % inch long)

red flowers and is reported by Kearney and Peebles (109) to be

"the showiest of the Arizona species."

The following southwestern plants of this family are not known

to have forage significance, but more information about them is

solicited : Sandbell [Ammocodon chenopodioides (A. Gray) Standl.,

syn. Selinocarpiis chenopodioides A. Gray] ; 3 species of gumjoint

(Anulocaulis) ; the somewhat vinelike gumseed [Commicarpus

scandens (L.) Standl.] with very sticky fruits; Cyphomeris gypsophiloides (Mart. &Gal.) Standl. [syn. Senkenbergia gijpsophiloides

(Mart. & Gal. Benth. & Hook.] ;i« and 4 species of moonpod

(Selinocarpus).

PORTULACA FAMILY (PORTULACAGEAE)

Mostly annual or perennial, often succulent herbs, the leaves

alternate, opposite or basal and untoothed. Flowers with 2 sepals,

3 to many petals, 4 to many stamens, 2 to 8 (often partly united)

styles; ovary 1 celled, superior (partly inferior in Portulaca).

Fruit, a capsule, opening by a circular slit (circumscissile) at

the top or by longitudinal valves ; seeds 1 to many, chiefly more or

less rounded or kidney shaped and somewhat flattened. The family,

v/hich is of very minor significance from the forage standpoint, is

represented in the western range area, on a conservative basis, by

8 genera and about 73 species. Considering its relatively small size,

the family is well represented in ornamental cultivation, the flowers

of many of the genera and species being attractive.

Rockpurslane (Calandrinia)

This is a large, mostly South American and Australian genus of

annual or perennial herbs, with short-lived, mostly 5-petaled and

red or white flowers with 2 persistent sepals, and 3-valved capsular

fruits containing numerous dark seeds. The genus, represented

in the western range area by about five species, has very little

forage value. It is named for J. L. Calandri (1703-58), a botanist

of Geneva, Switzerland.

Redmaids [_Calandrina ciliata (Ruiz & Pavon) DC. and variety

menziesii (Hook.) J. F. Macbride, syn. C. caidescens var. menziesii

(Hook.) A. Gray] ranges from near sea level, chiefly west of the

Cascades and Coast Ranges, in open, often moist, sunny places

"The generic name Cyphomeris was published by Standley to replace the

homonymous and untenable Senkenbergia Schauer (1847), not Senckenhergia

Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb. (1800) which latter, in turn, is a synonym of the

mustard family pepperweed genus Lepidium.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 117

from near sea level to the ponderosa pine belt, from British Columbia to Lower California and, less commonly, in Arizona and Sonora.

It is a small annual, with narrow leaves, rose red flowers about %

to % of an inch broad, in racemes appearing in early spring, and

numerous, black, shiny, minutely warty seeds. It is cultivated as

an ornamental but is negligible as forage.

Galyptridium (Calyptridium)

Cahjptridmm is a genus of (conservatively) 4 species confined

to western North America and, with one exception, to the 3 Pacific

States, Lower California, Sonora, Arizona, and Nevada. They are

all small annuals with numerous spreading stems, with basal and

alternate largely spatula-shaped leaves, small flowers in 1-sided and

often twisted spikes or spikelike panicles, 2 broad somewhat fused

sepals unequal in size, 1 to 3 stamens, and a short style with 2

stigmas. The fruit is a 2-valved capsule with flattened seed. The

name Cahjptridinm is a Latinized diminutive of the Greek KaX-v-n-rpa

(a woman's veil or the cover of a quiver) and refers to the fact that

the 2 to 4 petals soon dry and, persisting, fold like a sort of cap on

the fruit. The plants occur mostly at the lower elevations and, as

a rule, have no forage value.

Rosy calyptridium (Calyptridium roseiim S. Wats.) occurs in

eastern Oregon and California, through Nevada, and has been

reported from Wyoming. It has been suspected to occur in Idaho

but apparently has not yet been collected there.

Springbeauty (Claytonia)

Smooth herbs perennial from deep-seated bulblike corms or with

fleshy taproots or rootstocks. There is a solitary or several basal

leaves and usually two opposite or subopposite stem leaves, with

occasionally a third leaf present. The pink, white or yellow flowers

have 2 sepals, 5 (sometimes 6) petals, and 5 stamens. The fruit is

a 3-valved capsule with 2 to 6 black or blackish shining seeds. The

genus is named for Dr. John Clayton (1693-1773) whose extensive collections of Virginia plants were sent to the famous Dutch

physician and botanist Gronovius and published by him in Flora

Virginica (1762).

Claytonia is especially well developed in the western range area

where about 15 species occur—the number varying in the literature

because of confusion with the genus Montia. The palatability of

these delicate little plants to domestic livestock, deer, and elk is

fairly good or good but they appear early in the spring (often

flowering right out of the edge of melting snowbanks), are evanescent, and the amount of herbage produced is slight, so that their

forage value is rather insignificant. Hogs are fond of the corms

of those species which produce them and which are sometimes

called "Indian-potato." Some of the species are cultivated in wildflower gardens.

Two of the commonest range species are lanceleaf springbeauty

(Claytonia lanceolata Pursh, syn. C. multiscajm Rydb.), a lance-
118 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

leaved, cormose plant with purple-veined rose-colored flowers,

ranging from British Columbia and Alberta to California and New

Mexico, and alpine springbeauty [C. megarrhiza (A. Gray) Parry,

from which C. beUidifoHa Rydb. is somewhat doubtfully separable]

a high-range plant with tufted basal leaves and a thick taproot,

occurring from southeastern British Columbia to western Montana and south to northeastern Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico.

Lewisia (Lewisia, syns. Erocallis, Limnia in part,

Oreobroma)

The genus honors Capt. Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) of the

Lewis & Clark Expedition and first Governor of Louisiana Territory. This is a variable group of about 15 western range species ;

they are smooth perennial herbs with rounded bulblike corms, or

thick, often branched taproots or occasionally fibrous rooted. The

leaves are largely basal, those of the stem often much reduced.

The mostly white or pinkish, short-lived flowers vary from small to

large and showy, solitary or in umbels or other types of clusters,

with 2 to 6 persistent sepals, 4 to 18 petals, 3 to 8 styles united at

base, 5 to many stamens, superior ovary and more or less rounded

fruiting capsules that open horizontally (circumscissile) near the

base and then split toward the apex. The forage value is low ; some

species are cultivated in wildflower gardens. Indians and early

settlers used the roots of many of the species for food—to which

the name of the synonymous genus Oreobroma ("mountain food")

refers.

The best known species of this genus is bitterroot (Leivisia

rediviva Pursh) (fig. 27), the State flower of Montana and namesake of the Bitterroot Mountains and Bitterroot National Forest,

which occurs at considerable altitudinal variation in the mountains from British Columbia to Montana, Colorado, Utah, and California. Some of the books record it from Arizona and New Mexico,

but this apparently is questionable. This interesting low rosette

plant, with fleshy bitter roots and showy rose-colored or white

flowers, was illustrated with a colored plate and extensively annotated in the Range Plant Handbook (204)

Another common member of the genus is least lewisia [Letvisia

pygmaea (A. Gray) Robins., syns. Oreobroma pygmaeum (A. Gray)

Howell, 0. grayi (Britton) Rydb.], a high-mountain dwarf herb

occurring from Washington to Montana, Colorado, northern New

Mexico, and California. It has stems 1 to 2 inches high, succulent

narrow leaves longer than the inflorescence, and flowers with 6

to 8, white or pinkish petals about % inch long, appearing from

June to August. Sheep are sometimes observed to nibble it but

it is too small to have much forage value. The farinaceous root has

only a slight degree of astringency and had some importance as a

food plant of Indians.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 119

FIGURE 27.—Bitterroot {Lewisia rediviva Pursh). (Photo courtesy Thomas

Lommasson.)

Indianlettuce (Montia, syns. Crunocallis, Limnia in part,

Montiastrum, Naiocrene)

Montia, with about 20 western range species, the exact number

somewhat questionable because of confusion in some of the books

with Claytonia, is a group of annual or perennial herbs with

fibrous roots or reproducing by runners or bulblets. The leaves

are basal, opposite or alternate, often fleshy. The pink or white

flowers, in racemes or panicles, have 2 persistent sepals; 2 to 6,

often partly united petals ; 2 to 5 stamens ; 3 styles, partly united ;

3 (rarely 4) ovules, and 3-valved, globular or egg-shaped capsules

with 1 to 3, often shiny seeds. The genus commemorates Giuseppe

Monti, an Italian physician and botanist, who published a botanical

index and materia medica in 1724 and a treatise on poisonous

plants in 1755.

Some of the species of Montia have limited value for livestock

and wildlife. The five species briefly annotated here are probably

the commonest of the range members :

1. Asarumleaf Indianlettuce {^Montia asarifolia (Bong.) Howell,

syns. Limnia asarifolia (Bong.) Rydb., Claytonia asarifolia Bongard] occurs in moist sites, springy places, streambanks and the

like, in the high mountains from Alaska to Idaho, western Montana, and California. It is perennial from short, creeping scaly

rootstocks ; the slender scapelike stems are 4 to 12 inches tall ; there
120 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

are long-stalked, ovate, heart-shaped or kidney-shaped basal leaves,

and stalkless stem leaves. Considered fair to good elk and deer

feed in spring and summer; noted sometimes to be nibbled by

sheep. Occasionally used by natives as a potherb.

2. Siberian Indianlettuce [Montia sibirica (L.) Howell, syn.

Claytonia sibirica L.] is very close to M. asarifolia botanically, and

it has a similar American range. Also occurs in Siberia. It is taller

than M. asarifolia (sometimes 20 inches), with fibrous roots instead of rootstocks, either annual or else perennial by offsets, while

the individual flower stalks (pedicels) are almost always bracted

(instead of bractless). The celebrated Gen. Frederick Funston,

U.S.A., who made a botanical expedition of Yakutat and Disenchantment Bays, Alaska, in 1892 reported this plant as very abundant along glacial streams in that area and that it formed, both

raw and cooked, an important part of the diet of native Indians.

Considered fair to good elk and deer feed in spring and summer ;

noted sometimes to be nibbled by sheep. Occasionally used by natives and others as a potherb.

3. Chami880 Indianlettuce [Montia chamissoi (Ledebour) Tidestrom, syns., M. chamissonis (Ledeb.) Greene, Claytonia chamissoi

Ledeb., Crunocallis chamissonis (Ledeb.) Rydb.] is a succulent

herb perennial by stolons or running rootstocks that bear bulblets

at the ends of short branches or in the axils of the root branches.

The slender, weak, leafy stems root at the joints where they may

touch the ground and are 2 to 13 inches long. The delicate longstalked flowers vary in color from pale rose or pink to white. The

plant occurs in subalpine or cool swamps from Alaska to Minnesota, New Mexico, and California. Palatability very low to fair.

Reported to be nibbled sometimes by cattle. It is named for the

famous German poet, botanist, and explorer, Adelbert von Charaisso (1781-1838).

4. Lineleaf Indianlettuce {Montia linearis (Dougl.) Greene, syns.

Claytonia linearis Dougl., Montiastriim lineare (Dougl.) Rydb.]

grows in moist places in the mountains from British Columbia to

Montana, Nevada, and California. It is a leafy-stemmed annual

with fibrous roots ; alternate, very narrow leaves, and 1-sided

racemes of long-stalked white flowers. It is too local, small and

scanty in stand to have any special economic significance, though

sometimes cropped a little by livestock in the forepart of the season

before it dries up and blows away.

5. Minerslettuce [Montia perfoliata (Donn) Howell, syns. Claytonia perfoliata Donn, Limnia perfoliata (Donn) Haw.], an often

reddish annual, grows in more or less shaded sites up to the

ponderosa pine belt, from British Columbia to the Dakotas, Arizona, and California, and Lower California. It has been reported

from Colorado, but that is doubtful. The most characteristic feature of the plant is a pair of stem leaves that are united into a

rounded disklike appendage below the inflorescence. Its palatability has been reported as low or negligible. The plant is in common local use as a potherb.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 121

Portulaca (Portulaca)

About seven species of portulaca occur on the western range.

They are annual or perennial, often succulent and diffusely

branched herbs, with opposite or alternate, cylindrical or flattened

leaves. The flowers, sometimes brightly colored, have 2 sepals, 4

to 6 petals, 8 to numerous stamens, a partly inferior ovary, and

3 to 8 styles. The fruit is a 1-celled capsule, opening by a horizontal lid (circumscissile), with kidney-shaped seeds. Common

portulaca (P. grandiflora Hook.), native to southern Brazil and

Argentina, is a familiar ornamental annual.

The commonest range species is perhaps purslane, or pusley

(Portulaca olerácea L.), a prostrate-spreading, freely branching

succulent annual with a deep central root. The origin of this

plant is controversial, but it probably originally was Asiatic. It is

now almost cosmopolitan, especially in the warmer parts of both

hemispheres. The small yellow flowers open in bright sunshine

for a few hours only in the morning ; the seeds are ñnely wrinkled

and warty. The plant is a typical ruderal, growing in fields, waste

places, along roadsides, etc. It will endure considerable drought

and a dry soil but flourishes in the richer, medium moist situations

where it may attain very large size.

The forage value of purslane varies greatly with sites and associates. On some of the more southern ranges it is a valuable

forage. Thornber (201) speaks well of it on summer Arizona

ranges. However, Kearney and Peebles (109) state that the species

is rare in Arizona and it doubtless is frequently confused there

with the closely related native Southwestern purslane (Portulaca

retusa Engelm.), which ranges from Missouri and Arkansas to

Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona, and has notched leaves, blunt (instead of sharp pointed) sepals, 3 or 4 (instead of 5 to 7) styles,

and sharp conical projections on the seeds. It is considered good

summer cattle feed on the Jornada Experimental Range (southwestern New Mexico).

Bentley (21) says that purslane "grows in every county in

central Texas and is known locally as 'hog pusley'. * * * j^ stands

dry weather well, and no matter how dry the grasses and other

weeds may be its fleshy leaves and stems are abundantly in evidence. There is no doubt as to its value as a forage plant. Hogs

will fatten on it and sheep are fond of it. Cattle do not appear to

care for it particularly except in the droughty autumn months,

when its succulent herbage is greedily sought for." Smith (182)

states: "This well-known weed is of considerable value as an

autumn forage plant in the South and Southwest. The fleshy

leaves and stems are put forth in great abundance during the

hottest and driest weather and it is hard to kill. The same qualities

which make it a vile pest in our gardens and fields cause it to be

highly esteemed by sheepherders and cattlemen in years of

drought."

Death of both sheep and cattle have been reported to occur in

eastern Arizona from bloat due to excessive use of purslane. The
122 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

plant is a familiar and often pestiferous weed in gardens and cultivated ground. It is a popular local potherb—to which the scientific name olerácea attests—and, in fact, cultivated horticultural

varieties of it exist.

Shaggy portulaca (Portiilaca pilosa L.), sometimes called "jumpup-and-kiss-me," is an annual (sometimes longer lived) with cylindrical leaves with shaggy axils, and small or medium-sized pink or

purplish flowers. It ranges chiefly in sandy sites from Georgia

and Florida west to Missouri, Texas, and New Mexico, and south

into Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America. It is

reported as fairly good sheep feed in southwestern New Mexico.

A somewhat woody species, shrubby portulaca (Portulaca suffrutescens Engelm.), with a long woody thickened taproot, slender

pale green stems, small leaves, and copper-colored flowers, is found

from Arkansas and Texas to Arizona and northern Mexico. Kearney and Peebles (109) report it as "Arizona's showiest species"

of the genus. It is reported as fair spring cattle feed in southern

New Mexico.

Pussypaws (Spraguea)

This genus of small to medium-sized rosette plants commemorates Isaac Sprague (1811-95) the well-known Massachusetts

botanical artist who collaborated with Asa Gray and companion of

Audubon on his 1840 expedition to the Upper Missouri. The inflorescence, roughly resembling a cat's paw, is in dense scorpioid

spikes clustered in umbels or heads. The 2 rounded sepals are thin

and membranous, persistent and more or less fused ; petals 4 ; stamens 3 ; styles 2 ; fruiting capsules 2 valved, with black shiny seeds.

Of about three valid range species, the best-known is common

pussypaws [Spraguea nmbellata Torr., syns. Calpytridium nudum

Greene, S. nuda (Greene) Howell]. It ranges from Washington and

Idaho to the Yellowstone Park region of southwest Montana and

northwest Wyoming, to Nevada and California. It is a biennial or

sometimes apparently annual or perennial, with a fleshy, somewhat

thickened, spindle-shaped taproot; the often reddish stems are

from 2 to 12 inches high. The fleshy leaves are mostly in a dense

basal rosette, 1 to 4 inches long and spatula shaped. The white or

somewhat rose-colored flowers are in an involucred umbrellashaped cluster.

Common pussypaws usually grows in sandy, gravelly, rocky, or

other well-drained sites between elevations of about 3,000 and

] 0,000 feet. It is often regarded as a good sheep weed. However,

California sheepmen have reported that sheep occasionally die

from eating its flower heads ; the flower heads become cottony and

impacted in the sheep's stomach. It is sometimes cultivated as an

ornamental for rockeries and edging.

Fameflower (Talinum)

Talinum, a name supposedly of aboriginal origin, has about 14

range species ; they are perennial herbs or somewhat undershrubby.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 123

often with rootstocks or fleshy roots. The often cyhndrical (terete)

leaves are alternate or nearly opposite. The flowers are from the

leaf axils or in terminal cymes, with 2 membranous deciduous

sepals; 5 or more soon-withering petals; 3 more or less united

styles ; 5 or more stamens, and a 1-celled, 3-valved, parchmentlike

fruiting capsule containing flattened, shiny, kidney-shaped seeds.

Some of the native species, such as the New Mexican T. pulchellum

Woot. & Standl., are distinctly ornamental and worthy of

cultivation.

Orange fameflower (Talinum aurantiacum Engelm.), with

spreading stems and axillary orange-colored flowers, ranging from

western Texas to Arizona, is ordinarily of little or no importance

for grazing. One Forest Service employee reported it from southwestern Arizona as a secondary plant for hogs and cattle during

the summer months; he added: "It occurs in scattering stands,

although thick in swales or lands subject to flooding. Grows to 8

inches high, then falls over, lies along the ground, then spreads

out and grows about 3 or 4 inches longer."

Narrowleaf fameflower [^Talinum angustissimum (A. Gray)

Woot. & Standl.] is very closely related to T. aurantiacum. It has

the same range but is more erect and fleshy, larger and stouter,

with narrower leaves, and larger yellow flowers. Bailey (11)

states that this plant is an important food for jack rabbits and

other rodents in desert areas, furnishing them with a needed

source of water.

PINK FAMILY (CARYOPHYLLACEAE)

This is a medium large family, which, omitting the whitlowwort family (Illecebraceae, or Corrigiolaceae) united by some

botanists with it, is represented in the western range area by

about 19 genera and 180 species. It consists of annual or perennial

herbs—or some species might be denominated diminutive undershrubs—with opposite leaves (or, in a few cases, whorled or with

the uppermost leaves alternate), the leaves often partly united at

base; the stems are often swollen at the joints. The flowers have

their parts in 5's or 4's, with a persistent calyx, stamens up to 10,

and 2 to 5 styles stigmatic on the inner side. The fruit is a capsule.

Because of the attractiveness of the flowers of many species in

this family, a large number of them are in ornamental cultivation.

This is particularly true of the pink genus (Dianthus)—especially

carnation, or clove pink (D. caryophyllus L.) and sweetwilliam (D.

barbatus L.); also babysbreath (Gypsophila paniculata L. ). The

range importance of the family largely rests on the number and

wide distribution of many of these (often small) plants, the palatability of some of them, and the fact that a few species are

poisonous.

Common corncockle (Agrostemma githago L.), a winter annual

or biennial native to the Old World is now widely naturalized in

the United States and Canada, especially in the more northern

parts of the former and the more southern parts of the latter. Be-
124 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

cause of the difficulty of screening the seeds from wheat, it is

especially prevalent in wheat and other grainfields and from that

source has invaded roadsides, abandoned fields, and the like.

The stems of common corncockle are 1 to SVo feet tall, with

opposite narrow leaves 2 to 4 inches long, terminal solitary longstalked ñowers of greatly varying size, the calyx with a wellmarked tube and 5 long lobes or teeth two or three times longer

than the tube ; 5 purple, red or sometimes white petals ; 10 stamens,

and 5 styles alternating with the calyx lobes. The seeds are numerous, rough, rather large and black. While hardly attractive to

grazing livestock, the plants are occasionally observed to be nibbled

and apparently with impunity.

The chief economic interest in the plant is the seeds which are

reported to cause annual losses of millions of dollars to wheatgrowers. Wheat flour containing significant amounts of corncockle seed is unfit for human consumption and dangerous. The

seeds contain a saponin (substance causing sudsy froth in water)

named githagin, and probably toxic alkaloids as well. They are

highly poisonous to chickens, ducks, and geese, (123, l-il, 151).

Sandwort (Arenaria, syn. Alsinopsis)

The genus Arenaria^^ is represented in the western range area by

about 44 species. Sandworts are small, mostly tufted perennial or

sometimes annual herbs, with opposite stalkless slender leaves;

small, usually white flowers borne in open or contracted terminal

clusters (cymosehj or capitate) or rarely solitary in the leaf axils.

There are 5 sepals and 5 (rarely absent) untoothed or apex-notched

petals; usually 3 (2 to 5) styles opposite the sepals; 10 stamens;

a rounded or oblong fruiting capsule opening by valves or teeth as

many or twice as many as the styles, and numerous small seeds.

Some of the species when not in flower suggest, with their dense

clusters of fine leaves, colonies of pine seedlings. Some botanists

prefer to place those species with three-toothed capsules in a

separate genus, Minuavtia.

Sandworts, widely distributed throughout the West, are most

common on rather dry, sandy, or gravelly soils but are also found

on moderately moist, rich loams. Common on the western ranges,

they occur from the plains and foothills to well above timberline

in the mountains but, as a rule, are scattered among other plants

and not abundant in any one place. As a class, they average from

poor to fair in palatability for all classes of livestock, although in

Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, California, and the Northwest they

are generally considered from practically worthless to, at best,

poor forage. The palatability of the sandworts undoubtedly varies

li'The generic name is derived from the Latin arenarius (belonging to sand)

and refers to the characteristic habitat of many of the species. The Latin

word arena means sand, or figuratively, since the Romans sprinkled sand on

the fields used for gladiatorial contests to absorb the blt^od, the word came to

mean any place of combat. The common name, sandwort, also implies a plant

rr weed of sandy places, wort being a Middle English word (Anglo-Saxon

wyrt) meaning herb.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 125

not only for the different species but also for the same species in

different localities and at different times of the year. In general,

the palatability is highest in spring and in localities where the

plants are most abundant.

Prickly sandwort (Arenaria acúlenla S. Wats.) ranges in scablands and dry sandy or gravelly sites from middle to high elevations

(up to about 9,000 feet in Arizona), from northeastern Oregon

and Idaho to Utah, northwestern New Mexico, central Arizona,

Nevada, and California (east of the Sierra Nevada). It is a loosely

or somewhat densely matted perennial, more or less glandularhairy above, often with woody crown and roots ; rather slim flowering stems 4 to 8 inches high ; fine, stiff, rigid, prickletipped

leaves somewhat bluish when young, spreading and darker in age ;

the shallowly notched petals are about half again as long as the

sepals and, at maturity, the fruiting capsules are about twice as

long as the sepals. As a rule this plant is negligible for forage but

in some places it has been observed to be limitedly grazed by sheep.

Closely related to prickly sandwort is Uinta sandwort [Arenaria

uintahensis A. Neis., syn. A. aculeata var. uintahensis (A. Neis.)

Peck]. It differs chiefly in that it is smoother and less glandular

than prickly sandwort, and has softer, less rigid and non-prickletipped foliage, and fruit hardly longer than the persistent sepals.

Its range is from southeastern Oregon, Idaho, and western Montana

south to Colorado and Utah. Its forage value is, as a rule, worthless or low.

Ballhead sandwort (Arenaria congesta Nutt.) (ñg. 28) is distributed, chiefly in the mountains, from eastern Washington to

Montana and south to Colorado and central California, occurring

mostly between about 5,000 and 10,000 feet, although sometimes

found at both lower and higher altitudes. It grows on a wide

variety of soils from deep, rich, moist loams to dry gravels, in

grass, weed, sagebrush, aspen, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine,

and other vegetal types. Although a common plant on many

western ranges, it is not, as a rule, locally abundant but usually

occurs scatteringly in mixture with other plants.

The light-green, narrow, rigid leaves are produced mostly at the

base, while the stems bear two to four pairs of leaves rather distantly spaced, the uppermost pair being much smaller than the

others. The flowers typically are congested into (mostly terminal)

headlike clusters subtended by small, papery-margined bracts.

The five sepals are thin, dry and papery except for the prominent

midvein and are conspicuously shorter than the petals. A form

with woody crown and roots and a more open inflorescence has

been described as Arenaria congesta var. suffrutescens Robinson.

The palatability of ballhead sandwort varies considerably, especially in different localities and with the season of the year, and

appears to be highest in those localities where it occurs most abundantly. In Montana, while the growth is young and tender, the

general palatability of this species is fairly good for cattle and

good for sheep; in Wyoming and Colorado it is fairly good for

cattle but only fair for sheep ; in the Southwest, only fair for both
126 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-487816

FIGURE 28.—Ballhead sandwort {Arenah^ congesta Nutt.).

classes of livestock; in California and the Northwest, poor for

sheep and practically worthless for cattle ; and, in Utah, southern

Idaho, and Nevada, it is usually worthless. It has been observed

to be grazed by mountain sheep at high elevations on the Routt

National Forest (Colorado), and by elk in winter on the Teton

National Forest (Wyoming).

Very close botanically to ballhead sandwort is Burke sandwort

^Arenaria burkei Howell, syns. A. congesta var. subcongesta S.

Wats., A. fendleri var. subcongesta S. Wats., A. subcongesta (S.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 127

Wats.) Rydb. and, probably, A. glabrescens (S. Wats.) Piper].^"

It has a wider range than A. congesta—from southern British

Columbia and Alberta to Montana, western Colorado (doubtfully

in New Mexico), Arizona, and California. It is likely that reports

of A. congesta from Arizona, Alberta, and British Columbia actually refer to A. biirkei.

The several or tufted stems of Arenaria burkei, 4 to 10 inches

high, come from a more or less woody crown and root. This species

chiefly differs from A. congesta in the almost stalkless flowers occurring in small clusters (glomerules) at the ends of the inflorescence branches in an umbellike arrangement and in the sharptipped or tapered sepals that are almost as long as the fruiting

capsules. It occurs in rather dry sites between elevations of about

4,000 and 7,500 feet. Its forage value is as variable as that of A.

congesta, depending on location, abundance, associates, etc. ; generally it varies from worthless to poor but its palatability has been

rated as fair to good for different kinds of livestock on certain

national-forest areas in Montana.

Fendler sandwort (^Arenaria fendleri A. Gray)^^ is a tufted but

usually not densely matted perennial, the slim stems 4 to 8 inches

high; the inflorescence is open, more or less glandular-hairy; the

petals are only slightly longer than the sepals. The fine basal

leaves, sometimes 4 inches long, often have a grasslike appearance.

This species occurs in aspen and spruce types to above timberline

at alpine elevations and has been collected as a pygmy undershrub

at 12,000 feet on San Francisco Peaks, Ariz. It is one of the more

palatable members of the genus, although frequently regarded as

worthless to poor as forage.

Somewhat closely related to Fendler sandwort is fescue sandwort [Arenaria formosa Fisch., syn. "A. capillaris" of U.S. authors,

not Poir.]—so-called because some people think it resembles a

small, fine-leaved fescue (formosa, "pretty," refers to the rather attractive little flowers). Fescue sandwort ranges in alpine meadows

and other higher elevations from British Columbia and Alberta

to western Montana, northern and western Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and California. It apparently is absent from Colorado and

Arizona. As indicated, this is the A. capilla7'is Poir. of some of our

manuals, but that species was described from Siberia and should

probably be considered distinct from our west-American one.

The slim erect stems, 3 to 12 inches high, are usually several or

tufted from a creeping rootstock or with somewhat woody crown

branches. The almost threadlike leaves, 1/2 to 3 inches long, are

rather soft and usually not pungent, or sharp tipped. The flowers

are few, white, in open, flat-topped clusters, the sepals minutely

glandular-hairy, broadly oval and blunt tipped, about half as long

2°The species commemorates Joseph Burke, A British naturalist and collector who in 1844-46 explored the Rocky Mountains, the Snake River country

in Idaho, and the Toiyabe Mountains of Nevada.

-'One of the numerous plants that commemorate Au^stus Fendler (1813-

83), German-American botanical collector who was with the United States

troops who took Sanda Fe, N. Mex., in 1846, and some of whose Southwestern

collections were the basis for Asa Gray's book Plantae Fendlerianae.
128 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

as the petals. Ordinarily this plant is negligible or poor as forage.

The following two sandworts are small, common, often densely

tufted, arctic-alpine plants of practically no forage significance :

1. Nuttall sandwort (Arenaria nuttaUii Pax), ranging from

southeastern British Columbia and southern Alberta to southwestern Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and northern California. Found on dry

rocky slopes near snow on the highest peaks above timberline,

with long runners or sometimes a woody taproot, the herbage

glandular-hairy throughout; leaves crowded, somewhat awllike,

numerous, crowded, often spreading, y^, to i/o inch long, the petals

shorter than the strongly tapered, 1-nerved (or sometimes indistinctly 3-nerved) sepals, which are longer than the fruiting capsules. Occasionally observed nibbled by sheep and goats. The

species is named for Thomas Nuttall (1786-1859), well-known

British-American naturalist and explorer of the West.

2. Siberian sandwort (Arenaria sajanensis Willd.)^^ originally

known from the Saiansk Mountains, southwest of Lake Baikal,

Siberia, with about the same American range as Nuttall sandwort

but occurring farther south into New Mexico, Arizona, and the

Sierra Nevada of California and farther east into western Montana and Colorado. It differs from Nuttall sandwort in often

being more prostrate-trailing and mosslike, the stems a bit more

slender, less than 1/4 to 214 inches high, the oblong sepals rounded

at the tip, distinctly 3 nerved, and much shorter than the petals.

Closely related to the genus Arenaria and by some conservative

botanists regarded as subgenera or sections of it are Honkenya

and Moehringia.

Sea-purslane [Honkenya peplaides (L.) Ehrh., syns. Ammodenia

peploides L., Arenaria peploides (L.) A. Gray] is a succulent maritime plant inhabiting sea beaches and dunes on both sides of the

Atlantic and in northern areas of the Eastern Hemisphere. Because

of its variability a number of varieties and subspecies and even

species of it have been proposed and some authors prefer to put

our Pacific plant, ranging from Alaska to California into a distinct

species H. oblongifolia Torr. & Gray [syns. Ammodenia oblongifolia (Torr. & Gray) Rydb., H. pejiloides var. oblongifolia (Torr.

& Gray) Wight]. Gleason (81) says the northeastern plant is ssp.

robusta (Fernald) Hultén of H. peploides, while Abrams' (2, v. 2)

lists this plant under the name H. peploides var. major Hook. The

genus commemorates Gerhart August Honckeny (1724-1805), a

German botanist.

The plant is locally very common, forming dense clumps, the

stems often purplish at the top. It is perennial from stolons, with

opposite thick somewhat clasping elliptic, oblong, obovate, or

ovate-lance-shaped leaves; the flowers have a conspicuous 8- to

10-lobed disk, a distinctive feature of the genus. Fernald and

"The nomenclature of this plant is in controversy. Some botanists restrict

sajanensis to Siberia and call our American plant A. obtusiloba (Rydb.)

Fernald. Rydberg (172) recorded that American "sajanensis" is composed of

Arenaria laricifoha L., A. marcescens Rydb., and Alsinopsis obtiisiloha Rydb.

[syns. Arenaria obtusa Torr. (1827) not All. (1785), Arenaria biflora S. Wats.

(1878) not L. 1767) ].
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 129

Kinsey (70) mention that the plant is sometimes made into pickles

and used as a salad plant or potherb, and is made into a beverage

in Iceland. Perhaps the species should not be listed as a range

plant but its salty taste attracts livestock and other herbivorous

animals and Fernald and Kinsey cite Harold St. John to the effect

that it is "the choicest fodder * * * of wild ponies" roaming Sable

Island off the coast of Nova Scotia.

There are two range species of moehringia (Moehringia), delicate, slender-stemmed, sometimes almost vinelike herbs perennial

from slender rootstocks, and small white flowers solitary or in fewfiowered clusters. The habit is different from that of the typically

densely tufted sandworts, the leaves are broader and larger, the

fruiting capsules have only a few seeds and these possess a broad

papery growth (strophiole) around the hilum. The genus commemorates Paul Heinrich Gerhard Moehring, an 18th century

botanist of Danzig, Germany.

Bluntleaf moehringia {Moehringia lateriflora (L.) Fenzl, syn.

Arenaria lateriflora L.] has oblong-oval, blunt-tipped leaves and

nontapered sepals, the valves of the fruit 2 cleft. It is found in

moist, often shaded sites from Alaska to Oregon, in the interior

mountains to Utah and New Mexico and east to Missouri, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Newfoundland, and Labrador ; also in northern Europe and Asia. Longleaf moehringia [M. macrophylla

(Hook.) Torr., syn. Arenaria macrophylla Hook.] ranges in similar sites from Labrador and Quebec to British Columbia, south to

the Sierra Nevada of California, New Mexico, Minnesota, New

York, and New England. It has lance-shaped to linear-lance-shaped,

tapering leaves, narrower and somewhat longer than those of M.

lateriflora, tapered sepals and somewhat angled stems. The forage

value of these plants varies from worthless to fair, depending on

local conditions. It is more palatable to sheep and goats than to

horses and cattle and, when grazed at all, chiefly in spring and

early summer. These species are seldom abundant in any one

place, and their palatability and amount of herbage are insufficient

to make the plants important.

Cerastium (Cerastium)

A genus of more or less hairy and sometimes sticky annual or

perennial herbs, with opposite stipule-less leaves, and white flowers with 5 sepals, 5 petals (mostly notched or 2 cleft at the tip),

usually 10 stamens, and 5 (occasionally only 3 or 4) styles. There

are perhaps as many as 20 range species, the number depending

on the viewpoint of the individual botanist. Linnaeus appears to

have derived the generic name from Greek /c£paCTTiç(horned serpent)

reflected in the generic name Cerastes for the horned vipers of the

Old World. The name Cerastium, therefore, alludes to the peculiar

fruiting capsules of the genus, which are cylindric, thin, and

usually with a curved, somewhat hornlike tip opening by 10 short

teeth.

A few species are in ornamental cultivation for rockeries and

edging, such as snow-in-summer (Cerastium tomentosum L.). Mem-
130 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

bers of this genus are often called "chickweed" [a name better

restricted to Stellaria media (L.) Cirillo] "mouse-ear," "mouse-ear

chickweed," and "powderhorn." Probably the commonest range

species are: starry cerastium (C. arvense L.), Bering cerastium (C.

beeringianum Cham. & Schlecht.), plains cerastium (C. campestre

Greene), nodding cerastium (C. nutans Raf.), Rocky Mountain

cerastium (C. scopulorum Greene), common cerastium (C. strictiim L.), and sticky cerastium (C. viscosum L.). However, some

botanists regard C. campestre and C. scopulorum as being mere

forms or variations of C. arvense and others think that typical C.

strictum should be confined to the Old World or at least that United

States material so called is also referable to forms of C. arvense.

Cerastiums vary in palatability from worthless or low to occasionally fair or even fairly good, especially for sheep and goats,

depending on abundance and presence or absence of more palatable

associates. They are, in the main, small plants, producing only a

limited amount of herbage. Starry cerastium is reasonably typical

of the genus as a whole.

Starry cerastium (Cerastium arvense L.) occurs in fields and, in

the mountains, in valleys and also dry rocky places up to timberline, ranging from Labrador to Alaska and south to California,

northern Arizona and New Mexico, Missouri, and Georgia; also

in Europe and Asia. It is a tufted perennial, the stems erect or

ascending, 4 to 12 inches high, the base often matted and leafy,

with slender and often somewhat woody rootstocks. The leaves are

narrow, linear or linear lance shaped, and sharp pointed; often

there are clusters of leaves in the lower leaf axils. The white ñowers are in terminal clusters, rather numerous, appearing April

to July, the petals twice as long as the sepals. In bloom the plant

is rather showy and is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental. It

is grazed moderately by sheep in some areas but is considered

worthless in others.

Deptford pink (Dianthus armería L.), sometimes called "grass

pink," a native of Europe, widely naturalized in the United States,

is the only range species of this genus, which is famous for the

number of its cultivated species, especially the carnation, or clove

pink (D. caryophylliis L.). Deptford pink is an erect, fine-hairy

annual 6 to 18 inches high, with opposite linear erect or ascending

leaves, and small pink, light-spotted ñowers solitary or in terminal

few-flowered clusters ; the cylindrical calyx has a distinct tubular

base, 5 toothed at the tip ; there are 2 styles. The plant is of no

forage importance. Rather closely related botanically to Dianthus

are three other genera (Saponaria, Vaccaria, and Velezia), species

of which, introduced from the Old World, have become local members of the western range flora.

Bouncingbet (Saponaria officinalis L.) perhaps has escaped

from old-fashioned gardens. It is a smooth stout erect perennial

herb, about 1 to 2 feet high, with opposite lance-shaped to oval

leaves, and dense terminal clusters of showy rose-colored flowers,

and is often locally common along roadsides or in old fields. The

whole plant, especially the roots, contains the glucoside saponin,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 131

which makes a froth in water and, taken internally, may cause inflammation of the digestive tract and destruction of the red corpuscles of the blood (123). There is little, if any, evidence of this

plant's being grazed by domestic livestock and no case of poisoning

of range animals appears to be known ; however, it may be a potential source of poisoning. Pammel (151) reports that the seeds

are supposed to be poisonous when they occur in wheat screenings.

The planthas locally been used as a soap substitute and Pammel

(151) indicates that it is effective in removing grease spots from

wool.

Cowcockle, sometimes called cowherb and cow soapwort \yaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke, syns. Saponaria vaccaria L., V.

vaccaria (L.) Britton, V. vulgaris Host], introduced—chiefly as a

weed in and about grainfields—is a smooth, somewhat bluish annual with erect forking stems 1 to 3 feet high, with oval or lanceshaped leaves clasping at the base, and pale red or pink flowers

about 1/2 to 1 inch across in loose erect clusters ; there are 10 stamens and 2 styles. Each of the rounded fruiting capsules contains

about 20 round, hard, dark-colored seeds somewhat resembling

small shot. Some botanists prefer to place the plant in the soapwort genus (Saponaria) but there are a number of differences, including the flask-shaped, strongly 5-angled (winged in fruit) calyx

and the lack of appendages at the base of the petals (found in

Saponaria).

The name Vaccaria, derived from Latin vacca (cow), is supposed to indicate a fondness for it by cattle. However, the plant

is not known to have poisoned animals under range conditions.

The seeds contain saponin. Chesnut and Wilcox (37) speak of the

plant being a noxious weed in Montana grainfields and that, because of its occurrence in spring wheat, it is often called "spring

cockle"; that chickens and horses reject screenings containing

cowcockle seed but hogs and sheep will eat it, and that sickness or

death can be induced in rabbits by forced feeding with the seeds.

Stiff velezia (Velezia rigida L.), introduced from the Mediterranean region in dry California foothills, is a bushy little annual,

rigidly branched from the base, 4 to 16 inches high, with small

awllike leaves, and small narrow flowers, the calyx tube and fruiting capsules narrowly cylindrical, the petals long clawed and with

small blades. Of no value for forage. The genus commemorates

Cristobal Velez, a Spanish colleague of the 18th century Swedish

botanist, Peter Loefling.

Drymary (Drymaria)

There are about six range species of this chiefly Mexican genus,

sometimes locally called "seccomaria." They are small bushybranched annuals, with slender stems, opposite or whorled leaves,

and small white or whitish flowers. There are typically 5 (sometimes fewer) sepals and petals, the petals deeply lobed or divided,

1 style and usually 5 stamens. The fruit is a small capsule splitting

when ripe by three valves. The genus is greatly in need of competent monographing. Thus far only one species has assumed any
132 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

range significance. It might be worth noting in this connection

that Dickson (59) stated that Drymaria cordata on a tea estate

in Uva, Ceylon, was encouraged as a ground cover to prevent erosion and had a very favorable effect for 3 or 4 years ; after that it

became too aggressive, diminished the tea yield about 100 pounds

per acre, and had to be eradicated.

Thickleaf drymary (Drymaria pachyphylla Woot. & Standl.) (fig.

29) is often referred to D. holosteoides Benth., which is typically a

F-315213

FIGURE 29.—Thickleaf drymary (Drymaria pachyphylla Woot. & Standl.).

seashore plant growing on beaches of Lower California and of the

western coast of Sonora. Brandegee (30) says that "D. holosteoides is annual, low, usually prostrate-spreading, somewhat glaucous, pubescent; leaves ovate, cunéate at base, thickish; pedicels

scarcely equalling the leaves." He further indicates that D. crassifolia Benth., a more rounded, more bluish and perfectly smooth

plant with thicker leaves and longer flower stalks is frequently

confused with D. holosteoides. Little (120) although (at least

temporarily) holding D. pachyphylla to be a synonym of D. holosteoides, states that the latter has "much narrower, acutish leaves

puberulent pedicels, and slightly smaller seeds."

Thickleaf drymary ranges, in dry adobe soils at low elevations,

from southwest Texas to southern New Mexico and southeastern

Arizona and south into Coahuila and Chihuahua. The herbage is

smooth and bluish white (glaucous) ; the leaf blades are thickish

ovate, rhombic or broadly elliptic and blunt tipped; the flowers

are m stalkless or nearly stalkless clusters from the leaf axils the

sepals ovate and blunt or slightly pointed (apiádate). A distinc-
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 133

tive feature of the plant is the purplish juice emanating- from the

green capsules and unripe seeds when squeezed between the fingers.

In dry weather the plant may be prostrate but may rise up after a

light shower. The species is a prolific seeder; Little (120) reports

that a plant 4 inches in diameter may mature 250 capsules containing about 3,750 seeds.

While thickleaf drymary is small, short lived, and unpalatable it

is aggressive and, when good feed is unavailable, it is exceedingly

dangerous and has caused heavy losses of cattle and, in some cases,

of sheep and goats. The poisonous principle, still unknown, is virulent, death often taking place in a few hours, nervousness and

bloody discharges being among the symptoms. Ares (7) reports

that hoeing of this plant by local stockmen on the Jornada Experimental Range (southwestern New Mexico) reduced cattle

losses from 91 in the period 1926-33 to 10 in the period 1934-40.

This pioneer plant, according to one Forest Service employee on

the Jornada "represents practically the only early weed stage on

clay soils denuded by trampling or erosion, and any measure for

its permanent control must be based upon the reestablishment of

a higher stage in the series, either by natural revegetation, or by

artificial reseeding of pioneer grasses." There is now considerable

literature for this species, e.g.: Mann (128), Lantow (115),

Mathews (137), and Little (119,120).

Holosteum (Holosteuin umbellatntn L.) is a small tufted annual,

3 to 10 inches high, glandular-hairy above and slightly woolly below, native to Europe and Asia and naturalized in this country, especially in the Atlantic and Pacific coast States. The oblong leaves

are up to about % inch long, the small ñowers in a 3- to 8-flowered

umbel, the individual flower stalks (pedicels) bent down (reflexed),

the 5 petals with jagged-toothed (erose) margins—whence one of

the common names, "jagged chickweed" ; styles 3. The fruiting

capsules are ovoid cylindrical with 6 recurved teeth at the tip. It

is sometimes nibbled by sheep but is hardly abundant or large

enough to have any particular range significance. The name is derived from Greek holosteon (meaning "all bone"), a plant name

used by Dioscorides and, perhaps, was facetiously transferred to

this delicate plant by Dillenius and Linnaeus.

Rather closely related to Holosteuin is the pearlwort genus (Sagina), represented in the range area by about six species. Perhaps

the commonest and most widespread of these is arctic pearlwort

[S. saginoides (L.) Britton, syn. S. linnaei Presl], in the arctic

regions of both hemispheres, in northern Michigan, and, in the

West, from Alberta and British Columbia to California, (on the

highest peaks of) Arizona and New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and

Montana. It is a high-range, small, tufted perennial, 1 to 4 inches

high, with small linear leaves less than l o inch long, 5 petals

shorter than the sepals, 5 styles alternating with the sepals and of

about the same length, and ovoid-oblong fruiting capsules splitting

to the base by 5 valves. Forage value, negligible or low. Western

United States plants of this species are often referred to var.

hesperia Fernald,
134 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Three related genera of very minor range significance are Loeflingia, Spergida, and Spergularia. Loeflingia (Loeflingia), named

for Peter Loefling, an 18th century Swedish naturalist, is represented in the West by a Texas, a Tehachapi Mountains (California)

species and by L. squarrosa Nutt., an almost prickly, diffuse little

annual, 1 to 3 inches high, found in "desert" areas of California

and Arizona ; it appears to have no forage value but probably does

local service as ground cover. Loeflingias are all small annuals,

with narrow awllike leaves with stipules, greenish flowers with 3

stigmas, the styles small or lacking.

Allseed (Polycarpon), also called "polycarp" and "manyseed,"

is a genus of bushy little annuals with flat leaves, thin stipules,

and clusters of numerous small flowers with 5 sepals, 5 petals

shorter than the sepals, 3 to 5 stamens, and 3 styles united below.

There are 2 species of this genus in California: California allseed (P. depressum Nutt.), a very diminutive plant growing at

lower elevations from central California to Lower California, and

fourleaf allseed (P. tetraphyllum L.), with leaves often in 4's,

naturalized from Europe and growing in waste places. These

plants are not known to have any forage value.

Corn spurry (Spergula arvensis L.) is widely distributed in the

United States as a weed from Europe. It is an annual, 6 to 18

inches high, with linear somewhat fleshy, whorled leaves—or perhaps the leaves truly opposite but appearing whorled because of

others fascicled in their axils and of about the same size, 1 to 2

inches long. Sepals and white petals, 5 ; stamens usually 10 ; styles

and capsule valves usually 5. It has been reported as somewhat

trailing and abundant along beaches of the Tongass National Forest, Alaska. Probably unimportant as a forage plant but more data

are desired.

Sandspurry (Spergularia, syn. Tissa) is represented in the

western range area by about 11 species. Spergularia is a conserved name under the International Code. The species are low

annual or perennial, mostly fleshy herbs, often growing in saline or

alkaline sites ; the leaves are opposite but often with smaller leaves

fascicled in their axils ; there are 5 sepals and petals, 2 to 10 stamens, the styles and capsule valves usually 3. Red sandspurry [S.

rubra (L.) J. & C. Presl, syn. Tissa rubra (L.) Britton] is a common, branching annual or short-lived perennial with prostrate or

ascending stems 2 to 12 inches long, the pink petals shorter than

the sepals, and widely distributed in sandy or gravelly sites in the

Eastern and Western Hemispheres; it is native to Europe. As a

rule it is worthless as forage but occasionally has a little value

for sheep.

Campion (Lychnis)

Many members of this genus are in ornamental cultivation;

about 10 species occur on western ranges. They are biennial or

perennial herbs, mostly with rather showy flowers. The sepals are

united into an often more or less inflated tube ; petals 5 with entire, 2-cleft or slash-toothed (laciniate) blades, the 5 (rarely 4)
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 135

styles alternating with the petals ; stamens, 10. In Rydberg's Flora

of the Rocky Mountains and Adjacent Plains (173) this genus

appears under the name Wahlbergella, and in a later work (17^.) he

accepts Melandrium and Wahlbergella as well as Lychnis, the first

two genera named apparently being absent from all our other

western botanical manuals. Porsild (161) writing about flora of

the continental northwest territories of Canada has a section

headed "Melandrium (WahlbergeUa)," in which he indicates that

Wahlbergella is a synonym of Melandrium and somewhat apologetically states that this group has "admittedly slight distinguishing features" from Lychnis.

Perhaps the commonest and best known range species of the

genus is Drummond campion {^Lychnis drummondii (Hook.) S.

Wats., syn. Wahlbergella drummondii (Hook.) Rydb.], found on

dry hills, plains and mountain slopes and valleys from British

Columbia to eastern Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New

Mexico, and north to Manitoba ; also found sparingly in Minnesota,

Michigan, and Nebraska (naturalized?). It is a perennial herb, 6

to 24 inches high, with a thick rootstock; reverse lance-shaped

leaves with the narrow end downwards, and white, pink or purple

flowers about V2 inch long. Observations on national-forest ranges

do not indicate that livestock find this plant palatable. The species

commemorates its discoverer, Thomas Drummond (1780-1835),

Scotch-Irish naturalist, nurseryman, and botanical explorer of the

arctic and western Canada. Pammel (151) reports that lychnidin,

a presumably toxic saponinlike compound, has been found in the

familiar ragged-robin (L. floscuculi L.) of the gardens.

Silene (Silène)

Silène is a genus of annual or perennial herbs, a considerable

number of which are in ornamental cultivation in rock gardens,

etc. Some species with sticky glands are called "catchfly." "Campion" and "pink," names better referable to the genera Lychnis

and Dianthus, respectively, are also used for this genus. The mostly

white, pink, red or purplish flowers are usually in clusters

(cymes), the calyx united into a 10-many-nerved, cylindrical, eggshaped or bell-shaped tube, 5 toothed or cleft at the tip; the 5

petals are clawed at the base, the blades often cleft or toothed and

usually with a scalelike appendage at the base ; styles 3 (rarely 4

or 5) ; fruiting capsules opening by 3 or 6 valves.

There are about 42 western range species. The significance of

the name silene is in dispute. The name was used by Linnaeus and

by at least two of his contemporaries. Royen and Dalibard, but its

significance is unexplained by them. Some authorities derive it

from Silenus, the mythological father of the satyrs; others associate the word with Greek sialon, saliva, because of the slimy

excretion of some species. At least eight species are of sufficiently

wide distribution and abundance to merit short reference.

M088 silene or "moss campion" (Silene acaulis L.) occurs in the

arctic regions of both hemispheres and on the highest mountain

peaks in the United States ; in the east, only on Mt. Washington,
136 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

New Hampshire, and, in Arizona, only on the San Francisco Peaks.

It is a small, densely tufted, almost mosslike perennial ^yith a

woody crown and root ; short linear leaves, and attractive pinkish

or purplish (rarely white) flowers solitary and terminal on very

shoi-t stems. It is a typical alpine plant, growing above timberline

in rock crevices, carpeting cliffs and ledges, along wet glacial

moraines, and the like. It is in commercial cultivation as a rockgarden plant.

An excellent illustration of a flowering mat of this species can

be found in Plant Physiology and Ecology, (Jf2, p. 98). Also, there

is an illustrated article about it under the heading "The Cushion

Pink" in the American Botanist [25(1). Feb. 1919]. This diminutive plant can hardly be considered as forage and yet sheep and

goats nibble on it a bit in summer, and on some high summer ranges

on at least two Colorado national forests it is considered fairly

palatable for sheep. Fernald and Kinsey (70) remark that the

"Tough, closely forking stems and masses of persistent dead

leaves * * * hardly suggest culinary possibilities. Nevertheless,

* * * Sir William Hooker states that the plant is 'boiled and eaten

with butter by the Icelanders.' "

Sleepy silène or sleepy catchfly (Silène antirrhina L.)-. with an

almost continental distribution, ranges from Newfoundland and

Quebec south to California and Florida and, farther south, into

Mexico. It is an annual, smooth or minutely hairy herb, farther

south, into Mexico. It is an annual, smooth or minutely hairy herb,

with slender erect or ascending stems 8 to 20 (rarely 30) inches

high. About the stem joints (nodes) and especially below the upper

ones are bands of gumminess in which grains of dirt, hairs, small

insects, and seeds become fastened. The narrow leaves are opposite, the lowest narrowly spatula or reverse lance shaped, the uppermost ones awllike. The flowers are in a loose forking cluster, the

small pink petals (sometimes wanting) folded, or "sleepy" for most

of the day, opening only for a short time in sunshine.

The plant occurs in dry open sites, sandy fields, waste places,

open gravelly woods, etc. Occasionally it is a weed in cultivated

ground. In Colorado, according to Rydberg (171), between elevations of 5,000 and 6,000 feet. On western national forests chiefly

in the woodland and ponderosa pine belts. The forage value of this

plant seems to be negligible or slight. Chesnut (37) remarks that

this plant is "stated to have poisoned sheep in southern Michigan

a few years ago, but there is reason to believe that the poisoning

was due to another source." Perhaps it was on this basis that

Pammel (151) lists it as "said to be poisonous." There appears to

be no scientific basis for this supposition.

Douglas silène (Silène douglasii Hook.), a species dedicated to

its discoverer, David Douglas "(1799-1834), the eponym of Douglasfir, occurs in grass types and in open aspen, spruce, and ponderosa

pine stands, from British Columbia and Alberta to Montana, Utah,

Nevada, and California. It is a many-stemmed herb, finely crisphairy and sometimes a little glandular above, perennial from a

woody taproot. The narrowly reverse lance-shaped to narrowly
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 137

linear leaves are up to 2 or 3 inches long. The white or pink flowers

are in small open clusters ; the calyx, oblong obovoid and scarcely

inflated, is about 1/2 inch long, green nerved, more or less finehairy, with blunt teeth ; the petals, % to 1 inch long, have entire

blades except for the 2-cleft tips, the egg-shaped fruiting capsules

have a short stipe, or stalklike base.

Silène multicaulis Nutt. is probably at most not more than a

variety [S. douglasii var. multicaulis (Nutt.) Robinson] of this

species, with larger flowers and better developed upper leaves.

Reports of its having greater viscidity and inflated, purple-veined

calyces are probably due to some confusion with the related Lyall

silène (S. lyallii S. Wats.). The forage value of Douglas silène

varies with location, vegetal composition and other factors. Frequently it is regarded as worthless.

Ingram silène (Silène ingramii Tidestr. & Dayt.) (fig. 30). perhaps the handsomest of the western silènes, native to the Umpqua

National Forest area (southwest Oregon) has a certain melancholy

interest as its discoverer, Douglas C. Ingram (1882-1929), distinguished forest oflficer of the United States Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region, perished in the Camas Creek Fire on the

old Chelan (now Okanogan) National Forest, Washington, possibly on the very day that the species was published (Biolog. Soc.

Wash. Proc. 42:207-208, illus. Aug. 17, 1929.

Abrams (2) and Hitchcock and Maguire (97) have categorically

remanded this species to synonymy under Hooker silène (Silène

Äoofeeri Nutt.), but Bailey (10) and Peck (155) recognize it as distinct, because it is taller, with somewhat narrower leaves, distinctly

tapered calyx lobes, a longer-stiped ovary, and darker (violet

to purple) 4-lobed petals. It is in ornamental cultivation as a rockgarden plant, where it is generally considered distinct from Hooker

silène (11,U,76).

Mexican silène (Silène laciniata Cav.), also known as "fringed

Indian pink," "Mexican campion," and "yerba del India," is a

Mexican species ranging north into the Southwestern United

States from extreme western Texas to New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and Nevada, to California south of the mouth of the Sacramento River, and into Baja California. It is a downy erect herb

1 to 3 feet tall, perennial from a woody crown and taproot; the

opposite leaves vary in outline from linear lance shaped to reverse

lance shaped (oblanceolate), or narrowly oval. The showy crimson

or bright scarlet flowers are in a more or less spreading cluster,

the cylindrical calyx about % inch long, the 4 or 5 petals much exceeding the calyx, their blades deeply cleft into about 4 linear lobes

and these lobes sometimes, in turn, 2 cleft giving a somewhat

fringed appearance.

Further information on the palatability of this plant is desired ;

in general it seems not to be grazed. Southwestern persons of

Spanish descent are reported to use this plant as a kind of tea and

the leaves are locally considered useful in the treatment of sores,

ulcers, sprains, etc. The species is in ornamental cultivation. Kear-
138 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-481214

FIGURE 30.—Ingram silène {Silène inc/ramü Tidestr. & Dayt.).

ney and Peebles (109) call it "Arizona's showiest species of

Silène."

Menzies silène (Silène nienziesii Hook.), ranging from Vancouver Island and southern British Columbia to Saskatchewan and

south to western Nebraska, New Mexico, and California, has been

reported also from southern Missouri. It is a slender, leafystemmed plant, perennial from slender rootstocks, the habit superficially resembhng that of Moehringia tnacrophylla (Hook.) Torr.,

but, of course, with a very different floral structure. The often

rather weak and decumbent or spreading but sometimes ascending

or even erect stems are 3 to 12 inches long, the herbage more or

less finely glandular-hairy, especially above, the pubescence having

a tendency to point downwards or backwards.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 139

The stemless (or practically so) opposite leaves vary from ovate

lance shaped to oblong elliptic or linear lance shaped, up to 3 inches

long, and mostly taper at both ends. The inflorescence is leafy, the

plant forking above, the white flowers borne on slender stalks from

the upper leaf axils ; they are less than i/j inch long, the 5 petals

2 cleft or lobed at the apex, the calyx of an oblong cylindrical type,

scarcely inflated, 10 ribbed. The habitat is moist mountain woods,

often among bushes, along streambanks, in mountain meadows and

other moist-wet sites ; more rarely in drier situations and usually

in the ponderosa pine and spruce belts. The forage value is variable, depending on abundance, associates, time of year, size of

leaves, etc.

Oregon silène (Silène oregana S. Wats.), originally known from

the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon, occurs in the mountains

from Washington and Oregon (east of the Cascades) to northeastern California (questionable in northern Nevada), western Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. It is a more or less stickyhairy, rather disagreeable-smelling plant 10 to 24 inches high, perennial from a usually perpendicular root. The leaves are few and

narrow ; the inflorescence is a narrow panicle, the calyx cylindrical

or oblong club shaped and narrowed at base, usually 10 nerved;

the 5 white petals are about % to % i^ch long, the base of the

blades, or "claws," furnished with narrow appendages (auricles)

and scales. Mostly in well-drained open sites, sandy or gravelly,

occasionally loamy soils, from medium to subalpine elevations. It

seems to be distasteful to grazing animals and is seldom nibbled.

Scouler silène (Silène scouleri Hook.), dedicated to its discoverer. Dr. John Scouler (1804-71) who accompanied David Douglas

on the latter's first western trip, occurs in dry grassy plains and

in meadows, and open woods up to the ponderosa pine and aspen

types, from Vancouver Island and British Columbia to Oregon

and east to Utah, Colorado, and Montana. The plant is perennial

from the woody laranching crown of a taproot, the stems erect, 8

to 28 inches high; it is minutely hairy below and glandular and

sticky above. The basal leaves are oblanceolate and up to 4 inches

long and nearly 1/2 inch wide. The inflorescence is narrow and

spikelike; the petal blades, or "claws," are deeply cut at the tip,

% inch or more long and white or purplish. Ordinarily it is only

limitedly cropped by sheep; on certain ranges of the Beaverhead

National Forest (Montana), however, the palatability was considered poor for cattle and horses and fair for sheep.

Starwort (Stellaria, syn. Alsine)

Starworts, sometimes given the name of one member, the common chickweed (Stellaria media), compose a genus of annual or

perennial herbs with opposite, linear to ovate leaves, often weak

and spreading stems, and white clustered (cymose) flowers. There

are about 25 western range species, of which at least 4 are widespread and common. The flowers in this genus consist of a calyx

of usually 5 (sometimes 4) separate sepals ; usually 5, sometimes 4

notched petals (lacking in some species) ; usually 10 (can be as
140 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

few as 2 in some species) stamens, and a pistil with mostly 3

(rarely 4 or 5) styles, usually opposite the sepals, and the fruiting capsules open nearly to the base by as many valves as there

are styles, but the valves (being 2 cleft) appear to be twice as

many. The stamens and petals are inserted around the margin of

a disk under the stalkless (sessile) ovary.

Starworts are found on a wide variety of sites; however, the

majority of the species occur in moist or wet places, and for the

most part are small, sparse in stand, and relatively unimportant as

range plants. In palatability they are generally considered fair

cattle forage and fairly good sheep forage.

Under the old American Rules, Alsine L. (1753) had "page

priority" (p. 272) over Stellaria L. (p. 421) but, under the now

universal International Code, Stellaria, the name predominantly

in favor, is acceptable and preferred. The artificial system of

Linnaeus, based largely on numbers of stamens and pistils, necessitated putting these closely related species into separate genera,

chickweed and some close relatives having fewer stamens than

most starworts. The name Stellaria (from Latin Stella, star)

alludes to the resemblance of the ñowers to conventionalized

"stars."

Tuber starwort [Stellaria jamesiana Torr.,^^ syn. Alsijie jamesiona (Torr.) Heller] (fig. 31), known also as James starweed and

mountain chickweed, ranges, chiefly in moist sites, from the woodland and ponderosa pine to the aspen and spruce belts, from Wyoming and Idaho to Washington, California, and western Texas.

In the Rocky Mountains and Intermountain Region it occurs from

about 4,500 to 10,000 feet above sea level, but in the Northwest it

may be found as low as 1,500 feet. Although occurring in a great

variety of soils, it is more likely to grow on sandy or gravelly loams

than in clayey soils. It is often common along streams, among

shrubs, and especially in the aspen type.

The plant is a perennial herb, from tuberous rootstocks (which

enable the species to propagate vegetatively, as well as from seed) ;

there is a sticky glandular pubescence at least in the inflorescence ;

the stems are 4 angled, 4 to 24 inches tall. The stemless opposite

linear to narrowly lance-shaped leaves are broadest at the base

and up to 4 inches long; the white flowers have notched or 2-lobed

petals about twice as long as the sepals.

Tuber starwort rates mention because of its wide distribution,

frequent commonness and conspicuousness when in flower. The

flowers are cropped by grazing animals, and the palatability of the

herbage is fair or sometimes fairly good for sheep, and poor to

fair for cattle. This variation depends chiefly on freshness of

foliage and presence in quantity of more palatable associates. Occasionally tuber starwort is rather heavily grazed by both sheep

and cattle; such extreme use, however, is associated with overgrazing and other undesirable conditions. The amount of forage

2'The scientific name commemorates Dr. Edwin James (1797-1861), surgeonnaturalist of the Long Expedition (1819-20) to the Rocky Mountains. He

discovered and named limber pine (Pinus flexilis).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 141

FIGURE 31.—Tuber starwort (Stellaria jamesiana Torr.).

F-14782A
142 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

produced per plant is small although this is one of the largest plants

in the genus. The starchy tuberous rootstocks are edible and,

when fresh and fleshy, are quite palatable with a pleasant, somewhat sweetpotatolike taste ; they were an important source of food

among the Indians.

Two species perennial from rootstocks and sufficiently widespread and common to deserve brief mention are described here :_

1. Longstalk starwort [Stellaria longipes Goldie, syn. Alsine

longipes (Goldie) Colville] occurs on the banks of running streams,

in wet meadows, around springs and other moist sites, also in

spruce burns and rocky beaches of the arctic, from Greenland and

Newfoundland to Alaska and south to California, Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, Minnesota, northern Indiana, New York, New

Brunswick, and Quebec. It has branched, 4-angled, smooth stems

4 to 12 inches high; linear-lance-shaped, ascending leaves up to

about 1 inch long, and solitary or few long-stalked flowers on erect

pedicels. It is occasionally grazed to a small extent but does not

produce much herbage and usually grows where better forage

plants occur.

About equally common and as widely distributed as Stellaria

longipes is its var. laeta (Richards.) S. Wats. [syns. Stellaria laeta

Richards., Alsine laeta (Richards.) Rydb.], which is smaller, with

narrower, lance-shaped, sharp-pointed sepals, and reduced flowers

in the leaf axils ; this diminutive variety, hardly worth separation

from the species, is too small to have forage significance. It occurs

in Colorado up to at least 11,500 feet.

2. Siberian starwort (Stellaria umbellata Turcz., syn. Alsine

baicalensis Coville), originally knovra from Siberia, occurs in the

Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon, the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and east to the Rocky Mountains from Montana

to New Mexico. It is a weak, decumbent or ascending plant, 1 to

12 inches high, with lance-shaped or narrowly oblong leaves up to

3/), of an inch long. The flowers are in umbels, often petalless or

with the petals very small. The usual site is wet to moist meadows

or in loamy soils, but it has been found growing in rock crevices on

San Francisco Peaks, northern Arizona, at 12,000 feet. Ordinarily

it is negligible as forage but, in some places, is fair sheep feed.

Chickweed IStellaria media (L.) Cirillo,^* syn. Alsine media L.]

is a native of Europe and Asia and perhaps also in parts of northern North America; now "almost universally distributed as a

weed." It occurs in a naturalized condition in almost all parts of

North America; its range in the United States is probably still

spreading ; it appears to be commoner in the East and on the Pacific

coast than in the interior and is much more common around ranches

and about towns and settlements than on the mountain ranges.

Chickweed is a weak, somewhat succulent, tufted and diffusely

branched annual, the smooth stems prostrate, decumbent or ascending, rooting at the lower joints, and 4 to 16 inches long. The

leaves, of an oval or oblong type, are up to li/ó inches long, the

2*The surname of the 18th century Italian botanist Domenico Cirillo is

often given as "Cyrill." in the manuals.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 143

lower pairs very short stalked. The 5 white petals appear to be

10, each being deeply divided and surpassed in length by the 5

glandular-pubescent sepals. Frequent as a weed in gardens, lawns,

fields, waste places, along irrigation ditches, etc. In the mountains generally in moist and cool sites, often on shady north slopes,

up to about 9,000 feet in Colorado and about 3,000 feet in northern

Idaho and Montana, often appearing in spring and autumn.

Mostly of minor importance or negligible as a range forage plant

but reported to be relished by elk in winter on the Olympic National

Forest (Washington). Chickens are especially fond of the plant,

whence the common name, as are also many songbirds. Carruthers

(35, p. 308) states that "this is not a poisonous plant" but adds

that more information is needed on reports of its "causing disorder to the digestive system when eaten in great quantity by

young lambs.

BUTTERCUP FAMILY (RANUNGULACEAE)

This large, chieñy Northern Hemisphere family is represented

in the western range country by about 19 genera and 226 species.

It is noteworthy for its acrid juices, its large number of ornamental

plants often with flowers of unusual shapes, and its importance

from a range stock-poisoning standpoint. In addition to medicinal

plants mentioned under their respective generic headings, an eastern plant, goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) has rootstocks

which have been in so much demand medicinally that the plant is

almost extinct in a natural condition.

ANEMONE TRIBE (ANEMONEAE)

Adonis (Adonis)

Adonis, sometimes called "pheasant-eye," is an Old World group

of annual or perennial herbs with alternate dissected leaves and

showy, solitary, terminal yellow, orange or red flowers composed

of 5 to 8 sepals and 5 to 16 petals (the latter without nectar pits),

and numerous stamens and pistils; the fruit is an elongated or

rounded head of achenes. Probably all the species are in ornamental cultivation and, from this fact, at least three species have

limitedly escaped and become locally naturalized in range areas

of the West. The genus perhaps should be dismissed from consideration from the range standpoint except for its apparently active

chemical properties. Spring adonis (Adonis vernalis L.) is an official drug plant, its dried herbage being used as a heart stimulant,

the drug often adulterated with other species of the genus which

appear to have the same properties but to a lesser degree.

Anemone (Anemone)

Perennial herbs, with compound or dissected leaves both basal

and, opposite or whorled, forming a sort of stem involucre to the

long-stalked flowers. There are no true petals, the sepals several

or numerous and petallike, the stamens and pistils numerous. The
144 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

fruit is a rounded, oblong, egg-shaped or elongated and dense head

of numerous flattened and pointed often cottony achenes. Anemone

is the Greek name for these plants, presumably derived from

miemos, wind ; they are frequently called "windflower." Anemones

are represented in the West by about 18 species, where they occur

on moist and well-drained soils from near timberline on the mountains to the lower elevations in the foothills and valleys, in both

open and shaded situations.

The flowers of some species are produced very early, with the

first advent of spring, adding their bright colors to the rather drab

landscape of the season. Various species are cultivated because

of their beautiful, showy flowers and, in several cases, for their

striking foliage as well. Some species constitute fair forage for

sheep, deer, and elk, but, in the main, anemones are practically

worthless for cattle and only poor for sheep. Ordinarily, they are

insignificant for forage purposes largely because the more succulent species appear early and quickly desiccate.

It is possible that all anemones contain "anemone-camphor," or

"oil of anemone," from which are derived anemonic acid and

anemonin, the latter a bitter ring ketone and poisonous narcotic.

Fresh anemone plants are more or less acrid and the fresh juice

of some species may be irritating to the skin and eyes of some

people (123, 151, 211). It has been reported (211) that European

wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa L.) has caused illness of cattle

in Europe, but there appears to be no record of anemone poisoning

livestock in this country. Some species of anemone were used by

the ancient Romans as a treatment for malarial fever, and Gilmore

(80) reports that American Indians used anemone roots in the

treatment of wounds and attributed to them mystical healing

powers.

The four common species of anemone briefly annotated below

are reasonably representative of the western range :

1. Candle anemone (Anemone cylindrica A. Gray) occurs in

woods and along streams from New Brunswick and Maine to New

Jersey, Ohio, Missouri, Arizona, Utah, and eastern Idaho. The

books include British Columbia in its range but that seems open to

question. It is a silky-hairy plant about 1 to 2 feet high, the leaf

blades 3 cleft, those involucred on the stem 3 or more and long

stalked. The flowers, mostly 1 to 3, are whitish, yellowish, pinkish,

or purplish. The fruiting heads are elongated cylindrical, whence

the common name "thimbleweed," the small fruits (achenes) long

and cottony. While occasionally observed to be grazed the plant's

palatability is normally low or worthless.

2. Threeleaf anemone (Anemone deltoidea Hook.) occurs chiefly

near the coast, from British Columbia south to Del Norte, Siskiyou, Humboldt, and Trinity Counties, northern California, mainly

in fertile loamy soils, often in or on the edge of timber and frequently along streams, between about 100 and 5,000 feet elevation ; often common and abundant, flowering from late May through

August. It is a smooth (or nearly so) plant with slender rootstocks, stems 4 to 14 inches high, 3-leafletted basal leaves, the leaf-
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 145

lets ovate and toothed, and 3 stalkless (or nearly so) simple stem

leaves that are saw toothed or sometimes 3 lobed. The white

flowers are solitary, the achenes not woolly, in a rounded or eggshaped head. Ordinarily negligible as forage.

3. Globe anemone [Anemone glohosn Nutt., syn. A. multifida

var. globosa (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray] (ñg. 32), also known as mountain anemone and Pacific anemone, ranges from Alaska to New

Brunswick and the New England States and, southward, to South

Dakota, Colorado, the San Francisco Peaks of northern Arizona,

and northern California. Its botanical nomenclature is in dispute.

Some authorities consider it a variety or synonym of the subarctic

northeastern North America A. hudsoniana (DC.) Richards, (syn.

A. ynultifida var. hudsoniana DC.) and others, a variety or synonym

of the South American A. multifida Poir. There is no doubt that A.

globosa is closely related to the two (typically) smaller flowered

species mentioned. Globe anemone is a hairy plant with a stout

rootstock, stems 4 to 20 inches high, the leaves compoundly divided

in 3's (2- to -k-ternate), their ultimate segments rather narrow, the

flowers greenish yellow, pinkish, or bluish purple with stout and

short styles.

The species is probably the most abundant anemone in the West

and occurs in meadows, valleys, and foothills from about 4,000 feet

up to timberline (12,000 feet). It occupies a variety of soils on

either dry or moist sites, prefers sunny situations, but occasionally

appears in open timber stands. As forage, globe anemone is unimportant, ordinarily being practically worthless for all classes

of livestock. On some national-forest areas in Montana, Colorado,

and Utah it has been rated poor to fair for sheep, and it is probably eaten to some extent by deer and elk.

4. American wood anemone (Anemone quinquefolia L., incl. A.

piperi Britton, a western form of the species which intergrades

completely) ranges from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia south to

Tennessee and Georgia, west to western Ontario and Minnesota,

entering the western range country in northern and western

Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. It is a rather

low (4 to 9 inches high) delicate spring herb, perennial from

slender, whitish or brown horizontal rootstocks. The stem bears

an "involucre" of 3 distinctly stalked qidnquefoliolate ("5 leaved")

or trifoliolate ("3 leaved") leaves, and solitary white or whitish

flowers usually with 5 or 6 sepals. The spherical fruiting head is

somewhat bent inwards, the individual seedlike fruits (achenes)

noncottony but fine-hairy.

This species is often abundant in rich more or less shaded sites,

as in conifer stands in the mountains between about 2,500 and

5,000 feet. It seems to be unimportant as forage but has been

rated as fair spring deer feed on the Allegheny National Forest

(Pennsylvania). On western range it generally disappears by the

time livestock enter in the spring.

Anemone quinquefolia has been confused with the cultivated

European wood anemone (A. nemorosa L.), which has become

limitedly naturalized in this country; that species, however, has
146 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-287106

FIGURE 32.—Globe anemone (Anemone globosa Nutt.) : A, Fruiting heads; B,

individual fruit (achene).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 147

a somewhat coarser habit, paler hue, less lobed leaf divisions, and

a conspicuously stouter and blackish rootstock. A. nemorosa is

reported occasionally to sicken domestic animals in Europe and

both it and our American plant cause an inflammation of the skin

to certain sensitive persons.

Lyall anemone \_Aneinone quinquefolia var. lyallii (Britton)

Robins., syn. A. lyallii Britton], named for its discoverer. Dr.

David Lyall, surgeon-botanist of the middle 19th Century International Boundary Survey betvs^een the United States and Canada,

and Oregon anemone [^A. quinquefolia var. oregana (A. Gray)

Robins., syn. A. oregana A. Gray], are sometimes recognized as

western variations of American wood anemone.

Closely related to the anemones and united with them, as a subgenus, by many botanists are the pasqueflowers (Pulsatilla

spp.)?^ Pulsatilla is distinguished from typical Anemone by its

elongated, clematislike, densely feathery styles, very conspicious

in fruit ; its noticeably larger flowers (the sepals sometimes 1V2 to 2

inches long), and the presence among the stamens of glandlike

staminodia, or abortive nonfunctional stamens.

Hardly any two American manuals agree as to the scientific

name of our American pasqueflower \_Pulsatilla ludoviciana (Nutt.)

Heller, syns. P. hirsutissima Britton, P. occidentalis (S. Wats.)

Freyn., Anemone ludoviciana Nutt., A. occidentalis S. Wats.]. This

confusion is due to disagreement as to whether or not (1) our

species is confluent with the Old World spreading pasqueflower

[Anemone patens L. = Pulsatilla patens (L.) Britton & Brown], (2)

Pulsatilla is a valid genus distinct from Anemone, (3) the more

western form should be separated as a distinct species, P. occidentalis, and (4) our species should be segregated into varieties,

such as nuttalliana and ivolfgangiana.

Regarding American pasqueflower as one and endemic to North

America, its range is from Wisconsin and northern Illinois and

west to South Dakota, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British

Columbia, and Alaska, south to California (apparently absent

from Arizona), New Mexico, and western Texas. It is the State

Flower of South Dakota (87). Other common names for this

plant include April-fools, Easter-flower, hartshorn, headache-plant,

mayflower, rocklily, wild-crocus, and windflower.

The Dakota Indians dub the pasqueflower hakshi-chekpawalicka, meaning twin flower, because usually each plant bears

just two flowering stalks (80). This may be misleading, as although it is possible that two stems are produced more often than

any other number, plants with only one stem or with several stems

are not uncommon. In Great Britain pasqueflowers are often called

"Danesblood," due to an early tradition that these plants first

appeared on battlefields stained with the blood of invading Danish

warriors.

American pasqueflower is a low, densely silky-hairy perennial,

^^Pulsatilla is an Italian name Latinized by medieval botanists; its significance is uncertain, although it may refer to the throbbing caused by the

irritation of poultices made from these plants.
148 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

with mainly 3 parted, dissected leaves, and large and showy purplish-blue to whitish flowers. The plant occurs mostly in rather

dry, sandy, or rocky sites and has a wide altitudinal range (about

4,000 to 10,000 feet). At the higher elevations, it appears on exposed, sunny slopes, but at lower altitudes, it occurs both in the

open and in the shade of trees and shrubs, being especially characteristic of open stands of ponderosa pine. It blooms in the early

spring before the leaves appear and often at the edge of melting

snow; "pasque" (signifying Easter or the Jewish Passover) refers

to the early flowering.

This species contains a volatile oil anemonol, or "pulsatilla camphor," anemonin, etc. (211, 216), and is listed by Pammel (151,

152) as a poisonous range plant. However, there is no record, apparently, of any livestock losses from it. Its palatability is low,

and it produces but a small amount of herbage, which matures and

largely desiccates by midsummer and ordinarily is only slightly

grazed, if at all.

The Indians use the crushed leaves of American pasqueflower

in the treatment of rheumatism and similar diseases ; the leaves

are applied as a poultice, but if left in contact with the skin long

enough will cause blistering (80). The dried herbage of this

species is sometimes used as a source of the drug, pulsatilla ; the

official source of that compound is the dried herbage of Old World

species, especially the European pasqueflower (Pulsatilla vulgaris

Mill., syn. Anemone pidsatiUa L.). The plants are collected shortly

after blooming and carefully dried. The material loses its medicinal

value if preserved much longer than 1 year. The drug, used for

disorders of menstruation, is a counterirritant ; in overdoses it

causes vomiting and purging with pain, tremors, and collapse.

Clematis (Clematis)

This large, familiar genus, many members of which are in ornamental cultivation, is chiefly woody plants climbing by means of

twisting leafstalks. Frequent other common names for the group

are virginsbower and travelers-joy. It is annotated in the Range

Plant Handbook (20i) and Important Western Browse Plants

(54). The genus is remarkable in this family because of its opposite leaves. The variability of the genus is reflected in its sections:

Flammida (perhaps the most familiar form of clematis in this

country), with sexes distinct, climbing over bushes and

with massed clusters (cymose-paniculate) of small, white,

fragrant flowers with four spreading sepals.

Atragene, with 3-leafletted leaves, and large solitary (or in

3's) nodding flowers with thin, separate, divergent sepals,

the filaments of the outer stamens broadened and more or

less petaloid.

Viorna, or leatherflower, with simple or compound leaves, and

solitary, upright or nodding, long-stalked, more or less

leathery textured and urn-shaped, often purplish or brownish flowers.

Viticella, an Old World showy group, shrubby climbers with
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 149

leaves of various types, and large starlike flowers of various

colors, solitary or in threes.

The common herbaceous western range species is Douglas clematis, also known as Douglas leatherflower, hairy clematis, and

sugarbowls [Clematis hirsiitissima Pursh, syns. C. douglasii Hook.,

Viorna bakeri (Greene) Rydb., V. douglasii (Hook.) Cockerell, V.

eriophora Rydb., V. hirsiitissima (Pursh) Heller], which ranges

on the east side of the Cascades from British Columbia to Grant

County, Oregon, east to Utah, Arizona north of the Grand Canyon,

northern New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Idaho.

It is an erect perennial, 8 to 28 inches high, of varying hairiness

(responsible in part for the segregated species proposed), perennial from a woody base. The lowest leaves are small, undivided

and bractlike, the others twice or thrice pinnate with the ultimate

divisions linear or lance shaped. The brownish-purple flowers are

solitary and nodding on a naked stalk, the 4 leathery sepals erect

but with recurved tips, up to 2 inches long. The small fruiting

achenes are silky-hairy, their persistent styles in fruit up to 2Va

inches long. The plant usually flowers in May and June and disseminates from the middle of July on. It usually occurs scatteringly

in well-drained soils in the open or at least under moderately

lighted situations.

The palatability of Douglas clematis to domestic livestock varies

from zero or low to fair and is more palatable to sheep than to

cattle and horses. Such value as it possesses is in the forepart of

the season, because it soon becomes dry and uninviting. Like all

clematises it is more or less acrid and the herbage has a bitter taste.

Charles Andreas Gej^r (1809-53), early plant explorer of the

West, reported (78) that "the Saptona Indians use the root of this

plant as a stimulant, when horses fall down during their excessive

races. They hold a scraped end of the root into the nostrils

of the fallen horse. The effect of this is instantaneous, it produces

trembling ; the animal springs up, and is led to the water * * * The

scraped root leaves a burning sensation for half a day, if touched

with the tongue." Some clematises were formerly used medicinally

as counterirritants and as blistering agents (125).

Mousetail (Myosurus)

This is a widely distributed genus of diminutive stemless (except

for the flower and fruit stalks), almost grasslike annuals with

fibrous roots. The threadlike, linear or narrowly spatula-shaped

leaves are in a basal tuft. The flowers are small ; greenish-yellow

petals are frequently present ; there are usually 5 sepals conspicuously spurred at the base ; stamens about 5 to 25. The numerous

pistils are borne on a cylindrical terminal axis that elongates and

becomes spikelike in fruit—giving rise to both the common and

scientific names [the latter from Greek niîios (mouse's) + oura

(tail)].

There are about nine western range species of this genus. They

are often common in moist meadows and woodlands or weed-grass

types, frequently in sandy or gravelly clay loams up to elevations
150 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

of 9,000 feet or so. Some species occur in bogs and others in alkaline seeps. Apparently there is no record of their being grazed

by domestic livestock and, even if grazed, they are too small and

short lived to have any importance.

Meadowrue (Thalictrum)

Meadowrues are erect, mostly leafy-stemmed herbs, perennial

from rootstocks, with alternate, ternately compounded, columbinelike leaves. The leaflets are usually three lobed and often more or

less toothed. The flowers of meadowrues lack petals and, although

individually small, are often showy collectively in terminal clusters

(panicles or occasionally racemes) ; the early-falling, petallike

floral bracts (sepals) are greenish, whitish, or purplish. The

flowers of a few species are perfect, containing both male, or pollenproducing organs (stamens) and female, or seed-producing organs

(pistils); in most species the pistils and stamens are borne in

separate flowers on separate plants (dioecious) or occasionally perfect flowers are intermixed with male and female flowers (polygamous) . The male flowers are often attractive with their numerous, delicate, colored stamens.

Meadowrues are much alike in general appearance ; but besides

differing in characters such as racemose vs. paniculate flowers,

threadlike vs. club-shaped filaments, 1- or 2-sexed plants, fruit

ribbing and shape, they are chiefly dissimilar in size, leanness of

stems, shape, size, and texture of leaflets, and color of roots. Field

determination of species is not always feasible; fortunately it is

seldom, if ever, required for range management purposes. Meadowrues are abundant locally, and in general their palatability is

practically worthless to poor for cattle and poor to fair for sheep.

However, in some instances they may be utilized rather closely,

especially on ranges that are heavily grazed early in the season.

Excessive use of meadowrues generally indicates overstocking.

Deer crop these species slightly ; possibly they are also utilized by

elk. The herbage has a somewhat tanninlike, acrid taste.

Approximately 14 species of meadowrue grow in the Western

States, the majority inhabiting the Rocky Mountains. They prefer

rich, moist soils and some shade and appear in greatest abundance

in aspen and among shrubs. However, they are often found in full

sunlight in meadows and parks.

Meadowrues derive their name from the meadow habitat of the

typical Old World species—a habitat which is rather characteristic

of the genus as a whole—and from a fancied resemblance of the

foliage to that of common rue (Ruta graveolens L.), However, the

bitterness of the leaves in meadowrue lacks the peculiarly acrid

character of rue. Certain species of meadowrue are sometimes

known as "poor-man's rhubarb," because their herbage was formerly used as a substitute for rhubarb. Thalictrum is Latinized

from thalictron, a name used by the Greek medical writer, Dioscorides first century, B.C.), for a plant thought to be the Old

World low meadowrue (T. minus L.).

Because of their feathery masses of male flowers, their graceful
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 151

foliage, often in pleasing contrast to purplish stems, and their

hardiness, many of the meadowrues are grown as ornamentals.

Some species are suitable for mixed borders and rock gardens ; the

robust forms are valuable in wild gardens. Some native range

species, alpine meadowrue (Thalictrum alpinum L.), early meadowrue (T. dioiciim L.), and veiny meadowwrue (T. venulosum Trelease) have been used commercially for some time.

There is evidence that some species of meadowrue have active

chemical properties ; hence a thorough study of the genus from this

standpoint would be of interest and value. The roots of bigfruit

meadowrue (Thalictrum macrocarpum Gren.) of southern Europe

are the source of a crystalline yellow, extremely toxic substance

like curare, which is used by South American Indians for poisoning arrows and darts. This substance consists of thalictrine, an

alkaloid insoluble in water, and macrocarpin, a yellow crystalline

body soluble in water, representing the coloring principle of

Thalictrum. The roots of some species yield a yellow dye suitable

for woolens. The same elements occur in the roots of yellow meadowrue (T. flavum L.), known also as "fenrue" and "monk's rhubarb," and in dusty meadowrue (T. rugosum Aiton, syn. T. glaucum

Desf.) of Europe, as well as in snoutseed meadowrue (T. rhynchocarpum Dillon & A. Rich.) of north Africa.

Thalictrine is a very active cardiac poison, which causes loss of

power, convulsive movements, irregularity and depression of the

heart beat, and finally death (H7). Although possibly the American species contain the same toxins as the foreign species, no livestock losses attributable to these plants have been recorded. Domestic animals, to be sure, would hardly be tempted to eat the bitter

roots even if accessible. Chesnut (38) writes that an Indian once

reported a white child as being poisoned by eating the stems of

Sierra meadowrue [Thalictrum polycarpum (Torr.) S. Wats.], a

Pacific species, ranging from Oregon to Lower California. He

further reports that, among some California Indian tribes, that

plant is known as "coyote angelica," angelica being a universal

charm and panacea of Indians and the coyote symbolizing their

idea of cunning. These Indians believe that coyotes eat this meadowrue without ill effects.

Two of the most common and characteristic western meadowrues

are briefly annotated here :

1. Fendler meadowrue (Thalictrum fendleri Engelm.)^^ (fig.

33), ranges from (southeastern Oregon?) to Idaho and western

Montana and south to (the mountains of) western Texas, northern

Mexico, Arizona, and eastern California. It is often abundant

locally, and occurs chiefly in moist, loam soils in aspen or among

shrubs, although also found in open exposures and, to some extent,

in ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, and other coniferous timber,

up to elevations of about 10,000 feet. It is about 1 to 3 feet tall, the

2^The species commemorates August Fendler of St. Louis, Mo., who first

collected it in the mountains near Santa Fe, N. Mex. Fendler's collections in

New Mexico, 1846-47, formed the basis for Dr. Gray's well-known book

Plantae Fendlerianae.
152 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-803665

FIGURE 33.—Fendler meadowrue (Thalictrum fend'eri Engelm.). Male flowers

above at right; female flowers below at right; single achene, or fruit, lower

right.

sexes distinct, with rather small leaflets (under % of an inch long),

threadlike anther stalks (filaments), and 3-ribbed, oblique, reverse

egg-shaped (obovoid) fruits (achenes).

On properly grazed ranges Fendler meadowrue is practically
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 153

worthless to poor in palatability for cattle and poor to fair for

sheep. On very heavily grazed ranges it is sometimes almost completely utilized, but ordinarily the close cropping of this species

indicates overstocking. Kennedy (112) reported that sheep on

western Nevada ranges were very fond of this plant.

2. Western meatlowrue (Thalictrnm occidentale A. Gray) favors

rich, damp loam and on such soils may be the predominant plant.

It occurs in shaded habitats of partly open aspen and conifer timber, from British Columbia and Vancouver Island to northern

California, Utah, Montana, and Alberta. It is a medium-sized,

much branched plant about 2 to 3 feet tall ; the leaflets are thin

and inconspicuously veined ; the plant has separate sexes (dioecious), the stamen stalks (filaments) of the male plant are threadlike; the narrowly spindle-shaped fruits are tapered at both ends,

6- to 8-ribbed, and 14. inch or more (6 to 8 mm.) long.

This species is usually of little or no value as forage but may be

lightly grazed by sheep in certain sections. Darlington (49) states

that on national-forest ranges in Washington and Oregon it is regarded as unpalatable and worthless. However, on Idaho national

forests, it is generally rated as fair to good sheep feed.

False-bugbane {Trautvetteria carolinienis (Walt.) Vail., syns. T.

grandis Nutt., T. media Greene, T. palmata (Michx.) Fisch. &

Mey.] is an erect herb, perennial from a mass of fibrous roots, up

to 40 inches high. It has alternate leaves sometimes as much as 8

to 12 inches wide, of a broadly kidney-shaped (reniform) outline

and deeply and digitately 5- to 11-lobed, the lobes in turn lobed,

cut or toothed and separated by rounded sinuses ; the root leaves

are long stalked, the stem leaves short stalked or stalkless and reduced in size. The inflorescence is long stalked with numerous

flowers in a (corymbiforjn) flattened or convex cluster ; the flowers

are petalless, with 3 to 5 soon-falling greenish white sepals, and

numerous white and rather showy stamens. The fruit is a podlike

follicle (somewhat similar to that of a larkspur or columbine),

tipped with the bristlelike persistent recurved style.

Trautvetteria is a small or perhaps monotypic genus of North

America and Asia and much in need of further study. Most western manuals call our western plant T. grandis. As compared with

(typically eastern) T. caroliniensis, T. grandis typically has thinner and less conspicuously net-veined leaves; its stem leaves are

usually short stalked rather than stalkless, and it has smaller,

broader fruits more rounded at base and tipped with a longer style.

The segregate known as T. inedia Greene, of New Mexico and

southern Utah, has slimmer, less club-shaped stamen stalks (filaments) which are not broader than the anthers, shorter styles,

and the fruits are hardly rounded at the base. It appears to merge

hopelessly into the typical form.

It seems better, as some botanists are now doing, to merge Trautvetteria grandis with the eastern T. caroliniensis (an older name)

and consider our plant as growing across the continent, from Pennsylvania to Florida, and west to central California, and British

Columbia. The species grows in moist mountain woods, often near
154 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

or along streams, up to subalpine elevations. It flowers from June

to August. Opinions as to its palatability and value vary greatly

and more study of this matter is needed. The genus derives its

scientific name from Ernst Rudolph von Trautvetter (1809-89),

distinguished Russian botanist.

HELLEBORE TRIBE (HELLEBOREAE)

This tribe is typified by the true hellebores (Helleborus

app.) of the Old World, at least two members of which, Christmasrose, or black hellebore (H. niger L.) and Lentenrose, or Oriental

hellebore (H. orientalis Lam.) are in popular cultivation in this

country as ornamentals. The plants of this genus are poisonous,

having strong cathartic, diuretic, and cardiac influences. Hippocrates (b. 460 B.C.), "the father of medicine," wrote of black

hellebore (H. niger L.) ; the plant was deemed by the ancients to be

useful in the treatment of madness, the Greeks having a verb hellebor-iao meaning "to need hellebore."

Monkshood (Aconitum)

Monkshoods compose a fairly large chiefly Asiatic genus of perennial herbs, represented in the Far West by about nine species,

although a number of segregates have been proposed. Washington,

Idaho, and Montana have one species apiece; the Intermountain

Region, with six species, appears to be the center of distribution

for the genus in this country. Other common names used for the

genus are aconite and wolfbane ; the latter name, however, is perhaps best restricted to the Old World Aconitum lycoctonum L., and

aconite to the cultivated drug plant, A. napellus L. Aconitum is the

classical name for these plants.

The roots of all western monkshoods are perennial, many are

clustered, and most of them tuberous ; these parts should always be

represented when plants are collected, because they vary considerably in different species (165, 166). The pithy or solid, often

slender stems are frequently solitary, 1 to 6 feet tall, and vary

greatly in leafiness and hairiness. The alternate leaves are palmately lobed or divided, the lower ones long stalked, and the upper

ones somewhat reduced in size and short stalked. The showy and

ornamental, irregular flowers appear from mid- to late summer and

are wholly unlike those of any other plant in our flora, being

readily identifiable by the peculiar helmet-shaped hood formed by

the large upper sepal.

The fancied resemblance of the flower to the hood that a monk

commonly wears is the origin of the English name, monkshood.

The flowers occur in short, few-flowered or long and many-flowered,

branched clusters, and are characteristically deep blue, although

they may vary from violet to white or yellowish. Frequently, the

fruits (follicles) in the lower part of the cluster have matured their

seed while the upper flowers are still in blossom.

The western species of monkshood, when not in bloom, may be

confused with tall species of larkspurs (Delphinium spp.), with
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 155

which they are frequently associated, because of the similarity of

the leaves and the somewhat analogous growth habits. Differentiation between the destructive, poisonous larkspurs and the ordinarily harmless monkshoods is not especially difficult, as the latter have solid or pithy stems in consrast to the hollow stems of the

larkspurs. Furthermore, the roots of western monkshoods are

short, clustered, somewhat fleshy, and tuberlike vdth short, yellowish rootlets, whereas the tall larkspurs have long, dark-colored,

fibrous roots from well-developed, tough, somewhat woody root

croAvns.

When the plants are in bloom, the irregular flowers of monkshood with the hoodlike upper sepal are so distinctive as to be

readily recognizable ; the spurred flowers of the larkspurs are also

unmistakable. Early in the season, before the stems develop, the

western monkshoods may be confused with the species of wild

geranium, or cranesbill (Geranium spp.) because the leaves are

very similar, but ordinarily the crushed foliage of the latter has

the characteristic geranium odor.

In the West, monkshoods grow chiefly in the mountains, usually

singly or in small patches, and seldom occur in great abundance

over large areas. They appear commonly in moist open woods,

along creeks, in meadows and grasslands, often extending into the

higher mountains where the growing season is short. Their habitat is similar to that of the closely related larkspurs. Although

widely distributed, monkshoods are seldom, if ever, sufficiently

abundant to attain major importance on the range. They often

constitute fair feed for sheep, poor or worthless for cattle, and

are but rarely grazed by horses.

Although technically poisonous, monkshoods probably seldom,

if ever, cause fatalities or even sickness under range conditions.

The most poisonous part of monkshoods is the root, usually inaccessible and unattractive to livestock. The seeds are also poisonous. This matter is discussed in greater detail under Aconitum

columbianum, the most important western species of the genus.

The important drug aconite, an arterial and nervous sedative

used to alleviate pain in such disorders as facial neuralgia, toothache, and sciatica, is commercially obtained from the roots of the

Old World plant Aconitum napellus L. (14-7)—the species of

Aconitum most commonly cultivated in the United States as an

ornamental. The chief active principle of aconite is the group

of closely related alkaloids called "aconitine" (CssH,,sNOnCsi

H^yNOii * * *), powerful poisons. Apparently exact chemical

structure of these alkaloids varies in the different species. McNair

(127) reports that the various aconitines have been found only in

this genus, which is noteworthy in giving a new chemical species of

"aconitine" for each apparently closely related species. The American Pharmaceutical Association in 1938 concluded that tincture of

aconite, as then prepared under the U.S. formula, was "of no

significant clinical value" and that the preparation and standardization of the drug appeared to need further study (195).

Monkshoods are attractive hardy perennials much used for bord-
156 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

ers and mass formations in horticultural plantings because of their

showy flowers and attractive foliage. They are reproduced by root

division as well as from seed. However, these plants should not be

planted in or near kitchen gardens or in children's gardens as

their roots, leaves, and sometimes the flowers may cause poisonmg

(8).

Columbia monkshood (Aconitum columbianum Nutt., syns. A.

arizonicum Greene, A. patens Rydb.) (fig. 34) is representative of

the western species of Aconitum. both in appearance and palatability and is the most common and widely distributed species of this

genus in the West. It is a tall, perennial herb inhabiting all of the

11 western range States and occurs from British Columbia to

California, New Mexico, and Montana. The common and specific

names refer to the Columbia River, the first botanical description

of this species resulting from a plant collected on the Columbia

River near Walla Walla, Wash., about 1834.

Columbia monkshood prefers moist, shady sites along streams

and around springs in the foothills and mountains at elevations of

from approximately 1,000 to 12,000 feet, but it is most frequent at

the higher elevations. It grows in a great variety of weed, grass,

and timber types, is common in aspen and among willows, and occurs frequently in moist mountain meadows. This plant is seldom,

if ever, the dominant species in areas it inhabits, though it not infrequently grows in small, dense patches. It flourishes in deep,

moist, sandy or clayey loams, especially if rich in humus.

Columbia monkshood is an erect, stout, single-stemmed plant,

from 2 to occasionally 6 feet in height, the stem being solid or

pithy within, more or less hairy or somewhat sticky above. The

front line of the beaked flower "hood" is almost straight. This

species has not as yet come into general use as an ornamental,

although it is fully as handsome as a number of its sister species

commonly grown for horticultural purposes.

Columbia monkshood, while recognized as potentially poisonous

to cattle, is very rarely, if ever, consumed by such animals in sufiicient quantities under range conditions to cause losses. The use

of this species varies considerably in different parts of the West.

In California, the Southwest, the Intermountain Region, and

Idaho, cattle seldom touch it, and sheep usually either ignore it or

merely pick off some of the leaves and tops. In the northern Rocky

Mountains, from Montana to Colorado, its utilization seems to be

greater, sometimes being considered of fair palatability for cattle

and fairly good for sheep. The greatest range use of the species

ordinarily occurs on summer ranges of the Northwest where sheep

frequently utilize from 70 to 80 percent of the herbage, and cattle

between about 30 and 60 percent.

Nearly all the Western United States literature on poisonous

properties of monkshoods is concerned with Columbia monkshood.

Marsh (129), in writing of this species, says: "Monkshood, as is

well known, is a poisonous plant, but somewhat extensive experimental work by the Department of Agriculture has demonstrated

that it does not poison livestock on the range." However, in the
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 157

F-293247

FIGURE 34.—Columbia monkshood (Aconitum columbianiim Nutt., syns. A.

arizonicum Greene, A. patetis Rydb.). Individual flower and cluster of fruiting follicles in lower right.
158 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

legend to his colored Plate 9 of this species, Marsh adds : "Although

poisonous plants, monkshoods do not poison cattle," saymg nothing

about other kinds of livestock. Chesnut (37) states categorically

that Columbia monkshood "sometimes poisons sheep" in the Northwestern States.

In Colorado, Glover and Robins (82) report that this species is

a very poisonous plant but because of its limited distribution, and

its vi^idely scattered habit of growth, it is not much eaten. Animals

have been seen to reject the plant even after taking it in the mouth,

because of its peculiar local effect." Gail (77) in Idaho, also writing

of Columbia monkshood, said : "In the case of the horse the animal

falls dovioi and is unable to rise."

Beath and cooperators (13, 15), in discussing Columbia monkshood, state : "The losses from aconite poisoning are camparatively

small" and "It has been demonstrated that cattle are not susceptible. Sheep and horses may be fatally poisoned by aconite." It

would appear from Beath's investigation that Columbia monkshood

would not make a satisfactory substitute for the Old World Aco7iitum nwpellus as a source of the drug aconite (lí). He found A.

columbianum less than 0.5 percent as active as A. napellus. Muensc}ier(141) reports that the toxicity of this plant varies with the

climatic conditions of the habitat and that it "seems to be most

poisonous just before flowering."

Columbia monkshood is frequently associated with tall larkspurs, which are responsible for heavy cattle losses in the West. In

some localities, such as certain parts of Yellowstone Park, Columbia monkshood grows in great abundance whereas larkspurs are

comparatively rare; in other places, such as the region between

Yellowstone Lake and the Grand Canyon, the larkspurs are very

abundant and Columbia monkshood is infrequent (129). Inasmuch

as the tall larkspurs are very poisonous, especially in the spring

and fall, and Columbia monkshood, though possessing poisonous

properties, seems to be negligible as a cause of range cattle losses,

it is of great importance to learn to distinguish these plants in the

field. (See pp. 154-155.)

Baker monkshood [Aconitum bakeri Greene, syns. A. columbianum var. bakeri (Greene) Harrington, A. porrectum Rydb., A.

robertianum Greene] is, next to Columbia monkshood, probably

the commonest of western monkshoods. It ranges in moist to wet

open subalpine situations, chiefly in sandy loams, between 7,000

and 12,000 feet, from Wyoming and Colorado to Utah and New

Mexico. It is distinguished from Columbia monkshood chiefly by

its somewhat smaller size (16 to 28 inches high), compact almost

spikelike inflorescence, and by the front line of the "hood" sepal

being concave instead of nearly straight, with a nearly horizontal

(porrect) beak; there are some minor but inconstant differences.

Although reported as "poisonous" by collectors on the Gunnison

and San Isabel National Forests (Colorado), no losses have ever

been attributed to this species so far as Forest Service records indicate. The herbage usually appears to be distasteful to cattle

but it is taken sometimes by sheep and apparently with impunity.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 159

Typically, the plant is more sticky (viscid or glutinous) at the top

than Columbia monkshood and its palatability probably averages

somewhat less than that of the latter species. The species commemorates Charles Fuller Baker (1872-1927), well-known western

entomological and botanical collector, after whom Dr. E. L. Greene

named his serial Plantae Bakerianae.

Baneberry (Actaea)

This is a small Northern Hemisphere genus of closely related,

erect perennial herbs with ternately compound leaves, small flowers

in dense terminal spikelike racemes, a solitary pistil, and the fruit

a berry. The fruit of all species appears to be somewhat poisonous

—whence the common name. The type of the genus, the Old World

black baneberry (Actaea spicata L.), of which older botanists considered our American species to be varieties, has the reputation of

sometimes poisoning sheep. Baneberries are occasionally cultivated as ornamentals. The scientific name is derived from Greek

oxrea, which was the classical name of the European elder (Sambucus nigra L.), the name having been deliberately transferred

by Linnaeus to the baneberry genus. There are three or four western range species of the genus, of which western baneberry is the

most common and important.

Western baneberry [Actaea arguta Nutt., syn. A. spicata var.

arguta (Nutt.) Torr.] (fig. 35), also known as western red baneberry, is found from Alaska to central California, Arizona, Montana, Alberta, and South Dakota. It is sometimes confused with a

typically eastern species, red baneberry [A. rubra (Aitón) Willd.],

which, however, gets into the northern Rocky Mountains area,

and which has noticeably larger and elliptical fruit on much more

slender (instead of thick and stiif) stalks (pedicels). Western

baneberry has rather stout stems, 16 to 32 inches tall, branched

above, slightly hairy, with brown sheaths at the base. The small

white flowers have 3 to 5 petallike, soon-falling sepals and 4 to 10

small, clawed petals shorter than the numerous, slender-stalked

stamens. The fruits are rounded and red.

The plant occurs chiefly in rich moist soils, either in the open or

in shade, often in aspen or spruce types, along streams or around

the roots of willows ; in Montana and Idaho between elevations of

about 3,500 to 7,500 feet, in Utah and Nevada mostly at 8,500 to

9,500 feet or more. Ordinarily the plant is regarded as unpalatable

and worthless, but there appear to be occasional exceptions. It has

been reported to be eaten by horses on the Flathead National Forest (Montana) range, and to be fair sheep feed on the Boise National Forest (Idaho).

Widely distributed in Canada and the United States, with about

the same range as Actaea arguta plus A. rubra, is a form with

ellipsoid white berries known in literature as "A. alba (L.) Mill."

and A. ebúrnea Rydb. Probably the best disposition of this plant

is that by Fernald (69) who calls it A. rubra forma neglecta (Gillman) Robinson. An excellent illustration of this baneberry is

given in Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana (39, PL 28); the
160 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-25198A

FIGURE 35.—Western baneberry [Actea arguta Nutt., syn. A. spicata var.

arguta (Nutt.) Torr.].
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 161

authors of that work made experimental feedings of the plant to

rabbits. Ordinarily it is not grazed by domestic livestock except

where other forage is scarce. The plant has been reported as fair

summer deer forage on the Allegheny National Forest (northwestern Pennsylvania), and it would be of interest to know whether such animals also utilize other baneberries.

Columbine (Aquilegia)

Columbines comprise a fairly large genus of closely related

plants found naturally in Europe, North America, and Asia. They

are perennial from more or less thick, woody, often perpendicular

and branched roots, with erect stems varying from a few inches to

5 feet or so high, twice or thrice ternately compound leaves, and

very characteristic, chiefly nodding flowers, blue, red, yellow or

white (or tints or mixtures of those colors) ; the 5 sepals are colored and petallike; the inner 5 petals have a short "lip" and (with

rather rare exceptions) are produced backwards into hollow

"spurs" ; the stamens are numerous, the innermost ones reduced to

sterile staminodia. The 5 pistils ripen into a head of 5 erect, manyseeded follicles, or small "pods."

Aqiiilegia^'^ has two excellent monographs, the North American

species by Payson (15Jf) and those of the world by Munz (14-i)-

According to the conservative treatment of Munz there are 17

species and 14 varieties of columbines native to the Far West.

However, two other species, Hinckley columbine (A. hinckleyana

Munz) and longspur columbine (A, longissima A. Gray), the latter

with much the longest spurs in the genus, occur in extreme western

Texas and neighboring Mexico; another, Yukon columbine (A.

brevistyla Hook.) ranges as far south as South Dakota, and the

eastern so-called American columbine, or Canada columbine, (A.

canadensis L.) reaches westward to the Great Plains of Nebraska,

Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. American columbine, according

to Gilmore (80) was an important plant to certain Indian tribes

as a love charm and medicine. This red-and-yellow-flowered plant,

often cultivated as an ornamental, frequently grows on cliffs and

other places difliicult of access.

The genus has attracted considerable attention from students of

plant genetics, cytology, and phylogeny. Stebbins (189) says:

"Aqufegia has become a classic example of a genus in which isolating barriers between species are weak or absent * * * They are almost entirely

allopatric; in a few places two species grow in the same region, but

rarely, if ever, more than two, if we except regions which because of their

great topographic relief include more than one climatic zone * * * The

species are based almost entirely on differences in size, shape, proportions,

and color of the sepals and petals."

2'The traditional explanation of the scientific generic name is from Latin

aquila (eagle), from a fancied resemblance of the curving flower spurs to an

eagle's claws. A probably less accurate derivation is from Latin aqua (water)

-|- legere (to collect), in allusion to the watery nectar at the bottom of the

spurs. The common name columbine comes, through French and Medieval

Latin, from the Latin adjective columbinits (like a dove, or pigeon, columba)

and alludes to a certain resemblance of the upright spurs of a nodding columbine flower to a group of five doves, or pigeons.
162 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Species of Aquilegia are among the most beautiful native western plants, and columbine has been suggested as an appropriate

floral emblem of the United States. Every State and Alaska has at

least one native species ; the largely red, white, or blue flowers are

handsome and the foliage graceful.

Columbines usually grow in moist situations such as shady

streambanks, meadows, aspen groves, and open woods from the

lower foothills to the high mountains. Some species appear on high,

exposed rocky ridges and in sheltered canyons, seldom in pure

stands, but more characteristically scattered.

As forage plants, columbines, though often large and leafy and

sometimes abundant locally, are of but secondary importance.

They rate in palatability as fair for sheep, poor for cattle, and

practically worthless for horses. They are rather delicate plants

and are likely to succumb if the range is depleted by overstocking,

or other abuse, particularly if seeding is prevented. Due to past

mismanagement, columbines have been greatly reduced on sheep

ranges in Colorado where formerly they were plentiful.

Most species of columbine are in ornamental cultivation, but the

modern, long-spurred columbines popular in gardens are chiefly

hybrids or mutants (10). The species most used in hybridization are probably our native Colorado columbine (Aquilegia caerulea James) and golden columbine (A. chrysantha A. Gray), the

Mexican Skinner columbine (A. skinneri Hook.), Altai columbine

(A. glandulosa Fiscb.) of Siberia, and the European columbine

(A. vulgaris L.). The last named, a frequently cultivated blueflowered species, is occasionally naturalized in this country. It has

been reported as capable of producing symptoms in experimental

animals very similar to the extreme prostration caused by aconite

(U7).

Colorado columbine (Aquilegia caerulea James)^^ (fig- 36)

ranges from southwestern Montana and central Idaho south to

eastern Utah and northern New Mexico. It occurs on the Kaibab

Plateau of northern Arizona in the variety pinetorum (Tidestr.)

Payson (syn. A. pinetorvm Tidestrom), which usually has thrice

ternate leaves with small leaflets and large, bluish, reddish, or

whitish flowers with slender spurs IV2 to nearly 3 inches long.

Colorado columbine is considered by many the handsomest of all

columbines. It is especially abundant in Colorado and is the State

flower, protected by law. This plant, important in horticulture,

was introduced into cultivation in England as early as 1864.

The typical form of this rather variable species ranges in height,

depending chiefly on site, from 8 to 32 inches. The leaves (mostly

long-stemmed root leaves) are twice ternate (divided in 3's), the

leaflets rather thin and large (mostly more than '^/i, of an inch

long) and usually bluish beneath. The flowers are large (specimens

28Discovered on the divide between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers, Colorado,

and named by Dr. Edwin James (1797-1861), surgeon-naturalist. The specific

adjective, meaning cerulean or sky blue, is often spelled coerulea but the

digraph of the original publication of the name clearly indicates that James

intended the ae form.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 163

FIGURE 36.—Colorado columbine (Aquilegia caeridea James).
164 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

5 inches wide have been reported), with a fine contrast between the

spreading, deep to light blue sepals (up to II/2 inches long or more),

the white or whitish blades of the petals (up to about 1 inch long),

and the yellow stamens. The spurs are somewhat outcurved or

straight, 1 to 2 inches long.

One of the variations, white Colorado columbine [Aquilegia

caerulea var. ochroleuca Hook., syns. A. caerulea var. albiflora A.

Gray, A. leptocera Nutt.] has white or somewhat cream-colored

flowers. These plants bloom from June to August and occur in the

mountains (between about 6,500 and 12,500 feet) up to and above

timberline, frequently in moist meadows or on the edge of ponderosa pine, lodgepole, aspen, and other timber. Except under very

favorable conditions the plants are not abundant enough to make

up much of the vegetation and, ordinarily, the plant is not touched,

especially by cattle, except for some nibbling of the flowers and

tender leaves by sheep. On some ranges in Utah, however, the

palatability for sheep has been reckoned as fair. However, such

use may be associated with overgrazing or some other local condition.

The peculiar Aquilegia caerulea var. daileyae Easterwood, apparently confined to the Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, has spurless flowers.

Golden columbine {Aquilegia chrysantha A. Gray), a species of

particular horticultural importance, ranges from central and southern Colorado south to New Mexico, Arizona, Chihuahua, and Sonora. The stems are solitary or few, branched above, 1 to 3 feet

high (rarely shorter or taller), hairless (glabrous) except for a

sticky hairiness in the inflorescence, perennial from a taproot

with a thickened woody crown. The root leaves are usually thrice

ternately compound, the leaflets broadly wedgelike (ctaieate) at the

base and scalloped (crenate) at the tip, 1/2 to lY-t inches long. The

flowers are golden yellow, the petal blades 8 to 16 mm. (averaging

about 1/2 inch) long, the spurs lV-2 to nearly 3 inches long, the

terminal nectaries knoblike and dark colored.

The plant is found in moist, often shaded sites in the foothills

and in the ponderosa pine and aspen types in the mountains ; often

in canyons or along streams, about springs, seeps and pools of

water, chiefly between 4,000 and 8,000 feet. Flowering period,

depending on location, from late April to early August. The plant

is hardly of sufficient abundance or palatability to have any particular range significance. Ordinarily it is eaten slightly, if at all,

by sheep and goats and ignored by cattle. However, sheep sometimes exhibit a fondness for the flowers.

Westernred columbine (Aquilegia elegantnla Greene) is distributed from western (chiefly southwestern) Colorado south into

southeastern Utah, New Mexico, and northern Mexico. It is a

rather small plant, averaging not more than 1 foot high, with

single or tufted erect stems on the crown of a woody, usually

branched and thickened root. The root leaves are twice divided

into 3's—or 9 leaflets—(hiternate), the leaflets small, deeply

3 cleft, smooth, rounded, green above, and bluish beneath. Flowers
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 165

nodding, often solitary, the sepals short, sharp tipped, greenish

or scarlet and yellow, the spurs scarlet, straight, about i/o to % of

an inch long.

Westernred columbine grows in the mountains, mostly between

elevations of about 7,000 and 10,000 feet. It is found chiefly in

moist rich soils of the ponderosa pine, Engelmann spruce, and

aspen types, and often on the face of cliffs and in rocky canyons

or on subalpine slopes. It flowers from May to August, but chiefly

in June. Ordinarily the forage value of this plant is nothing to

slight for sheep and goats. However, on a range on the Apache

National Forest (Arizona) the palatability has been reported as

poor for cattle and fair for sheep and goats. Wooton and standley

(2H), recommend it for cultivation in gardens in the higher parts

of New Mexico.

Yellow columbine [^Aquilegia flavescens S. Wats., syn. A. formosa

var. flavescens (S. Wats.) Hook, f.] occurs from British Columbia

to eastern Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. It has been collected on national forests at elevations as low

as 1,775 feet in Washington and as high as 9,500 feet in Idaho.

Typically the plants are smooth or nearly so, at least below, but in

the dwarfed subalpine form (minor Tidestrom) may be quite hairy.

The thin leaves are twice (sometimes thrice) ternately divided;

the flowers are nodding and wholly yellow or sometimes the sepals

are red tinged, the petal blades (laminae) cream colored, the spurs

shorter than the sepals.

Aquilegia flavescens is botanically close to A. formosa, but the

petal blades are paler and longer (6 to 10 mm., vice 1 to 6, mostly

3 to 5 mm.), and the spurs are incurved instead of straight or nearly so. Ordinarily the palatability is none to low. This plant has

been observed in some places to be moderately taken by elk ; such

nibbling of it by domestic livestock is chiefly by sheep.

Sitka columbine {Aquilegia formosa Fisch.) is a perennial herb,

mostly 20 to 40 inches high, which ranges from Alaska to California, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, and Montana. Strangely, it seems

to be absent from Colorado and Wyoming. The books indicate that

it also occurs in Siberia, and Fischer's description points to Kamchatka as the type locality, but this would appear to be in error ;

the plant is wholly western North American, as Munz (m) and

Hultén (102) have observed.

The species is found in the Sitka spruce type in Alaska, near sea

level, at elevations from 500 to 7,500 feet in the Pacific States, and

from 3,500 to 10,000 feet in the Great Basin area and Rocky Mountains. It is a common species in the aspen type and in openings in

the lodgepole type, but it may be present in a great variety of soils

and sites, sometimes being associated with sagebrush, ponderosa

and Jeffrey pines, Douglas-fir, and white fir. It is especially at

home along streambanks, about seeps, springs, and ponds, in

meadows, canyon bottoms, and on moist wooded mountain slopes,

particularly in loamy soils.

Sitka columbine has nodding, red, fairly large (about IV2 inches

long) flowers, spreading or reflexed dark-red sepals longer than
166 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

the spurs, and relatively short yellow petal blades (laminae). In

its variety California columbine [Acquilegia jormosa var. trúncala

(Fisch. & Meyer) Baker, syns. A. californica Hartw., A. trúncala

Fisch. & Meyer], ví^hich ranges from southern Oregon, through

California and western Nevada, to northern Lower California, the

spur orifice has an abruptly cut off appearance (truncate); the

sepals and spurs are often yellow tinged, and the petal blades are

very short ( 1 to 2 mm. long).

Sitka columbine and its variants form one of the most common,

abundant, and widely distributed of western columbines ; they are

in bloom from late May or early June to August. As forage this

species is of more value for sheep than for cattle, the palatability

varying from worthless to fair or sometimes fairly good. It is of

interest that the same observer on different areas of the same national forest will often express widely divergent opinions on the

palatability of the species ; evidently much depends on associated

species, condition of the range, time of the year, and other factors.

Utah columbine (Aquilegia scopulorum Tidestrom) is a small

plant, 4 to 8 inches high, occurring from middle to subalpine elevations in the mountains of Utah. Reports have been made of its

occurrence also in Nevada and southwestern Wyoming but they

appear not to be thoroughly substantiated. The leaflets are

crowded, % of an inch (15 mm.) long or less, the sepals pale blue

to pale purple, the petal blades (laminae) white, and the slender

spurs 1 to 2 inches long. It has been reported from southwestern

Utah, where collected in a weed type near a stand of spruce and

fir, as 50 percent palatable to sheep and goats. This probably reflects unusual conditions.

Marshmarigold (Caltha)

This genus, represented in the Far West by three species, is a

group of smooth, more or less succulent perennials, with simple,

long-stalked, kidney-shaped (reniform) or heart-shaped (cordate),

chiefly basal leaves. The regular flowers are shovv^, white, yellow, pink, or occasionally bluish, without petals and vdth about 5

to 12 petallike sepals, numerous short-stalked stamens, and pistils

developing into clustered podlike fruits (follicles) splitting open

on the back (ventrally dehiscent) when ripe to discharge the numerous seeds. The plants, when fresh, are very acrid and are normally distasteful to domestic livestock; probably all species are

more or less poisonous in that condition. However, when dried, as

in hay, they appear to lose this property and become harmless.

They are sometimes cultivated as ornamentals.

Caltha is a classical Latin name for some strong-smelling, yellow flowered plant, and quite probably for the common marshmarigold (C. palustris L.), but most of the books indicate that the

word means marigold which, to this writer, seems illogical, as

marigold (Tagetes) is a New World genus unknown to the ancient

Romans. The common name marshmarigold is hard to explain,

because the plants do not resemble the marigold genus in the least.

Another name in common use in this country for the genus is
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 167

"cowslip." The English "cowslip," a name familiar in literature,

is cowslip primrose (Primula veris L.), an entirely different plant.

Twinflower marshinarigold (Caltha biflora DC.) is a common inhabitant of high mountain marshes and wet meadows from Alaska

to the Olympic and Cascade Mountains of western Washington and

the Cascades of northwestern Oregon. Farther south, in southern

Oregon, western Nevada and the Sierra Nevada of California, it

is replaced by Howell niarshmarifïold [ssp. howellii (Huth) Abrams,

syn. C. hoioellii (Huth) Greene], with solitary flowers and somewhat wavy-margined (repand-crenate) leaves. The leaves of twinflower marshmarigold are rounded-kidney-shaped, broader than

long, about 1 to 3 inches wide ; the naked flower stalks (scapes) are

commonly 2, though sometimes 1 or 3, erect or nearly so, 2 to 10

inches high and longer than the leaves. Rather frequently, however, there is a leaf or leaflike bract on the stem near the summit,

from the axil of which another flower may be produced, so that

the stem, in such a case, is technically a peduncle from such leaf

or bract upwards.

The 5 to 10 petallike sepals are of an oblong type, 1/2 inch long

or so, white or somewhat bluish on the back, the stamens yellowish.

The fruiting pods (follicles) have a distinctly stalklike (stipitate)

base when ripe. The flowering period is late May or June into

August. Ordinarily the plant is avoided by domestic livestock and

the typical habitat is normally uninviting to sheep. This species

is thought to have been responsible for the poisoning of 15 head

of sheep on a national-forest range in Oregon.

Elkslip marshmarigold (Caltha leptosepala DC.) (fig. 37), often

called "elkslip," occurs in high-altitude mountain bogs, about seeps

and springs, along streambanks and the like, from Alaska to Alberta and Montana and south to Oregon and, in the Rocky Mountains, to New Mexico. In the large-orbicular-leaved roundleaf

marshmarigold [var. rotundifolia Huth, syn. C. rotundifoUa (Huth)

Greenel it occurs in the Intermountain area and in the Blue Mountains of northwest Oregon.

The species is mostly stemless (scapose) except for the naked

flower stalks ; the leaves are heart shaped, longer than broad, and

with a shallow sinus ; the white flowers have 6 to 12 narrow, oblong

to oblong-linear sepals.^^ It is the commonest and most widespread

of the western marshmarigolds. Ordinarily this plant, which is

sometimes locally very abundant, is not grazed by livestock if any

other feed is available. The likelihood is that it possesses the toxic

properties known to occur in other species of the genus.

Common marshmarigold (Caltha palustris L.), of Europe, Asia

and eastern North America, gets as far west as Manitoba, South

Dakota, and Nebraska, and is worthy of mention because of the

enormous number of references to it in literature. It is a yellowflowered species often cultivated as an ornamental. It has a considerable history as a stock-poisoning plant in Europe and contains

25The late Supervisor James C. Whitham collected a bluish-flowered specimen

at 9,500 feet on the Gallatin National Forest (Montana) and stated that it

represented the only ones of that color he had ever seen.
168 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-487817

FIGURE 37.—Elkslip marshmarigold (CaZffea leptosepala DC). Lower right, a

cluster of fruits {follicles).

a toxic glucoside (helleborin) and an alkaloid (jervin) (123, HI).

It appears to be harmless when dried but is known to have poisoned

and even produced death in cattle and horses and also to have

poisoned human beings. Prominent symptoms of C. palustris poi-
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 169

soning are irritation of the stomach and the entire alimentary

tract, vomiting, and bloody urine.

The plant appears to be innocuous or nearly so when it first comes

up in the spring, the toxicity steadily increasing up to flowering

and fruiting time. However, when the plant is cooked it is extensively used as a potherb. Fernald and Kinsey (70) speak of it

as being "long * * * the most popular spring greens in New England." The stipules and mucilaginous leaf bases are first carefully

removed and the herbage thoroughly boiled at least once and

preferably twice to remove the acridity. It is then palatable and

innocuous. The flower buds also are frequently pickled and used

as a substitute for capers.

Bugbane (Cimicifuga)

This genus is worthy of mentioning from a range standpoint

solely because of the known active chemical properties of some of

its members. There are three western range species. Tall bugbane

(Cimicifuga elata Nutt.)3o is found from British Columbia south to

Oregon, chiefly in the Coastal Range. Cutleaf bugbane or Mt.

Hood bugbane (C. laciniata S. Wats.) is confined to the Mount

Hood area of Oregon. Arizona bugbane (C. arizonica S. Wats.) is

known only from Coconino County, Arizona.

This is a group of spectacular tall perennial herbs, with large

decompound basal and alternate stem leaves. The small white

flowers are in terminal racemes or panicles ; there are 2 to 5 free,

usually petallike, nonpersistent sepals ; usually an equal number of

2-lobed, clawed petals, numerous stamens with threadlike stalks

(filaments), and 1 to 8 pistils becoming in fruit an umbellike whorl

of small pods (follicles). The plants typically occur in moist sites,

such as along or near streams and in rich woods. They appear

to be unpalatable to domestic livestock. Frequently grown as

ornamentals.

An eastern species, eohosh bugbane [Cimicifuga racemosa (L.)

Nutt.], known also as "black eohosh," "black snakeroot," and "richweed," is an oflncial medicinal plant. Its thick woody roots contain

cimicifiigin which is used in the treatment of dyspepsia, rheumatism, and menstrual disorders. Country people deem is useful in

the treatment of snake bite.

Giodthread (Corptis)

There are two species of goldthread on the western range. They

are smooth, small herbs perennial from slender yellow bittertasting rootstocks (rhizomes), whence another common name "yellowroot." The leaves are wholly basal and often suggest those of

a strawberry plant, mostly being 3 lobed or parted or divided into

3 leaflets. Their flowers, solitary or few, are white, greenish or

yellowish, with 5 to 7 petallike sepals, about the same number of

narrow petals (or, according to some authorities, these are not

^^The Latin generic name is based on the Old World use of the plant to kill

bedbugs (cimex, bedbug + fugo, flee, or drive away).
170 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

petals but staminodia, or sterile stamens) and bear nectar pits at

the middle or near the summit ; the stamens are numerous, the 3 to

7 pistils becoming in fruit an umbellike cluster of stalked follicles

containing smooth shiny seeds.

Cutleaf goldthread (Coptis laciniata A. Gray) grows in heavy

moss-covered duif under Douglas-fir, vi^estern hemlock, and other

coniferous timber from southv^^estern Washington to northern

California and east into neighboring Idaho. It has glossy evergreen leaves, the three leaflets rather narrow and deeply cut or

incised and sharp toothed. A forest supervisor in Idaho, who collected this plant (F.S. Herb. No. 2574) for identification, reported

as follows : "I have found it very valuable for cattle. It is * ° °

found in greatest abundance in heavy stands of second growth red

fir. It seems to root more in the duif and humus than in the mineral

soil. Where cattle can reach it they will leave good bunch grass to

feed on this plant." In a later letter he said : "We have found it to

be of great value for fattening cattle on the range. It is greedily

sought by stock."

Western goldthread [Coptis occidentalis (Nutt.) A. Gray, syn.

Chrysocoptis occidentalis Nutt.], with the 3 leaflets 3 lobed to about

the middle, occurs in moist wooded sites from British Columbia and

Washington to Idaho and western Montana. Reported as abundant

on three of the national forests in Montana and "grazed very extensively by cattle."

Common goldthread [Coptis trifolio (L.) Salisb.], the botanical

type of the genus, although listed in Rydberg's Flora of the Rocky

Mountains and Adjacent Plains (173), is hardly a range plant but

perhaps should be mentioned because of its medicinal nature and

the possible light it might throw on the chemical properties of its

range congeners. It occurs in northern and montane Europe and

Asia and, in North America, from Greenland to Alaska and south

to British Columbia, Iowa, Minnesota, Indiana, and North Carolina.

It is a moist woods or bog plant, with three evergreen toothed or

shallowly lobed leaves.

It is not surprising that a plant of such wide distribution should

be variable and that some botanists have preferred to put the

Greenland, eastern North American, and possibly Alaskan plant

in the subspecies groenlandica (Oeder) Huit. [syn. Coptis groenlafidica (Oeder) Fernald] ; Hultén (102) later considered that these

variations hopelessly intergrade. The plant contains two alkaloids,

herberine and coptine, and the rootstocks and whole plant are the

source of an official drug used as a bitter tonic and for ulcération

of the mouth, which recalls Warren B. Horner's blank verse Yellow

Root: "Back in the hills where I was reared There was a kind of

plant called yellow root. People chewed and gargled it For colds

and sore throat; It had a bitter pucker in its juice That left

grimaces for an hour * * *"
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 171

Larkspur (Delphinium)

Delphinium?^ is one of the larger and more important plant

genera of this country. Ewan, whose treatment (65, 67) of the

North American species is generally followed, attributes 61 species

and 24 subspecies of larkspur to the 11 Far Western States. California, with 29 species and 12 subspecies, is the center of distribution; Oregon follows with 20 species and 4 subspecies; then, in

order, come: Washington, 14 species and 5 subspecies; Montana

and Wyoming, with 10 species and 4 subspecies each ; Nevada, New

Mexico and Utah, with 10 species and 3 subspecies each ; Colorado,

9 species and 4 subspecies ; Idaho, 9 species and 3 subspecies ; and

Arizona, 8 species and 4 subspecies. In addition, the annual Old

World rocket larkspur (D. ajacis L.) is locally naturalized. Two

larkspurs in Alaska are not found in the United States proper:

Browns larkspur (D. brotvnii Rydb.), a small plant, and Chamisso

larkspur (D. chamissonis Pritz.), a tall plant.

All our native larkspurs are perennial herbs. The occasionally

naturalized rocket larkspur (Delphinium ajacis L.) is an annual.

The native species either have a slender, somewhat evanescent

stem from more or less tuberlike roots or the stem is stouter and

more persistent either from a stout woody crown or from a rootstock with fibrous roots. The alternate leaves are palmately (like

the fingers of the hand) ribbed, lobed or divided, usually either

with 5 main divisions or else rounded, fanlike or kidney shaped

and often with 3 lobes. The showy, blue, bluish, white, or in a few

species, red flowers are usually in a terminal raceme, which may

be loose or condensed, branching or narrow and spikelike and sometimes much branched and paniculate.

The calyx consists of 5 irregular colored sepals, the uppermost

one produced backward into a spur ; the petals, usually 4, are also

irregular, the 2 lower ones with a slender claw produced backwards inside the spur, the 2 lower with a notched or 2-cleft blade

usually of the same color as the sepals ; there are numerous stamens

and mostly 3 pistils sometimes fused into 1. The fruiting "pods"

(follicles) are erect or spreading, with numerous small seeds. The

leaves are often maplelike or currantlike and, before flowering, it

is sometimes easy to confuse larkspurs with monkshood and wild

geraniums. The spur of larkspur flowers is, of course, very different from the hood of monkshoods, while the latter have pithy

stems instead of being hollow as in the case of larkspurs.

Larkspurs are common in the foothills and mountains in the

Western States, chiefly occurring in well-drained loamy soil in

^'^Delphiniuni is derived from Greek delphinion, a name used for larkspur by

Dioscorides Pedanius, celebrated 1st century B. C. Greek physician and herbalist. According to the manuals the word ultimately derives from delphinos

(dolphin's) because of a supposed resemblance of larkspur flowers to a conventionalized dolphin. However, it seems not unlikely that Dioscorides was

influenced in this nomenclature by the medicinal properties of an Old World

larkspur and the fact that Delphinios was a common epithet of Apollo, the god

of medicine. The common name larkspur, of course, originated in England,

where the spur of the flower suggested the long spurlike claw on the hind toe

of the male skylark (Alaudu arvensis L.).
172 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

mountain parks, grasslands, sagebrush areas, and in clumps of

aspen or in partial shade of other trees. The tall larkspurs often

reach their greatest development and abundance at the higher

elevations in rich, moist loamy soils along creek banks, in the heads

of valleys, in high basins or on gentle slopes usually in more or less

shaded sites and frequently as the undergrovi^th of open aspen or

conifer timber. The plants sometimes occur as more or less scattered individuals over large areas but are frequently in dense, rank

stands up to several acres in extent. The low larkspurs are usually

more abundant at the lower altitudes of the mountain ranges in

the more open and exposed types. They are characteristically seen

as quite widely scattered individuals; however, sometimes they

are of sufficient abundance to constitute a material amount of the

vegetation. Due to the wide range of elevations within which larkspurs grow, there is a great difference in the time of their growth

and development.

Generally larkspurs are among the very first plants of the habitat

to commence growth in the spring. During the early part of the

season, the large, light green bunches of tall larkspur are very

conspicuous above the associated species. These plants begin flowering as early as June and often continue well into September. The

low larkspurs usually bloom in May or June and soon after mature,

dry up, and largely disappear. Their blue flowers are often very

noticeable as they appear above the other vegetation early in the

growing season.

Larkspurs probably represent the most important poisonous

plants to cattle of any occurring on the high summer ranges of the

West, although the locos are generally considered to take first place

among stock-poisoning plants for the West as a whole. Horses may

be poisoned by larkspur, but losses are rare since they seldom eat

the plant in quantity sufficient to cause serious consequences. While

many larkspurs are known to be poisonous to cattle, it is questionable whether all species are poisonous tinder range conditions. However, it is the safest policy to regard them all as suspicious pending

full knowledge concerning them.

The greatest loss of cattle occurs during the early spring and

summer, because larkspur produces an abundance of forage in advance of other plants and begins growth on the higher summer

ranges soon after the snow melts. This group creates a serious

problem in managing cattle on the range, because so many larkspurs are poisonous both before and after blooming. Under range

conditions sheep are seldom poisoned by larkspur, and it is common for sheep to utilize larkspur areas, the palatability for sheep

often being good.

Beath (12) voices the opinion that "larkspur in full bloom is

not very poisonous to sheep due to the fact that the water content

of the plant is lower, and also because the poison becomes less

soluble in water as the season advances, so that sheep grazing on

the young larkspur are liable to become poisoned, and especially if

the plants are moist * * * Young larkspur is eight times more poisonous than the mature growth. The poisons isolated at this [Wyo.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 173

Agr. Expt.] station from young larkspur and from larkspur in

full bloom clearly prove the above statement."

All parts of larkspur plants are poisonous (129), but it is usually

the leaves, stems, and flovi^ers that are taken by cattle. The seeds

are very poisonous but are seldom eaten. The low species continue

poisonous throughout their whole life period while the tall ones

partly lose their toxic properties after blossoming (134)- The most

danger from both forms occurs during the early part of the season

chiefly because they make up such a comparatively large and the

most succulent part of the vegetation at that time of year.

In the treatment of poisoned animals Marsh, Clawson, and

Marsh (135) report that beneficial results usually are obtained by

injecting a solution of 1 grain physostigmin salicylate, 2 grains

pilocarpin hydrochloride, and Vo grain of strychnine sulfate, with

a hypodermic syringe, preferably in the shoulder. The above

amount dissolved in approximately 1 tablespoon of water is the

proper dose for an animal weighing 500 to 600 pounds. The formula should be doubled for an animal of 1,000 pounds. The syringe

used in administering blackleg vaccine will serve.

Numerous larkspur-eradication projects have been conducted in

the West, particularly with Barbey larkspur (Delphinium barheiji

Huth) and Sierra larkspur {D. glaucum S. Wats.). Eradication has

been attempted both by grubbing and chemical means. In grubbing larkspur special care must be exercised to assure that all

plants, including the seedlings and other small specimens, are dug.

It is imperative that enough of the root system be removed to prevent the remnant from sprouting. This implies grubbing every

larkspur plant discernible and removing the roots to a depth of not

less than 8 inches, including all side roots as well as the base of the

plant.

Workmen must make sure that no roots grubbed fall back into

the hole and that all dirt is shaken from them to prevent possible

regrowth. It is outstandingly important to burn all plants after

removal to prevent their consumption by cattle. Regardless of the

care exercised in digging Barbey and other larkspurs, it is always

necessary to go over the area the following year to remove any

plants that have been missed. Usually a second follow-up is

necessary to eradicate plants developing from seed stored from

previous seasons (3).

Spraying with sodium chlorate in neutral, acid, or alkaline

solutions of 21/2 percent or more and upwards during the active

growing period of larkspur is eñ'ective but risky because of the

flammability of this chemical and its toxicity in quantity to livestock (53). A salty taste increases its attractiveness and encourages consumption of treated plants. Calcium chlorate, while

less effective than sodium chlorate, has also been successfully used

in chemical eradication of larkspur and has the advantage of being

neither poisonous nor flammable. These soluble chemicals are easily

applied, kill both tops and roots of the poisonous plants and thus

prevent sprouting. The addition of a little whale-oil soap of glycerine facilitates the uniform distribution and retention of the
174 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

solution upon the leaf surfaces. More recently, 2, 4-D and 2, 4,

5-T have been partially successful in killing larkspur and, at the

present time, of course, research in developing new v^^eedkillers is

very active.

Horticulturally, larkspurs rank among the most important of

herbaceous perennial ornamentals. The American Delphinium

Society publishes an ornate journal, its "Bulletin." The literature

on these plants is enormous ; among the most important works are

those by Bailey (9), Bishop (23), Leeming (117), Phillips (156),

and Wilde (210). The ripe seeds of the Old World stavesacre larkspur (Delphinium staphisagria L.), containing various alkaloids

including delphinine, staphisagrin, etc., are an official drug used in

pediculosis and as a heart depressant.

Larkspurs are popularly divided in range country into two

categories: Low (and more or less evanescent) larkspurs, and tall

larkspurs. However, there are many species of an intermediate

character and, for convenience, the 14 species annotated here are

placed in three categories : Low, medium, and tall.

Low Larkspurs

(Average height: less than 1 foot)

Here belong a group of larkspurs of low stature, often with

tuberous roots and weak stems, which come up early in the spring

and frequently dry up and disappear early in the season—whence

called "spring" larkspurs. These larkspurs can cause heavy losses

of cattle on spring and early summer ranges. They are often grazed

moderately by sheep and cattle but very seldom by horses. No

known losses of horses have occurred on the range from "spring"

larkspur poisoning, and the suspected sheep losses reported here

under slim larkspur appear to be the only ones recorded for that

class of livestock.

These species are more palatable to sheep than to cattle and aro

especially likely to be grazed extensively when little other feed is

available. Sheep generally prefer grasses and other weeds to the

low larkspurs, and on some ranges in Idaho and Nevada these

"spring" larkspurs are regarded as unpalatable to livestock. Due

to the early seeding and subsequent dying down, of the true

"spring" larkspurs (i.e., those which, like Delphinmm depauperatum and D. nuttaUianum, have low weak stems tapering to a hairlike point above the roots) on the range, it is usually safe to graze

cattle after the first of July on areas that produce large quantities

of these species, unless normal plant development is delayed by unfavorable weather or other conditions. The following species are

characteristic of this group.

1. Little larkspur (Delphinium bicolor Nutt.) (fig. 38) occurs

from British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and North Dakota

to the Black Hills of South Dakota and south to Wyoming (apparently not in Colorado), Utah, Nevada, and Oregon (apparently

not in California). It is found on medium-dry to moist sites on

plains and in the mountains but grows best in rich black sandy
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 175

F-299476

FIGURE 38.—Little larkspur

(Delphinium bicolor- Nutt.)-

Dissection of corolla and

cluster of fruiting follicles

at right.
176 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

loams where there is sufficient moisture. It occupies soils of both

limestone and granitic origin, in sunny weed types or open, partly

shaded timber, and at elevations from about 3,000 to nearly 10,000

feet.

The plant is about 4 to 14 inches high, more or less fine-hairy at

least above, perennial from an elongated, slender, woody-fibrous

taproot. The leaves are few and spreading, basal or nearly so,

varying in outline from kidney shaped to rounded. The flowers are

large, the sepals unequal, the two small upper petals white or pale

yellowish with purple lines—whence the scientific name bicolor.

The plant is variable and at least three forms or varieties are recognized. It is one of the earliest appearing wild flowers, frequently

blooming at the edge of snowbanks in the mountains.

On many ranges little larkspur is relatively abundant, and during

the early spring it forms a very conspicuous part of the vegetation. Because all parts of the plant are quite toxic to cattle, its

extensive use results in some losses of that class of livestock, especially in Montana, where the species is rather plentiful. Feeding

experiments with sheep did not produce fatal results, and under

range conditions little larkspur apparently is not poisonous to that

kind of livestock (134,135) ; in fact, the plant is usually considered

fairly good sheep forage. It is possible, of course, that bad results

could follow if very hungry sheep, after being driven some distance,

were allowed to gorge themselves in an extensive patch of the

plant. Fortunately, cattle losses are easily preventable by prohibiting entry of those animals to infested ranges until the plant,

which matures early, has dried up or until more palatable forage

is available.

The plant blooms in May and June or, at the higher elevations,

this may extend to July and early August. Being perhaps the most

beautiful of the small American larkspurs, this species is frequently cultivated as an ornamental. Early settlers in the West

commonly used the seeds of this species as poison for exterminating

lice and other vermin.

2. Yellowtinge larkspur (Delphinium decorum Fisch. & Mey.)

is an essentially coastal or near-coastal California plant, low but

rather stout, mostly 3 to 7 inches (rarely 12 inches) high, perennial

from a cluster of fleshy tuberous roots, and occupying open grassy

slopes, ravines, and woodland-chaparral types. It was originally

collected in the Bodega Bay area of Sonoma County in a then Russian colony. Fischer (1782-1854) and Meyer (1795-1855), the

authors of the species, were Russian botanists.

In the ssp. tracyi Ewan, Tracy larkspur, the species extends to

Josephine County, southwestern Oregon. The stems of typical

D. decorum are more or less beset with crisp white hairs ; the flowers appear March to June. The subspecies tracyi differs from typical decorum in having a different range (more in the Inner Coast

Ranges than maritime), in having the leaves more or less palmately

dissected (instead of 3 parted), the primary divisions again divided (instead of entire or nearly so), and the stems are smoother.

Delphinium decorum is frequently confused with spreading lark-
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 177

spur [D. patens Benth., syn. D. decorum var. patens (Benth.) A.

Gray] and vice versa, a California species with about four wellmarked subspecies. It is a more typically montane (Sierra Nevada,

etc.) California species, growing in grass, sage-juniper-weed, ponderosa pine, and aspen-willow types between elevations of about

1,000 and 8,000 feet, often with an elongated taproot, and differing

chiefly in being slim stemmed; the flowers more numerous (6 to

15, instead of 1 to 5 or rarely 6 to 8) in the raceme; the 3-parted

leaves larger (4 to 9 cm., instead of up to 4 cm. wide), and the

upper petals 7iot mitten shaped (i.e., without a distinct subapical

lower lobe). D. patens is considered poisonous to cattle if eaten in

quantity.

3. Slim larkspur {Delphinium depauperatum Nutt.), one of the

smallest of American larkspurs, was originally known from the

Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon and ranges from British

Columbia and Alberta to California, Nevada, and Idaho. It is

perennial from a short, vertical rootstock or irregularly almost

tuberous roots ; the slim, delicate, often reclining stems are 21/0 to

6 or occasionally as much as 14 inches high and unbranched, disarticulating above the roots. The thin leaves are few (1 to 3),

small, often less than 1 inch though sometimes 2^/2 inches wide, the

outline somewhat fan or kidney shaped, divided into 3 to 5 main

divisions (pedately palmatifid). The small dark blue flowers have

a disproportionately long spur (8.5 to 15 mm. long) and are few in

number (1 to 7) in the raceme. The fruiting pods (follicles) are

smooth, erect, about 1/2 inch long.

Slim larkspur is one of the earliest to appear in the spring,

flowering from May to August, and fruiting August to October

(depending largely on site conditions). It occupies a great variety

of sites, including dry meadows, lake and stream beds, deep rich

loams, weed, sagebrush, juniper, conifer and aspen types at elevations from 1,000 to 9,000 feet. Its palatability to sheep varies from

low to fairly good.

On the Challis National Forest (Idaho) it is reported that cattle

are occasionally poisoned by slim larkspur but, even more, by tall

larkspur, which is locally abundant. In many places cattle appear

to avoid the plant. It was observed to be occasionally eaten by deer

on the Sequoia National Forest (California). Slim larkspur was

collected on the Colville National Forest (northeastern Washington) in an area where sheep losses occurred. And on an area at

8,500 feet elevation on the Wallowa National Forest (northeastern

Oregon) where many sheep died from poison, no other poisonous

plant than this could be found.

These reports are of interest in view of published statements to

the effect that range sheep or horse losses from low, or "spring"

larkspurs are unknown (13A, 135). Two larkspurs frequently confused with slim larkspur are Columbia and Nuttall larkspurs.

Columbia larkspur {Delphinium nuttallii A. Gray, syn. D. columbianum Greene) occurs in the lower Columbia River valley of Washington and Oregon and was originally collected by the famous naturali.'ît and explorer Thomas Nuttall in 1834 "along and near the
178 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Columbia River above The Dalles ;" it grows erect from a rounded

tuber, is 16 to 24 inches high, fine-hairy, and has a spikelike inflorescence of dark blue flowers. Nuttall larkspur [D. nuttalUanum

Pritz., syn. D. paitciflonim Nutt., not D. Don no7' Reichenb.] ranges

from British Columbia to California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming,

Montana, and Idaho. It has a slender weak stem 5 to 12 or sometimes 18 inches high and a cluster of tuberlike roots. It is very

close botanically to D. depauperatum but averages taller and has

larger and nodding flowers, the sepals averaging 7.5 mm. (instead

of 5 to 8 mm.) long. More information is needed about the values

of these two species, but they appear to be about the same as those

of D. depauperatum.

4. Menzies larkspur (Delphinium mensiesii DC.)^^ (fig- 39),

also known as "spring larkspur," as now received (65) has a rather

restricted range, in Vancouver Island, British Columbia, eastern

coastal Washington, and the islands of Puget Sound. It is not in

Oregon except in the subspecies pyramidale Ewan, which tends to

be a stouter plant, the upper part hoary or glandular-hairy, the

leaves larger and thicker, the lower flower stalks (pedicels) longer,

more (12 to 20) flowers, and the fruiting pods (follicles) more

spreading.

Menzies larkspur is a small plant perennial from a rather shallow cluster of tuberous roots. The stems are soft-pubescent with

spreading white hairs at least in the upper part; the palmately

cleft or divided leaves vary considerably in shape and size but tend

to have wedgelike divisions ; the blue flowers are usually few (5 to

10) and rather large and showy, the sepals 10 to 17 mm. (!/> inch

or more) long, the spur rather thick, the fruits (follicles) tending

to spread when ripe.

Published and other economic observations on Menzies larkspur

are usually more or less confused with the related little larkspur

(Delphinium bicolor) and particularly with Nelson larkspur (D.

nelsonii Greene), a far more widely distributed species named in

honor of the late Prof. Aven Nelson of the University of Wyoming.

Nelson larkspur ranges from Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and

the Black Hills of South Dakota to Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and

Nevada. Apparently it is absent from Washington and California

but, in the form pinetorum^ (Tidestrom) Ewan (syn. D. pinetorum

Tidestrom) it occurs in Arizona; that form is more dwarf (mostly

4 to 6 inches—rarely 14 inches high), with small gray, ashy-hairy

leaves up to % of an inch wide "having a collapsed appearance,"

and smaller flowers ; it is found in the ponderosa pine and lodgepole

pine types of Arizona and Colorado.

Typical Nelson larkspur differs from typical Menzies larkspur

largely in having smoother stems (thinly puberulent or almost

hairless in the inflorescence), in having smaller, scarcely showy

32The species commemorates Archibald Menzies (1754-1842), surgeonnaturalist with Capt. Vancouver, who discovered and collected the plant in the

1790's "in Nova-Georg-ia"—presumably in the Straits of Georgia area (between Vancouver Island and the coast of southwest British Columbia and

perhaps extending into the upper Puget Sound reg:ion).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 179

F-293554

FIGURE 39.—Menzies larkspur

{Delphinium vienziesii

DC.)- Individual flower

(opened), cluster of follicles, and individual leaf at

right.
180 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

flowers (the sepals 11 to 15 mm. long) and with usually more than

10 in the racemes. It resembles Menzies larkspur in having- a cluster (though usually fewer) of tuberlike roots and the sepals nearly

equal, both differing from little larkspur, which has slender, more

or less elongated and woody-fibrous roots, and the sepals distinctly

unequal in size.

Nelson larkspur is typically a plant of the mountains, growing

at altitudes from 2,000 feet or so in northern Idaho and other more

northern parts of its range up to elevations as high as 10,500 feet

in the Rocky Mountains, especially the more southern part. The

species grows in numerous associations, in aspen, lodgepole pine

openings, and in the sagebrush, oakbrush, and ponderosa pine

belts, but is especially characteristic of open grass-weed-brush

areas. Frequent associates are lupines, bluegrasses, wheatgrasses,

and rabbitbrushes. It inhabits a variety of soils—dry to moist,

shallow and sandy, gravelly, or rocky, to deep rich loams or heavy

clays.

Medium Larkspurs

(Average height: about 15 to 25 inches)

This is an artificial and arbitrary group, averaging somewhat

midway in size between the low, or "spring" larkspurs, not evanescent and too small to be included in "tall" larkspurs. Of course,

individual intergrades occur. The species annotated here are representative of this group.

5. Anderson larkspur (Delphinium andersonii A. Gray)^^ ranges

in dry to medium moist sites from central and southern Oregon to

California, Nevada, Utah, and Idaho. Its altitudinal range is mainly between about 4,000 and 8,000 feet, often in gravelly or rocky

loams, on brushy "desert" flats, in sagebrush types and somewhat

alkaline mountain valleys. It is an erect, rather stout perennial,

from a wide-spreading, woody-fibrous rootcrown ; the stems are

single or few, rather brittle, smooth, often shiny, straw-colored to

bluish or purplish, 8 to 24 inches high. The leaves are mostly in a

basal tuft, the main divisions often overlapping or crowded.

The inflorescence is crowded, usually 5 to 10 flowered, short but

elongating in fruit ; the flower color varies from blue or purplish

to whitish, the thick spur usually shorter than the other sepals.

The fruits (follicles) are from a little over V2 to a little over 1 inch

long. The flowering period is mainly from early May to early Julv.

The palatability of this species to sheep is ordinarily rated fairly

good. On overgrazed range in the Intermountain Region, it is one

of the chief causes of early spring losses of steers and cows. The

Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station issued a special bulletin

331■■^The plant commemorates its discoverer, Dr. Charles Lewis Anderson

(1827-1910), a physician of Minneapolis, Minn., Carson City, Nev., and, later,

Santa Cruiz, Calif. One of his hobbies was botany, and many western plants

bear his name. A biographical sketch of Anderson, with portrait, by Prof

Jepson, appeared in Madroño 1: 214-216. 1929.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 181

on the plant, with a colored plate, and notes on its occurrence,

characteristics, symptoms of poisoned animals, etc. (73).

6. Slender larkspur {Delphinium diversifolium Greene) was

originally described from "mountains about the headwaters of the

Humboldt River in eastern Nevada" and has been much confused

in the books with D. depaupe^'atum Nutt. and D. nuttallianum

Pritzel, two small, chiefly Northwestern larkspurs. The typical

form occurs in subalpine meadows and on slopes and ridges between about 8,000 and 10,000 feet in the Ruby Mountains of Nevada, but in the subspecies harneyense Ewan, which averages a few

inches taller and has broader leaves and larger flowers, it extends

into Oregon, Idaho, and California.

This is a very slender, often bluish (glaucous) plant from a slim,

spindle-shaped root, the leaves few, basal or nearly so and deeply

3 cleft ; in the typical form it is seldom over 14 inches high ; the blue

flowers have slender spurs about Y) inch long; the fruiting pods

are straight, erect, and glandular-hairy. Slender larkspur occurs

in both moist and dry sites. The subspecies harneyense has been

reported to be most toxic to cattle when the ground is damp enough

for them to pull the plant up by the root.

7. Orange larkspur (Delphinium nudicaule Torr, & Gray) occurs from southwestern Oregon to California, chiefly in the Coast

Ranges from the Siskiyous to Marin and Santa Cruz Counties and

also in the Sierra Nevada but "rare." It has an elongated, rather

thin and vertical, not fleshy rootstock, free from pubescence or

slightly hairy, the stem 6 to 30 inches (rarely 3 feet) high, often

bluish (glaucous) and somewhat swollen (fistuloiis).

The inflorescence is a loose, open, 2- to 12-flowered raceme, the

flowers typically orange red—sometimes red—but usually more or

less tinged with greenish or orange, 1 to I14 inch long, including

the usually straight spur, which is nearly half again as long as the

other sepals. The fruits are mostly smooth, divergent-curving, 1/2

to 1 inch long, somewhat narrowed at the base. The plant occurs

mainly between elevations of about 900 and 6,000 feet, in both dry

sandy-gravelly-rocky and rich humus soils, flowering from March

to July. In general the palatability appears to be low.

Orange larkspur is reported to be poisonous to cattle on the

Klamath National Forest (California). It is also reported to have

narcotic and soporific properties and to need scientific study (151,

180). Chesnut (38) mentions that the Calpella Indians call this

species "Soma yem," which means "sleep root," and that they use

it to cause an opponent to become stupid while gambling. In Sonoma County, California, at lower elevations, occurs the related

Sonoma larkspur (D. luteum Heller). It is a smaller plant, with

no or fewer stem leaves, and cream-colored flowers. Some botanists

place it under the varietal name luteum (Heller) Jepson.

8. Barestem larkspur (Delphinium scaposum Greene) inhabits

Arizona and New Mexico and occurs northward to southwestern

Colorado, southern Utah, and Nevada. It is 8 to 24 inches high,

smooth or finely pubescent, from a slender, often elongated and

branching, woody rootstock often with numerous fibrous roots.
182 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

The herbage is pale green, the mostly three-lobed leaves mainly

basal, giving the scapose (leafless-stemmed) appearance referred

to in the scientific name. The flowers are a rich or dark blue, about

an inch long, with an incurved spur. The fruiting pods (follicles)

are usually three and erect. It is found on dry gravelly-rocky foothills, in grama-weed, sagebrush, juniper and ponderosa pine types,

on cinder plains, dry arroyos, limestone rocks, decomposed granite,

and other sites of rather limited moisture.

Barestem larkspur has been collected on national forests between

elevations of about 2,000 to 8,000 feet. The flowering period is

mainly late March through June. This plant is rather common

within its range but, in general, its palatability appears to be

negligible to low. It has been reported as poisonous to cattle on

two national forests though no actual losses have been indicated.

The species is not kno^^^l to be in ornamental cultivation, but it is

a handsome plant, the pale stem, light green leaves, black root,

and rich blue flowers being in striking contrast.

9. Wright larkspur (Delphinium scopulorum A. Gray) (fig.

40)^* is a medium-sized species of New Mexico and Arizona. Unfortunately it has been confused in the past with thickspike larkspur [D. stachydeiim (A. Gray) Tidestrom, syn. D. scopulorum var.

stachijdeum A. Gray] a much larger plant with an entirely different range (Oregon-Idaho) and. from this fact, the misleading

common name "tall mountain larkspur" has been applied to D.

scopulorum.

Wright larkspur has a slender, ashy-puberulent stem 16 to 36

inches tall, the leaves often dimorphic, i.e., of two types, the root

leaves broadly and palmately divided with few lobes or teeth and

the stem leaves finely dissected; the flowers are medium blue, in

usually short and few-flowered racemes. It usually grows in gravelly or rocky clay loams, in grass-weed, park, oakbrush, ponderosa

pine or alpine types, at elevations between about 6,000 and 12,500

feet. Its palatability on the Apache National Forest (Arizona) has

been rated as zero to poor or at most fair for cattle and fairly good

to good for sheep. This species has been reported as poisonous to

cattle and to sometimes cause losses if eaten in quantity.

Tall Larkspurs

(Average height: 3 feet or more)

10. Barbey larkspur {Delphinium, harheyi Huth, syns. D. attenuahnn M. E. Jones, D. cockerellii A. Neis., D. scopulorum var.

subalpimon A. Gray, D. subalpinum (A. Gray) A. Neis.] (fig. 41) ^^

s-iThe species was discovered by Charles Wright (1811-85), the distinguished

American plant explorer (especially of the Southwest, so far as the United

States is concerned), on whose collections Asa Gray based his book Plantae

Wrightianae and about whom is a chapter in Geiser's Naturalists of the

Frontier.

•'Barbey larkspur was named by the German botanist Ernst Huth (1845-

97), monographer of the genera Caltha, Delphinium, and Paeonia, in honor of

the Swiss botanist William Barbey (1842-1914). Barbey was responsible for

letting Huth see Penard's Colorado type specimen on which Delphinium harheyi

was based.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 183

F-200328

FIGURE 40.—Wright larkspur (Delphinium scojmlorum A. Gray).

is one of the most important and abundant, and more widely distributed, tall larkspurs. It is typically a plant of the higher

mountains, ranging mostly from about 8,000 feet up to or above

timberline at about 11,500 feet, but occasionally as low as 6,000
184 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-297730

FIGURE 41.—Barbey larkspur

[Delphinium barbeyi Huth,

syns. D. attenuatum M. E.

Jones, D. cockerellii A.

Neis., D. scopidoruvi var.

subalpiniim A. Gray, D.

uhalpinum (A. Gray) A.

Neis.]. Dissected flower at

upper right; head of follicles at center right.

feet toward the northwestern limits of its range. The species appears to be chiefly confined to three States, Wyoming, Colorado,

and Utah, but it occurs also in neighboring southern Idaho and

northern New Mexico. Large patches of this tall larkspur may be

found growing abundantly along streams, in canyons and on moist,

well-drained soils, chiefly in aspen-weed-grass, subalpine fir and

spruce-fir types.

Barbey larkspur has a stout woody rootstock; stout, hollow,

straw-colored stems, more or less glandular-hairy at least above,

up to 8 feet tall, occasionally as low as 20 inches ; leaves broader

than long, palmately divided into 3 broad primary segments ; dense

and short racemes of showy, scented flowers, the sepals rich purplish with spur nearly 1/2 inch long and hooked at the tip, the upper
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 185

petals edged with white or yellowish white, the fruits (follicles)

bluish-purple-veined, with smoky-brown seeds. The flowering period is mainly July and August.

It is easy to distinguish Barbey larkspur after it blossoms, because no other plant in its habitat has similar flowers. However,

these plants in the early stages of leaf and stem growth are often

confused with sticky geranium (Geranium viscosissiTnuni Fisch. &

Mey.), a harmless, widely distributed and common range plant,

and also with monkshood, particularly Columbia monkshood (Aconitiim columbianum Nutt.).

The leaves of sticky geranium are mostly basal and long stalked

—those that do occur on the stem being paired—while the stems

of Barbey larkspur are very leafy, are not paired, and are shorter

stalked. The leaves of monkshood are are similar in shape, size,

and arrangement to those af Barbey larkspur, but are somewhat

shorter stalked ; the stems of monkshood are pithy as a rule, while

those of larkspur are usually hollow ; the roots of monkshood are

tuberous and often clustered near the soil surface, while those of

Barbey larkspur are enlarged, woody, and deep ; the well-developed

hood of the monkshood flower and the marked spur of the larkspur

are very distinctive.

Probably the most serious cattle losses from tall larkspur poisoning throughout its known western range is caused by Barbey larkspur, and the species has been the basis of much experimental work.

The stored food in the large and deep woody taproot of this and

other tall larkspurs facilitates the rapid growth of leafy stems

early in the spring before many edible but harmless plants have

made an appreciable start. Growth of as much as 1 to 2 feet in

May has been reported, but the rapidity of development varies

greatly according to the altitude and moisture and temperature

conditions.

The large leaves are more poisonous than the stems and are most

toxic when the plants are starting spring growth. Their poisonous

properties tend to decrease as the plant matures in July and August. In fact, cattle often graze without harmful elfect the palatable green leaves that persist after the plant has seeded (135).

The leaves remain palatable until killed by frost. Although the

roots also contain the toxic principles, their woodiness and deep

underground habit of growth render them almost inaccessible to

cattle.

The seeds of Barbey larkspur are very poisonous and have occasionally caused some losses. Perhaps this situation may be

responsible for a report from a Utah national forest that the plant

is "very dangerous after frost," and that it "kills sheep after frost

has hit it." Although this species, if eaten in sufficiently large

quantities and within a comparatively short time, may cause sheep

poisoning, range fatalities seldom, if ever, occur, except possibly

under badly overgrazed or other very abnormal conditions. Horses

may be poisoned experimentally by this species but, under range

conditions, this kind of livestock apparently never eats enough of
186 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

this larkspur to be injured. In most instances infested ranges may

be used with safety for pasturage of sheep and horses.

11. Sierra larkspur [Delphinium glaucum S. Wats., syn. D.

scopulorum var. glaucum (S. Wats.) A. Gray] (fig. 42) derives its

common name from the fact that it is abundant and conspicuous in

the Sierra Nevada Mountains and was discovered there. It is now

known to range from Washington to California and neighboring

Nevada. The huge larkspur of Alaska and Yukon and which sometimes reaches a height of over 9 feet, called Deljjhinium glaucum

by Hultén (102) and others, is considered by Ewan (65) to be a

different species, D. brownii Rydb.

F-487818

FIGURE 42.—Sierra larkspur

[Delphinium glaucmm S.

Wats., syn. D. scopulorum

var. glaiicmn (S. Wats.) A.

Gray]. Dissected flower at

upper right, with group of

follicles below.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 187

Sierra larkspur is a large, leafy, showy plant, commonly from

3 to 7 feet in height, with sometimes as many as 20 stems from the

broad woody crown. The stems are smooth and hairless except

sometimes in the inflorescence, and the herbage is more or less

bluish (glaucous)—whence the scientific name. The ultimate leaf

divisions are jagged and sharp, the large lower leaves as much as

6 inches across and 5 to 7 lobed.

The flowers are a deep blue with the spurs straight or nearly so.

The hairless, straw-colored seed pods (follicles) are straw-colored,

smooth and shining, erect, up to % of an inch long, with broadly

winged and shiny seeds. It is typically a plant of high elevations,

between about 6,000 and 9,000 feet in the Sierra Nevada and 4,000

to 6,500 feet in Washington and Oregon. It is characteristic of

wet meadows and streambanks but occurs on slopes where there is

suificient moisture and/or shade.

Sierra larkspur is poisonous to cattle and horses, but apparently

is not injurious to sheep, for which its palatability is fair to fairly

good or good. Although all parts of the young plants, except possibly the flowers, are poisonous, these toxic properties tend to

disappear subsequent to the blooming stage and maturity. Unfortunately, cattle often relish Sierra larkspur in the early spring,

when the young and succulent plants are particular toxic and other

forage is scarce. Accordingly, the practical method of preventing

losses is to prohibit this kind of livestock from grazing infested

areas until late summer, when this larkspur is no longer harmful.

The early symptoms of poisoning are similar to those produced

by deathcamas—the animal's muscles stiffen and the gait becomes

irregular; later, the front legs give away, and the animal falls,

usually with muscles quivering. The animal kicks violently before

death ensues. Poisoned animals become constipated, but usually

recover if this condition is relieved. Bloating occurs in some cases.

When the poisoning is sufficiently severe to produce fatal results,

death ordinarily follows in a very short time (135). In the treatment of larkspur poisoning, the animal's head is kept higher than

its body and all unnecessary exercise prohibited. A formula for

an injection that is recommended for use in treating alfected

animals is given on page 173.

12. Duncecap larkspur [Delphinium occidentale S. Wats., syns.

D. abietorum Tidestrom, D. multiflorum Rydb., D. reticulatum (A.

Neis). Rydb.], including its 2 subspecies, is found in the higher

mountains (about 5,000 to 11,000 feet) in all of the 11 Far Western

States except California and Arizona. The species inhabits a variety of soils, dry shallow gravels and sandy clays but does best in

rich black loams, along streams, about springs, in moist meadows

and the like, in both open and shaded sites ; it is common in aspen

patches. The flowering period is mainly July and August.

Duncecap larkspur is commonly 3 to 6 feet high from a deep vertical woody root; the stems are mostly straw colored below and

often darker bluish above; the strongly ascending, often longstalked leaves are palmately divided, somewhat as a currant leaf,

into 3 to 5 main divisions. The relatively small flowers are in
188 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

dense terminal racemes, which are rather spikelike at first but

later become more open and branching, the stem (rachis) often

glandular. The narrowness of the flowers and pointed spurs resemble a duncecap—whence the common name.

The subspecies cucullatum (A. Neis.) Ewan (syn. Delphinium

cuciillahim A. Neis.) has a somewhat more northern range, is never

densely hairy ; has a more simple raceme, and the sepals are white

in front, contrasting with the blue spurs and the 2 upper pale blue

sepals, the 2 lower sepals also being white. The smaller, more hairy,

blue-sepaled subspecies quercicola Ewan (syn. D. quercetorum

Greene, not Boiss. & Hausskn.) extends the range of the species

into New Mexico, from which State the typical form appears to be

absent.

The palatability of duncecap larkspur to sheep is, in general,

good, the leaves and flowers being picked off ; for cattle the palatability is fair to fairly good. Heavy cattle losses from this species

have been reported from the White River (Colorado) and Humboldt (Nevada) National Forests. The subspecies cucullatum was

the tall larkspur used by Marsh and his associates in feeding experiments at the Greycliff Station, Montana, and which proved to

be the most poisonous of the larkspurs experimented with there

(129, ISJf). However, it was necessary for a cow to eat a considerable amount of the plant to show any ill effects. The toxic dose

varied from nearly 23 to 49 pounds. After frost the plant apparently could be eaten with impunity by either cattle or horses and

there was no evidence that sheep were affected by eating it. While

experiments have not definitely shown that all larkspurs are toxic

to this kind of livestock, the wisest range management must assume, preliminary to fuller knowledge, that larkspurs, when

abundant, are dangerous on cattle range.

13. In the manuals and other literature, there are numerous

references to giant larkspur (Delphinium robustum Ryclb.) indicating that it occurs in Montana, Wyoming, and New Mexico,

but according to Ewan (65) this species is confined to Colorado,

is "little known," and "not common." The plant has a heavy woody

root ; stout hollow fine-hairy stems typically 5 to 8 feet tall but in

starved specimens sometimes only 18 inches high ; finely dissected

leaves, and showy, rich blue flowers. Ewan thinks it is a particularly promising species for ornamental cultivation, because of its

handsome appearance and the particularly protracted blossoming

period. It has been collected on Colorado national forests between

9,200 and 10,300 feet in meadows and grassland and is considered

poisonous to cattle. It has been observed chiefly on borders of aspen

and coniferous stands.

Marsh, Clawson, and Marsh (134-, V- 50) report on a feeding

test conducted wth giant larkspur on a ranch at Parlins, Colo.,

where a cow fed with the species was "down" for 1 hour and 7

minutes the first day and for 40 minutes the second day. Because

40 pounds of this larkspur was used per 1,000 pounds of animal,

producing symptoms of poisoning late in the season (August

22-23), the authors conclude that it is quite possible that this
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 189

species may be one of the most toxic of all the tall western larkspurs. The closely related Geyer larkspur or plains larkspur (Delphinium geyeri Greene) is said by Beath (15) in Wyoming to be

"responsible for more losses among cattle than * * * all the other

poisonous plants of the State combined."

14. Thickspike larkspur [Delphinium stachydeum (A. Gray)

Tidestrom, syn. D. scopulorum var. stachydeum A. Gray] is, according to Ewan (65), confined to Idaho and Oregon. It occurs in

a great variety of soils and sites : aspen-weed, lodgepole pine burns,

parks and bottom lands of the ponderosa pine belt, canyons and

slopes, edges of lavabeds, black gravelly loams, etc. It has been

collected on Oregon national forests between elevations of 5,000

and 6,500 feet, and on Idaho national forests between 5,000 and

8,500 feet.

The plant has a deep woody vertical root; stout stems up to

nearly 7 feet tall, rarely only 20 inches high ; unusually thick and

dense, mulleinlike and spikelike racemes up to IV2 inches broad

and 3 to 6 inches long, of blue flowers with long and slender spurs.

The fruiting pods (follicles) are about V2 iiich long, a little spreading at the tips, with numerous, smoky-brown and relatively very

large, winged seeds. The flowering period is mainly late June

through August. It is poor to fair feed for cattle, fair to good for

sheep, and is considered the worst cattle-poisoning larkspur on the

Targhee National Forest (Idaho). The specific name stachydeum

[derived from Greek o-mxws (spike)'\ refers to the thick, spikelike

inflorescence.

Isopyrum (Isopyrum)

There are three western range species of this genus : Halls isopyrum (Isopyrum hallii A. Gray), in the Coast, and Cascade

Ranges and the Willamette River valley of western Oregon—the

plant named for Elihu Hall (1822-82), well known as a western

botanical explorer ; California isopyrum (I. occidentale Hook. &

Arn.) of California, and Siskiyou isopyrum (I. stipitatum A. Gray)

in the area from Douglas County, Oregon, to Mendocino County,

California.

These isopyrums are small to medium-sized, smooth and rather

slender herbs perennial from fleshy and fibrous roots. They have

compound foliage somewhat suggestive of that of meadowrue

(Thalictrum) and mostly white flowers solitary or in clusters

(panicles or cymes); petals are often absent; the 5 or 6 petallike

sepals are early-deciduous ; the stamens are numerous ; the fruit

a head of follicles. Species of Isopyrum, often called "rue-anemone" a name better restricted to Anemonella, are probably negligible as forage plants but more data on this subject are needed.

Linnaeus Latinized and transferred to this genus a somewhat

uncertain plant name of the Greek physician and herbalist Dioscorides Pedanius, Króirvpov.
190 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

Buttercup (Ranunculus, syns. Batrachium, Beckwithia,

Coptidium, Cyrtorhynca, Halerpestes)

Ranunculu8,36 called buttercup in this country, crowfoot in England, bouton d'or (also bassinet, grenouillet, and renoncule) m

France, and butterblume in Germany, is an immense genus of practically cosmopolitan distribution—in all continents, in the arctic,

tropics, and temperate regions. Nearly 1,800 species have been

described and, omitting the homonyms, obvious synonyms and

names more deserving of subspecific or lower rank, the number of

valid species must still be very large.

About 72 species of Ranunculus occur as western range plants

and are deserving of discussion here more because of abundance

and wide distribution than because of actual forage value. The

North American species have been monographed by Benson (18,

19, 20), and his treatment is largely followed in the more recent

manuals. Buttercups are annual or perennial herbs of greatly

varied habitat, but the majority of species are characteristic of

moist-wet sites.

The leaves are basal and/or alternate on the stems, sometimes

entire but usually lobed or parted. The flowers are, with a few

exceptions, yellow, solitary or occasionally clustered; the sepals

and petals without spurs, largely 5, rarely 3 or 1, and the petals,

which ordinarily have a nectary on their claw, may be as many as

15 or so; the stamens are usually numerous. The fruits (dry,

mostly beaked achenes) are assembled in dense globular, ellipsoid

or short-cylindrical heads on a short receptacle and are very important means of identification in this botanically difficult genus.

At least seven species of this genus are in ornamental cultivation,

the most spectacular of which is Persian buUercup (Ranunculus

asiáticas L.), from which have been developed plants with very

"double" flowers up to 2 inches across and of nearly every shade

except the bluish ones.

Although widespread, the buttercups are seldom important forage plants for domestic livestock. Practically all species are low in

palatability, and the majority of them complete growth and disappear from the range before midsummer. However, most species

are of considerable value as deer and elk forage, these animals

commonly using the range early when buttercups are most palatable. All species have a more or less acrid juice.

. A few of the more notably acrid species, such as tall buUercup

or "meadow buttercup" (Ranunculus acris L.),^^ and especially

blister buttercup, known also as "rogue buttercup" and "cursed

' "'•Ranunculus, the Latin word for little frog, was facetiously employed by

Cicero to denote the inhabitants of the marshes near Rome and was adopted by

the Roman naturalist Pliny for these plants. The common name buttercup

comes from the fancied resemblance of the shiny yellow flowers to a cup of

butter. The local name crowfoot alludes to the similarity in leaf shape of some

species to the foot of a crow.

2'This name has often been "corrected" to the classical form R. acer.

Ranunculus being a masculine noun (52). However, the original spelling is

admissible under later Latin usage.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 191

crowfoot" (R. sceleraius L.), are definitely known to be poisonous

(123, 147). "Creeping spearwort" [R. flnmmula var. filiformis

(Michx.) Hook., syn. var. reptans (L.) E. Mey.] may also be poisonous, as the species "lesser spearwort" (R. flammula L.), which

occurs in England, has been shown to be fatal to cattle and horses

(123).

Long reports that, in England, the poisonous properties of buttercups vary with the species, the part of the plant, and the season

of the year. In the early spring, he states, but little of the poisonous principle is present and some species are not at all poisonous ;

the flowers are the most poisonous part, then the leaves, and the

stem. The toxic principle is volatile and is dissipated in drying, so

that buttercups are harmless in hay. The action is chiefly that of

an irritant, raising blisters on the skin; when eaten by livestock

these species cause inflammation of the mouth and throat and even

gastritis, which may prove fatal.

Martin, Zim, and Nelson (136) indicate that the achemes of

buttercups are eaten by rather numerous birds and rodents, as well

as by foxes in eastern Texas, but "the amounts eaten are generally

small." The 14 species of buttercup annotated here represent, it

is believed, a fair section of the more important western range

members of this genus.

1. Adonis buttercup (Ranunculus adoneus A. Gray) ranges from

central and southeastern Idaho to Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah.

In bloom it is a rather showy little plant. It is a species of the

high mountains, collected as low as 6,400 feet on the Challis

National Forest (Idaho) and as high as 11,000 feet on the White

River National Forest (Colorado), often above timberline or at the

edge of snowbanks, chiefly in moist-wet meadows but sometimes

in scablands or other rocky areas. It is a smooth plant, 2 to 8

inches high, with fleshy-fibrous roots ; fanlike (flabelliform) leaves

2's or 3's divided into 3's, the ultimate leaf segments narrowly

linear; with rather large flowers, and ovoid, turgid, unwinged

fruits (achenes). The flowering period ranges from June to August, depending chiefly on location. The plant is not known to be

grazed but more data on palatability are desired. The name

adoneus refers to a fancied resemblance of the flowers to those

of the genus Adonis, which, in turn, is named for the handsome

mythological youth Adonis.

2. Rather closely related to Adonis buttercup is Eschscholtz

buttercup (Ranunculus eschscholtzii Schlecht.),^^ primarily an

arctic or alpine species occurring from Alaska to the Sierra Nevada

Mountains of California (where rather rare), thence to Nevada,

Utah, Colorado, western Montana, and Alberta. In the variety

^^The species commemorates Dr. Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz (1793-1831),

surgeon, naturalist and explorer, who, with the famous poet-naturalist Adelbert von Chamisso, accompanied Capt. Otto von Kotzebue in the ship Rurik on

Count Romanzoff's Russian polar expedition (1815-18). The famous ice cliffs

of Eschscholtz Bay on Kotzebue Sound, northwest Alaska, are named for

Eschscholtz as is also the well-known California-poppy genus. Actually, the

type specimen of Eschscholtz buttercup was collected by Chamisso on the

expedition mentioned.
192 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

eximias (Greene) L. Benson (syns. R. eximius Greene, R. saxícola

Rydb.) it reaches the San Francisco Peaks of northern Arizona. It

is a relatively small and delicate plant, 2 to 12 inches high, with a

thickened rootcrown from which a cluster of fibrous roots depend.

It is rather variable and includes four named varieties.

The leaves of this species are dissected and somewhat larkspurlike. The basal leaves are somewhat kidney shaped in general outline with rounded or squared (truncate) bases, 3 to 5 parted and

again cleft, the stem leaves reduced and sometimes 3 lobed. The

flowers are yellow, the petals more than half as long as the greenish-yellow sepals ; the nectary scale at the base of each petal is attached laterally to the petal forming a kind of pocket. The fruits

are oblongish with a straight beak about 1mm. (V2.5 inch) long.

The plant usually occurs at or above timberline, in wet meadows,

wet gravels, and slides, and sometimes is quite abundant. Ordinarily the palatability to domestic livestock is negligible or at most

poor. In some places, as on the Flathead National Forest (Montana), it has been noted that deer and elk are very fond of it. The

larger flowered forms of the species are ornamental and perhaps

worthy of cultivation from that standpoint.

3. Plantainleaf buttercup (Ranunculus alismaefolius Geyer)

(fig. 43) is one of the more common and widely distributed buttercups in the mountains of the Western States. It typically occurs

from Vancouver Island and British Columbia to Washington,

Idaho, and northern California. The four varieties recognized by

Benson (20) further extend its range, variety harticegii (Greene)

Jepson (syn. R. hartwegii Greene) reaching Idaho, Montana, and

Wyoming, and variety montanus S. Wats. (syns. R. calthaeflorus

Greene, R. imguiculatus Greene), with 10 petals, occurring in

Nevada, Wyoming, and Colorado.

Northern Arizona and southern Utah material identified as

Ranunculus alismaefolius is probably the related R. collomae L.

Benson. The purport of the common and specific names is practically similar: alismaefolius means like the foliage of the aquatic

genus Alisma, whose species have plantainlike leaves and are

known as waterplantains.

Plantainleaf buttercup, one of the largest of the entire-leaved

buttercups, has stems varying from 6 to 30 inches in height, averaging much taller than the other entire-leaved western species

which are usually less han 8 inches high. It is a smooth plant, with

a dense cluster of fibrous roots, with thickish, taper-tipped leaves

of a lanceolate type up to 6 inches long, mostly entire but sometimes finely toothed ; the typically 5 petals are 14 to % of an inch

long, longer than the sepals ; the smooth fruits (achenes) are

slender beaked about 30 to 50 in a subglobose head a little wider

than long.

The bright and shiny yellow flowers appear in May and June.

When the plants are numerous and in blossom, their attractive

yellow provides a pleasing landscape effect. However, the petals

are soon lost, the achenes mature, and the succulent stems and

leaves become dry, brown, and brittle. The plants soon start to
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 193

F-291191

FIGURE 43.—Plantainleaf buttercup {Ranunculus alismaefolius Geyer). At

right (upper) petal, showing nectary

at the base; (lower) individual achene,

or fruit.

disintegrate and by late summer the aerial parts have practically

vanished from the range.

Plantainleaf buttercup is one of the first plants to appear in

the spring, normally growing very rapidly and maturing by midsummer. It inhabits moist to wet sites, and even exists in shallow

water, although the soil may become very dry after the plants

complete growth. It is most common in meadows, flats, and parks,
194 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

and on open streambanks, but it also grows on open slopes. The

largest plants and the most dense stands are found in the deep,

black loams of flats and meadows ; when growing on less fertile

and on stony soils, the individual plants are smaller and generally

scattered. Mostly it grows in full sunlight, only a few scattered

plants occurring in the shade of trees, such as lodgepole pine and

aspen, which encircle the open sites where the species grows. It

is a plant of the mountains, being practically limited to elevations

from the ponderosa pine belt to timberline. In the wetter sites

it is likely to occur in pure stand ; in the better drained areas it is

frequently associated with dandelions, clovers, and bluegrasses.

Although plantainleaf buttercup varies as forage according to

locality, it is nowhere highly valued. Use of this species by livestock is limited due to its somewhat acrid taste, which doubtless

accounts for its low palatability, and to its extremely early growth,

since the plants often mature and practically disappear from the

range before the major forage plants are fully developed. It is

perhaps most valuable in Wyoming and Colorado, where it is

sometimes considered fair for cattle and good for sheep. In Utah,

the species is fair for cattle and sheep, but in the Northwest and

in California it rates as poor for cattle and fair for sheep. However, deer, and possibly elk also, crop plantainleaf buttercup extensively, probably because this species is one of the earliest

herbaceous plants available on the range.

Throughout its natural range, plantainleaf buttercup often increases appreciably where overgrazing and erosion have depleted

the original plant cover of good forage species, such as bluegrasses

and the better sedges. It is more successfully adapted to invade

openings in the plant cover than are most plants, as it makes its

growth and matures very early and is usually sparingly grazed

because of low palatability. Even though erosion may have been

prevented, the replacement of the normal cover by plantainleaf

buttercup indicates that some remedial action, such as reduction

of the numbers of livestock, is necessary. Successful experiments

in improving mountain meadows have been conducted in California in eradication of this species with 2, 4-D preliminary to reseeding (^5,^6).

In Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, and perhaps Idaho

is the smaller Ranunculus alismaefoUus var. alismellus A. Gray

[syn. R. alismeUus (A. Gray) Greene]. It has finer and fewer

roots, broader basal leaves (ovate-lanceolate or even ovate, rather

than lanceolate), and fewer and smaller fruits. It occurs in high

coniferous forests up to about 11,000 feet and, except for deer and

elk, is generally regarded as worthless for forage.

4. Anderson buttercup [Ranunculus andersonii A. Gray, syn.

Beckuñthia andersonii (A. Gray) Jepson]'^" is a handsome little

plant which, strange to say, seems not to have come into ornamental cultivation. It ranges from southeastern Oregon to south

central Idaho and south to Utah, Nevada, and California. It is a

'"The species commemorates Charles Lewis Anderson, M. D. (1827-1910), a

biographical sketch of whom appears in Madrono 1: 214-216, 1929.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 195

smooth plant, often with great masses of fibrous roots or with a

short rootstock from which fibrous roots depend, about 2 to 8 inches

high.

The leaves almost wholly basal (occasionally a small stem leaf

is present) ; these leaves are small, kidney shaped (reniform) in

general outhne, with 3 main divisions, each dissected into reverse

lance-shaped segments about V;! inch long. The usually naked

flower stalks (scapes) are 1 flowered, the 5 sepals reddish, the 5

petals red, wedge shaped, sometimes almost an inch long, the

nectary scale at the base of each petal ridged. The fruits are somewhat flattened and resemble sepals, i/j to over i/o inch long. The

flowers, which are sometimes more than 2 inches across and showy,

appear from late March to June.

Anderson buttercup occurs in foothills and mountains between

about 4,500 and 8,000 feet, in gravels, clays, volcanic ash, rocky

sagebrush, oak, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine types, more

often in rather dry sites but sometimes in wet places. It is commonly one of the first plants within its range to appear in the

spring, is seldom touched by cattle but sometimes nibbled by sheep ;

it frequently dries up and disappears by the time stock enter the

range.

5. Bongard buttercup {^Ranunculus bongardii Greene, Sjms. R.

greenei Howell, R. lyallii (A. Gray) Rydb., R. recnrvatus Bong.

(1831) mainly, not R. recnrvatus Poiret (1804)] occurs from

Alaska and neighboring Siberia to California, Colorado, western

Montana, and Idaho. It is variable, as its wide range and synonymy

attest. Benson (19) recognizes two named varieties, of which

variety tenellus (Nutt.) Greene (syns. R. arcKatus Heller, R. clouglasii Howell, R. tenellus Nutt.), more slender and often annual, is

the more common and important. Typical R. hongardii is mainly

coastal and the var. tenellus mainly interior.

The type of Ranunculus hongardii was collected by Bongard*" at

Sitka, Alaska. The typical form is perennial, erect, up to 2 feet

high, rough-hairy, the hairs often reddish brown. The basal

leaves are larger than those on the stem, heart or kidney shaped

(cordate reniform) in general outline, li/o to 3 inches broad, 3

parted, the primary lobes again shallow lobed, the lobes sharp

tipped. The yellow flowers, appearing from late April through

July, are minute, the sepals reflexed, the 5 petals about y^ s to

less than 1/2 of an inch long, shorter than the sepals, the nectary

scale not forming a pocket. The fruiting achenes are flattened,

1/^2 of an inch (2 mm.) long, the beak strongly hooked and longer

than the body of the achene.

The plant has been collected on national forests at elevations as

low as 200 feet in Alaska and as high as 8,500 feet in western Wyoming. It inhabits mainly shaded and moist sites, and is often

associated with sedges, waterleaf, -wallows, and alders. It is too

acrid to be particularly palatable, and its value is generally nil

to poor or low ; its occurrence is often spotty and it is usually not

*"August Heinrich Gustav Bongard (178fi-1839), a German-Russian botanist

who published on the flora of Sitka, Brazil, Russia, and the Bonin Islands.
196 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

abundant in any one place. Horses reject it. Reported to be

"eaten readily by deer and elk" on the Olympic National Forest

(Washington).

6. Closely related to Bongard buttercup is Macoun buttercup

[Ranunculus macounii Britton, syns. R. hispidus Hook. (1829) not

Michx. (1803), R. rivularis Rydb., R. rudis Greene] which ranges

from Newfoundland and Labrador west to Alaska and Siberia

and south to California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas,

Nebraska, Iowa, northern Michigan, Ontario, and Quebec. It is

a perennial or sometimes apparently annual herb, typically densely

beset with rough hairs, the stems 8 to 36 inches high or as long as

the plant, especially towards the south; often roots at the nodes,

giving a trailing appearance. Sometimes the stems are stout and

fistulous and sometimes slender. The so-called variety oreganus

(A. Gray) Davis [syns. R. hispidus var. oreganus A. Gray, R.

oreganus (A. Gray) Howell], which is smooth and hairless, is

apparently deemed by Benson (19) to be not more than a form.

The basal leaves of Macoun buttercup are either 3-divided or

pinnately compound into 3 to 5 leaflets, and these in turn parted

and the parts lobed, the general outline of the leaf being triangular.

The 5 yellow obovate petals are less than Vs of an inch (5 to 7

mm.) long, slightly longer than the sepals. The fruits (achenes)

are % of an inch (3 mm.) long, smooth, with a short, straight or

slightly curved beak, borne in an egg-shaped or somewhat cylindrical head on a hairy receptacle that enlarges considerably in

fruit.

The plant occurs in mucky places, along streams, meadows near

water, and the like. It has been collected on a gravelly sea beach

on the Tongass National Forest (Alaska) and at 9,500 feet under

aspen on the Uncompahgre National Forest (Colorado). The

flowering period is from late May to early July and the fruiting

period mainly July and August. The palatability in general is

low. On the Teton National Forest and neighboring Yellowstone

National Park (Wyoming) it appears to have moderate value for

deer and elk. The plant commemorates John Macoun (1832-1920),

well-known Canadian botanist and ornithologist.

7. Tall buttercup (Ranunculus acris L.), an Old World species

widely naturalized in meadows and fields and along roadsides in

the eastern and middle States and Canada, has now invaded parts

of British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. It is entirely too

acrid to be at all palatable to grazing animals. Pammel (151)

reports that its acrid juice is dissipated on drying and that the

"symptoms produced in animals are blistering, slavering, choking,

vomiting, in some cases followed by death resembling that from

apoplexy."

Johnson (107) states that in "a herd of cows pastured for years

in succession in an old field thickly beset with this weed [tall buttercup], abortion was frequent and troublesome. As soon, however, as this pasture was broken up and the herd moved to another

part of the farm in which the plant did not grow, abortion disappeared * * * though there is no positive proof that the abortions
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 197

were due to the plant in question, the facts as stated are interesting

and significant. It is at least possible that ranunculus exerts an

influence upon the reproductive organs like that which is claimed

by some for pulsatilla." In this connection, it might be mentioned

that Linnaeus named a peculiarly acrid, small-ñowered North

American buttercup R. abortivus L. because of its local reputation

as an abortifacient.

8. California buttercup {^Ranunculus californicus Benth., syns.

R. dissectus Hook. & Arn. (1840) not Bieb. (1819), R. latilobus (A.

Gray) Parish] is well-named, because it occurs almost throughout

California into Lower California; the varieties cuneatus Greene

and gratus Jepson extend the range northward into Oregon. It is

a hairy or smooth perennial (apparently sometimes annual) from

a cluster of rather thickened fibrous roots, 1 to 2 feet high, erect

or somewhat bent at the base. The basal leaves are twice or more

as long as broad, mostly pinnate with 3- to 5-lobed or parted

leaflets.

The bright golden yellow flowers are noteworthy for their numerous (mostly 9 to 16, sometimes as many as 26) petals about V2

inch (8 to 15 mm.) long—much longer than the reflexed, pointed

sepals. The receptacle does not elongate conspicuously in fruit ; the

fruits are strongly flattened, with a short curved beak. The flowering period is late January to May. The species is primarily one of

fields, meadows and open hillsides, from about sea level to 6,000

feet or more. In general, it is worthless as forage.

Brewer and Watson (31) say: "this is by far the most common

and abundant species in the State, and is particularly abundant in

the Coast ranges where low grassy hills are often yellow with the

shining flowers in early spring." Jepson (105) speaks of this plant

as "the most common species (of buttercup), everywhere abundant,

coloring leagues upon leagues of grassy hills in the late winter and

early spring with its profusion of yellow flowers. Running into

numerous varieties, which are scarcely distinguishable in any

satisfactory way."

In another work (10^) Jepson adds : "It is a tropophyte, our only

species which has accommodated itself to the dry naked hills, but

its period of development corresponds to the months of the winter

and spring rains when the soil is continuously moist. It is, furthermore, not only our most abundant but our most variable species.

In drier regions, i.e., towards the interior, it is less common on the

hills and favors low ground ; likewise, in Southern California, it is

all but confined to ciénagas and wet swales." Benson, in Abrams'

flora (2), mentions that this species, western buttercup, and hoary

buttercup (Ranunculus canus Benth.), a large, large-fruited and

mostly hoary species of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys

and of the Sierra Nevada foothills, have, with their numerous

varieties, "an abundance of connecting forms."

9. Western buttercup (Ranunculus occidentalis Nutt.) is an exceedingly variable species, very closely related to California buttercup. Benson (19) recognizes 10 named varieties; he says of the

"R. occidentalis complex" (R. californicus-canus-occidentalis), it
198 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

"is perhaps only scarcely less difficult to classify than the races of

dogs." The typical form of the species is found from Alaska to

Oregon. r> Tf Ranunculus occidentalis reaches farther south to Caliiornia m

the following four varieties : Blue Mountains buttercup (var. dissectus Henderá., syns. R. ciliosiis Howell, R. marmorarius Jeps. &

Tracy) ; Eisen buttercup [var. eisenii (Kell.) A. Gray, syn. R.

eisenii Kellogg] ; Elk Mountain buttercup [var. ultramontanus

Greene, syns. R. alceus Greene, R. ultramontanus (Greene) Heller]

which also gets into western Nevada ; and Rattan buttercup [var.

rattanii A. Gray, syn. R. rattanii (A. Gray) Howell]. In Montana

buttercup [var. montanensis (Rydb.) L. Benson, syn. R. montanensis Rydb.], the species extends eastward into Idaho, western

Montana, and western Wyoming; this variety has also been reported from Albuquerque, N. Mex., but Benson (19) questions this.

Typical western buttercup is an erect or nearly erect, freely

branching perennial herb 8 to 28 inches high, with thickish leaves

about 3/4 to 2 inches broad, the 3 lobes wedgelike below which,

again, are often lobed. The fruits (achenes) are smooth and Vio

of an inch long, with a slender curved beak. The plant is often

abundant in meadows, ravines, and woodlands. It has been collected at elevations on national forests from as low as sea level to

as high as 6,700 feet. In general, its palatability is regarded as

slight.

In contrasting Ranunculus occidentalis with R. canus and R.

californiens, Benson (19) notes that typically it is the smallest

of the 3 species; that the petal number averages fewer (5 or 6)

and the petals are usually broader (seldom 2 times or so as long as

broad), the leaves are seldom compound, and the achenes are

smaller. In contrast with R. californicus the petals are fewer

(mostly 5 or 6 instead of 9 to 16 or more) and the blades are considerably shorter as compared with the length.

10. Shore buttercup, known also as "ivy buttercup," "trailing

buttercup," and "water crowfoot," {Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh,

syn. Halerpestes cymbalaria (Pursh) Greene]*^ ranges in its typical form from Labrador to Yukon and Alaska and south to Wyoming, Oklahoma, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, and New

Jersey. It is a smooth trailing perennial herb, with long trailing

stems or stolons which root at the nodes and produce new plants,

and naked flower stalks (scapes) % to 41/2 inches tall. The basal

leaves are heart shaped (cordate), less than an inch (5 to 22 mm.)

long, with shallow scalloped lobes. There are five small yellow

petals. The fruits (achenes) are in a cylindrical head up to about

1/0 inch long, the receptacle elongating and becoming cylindrical in

fruit. The plant inhabits saline marshes near the coast, the mud of

brackish streams, and the like.

The common form in the western range country is Ranunculus

cymbalaria var. saximontanus Fernald, often called "desert crow-

•iThe specific name cymbalaria refers to the resemblance of the plant to the

cultivated Kenilworth-ivy (Cymbalaria muralis Gaertn., Mey. & Scherb., syn.

Antirrhinum cymbalaria L.).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 199

foot," which occurs around waterholes, springs and seeps, edges of

lakes, etc., from the sagebrush to the ponderosa pine type, from

Vancouver Island and Alberta south to California, central Mexico,

New Mexico, Kansas, and South Dakota. The flower stalks are

longer than those of the typical form (2 to 12 inches high) and

usually branched, the basal leaves are larger (up to nearly 2 inches

long), and the fruits more numerous (100 to 300 in a head). This

variety has been collected on national forests at elevations as low

as 1,400 feet and as high as 9,200 feet.

In addition, there is a northern or alpine variety. Ranunculus

cymbalaria var. alpinus Hook., a small plant from Newfoundland

and Quebec to Alaska and Nova Scotia and west to Alaska, which

also occurs in Siberia, the Himalayas, and in Wyoming; it has

trapezoidal to rectangular leaves 4 to 10 mm. long and is smaller in

all its parts, with few stamens and fewer achenes. The forage value

of this plant varies, as a rule, from none to low.

11. Sagebrush buttercup (Ranunculus glaberrimus Hook., syn.

R. avstinae Greene) occurs from British Columbia to Plumas

County, California, and west to western Montana and western

Colorado. In the variety ellipUcus Greene (syn. R. elHpficus

Greene, R. waldronii Lunell) the range is extended farther south

to Nevada County, California, the north rim of the Grand Canyon,

Arizona, Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, and east to South

Dakota and the western edge of the Great Plains.

Typical Ranunculus glaberrimus is a smooth perennial herb

from a cluster of fleshy-fibrous roots, with more or less reclining

stems 11/^ to 7 inches long; the basal leaves are rounded ovate,

thick, about 1 inch long and shallowly 3 or 5 lobed at the tip, the

stem leaves deeply 3 lobed. The petals are usually 5, bright yellow,

broadly obovate, about 14 to % of an inch (6 to 15 mm.) long.

The fruits (achenes) are rounded, turgid, 1.5 mm. long, about

75 to 150 in a rounded head, the beaks slender ^/^ to 1/0 as long

as the body ; the smooth receptacle enlarges in fruit.

Ranunculus glaherrimiis occurs in moist sandy or loamy soils,

mostly in sagebrush and grass-weed types, parks and open woodland, between elevations of about 900 and 6,000 feet. The var.

ellipticus grows at higher elevations, typically in the Rocky Mountains area, up to about 10,000 feet, in the ponderosa pine, Jeffrey

pine, spruce, and fir belts. Basal leaves of the variety are up to 2

inches long, entire, elliptical or reverse lance shaped, tapering into

the leafstalks ; upper stem leaves have an elongated middle lobe.

Ber\son(20) mentions Ranunculus glaberrimus as "the first

flower of spring throughout most of its range" and Heller (92)

states that it is "the very first plant to come into bloom in the vicinity of Reno (Nevada) * * * The earliest date upon which is has

been found in bloom is January 5th." The larger flowered forms of

the plant are quite ornamental. This species ordinarily has low

palatability but is often taken in early spring because of lack of

better vegetation. The higher range var. ellipticus often disappears

by the time livestock are admitted to the range ; it is often small

but locally abundant.
200 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

12. Rather close botanically to sagebrush buttercup is smallflower buttercup [Ranunculus inamoenns Greene, syn. R. micropetalus (Greene) Rydb.], the typical form of which ranges from

Alberta south to Custer County, Idaho, western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, the San Francisco Peaks of northern Arizona and

the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico. It is a more or less

hairy plant, about 4 to 12 inches high, the basal leaves simple, ovate

to orbicular, mostly entire, 1/2 to IV2 inches long, the stem leaves

with 3 to 5 linear lobes.

The scientific name inamoenus refers to the "unpleasing" appearance of the very small flowers, the petals being rather narrow,

little or not much longer than the sepals and 2.5 to 8 mm. (less

than 1/3 of an inch) long. The obovate fruits (achenes), with

slender curved beaks, are crowded on a rough-hairy receptacle

that becomes twice longer (14 to 1/2 of an inch) in fruit, about

60 to 100 in number, and form a more or less cylindrical head.

Smallflower buttercup occurs in moist, sandy, gravelly or clayey

loams, in grass, weed, sagebrush, woodland or open conifer types

up to about 10,500 feet. The flowering period is from April to

July. Such forage value as the plant possesses is in early spring ;

the palatability mostly is low. Castetter (36) reports that the

Acoma and Laguna Indians of New Mexico regard the roots of this

buttercup as "quite edible" but that they sometimes mistake the

roots for those of the so-called "desert crowfoot" (Ranunculus

sceleratus var. multifidus Nutt., syn. R. eremogenes Greene) which

they consider poisonous.

A common variety of Raymnculus inamoenus is variety alpeophilus (A. Neis. L. Benson (syns. R. alpeophilus A. Neis., R.

utahensis Rydb.), sometimes called "Nelson buttercup" and "Utah

buttercup." This differs from the typical form in being practically

hairless (glabrous) throughout, with 3-parted or deeply 3-lobed

basal leaves and a hairless receptacle. It occurs from British

Columbia and Pend Oreille County, northeast Washington, to

Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming, mostly in the lodgepole and

upper ponderosa pine type, between elevations of 8,300 and 10,000

feet.

13. McCauley buttercup (Ranunculus macauleyi A. Gray), although of very limited range (south central and southwestern

Colorado and northern New Mexico) is worthy of mention because

of its handsome appearance and being one of the very few native

buttercups in ornamental cultivation. It is a high-range plant,

growing in wet places among rocks, alpine meadows, snowbank

edges, etc. The species has been collected in Colorado at elevations

from 9,500 to 12,000 feet, in flower at various dates from June 4

to August 21 ; in Colorado in red clay loam, associated with fescue,

phlox, sieversia, and sagebrush ; and in New Mexico at 13,000 feet,

well above timberline.

McCauley buttercup is a low plant, about 4 to 6 inches high,

from a cluster of fleshy-fibrous roots, soft-hairy when young but

soon smooth, the thickish leaves, mostly of an oblong-elliptic type,

2- to 4- (sometimes 5- to 10-) toothed at the apex. The flowers are
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 201

large and showy, a deep or bright yellow, the 5 or 6 petals broadly

obovate and about % of an inch long, the sepals rich brown and

conspicuously black-hairy, making a striking contrast with the

petals. The fruiting heads are egg shaped to rounded, the fruits

(achenes) with very short, straight beaks. Probably of no great

importance as forage. The plant bears the name of Lt. Charles

Adams Hoke McCauley, U.S.A., a native of Maryland, who collected the type material of the species in San Juan County, Colo.,

in 1877.

14. Straightbeak buttercup (Ranunculus orthorhyncus Hook.)

occurs from Vancouver Island to California, apparently also in the

Yellowstone Park region (northwestern Wyoming). In the variety

niaschensis L. Benson is occurs on the south coast of Alaska and, in

great straightbeak buttercup, or "giant buttercup" [var. platyphyllus A. Gray, syns. R. maximus Greene, R. platyphylhis (A. Gray)

A. Neis., R. politus Greene], the range extends east to Idaho, western Montana, Wyoming, and Utah.

In its typical form, this is a rather stout-stemmed plant 6 to 20

inches high, from clustered, thick-fibrous roots, the herbage usually rough-hairy with ascending hairs. The basal leaves are compound, have a slashed appearance and are up to about 6 inches long,

pinnately parted into 3 to 7 leaflets and these again twice forked

into narrow divisions. The flowers are sometimes large and showy,

the sepals reflexed, the 5 petals (often red on the back) up to % of

an inch or more (8 to 19 mm.) long. The fruits, about 12 to 20 in

a head, have a conspicuous straight beak about YQ of an inch

(4 mm.) long; the rough-hairy receptacle enlarges only slightly in

fruit. The flowering period is mainly May to July.

Ranunculus orthoi'hyncus var. platyphyllus (syn. R. maximus)

differs from the typical form chiefly in being larger (about 2 to 4

feet high), the stems being stouter and the hairs more spreading;

the petals broader and shorter; the achenes more numerous (20 to

35) their beaks somewhat shorter and softer, and the receptacle

more elongated (5 to 9 mm. instead of 2 to 3) in fruit. This variety

is perhaps the largest of our native buttercups.

The species, in both typical and platyphyllus varieties, occurs in

swamps, wet meadows, and other moist-wet sites near the coast,

in the foothills and in the mountains, from elevations as low as 300

feet to as high as 9,500. As a forage plant it is frequently disregarded by livestock or else nibbled slightly.

Watercrowfoot buttercup or "water crowfoot" (Ranunculus

uquatilis L.), an aquatic Eurasian buttercup, is represented in the

United States by four varieties, of which the following is much the

most widespread and important : hairleaf watercrowfoot buttercup

[R. aquatilis var. capillaceus (Thuill.) DC, syns. R. aquatilis var.

trichophyllus (Chaix) A. Gray, R. capillaceus Thuill., R. trichophyllus Chaix, Batrachium trichophyllum Chaix, F. Schultz].

This variety occurs from Newfoundland and Labrador to Alaska

and south to Lower California, Arizona, New Mexico, South Dakota, Minnesota, Pennyslvania, and New England. It also occurs

in Europe and Asia. The leaves are submersed and finely dissected
202 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

into hairlike segments ; the flowers are white. The plant inhabits

ponds, irrigation ditches, streams, wet meadows, and the like.

On western range the forage value of Ranunculus aquatilis is

generally considered negligible or low. Long (123) indicates that,

in Great Britain, "fresh R. aquatilis is held to be quite harmless,

and has been used as a fodder." He quotes another author as follows : "Along the banks of the Hampshire Avon, and other places

in the same neighbourhood, it is used by the peasantry * * * They

collect it in boats and give it to their cows and horses, allowing the

former about twenty to thirty pounds a day. One man is said to

have kept five cows and a horse with little other food but what they

could pick up on the heath, using no hay but when the river was

frozen. Hogs eat it and will live upon it alone until put up to

fatten."

Bulbous buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus L.), widely naturalized from Europe and a common pest in lawns, is a rather handsome plant in flower, and Fernald and Kinsey (70) report that in

the spring, if thoroughly dried, the bulbous roots are sweet and

edible. They also report that blister buttercup (R. seeleratus L.)—

at least partially naturalized from Europe, another weed in cultivated ground (142)—is used as a potherb in Europe after thorough

changing of water to remove the irritating and toxic ingredient

anemonol. Pammel (151) states that it is used in Europe by beggers for making sores.

White globeflower \_TroUins alhiflorus (A. Gray) Rydb., syn.

T. laxus var. alhiflorus A. Gray] is a handsome, smooth herb, 6 to

24 inches high, perennial from a thick cluster of fibrous roots ; the

palmately divided basal and stem leaves are somewhat suggestive

of those of a larkspur ; the white flowers are large, solitary, and

white, with about 5 to 8 petallike sepals, the petals about as many,

inconspicuous and with nectaries at the base; the stamens are

numerous and the pistils about 5. The fruit is a cluster or head of

small pods (follicles).

The plant is found mostly in black mucky soils, marshes, wet

meadows, streambanks and the like at higher elevations from

British Columbia and Alberta to western Montana, Colorado,

northern Utah, and Washington. It appears to be absent from

Oregon. It has been collected at elevations as low as 4,000 feet

in Washington and as high as 11,500 feet in Colorado. The flowering period is mostly June and July and the fruiting period August

and September. In most places the forage value is negligible or of

distinctly minor importance though sheep may sometimes be seen

to pick OÎÏ the leaves and flowers. However, deer and elk may take

it rather freely in early summer, and it is reported to be grazed

by mountain sheep and mountain goats.

Some authors prefer to merge TrolUus alhiflorus with the typically eastern American globeflower (T. laxus Salisb.), and it was

originally described as a variety of that species; however, the

widely separated range, the different flower color (T. laxus has

greenish-yellow flowers), and broader sepals of the western plant

make it seem preferable to keep the latter distinct. These 2 are
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 203

the only American species of the genus ; they, together with about

8 Asiatic and European species, are in ornamental cultivation, the

flower colors varying from white to yellow and purple.

PEONY TRIBE (PAEONIEAE)

Peony (Paeonia)

Perennial herbs or small shrubs, all native to Europe and Asia

except for two species in Western United States. They have thick

roots ; ternately or pinnately compound or dissected leaves ; large

and showy, purple, red, white or yellow flowers, with 5 to 10 (much

increased in cultivated double flowers), often thick and roundish

sepals and petals, numerous stamens on a disk, and 2 to 5 pistils

ripening in fruit into thick, leathery, oblonglish "pods," or follicles

with large, rather fleshy seeds.

Practically all species of Paeonia are in ornamental cultivation,

but the common herbaceous peony of the gardens consists of many

forms of the common peony [P. lactiflora Pall., syns. P. albiflora

Pall., P. edulis Salisb., P. fragrans Redoute], of Siberia and China

whose starchy tuberous roots are used as food in its native countries. Unfortunately this species has been much confused in the

books with drug peony (P. officinalis L.), a little-cultivated species

of southern Europe and western Asia, with white-woolly fruits

and nontapered leaf segments, and which formerly was an official

drug plant. The Chinese so-called tree peony (P. suffruticosa Haw.,

syns. P. arbórea Donn, P. moutan Sims) is also in common cultivation in this country.

The genus has been monographed by Stern (190). There is an

American Peony Society, which issues books and other literature

on cultivated peony varieties. Paian, or Paion (Anglicized to Paean

or Paeon) was the mythological physician of the gods on Mt. Olympus and with his name, apparently, were connected more or less

closely, Paeonia, a province of ancient Macedonia, Paeonian (an

epithet of Apollo, god of medicine), and paean, a thanksgiving

hymn addressed to Apollo or Artemis. Tournefort (1656-1708),

"the father of plant genera," gives the meaning of Paeonia (and

peony) as follows : "Paeonia a Paeone Medico, qui ea curasse perhibetur Plutonem ab Hercule vulneratum, ut refert Homerus

Odyss."—that is, from the mythological Paeon who, according to

Homer's Odyssey, cured Pluto with this plant when he was wounded

by Hercules.

Browns peony (Paeonia broivnii Dougl.) (fig. 44) was originally collected by David Douglas ("Douglas of the Fir") near perpetual snow on Mt. Hood, Oregon, in 1826, and named by him after

Robert Brovra (1778-1858), eminent British botanist. It is often

locally known as "skookumroot" and "watermelon plant."

The species ranges from Vancouver Island south to California

and east to Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Alberta. Harrington (90)

suspects its occurrence in northwestern Colorado but apparently

it has never been collected nor observed in that State. In Oregon

and Washington Browns peony occurs principally on the east side
204 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

r-300773

FIGURE 44.—Browns peony

(Paenoia brownii DougL).

of the Cascade Mountains ; it extends southward in California as

far as Santa Clara and Tuolomne Counties (188) but is rare in the

Coastal Range. Although rather common in the Pacific States and

in parts of Idaho and Nevada, the species is extremely rare in Utah.

Browns peony is a more or less bluish- (glaucous) green and succulent perennial herb, with numerous leafy stems 8 to 20 inches

high coming from an elongated thick woody taproot often with

fleshy and starchy, almost tuberous branches, long-stalked and
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 205

ternately compound leaves and solitary, terminal, drooping flowers with 5 or 6 thick and leathery, dull brownish-red petals, which

soon fall off. The petals extend but slightly beyond the (5 or 6)

sepals, which are usually of the same hue as the foliage. The

flowers are often fragrant, but the leaves and stems have a peculiar

odor. When young, the stems are erect but droop as they mature

until the fruits finally rest upon the ground. Ants and possibly

other insects manifest a peculiar liking for the tissues of this plant

and sometimes destroy the flowers and honeycomb the leaves.

Browns peony grows through a rather wide range of habitat

conditions varying from fairly dry mixed bunchgrass, weed, and

sagebrush types to cool, moist slopes near perpetual snow. It

ranges from about 1,000 feet above sea level to elevations of more

than 8,000 feet; in Idaho mostly between 4,000 and 6,500, in Nevada between 6,500 and 8,000 feet, and in California between 3,000

and 6,000 feet. It usually occupies well-drained sites, chiefly sandy

or gravelly loams both of granitic and limestone origin, but may

inhabit brushy hillsides, rich black soil, or grow in open stands of

aspen or coniferous timber. The plant generally occurs in scattered

clumps and seldom, if ever, in pure stands. Ordinarily comprises

but a small part of the plant cover.

This species starts growth early in the season, customarily being

among the first of the flowering plants to appear in the spring ; the

flowering period is chiefly late April through June. The succulent

leafage usually matures early, and, except in the moister and more

shaded sites, becomes dry, brittle, and worthless for forage before

the close of the grazing season. Consequently, this plant is of most

value for forage on ranges grazed in spring and early summer.

In general, as Sampson (176) indicates, the succulent herbage

of Browns peony is eaten with relish by sheep but only lightly by

cattle. However, the palatability varies somewhat ; on some ranges

it is rated as only fair for sheep and worthless for cattle, and some

observers even report that it is never grazed at all in their localities. This species appears unable to withstand close cropping for

many consecutive seasons. In preliminary range reseeding trials

on the Wasatch Plateau in central Utah (75), Browns peony became established from the original seeding but failed to reproduce.

The late Dr. Stockberger of the Bureau of Plant Industry (now

Agricultural Research Service) wrote the Forest Service about

Browns peony as follows :

"* * * there is a decided lack of experimental data on the (supposititious)

toxicity of this plant. In northern California the leaves are locally reputed

poisonous to touch, but the root has been considered a g-ood remedy for

dyspepsia when eaten raw. Some years ago the herbaceous parts of this

plant were collected on an area reputed 'poisonous, where it was abundant.'

An alcoholic extract was prepared from this material and 25 grams of it

administered to a rabbit weighing 4 lbs., 3 oz. without toxic effect.

Although the data at hand are insufficient to permit the drawing of

definite conclusions, the balance of available evidence does not lend much

support to the assumption that Paeonia brownii is harmful."

In addition to the local medicinal use of the plant mentioned by

Dr. Stockberger, there is frequent mention in literature of the use
206 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

of the thick roots of Browns peony by Indians in doctoring colds,

sore throat, and to give their horses long wind. Old settlers along

the Salmon River in Idaho (and possibly elsewhere) prize this

plant as an alleged cure for rheumatism.

Due apparently to the prestige of Torrey and Gray, a second

native peony, California peony [Paeonia californien Nutt., syn.P.

browmi ssp. californica (Nutt.) Abrams], has been ignored in the

manuals. This has contributed to confusion about the range and

other characters of Browns peony. Stebbins (188) has presented

cogent arguments that Greene (8.^) was correct in restoring this

species in 1890. California peony has a quite different range, from

sea level to about 4,000 feet in south central and southern California from Monterey to San Diego Counties, the type locality being

near Santa Barbara.

Unlike Browns peony, California peony is not hardy, is a taller

(up to 30 inches), more stemmy (up to 30), more branching and

leafier plant, with thin and soon wilting, green rather than bluish

foliage, elliptic rather than rounded petals, and flowers of a deep

blackish-red hue. The leaf divisions are quite different, the primary divisions or segments with an elongated, gradually tapered

and narrow wedgelike base and narrower and usually more elongated ultimate segments with usually sharp-pointed rather than

blunt lobes. Reference to the illustrations, table, and key in Stebbins' paper (188) will make these points clearer.

California peony grows in and along stream bottoms and in

chamise and woodland-grass types, blooming in January and February and fruiting in March and April. It is sometimes known

locally by the misnomer "Christmas-rose." More information as to

its palatability to domestic livestock and wildlife is needed.

BARBERRY FAMILY (BERBERIDACEAE)

This is a family of shrubs or herbs with alternate or basal leaves,

flowers with sepals and petals (which are occasionally absent) arranged shinglewise (imbricated) in bud and usually in 2 rows of

3 each ; stamens inserted under the ovary and usually equaling the

petals and opposite them ; the fruit a berry or capsule. The group

is closely related botanically to the buttercup family (Ranuncitlaceae): barberry family anthers (except in the somewhat anomalous genus Podophyllnm) open by two flaplike uplifted valves, and

there is only one pistil (instead of many). The woody barberry

(Berberís) and mahonia or "hollygrape" (Mahonia, syn. Odostemon) genera are annotated in Important Western Browse Plants

(5i) and the Range Plant Handbook (20^). In addition, there are

two western herbaceous genera of the family.

Vanillaleaf [Achlys triphylla (Smith) DC], known also as "deerfoot," "sweet-after-death," and "threeleaf," was long thought to be

the only species of the genus until a second one was later discovered

in Japan. It is a herb, with an agreeable vanillalike fragrance,

perennial from creeping scaly rootstocks, and ranges, commonly in

damp sites under the shade of Douglas-fir, western hemlock, spruce
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 207

and other conifers, from British Columbia south to Mendocino

County, California.

Vanillaleaf has a solitary, long-stalked, 3-leafletted leaf, the 2

broad lateral leaflets somewhat suggesting a butterfly's wings, and

a naked flower stalk, up to about 16 inches high, with a terminal

spike of white, fragrant sepalless and petalless flowers, with 6 to

13 stamens, and succeeded by the small, somewhat kidney-shaped

and reddish or purplish fruits. It ranges from a little above sea

level to about 4,000 to 5,000 feet in Oregon and Washingon. In

general the forage value of this plant is low to negligible; it is,

however, of moderate value as deer and elk feed in spring and, in

places, assumes a little importance.

Vancouveria (Vancouveria)

A genus of three species, commemorating the British navigator

Capt. George Vancouver (1758-98), sometimes called "inside-outflower," is confined to the coastal region of the Pacific Northwest.

They are perennial, essentially stemless (save for the leaf and

flower stalks) herbs from slender, more or less woody rootstocks,

with leaves twice or thrice compounded in 3's and somewhat suggesting those of some maidenhair-fern ; nodding flowers with narrow, bent backwards (reflexed) sepals and petals in 6's, the petals

with hoodlike nectaries at the tip; 6 protruded stamens with

beaked anthers, and a small 2-valved fruit.

The commonest species is probably white vancouveria [F. hexandra (Hook.) Morr. & Dec.], ranging from near the mouth of the

Nisqually River, western Washington, south to Mendocino County,

California ; it has been reported also (but perhaps somewhat questionably) from southern Vancouver Island and southwestern British Columbia, chiefly in dense Douglas-fir and western hemlock

forests. The leaves are basal, with relatively thin and deciduous,

somewhat shield-shaped leaflets. The flowering and fruiting stems

are up to about 16 inches high, smooth and with relatively few,

white flowers up to about I/2 inch long.

Where abundant the species assumes some forage significance.

On the Rogue River (formerly Crater) National Forest (Oregon)

estimates of its fall palatability to cattle have run as high as 50

percent. The related yellow-flowered, glandular-hairy yellow vancouveria (V. chrysantha Greene) hos been reported to have "no

apparent forage value."

POPPY FAMILY (PAPAVERACEAE)

There are 12 genera and about 41 species of this family in the

i'ar West. However, Dr. Edward L. Greene, formerly consulting

expert of the U. S. Forest Service in matters of plant nomenclature, separated creamcups (Platystemon californiens Benth.) into

52 species, and the goldpoppy genus (Eschschohia) has lent itself

to similar treatment at the hands of various specialists. California

is easily the center of distribution.

Members of this family often have milky, colored, acrid, or
208 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

narcotic juices. Bushpoppy (Dendromencon), a California genus

of two species, is shrubby, and the monotypic, southern Cahfornia

—Lower California Matilija-poppy (Romneya coulteri Harvey) is

half shrubby, with a woody base. The rest of our species are herbs

with mostly alternate, simple or compound leaves. In Meconella,

however, a Pacific genus of low annuals, the leaves are opposite,

and they are often opposite in Platystemon or, as in the annual

genus Canhya, largely in basal tufts.

The flowers, often showy, usually have 2 sepals that fall off when

the petals expand as do likewise, a few days later, the mostly 4 to

12 often wrinkled petals. In Canhya and Platystemon, however,

the sepals are 3; they are usually 3 in Meconella and often 3 in

bearpoppy (Arctomecon) and pricklepoppy (Argemone). In Arctomecon, the withered petals persist around the capsule base, and in

Platystemon the petals are only tardily deciduous. In the Oriental

plumepoppy (Macleaya), much cultivated as an ornamental, the

petals are absent. The stamens are distinct, usually numerous but

may be as few as 5 or 6, the pistil usually single. Ordinarily the

fruit is a capsule opening by valves or pores or, if the pistils are

two or more, a group of larkspurlike follicles are developed, opening to discharge the copious small seeds.

As a class, the poppy family is largely characteristic of dry warm

sites. However, there are at least seven species of true poppies

(Papaver) in Alaska, and some members of the family have become

acclimated to boreal conditions and are found as far north as any

flowering plant can grow. In parts of the West, notably California

and the Southwest, Papaveraceae are sometimes extremely abundant and give, for a time at least, a chief character to the local

landscape. Many of them, with their gay-colored, frilled flowers,

are prized as ornamentals. The group is active chemically and the

narcotic properties of the type genus Papaver have been known

and utilized by man since prehistoric times. Especially is this true

of the type species, opium poppy (P. somniferum L.), from which

opium and its constituents are derived. Morphine, in fact, is reputed to have been the first alkaloid isolated and named by

chemists.

As forage plants Papaveraceae are relatively unimportant. With

the possible exception of Eschschohia they are disliked by livestock

which will, however, consume them if there is a shortage of better

feed. While the family has a record of poisoning stock in Europe,

the writer is unaware of any similar record for western range

species. However, it is possible that members of this group may

have been involved in obscure cases of sickness or loss. Where

abundant on the range, it is the safest policy to regard them with

some degree of suspicion. They are probably more dangerous in

fruit than at any other time, since, the narcotic properties apparently are resident mostly in the capsules.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 209

Pricklepoppy (Argemone)

Argemone'^^ is a genus of about 10 species, of which about 6 are

in the western range area. They are annual, biennial or perennial,

bluish, very prickly herbs, or one Mexican and one or two South

American species shrubby ; the acrid juice is yellow, orange colored,

or whitish. The alternate leaves, clasping at the base, are divided

like an oak leaf (pinnatifid) or have wavy edges (sinuate), the

divisions ending in a stout prickle. The showy flowers, erect in

bud, are mostly white but are sometimes yellowish or rose colored ;

the 2 or 3 sepals have a hornlike appendage below the tip, the

petals 4 or 6, stamens numerous and forming a conspicuous yellow

center, the stigma stalkless (sessile). The fruit is an oblong capsule

opening from the top by 4 to 6 valves, and contains numerous

rounded seeds with a latticelike surface.*^

Their extreme prickliness and questionable palatability render

these plants unattractive, as a rule, to range livestock, and their

abundance locally may be an indication of overgrazing. It is possible that all species possess narcotic properties, and, when abundant on badly overgrazed areas, may be potential sources of sickness. They are often called "thistle poppy" and, by Mexican people,

"chicalote." At least three species have become locally naturalized

in the Eastern States and several are in ornamental cultivation as

"annuals" because of their handsome flowers.

Intermediate pricklepoppy (Argemone intermedia Sweet) is

closely related to the more common A. platyceras but the capsules

are sparsely instead of densely prickly, the stems without hairs

or only sparsely hairy, the slender sepal horns elongated and swollen at the base only. It occurs on deserts, mesas, foothills, and in

the woodland type from South Dakota to Colorado, Texas, New

Mexico, and Arizona, and south into northern Mexico. It has become introduced and locally naturalized in Illinois and elsewhere.

It blooms almost continuously from the seedling stage and is seldom

observed to be grazed.

Mexican pricklepoppy (Argemone mexicana L.), the botanical

type of the genus, has pale yellow to orange-colored flowers and

sparsely spiny foliage with light blotches. It was originally known

from Mexico but has been extensively cultivated and is now escaped

and locally naturalized almost throughout the United States, especially in the South. It is also widely distributed throughout the

tropics, in Australia, Africa, and many other (especially warmer)

parts of the world.

Pammel (151) reports that the prickly pods and leaves of both

Argemone mexicana and A. intermedia cause severe mechanical

*2The name Argemone appears to have originated with the illustrious French

botanist Joseph Pitton Tournefort (1656-1708), "the father of genera who

evidently put in roman letters a name used by a Greek medical writer, apparently of the first century A.D., for a kind of sore or ulcer of the cornea of the

eye for which argemone was deemed a remedy.

*3Botanically, Argemo7ie is close to the poppies [Papaver spp.). It differs

chiefly in that it has mostly white flowers that are not nodding in bud and very

different fruits. It also differs in its prickliness.
210 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

injury and inflammation. Schneider (180) states that A. mexicana

"has marked emetic, purgative, and narcotic properties." Kearney

and Peebles (109) mention the local use of the "acrid yellow juice

of A. mexicana * * * to treat cutaneous diseases."

Crested pricklepoppy (Argemone platyceras Link & Otto) (fig.

45) is, with its variety hispida, probably the commonest member of

the genus. It ranges from western Nebraska and southern Wyoming to Colorado, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and western

Texas, and south to Mexico (the type locality). Owing to cultivation as an ornamental, it has become locally naturalized in Oregon

and probably elsewhere.

Crested pricklepoppy is a coarse, stout, spiny-prickly biennial

or short-lived perennial herb, the stem prickly-bristly with strawcolored prickles, the herbage bluish (glaucous). The alternate,

pinnatifid or lobed and clasping leaves are without blotches. The

large, showy flowers are about 4 inches broad, with 2 (rarely 3)

deciduous, horned sepals, the horns dilated and spiny, the petals 4,

early deciduous, thin, and delicate. The four valves of the fruiting

capsules are densely armed with prickles.

This species is found from near sea level to about 7,500 feet,

often in dry sandy soils on plains, hillsides, canyons, draws, and in

woodland and ponderosa pine parks. Frequently it is a dominant

weed especially on severely overgrazed ranges. The main flowering

period is May to September, but it may be found in bloom at any

time when climatic conditions permit. Ordinarily the palatability

is nil, but the plant may occasionally be observed to be nibbled by

cattle when it is young and tender.

So far as the writer is aware, no feeding experiments with this

species have ever been conducted, but there is every likelihood that

it is more or less poisonous. The seed, however, seems to be harmless and is a favorite local item for seed-eating birds, such as doves.

The prickles are highly irritating to the skin of many people.

Hedgehog pricklepoppy \_Argenione platyceras var. hispida (A.

Gray) Prain, syn. A. hispida A. Gray] diiïers from typical A.

platyceras chiefly in having the stems rough-hairy (hispid) in addition to being densely prickly. The root is woody and sometimes

branched at the crown and a yellow latex oozes from freshly cut

stems. It has a relatively similar range and distribution but tends,

on the whole, to grow at somewhat higher altitudes and more

northern areas. It is not known to be eaten by range livestock.

Goldpoppy (Eschscholzia)

Eschscholzia,'^'^ an attractive genus native to western North

America, has been subjected to considerable "splitting," but there

are possibly as many as 11 or 12 species, conservatively speaking,

'•'The original spelling Eschscholzia, as against the more familiar Eschscholtzia, is here retained in conformity with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. The name was established by the German naturalist and

poet Adelbert von Chamisso (1781-1838) in honor of his friend and companion

Dr. Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz (1793-1831), German physician, naturalist,

and poet, both of whom visited California in 1816.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 211

F-480397

FIGURE 45.—Crested pricklepoppy (Argemone platyeeras Link & Otto).
212 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

in the western range country. These plants are mostly smooth

(glabrous), often bluish (glaucous) annuals or short-lived perennials, with colorless, bitter sap, (ternately) dissected leaves, and

attractive orange or yellow flowers borne on a funnel-shaped,

dilated receptacle (torus) around the base of the ovary.

The two sepals, adhering together in a pointed, hoodlike cap

(calyptra), fall off as the petals expand. The petals, usually 4 but

sometimes as many as 8, surround the numerous stamens that have

short stalks (filaments) and linear anthers; the stigma is 4 to 6,

linear lobed. The fruiting capsules are elongated, 10 nerved, separating from the base and contain the rounded, netted or minutely

warty seeds which, when ripe, are expelled with considerable force.

These plants are especially characteristic of dry, often desertlike

sites where, in bloom, they may be the chief local feature of the

landscape. They appear to have no great forage importance and,

pending further study, perhaps should be regarded with a little

suspicion in view of the toxic alkaloids some are known to possess.

Except possibly for little goldpoppy (Eschscholzia tninutiflora S.

Wats.) of the Great Basin and Southwest, which has very small

flowers, probably most or all of the species are in ornamental

cultivation.

California-poppy (Eschscholzia californica Cham.),*^ the copa de

oro (cup of gold) of Spanish-Americans, is a variable plant, almost

a hundred segregated "species" of it having been proposed by some

botanists. It may be an annual or a short-lived perennial from a

sometimes thick and branching rootstock, the stems more or less

ascending or trailing.

The leaves (bluish in the typical coastal form) are thrice compounded (ternately decompound), the segments linear to oblong,

smooth and hairless, or sometimes slightly and minutely hairy.

The mostly 4, fan-shaped petals may be as much as 21/4 inches long

or considerably smaller, bright yellow in the typical form and varying to orange, the flowers borne on the characteristic to7'us (an

enlarged, funnel-shaped receptacle surrounding the ovary) which,

in this species, has two rims, the inner one erect, the outer and

lower one spreading. The seeds are netted-veined.

The typical form is found on sandy bluffs and dunes along the

California coast. It is found in grass, chamise, sagebrush, and

other types, often in grainfields, railroad rights-of-way, dry

washes, etc., growing in full sunlight. Because of extensive cultivation as an ornamental, California-poppy is now locally naturalized in practically every Western State, as well as in Europe, Australia, and elsewhere.

Ordinarily, as a forage plant, California-poppy is rated poor for

cattle and fair for sheep. As silage, however, the palatability appears to be enhanced. Westover (208), in one study of this plant

•' ''California-poppy is the official State flower of California. The author of

both the genus and the species is the romantic figure Adelbert Louis Charles

Adelaide von Chamisso (1781-1838). Driven from France by the Revolution,

he became an early Gemían explorer of the California coast, botanist, poet,

song vi^riter, and author of the celebrated Peter Schlemihl, the story of the

man who sold his shadow.
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 213

harvested when in full bloom, found the cured silage wet and slimy

but with a pleasant odor; he states that it was taken readily by

cattle. The plant, after boiling or roasting and then rinsing, was

a food plant among California Indians. Smith (ISl) and Schneider

(180) mention its being prized by Spanish-Americans as a hair

tonic; the flowers (dried in the sun) or the boiled leaves were

treated with olive oil, the mixture strained, and perfume added.

The U.S. Dispensatory (H7) states that the plant contains an

alkaloid, which apparently has a sedative effect, and that it has

been used locally to relieve headache, toothache, and insomnia.

Esehscholzia californica var. crocea (Benth.) Jepson occurs from

the Columbia River valley, southern Washington, to northern Baja

California, at higher elevations than the typical form, in foothills

and valleys almost up to the ponderosa pine belt. Jepson (10A)

mentions that it has two seasonal phases. In spring, the flowers

are large and deep orange, the stems numerous and erect, and the

torus, or swollen receptacle at the base of the flowers, very pronounced. In summer, the stems are fewer and more spreading, the

buds much shorter and short pointed, the flowers smaller, pale or

straw colored, and the torus, or receptacle, reduced. The juice of

thie roots is sometimes reddish.

Mexican goldpoppy [Esehscholzia mexicana Greene, syn. E. párvula (A. Gray) Cockerell] (fig. 46) grows on dry plains and foothills, mostly in the sagebrush and creosotebush belts, from western

Texas to southern Utah, southern Nevada, Arizona, and Sonora,

up to about 4,500 feet. It is a (largely winter) annual, with bluish

(glaucous) herbage, the dissected leaves largely basal. The showy

orange-colored (more rarely light yellow, white or pinkish) flowers appear from February to May ; the stamens are 20 or more, the

fruiting capsules elongated, 10 nerved, opening their full length

from base to apex to discharge the numerous dark seeds that have

a wrinkled and netted surface.

The abundance of the plant fluctuates greatly from year to year

due to seasonal variations in rainfall. Ordinarily the palatability

is low, but there is a great difference of published opinion on this

matter. Thornber (201) speaks of its abundance on spring range

in Arizona between 2,500 and 4,500 feet and states that it is "considerably grazed." Griffiths (86), while admitting that it is grazed

during winter and spring on various Southwestern grazing grounds,

intimates that personal observation "does not entirely confirm

these views" of good palatability. Reported observations of palatability as high as 95 percent for cattle and horses undoubtedly are

correlated with absence or scarcity of more nutritious and palatable

vegetation.

Poppy (Papaver)

The poppy genus is largely confined to the Old World and has

lent itself greatly to what is called botanical "splitting." The nomenclature of our native species is still somewhat in dispute.

Several Old World species are locally naturalized from gardens.
214 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

F-487819

FIGURE 46.—Mexican goldpoppy (Eschschohia mexicana Greene).

About two arctic species crop out again on high summits of the

Rocky Mountains.

Poppies are annual or perennial herbs, with more or less narcotic, milky sap; lobed or dissected leaves; solitary, long-stalked,

showy flowers, nodding in bud and of various colors, mostly red,

orange, yellow, purple, violet, or white, and typically with 2 sepals

and 4 petals and numerous stamens. The stigmas are united into

a flattened, crownlike, 4- to 20-rayed structure persistent as a cap
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 215

on the fruit. The characteristic fruiting capsules open by chinks

or pores under the stigmas.

Papaver is the Latin word for poppy. The genus is chiefly known

for its numerous ornamentals in cultivation and for the opium

poppy (P. somniferum L.), whose capsules are the source of morphine (CITHIOOSNHOO) and other dérivâtes such as codein, laudanum, and protopine. The seeds of this plant are also a familiar

condiment in rolls and other culinary products. Opium poppy is

locally naturalized in many parts of this country.

The best known native species is probably mission poppy (Papaver californicum A. Gray), which would be the true California

poppy had not that State's official flower (Eschscholzia californica

Cham.) usurped the name. Mission poppy is a slender annual herb,

1 to 2 feet high, with the petals about % of an inch long, brick red

with a green spot at base, the fruiting capsules about 14 of an inch

long. It has a spotty distribution in open woods at lower elevations

of the Coast Ranges of California, especially toward the south, and

may be locally abundant in burns the year following a ñre. Its

forage significance requires further study.

Creamcups {Platystemon californicus Benth.) is an annual,

growing between elevations of about 1,000 and 5,000 feet, often

in sandy soils, in foothills, plains and arroyos from Coos County,

southwestern Oregon, to northern Lower California and, inland,

to southern Nevada, southern Utah, and Arizona. It was originally

discovered by David Douglas (of Douglas-fir fame). The plant is

3 to 12 inches high, spreading or erect, with linear, largely basal,

and somewhat hairy leaves.

The almost leafless flower stalks are 2 to 10 inches high, each

v/ith a single flower. There are 3 sepals, 6 cream-colored or yellowish petals, in two series, i^ to nearly 1 inch long, withering but

more or less persistent over the fruit, and numerous stamens with

flattened and somewhat petallike stalks (filaments) from which the

scientiñc name Platystemon (from Greek platy-, flat, -f- stemon,

stamen) derives. The peculiar fruit, likened by some to an ear of

corn, consists of 6 to numerous carpels or follicles, becoming jointed

and beadlike (moniliform) when ripe, and adhering in a rounded,

cylindrical mass.

The plant has entered ornamental cultivation and appears to

have no forage value but, because of its relationships, perhaps

should be regarded as somewhat poisonous. Jepson (10\, v. 1:

553-557. 1922) has an interesting discussion of the great variability of this species which has led some botanists to separate it into

a great number of species.

Windpoppy [Stylomecon heterophylla (Benth.) G. Taylor, syn.

Papaver heterophyllum (Benth.) Greene] is a slender, yellowjuiced, erect annual herb, with pinnately divided leaves having

divisions varying from narrowly linear to oval. The leafy stems,

up to 2 feet high, bear showy, brick-red or apricot-colored flowers,

2 inches or more across, nodding in bud, with 2 sepals and 4 petals

with a dark spot at the base, blooming April to May. The plant

ranges in semishaded woodland types, foothills, dry valleys, and
216 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

meadows at rather low elevations from Lake County, California, to

Lower California.

There appear to be no observations of domestic livestock eating

this plant, which sometimes becomes a pest in grainfields. The

scientific name Stylomecon derives from Greek IXVKWV (poppy) +

o-TiiAoç (Pillar or post—hence style), referring to the distinct

(though short and slender) style which bears the headlike stigma.

The genus differs from the closely related poppy genus (Papaver)

in that is has yellow juice, a wholly different pistil, and an absence

of the poppy "nightcap" on the fruits, which split open when ripe

by valves from the top.

FUMITORY FAMILY (FUMARIACEAE)

This small family, of annual, biennial or perennial, mostly delicate herbs, is represented in the 11 Far Western States by 3 genera

and 19 species. Some botanists prefer to regard it as a subfamily

of the poppy family, from which it differs in its usually more

watery and less milky (but apparently always more or less alkaloidal) juices; alternate or basal, uniformly dissected, often bluish

leaves; irregular flowers (mostly in racemes or spikes) with 2

small, often scalelike sepals and 4 more or less united petals in 2

series, the 2 lower or outer ones spurred or saclike at base, the 2

smaller inner petals crested and united over the stigma; stamens

6 (instead of numerous) in 2 series of 3 each opposite the larger

petals and the fruit usually a 2-valved, several-seeded capsule, the

seeds mostly black and shining.

With the exception of a few species involved in stock poisoning,

the family has very limited range significance. Many species have

attractive flowers and foliage and are cultivated as ornamentals.

The Old World fumitory (Fumaria officinalis L.), formerly an offi.cial drug plant, has limitedly escaped and become naturalized in

this country, and occasionally is observed on western range lands.

Fmnaria, unlike other fumariaceous genera, has small rounded,

1-seeded, nutletlike fruits.

Corydalis (Corydalis, syn. Capnoides)

Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are possibly 11 species

of this genus in the Far West. Ownbey (148), however, reduces

six of these to subspecific rank. Two other species enter Alaska,

one from eastern Asia and another from eastern North America ;

moreover, several other eastern species enter the fringe of the

range country in Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas.

Corydalis (from Greek KopvSaWis, the Old World crested or horned

lark, Alauda cristata—referring to the crested seeds) is conserved

under the International Code against the pre-Linnean Capnoides

(meaning "smoky" in Greek, alluding to the curious, snakelike odor

of some species and perhaps the smoky color of the foliage) of

Tournefort and some later authors. The genus contains annual,

biennial or perennial, erect, or climbing herbs. The yellow, white,

pink, reddish, or purplish flowers are borne in racemes, the four
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 217

petals unalike, the outer pair spurred at the base, the inner pair

keeled on the back. The fruits are somewhat elongated, linear, or

oblong capsules with crested seeds.

Some species of Corydalis appear to furnish a limited amount of

forage in certain sections, but generally they are not sufficiently

abundant or palatable to have significance. Moreover, until more

knowledge is obtained, it may be safest to regard them with some

degree of suspicion because of the alkaloids they contain. One

range species, fitweed corydalis (C caseana A. Gray), is known to

be a stock-poisoning plant. About 25 Old World and American

species are in ornamental cultivation.

Golden corydalis [Corydalis aurea Willd., syn. Capnoides aureum

(Willd.) Kuntze] is the most widespread and commonest of our

species, ranging from Quebec to Pennsylvania, Illinois, Minnesota,

Missouri, Texas, thence west to Modoc County, northern California,

and north, through Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British

Columbia, to Yukon and Alaska. It is a low and often spreading

winter annual or biennial, with a rather slender taproot, the stems

branching from the base, slender, 3 to 14 inches long, the herbage

rather pale, grayish, or bluish.

The inflorescence is in loose, terminal, short and mostly fewflowered racemes, the individual flower stalks (pedicels) short,

slender, and bent downwards in fruit. The flowers are golden

yellow, about i/^ inch (12 to 15 mm.) long, their spurs typically

less than a third the length of the entire flower. The fruiting capsules are spreading or drooping, about i/o to % inch long, when

dry, often constricted between the seeds (moniliform), giving a

bead-string appearance; the seeds are only obscurely net-veined

(reticulate).

Golden corydalis occurs in a variety of sites, dry rocky woods,

damp thickets of the ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir types, lower

bunchgrass and sagebrush types, cinder soils overlaying adobe,

etc., and frequently on limestone soils. It flowers sometimes

throughout the growing season, but mainly from late March to

July. It occurs at elevations up to about 8,300 feet in Montana and

10,000 feet in Colorado and Utah. The herbage has a somewhat

pungent taste ; it is often not touched by stock or, if grazed, the

palatability rates poor or at best fair. Spanish-speaking people

call it "altamisa" and often indicate that it has medicinal properties.

Mountain corydalis ICorydalis aurea ssp. occidentalis (Engelm.)

G.B. Ownbey, syns. C. montana Engelm., Capnoides montanum

(Engelm.) Britt.], treated in many of the manuals as a distinct

species, does not greatly differ from the typical form of the species.

It has stouter racemes, mostly larger flowers with longer spurs,

and stouter, more curving, erect or ascending fruits ; the spurs are

nearer i/o than % of the corolla length, and the sepals average 0.5

to 1 mm." rather"than 1.5 to 2 mm. long. It has, however, an exclusively western range, from the Black Hills of southwestern

South Dakota south, through extreme western Nebraska, Kansas

and Oklahoma, to Texas, northern Mexico, Arizona, eastern Ne-
218 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

vada, Utah, and southern Wyoming. Usually of too limited occurrence and abundance and of too low palatability to have range

importance.

Fitweed corydalis or fitweed [Corydalis caseana A. Gray, Syn.

Capnoides caseanum (A. Gray) Greene],^« typically confined to California, is perhaps the most important species of the genus from

a range standpoint because of its toxicity. It is a handsome plant,

sometimes more than 3 feet tall, with 3 to 5 large, fernlike stem

leaves, the herbage bluish (glaucous). The fragrant, white creamcolored or pinkish flowers, often 50 in number, are in thick larkspurlike and spikelike clusters, the inner petals tipped with purple

or deep red. The shiny black seeds are relatively large (2.5 mm.

long) and only faintly warty under a lens.

This species occurs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains at elevations

mostly between about 3,500 and 6,500 feet, flowering largely in

late June to July. It is eaten chiefly by livestock in dry seasons.

One collector on a California naitonal forest reported : "Seems to

be palatable to both cattle and sheep. Recent feeding tests to cattle

and sheep at the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station show

that the plant is highly toxic. Over 400 sheep poisoned on the Settlemeyer sheep allotment on Emigrant Creek." Fleming, Miller,

and Vawter (74.) have published a report on the plant. The common name "fitweed" applies to the convulsions characteristic of

poisoned animals.

Ownbey (148) recognizes four subspecies of Corydalis caseana:

(1) Utah corydalis [C caseana ssp. brachycarpa (Rydb.) G. B.

Oivnbey, syns. C. brachycarpa (Rydb.) Fedde, Capnoides brachycarpum Rydb.] of northern Utah, with conspicuously broad and

rounded wing tips of the upper petals.

(2) Brandegee corydalis [C. caseana spp. brandegei (S. Wats.)

G. B. Ownbey, syns. C. brandegei S. Wats., Capnoides brandegei

(S. Wats.) Heller], a tall plant (sometimes more than 5 feet high)

of Colorado and northern New Mexico, named for its discoverer,

a well-known civil engineer and botanist of California and

Colorado.

(3) Cusick corydalis [C caseana ssp. cusickii (S. Wats.) G. B.

OwTibey, syns. C. cusickii S. Wats., Capnoides cusickii (S.

Wats.) Heller], named in honor of its discoverer, William Conklin

Cusick (1842-1922), well-known botanical collector of eastern

Oregon. This subspecies has broad-margined upper petal tips and

occurs in northeastern Oregon and south and central Idaho.

(4) Idaho corydalis [C. caseana spp. hastata (Rydb.) G. B.

Ownbey, syns. C. hastata (Rydb.) Fedde, Capnoides hastatum

Rydb.], a northern Idaho subspecies, growing up to 6 feet tall,

with broadly triangular leaves and much-branched inflorescence.

The economic status of these four subspecies needs further study.

*"Co>-ydalis caaeaua is named after its discoverer and first collector, El'.phalet

Lewis Case (1843-1925). Case, a native of Ohio and veteran of the Civil War,

later moved to California; he was an ardent amateur botanist and a close

associate of the well-known California botanist John Gill Lemmon (56).
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 219

In the meantime, it is doubtless safest to suspect them of being

toxic.

Scouler corydalis [Corydalis scouleri Hook., syn. Capnoides

scouleri (Hook.) Kuntze]" occurs on Vancouver Island and the

Olympic Peninsula of Washington south to Tillamook County,

Oreg., in shady woods and other moist-wet and cool coastal or near

coastal habitats from near sea level to about 3,500 feet. It is a

perennial from a thickened, somewhat tuberlike root, the stout

stems, with about 3 leaves, up to 40 inches high. The compound

leaves are less finely dissected than those of most corydalises, the

ultimate segments or leaflets being oblong or elliptic, about 1 inch

long.

The flowers which, except for the color, somewhat suggest those

of larkspur, are in a narrow, rather loose raceme, rose colored, or

pinkish, the hood of the spur petal crested but not winged or reflexed, the spur stout, straight, ascending, V2 inch or more long—

much longer than the body of the petal its'elf. The stigmas are

more or less triangular, about as long as broad. The fruiting capsules are egg shaped or oblong, about % of an inch long, with

relatively large seeds (about % mm. in diameter) minutely warty

under a lens. The flowering period is from about mid-April to

early July. The plant is handsome and is in ornamental cultivation.

More data are needed regarding its status as a forage plant. Until

more is known about this, it may be safest to suspect it of being

toxic.

Bleedingheart (Dicentra, syns. Bikukulla, Bicuculla)

Dicentra'^^ is a group of smooth, often handsome herbaceous

plants, with watery juice, perennial from small tubers, ricelike

grains, or rootstocks. The leaves are compound or dissected, basal

or alternate on the stems. The attractive flowers, in racemes or

panicles, are often flattened and somewhat heart shaped, with 2

very small sepals and 4 petals, the 2 outer petals spurred or saclike

at the base, the 2 inner ones much narrower ; there are 6 stamens.

The fruit is an elongated 2-valved capsule. There are 7 or 8 species

in the Far Western States.

These plants are not normally palatable to domestic livestock.

However, early in the spring when palatable vegetation is scanty

or absent and the ground is very moist, their more or less poisonous

roots are likely to be pulled up and eaten. At least one species,

Dutchmans-breeches, has a record of poisoning livestock. Accord-

*'Originally collected by David Douglas and his companion Dr. John Scouler

(1804-71) near the mouth of the Columbia River on their first journey to

western North America; named for the latter by the eminent British botanist

William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865).

^^Dientra Bernh. (1833) is conserved over Bikukulla Adans. (1763) under

the International Code. The generic name is derived from the Greek prefix

81-, two, + KtvTpov, sharp point, peg or spur, referring to the two spurs of

the outer petals. The synonymous name Bikukulla, often written in the Latinized form Bicuculla, has a similar significance, being based on the Latin prefix

hi-, two + cuculhis, hood. Actually Bicuculla Borckh. (1797) is a synonym

of the conserved name Adluwia Raf. (1808) of this same family.
220 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

ing to Youngken (216) the rootstocks of squirrelcorn [Dicentra

canadensis (Goldie) Walp., syn. Bikukulla canadensis (Goldie)

Millsp.], a northeastern species with heart-shaped, round-spurred

flowers, have been used in medicine as an emetic and stimulant.

A number of the species are cultivated as ornamentals, especially

the common bleedingheart [D. spectabilis Lem.].

Gold-eardrops [Dicentra chrysantha (Hook. & Arn.) Walp., syn.

Biknkulla chrrjsantha (Hook. & Arn.) Coville] is found on dry

gravelly hillsides, chaparral and chamise types, arroyos, burnedover brush fields, and the like, from Lake County, California, to

northern Baja California, mostly in the Coast Ranges, and between

elevations of 1,000 and 5,000 feet. It is a pale, bluish (glaucous),

leafy-stemmed perennial, 2 to 5 feet high, from a thickened root.

The finely compound leaves have rather sharp-tipped ultimate

segments. The golden or sulfur-yellow flowers, with an unpleasant

odor, are about % of an inch long, in a rather loose, erect, narrow,

elongated panicle. The plant is in flower from about late April to

early July and in mature fruit in August and September. More

data are needed regarding its forage significance (if any). It is

in ornamental cultivation.

Dutchmans-breeches [Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh., syn. Bikukulla cucullaria (L.) Millsp.] (fig. 47) occurs from eastern

Quebec and Nova Scotia south to North Carolina and Alabama, and

west to Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and Minnesota.

Dutchmans-breeches is often called "little staggerweed" ; other

common names include "little boy's breeches," "white hearts," etc.

The plant usually grows in rich moist woods, often near running

water, and mostly as scattered specimens but sometimes in abundance. It ranges from elevations near sea level to 4,500 feet.

Dutchmans-breeches is an attractive, smooth, delicate plant perennial from a kind of scaly fleshy bulb composed of the triangular

persistent bases of former leaves and small granular bulblets the

size of rice grains. The finely dissected leaves are basal, divided

into three main divisions (ternately decompound), the ultimate

segments fine, linear or of a lance-shaped type, usually with a bluish

(glaucous) cast. The naked flower stalk is 5 to 12 inches high, with

an often 1-sided raceme of white or whitish, sometimes faintly pink

(or tinted at the top with yellow or cream color) flowers, i^ to %

of an inch long, the 2 outer petals spurred and the 2 inner petals

with small crests. The fruit is a 1-celled, spindle-shaped capsule

opening to the base by 2 valves, containing 10 to 20 crested seeds.

As a rule the plant is too sparse a constituent of the range forage

crop to be of any importance. However, it is one of the earliest

plants to appear. Because sheep sometimes seem to relish it in the

spring, they should be closely watched where it is abundant. The

plant contains at least three alkaloids, one of which is protopine

(71). Protopine (C20H19NO,-,), a white crystalline powder insoluble

in water, is a constituent of opium and there seems to be little, if

anything, on record as to its precise physiological action.

Eggleston (63) found the plant to be poisonous to cattle in the

mountains of southwestern Virginia and states that "most of the
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 221

F-480396

FIGURE 47.—Dutchmansbreeches [Dicejitra cucullaria (L.) Bernh.]. An attractive ornamental perennial herb of the fumitory

family. Widely distributed

in the United States. Poisonous to domestic livestock.

poison seems to be in the bulbs which are commonly lifted with the

foliage by cattle but left in the ground by nibbling sheep." Youngken (216) mentions that the tubers of both Dicentra canadensis

and D. cucullaria contain the alkaloids corydaline and bulbocapnine as well as fumaric acid and have been used medicinally as an

alterative, diuretic, and bitter tonic. Black, Eggleston, et al. (24-)

rate Dutchmans-Breeches as "normally unpalatable" but still

highly poisonous."
222 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

In the Far West, in Washington, Oregon, and western Idaho,

occurs the so-called Dicentra cucullaria var. occidentalis (Rydb.)

Peck [syns. Bikukulla occidentalis Rydb., D. occidentalis (Rydb.)

Fedde], perhaps especially typical east of the Cascade Mountains

of the Columbia River basin and of the Blue Mountains region.

Despite the geographical gap between the typical form and the

variety, they appear to intergrade. The var. occidentalis typically is

reported to have somewhat less finely dissected leaves ; the flower

spurs somewhat larger and more spreading, and the crest on

the inner petals rather more prominent ; the rootstock very short,

not scaly, and the rice-grain little tubers perhaps more numerous.

Pacific bleedingheart \_Dicenlra formosa (Andr.) DC, syn. Bikukidla formosa (Andr.) Coville] occurs in the Coast Ranges and

Cascades, from British Columbia to Oregon and south, both along

the coast and in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, to California. The

species is very closely related to fringed bleedingheart [D. exima

(Ker) Torrey] of the eastern Allegheny and Appalachian Mountains. It is a smooth perennial herb from thickish, creeping rootstocks, the practically naked flower stalks 6 to 20 inches high—

surpassing the leaves.

The leaves, basal or nearly so, are compoundly dissected (twice

or thrice témate), somewhat suggesting those of a ligusticum, with

a bluish bloom (glaucous), 6 inches or more broad, the ultimate

segments mostly oblong and pinnatifid. The rose-colored or pink

flowers are in terminal panicles, heart shaped as in the commonly

cultivated bleeding heart of Japan (Dicentra spectabilis Lem.) the

4 petals united to above the middle, the 2 inner petals larger and

with short spreading tips. The species is illustrated in Jepson's

and Abrams' floras (104., 2).

Pacific bleedingheart occurs in moist woods, especially along

streams, between elevations of about 1,000 and 8,500 feet, mostly

in rich loams but sometimes in granitic washes, serpentine clays,

etc. Under Douglas-fir and other dense stands, it tends to have a

slim form. The flowering period varies from early May to August

or even early September, depending on altitude, latitude, slope,

and seasonal climatic conditions. The plant's distribution is

rather wide but the abundance is mostly scattering and local. In

most places the species is regarded as unimportant or worthless as

a range livestock forage. It has been reported that on the Olympic

National Forest (Washington) "elk are very fond of this plant."

There appears to be no record of Pacific bleedingheart poisoning domestic livestock. However, Black, Eggleston, and Kelly (25)

report that it contains protopine and is potentially harmful; in

experimental work with mice, respiratory paralysis and death resulted. Pacific bleedingheart is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental ; in fact the original description of the plant by Andrews

was based on cultivated specimens grown in England in 1797. The

species is more or less medicinal. Schneider (180) states of it:

"Said to be tonic, diuretic and alterative; extensively used by the

eclectics."

While too small and evanescent to have any practical importance,
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 223

steershead [Dicentra uniflora Kellogg, syn. BikukuUa uniflora

(Kell.) Howell] perhaps is worthy of mention because of its rather

wide distribution, commonness, and unique appearance. It is

found an open sites in the mountains, varying from dry to moist,

in deep soils and also in shallow, gravelly, or scabby areas, largely

in aspen, spruce and weed types, from Washington and Idaho to

Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and California. It is a stemless (acaulescent) perennial from a cluster of thickened, spindle-shaped roots ;

offsets or runners frequently develop from these roots, bearing

starchy, spindle-shaped tubers.

The leaves are all basal, about 3 or 4 inches long, slightly and

minutely hairy, twice or thrice divided into 3's, with oblong ultimate segments. The naked flower stalks, about 4 inches long or

less, bear a solitary, flesh-colored or pink flower about % of an inch

long, the 2 outer petals strongly recurved, giving the characteristic

steershead appearance. The flowering period is mostly from April

to June but occasionally may extend into August. The flowers last

only a day or two and, with species of Claytonia and Orogenia, are

among the earliest to appear on the range. Because the plant, if

not in bloom, is so easily overlooked, the species is probably commoner than is ordinarily supposed.
224 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

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1893. THE RUSSIAN THISTLE AND OTHER TROUBLESOME WEEDS IN THE

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NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 227

(63) EGGLESTON, W. W.

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(200) THOMAS, LEON R.

1952. NEW TYPE OF FOREST SERVICE SALE. Mendocino Nati. Forest,

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(201) THORNBER, J. J.

1910. THE GRAZING RANGES OF ARIZONA. Ariz. Expt. Sta. Bul. 65,

[245]-360, illus.
234 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(202) THORP, FRANK JR., DEEM, A. W., HARRINGTON, H. D., AND TOBISKA, J. W.

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1939. ETHNOBOTANY OF THE HOPI. N. Ariz. Mus. Bul. 15, 120 pp.

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1937. THE DISPENSATORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Ed. 22,

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INDEX

This is an index of the genera, species, subspecies, and varieties

of plants discussed or mentioned in the body of this publication.

Accepted names of species, genera, etc., both Latin and English

appear in boldface type. Synonymous Latin names are in italic.

Where the Latin and English generic names are identical, the English name is not listed separately. For example, the listing for

candle anemone would appear only once: Anemone cylindrica

(candle a.)>

Abama 41

califomica 41

Abronia (sandverbena) 105

elliptica (redstem s.) 106

fragrans (snowball s.) 106

latifolia (yellow s.) 106

Acanthochiton tvrightii

(Hopiweed) 99

Achlys triphylla (vanillaleaf).. 206

Achyranthes repens 100

Acleisanthes (angel-trumpet)- 105

longiflora (longtube a.-t.).... 107

obtusa 107

Acnida (waterhemp) 99

altissima (tall w.) 99

tamariscina (tamarisk w.) .. 100

aconite 154

Aconitum (monkshood) -154, 171, 185

arizonicum 156, 157

bakeri (Baker m.) 158

columbianum (Columbia

m.) 155,156, 157, 158,185

bakeri 158

lycoctonum (wolfbane) 154

napellus (aconite m.) ...154, 155, 158

patens 156, 157

porrectum 158

robertianum 158

Aconogonum 72, 74

davisiae 82

phytolaccaefolium 80, 81

Actaea (baneberry) 159

alba 159

arguta (western b.) - - 159, 160

ebúrnea 159

rubra (red b.) -... 159

neglecta (forma) 159

gpicata (black b.) 159

arguta —159,160

adderstongue 26, 33

adderstongue, fetid 26

Page

Adiantum pedatum

(maidenhair) 7

aleuticum 7

Adlumia (mountainfringe) 219

Adonis (adonis) 143

vernalis (spring a.) 143

Agaricus (agaricus) 2

Agrosteinma (corncockle) 123

githago (common c.) 123

Alectoria (alectoria) 2

Alisma (waterplantain) 192

Allenrolfea (pickleweed) 85

Allieae 14

Allioideae 14

Allionia (allionia) 107

coccínea 116

comata 114

decipiens 114

divaricata 108, 114, 115

gaiisapoides 114

hirsuta 114

incarnata (trailing a.) 108

¡inearis 114,115

subhispida 114

nielanotricha 114

pilosa 114

subhispida 114

Allioniaceae 105

Allioniella Ill

oxybaphoides 112

Allium (onion) 12, 13, 14, 51, 52

acuminatuin (tapertip o.) 15

anceps (twinleaf o.) 19

ascalonicum (shallot) 15

bisceptruin (twincrest o.) 19

brandegei (Brandegee o.)_ . 19

brevistylutn (shortstyle o.) . 15

caeruleuni (blueglobe o.).. . 15

campanulatutn (dusky o.)--- 19

canadense (Canada garlic).... 15

cepa (garden o.) 15

235
236 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

Allium (onion)—Continued

cernuum (nodding o.) 16,17,27

collinum 18

falcifolium (sickleleaf o.) - 19

fibrillum (Idaho o.) 18

geyeri (Geyer o.) 19

kunthii (Kunth o.) 19

moly (lily leek) 15

neapolitanum (Naples o.) .. 15

neomexicanum 16

palmeri 19

porruni (leek) 15

recurvatum 16

sativum (garlic) 15

scaposum 19

schoenoprasum (chives) 15,19

sibiricum (Siberian

chives) 15,19

serratum (serrate o.) 19

sibiricum 19

textile (textile o.) 19

tolmiei (Tolmie o.) 19

validunt (Pacific o.) 15, 16

vineale (field garlic) 15

allseed (Polycarpon) 134

California (P. depressum) .. 134

fourleaf (P. tetraphyllum) 134

Aloe (aloes) 13

barbadensis (Mediterannean

a.) 13

ferox (Cape a.) - 13

perryi (Perry a.) 13

vera 13

alplily (Lloydia serótina) 37

Alsine 140

baicalensis 142

jamesiana 140

laeta 142

longipes 142

media 142

Alsinopsis 124

obtiisiloba 128

altamisa 217

Alternanthera repens

(creeping chaffflower) .... 100

Amaranthaceae 98

Amaranth family 98

Amaranthus (amaranth) 99, 100

albus (tumbleweed a.) 101

blitoides 101

caudatus (love-lies-bleeding) 100

graecizans (prostrate a.) 101

hypochondriacus

(princess-feather) .... 100

palmeri (Palmer a.) 101

Amaryllidaceae 13

amaryllis 13

Am.blostima 26

Ammianthiutn (crowpoison) .. 42

Ammocodon chenopodioides

(sandbell) 116

Ammodenia

oblongifolia 128

Page

Ammodenia—Continued

peploides 128

Anabaena (anabaena) 2

Androstephiuni (funnel-lily) .. 20

brevifloram (purple f.-l.) .... 20

caeruleum (blue f.-l.) 20

violaceum 20

Anemone (anemone) 143

cylindrica (candle a.) 144

deltoidea (threeleaf a.) 144

globosa (globe a.).. 145,146

hudsoniana (Hudsonian a.) . 145

ludoviciana 147

lyallii 147

inountain 145

multifida (Argentine a.) 145

globosa 145

hudsoniana 145

nemorosa (European wood

a.) 144, 145,146

occidentalis 147

oregana 147

Pacific 145

patens 147

piperi 145

pulsatilla 148

quinquefolia (American wood

a.) 145, 147

lyallii (Lyall a.) 147

oregana (Oregon a.) 147

Anemone tribe 143

Anemoneae 143

Anemonella thalictroides (rueanemone; anemonella) .... 189

angelica, coyote 151

angels-trlimpet 107

angel-trumpet (Acleisanthes) 105

longtube (A. longiflora) 107

Angraecian fragrans 62

Anthericum (anthericum) 25,41

liliago (St. Bernard-lily) 25

ossifragum, 41

torreyi (Torrey a.) 25

Anticlea 49, 50, 51

elegans 52

Antirrhinum cymbalaria 198

Anulocaulis (gumjoint) 116

Aphanisma blitoides

(aphanisma) 85

April-fools 147

Aquilegia (columbine) 161

brevistyla (Yukon c.) 161

caerulea (Colorado c.) 162,163

albiflora 164

daileyae 164

ochroleuca (white Colorado

c.) 164

pinetoruni 162

califoi-nica 166

canadensis (American c. ;

Canada c.) 161

chrysantha (golden c.) 162, 164
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 237

Page

Aquilegia (columbine)—Continued

elegantula (westernred c.).... 164

flavescens (yellow c.) 165

minor (forma) 165

forniosa (Sitka c.) 165

flavescens 165

trúncala 166

glandulosa (Altai c.) „. 162

hinckleyana (Hinckley c.) _ 161

leptocera 164

longissima (longspur c.) 161

pinetorum 162

scopulorum (Utah c.) 166

skinneri (Skinner c.) 162

truncata 166

vulgaris (European c.) 162

Arctomecon (bearpoppy) 208

Arenaria (sandwort) 124

aculeata (prickly s.) 125

uintahensis 125

biflora 128

burkei (Burke s.) 126

capillaris 127

congesta (ballhead s.) 125, 127

subcongesta 126

suffrutescens 125

fendleri (Fendler s.) 127

subcongesta 126

formosa (fescue s.) 127

glabrescens 127

laricifolia 128

lateriflora 129

macrophylla 129

marcescens , 128

nuttallii (Nuttalls.) 128

obtusa 128

obtusiloba 128

peploides 128

sajanensis (Siberian s.) 128

subcongesta 126

uintahensis (Uinta s.) 125

Argemone (pricklepoppy) 208, 209

hispida 210

intermedia (intermediate p.) 209

mexicana (Mexican p.) 209

platyceras (crested p.) 209, 210, 211

/tispif/a (hedgehog p.) 210

Asparagoideae 23

Asparagus (asparagus) 13, 23

asparagoides (smilax a.) 23

officinalis (garden a.) 13, 23

Asparagus subfamily 23

Asphodel subfamily 25

Asphodel tribe 25

Asphodeleae 25

Asphodeloideae 25

Aspidiaceae 7

Aspidium

filix-mas 8,12

munitum 9

Aspleniuni (spleenwort) 12

Athyrium filix-femina

(ladyfern) 8

Page

Attagene 148

Atriplex (saltbush) 85

autumn-crocus (Colchicum

aulumnale 13

azalea 60

babysbreath (Gypsophila

paniculata) 123

ballclover 103

Balsamorrhiza sagittata

(arrowleaf balsamroot) .... 68

balsamroot, arrowleaf

(Balsamorrhiza sagittata) 68

Bongard (R. bongardii) 195

black (A. spicata) 159

red (A. rubra) 159

western (A. arguta) 159, 160

western red 159

barberry (Berberís) 206

Barberry family 206

basketgrass 38

Bassia (bassia) 91

hyssopifolia 90

bassinet 190

Batrachium 190

trichophyllum 201

bats-ears 29

beadlily (Clintonia) 23

beadruby (Maianthemum) .... 13,23

beargrass 27

beargrass (Xerophyllum) 37, 38, 39

common (X, tenax) 38, 40

Douglas (X. douglasii) 40

turkeybeard (X.

asphodeloides) 38

bearpoppy (Arctomecon) 208

Beckwithia 190

andersonii 194

beet, common (Beta vulgaris).. 85

belvedere 93

Berberidaceae 206

Berberís (barberry) 206

Beta vulgaris (common beet).. 85

Bicucidla 219

Bikukulla 219

canadensis 220

chrysantha 220

cucullaria 220

formosa 222

occidentalis 222

uniflora 223

Bilderdykia 72

bistort (Polygonum, sec.

Bistorta) 72

American (P. bistortoldes)., lb, 76

European (P. bistorta) 75

viviparous (P. viviparum).. . 75

Bistorta 72, 74

bistortoides 75

major 75

vivipara 75

bite-tongue 79
238 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

bitterroot (Letvisia rediviva)

bladderfern (Cystopteris)

Blechnum spicant

bledo - - —

bleedingheart (Dicentra)

Page

.118, 119

12

12

101

219

common (D. spectabilis) 220,222

fringed (D. eximia) 222

Pacific (D. formosa) - 222

Blilum (blite) 88

capitatum (strawberry b.) --- 88,89

bloodleaf (Iresine) 99, 103

Herbst (I. herbstii) 103

Linden (I. lindenii) 103

variable (I. heterophylla) .... 103

bloodweed 88

Bloomeria (bloomeria) 20

clevelandii (Cleveland b.)—- 20

crocea (darkstripe b.) 20

bhiebell 27

blue-eyedgrass (Sisyrinchium) 56, 59

alkali (S. halophilum) 61

California (S. helium) 60

common (S. angustifolium) 59

Douglas (S. douglasii) 60

Idaho (S. idahoense) 60

Montana (S. occidentale) 61

stickypod (S. radicatutn) 60

western _ 60

Boehmeria nivea (ramie) 62

Boerhaavia (spiderling) _ .105, 108

108

108

109

109

109

109

109

109

108

108

37,41,42

caribaea

coccinea (scarlet s.)

erecta (erect s.)

intermedia

thornberi

gracillima (slim s.)

interynedia

thornberi

viscosa

oligadena

bog-asphodel (TSarthecium) _ _ ., ,

California (IS. californicum) 41

bog-asphodel 41

bouncingbet (Saponaria

officinalis) 130

Bourbontea (Jumella

fragrans) 62

bouton d'or 190

bracken (Pteridium ; Pteridium

aquilinum) 10

eastern (P. a, latiusculum) , 10

western (P. a. puhescens)^ 10, 11

brake 10

Brayulinea densa (brayulinea) 102

Brevoortia ida-maia (floralfirecracker) 23

Brodiaea (brodiaea) 13, 21, 51, 52

capitata (bluedicks b.) 21

coronaria (harvest b.) 21,22

douglasii (Douglas b.) 22

grandiflora 21,22

hyacinthina (hyacinth b.) .. 22

laxa (grassnut b.) 22

Page

Brodiaea (brodiaea)—Continued

peduncularis (longstalk b.) 22

buckwheat (Fagopyrum) 64

common (F. esculentum) .... 64

Buckwheat family 64

buckwheat, wild 65, 80

bugbane (Cimicifuga) 169

Arizona (C. arizonica) 169

cohosh (C. racemosa) 169

cutleaf (C. laciniata) 169

Mt. Hood 169

tall (C. elata) 169

bugseed 90

bunchflower (Melanthium) .... 42

Bunchflower subfamily 37

bushpoppy (Dendromecon) .... 208

butterblunie 190

buttercup (Ranunculus) 190

Adonis (R. adoneus) 191

Alaska straightbeak (R.

orthorhyncus

alaschensis) 201

Anderson (R, andersonii) ... 194

blister (R. sceleratus) 190, 202

Blue Mountains (R.

occidentalis dissectus) .. 198

Bongard (R. bongardii) 195

bulbous (R. bulbosus) 202

California (R. californicus) 197, 198

Collom (R. collomae) 192

Eisen (R. occidentalis

eisenii) 198

Elk Mountain (R. occidentalis

ultramontanus) 198

Eschscholtz (S.

eschscholtzii) 191

giant 201

great straightbeak (R.

orthorhyncus

platyphyllus) __ 201

hairleaf watercrowfoot (R.

aquatilis capillaceus) .... 201

Hartweg (R. alisniaefolius

hartwegii) 192

hoary (R. canus) 197,198

ivy 198

littleleaf (R. abortivas) 197

Macoun (R. macounii) 196

McCauley (R. macauleyi) ... 200

ineadoiv 190

Montana (R. occidentalis

montanensis) 198

Nelson 2OO

Persian (R. asiaticus) 190

plantainleaf (R.

alisniaefolius) 192

Rattan (R. occidentalis

rattanii) 198

rogue 190

sagebrush (R. glaberrimus) 199

shore (R. cymbalaria) 198

smallflower (R. inamoenus) 200
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 239

Page

buttercup (Ranunculus)—Continued

straightbeak (R,

orthorhyncus) ._ 201

tall (R. acris) 190,196

trailing 198

Utah 200

watercrowfoot (R. aquatilis) 201

western (R. occidentalis) 197

Buttercup family 143, 206

Calandrinia (rockpurslane) ..-. 116

caidescens menziesii 116

ciliata (redmaids) 116

menziesii 116

California-poppy (Eschscholzia

californica) 212, 215

Calliprora 21

Calochortaceae 29

Calochortus (mariposa) .13, 29, 51, 52

coeruleus (skyblue m.) 29,30

elegans (Northwestern m.) 29, 30, 31

eurycarptis 32

gunnisonii (Gunnison m.)-- 30, 31

macTOcarpus (sagebrush m.) 31

tnaweanus 30

nitidus (broadfruit m.) 32

nuttallii (sego-lily) 32, 52

Caltha (marshmarigold) 166, 182

biflora (twinflower m.) 167

hotcellii (Howell m.) 167

howellii - — 167

leptosepala (elkslip m.) 167,168

rotundifolia (roundleaf

m.) 167

palustris (common m.) 166, 167, 168

rotundifolia 167

Calyptridium (calyptridiuin) .. 117

nudum 122

roseum (rosy c.) 117

camas (Catnassia) 28, 50, 51, 52

blue 28

common (C. quatnash) _. 28

Cusick (C, cusickii) 28

Camassia (camas) 28, 50, 51, 52

cusickii (Cusick c.) 28

esculenta 28

quamash (common c.) 28

campion, (Lychnis) 134, 135

Drummond 135

campion 135

Mexican 137

moss 135

canaigre (Rumex

hymenosepalus) 83

Canbya 208

Cannabinaceae 62

Capnodes 216

Capnoides 216

aureum 217

hrachycarpum 218

brandegei 218

caseanum 218

cusickii 218

Page

Capnoides—Continued

hastatum 218

montanum, 217

scouleri 219

carelessweed 101

carnation (Dianthus; D,

caryophyllus) 123

carrionflower (Sinilax

herbácea) 55

woollynerve (S. h.

lasioneuron) 55

cartwheel 108

Caryophyllaceae 123

catchfly 135

sleepy 136

cats-ears 29, 31

catsfoot - 65

Celosia argéntea (cockscomb)- 99

Cerastiuni (cerastium) 129

arvense (starry c.) 130

beeringianum (Bering c.) 130

campestre (plains c.) 130

nutans (nodding c.) 130

scopulorum (Rocky Mountain

c.) 130

strictum (common c.) 130

tomentosum (snow-insummer) 129

viscosum (sticky c.) 129

chaffflower, creeping

(Alternanthera repens) .... 100

chainfern (Woodivardia) 12

chaparral, ground 69

Cheilanthes (lipfern) 12

Chenopodiaceae 85

Chenopodiuni (goosefoot) 85, 86

album (lambsquarters g.) 86, 87, 88

ambrosioides (wormseed g.) 86

anthelminticum 86

atrovirens (dark g.) 86

bonus-henricus (Good King

Henry) 86

botrys (Jerusalem-oak g.)—. 86

capitatum 89

cornutum 88

fremontii (Fremont g.)- 86

incisum (raggedleaf g.) 88

leptophyllum (slimleaf g.) - 88

quinoa (ijuinoa) 86

chicalote -. 209

chickweed (Stellaria media)....139, 142

chickweed 130

jagged 133

mountain 140

mouse-ear 130

chives (Allium schoenoprasum) 15, 19

Siberian (A. s. sibiricum) ... 15, 19

Chlorogalum pomeridianum

(amole soapplant) 25

Chorizanthe 64

palmeri (Palmer

spineflower) 64

staticoides (Turkish-rug) .... 64
240 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

Christmas-fern (Polystichum

acrostichoides) 9

Christmasrose (Helleborus

niger) 45,154

Christmas-rose 206

Chrysocoptis occidentalis 170

Chrysogonuni (goldenstar) .... 20

cigaretteplant 68

Ciniicifuga (bugbane) 169

arizonica (Arizona b.) 169

elata (tall b.) 169

laciniata (cutleaf b.) 169

racemosa (cohosh b.) 169

Cladonia rangiferina

(reindeermoss) 2

Cladothrix 104

lanuginosa 104

oblongifolia 104

suffruticosa 105

Claytonia (springbeauty) 117, 119, 223

asarifolia _. 119

bellidifolia 118

chamissoi 120

lanceolata (lanceleaf s.) 117

linearis 120

megarrhiza (alpine s.) 118

inidtiscapa 117

perfoliata 120

sibirica --_ 120

Clematis (clematis) 148

douglasii 149

hirsutissima (Douglas c.) - - 149

clematis, hairy 149

cliffbrake (Pellaea) 12

Clinlonia (beadlily) 23

cloakfern (Notholaena) 8, 12

bulb (N. sinuata) 8

Clubmoss family 5

cockle, spring 213

cockscomb (Celosía argéntea).. 99

cohosh, black 169

Colchicum autuninale (autumncrocus) 13

columbine (Aquilegia) 161

Altai (A, glandulosa) 162

American (A, canadensis). . 161

California (A. formosa) 166

Canada (A, canadensis) 161

Colorado (A. caerulea) 162,163

white (A. caerulea

ochroleuca) 164

European (A. vulgaris) 162

golden (A. chrysantha) 162, 164

Hinckley (A. hinckleyana) 161

longspur (A, longissima) 161

Sitka (A. formosa) 165

Skinner (A. skinneri) 162

Utah (A. scopulorutn).. 166

westernred (A. elegantula).. 164

yellow (A, flavescens) 165

Yukon (A. brevistyla) 161

Commicarpus scandens

(gumseed) 116

Page

Convallaria majalis (lily-of-thevalley) '4

Convolvulus jalapa HI

copa de oro 212

Coptidium 190

Coptis (goldthread) 169

groenlandica 170

laciniata (cutleaf g.) 170

occidentalis (western g.) 170

trifolia (common g.) 170

groenlandica (Greenland

g.) 170

eordgrass, alkali (Spartina

gracilis) 94

Corispermum (tickseed) 90, 101

hyssopifolium (hyssopleaf t.) 90

nitidum (shiny t.) 90

cornbind 72

corncockle (Agrostemma) 123

common (A. githago) 123

cornlily 45

corn, wild - - 45

Corrigiolaceae 123

Corydalis (corydalis) 216

aurea (golden c.) 217

occidentalis (mountain c.) 217

brachycarpa 218

brandegei 218

caseana (fitweed c.) 217,218

brachycarpa (Utah c.) 218

brandegei (Brandegee c.) 218

cusickii (Cusick c.) 218

hastata (Idaho c.) 218

cusickii 218

hastata 218

montana 217

scouleri (Scouler c.) 219

cottonweed (Diotis

candidissirna) 102

cow-cabbage 45

cowcockle (Vaccaria; V.

segetalis) 130, 131

cowherb 131

cowslip 167

cranesbill 155

creamcups (Platystemon

californiens) 207, 215

Crithmum inaritimum

(samphire) 95

Crocidium (goldstar) 20

crocus (Crocus) 14, 56

saffron (C. sativas) 14

crowfoot 190

cursed 190

desert 198, 200

water 198, 201

crowpoison (Ammianthiutn) .. 42

Crunocallis 119

chamissonis 120

Cycloloma (ringwing)

atriplicifolium (tumble r.)- 90

Cymbalaria muralis

(Kenilworth-ivy) 198
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 241

Page

Cyphomeris gypsophiloides .... 116

Cypripediutn (ladyslipper) . _ 62

calceolus (European 1.) 62

parviflorum (small yellow

1.) 62

parviflorum 62

Cyrtorhynca 190

Cystopteris (bladderfern) 12

Danesblood 147

Dasylirion (sotol) 27

Datura (datura) 107

arbórea (floripondio d.) 107

suaveolens (angeltears d.) - 107

daylily (Hemerocallis) 26

Daylily tribe 26

deathcamas (Zigadenus) 13, 16, 28, 32,

37, 38, 42, 49, 59,187

Atlantic (Z. glaberrimus) 50

foothill (Z. paniculatus) ... 51, 53, 54

Fremont (Z. fremontii) 55

grassy (Z. grainineus) 51, 52

meadow (Z. venenosas) 50, 53, 55, 58

mountain (Z, elegans) 51, 52

panicled 53

white (Z. glaucas) 52

deerfern (Strathiopteris

spicant) 12

deerfoot 206

Delphinium (larkspur) 154, 171

abietorum 187

ajacis (rocket 1.) 171

andersonii (Anderson 1.) 180

attenuatum 182,184

barbeyi (Barbey 1.) 173,182,184

bicolor (little 1.) -174,175,178, 180

brownii (Browns 1.) 171, 186

chaniissonis (Chamisso 1.).... 171

cockerellii 182,184

columbianum 177

cucullatum 188

decorum (yellowtinge 1.) 174

patens 177

tracyi (Tracy 1.) 176

depauperatum (slim 1.) 174, 177,

178,181

diversifolium (slender 1.) - 181

harneyense (Harney 1.)... 181

geyeri (Geyer 1.) 189

glaucum (Sierra 1.) 173, 186

luteum (Sonoma 1.) 181

menziesii (Menzies 1.)-178, 179, 180

pyramidale 178

multiflorum 187

nelsonii (Nelson 1.) 178,180

pinetorum (forma) 178

nudicaule (orange I.) 181

luteum 181

nuttallii (Columbia 1.) 177

nuttallianam (Nuttall 1.) 174, 177,

178,181

occidentale (duncecap 1.)--- 187

cucullatum 188

Page

Delphinium (larkspur)—Continued

qaercicola 188

patens (spreading 1.) 176

pauciflorum 178

pinetorum 178

quercetorum 188

reticulatum 187

robustum (giant 1.) 188

scaposum (barestem 1.) 181

scopulorum (Wright 1.) 182,183

glaucum 186

stachydeum 182,189

subalpinuni .182, 184

stachydeum (thickspike) .182, 189

staphisagria (stavesacre 1.) - 174

subalpinum 182,184

Dendromecon (bushpoppy) .... 208

desertlily (Hesperocallis

andalata) 25

desert-trumpet (Eriogonum

inflatam) 67

devils-bouquet 107

Dianthus (pink; carnation) ....123,130

135

armería (Deptford p.) 130

barbotas (sweetwilliam) 123

caryophyllus (carnation;

clove p.) 123,130

Dicentra (bleedingheart) 219

canadensis (squirrelcorn) ... 220, 221

chrysantha (gold-eardrops) 220

cucallaria (Dutchmansbreeches) 219, 220

occidentalis 222

eximia (fringed b.) 222

formosa (Pacific b.) 222

occidentalis 222

spectabilis (common b.) 220,222

uniflora (steershead) 223

Dichelostemma 21

capitatum 22

Diotis candidissima

(cottonweed) 163

Dipterostemon 21

capitatus 22

Disporum (fairybells) 23

Distichlis (saltgrass) 94

dock (Rumex) 83

curly (R. crispus) 83

Mexican (R, mexicanus) 84

veiny (R. venosas) 84

western (R. occidentalis) 84

willow (R. salicifolius) 84

dogtooth-violet - 33

Dondia 97

depressa 97

diffusa 98

erecta 97

nigra 98

doorweed 79

Dracaena (dracaena) 27

draco (dragontree) 27

dracaena, dragon 27
242 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

Dracaena subfamily .— 27

Dracaenoideae 13, 27

dragontree (Dracaena draco).. 27

drugsquill (Urginea) - 14, 27

India (V. indica) 14, 28

shore (U. marítima) 14, 27

Drymaria (drymary) 131

cordata 132

crassifolia 132

holosteoides 132

pachyphylla (thickleaf d.)-132, 133

Dryopteris (woodfern) 8

filix-mas (malefern) ._ 8

marginalis (leather w.) 8

Dutchmans-breeches (Dicentra

cucullaria) 219, 220

Easter-flower

Echinopsilon (fívehook)

hyssopifolium (hyssopleaf

f.)

ecopa

Edwinia

elder, European (Sambucas

nigra)

elkfern

elkgrass

elkslip

Emex spinosa (spiny emex),.-

Equisetaceae

Equisetum (horsetail; scouringrush)

arvense (field h.)

hyemale (common scouringrush)

affine

robustum

kansanum (Kansas h.)

laevigatum (smooth h.)

palustre (marsh h.)

praealtum (stout scouringrush)

pratense (meadow h.)

robustum

variegatum (variegated h.)-

Eremocrinum albomarginatum

(eremocrinum)

Eriogonum (eriogonum)

alatum (wing e.)

caespitosum (mat e.)

cernuum (nodding e.)

compositum (northern e.)--

elatum (rush e.)

flavum (yellow e.)

piperi

heracleoides (Wyeth e.)

inflatum (desert-trumpet) ..

jamesii (James e.)

neglectum (Greene e.)

nudum (barestem e.)

ovalifolium (cushion e.,

ovalleaf e.)

pharnaceoides (wirestem e.)

147

90

26

69

159

12

38

167

64

2

3

3

5

5

5

5

5

4

5

4

5

5

25

64,65

66

68

66,67

72

68

68,69

69

72,73

67

69

72

69,70

69,70

68

Paee

Eriogonum (eriogonum)—Continued

piperi (Piper e.) 69

polycladon (sorrel e.) 67

proliferum (scragglytop e.) 71

racemosum (redroot e.) 70, 71

stellatum (longray e.) 72

subalpinum (subalpine e.)-- 72

umbellatum (sulfur e.) 70,71

stellatum 72

vimineum (broom e.) 67

Erocallis 118

Erythronium (fawnlily) 26,32

dens-canis (dogtooth f.) 33

giganteum 33

grandiflorum (lambstongue

f.) 33, 34

pallidum 33

parviflorum. 33

parviflorum, 33

Eschscholzia (goldpoppy) 207, 208, 210

culifornica (Californiapoppy) 212, 215

crocea 213

mexicana (Mexican g.) 213,214

minutiflora (little g.)-

parvula

Eulophia (eulophia)

Eurotia (winterfat)

everlasting

Exogonium jalapa (jalap)

purga

Fagopyrum (buckwheat)

esculentum (common b.)

sagittatum

fairybells (Disporum)

fairylantern

false-bugbane (Trautvetteria

caroliniensis)

falsegarlic (Nothoscordum)

yellow (N. bivalve)

Texas (!\, texanum)

false-hellebore (Veratrum) „13,

American (V. viride) 45

Eschscholtz (V.

eschscholtzii)

fringed (V. fimbriatum)

western (V. californicum) 45,

white (V. album)

False-hellebore tribe

false-Solomonseal

fameflower (Talinum)

narrowleaf (T.

angustissimum)

orange (T. aurantiacum) ....

fawnlily (Erythronium)

dogtooth (E. dens-canis)

lambstongue (E.

grandiflorum)

featherbell

212

213

62

85

103

111

111

64

64

64

23

29,31

153

21

21

21

14,37,

42,44

,48,49

49

49

46, 48,

49

45

42

23

122

123

123

26,32

33

33,34

44
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 243

featherfleece (Stenanthiuiii

robustutn) .,

femme

ferns

Ferula cominunis (common

giantfennel)

fitweed

fívehook (Echinopsilon)

hyssopleaf (E.

hyssopifolium)

flag

flag-lily

Flammula

fleeceflower

pokeweed (Polygonum

phytolaccaefoliuni)

fleur-de-lis

floral-firecracker (Brevoortia

ida-maia)

food, mountain (Oreobroma)..

four-o'clock (Mirabilis)

Bigelow (M. bigelovii)

Colorado (M. multiflora)

common (M. jalapa) ._ 105,

longtube (M, longiflora) ....

trailing

umbrellawort (M,

oxybaphoides)

Wright (M. longiflora

tcrightiana)

Four-o'clock family

Fritillaria (fritillary)

atropurpúrea (purplespot f.)

meleagris (checkered f.)

púdica (yellow f.)

Froelichia (snakecotton)

arizonica (Arizona s.)

campestris

floridana (Florida s.)

campestris (plains s.)

gracilis (slender s.)

Fumaria officinalis (fumitory)

Fumariaceae

fumitory (Fumaria officinalis)

Fumitory family

funnel-lily (Androstephium) .

blue (A, caeruleum)

purple (A, breviflorum)

Page

43

151

7-11

41

218

90

56

56

148

72

80,81

56

23

118

105,111

111

112,113

111,112

112

108

112

112

105

34

35

34,35

35,36

102

102

102

102

102

102

216

216

216

216

20

20

20

garlic (Allium sativum). 15

Canada (A, canadense) 15

field (A. vineale) 15

meadow .. 15

Geranium (geranium) 155

viscosissimuni (sticky g.) 185

geranium., feather 86

geranium, wild 155,171

giantfennel (Ferula) 41

common (F. communis) 41

Gilmania luteola (goldcarpet) 64

glacierlily 33

Gladiolus (gladiolus) 56

glasswort (Salicornia) 85, 94

Pace

glasswort (Salicornia)—Continued

marshfirc (S. europaea) .. 94

Rocky Mountain (S. rubra) . 94

Utah (S, utahensis) 94

globe-amaranth (Gomphrena) 99, 103

common (G. globosa) . 103

shining (G. nitida) 103

Sonora (G. sonorae) 103

tufted (G. caespilosa) 103

globeflower (Trollius) 202

American (T, laxus) 202

white (T. albiflorus) 202

globetidip _ 29

goldcarpet (Gilmania luteola) 64

gold-eardrops (Dicentra

chrysantha) 220

goldenseal (Hydrastis

canadensis) 143

goldpoppy (Eschscholzia) 207, 208, 210

little (E. minutiflora) 212

Mexican (E. mexicana) 213, 214

goldstar (Crocidium) 20

goldenstar (Chrysogonum) .... 20

goldenstars 20

goldthread (Coptis) 169

common (C. trifolia) 170

cutleaf (C. laciniata) 170

Greenland (C. trifolia

groenlandica)

western (C. occidentalis) ...

Gomphrena (globe-amaranth)

caespitosa (tufted g.-a.)

globosa (common g>-a.)

nitida (shining g.-a.)

sonorae (Sonora g.-a.)

Good King Henry (Chenopodiuin bonus-henricus)

goosefoot (Chenopodium) 85, 86

dark (C. atrovirens) 86

blite 89

Fremont (C. fremontii) 86

Jerusalem-oak (C. botrys) 86

lambsquarters (C. album) 86,87,88

raggedleaf (C. incisuni) 88

slimleaf (C. leptophyllum)

white -

wormseed (C. amhrosioides

and var.

"anthelminticum")

Goosefoot family

Grayia (hopsage)

greasewood (Sarcobatus)

greenbrier (Smilax)

California (S. californica)

laurel (S. laurifolia)

greenmolly

grenouillet

groundcedar (Lycopodium

complanatum)

groundpine (hycopodium

obscurum)

grouseweed

gumjoint (Anulocaulis)

170

170

99,103

103

103

103

103

86

86

86

85

85

85

55

55

55

93

190

6

65

116
244 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

gumseed (Comnticarpus

scandens) 116

gunaninpil 108

Gypsophila paniculata

(babysbreath) 123

hakshi—chekpa-walicka 147

Halerpestes 190

cynibalaria 198

Halogeton glomeratus

(halogeton) 91,92

hartshorn 147

hatechi 88

headache-plant 147

Hellebore tribe 154

Helleboreae 154

Helleborus (hellebore) 44, 154

niger (Christmasrose; black

h.) 45,154

Orientalis (Lentenrose;

Oriental h.) 154

Helonias bullata (swamppink) 38, 42

Helonieae 38

Hemerocallideae 26

Hemerocallis (daylily) 26

herb-Paris (Paris) 26

Herb-Paris tribe 26

Hermidium alipes

(hermidium) _. 109

Hesperocallis undulata

(desertlily) 25

Hesperocnide (hesperocnide) 62

tenella (California h.) 62

Hesperonia 111

bigelovii 111

retrorsa 111

Hesperoscordum 21

hyacinthinum 23

lacteum 23

hogweed 100

Hollisteria lanata (hollisteria) 64

hollyfern, giant (Polystichutn

munitum) 9

hollygrape 206

Holosteum umbellatum

(holosteum) 133

Honkenya 128

oblongifolia 128

peploides (sea-purslane) __._ 128

major 128

oblongifolia 128

robusta 128

Hookera 21

capitata 22

coronaria 21,22

douglasii 22

hyacinthina 23

laxa __ 22

peduncularis 22

Hopiweed (Acanthochiton

ivrightii) 99

hopsage (Grayia) 85

horsetail (Equisetum.) 3

Page

horsetail (Equisetum)—Continued

field (E. arvense) 3

Kansas (E. kansanum) 5

marsh (E. palustre) 4

meadow (E. pratense) 4

smooth (E. laevigatum) 5

variegated (E. variegatum) . 5

Horsetail family 2

Hydastylas (hydastylus) - 56

Hydrastis canadensis

(goldenseal) 143

Illecebraceae 123

Indianlettuce (Montia) 119

asarumleaf (M. asarifolia) ... 119

Chamisso (M. chaniissoi) 120

lineleaf (M. linearis) 120

Siberian (M. sibirica) 120

Indian-potato 117

Indian-tobacco - 65, 72

inside-out-flower 207

Ipomoea

jalapa Ill

purga 111

Iresine (bloodleaf) 99, 103

herbstii (Herbst b.) 103

heterophylla (variable b.) - 103

lindenii (Linden b.) 103

Iridaceae 13, 56

Iris (iris) 13, 56

florentina 57

germánica (German i.) 57

florentina (orrisroot i.) . 57

hartwegii (foothill i,

Hartiveg i.) 59

macrosiphon (tube i,

ground i.) 59

niissouriensis (Rocky

Mountain i.) 57, 58

pallida (sweet i.) —. 57

pseudacorus (yellowflag i.)-- 57

Sierra 59

tenax (Oregon i.) _ 57

versicolor (blueflag i.) 57

virginica (Virginia i.) 57

Iris family 56

Isoprrum (isopyrum) 189

hallii (Halls i.) 189

occidentale (California i.) -- 189

stipitatum (Siskiyou i.) 189

jalap (Exogonium jalapa) 111

Jalapa 111

Jamesia 69

Jerusalon-oak 135

jimmyfern (ISotholaena sinuata

cochisensis) 9

Jumellea fragrans

(Bourbontea) 62

jump-up-and-kiss-me 122

Kenilworth-ivy (Cymbalaria

muralis) 198
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 245

Page

knotgrass 79

knotweed (Polygonutn) 64, 72, 74

box (P. buxiforme) 79

Davis (P. davisiae) 82

Douglas (P. doiiglasii) 77

mountain (P. inontanutn).... 77

Newberry (P. netvberryi) 82

prostrate (P. aviculare) 79

Saguache (P, satvatchense).. 79

shore 79

Kochia (kochia) 85,91

americana (greenmolly k.)__ 93

americana califarnica 93

americana vestita 93

californica (California k.) - 93

scoparia (summercypress) ._ 93

vestita (gray k., hairy k.).... 93

Kruhsea (kruhsea) 23

ladyfern (Athyrium filixfemina) 8

ladyslipper (Cypripediutn) 62

European (C. calceolus) 62

small yellow (C. c.

parviflorum) 62

ladysthumb (Polygonum, sec.

Persicaria in part) 72

bigroot (Pol. inuhlenbergii) 80

princesplume (P. orientale) 79

spotted (P. persicaria) 80

water (P. amphibium) 79

Laothoë pomeridiana 25

larkspur (Delphinium) 154, 171

Anderson (D, andersonii).... 180

Barbey (D. barbeyi).... 113, 182, 184

barestem (D. scaposum) 181

Browns (D. brotcnii) 171,186

Chamisso (D. chamissonis).. 171

Columbia (D. nuttalUi) 177

duncecap (D. occidentale). 187

Geyer (D. geyeri) 189

giant (D. robustum) 188

Harney (D. diversifolium

harneyense) 181

little (D. bicolor; .174,175,178,180

Menzies (D. menziesii)..nS, 179,180

Nelson (D. nelsonii) 178,180

Nuttall (D.

nuttallianum) 174,177, 178

orange (D. nudicaule) 181

plains 189

rocket (D. ajacis) 171

Sierra (D. glaucum) 173, 186

slender (D. diversifolium)... 181

slim (D. depauperatum) 174, 177

Sonoma (D. lutem) 181

spreading (D. patens) 176

spring 178

stavesacre (D. staphisagria) 174

tall mountain 182

thickspike (D. stachydeum) 182, 189

Tracy (D. decorum

tracyi) 176

Page

larkspur (Delphinium)—Continued

Wright (D. scopulorum) .182, ÍS3

yellowtinge (D, decorum) .. 176

larkspurs

low 174

medium 180

spring ...174, 177, 180

tall 180,182

Lastarriaea chilensis

(lastarriaea) 64

leatherflower (Viorna sec. of

Clematis) 148

leatherflower, Douglas 149

leek (Allium porrum) 15

lily (A, moly) 15

Lentenrose (Helleborus

Orientalis) 154

Lepidium 116

Leucocrinum montanum

(common starlily) 26

Lewisia (Lewisia) 118

pygmaea (least 1.) 118

rediviva (bitterroot) 118, 119

licorice-fern (Polypodium

glycyrrhiza) 9

Liliaceae 12

Lilioideae 27

Lilium (lily) 35

columbianum (Columbia 1.) 36

ingramii (Ingram Columbia

I.) 36

rubescens (chaparral 1.) 36

tigrinum 35

Washingtonianum

(Washington 1.)

lily (Lilium)

chamise

37

35

36

36

36

36

36

36

36

36

37

37

12

14

27

Limnia 118,119

asarifolia 119

perfoliata 120

lipfern (Cheilanthes) 12

little boy's breeches 220

Lloydia serótina (alplily) 37

lobelias 50

Loeflingia (loeflingia) 134

squarrosa 134

love-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus

caudatus) 100

chaparral (L. rubescens)

Columbia (L. columbianum)

Columbia tiger

Ingram Columbia (L.

columbianum)

lilac

Oregon

redwood

Shasta

Washington (L.

washingtonianum)

Lily family

lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria

majalis)

Lily subfamily .
246 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

Lychnis (campion) 134, 135

drummondii (Drummond c.) 135

flos-cuculi (ragged-robin) .. 135

Lycopodiaceae —. 5

Lycopodiutn (clubmoss) „ 6

clavatum (runningpine) 6

complanatum (groundcedar) 6

flabellifornie 6

obscuruin (groundpine) 6

Lysichituni (yellow-skunkcabbage) 45

americanum (American

y.-s.) 45

canitschatcense (Kamtchatka

y.-s.) 45

Macleaya (plumepoppy) 208

Macroscapa 21

Mahonia (mahonia) 206

Maiantheinutn (beadruby) 13, 23

maidenhair (Adiantum

pedatum) 7

malefern (Dryopteris filixmas) - -- 8, 12

manyseed 134

marigold (Tagetes) 166

mariposa (Calochortus) -13, 29, 51, 52

broadfruit (C. nitidus) 32

Cunnison (C. guniiisonii) 30, 31

Northwestern (C. c/egan«;. 29, 30, 31

sagebrush (C. macrocarpus) 31

skyblue (C. coeruleus) 29, 30, 48

Mariposa-lily __.. 29

mariposa-tidip — 29

marshmarigold (Caltha) 166, 182

common (C. paluslris) 166, 168

elkslip (C. leptosepala) 167, 168

Howell (C. biflora hoicellii) 167

roundleaf (C. leptosepala

rotundifolia) 167

twinflower (C. biflora) 167

marvel-of-Peru „105, 111

Matilija-poppy (Romneya

coulteri) 208

mayapple (Podophyllum) 206

mayflower 147

meadowrue (Thalictrum) 150, 189

alpine (T. alpinum) 151

bigfruit (T. macrocarpum) . 151

dusty (T. rugosum) 151

early (T. dioicum) 151

Fendler (T. fendleri) 151

low (T. minus) 150

Sierra (T. polycarpum) 151

snoutseed (T.

rhynchocarpuni) 151

veiny (T. venulosuni) 151

western (T. occidentale) 153

yellow (T. flavum) 151

Meconella 208

Melandriiim 135

Melanthiaceae 37

Page

Melanthioideae 13,37

Melanthium (bunchflower) —. 42

Mexican-star (Milla biflora) - 20

Mexican-tea 86

Milla biflora (Mexican-star) 20

minerslettuce (Montia

perfoliata) 120

Minuartia 124

Mirabilis (four-o'clock) 105, 111

bigelovii (wishboneplant,

Bigelow f.) 111

retrorsa 111

hirsuta 114

jalapa (common f.) 105,111,112

linearis siibhispida 114

longiflora (longtube f.) 112

wrightiana (Wright f.) . 112

multiflora (Colorado f.) 112, 113

oxybaphoides (umbrellawort

f.) 112

retrorsa 111

wrightiana 112

Moehringia (moehringia) . 41, 128, 129

lateriflora (bluntleaf m.) 129

macrophylla (longleaf m.) 129, 138

molly, gray 93

molly, green 93

tnoly _ 15

monkshood (Aconitum) .154, 171, 185

aconite (A. napellus) .. 154, 155, 158

Baker (A. bakeri) 158

Columbia (A,

columbianunt) 155, 156

Monolepis (monolepis) 93

nuttalliana (Nuttall m.) 93

moonpod (Selinocarpus) 116

Montia (Indianlettuce) 117, 119

asarifolia (asarumleaf I.) ... 119

chamissoi (Chamisso 1.) 120

chamissonis 120

linearis (lineleaf I.) 120

perfoliata (minerslettuce) .. 120

sibirica (Siberian I.) 120

Montiastriim 119

lineare 120

Moraceae 62

mountainhell 44

mountainfringe (Adlumia) .... 219

mountainlily 26

mountainsorrel (Oxyria)

alpine (O. digyna) 84

mouse-ear 130

mousetail (Myosurus) 149

Muhlenbergia asperifolia

(alkali muhly) 94

muhly, alkali (Muhlenbergia

asperifolia) 94

Muilla (muilla) 20

niaritima (sea m.) 21

Myosurus (mousetail) 149

Naiocrene 119
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 247

Page

ISartheciuin (bog-aspliodel) 37, 41, 42

californicuin (California

b.-a.) 41

ISetnacaulis denúdala

(wooUyheads) 64

ISemastylis (nemastylis) 56

Netnexia lasioneiiron 55

ISephrolepis (swordfern) 9

nettle (Vrtica) 62

bigsting (U. dioica) 62, 64

blunttooth (U.

chaniaedryoides) 62

dog (V. urens) 62

Lyall (V. lyallii) 62, 64

narrowleaf (V. gracilis) 62

Roman (U. pilulifera) 64

Nettle family 62

nigger-babies 60

niterwort (Dlitrophila

occidentttlis) 94

ISitrophila 85

occidentalis (niterwort) 94

ISolina (nolina) 27

micTOcarpa (sacahuista) .. 27

Nolina tribe — 27

Nolineae 27

Nostoc (nostoc) 2

Notholaena (cloakfern) 8, 12

cochisensis 9

sinuata (bulb c.) 8

cochisensis (jimmyfern) .. 9

crenata 9

integerrima 9

Mothoscordum (falsegarlic) .... 21

bivalve (yellow f.) 21

texanuin (Texas f.) 21

Nyctaginaceae 105

l\yctaginia capitata 107

Obione suckleyana 98

Ochrocodon pudicus 35

Odontostomum hartwegii

(odontostomum) 25

Odostemon 206

Okenia 105

Olsynium " 56, 59

douglasii 60

onion (Àllium) 14, 51, 52

alpine meadow 15

blueglobe (A. caeruleum) 15

Brandegee (A. brandegei) 19

dusky (A, cantpanulatuni) .. 19

garden (A. cepa) 15

Geyer (A. geyeri) 19

Idaho (A. fibrillum)..... 18

Kunth (A. kunthii) 19

large 15

Naples (A, neapolitanuni) ,. 15

nodding (A, cernuum) 16, 17

Pacific (A. validunt) 15

serrate (A. serratum) 19

shortstyle (A, brevislylum) 15

sickleleaf (A. falcifolium).... 19

Pace

onion (Allium)—Continued

swamp . 15

tall 15

tapertip (A, acuminatum). . 15

textile (A. textile) 19

Tolmie (A. tolniiei) 19

twincrest (A. bisceptrum) . 19

twinleaf (A, anceps) 19

Onion subfamily 14

Onion tribe 14

Orchid family 61

Orchidaceae 61

Orchis (orchis) 62

Oreobroma 118

g7-ayi 118

pygmaeum 118

Oreolirion 56, 59

Orogenia 223

Oxybaphus (umbrellawort) 105,107,114

angustifoliiis 114, 115

coccínea (scarlet u.)-

comatus (sticky u.)

hirsutas (hairy u.)

linearis (narrowleaf u.).

decipiens

subhispida

melanotrichiis

Oxyria (mountainsorrel)

digyna (alpine m.)

reniformis

Oxytria

116

114

114

114

114

114

114

84

85

26

Paeonieae 203

Paeonia (peony) 182, 203

albiflora 203

arbórea 203

brownii (Browns p.) 203,206

californica 206

californica (California p.) - - 206

edulis 203

fragrans 203

lactiflora (common p.) 203

moutan 203

officinalis (drug p.) 203

suffruticosa (tree p.) 203

Papaver (poppy) 208, 209, 216

californicum (mission p.) --- 215

heterophyllwm 215

sonxniferum (opium p.) 208,215

Papaveraceae 207

Parideae 26

Parietaria (pellitory) 62

officinalis (wall p.) 62

Paris (herb-Paris) 26

Parmelia molliuscula

(bareground parmelia) ... 2

parsnip, poison 69

pasqueflower (Pulsatilla) 147,197

American (P. ludoviciana)... 147

European (P. vulgaris) 148

spreading (P. patens) 147

patota 94
248 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OP AGRICULTURE

pearlwort (Sagina) „ .„.

arctic (S. saginoides)-...

Pellaea (cliffbrake)

pellitory (Parietaria)

wall (P, officinalis)

peony (Paeonia)

Page

133

133

12

62

62

182

Browns (P. brotvnii) 203, 206

California (P. californica).... 206

common (P. lactiflora) 203

drug (P. officinalis) 203

tree (P. suffruticosa) 203

Peony tribe 203

pepperplant 79

Persicaria 72, 74, 79

amphibia 79

maculosa 80

mitis 80

muhlenbergii 80

omissa 80

orientalis 79

persicaria 80

water 79

Perubalm, flatweed (Roubieva

multifida) 85

pheasant-eye 143

Phyllogonum luteoluni 64

pickleweed (Allenrolfea) 85

pigweed 86,100

pinelily 38

pink (Dianthus) 123, 130

clove (D. caryophyllus) 123, 130

Deptford (D. armería) 130

prass 130

pink 135

cushion 136

fringed Indian 137

Pink family 123

Pisonia 105

Platystemon (platystemon) ...207, 208

californicus (creamcups) ... 207, 215

plumepoppy (Macleaya) 208

Podophyllum (mayapple) 206

poison-camases 50

poison-segos 50

poison-soaproots 50

polycarp __ 134

Polycarpon (allseed) 134

depressum (California a.)-- 134

tetrap/iyiium (fourleaf a.).... 134

Polygonaceae 64, 65

Polygonatae 23

Polygonatum (Solomonseal) .. 20,23

Polygonum (knotweed) 64, 72, 74

ainphibiutn (water

ladysthumb) 79

aviculare (prostrate k.) 79

aviculare huxiforme 79

bistorta (European bistort).. 75

bistortoides (American

bistort) 75, 76

buxiforme (box k.) 79

davisiae (Davis k.)... 82

Page

Polygonum (knotweed)—Continued

douglasii (Douglas k.) 77,78,79

douglasii latifolium 77

douglasii montanum 77

emersum, 80

montanum (mountain k.) - 77

muhlenbergii (bigroot

ladysthumb) 80

neivberryi (Newberry k.) 82

oniissum (glandular

smartweed) 80

orientale ( princesplume

ladysthumb) 79

persicaria (spotted

ladysthumb) 80

phytolaccaefolium (pokeweed

fleeceflower) 80, 81

saivatchense (Saguache k.)- 79

viviparum (viviparous

bistort) 75

Polypodiaceae 7

Polypodium (polypody) 9

glycyrrhiza (licorice-fern) .. 9

occidentale 9

vulgäre occidentale 9

Polypody family 7

Polystichum (hollyfern) 9

acrostichoides (Christmasfern) 9

munitum (giant h.) 9

poppy (Papaver) 208, 209, 216

mission (P, californicum) .. 215

opium (P. sontniferum) 208,215

Poppy family 207

poppy, thistle 209

Portulaca (portulaca) 116, 121

grandiflora (common por.)- 121

olerácea (purslane) 121

pilosa (shaggy por.) 122

retusa (Southwestern

purslane) 121

suffrutescens (shrubby por.) 122

Portulaca family 116

Portulacaceae 116

powderhorn 130

pricklepoppy (Argemone) 208, 209

crested (A. platyceras) 209, 210, 211

hedgehog (A. platyceras

hispida) 210

intermediate (A, intermedia) 209

Mexican (A. mexicana) 209

primrose, cowslip (Primula

veris) 167

Primula veris (cowslip

primrose) 167

princess-feather (Amaranthus

hybridus

hypochondriacus) 100

Psioltaceae 5

Pteridaceae 7

Pteridium (bracken) 10

aquilinum (bracken) 10

íatiuscuíum (eastern b.).... 10
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 249

Page

Pteridium (bracken)—Continued

pubescens (western b.) 10, 11

latiuscidinn _ 10

Pteris aquilina 10

Pterostegia drymarioides

(pterostegia) 64

Pulsatilla (pasqueflower) 147,197

hirsutissima 147

ludoviciana (American p.) -- 147

nuttalliana ...- 147

occidentalis 147

patens (spreading p.) 147

viilgaris (European p.) 148

ivolfgangiana 147

purple-creeper 108

purslane (Portulaca olerácea) 121, 122

Southwestern (P. retasa) 121

pusley 121

piisley, hog 121

pussy-ears 29, 30, 31

pussypaws (Spraguea) 122

common (S. utnbellata) 122

Quamasia 28, 50

quamash 28

Quatnoclidion Ill

multiflorum 112, 113

oxybaphoides 112

quelito 101

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) 86

ragged-robin (Lychnis floscuculi) 135

ramie (Boehnieria nivea) 62

Ranunculaceae 44,143, 206

Ranunculus (buttercup) 190

abortivus (Uttleleaf b.) 197

acer 190,196

acris (tall b.) 190,196

adoneus (Adonis b.) 191

alceiis 198

alisniaefolius (plantainleaf

b.) 192

alismellus 194

hartwegii (Hartweg b.) 192

montanus 192

alismellus 194

alpeophiliis 200

andersonii (Anderson b.) 194

aquatilis (watercrowfoot b.) 201

capillaceus (hairleaf w. b.) 201

trichophylhis 201

arcuatus 195

asiáticas (Persian b.) 190

austinae 199

bongardii (Bongard b.) 195

tenellas 195

balbosus (bulbous b.) 202

californicus (California b.)-197, 198

caneatas 197

gratas 197

calthaeflorus 192

canus (hoary b.) 197, 198

Ranunculus (buttercup)—Continued

capillaceus 201

ciliosus 198

collomae (CoUom b.) 192

cymbalaria (shore b.) 198

alpinus 199

saxiinontanus 198

dissectus _ 197

douglasii 195

eisenii 198

ellipticus 199

eremogenes 200

eschscholtzii (Eschscholtz

b.) 191

eximias 192

eximius 192

flatnntula 191

filiformis 191

reptans 191

glaberrimus (sagebrush b.)-- 199

ellipticus 199

greenei 195

hartwegii 192

hispidus 196

oregayius 196

inamoenus (smallflower b.)-- 200

alpeophilus 200

latilobus 197

lyallii 195

tnacauleyi (McCauley b.) 200

macounii (Macoun b.) 196

oreganus (forma) 196

marmorarius 198

viaximus 201

viicropetalus 200

montanensis 198

occidentalis (western b.) 197

dissectas (Blue Mountains

b.) 198

eisenii (Eisen b.) 198

montanensis (Montana b.) 198

rattanii (Rattan b.) 198

ultramontanas (Elk

Mountain b.) 198

oreganus 196

orthorhyncus (straightbeak

b.) 201

alaschensis (Alaska s. b.) 201

platyphyllus (great s. b.) - 201

platyphyllus 201

politus 201

rattanii 198

recurvatus 195

rivularis 196

ruáis 196

saxícola 192

sceleratus (blister b.) 191,202

multifidus 200

tenellus 195

trichophylhis 201

7dtraino7itanus 198

ungiiiculatus 192

utahensis 200

waldronii 199
250 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

rarebell 45

redmaids (Calandrinia ciliata) 116

redroot 69,100,101

redsage 93

Mohave 93

redshanks 79

reina-de-la-noche 107

reindeermoss (Cladonia

rangiferina) 2

renoncule 190

Rheum (rhubarb) 65, 150

palmatuni (sorrel r.) 65

rhaponticum (garden r.) 65, 150

rhubarb (Rheum) 65, 150

garden (R. rhaponticum) 65, 150

sorrel (R. palmatum) 65

rhubarb

poor-man's

monk's

riceroot _

richweed

ringwing (Cycloloma)

tumble (C. atriplicifolium)..

rocklily

rockpurslane (Calandrinia) .„.

Romneya coulteri (Matilijapoppy)

Roubieva multifida (flatweed

Perubalm)

rue-anemone (Anemonella

thalictroides)

rue-anemone

rue, common (Ruta

graveolens)

Rumex (dock)

acetosella (sheep sorrel)

crispus (curly d.)

hymenosepalus (canaigre) ..

mexicanus (Mexican d.)

occidentalis (western d.)

paucifolius (mountain

sorrel)

salicifolius (willow d.)

venosus (veiny d.)

runningpine (Lycopodium

clavatum)

rushlily (Schoenolirion)

Russian-thistle (Salsola; S.

kali) 85,

Ruta graveolens (common rue)

sabadilla (Schoenocaulon)

drug (S. officinale)

Drummond (S.

drummondii)

pinelands (S. dubium)..^^

Sabadilla officinarum

sacahuista (Nolina

microcarpa)

sage, antelope

sagelily _

Sagina (pearlwort)

linnaei

.14

150

151

34

169

90

147

116

208

85

189

189

150

64,83

83

83

83

84

84

83

84

84

6

25

95,101

150

, 38, 43

14,43

43

43

43

27

69

26

133

133

Page

Sagina (pearlwort)—Continued

saginoides (arctic p.) 133

hesperia 133

sandverbena (Abronia) 105

redstem (A. elliptica) 106

snowball (A. fragrans) 106

yellow (A. latifolia) 106

St. Bernard-lily (Anthericum

liliago) 25

Salsola (Russian-thistle) 85,95,101

kali (Russian-thistle)

tenuifolia

pestifer

tragus

saltbush (Atriplex)

saltgrass (Distichlis)

Sambucas nigra (European

elder)

samphire (Crithmum

maritimum)

samphire

97

95

95

97

85

94

159

95

95

Salicornia (glasswort) 85, 94

europaea (marshfire g.) 94

rubra (Rocky Mountain g.) 94

utahensis (Utah g.) 94

sandbell (Ammocodon

chenopodioides) 116

sandcorn 53

sandlily 26

sandpuffs (Tripterocalyx) 106

sandspurry (Sperguiaría) 134

red (S. rubra) 134

sandwort (Arenaria) 124

ballhead (A. congesta) 125, 127

Burke (A. burkei) 126

Fendler (A. fendleri) 127

fescue (A. formosa) 127

Nuttall (A. nuttallii) 128

prickly (A. aculeata) 125

Siberian (A. sajanensis) 128

Uinta (A. uintahensis) 125

Saponaria (soapwort) 130, 131

officinalis (bouncingbet) .... 130

vaccaria 131

Sarcobatus (greasewood) 85

sarsaparilla (Smilax in part)

drug (S. officinalis) 56

Jamaica (S. regelii) 14

Mexican (S.

aristolochiaefolia) 14, 56

Schoenocaulon (sabadilla) ... 14, 38, 43

drummondii (Drummond s.) 43

dubium (pinelands s.) 43

gracile 43

officinale (drugs.) 14,43

Schoenolirion (rushlily) 25

Scilla (squill) 27

indica 28

marítima 14. 27

Scilleae 27

Scoliopus (skunklily) 26
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE PORBS 251

Page

scouring-rush

common (Equisetum

hyetnale) 5

giant 5

stout (E. praealtum) 5

scurvygrass 85

sea-blite 97

sea-blite, Pursh's 97

sea-onion (Urginea) 14, 27

sea-purslane (Honkenya

peploides) 128

secconiaria 131

seepweed (Suaeda) 97

black (S. nigra) 98

Pursh (S. depressa) 97

sego-lily (Calochortus nuttallii) 32, 52

selinocarpus (moonpod) 116

chenopodioideg 116

Senckenhergia 116

Senkenbergia 116

gypsophiloides 116

shallot (Allium ascalonicum).. 15

shieldfern, marginal 8

Silène (silène) 135

acaulis (moss s.) 135

antirrhina (sleepy s.) 136

douglasii (Douglas s.) 137

multicaulis 136

hookeri (Hooker s.) 137

ingramii (Ingram s.) 137

laciniata (Mexican s.) 137

lyallii (Lyall s.) 137

menziesii (Menzies s.) 138

multicaulis 137

Oregano (Oregon s.) 139

scouleri (Scouler s.) 139

silverplant 69, 71

Sisyrinchium (blue-eyedgrass) 56, 59

anceps 59

angustifolium (common

b.-e.) 59

bellum (California b.-e.) 60

douglasii (Douglas b.-e.) 60

gram,ineum, 59

grandiflorum 60

halophilum (alkali b.-e.). 61

idahoenge (Idaho b.-e.) 60

occidentale (Montana b.-e.) 61

radicatum (sticky-pod b.-e.) 60

skookumroot 203

skunkeabbage 45

skunkcabbage (Symplocarpus

foetidus) 45

skunklily (Scoliopu») — 26

skylark (Alauda arvensis) 171

smartweed - 79

smartweed, glandular

(Polygonum omissum) .... 80

Sïïnilacina (Solomonplume) _.„ 23

amplexicaulis (fat S.) 24

Smilacoideae 55

Page

Smilax (smilax; greenbrier).. 14, 55

aristolochiaefolia (mexican

sarsaparilla) 14, 56

californica (California sm.;

California g.) 55

herbácea (carrionflower) .... 55

lasioneuron (woollynerve

c.) 55

lasioneuron 55

laurifolia (laurel sm. ;

laurel g.) 55

macrocarpa (Java sm.) 56

m.edica 14, 56

officinalis (drug

sarsaparilla) 56

regeln (Jamaica

sarsaparilla) 14

zeylanica (Ceylon sm.) 56

Smilax 20, 23

Smilax subfamily 55

smotherweed 90

snakecotton (Froelichia) 102

Arizona (F. arizonica) 102

Florida (F. floridana) 102

plains (F, floridana

campestris) 102

slender (F. gracilis) 102

snake-lily 56

snakeroot, black 169

snow-in-summer (Cerastiutn

tomentosum) 129

soapgrass 38

soapplant (Chlorogalum) 25

amole (C. pomeridiana) 25

soapwort (Saponaria) 130, 131

cow 131

Solomonplume (Smilacina) 23

fat (S. amplexicaulis) 24

Solomonseal (Polygonatum) .. 20, 23

Solomonseal tribe 23

Soma yem 181

sorrel

mountain (Rumex

paucifolius) 83

sheep (R. acetosella) 83

sotol (Dasylirion) 27

Spartina gracilis (alkali

cordgrass) 94

Spathyema foetida 45

speartvort

creeping 191

lesser 191

Spergula (spurry) 134

arvensis (corn s.) 134

Spergularia (sandspurry) 134

rubra (red s.) 134

spiderling (Boerhaavia) 105, 108

erect (B. erecta) 109

scarlet (B. coccínea) 108

slim (B. gracillinta) . 109

Spinacia olerácea (spinach). 85

spineflower, Palmer

(Chorizanthe palmeri) .... 64
252 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

spleenwort (Aspleniutn) 12

Spraguea (pussypaws) 122

nuda 122

umbellata (common p.) 122

springbeauty (Claytonia) 117, 119, 223

alpine (C. megarrhiza) 118

lanceleaf (C. lanceolata) 117

spurry (Spergula) 134

corn (S. arvensis) 134

squawgrass 38

squill (Scilla) 27

squill, red 27

Squill tribe 27

squirrelcorn (Dicentra

canadensis) 220, 221

staggerweed, little 220

star hyacinth - 27

starlily (Leucocrinum) 26

common (L. montanum) 26

star-tulip 29

star-tulip, green-banded 50

starweed, James 140

starwort (Stellaria) 139

longstalk (S. longipes) 142

Siberian (S. umbellata) 142

tuber (S. jamesiana) 140

steershead (Dicentra uniflora) 223

Stellaria (starwort) 139

jamesiana (tuber s.) 140

laeta 142

longipes (longstalk s.) 142

laeta 142

media (chickweed) 130, 139, 142

umbellata (Siberian s.) 142

Stenanthella occidentalis 44

Stenanthium (stenanthium) .... 43

gramineum (grassy s.) 43

occidentale (western s.) 43

Tobustum (featherfleece) .... 43

Streptopus (twistedstalk) 23

Stropholirion 21

Struthiopteris spicant

(deerfern) 12

Stylomecon heterophylla

(windpoppy) 215

Suaeda (seepweed) 97

depressa (Pursh s.)- -. 97

erecta 97

diffusa 98

erecta 97

nigra (black s.) 98

Suckleya (suckleya) 98

petiolaris 98

suckleyana (poison s.) 98

sugarbowls 149

summercypress (Kochia

scoparia) 93

summercypress, California 93

summercypress, gray 93

summercypress, greenmolly _.._ 93

swamppink (Helonias bullata) 38, 42

Swamppink tribe 38

swamp-sego 28

Page

sweet-after-death 206

sweetwilliam (Dianthus

barbatus) 123

swordfern (Nephrolepis) 9

swordfei'n - 12

Symplocarpus foetidus

(skunkcabbage) 45

Tagetes (marigold) 166

Talinum (fameflower) 122

aneustissimum (narrowleaf

f.) 123

aurantiacum (orange f.) 123

pulchellum 123

tanweed 79

Teloxys comuta 88

Thalictrum (meadowrue) 150, 189

alpinujn (alpine m.) 151

dioicum (early m.) 151

fendleri (Fendler m.) 151

flavum (yellow m.) 151

glaucum 151

macrocarpum (bigfruit m.)- 151

minus (low m.) 150

occidentale (western m.) 153

polycarpum (Sierra m.) 151

rhynchocarpum (snoutseed

m.) 151

rugosum (dusty m.) 151

venulosum (veiny m.) 151

thimbleweed 144

threeleaf 206

tibinagua 69

tickseed (Corispermum) 90, 101

hyssopleaf (C.

hyssopifolium) 90

shiny (C. nitidum). 90

Tidestromia (tidestromia) 104

lanuginosa (woolly t.) 104

oblongifolia (honeysweet t.) 104

suffruticosa (shrubby t.) 104

Tiniaria 72

Tissa 134

rubra _. 134

Tofieldia (tofíeldia) 13, 41

intertnedia 42

occidentalis (tall t.) 42

tofieldia, western 42

Tofieldia tribe 40

Tofieldieae 40

Torrubia 105

Toxicoscordion 49, 50, 51

gramineum 52

venenosum 53

Trautvetteria 153

caroliniensis (falsebugbane) 153

grandis 153

media 153

palmata 153

travelers-joy 148

Trillium (trillium) 13,26

erectum (purple t.) 26

ovatum (Pacific t.) 26
NOTES ON WESTERN RANGE FORBS 253

Page

Tripterocalyx (sandpuffs) 106

micranthus 107

Triteleia 21

grandiflora 22

hyacinthina 23

laxa 22

Peduneularis 22

Trollius (globeflower) 202

albiflorus (white g.) 202

laxus (American g.) 202

albiflorus 202

troutlily 33

tulip (Tulipa) 28

Tulip tribe 28

Tulipa (tulip) 28

Tulipeae 28

tumhleweed 90, 95, 101

turkeyheard 38

Turkish-rug (Chorizanthe

staticoides) 64

twistedstalk (Streptopus) 23

Ulmaceae 62

Umbellatae 71

umbrellawort

(Oxyhaphus) 105, 107, 114

hairy (O. hirsutus) 114

narrowleaf (O. linearis) 114

scarlet (O. coccinea) 116

sticky (O. comatus) 114

Unifoliiiin 23

Vrginea (sea-onion) 27

indica (India drugsquill) 14,28

maritima (shore drugsquill) 14, 27

scilla 14,27

Vrtica (nettle) 62

chamaedryoides (blunttooth

n.) 62

dioica (bigsting n.) 62,64

gracilis (narrowleaf n.) 62

lyallii (Lyall n.) 62,64

pilulifera (Roman n.) 64

urens (dog n.) 62

Urticaceae 62

Vsnea (usnea) 2

Vaccaria (cowcockle) 130

segetalis (cowcockle) 131

vaccaria 131

vulgaris 131

Vagnera 23

amplexicaulis 24

Vancouveria (vancouveria) .... 207

chrysantha (yellow v.) 207

hexandra (white v.) 207

Vanilla planifolia (Mexican

vanilla) 62

vanillaleaf (Achlys triphylla).. 206

Velezia (velezia) 130

rigida (stiflf v.) 131

Veratreae 42

Page

Veratruni (falsehellebore) .13,14,37,42,44

album (white f.-h.)-- 45

Californicuni (western

f.-h.) ....45, 46, 48, 49

eschscholtzianum 49

eschscholtzii (Eschscholtz

f.-h.) 49

fiinbriatuni (fringed f.-h.).. 49

sabadilla 43

speciosum 45

viride (American f.-h.) 45, 48, 49

villela 60

Viorna 148

bakeri 149

douglasii 149

eriophora 149

hirszitissima 149

virginsbower 148

Viticella 148

Wahlbergella 135

driimmondii 135

ivakerobin 26

waterflag 56

waterhemp (Acnida) 99

tall (A. altissima) 99

tamarisk (A. tamariscina).... 100

watermelon plant 203

waterplantain (Alisnia) 192

water-pepper 79

Wedelia 107

incarnata 108

Wedeliella 107

incarnata 108

weed, Indianpipe 68

white-caniases 50

white hearts 220

whitlowwort family 123

wild-crocus 147

wild-hyacinth 28,52

willowweed, water 79

windflower 144,147

windpoppy (Stylomecon

heterophylla) 215

winterfat (Eurotia) 85

wishboneplant (Mirabilis

bigelovii) 111

wolfbane (Aconitum

lycoctonum) 154

wolfbane 154

woodfern (Dryopteris) 8

leather (D. niarginalis) 8

woodsia (Woodsia) 12

Woodwardia (chainfern) 12

woollyheads (JSemacaulis

denúdala) 64

Xerophylluin (beargrass) 37, 38

asphodeloides (turkeyheard

b.) 38

douglasii (Douglas b.) 40

tenax (common b.) 38, 39, 40
254 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 161, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Page

yei 38

yellowbell 35

yeUowroot 169,170

yellow-skunkcabbage

(Lysichitum) 45

American (L. americanum) 45

Kamtchatka (L.

camtschatcense) 45

yerba-de-la-rabia 107

yerba del India 137

Yucca (yucca) .....13,14,27

Yucca tribe ..... 27

Yucceae 27

Zigadenus (deathcamas) 13, 16, 28, 32,

37, 38, 42, 49, 59,187

chloranthus 52

Page

Zig'adenus (deathcamas)—Continued

coloradensis 52

douglasii 55

elegans (mountain d.) 51,52

fremonta (Fremont d.) 55

glaberrimus (Atlantic d.) 50

glaucas (white d.) 52

graniineus (grassy d.) 51, 52

intermedius 52

paniculatus (foothill d.)--51, 53, 54

venenosas (meadow d.) 51, 53, 55, 58

Zuckia (zuckia) 85

zygadene 50

panicled 53

Zygadenus 49