Lithium Use in Batteries

Circular 1371

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
On the cover. Flakes of lithium manganese phosphate can serve as electrodes for batteries. 

Photograph by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (http://www.pnl.gov/news/

release.aspx?id=814).
Lithium Use in Batteries

By Thomas G. Goonan

Circular 1371

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012

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Suggested citation:

Goonan, T.G., 2012, Lithium use in batteries: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1371, 14 p., available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1371/.
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Lithium Demand..............................................................................................................................................3

Lithium Consumption Statistics ..........................................................................................................3

Effect of Electric and Hybrid Cars on Lithium Demand ..................................................................4

Estimates of Future Lithium Demand.................................................................................................4

Lithium Supply ................................................................................................................................................5

Lithium Carbonate Prices .............................................................................................................................7

Lithium Batteries............................................................................................................................................8

Battery Types.........................................................................................................................................8

Battery Production................................................................................................................................9

Battery Recycling..................................................................................................................................9

Lithium Battery Outlook...............................................................................................................................11

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................12

Figures

1. Chart showing consumption of lithium in the United States from 1900 through 2007.......3

2. Chart showing sales of rechargeable batteries worldwide from 1991 through 2007........4

3. Chart showing production of lithium, by deposit type, worldwide from 1990 through 

2008 .................................................................................................................................................6

4. Chart showing the unit value of imports of lithium carbonate into the United States 

from 1989 through 2008 ................................................................................................................7

5. Chart showing lithium consumed in battery production worldwide from 1993 

through 2009 ..................................................................................................................................9

6. Graph showing sales of hybrid automobiles in the United States and the price of 

light sweet crude oil from 2000 through 2009.........................................................................11

Tables

1. Announced introductions of lithium-ion powered automobiles through July 2010...........2

2. World market shares for various lithium end-uses from 2007 through 2009 ......................3

3. World production of lithium from minerals and brine in 2008, by country ..........................6

4. Common lithium-ion rechargeable battery chemistries ........................................................8

5. European and North American lithium battery recyclers....................................................10
iv

Conversion Factors and Datum

Multiply By To obtain

Length

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

metric ton (t) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

Energy

kilowatthour (W) 3,600,000 joule (J)

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 

(NAVD 88).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

As used in this report, one mass unit of lithium carbonate produces 0.1879 mass unit of lithium 

(thus, to produce one mass unit of lithium requires 5.3220 mas units of lithium carbonate).

Abbreviations and Acronyms

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

EV electric vehicle

HEV hybrid electric vehicle

Li lithium

Ni-MH nickel-metal hydride

PHEV plug-in hybrid electric vehcle

RBRC Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation

INMETCO International Metals Reclamation Company, Inc.

USGS U.S. Geological Survey
Lithium Use in Batteries

By Thomas G. Goonan

Abstract

Lithium has a number of uses but one of the most 

valuable is as a component of high energy-density 

rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Because of concerns 

over carbon dioxide footprint and increasing hydrocarbon 

fuel cost (reduced supply), lithium may become even more 

important in large batteries for powering all-electric and 

hybrid vehicles. It would take 1.4 to 3.0 kilograms of lithium 

equivalent (7.5 to 16.0 kilograms of lithium carbonate) to 

support a 40-mile trip in an electric vehicle before requiring 

recharge. This could create a large demand for lithium. 

Estimates of future lithium demand vary, based on numerous 

variables. Some of those variables include the potential for 

recycling, widespread public acceptance of electric vehicles, 

or the possibility of incentives for converting to lithiumion-powered engines. Increased electric usage could cause 

electricity prices to increase. Because of reduced demand, 

hydrocarbon fuel prices would likely decrease, making 

hydrocarbon fuel more desirable.

In 2009, 13 percent of worldwide lithium reserves, 

expressed in terms of contained lithium, were reported to be 

within hard rock mineral deposits, and 87 percent, within 

brine deposits. Most of the lithium recovered from brine came 

from Chile, with smaller amounts from China, Argentina, and 

the United States. Chile also has lithium mineral reserves, as 

does Australia. Another source of lithium is from recycled 

batteries. When lithium-ion batteries begin to power vehicles, 

it is expected that battery recycling rates will increase because 

vehicle battery recycling systems can be used to produce new 

lithium-ion batteries.

Introduction

Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense solid 

element and, in the latter part of the 20th century, became 

important as an anode material in lithium batteries. The 

element’s high electrochemical potential makes it a valuable 

component of high energy-density rechargeable lithium-ion 

batteries. Other battery metals include cobalt, manganese, 

nickel, and phosphorus. Batteries are ubiquitous in advanced 

economies, powering vehicle operations, sensors, computers, 

electronic and medical devices, and for electrical gridsystem load-leveling and are produced and discarded by 

the billions each year. There is concern that the demand for 

battery metals could increase, possibly to the point at which 

a shortage of these metals will occur. Lithium is of particular 

interest because it is the least likely of the battery metals to be 

replaced by substitution because it has the highest charge-toweight ratio, which is desired for batteries in transportation 

applications.

Lithium batteries already enjoy a sizeable market, 

powering laptop computers, cordless heavy-duty power 

tools, and hand-held electronic devices. But an even greater 

market could exist for lithium as a component of electric 

and hybrid vehicle batteries and for alternative energy 

production. Concerns about the carbon dioxide footprint of 

hydrocarbon-based powerplants and internal-combustionpowered automobiles, the projected hydrocarbon shortage 

(which could mean high prices) in coming years, and U.S. 

dependency on foreign hydrocarbon fuels have spurred 

great interest in alternative energy sources. Electricpowered vehicles are expected to take market share from 

internal-combustion-powered vehicles in the future. Large 

batteries are and will continue to be needed for powering 

all-electric and hybrid vehicles and also for load leveling 

within solar- and wind-powered electric generation 

systems. Research on lithium for use in large batteries is 

in advanced stages. Future light vehicles will potentially 

be powered by electric motors with large, lightweight 

batteries, and lithium is a particularly desirable metal for 

use in these batteries because of its high charge-to-weight 

ratio. Table 1 shows the plans of automobile manufacturing 

companies, as of 2010, for introducing lithium-ion-powered 

vehicles.

This report addresses some of the issues raised by 

the increased focus on lithium, including the context of 

the lithium market into which future lithium-based large 

batteries must fit, the projected effect of electric and hybrid 

cars on lithium demand, various estimates for future lithium 

demand, and obstacles to reaching the more optimistic 

estimates.
2 Lithium Use in Batteries

Table 1. Announced introductions of lithium-ion powered automobiles through July 2010.

[Data are from Ford Motor Company (2009), Kanellos (2009), Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. (2009), Abuelsamid (2010), American Honda Motor Co., Inc. 

(2010), China Car Times (2010), Ewing (2010), General Motors Company (2010), Green Car Reports (2010), Murray (2010), Nissan (2010), Osawa and Takahashi (2010), and Tesla Motors (2010). JV, joint venture; kW, kilowatt; kWh, kilowatthour; mph, miles per hour; V, volt]

Automobile 

manufacturer Vehicle name (type) Date of introduction Comments

Audi

BYD (China)

BMW

Chrysler

Ford

General Motors

Honda

Hyundai

Mercedes Benz

Nissan

Tesla

Toshiba-Mitsubishi JV

Toyota

Volkswagen

E-Tron (pure electric)

E6 (pure electric)

Mega City (pure electric)

Fiat 500EV (pure electric)

Ford Fusion BEV (pure electric)

Chevrolet Volt (pure electric)

FCX Clarity (fuel cell)

Blue-Will (plug-in hybrid)

SLS AMG (pure electric)

LEAF (plug-in hybrid)

Roadster (pure electric)

Unspecified

Prius-PHV (plug-in hybrid)

e-Golf (pure electric)

2013

2010

2013

2012

2011

2011

2010

2012

2013

2012

2008

unspecified

2010

2013

Concept sports car. 

Lithium-ion battery powered motor on each wheel.

Currently being tested by Shenzhen Taxi Co. 

Iron-based lithium-ion battery. 

About $43,000 retail (before 20 percent government subsidy).

Planning stage.

Lithium-ion battery pack. 

Estimated range 80-100 miles. 

Expect to use U.S.-produced battery.

Currently testing concept cars. 

Lithium-ion battery pack. 

Capacity of 23 kWh and a range of up to 75 miles. 

Charging the batteries will take between 6 and 8 hours, using a 

household 230-V electricity supply.

Concept car exists. 

Powered by lithium-ion battery pack, which will be 

manufactured in the United States.

Hydrogen-powered fuel cell. 

Lithium-ion battery for supplemental power.

Lithium-ion battery powered.

Concept sports car. 

Hydrogen fuel cell plus lithium-ion battery.

May 26, 2010, broke ground for: 

Auto plant 150,000-vehicle-per-year capacity. 

Lithium-ion battery plant 200,000 unit-per-year capacity.

Currently marketing electric automobiles. 

Lithium-ion battery pack (liquid cooled); 900 pounds, storing 

56 kWh of electric energy, delivering 215 kW of electric 

power

Hopes to sell lithium-ion batteries for future Mitsubishi Motors 

vehicles.

Test program, 500 vehicles placed worldwide. 

First generation lithium-ion battery. 

Maximum range (fully electric) = 13 miles. 

Maximum speed (fully electric) = 60 mph.

To be tested in 2011. 

Air-cooled 26.5 kW lithium-ion battery pack. 

Expect 93 miles on one charge.
Lithium Demand 3

Lithium Demand

Lithium Consumption Statistics

Apparent consumption of lithium in the United States 

has been recorded since at least 1900 (fig. 1) and includes 

only imports minus exports because lithium is not mined 

domestically. Significant apparent consumption began in the 

1950s, peaked in 1974, and has shown a slightly decreasing 

trend since 1974. The consumption figures do not include 

lithium contained in imported finished assemblies, for 

example, lithium contained in batteries (almost all of which 

are manufactured overseas) that are within computers, 

electronic devices, and tools.

In 2007 and 2008, an estimated 25,400 metric tons (t) of 

lithium was used each year for various products worldwide. 

Owing to the general downturn in the world economies, 

total lithium use in 2009 decreased to approximately 18,000 

t. Table 2 lists the percentage of lithium used worldwide 

in each product during those 3 years, as estimated by the 

U.S. Geological Survey (Jaskula, 2008–2010). Of particular 

significance, the lithium use in batteries decreased by 

approximately 2,062 t, or 35 percent, between 2008 and 2009. 

Lithium use in rechargeable batteries increased from zero in 

1991 to 80 percent of the market share in 2007, with 1992 

being the first time nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal-hydride 

(NiMH) batteries started to be replaced by lithium-ion 

batteries (fig. 2). The greater charge-to-density (power-toweight) ratio of lithium is favorable for electronic devices and 

has helped to drive this trend.

4,500

4,000

3,500

Consumption, in metric tons3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year

Figure 1. Chart showing consumption of lithium in the United States from 1900 through 2007. Values are in metric tons. Data are from 

U.S. Geological Survey (2010).

Table 2. World market shares for various lithium end-uses from 

2007 through 2009.

[World market share is expressed as a percentage (%) of the total global sales 

of lithium; production is in metric tons of contained lithium. Data are from 

Jaskula (2008–2010)]

End-use 2007 2008 2009

World market share:

Ceramics and glass

Batteries

Lubricating greases

Pharmaceuticals and 

polymers

Air conditioning

Primary aluminum 

(alloying)

Other

World production, in metric tons 

of contained lithium

18%

25%

12%

7%

6%

4%

28%

25,400

31%

23%

10%

7%

5%

3%

21%

25,400

30%

21%

10%

7%

5%

3%

24%

18,000
4 Lithium Use in Batteries

Figure 2. Chart showing sales of rechargeable batteries worldwide from 1991 through 2007. Values are expressed as percentage of 

total global sales of rechargeable batteries. Data are from Wilburn (2007) and Takashita (2008).

100

80

Sales, in percent 60

40

20

0

1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Year

Lithium-polymer batteries

Lithium-ion batteries

Nickel-metal-hydride batteries

Nickel-cadmium batteries

Effect of Electric and Hybrid Cars on Lithium 

Demand

Although electric vahicles have existed for more than a 

century, Toyota’s hybrid Prius was the first to have commercial

success. Now many automobile manufacturers are expanding 

into cutting-edge electromotive powertrains (table 1; Hsiao 

and Richter, 2008). Electric cars are characterized as—all 

electric (EV), hybrid (HEV), or plug-in hybrid (PHEV) 

vehicles. Concerns about the dependence on imports of oil 

and about the carbon footprint of internal-combustion engines 

in current automobile industry products have created this 

interest in electric vehicles. In fact, the U.S. Government 

planned to provide $11 billion in loans and grants to car and 

battery makers to reduce the country’s dependence on foreign 

oil (Smith and Craze, 2009). These funds will be targeted for 

research and development and for production and recycling 

facilities.

Through 2010, the predominant battery technology 

powering experimental electric vehicles has been NiMH, 

although the General Motors EV–1 was powered by a leadacid battery. NiMH batteries offer proven performance, 

reasonable energy density, and thermal stability. They are 

also large, heavy, and expensive and require a long time to 

charge compared with lithium-ion batteries. In 2008, attention 

was directed toward lithium-ion batteries as an alternative, 

although safety, longevity, and cost were of concern (Hsiao 

and Richter, 2008). The high charge-to-weight ratio of lithium 

makes the lithium-ion battery much lighter than the NiMH 

battery, which is desirable for powering electric vehicles. 

Although NiMH batteries are affected by the “memory 

effect” (the battery loses its capacity when it is recharged 

without being fully depleted), lithium-ion batteries are not 

(PlanetWatch, 2009). These qualities have helped to bring 

lithium-ion technology to the forefront as the object of 

extensive research (Gaines and Cuenca, 2000). In automotive 

applications, individual cells are typically connected together 

in various configurations and packaged with associated control 

and safety circuitry to form a battery module (Anderson, 

2009). Therefore, though most research is directed toward 

improving lithium-ion battery technology at the cell level, 

research is likely to also be directed toward determining the 

most effective cell configurations and packaging.

Depending on lithium-ion battery chemistry, it 

would take 1.4 to 3.0 kilograms (kg) of lithium equivalent 

(7.5–16.0 kg of lithium carbonate) to support a 40-mile 

trip in an electric vehicle before requiring recharge (Gaines 

and Nelson, 2009). If the trend toward replacing internal 

combustion engine vehicles with electric vehicles continues 

and lithium-ion batteries become the preferred power source 

for electric vehicles, then a large demand for lithium carbonate 

could potentially be generated.

Estimates of Future Lithium Demand

Several authors have estimated future lithium demand 

using certain assumptions and projections of electric car 

demand. Gaines and Nelson (2009) optimistically calculate 
Lithium Supply 5

that U.S. annual demand for electric vehicles might require as 

much as 22,000 t of lithium (117,000 t of lithium carbonate) 

by 2030, and as much as 54,000 t (287,000 t of lithium 

carbonate) by 2050, assuming the lithium-nickel-cobaltgraphite chemistry that is currently popular. This projection 

further assumes continued growth in all automobile sales, 52 

percent electric vehicle penetration in 2030, and 90 percent 

in 2050, which Gaines and Nelson admit are optimistic 

assumptions.

Tahil (2007, 2008) expressed concern that, if the 60 

million cars that are produced worldwide each year were 

totally replaced with plug-in hybrids, each having a 5-kilowatt 

battery (requiring about 1.40 kg of lithium carbonate), demand 

for lithium carbonate would be 420,000 t annually, which is 

nearly 5 times the current lithium carbonate production. This 

would place an unsustainable demand on lithium resources 

because of geochemical constraints in extracting the product 

from known deposits. In July 2009, Chemetall GMBH, a 

division of Rockwood Holdings, Inc., which holds 30 percent 

of the global lithium carbonate market share, estimated that 

lithium carbonate demand in 2020 would be either 145,000 t 

(42 percent automotive) or 116,000 t (27 percent automotive), 

depending on if Gaines and Nelson’s (2009) or Tahil’s (2007, 

2008) scenario was used (Haber, 2008; Chemetall, 2009).

These new lithium demand estimates, which are derived 

from expected use of lithium in next-generation electric 

vehicles, vary. One must understand the assumptions, 

including the potential for recycling, that underlie published 

estimates. Before any of the more optimistic estimates for 

lithium demand are actualized, some significant obstacles must 

be overcome. These are summarized below.

The lithium-based battery packs used in automobiles 

are much larger than the small lithium-ion batteries currently 

being produced for use in electronic devices. While technical 

testing has been encouraging, large-scale lithium-ion battery 

packs have not been fully market tested (table 1). The level 

of use that electric vehicles achieve will depend in part on 

consumer acceptance. Product safety, convenience of use, 

reliability, and cost of purchase and operation are likely to 

influence consumer acceptance.

Electric-powered vehicles currently cost more than 

equivalently-sized vehicles powered by internal combustion. 

For electric vehicles ti become cost effective, the savings from 

using electric power would have to offset the incremental 

capital cost (Simpson, 2006) and the cost of operating the 

vehicle.

Competition between the price of electricity and the price 

of grasoline will affect the adoption of electric vehicles. The 

price of gasoline is set by market forces and changes as levels 

of consumption change. The price for electric power is usually 

set by regulatory bodies and is therefore less responsive to 

changes in use.

The adoption of electric vehicles is likely to be 

constrained by the capacity of the electricity grid unless 

electric vehicles are recharged during off-peak times. Changes 

in the pricing of recidential electricity and the use of devices 

such as smart meters would have an affect (Xcel Energy Inc., 

2010).

Lithium Supply

The two most important sources of lithium are a 

hard silicate mineral called spodumene, which is found in 

pegmatites, and brine lake deposits that contain lithium 

chloride. In 2009, of the worldwide reported lithium reserves, 

expressed in terms of contained lithium, 13 percent was 

reported to be within hard rock mineral deposits, and 87 

percent, within brine deposits (Jaskula, 2009, 2010). Reserves 

are known quantities that are presently economic to exploit 

(U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 1980).

Production of lithium carbonate from spodumene is more 

energy intensive compared with production from brine and 

is more costly because of added extraction and beneficiation 

challenges. Comparing lithium production from these two 

sources between 1990 and 2008 (fig. 3), the compound annual 

growth rate (CAGR) of lithium from brine deposits has been 

11.7 percent per year, whereas lithium’s CAGR from hard rock 

deposits has been 7.4 percent per year. Overall, the CAGR of 

lithium production from 1990 to 2008 was 10.4 percent.

In 2008, Australia produced most of the lithium from 

hard rock (table 3). Most of the lithium recovered from 

brine came from Chile, with smaller amounts from China, 

Argentina, and the United States. Chile has two producers of 

lithium products, Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile S.A. 

(SQM) and Chemetall SCL. Both companies operate at the 

Salar de Atacama, Chile, and account for more than 65 percent 

of the world lithium market (Lithium Site, 2009). The Salar de 

Atacama holds about 29 percent of the world’s known lithium 

resources, and together, the salt lakes of South America 

(Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile) contain about 75 percent of 

the world’s known lithium resources (Jaskula, 2010, p. 93). At 

SQM’s operation, the brine is pumped from about 40 meters 

(m) below the surface and then placed in surface ponds, where 

it is exposed to evaporation under conditions of high heat, 

low humidity, and strong surface winds (Energy Investment 

Strategies, 2008). The resulting lithium chloride concentrate is 

further treated with sodium carbonate to produce the desired 

lithium carbonate. In 2008, SQM’s annual capacity of lithium 

carbonate production at the Salar de Atacama was expanded 

to 40,000 metric tons per year (t/yr); meanwhile, Chemetall 

maintained capacity of 27,000 t/yr at the Salar de Atacama 

(Chemetall, 2009; de Solminihac, 2009).

Argentina has at least two brine deposits of importance. 

The Salar del Hombre Muerto operation, which is at 3,962 

m above sea level and operated by FMC Corporation, is 

recovering lithium using a proprietary separation process 

(Lithium Site, 2009). Production capacity at the Salar del 

Hombre Muerto, is 12,000 t/yr of lithium carbonate and 6,000 

t/yr of lithium chloride (Tahil, 2007). In January 2007, the 

brine operation Salar del Rincon opened pilot-plant-scale 
6 Lithium Use in Batteries

Figure 3. Chart showing production of lithium, by deposit type, worldwide from 1990 through 2008. Values are in metric tons of 

contained lithium. Data are from U.S. Bureau of Mines (1992–1995) and U.S. Geological Survey (1996–2009).

30,000

Production, in metric tons of contained lithium 20,000

10,000

Salt brine

Hard rock

0

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Year

Table 3. World production of lithium from minerals and brine in 2008, by country.

[Values are in metric tons of contained lithium. Production data are estimated and rounded to no more than three significant digits. Table includes data available 

through April 1, 2009. Data are from Jaskula (2008) and Tahil (2008). LiCl, lithium chloride; Li2CO3, lithium carbonate; NA, not available]

Country1 Deposit type Lithium product Production

Production from minerals:

Australia

Brazil

Canada2

China

Portugal

Zimbabwe

Total

Production from brine:

Argentina3

Chile3

China

United States4

Total

Spodumene

Various

Spodumene

Various

Lepidolite

Various

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

Concentrate

Concentrate

Concentrate

Li CO 2 3

Concentrate

Concentrate

Li CO 2 3

LiCl

Li CO 2 3

LiCl

Li2

CO3

Li CO 2 3

6,280

160

690

880

700

500

9,210

1,880

1,290

9,870

720

2,410

1,710

17,900

1

Other countries produce small amounts of lithium but are not included here.

2

Based on all Canada’s spodumene concentrates (Tantalum Mining Corp. of Canada Ltd., Tanco property).

3

New information was available from Argentine and Chilean sources, prompting major revisions in how lithium production was reported.

4

The estimate for the United States is taken as the suggested production of Chemetall’s Clayton Valley mine at Silver Peak, Nevada, as reported by Tahil 

(2008, p. 20).
Lithium Carbonate Prices 7

operations in Argentina (Tahil, 2007); the operations were still 

under development in 2010.

China is also a major lithium producer (13 percent of 

world production of contained lithium). Salt lakes are widely 

distributed across China’s western Qinghai, Tibet, Xinjaing 

and inner Mongolia, with rich resources of boron, lithium, 

magnesium, and potassium (Ma, 2000). China is currently 

developing three brine lake deposits—the Taijinaier salt 

lake in Qaidam Basin, Qinghai Province, north of Tibet; the 

Dangxiongcuo (DXC) salt lake in southwestern Tibet; and the 

Zhabuye salt lake in western Tibet (Tahil, 2007, p. 10). With 

the success of a 500-t/yr pilot plant at Taijinaier salt lake, 

CITIC Guoan Scientific and Technical Company inaugurated 

a 35,000-t/yr lithium carbonate plant in 2007 (Zhang, 

2009). The Canadian company Sterling Group Ventures is 

considering development of a 5,000-t/yr lithium carbonate 

plant at DXC salt lake (Zhang, 2009). The Zhabuye salt lake—

the third largest salt lake (in terms of area) in the world—is at 

4,400 m above sea level and is the largest lithium deposit in 

China (Green Energy News, 2008). In 2008, Baiyin Zhabuye 

Lithium Industries Co., Ltd, produced 2,000 t of lithium 

carbonate and lithium hydroxide from this deposit and has 

government approval to increase lithium carbonate production 

capacity by 12,000 t/yr (Zhang, 2009).

The brines of the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia are also a 

potential source of lithium carbonate. The deposit contains 

approximately 9 million metric tons of lithium and could 

account for as much as 50 percent of the global lithium 

reserves; it is currently under consideration for development 

(Tahil, 2007). The government of Bolivia has sought to keep 

its development under government auspices and has begun to 

build a 30,000-t/yr lithium carbonate production facility at the 

deposit (New Tang Dynasty Television, 2009).

These brine lake deposits and other deposits not 

specifically discussed in this report each have unique 

characteristics with respect to lithium content, salt chemistry, 

and general ease (cost) of processing. The market together 

with the governments’ willingness to subsidize lithium supply 

and demand, either directly or indirectly through tax-modified 

behavior, will determine where the lithium is produced and the 

reserve estimates of the moment.

Brine-originated lithium carbonate, the primary 

ingredient in lithium-ion batteries, accounted for about 67 

percent of lithium production (excluding the United States) 

in 2008. Lithium carbonate can be made from lithium 

concentrate, but it is more expensive to do so (Tahil, 2007). 

Supply and demand for lithium is currently balanced. 

Expansion of worldwide brine operations is dependent upon 

lithium carbonate from brines beings less expensive than from 

competing sources and an expanding lithium-based battery 

market to serve an assumed growing electric vehicle market.

Lithium Carbonate Prices

The prices of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) imported into 

the United States from 1989 through 2008 are shown in 

figure 4. The unit value of U.S. imports was used because it is 

presumably more representative of world prices than the unit 

value of U.S. exports, which are more refined and a higher 

priced form of lithium carbonate.

5

4

Unit value, in dollars 3

2

1

0

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Year

Figure 4. Chart showing the unit value of imports of lithium carbonate into the United States from 1989 through 2008. Values are in 

dollars per kilogram of lithium carbonate. Data are from U.S. Geological Survey (1996–2009) and U.S. Bureau of Mines (1992–1995).

Nominal dollars

Constant 2000 dollars
8 Lithium Use in Batteries

The unit value of imports of lithium carbonate into the 

United States decreased from 1995 through 1999, reflecting 

growth in supply of lithium carbonate from low-cost brine 

deposits (fig. 3). The period from 1999 through 2005 

experienced nondynamic supply and demand activity. From 

2006 through 2008, increased demand for lithium carbonate 

resulted in higher prices, leading to increased investment in 

exploration and new capacity development.

Because automobile batteries are expected to become 

(although they are not yet) a major factor in total battery 

demand, there is some concern about whether world 

lithium reserves will be sufficient to supply a future surge 

in automobile-generated lithium demand (Tahil, 2007, 

2008). Others are less concerned (Pease, 2008; Beckdorf 

and Tilton, 2009; Gaines, 2009; Gaines and Nelson, 2009). 

Historically, reported reserve levels were not limits but rather 

were indicative of actual market conditions at the time of 

assessment.

Lithium Batteries

Battery Types

Lithium batteries contain metallic lithium and are not 

rechargeable. The button-sized cells that power watches, 

hand-held calculators, and small medical devices are usually 

lithium batteries. These are also called primary lithium 

batteries, and they provide more useable power per unit 

weight than do lithium-ion batteries (called secondary 

batteries). Lithium-ion batteries use lithium compounds, 

which are much more stable (less likely to oxidize 

spontaneously) than the elemental lithium used in lithium 

batteries (Green Batteries, 2009).

There are many lithium-ion battery types and 

configurations. These batteries are not generally available 

in standard household sizes but rather are manufactured 

specifically for a particular electronic device. It is possible 

to classify lithium-ion battery types according to battery 

chemistry and packaging. Table 4 lists the most common 

rechargeable lithium-ion chemistries.

One or more of the lithium-ion battery chemistries 

displayed in table 4 or another entirely different lithium-ion 

battery chemistry may become the basis for the future electric 

vehicle power supply. The major difference between batteries 

for electronics and batteries for electric vehicles will be size. 

Increased size can be obtained by making assemblies of 

small cells or by developing singular large cells. A detailed 

cost and technical study of lithium-ion battery development 

for automobiles is beyond the scope of this report but can be 

found in Gaines and Cuenca (2000), Hsiao and Richter (2008), 

Anderson and Patiño-Echeverri (2009), Burke and Miller 

(2009), Nelson, Santini, and Barnes (2009), and National 

Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology 

[Japan] (2009).

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries can be categorized by 

packaging in the following categories:

• cylindrical cells, which are the most widely used packaging for wireless communication, mobile computing, 

biomedical instruments, and power tools (Buchmann, 

2004)

• prismatic cells, which were developed in the early 

1990s, are made in various sizes and capacities, and 

are custom made for electronic devices, such as cell 

phones (Buchmann, 2004)

• pouch cells, which were introduced in 1995, permit tailoring to the exact dimensions of the electronic device 

manufacturer, and are also easily assembled into battery packs as needed (Buchmann, 2004)

Table 4. Common lithium-ion rechargeable battery chemistries.

[Associated data are in specified units. Data are from Buchmann (2006), Burke and Miller (2009), and Gaines and Nelson (2009). Ah/g, ampere-hours per gram; 

Al, aluminum; Co, cobalt; Fe, iron; Li, lithium; 

Cathode name and chemistry

Cobalt, Li(Ni 0.85, Co 0.1, Al 0.05)O 2

Ni, nickel; Mn, manganese; O,

Cell voltage

Maximum Nominal

4.2 3.6

 oxygen; PO4, phosphat

Electric charge, 

Ah/g

Anode Cathode

0.36 0.18

e; Wh/kg, wat

Energy 

density, 

Wh/kg

100–150

thours per kilogram]

Applications

Cell phone, cameras, laptops.

Manganese (spinel), (LiMn )O2 4 4.0 3.6 0.36 0.11 100–120 Power tools, medical equipment.

Nickel, cobalt, manganese, Li(Ni 0.37, 4.2 3.6 0.36 0.18 100–170 Power tools, medical equipment.

Co 0.37, Mn 0.36)O2

Phosphate, (Li,Fe)PO4 3.65 3.25 0.36 0.16 90–115 Power tools, medical equipment.
Lithium Batteries 9

Battery Production

Through 2009, lithium-ion (rechargeable) battery 

production in the United States has been limited to smallscale, high-profit-margin niche markets, such as medical, 

military, or space applications, and the greater part of generaluse lithium-ion batteries has been produced in China, Japan, 

and the Republic of Korea (Wilburn, 2008, p. 3). In 2009, 

General Motors announced the construction of a lithiumion battery pack production plant to be located in Warren, 

Michigan, which will produce vehicle batteries for the its new 

electric car, the Volt, which is scheduled to premier in 2011 

(Brooke, 2009).

Japan is a major producer of lithium-based batteries. 

In 2009, lithium-based batteries accounted for 43 percent of 

the total volume (4.34 billion units) of batteries produced in 

Japan—47 percent of lithium batteries were primary lithium 

batteries, and 53 percent were lithium-ion batteries (Battery 

Association of Japan, 2010).

Since lithium batteries first entered the market in 

1993, about 45,000 t of lithium has been incorporated into 

these batteries worldwide. Figure 5 shows the annual and 

cumulative lithium battery production from 1993 through 

2008.

Between 1993 and 2008, the lithium battery market 

consisted of nonrechargeable (primary) and rechargeable 

(secondary) batteries for electronic devices. Only about 0.2 

percent of lithium produced went to automobile batteries in 

2008 (Wilburn, 2008, p. 13).

Battery Recycling

In 2009, an estimated 3,700 t of lithium, contained in 

scrap batteries, became available to the world market. This 

estimate was determined by applying a Gaussian distribution 

to the annual production of batteries (expressed as contained 

lithium) for 2000–2008 and factoring in the average life 

of a lithium battery [assumed to be 4 years based on Dan’s 

Data (2008), and Mah (2007)]. The actual amount of lithium 

recovered (worldwide) from recycled batteries in 2009 is not 

available for comparison to the amount available for recovery.

In the United States, it is unlikely that more than 20 

percent of the batteries available for recycling actually were 

recycled. Europe, however, has stronger battery collection 

laws. Most scrap batteries in the United States have likely 

been sequestered either in homes and businesses or released to 

municipal solid waste to be retired to landfills or combusted. 

In 2006, lithium-ion batteries were not considered to be a 

hazardous waste in the United States (Mitchell, 2006).

When lithium-ion batteries begin to power vehicles, it 

is expected that battery recycling rates will increase because 

vehicle battery recycling systems, based on the lead-acid 

model currently in place, can be used to produce new 

7,000 70,000

6,000 60,000

Annual consumption, in metric tons 5,000 50,000

4,000 40,000

3,000 30,000

2,000 20,000

Cumulative consumption, in metric tons

1,000 10,000

0 0

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

Year

Figure 5. Chart showing lithium consumed in battery production worldwide from 1993 through 2009. The red line shows the amount of 

lithium used worldwide for each year, and the blue line shows the total amount of lithium used worldwide in production of batteries. Values 

are in metric tons of contained lithium. Data are from U.S. Geological Survey (1996–2010), Jaskula (2008–2010), and Takeshita (2008).

Annual lithium consumption

Cumulative lithium consumption
10 Lithium Use in Batteries

lithium-ion batteries. Recycling of electric vehicle batteries 

could provide 50 percent of the lithium requirement for new 

batteries by 2040 (Chemetall, 2009; Gaines, 2009).

Most if not all types of batteries can be recycled. It 

costs about $1,100 to $2,200 to recycle 1 t of batteries 

of any chemistry and size (including small cells), except 

automobile batteries. Significant subsidies are still required 

from manufacturers, agencies, and governments to support the 

battery recycling programs (Buchmann, 2009).

A high-energy (100 ampere-hour) battery processed 

through recycling would return about 169 kg of lithium 

carbonate, 38 kg of cobalt, and 201 kg of nickel [calculated 

from data reported by Hsiao (2008, p. 22)]. This estimate 

is based on the assumptions that the cost of recycling large 

automobile batteries is similar to that for small batteries; 

the automobile battery cathode chemistry will be Li[Ni 0.8, 

Co 0.15, Al 0.05]O2

, and 98 percent of the metal will be 

recovered in recycling. At 2008 prices (normalized to 2000 

dollar basis) for lithium carbonate and cobalt-nickel metals, 

the value of the recovered materials would be about $6,400. 

At 2009 prices, which were very similar to 2005 prices for 

these materials, the value of the recovered materialswould 

be about $4,100. Metal pricing will be very important to 

recycling profitability. Lithium carbonate return contributes 

only about 10 percent of the total monetary return. If 

research takes cathode technology to less expensive metals, 

such as manganese and phosphorus, then the economic 

attractiveness of recycling these batteries could diminish, 

perhaps to a point at which recycled lithium carbonate 

cannot be counted on to supplant pressure on in-ground 

lithium resources.

The same methodology and assumptions applied to the 

high-power (10 ampere-hour) battery cut all of the monetary 

returns by roughly one-half, placing the recycling decision 

very close to the break-even level. The economics of lithium 

ion battery recycling needs more research. Xu and others 

(2008) reviewed the research conducted on this subject 

through 2007.

The Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 

(RBRC) was founded in 1994 to promote recycling of 

rechargeable batteries in North America (table 5). RBRC is a 

nonprofit organization that collects batteries from consumers 

and businesses and sends them to North American recycling 

organizations, such as International Metals Reclamation 

Company, Inc. (INMETCO) and Toxco Inc. Since 1992, Sony 

has partnered with Sumitomo Metals to recover cobalt from 

used lithiumi-ion batteries (Hsiao, 2008).

For most lithium-ion batteries, lithium represents less 

than 3 percent of the production cost; nickel and cobalt are 

the biggest economic drivers of recycling (Hamilton, 2009). 

Toxco is North America’s leading battery recycler and has 

been recycling single-charge and rechargeable batteries used 

in electronic devices and industrial applications since 1992 

at its Canadian facility in Trail, British Columbia (Hamilton, 

2009). Toxco can recover up to 98 percent of the lithium 

carbonate from lithium waste but focuses on cobalt and nickel 

(Hsiao, 2008).

Table 5. European and North American lithium battery recyclers.

[Battery processing capacity values are in metric tons per year. Data are from Tollinsky (2008), Toxco Inc. (2009), and European Battery Recycling Association 

(2009)]

Region/country Company City, State/Province/region Capacity

Europe

Switzerland Batrec Industrie AG Wimmis, Bern 5,000

France Citron Rogerville, Seine-Maritime 130,000

Eurodieuze Industrie Dieuze, Moselle NA

Recupyl Domène, Isère1 110

S.N.A.M. Viviez, Aveyron 4,000

Belgium Umicore Olen, Antwerp 3,000

North America

Canada Toxco, Inc. Trail, British Columbia NA

Canada Xstrata Nickel International Falconbridge, Ontario 3,000

United States Toxco Lancaster, Ohio NA

1

Pilot plant.
Lithium Battery Outlook 11

Lithium Battery Outlook

There exists already a large (billions of units per year) 

market for lithium and lithium-ion batteries, which are used to 

power hand-held electronic devices and for military purposes. 

These can be and are recycled using established practices. 

However, the recycling rate is unknown. Those batteries that 

are not recycled either go to landfills or remain uncollected at 

the user level.

If and when the electric motor replaces the internal 

combustion engine in cars and trucks, the demand for lithium 

as a major component of batteries, which is the focus of 

battery research, should increase accordingly. Lithium 

recycling for the increment of demand represented by 

automobile batteries that contain lithium should be practical 

and economical. The recycling would not only recover lithium 

but would also recover the more expensive metals, including 

cobalt and nickel. Lithium battery recyclers are already 

investing in capacity to do just that (Toxco Inc., 2009).

Available data are insufficient to project future lithium 

demand with certainty. Existing projections are speculative 

and largely assume a regular progression of automobile sales 

and an increasing share for electric vehicles. If the general 

economy remains constrained, then demand for lithium will 

likely be constrained accordingly. For the electric car share 

of the automobile market to grow, the relative cost of electric 

cars will have to decrease so that they are competitively 

priced compared with internal combustion-powered cars. 

Also, the cost of electric car batteries would have to drop with 

economies of scale. This, in turn, would be accompanied by a 

scale-up of the current (2010) lithium-ion battery technology 

to batteries of appropriate size for automobiles. To date, this 

scale-up is indicated, with a heavy research and development 

focus by battery producers.

Figure 6 shows the sales of hybrid automobiles and crude 

oil prices from 2000 through 2009. One should not infer a 

correlation of electric vehicle sales and oil prices from the 

figure. It is more likely that both are codependent on general 

economic activity levels. If lithium-containing batteries 

replace hydrocarbons for powering automobiles, then there 

will be upward pressure on the prices of the active metals 

that make up the cathodes of these batteries and possible 

downward pressure on hydrocarbon prices.

Existing lithium carbonate suppliers believe that they 

can accommodate the growing demand occasioned by a 

growing electric car market into the future (Chemetall, 2009; 

de Solminihac, 2009). The countries with extensive, relatively 

low-cost, lithium brine deposits are Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, 

China, and the United States. The marginal cost of lithium 

carbonate is mostly fixed by the cost of producing lithium 

carbonate from hard-rock spodumene deposits in Australia.

400 120

300 90

Sales, in thousand cars 200 60

Price, in dollars per barrel

100 30

0 0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Year

Figure 6. Graph showing sales of hybrid automobiles in the United States and the price of light sweet crude oil from 2000 through 2009. 

Figures are in numbers of automobiles sold and dollars per barrel. Data are from Hsiao (2008), Hybrid Cars (2010), Truck Trend (2009), and 

U.S. Department of Energy (2010).

Price of light sweet crude oil
12 Lithium Use in Batteries

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batteries: Journal of Power Sources, v. 177, p. 512–527.

Zhang, Jiangfeng, 2009, Present situation and prospects for 

lithium carbonate production in China: Entrepreneur, May 

26, accessed January 5, 2010, at http://www.entrepreneur.

com/tradejournals/article/print/201493065.html.
Manuscript approved on July 18, 2011.

Prepared by the Pembroke, Reston, and Fort Lauderdale Publishing Service 

Centers.

Edited by Anna N. Glover and Jane Eggleston.

Graphics by Anna N. Glover and Ron Spencer.

Design and typography by Anna N. Glover.

Web support by Sue Bergin.

For more information concerning the research in this report, contact

Thomas G. Goonan

U.S. Geological Survey

Box 25046

Denver Federal Center

Mail Stop 750

Denver, CO 80225–0046

Telephone: (303) 236–5209
Goonan, T.G.—Lithium Use in Batteries—Circular 1371