SNO>A^-SURVEY

SAFETY GUIDE

-^Preparing tor travel

Ü-Í3J

^1 Personal equipment

^1 .Party equipment

Rules for oversnow travel

Highway travel in winter

Vehicle travel

Foot travel

^- -^

^\

'^V , When you are lost

^ ,--

Wh^n someone else is lost

SignaTrng (or rescue

¿I Constructing a rescue sled

Avalanche

Rescue of avalanche victims

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Soil Conservation Service

Agriculture Handbook No. 137
luued January 1958

For >al* by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Waitiington 25, D. C. — Price 40 eenti.
This SNOW SURVEY SAFETY GUIDE is for the use of

every employee in the Soil Conservation Service who is

engaged in hazardous snow survey operations. It

should be carried by employees on snow surveys to serve

as a quick reference for use in emergencies that occur

in remote areas where medical assistance is not available

and where low temperatures, snow, and high altitudes

increase the dangers of accidents and even threaten

survival.

It will also be useful to our employees in the northern

part of the United States since they also are subjected to

similar hazards even though they may not be in mountainous areas.

The manuscript was prepared by a committee composed of Ashton Codd, Chairman, W. T. Frost and R. T.

Davis, all State Snow Survey leaders, in consultation with

other snow survey workers.

The committee worked with Earl H. Breon, Director of

First Aid Service, American National Red Cross, Dr. Melvin T. Johnson, Chief of the Division of Employee Health

of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in developing

the first-aid section of the guide. Information from the

American Red Cross First Aid Textbook, Ski Patrol Manual, and other publications has been freely used.
PREPARING FOR TRAVEL

Clothing

Loose-fitting, lightweight woolen

clothing in several layers is the

best dress for cold-weather outdoor work. The several layers

with air space between fibers and

layers are effective insulation to

retain body heat. Also, you can

remove layers to prevent perspiring.

To protect you from wind and

snow, your outer garment should

be tightly woven and water repellent and have a parka hood.

Medium-weight, long underwear is

a MUST for cold-weather snow

operations. Avoid too heavy a

weight; use part cotton, part wool.

Your personal preference or allergies will govern. Two-piece suits

are preferable. The new fish-net

underwear is very good—a real

insulation against cold weather.

Two or three pairs of socks are

better than one very thick pair.

Wear silk or cotton next to skin,

then light wool, then heavy wool.

Each pair must fit properly and be

put on without wrinkles—otherwise, blisters are inevitable.

f>,/::x
The new thermal socks help in extreme temperatures, particularly

when riding in vehicles or when

using snowshoes and pacs. They

also make good slippers around

the cabins.

Do not overload boots with socks;

leave room for circulation—snug

but not tight. Put all the sock

tops inside your trousers.

A trouser of wool, poplin, or waterrepellent gabardine is best. Avoid

heavy trousers and so-called "tinpants." For protection from cold,

use more layers of underwear.

The expected temperature will dictate how many.

All trousers should have elastic

holddowns to go under the arch

of the foot to hold trouser in shoe.

Outer clothing should be hard finish (not soft and fuzzy) to prevent

snow from adhering.

Some oversnow foot travelers like

their trousers on the outside of the

shoes with holddowns running

under the arch of the shoe. If you

do this, find some way to tie the

bottom of your trouser around your

shoe top to keep the snow from

working up your leg and getting

you wet.

Ski boots, pacs of half rubber-half

3
leather, or all rubber pacs are appropriate foot gear.

Ski boots should have semilimber

soles to permit climbing on skis.

They should be waxed, not

greased. Paste shoe polish applied in several coats is as good

as most fancy preparations.

Pay special attention to your skiboot-sole edges and welts. Varnish or lacquer edges to make

them waterproof.

With pacs, always use inner soles

of felt or cork. Varnish the joint

between rubber and leather to

waterproof.

To seal the gap between your skiboot top and trouser, ski gaiters

are a great help. They keep out

snow and keep the feet warm and

DRY.

A light cotton work shirt under a

wool shirt makes for comfort and

extra layers of clothing.

The long thigh-length parka with

bottom drawstring to blouse up

around your belt line is the best

outer garment.

A full-length front zipper is preferable. Your hood should be full

enough to protect most of your

face—you should be able to cover
your mouth to provide worm

breathing to protect your lungs

from very cold air.

A ski cap of water-repellent cloth

with wool lining and long tie-down

earflaps is essential. Knitted

woolen caps collect snow and are

not good on the trail even though

handy around camp.

Always use mittens in preference

to fingered gloves. They protect

your fingers and are warmer.

Leather-palmed poplin or canvas

mittens with wool mitt liners are

best. Long gauntlets are essential.

The large, soft-rubber-rimmed

goggle with polarized green plastic lenses is probably most suitable. Glass lenses are likely to

shatter during an accidental fall

and damage your eyes.

If lenses fog when you become

warm, punch extra or larger ventilation holes in the top and sides,

but not the bottom. Dark smokycolored lenses are also good.

Amber or yellow lenses give little

protection in clear sunshiny

weather. But when it is storming or overcast they are excellent

to bring out shadows. They improve your sense of definition.

5
If you wear dark glasses, they

should have sides that protect from

light. In an emergency a cloth

with holes cut in it or paper with

small slits will prevent snow blindness.

Remember, all clothing should fit

loosely. Baggy knees in trousers

and loose-fitting shirt, sweater, and

jacket are comfortable and warm.

Blood circulation and retention of

body heat are of utmost irhportance in keeping warm.

Keep wrists, neck, and ankles dry

and covered. Keep from sweating; peel off layers to keep cool

when working hard or hiking.

Open the neck of your shirt and

parka wide — much heat will escape. When you rest, button up

and throw on a jacket or sweater;

take care of yourself.

PERSONAL EQUIPMENT

Equipment carried in pockets —

Matches—wooden; waterproof by

dipping in warm paraffin or carry

in a waterproof case.

Pocketknife — Boy Scout type

equipped with sharp blade, owl,

screwdriver.

Goggles—dark with side protectors.

Toilet tissue.
Compass — pocket type, not too

small; an Army lid compass or the

type carried by fireguards in the

U. S. Forest Service.

Notebook and pencil—to record

data and observations made during trip, leave messages, etc.

Trail food—nuts, raisins, gum,

sugar cubes, fruit drops to munch

on along the trail.

Bandanna —large kerchief, for

which you v/ill find many uses.

0

Ointment for lips or for burns.

Flashlight—small 2-cell light, extra batteries and bulb.

CD

D

Equipment carried in rucksack or other pack —

Parka or windbreaker—water repellent and windproof with attached hood.

Extra jacket—shirt or sweater for

extra layers of warmth.

Extra inner soles —particularly if

you are wearing shoe pacs.

Extra mittens—outers and liners.

Extra wool socks—light, medium,

and heavy if you wear that many,

to change into in the evening or

when other socks are damp.

Scarf—to be worn over mouth and

nose during subzero temperatures

7
to warm breath and prevent freezing of lungs.

Spare large kerchief.

Hand ax—small, sharp hand ax

with a sheath and a wrist thong

through hole in handle.

More waterproof matches—for

emergency use.

Tinder—candle, railroad fusee, or

other fire-starter material. (Some

carry pitch wood, heat tabs,

kindle sticks, carbide chunks, etc.)

Fusee may also be used for signaling.

Small first-aid kit and extra roll of

2-inch adhesive tape to tape heels

before each trip and for minor repairs to clothing and equipment.

Sunburn lotion or ointment—to

prevent burn by early application*

Emergency food—not to be used

except under emergency conditions such as an unexpected overnight bivouac.

Ski waxes and climbers—if you

are traveling on skis, don't forget

plain paraffin and small can of

boat spar varnish for snowshoes.

Cup or tin can.

Emergency flashlight, headlight

type—with fresh batteries.

Avalanche cord-—roll of 40 to 50

feet heavy cotton string dyed red

if you are to travel in avalanche

country.

vy^

3
Emergency kit—to repair your

special foot-travel equipment,

etc.—

Strong cord or rawhide.

Nylon cord—about 20 feet.

Braided picture wire—about 10

feet.

Pliers—light but strong, with

wire-cutting blade.

Screwdriver—stubby but strong,

and small Phillips blade for ski

edge screws.

Note: Pack should fit high on your back and should

have a waistband to keep it from chafing your back and

to prevent being hit on the head during a fall. An

army rucksack on an A-frame is good for light loads if

kept high and snug to the frame. A packboard is far

better when heavy loads are being carried. Regardless of type, the pack must have a frame to keep the

load away from your back. When loading your pack,

keep items for trail use on top or in outside pockets.

PARTY OR COMMUNITY EQUIPMENT

Tools or equipment for the job—

Snow sampler and kit, if measuring snow.

Soil-moisture meter, if necessary.

Maps of area to be traveled.

Emergency equipment —

Extra cable binding for ski and

strap for snowshoe.

6-ounce can with cord in hole at rim to obtain

water from open stream.

452426 O -58 - 2
Large rubber bands cut from inner

tube of auto tire.

Plastic tarpaulin (6x8 feet) for

emergency shelter from wind and

rain. Additional %-inch nylon

rope.

Malleable sheet of metal (6x8

inches) for repairing broken ski.

RULES FOR OVERSNOW TRAVEL

"Service employees making snow surveys will always

work in parties of not less than two men where personal hazard is involved."—Adm. Memo. 108.

Have a physical examination before the beginning of the winter

travel season—to protect you and

as a safety measure for your com- é^ LJ

panions. /V^v^ .^-^»^^

During cold weather,

ficiency declines with

peratures. Mental operation and

muscular reactions slow down.

As a result, the accident hazard

increases at an alarming rate.

When working in severe cold

weather, move slowly and act

slowly.

r, human ef- [ ^\>S~/^\

h lower tem- ' j ¡Y^^^^Jf

>Deration and ^ / '

+32-+10° O" -IO''-20'* -SO-'^O" -50*

10
Always check your clothing, equipment, supplies, and personal needs

before leaving home or the office.

One member of the party should

be designated as leader of the

party — usually the one most familiar with terrain to be traveled.

What he decides is followed by all ^^^^^^^^=

others.

Thirst quenching on snow trips—

Drink heartily before leaving base

camp and again upon returning.

Train yourself to get along without drinking water en route.

Eating cold snow is likely to make

thirst seem worse.

If you find open water, draw some

with the stringed can in your

emergency equipment.

To feel less thirsty, try chewing a

small dry twig or sucking on a

small pebble or piece of hard

candy.

NOT THIS

THIS

HIGHWAY TRAVEL IN WINTER

A good battery is essential for

cold-weather starting—check it!

Highway travel should always be

cautious. Don't hurry (you will

live longer). A car and accom11
panying truck with sno-cat should

stay together on highway. When

entering snow-covered secondary

roads, put on chains.

Shovel, ax, tire chains, and tow

cable or chain are essential.

Don't be afraid to use the chains

before you get into trouble.

Before you leave your car or

truck, turn it so that it is headed

for home while the motor is still

warm. Don't set the handbrake—

it might freeze. Use low gear to

hold the car in place; better yet,

block with rock or log.

If traveling with a pickup or truck

with battery under the floorboards, check to see that slush or

mud has not accumulated on top

of the terminal posts. This material will freeze in place and it

contains enough conductivity to

run down a new battery.

Hide the keys to the car or truck

in the vehicle in a place everyone

in the party knows. Do not take

them on the back-country ski,

snowshoe, or sno-cat trip. The

chances of keys getting lost or

misplaced are too great.

It may be wise to leave a note on

the windshield stating your business and probable date of return.

12
Carbon-monoxide gas is a hazard

in every gasoline-driven vehicle—

be sure to provide constant ventilation regardless of hov/ cold the

temperature.

It is ses safety policy that engine

exhaust of all oversnov/ vehicles

exhaust vertically from a point

above the cab. This is to prevent carbon-monoxide gas from

entering the cab when the vehicle

sinks deep into the snov/. Take

special care to provide ventilation

in cars and trucks when warming

them up.

Carbon-monoxide gas is also a

hazard in tar-paper covered cabins— you must have adequate

ventilation. Other cabins even

when buried deep under the snow

get enough oxygen through chinks

and crevices to provide safe ventilation if wood fires furnish heat.

VEHICLE TRAVEL IN WINTER

Read and follow the suggestions

in the Operators' Manual for your

special vehicle. These machines

have special requirements.

Be sure you don't leave anything

in the truck or car that you'll

need later. Inspect and check

equipment and supplies. Check

your equipment from truck or car

to sno-cat.

13
Take no one with you who cannot

"walk out" from the most distant

point in case of breakdown.

Be positive each passenger and

the driver has proper skis or

snowshoe equipment to "walkout" if necessary.

Take time to travel safely. Know

the limitations of the vehicle and

avoid dangerous places and sidehills.

Be cautious of moving parts,

tracks, and wheels. Keep tagend ropes tied. Be sure transmission is out of gear when

stopped or idling.

Include emergency equipment for .

emergency breakdown or overnight camp—sleeping bags, mountain tent, gasoline stove, food,

saw, ax, shovel, spare parts (see

Operators' Manual), and tools.

Check radio equipment in accordance with instructions and arrange

and keep contact schedule. Keep

away from antenna when radio

transmitter is being used; you

could get electrocuted.

At end of day or at cabin, turn

vehicle in direction of next day's

travel. Pack snow by driving

back and forth. On this packed

space, place some tree boughs

14

^^^ ^
and run machine on top of

boughs. This prevents steel parts

from freezing solid to snow surface.

If extremely low temperatures are

expected during the night, drain

oil and cooling fluid into vessels;

remove battery from vehicle to

warm shelter. Heat oil and fluid

next morning to insure starting.

Take extreme caution when refueling with gasoline. There is danger from cigarette fire, from

spilled gasoline and from freezing

hands when the weather is cold.

Gasoline can be colder than the

freezing point of water. If

enough gasoline is spilled on your

clothes to wet your skin, remove

the clothes immediately to prevent

blistering.

FOOT TRAVEL

By Skis

A few days before leaving headquarters, inspect skis and pertinent equipment —

Check running surfaces; make repairs to base material or apply

new coat.

Check bindings, screws, cables,^

and toe irons for shoe fit.

Check edge screws; replace loose

screws in plastic wood.

15
Wax ski boots, giving special attention to sole edges and welts.

Varnish or lacquer edges for wet

snow. Check laces; replace if

questionable.

Check climbers; make needed repairs.

Check ski poles, spikes, baskets,

shafts, and wrist straps; varnish^a^i

bare wood parts and repair worn-^''- ^

parts.

Travel suggestions —

Alternate trail breakers frequently—don't try an "iron man" act.

Travel at a steady pace that slowest man can sustain without struggling.

If boots start to rub or pinch, stop

immediately and correct the

cause—such as fold in sock, too

tight laces or straps, or nail. If

red spot appears, cover with

gauze and tape smoothly.

Select a good route—often the

difference between an easy trip

and an ordeal, between safety

and danger.

Use climbers where long, steady

climb is expected.

Select easy traverse grade. Use

kick turn sparingly. Choose turnarounds.

Inspect climbers and tighten after

10 minutes' use. Keep eye on

man ahead and warn him if his

tail strap or rope is loose or slipping.

16
Use herringbone or sidestep on

short climbs only—soy up to 30

feet; this step is much too tiring

for long climbs.

Use ski poles to advantage—

handles down and points to rear.

Rest at short, frequent intervals—

learn to rest standing and balanced, supported by poles against

body or against shoulders. Never

lie down on the snow to rest.

Always wear mittens—not

gloves—when skiing. If too

warm, remove liners.

Use ski wax to make trip easier— (C/T>

hard wax for dry snow; soft wax

for wet snow. Paraffin is good

for wet snow but does not last.

When skiing downhill, always ski

under control.

Take off wrist loops for downhill

and hazardous slides through

timber or brush along trail and

across avalanche terrain you con't

avoid.

Don't make high-speed turns.

Keep control and make long traverses with turnaround or kick

turn.

Keep party together; do not let a

member go off on his own. The

best skier shepherds the group to

help if a member of the party

falls.

Inspect equipment upon return and

repair any damage.

17
By Snowshoe

A few days before leaving headquarters, inspect bindings; make

necessary repairs. Snowshoe

should be freshly varnished with

boat spar varnish.

Take at least one ski pole as a

walking staff; it is a safety measure.

Keep heel strap of binding down

low on boot or pac—away from

large tendon. Avoid "squeak"

heel.

If boots start to rub or pinch, stop

immediately and correct the

cause—such as a fold in sock;

too tight laces; or nail. If red

spot appears, cover with gauze

and tape smoothly.

Always carry 2 lengths of %-inch

manila rope 6 or 7 feet long for

making locks around edge of

webs for hard-crusted snow or ice.

At end of day's trip, hang snowshoes up to dry—not too close to

the stove or stovepipe. Keep

them out of reach of rodents.

Do not use hard-leather-heel shoes

or boots on snowshoes; use rubber

pacs or overshoes. If you have

only hard-heel shoes, find some

18
way to protect the webbing of the

snowshoe; o piece of innertube

tied to the hard heel or a leather

patch fastened under the heel will

do it.

At end of trip, make necessary repairs to webbing and bindings.

When dry and tight, coat with

boat spar varnish.

Routes of Travel

Stay on the planned (marked)

route. Your route has been

planned by your leader for your

safety and for reaching your destination with a minimum of effort.

Study your route map before leaving highway. Keep your eyes

open for landmarks and remember them.

If you must leave the planned

route, stop your party and develop

your plan before moving on.

In unknown terrain you should

move ahead only with extreme

care, marking your route with

blazes, cloth strips, etc., carefully observing all possible hazards and routing your party accordingly.

19
WHEN YOU ARE LOST

STOP—The instant you think you

may be lost, stop immediately.

YOU ARE YOUR GREATEST

HAZARD. Don't lose your head!

Control panic —

Use your map of

the area and trust

your compass readings.

Orient map north

and south.

Site on three prominent peaks.

Extend site lines to ¿^cOMPASS

intersect on map.

Your location is

within the inner

triangle of intersecting lines.

If there is doubt

about finding your

way, make camp

early so that you

will have time to

set it up before

darkness makes this

task an ordeal.

Remember what

mountaineering you

have been taught;

build the best protection you can

with what you have

available. Don't

panic; this has happened to others.

20

MAP-
If the sun is shining a common

watch con be used as an emergency compass. Hold a match

or swig upright at the edge of the

watch. Turn the watch until the

shadow of the twig falls directly

along the hour hand. Halfway

between the hour hand and 12 is

south.

Plan your route and work out of

base camp, not too far in any

one direction, until you know

where you are.

Stay together — Do not separate

to find your way out—stay together.

By using your compass, work your

route with blazes or broken

branches, or with strips of cloth

if clothing can be spared.

WHAT TO DO WHEN SOMEONE ELSE

IS LOST

When it is necessary to organize a search, there must

be a search leader. This should be someone who has

authority and who can get necessary equipment. The

seriousness of the situation and ruggedness of the terrain will govern the authority to call upon. If a snowsurvey party is overdue, notify the Soil Conservation

Service snow-survey supervisor immediately; he is probably the one most familiar with the details of the terrain and the ability of the party to survive.

21
On a field rescue party, see to it

that some capable person is the

field party leader. All directions

must come from one head.

Advice from entire party is important, but the leader makes final

decision. Adopt plan of action

and route of travel; carry out the

original plan.

If original plan proves unsuccessful, call party council and plan

again.

Always use full party for search;

stay within communication radius.

A search party should work slowly.

Note all tracks and signs of

tracks. Note new blazes, freshly

broken shrubbery, or signs of

travelers.

Remember, the Civil Air Patrol has

members at all airports. Weather

permitting, this organization by

radio communication to ground .

party can cover large or small/<i

areas quickly and effectively, thus

eliminating much unnecessary

work and anxiety. Your snowsurvey supervisor will contact

Army or Coast Guard Air Rescue

if necessary.

22
SIGNALING FOR RESCUE

Foot or Vehicle Rescue Party

Voice signals to o rescue party on

foot or in oversnow vehicles are

difficult to hear; save your energy

and breath.

Build a fire v/ith green branches

to make an abundance of smoke

during the day; build a blazing

fire at night.

Make fresh tracks from your camp

to open country—especially after

a storm.

Signaling for Airplane Rescue

Be prepared to make signals to

any airplane that passes.

A large smoke fire in an isolated

section of the snov^-covered mountains will always attract attention

from the air.

If the sun is shining, a mirror or

other shiny object may be used as

a signal. Some emergency kits

now have special signaling mirrors.

You can make a good signaling

device from a tin-can top or anything that is shiny on both sides.

Punch a cross-shaped hole in the

center of the shiny object. Hold

the object about 3 inches from

23
your face and toward the plane.

The light coming through the hole

and shining on your face will be

reflected in the side closest to you.

While keeping a sight on the

plane move the shiny object so

that the reflected cross of light is

over the cross-shaped hole. The

beam from the sun will then be

aimed at the plane. You cannot

signal while directly in line with

the sun and the plane.

No MEANING SYM.

, REQUIRE DOCTOR

SERIOUS INJURIES 1

II

X

F

D

K

L

LL

N

Y

JL

W

2 REQUIRE MEDICAL

SUPPLIES

3

UNABLE

TO PROCEED

4 REQUIRE FOOD

AND WATER

5

REQUIRE

FIREARMS AND

AMMUNITION

6

REQUIRE MAP

AND COMPASS

7

INDICATE

DIRECTION

TO PROCEED

8

AM PROCEEDING

IN

THIS DIRECTION

9

PROBABLY SAFE

TO LAND HERE

10 REQUIRE FUEL

AND OIL

1 1 ALL WELL

12 NO negative

13 YES affirmative

14 NOT UNDERSTOOD

15 REQUIRE ENGINEER

International Ground

Air Emergency Code

1 Lay ouf these symbols by using Strips of fabric or para -

chutes, pieces of wood, stones,

or any other available material.

2 Endeavor to provide as big a

color contrast as possible.

3 Symbols should be at least

8 feet in height or larger if possible. Care should be taken to

lay out symbols as depicted to

avoid confusion with other

symbols.

4 In addition to using these symbols, every effort istobemode

fo attract attention by means

of radio, flares, smoke, or other

available means.

AIRCRAFT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

MESSAGE UNDERSTOOD

An aircraft will indicate that

ground signals HAVE BEEN understood by: Rocking from side

to side ¿?A making GREEN flashes

with signal lamp.

MESSAGE NOT UNDERSTOOD

An aircraft will indicate that

ground signals are NOT understood by: Making a complete

right hand circuit or making RED

flashes with signal lamp.

24
Use the International Ground To

Air Emergency Code. All pilots

carry a copy.

Mark the needed code symbols by

laying pine or fir branches on

snow or by tramping the code

symbols in the snow. Make them

at least 8 feet high and spread

them apart. Read instructions.

AFTER SIGNAL HAS BEEN ANSWERED,

BE SURE TO ERASE SYMBOLS

If you locate a disabled person,

or if one of your own party is disabled, examine him quickly and

accurately. Start immediately

applying the proper FIRST AID as

outlined on the following pages.

STOP BLEEDING-PROTECT THE WOUND

-PREVENT SHOCK

Remember, you are not a doctor;

don't overdo First Aid.

If you move an injured person

whom you suspect has broken

bones, use extreme caution—especially if there is a back injury.

Should it be only a short distance

to a suitable campsite, probably

the quickest way to move the injured man would be on branches

off a nearby tree. Carefully drag

him onto the branches, using the

long axis of his body—either his

shoulders or his heels.

452426 O - 58 - 4 25
If there are neither steep climbs

nor too much sidehill, try to bring

patient out to civilization. Several rescue-sled sketches are described on the following pages.

If the snow is soft and travel difficult, one man alone should not

attempt to move the injured man;

make camp and wait for rescue.

Build a good fire near your

patient. Brush snow off him before warmth of fire melts it and

wets his clothing. A warm fire

has a "homey," comforting effect

and helps to eliminate fear.

If there are three members in the

party and the injury is serious,

send the best mountaineer for

help—but do this only in an

emergency. Never leave an injured man alone.

Great care must be taken when

transporting an injured person

over the snow. Make the injured

man comfortable; keep him as

warm as possible. Use extreme

26
care on sidehills and take downhill runs easily. Continue to talk

encouragement to the injured, assuring him of getting out to a

doctor as soon as possible.

Check the lashings on the sled

frequently. Check the comfort

of the patient. Follow transportation suggestions in the First Aid

section of this Guide.

Inventory all food and ration it

out very sparingly—you may be

several days finding your way out.

Distress signal is 3 of anything—

the answer is 2 of the same. In

other words, SOS and O. K.

Don't wear yourself out shouting.

Be sure plenty of evidence of your

whereabouts can be seen about

your bivouac especially if you

may be asleep when a search

party is in the vicinity.

Follow the open country close to

timber if possible. Stay clear of

brushy creek bottoms. Main canyons usually lead to some form of

habitation.

When you get out, notify nearest

authorities and contact your home

base at once to halt search parties.

17
CONSTRUCTING THE RESCUE SLED

The V-shaped rescue sled (Model No. 1) is easily built.

This sled is suitable for hauling short distances.

Should a long haul be necessary^ use sled fashioned

after Model No. 2.

If extra pair of skis is available, you can make

the rescue sled shown in Model No. 3. This model is

the most satisfactory.

Rescue Sled Model No. 1

interweave the ski poles by running the handle of one

up through the basket of the other. Then jam the tips

of the skis into the outside spaces of the interwoven

baskets. If there are holes in the ski tips, overlap the

tips and bind them together tightly; this helps to

strengthen the framework. Bring the pole handles

back over the skis. Cut good-sized stick or limb of

tree, 1 8 to 20 inches long, and fasten it across the

skis just behind the ski bindings. Tie this cross brace

in place with rope, twine, ski-binding cables, or toe

straps. Include the handles of the ski poles in this

tie-down. Fasten shoe laces or some other good stout

string with a "clove hitch" around the ski-pole shaft.

Pull the ends of the strings very tight back to the toe

irons and cross brace and tie them securely. Make a

crosswebbing by winding ski climbers or rope spirally

around the ski-pole shafts. Lay boughs and blankets

(if available) on this crosswebbing. If the injured man

is able to sit up and ride forward, a pack-sack can be

fastened to the sled as a backrest. If he must be laid

down, his head is best forward.

28
s/c^/ /^¿?Z£:ç

SAT/

TIP

ARRANGEMENT

Rescue Sled Model No. 2

Place 2 skis side by side about 20 inches apart and

lash with 3 cross sticks of proper length — 1 at the tips

of the skis, 1 at the foot bindings, and 1 at the rear

of the skis, for the patient's ankles. Then place a ski

pole over each ski, slipping the basket ring over the

point of the ski and lashing it to the forward cross

stick—the handle of the ski pole to the center cross

stick. Lash diagonal brace sticks from the front stick

outside the skis back under the ski poles to the opposite ski outside the bindings at the center. All lashings should be very tight.

Lace ski climbers or rope back and forth in a crisscross

basket pattern between the ski poles to form a woven

bed. The inverted jacket-stretcher idea could be used.

For handles, push two ski poles through the baskets in

the sled. Be sure and tie the injured man on the sled

so he does not slide off.

29
Rescue Sled Model No. 3

This sled requires 4 skis and a long piece of stout

rope. It takes several men to pull the sled and guide

it with side ropes.

You need 2 cross sticks made from

poles or from brush branches cut

to fit across the 4 skis. Place

these cross sticks at the tip end of

the skis and at the center lashed

to the bindings. Lash each ski

to the cross sticks. Make the forward cross stick fast to the tips

where they begin to curve upward. Here again, holes in the

tips of the skis are mighty handy.

Diagonal cross lashing helps keep

the rigging in shape. Cover the

sled frame with boughs or clothing, especially at the metal bindings. Tie the injured man onto

the sled to keep him from rolling

off and causing more injury.

Take particular caution for safe

braking action on downhill slopes.

Remember, all sleds must be built

strong and knots made tight. It

may be better to wait for help

rather than attempt a long haul

alone. There may be two victims

and no help for either.

30
AVALANCHE

Places Where Avalanches May Occur

Op slopes steeper than 25°—the

critical zone is from 35° and

steeper (A).

Steep, untimbered gullies are natural avalanche paths (A, B).

Scars on timbered slopes are apt

to be avalanche paths if steep

(B). Heavily timbered slopes seldom slide (C, D).

Steep southerly slopes favor avalanches in nev/ snow and in late

spring.

Avalanche Weather and Time

New snow—10 inches or more—

plus 1 inch or more per hour;

strong wind —12 m. p. h. or

more.

Fair weather with rapidly rising

temperatures after a heavy storm.

Above freezing temperatures for

36 hours in spring promotes deep

thawing and wet avalanches.

Rain has the same effect plus the

extra weight.

31
Avalanche danger is therefore

greatest after 10 inches of new

snow has accumulated and for 24

to 48 hours following such a

storm. Sun or rain action on the

snow that results in deep thawing

also causes avalanches.

Signs of Avalanche Danger

An overhanging cornice that may

drop and cause the snow on the

slope beneath to slide.

Dry snow underfoot that is soft

and deep and does not pack into

a clean, sharp track. It sifts into

the track like sand instead.

Damp snow that slithers out from

underfoot and rolls away in balls

or slips away like a blanket.

Sun-formed snow balls are visible.

Wind-packed "slab" snow on

steep slopes. This snow settles

suddenly underfoot with a crunching sound. It may fracture into

blocks and start an avalanche.

Travel Procedures in Avalanche Terrain

Avoid avalanche hazards by good

route selection.

Detour all known avalanche paths

or slopes if possible.

If avalanche terrain MUST be

crossed —

During a severe storm HOLE up

32
and wait until snow has had a

chance to slide or settle.

Travel is relatively safe during the

first few hours of a storm.

In thawing weather the period between midmorning and sundown

is most dangerous.

Early morning hours before sunup

are safest.

Crossing Known Avalanche Terrain

Climb up a safe terrain on the

side of the avalanche area to a

point where an easy downhill

traverse in good snow on a concave slope is possible.

Cross in a clear area on good

snow on a concave slope.

Loosen pack; loosen ski or snowshoe harness; take hands out of

wrist loops on poles; put up parka

hood and fasten across face, up

to eyes; tie one end of avalanche

cord to belt or upper arm; let

other end trail behind loosely.

Let one man cross on easy traverse, gliding to other side; then

next man in same tracks; then the

next, until party is across.

The same procedure is followed

by a snowshoe party.

Oversnow machines should unload

passengers before crossing dangerous slopes. Passengers should

33

45E426 O - 58 - 5
cross as outlined above, ahead of

the vehicle.

DON'T TAKE UNNECESSARY CHANCES

What To Do If Caught in an Avalanche

If your are caught on a moving

snow mass, ski or snowshoe across

to the edge as quickly as possible. Get out of the v/ay as far

as possible.

To avoid becoming buried —

Get rid of skis, poles, snowshoes,

and pack if possible.

Swim vigorously lying on your

back with your feet downhill—try

to stay on the surface.

Cover your mouth and nose—especially if it is a dry snow avalanche. Suffocation can otherwise result.

When the slide stops, make a supreme effort to get a little air

space around your head and

chest—do this instantly as the

slide hardens and freezes almost

at once if it is wet snow.

RESCUE OF AVALANCHE VICTIM

"Hasty" search by surviving members of party.

Mark distinctly the spot where victim was LAST SEEN, A ski,

snowshoe, or tall pole stuck in the

snow makes a good reference

point.

34
16"WIDE ROWS

Make quick search of slide path

along the fall line below the "lastseen" point, looking for avalanche

cord.

Probe or dig around any piece of

clothing or equipment you may

find; mark spots with poles.

Probe thoroughly along the fall

line directly below the "last-seen"

point and from there to the toe of

the slide. (The heel of the ski

and ski poles minus baskets will

serve if willow or other probes are

not available.)

The most likely place to search

after the above has been tried is

in the main pileup of snow and in

transitions or eddies where part

of the slide stopped.

REMEMBER-MINUTES COUNT

When you find an avalanche victim, examine for fractures, then

treat for suffocation, then give first

aid. Be careful; prevent shock.

Go for help if after 2 hours you

have been unable to locate victim.

35
Notify proper authorities as soon

as you can.

Be prepared to return to avalanche

area with rescue party or at least

provide adequate description of

the site.

36
PRINCIPLES OF FIRST AID

The snow surveyor should be honest enough to admit

¡t if he has a minor illness that could develop into

something serious or be infectious to an entire party

confined in cramped quarters.

Many injuries on snovz-survey trips

occur in cabins. Prevention is

better than first aid.

The most common injuries on snow

surveys are cuts, bruises, sprains,

and fractures. All involve shock

if serious.

The most important considerations

in first aid are the wishes of your

injured companion. Make him

as comfortable as possible. Try

to keep him reassured. Seem

calm and cheerful.

Remember, nature is on your side

in the treatment of injuries in

snow and cold and in clear air as

compared to warm or congested

areas.

Observe these points —

Treat injuries in this order, immediately—

Serious bleeding.

No apparent breathing.

Poisoning.

Shock.

37
Get help if possible. One member of the survey party should go

for help if feasible; otherwise,

wait for rescue.

Give nothing to eat or drink to an

unconscious or internally injured

person.

Move only if absolutely necessary.

Any wound, no matter how small,

should be touched only with a

sterile pad or the best substitute,

such OS a clean folded handkerchief, sterilized with boiling water

or alcohol. Don't breathe on

wounds.

Wash hands thoroughly, if possible, before treating any wound.

-iif^r^

Wash wound with soap, if possible, then wrap38
BLEEDING

Serious External Bleeding

First Aid

Expose wound by cutting clothing

from wound. Do not remove

clothing.

Apply pressure at once. Seconds

count. Loss of 2 pints of blood

con be fatal.

Apply direct firm strong pressure

preferably on sterile dressing over

wound first. Direct pressure on

the wound will seldom fail to control bleeding if enough pressure

is used.

If this fails, and the bleeding is

life threatening, apply tourniquet

close to the wound but with unbroken skin between it and the

wound and tightly enough to stop

bleeding. Partial or complete

severance may be the only time a

tourniquet is justified.

Additional instructions —

Elevate injured part unless

broken.

Bandage tightly over sterile

pad on wound.

Do not give stimulants.

Keep victim quiet.

39
Internal Bleeding

Signs and Symptoms

Restlessness.

Anxiety.

Thirst.

Pale face.

Weak, rapid pulse.

Weakness.

First Aid

Keep victim flat on back. (Exception: If he has difficulty breathing due to lung puncture, prop up

only slightly.) Turn his head to

side for vomiting. Keep him

quiet, reassured.

Move him only in lying position.

Nose Bleed

First Aid

Seat victim with head thrown

back, breathing through mouth,

clothing at neck loosened.

If bleeding from one nostril only,

press this nostril to middle partition for 5 minutes.

40
STOPPAGE OF BREATH

If you think breathing has stopped, seconds count.

What you need to do is to get air (oxygen) in and out

of your companion's lungs. Your every maneuver that

doesn't help ventilate him works against his recovery.

You have even less time if he has been struggling, as

in an avalanche.

First Aid: Artificial respiration

There are various ways to give artificial respiration manually. The

most effective way for you to start

your companion breathing again

is to breathe into him just as soon

as possible. This is known as

mouth-to-mouth breathing.

Place victim on his back on a

blanket or extra clothing, not on

the cold snow.

Loosen his clothing but do not remove it.

Turn the victim's head to one side

and with the fingers of one hand

clear his mouth of any foreign

matter. Get snow out of the

mouth, eyes, and ears of avalanche victims.

Place your hands at the base of

the victim's jaw near his earlobes,

then lift his ¡aw up so that the

lower teeth are in front of the

upper teeth—in other words, get

his chin into a sword-swallower's

41
position. You must provide a

free air passage.

Place your mouth over the victim's

to make a leak-proof seal. At

the same time lay your cheek

against his nose to close off his

nasal passages.

Now blow (puff) into the victim

till you see his chest rise. (When

you blow you are pushing in

mouthfuls of fresh air, not the exhaust from your lungs.)

As soon as you see his chest rise,

take your lips away and let his

lungs empty themselves.

Repeat this procedure about 12

times per minute.

The lower ¡aw must be kept jutting

out at all times to maintain the

free air passage. Every time you

blow you can tell (by the resistance) whether you have achieved

a free passage.

Another way to open the victim's

air passage is to open the victim's

mouth wide enough to insert your

thumb. Using your thumb as a

lever, hold the underpart of his

jaw with your first finger and lift

directly upward. Use your other

hand to pinch his nostrils closed

and thus prevent leakage through

his nasal passages when you blow

into his mouth.

42
If the victim's abdomen becomes

distended (because of improper

position of head and neck), stop

temporarily and press on his abdomen to expel the air. This

takes only a few seconds.

Electric Shock and Lightning

Hazard — Down powerlines and

low powerlines close to deep snow

surface.

Always protect yourself against

shock. If victim is on wire on

ground, remove wire with dry pole

or rope before touching him.

Use "mouth-to-mouth breathing"

if you think victim has stopped

breathing.

Choking

Hold victim upside down or bend

forward as far as possible, then

give sharp slap on back.

If breathing stops, use "mouth-tomouth breathing." The obstruction may be only partial; you may

be able to blow by it.

43
POISONING

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

First Aid

Move the victim to fresh air while

holding your breath or taking only

a few breaths.

If victim is not breathing or if his

breathing is irregular, weak, or

slow, give artificial respiration at

the usual rate. Occasionally

you can time the expiration phase

with that of the victim's attempts

to breathe.

After the victim starts breathing,

keep him lying down and watch

him constantly.

From Swallowed Poisons

Signs and Symptoms

Pain in stomach and vomiting;

diarrhea with food poisoning.

Flushed or bloated face.

Mouth may be burned.

Convulsions.

Unconsciousness.

First Aid

Dilute the poison—give large

amounts of fluids.

44
Try to wash the poison out by inducing vomiting.

Give antidote if knov/n. Save

the label to give to the doctor.

Food Poisoning

Signs and Symptoms

Uncomfortable feeling in upper abdomen.

Pain and cramps.

Nausea and vomiting.

Diarrhea«

Prevention

Do not eat food that does not taste right.

Dispose of food cans that are swollen or bulged.

Dispose of food cans that show rust

points. ^

Don't eat open food if there are

signs of mice or rats, especially if

rat poisons have been used in

cabin.

First Aid

Never give a physic.

Dilute and wash out same as for

other poisons.

Keep victim warm, in bed.

If vomiting persists, give small

drinks from glass of water containing teaspoon of soda.

¡Give black coffee or strong tea.

45
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever Tick Bites

Prevention

Examine body and clothes after

any exposure and always remove

ticks after each shift.

Have partner inspect back.

If head of tick has penetrated skin,

wet with turpentine or kerosene.

If this fails to make tick back out,

dry the area and then apply the

hot end of a match to the rear of

the tick.

Symptoms of Disease

Chills and fever.

Sweating.

Pains in bones, muscles, joints.

Backache and headache.

Coughing, vomiting, weakness.

Rash appears in 2 to 4 days.

First Aid

Complete rest.

Early treatment by doctor.

SHOCK

Shock is a depressed state of most of the body functions

brought on by injury. Unless treated, it may result in

death although the injury itself would not be fatal.

TREAT FOR SHOCK IN ANY INJURY CASE

46
Factors Contributing to Shock

Exposure to extreme cold or heat

Pain.

Rough handling.

Improper transportation.

Loss of blood.

Fatigue.

Broken bones and internal injuries.

Signs and Symptoms

(Symptoms usually develop gradually and may not be

noticeable at first.)

Skin pale, cold, moist, clammy.

Eyes vacant, lack luster, pupils dilated.

Breathing shallov/, irregular, or rapid.

Nausea, faintness, or even unconsciousness.

Pulse v/eak, irregular, rapid, or absent in extreme

cases.

First Aid

Keep injured person lying flat.

Raise legs 1 2 to 18 inches, unless

there are head or chest injuries.

Keep injured person only v/arm

enough to prevent chilling. It is

better that he be slightly cool.

If injured person is thirsty, give

him v/ater in sips. Mix salt or

soda with it if available.

Additional instructions —

Keep victim quiet and undisturbed.

If injury is extremely serious, notify

doctor so he can judge if plasma

may be needed.

47
HEAT INJURIES

Bums and Scalds

Symptoms and Classification

First degree; skin reddened.

Second degree; skin blistered.

Third degree; skin cooked or

charred, may extend to underlying

tissue.

First Aid

For small first- and second-degree

burns covering up to 1 percent of

body surface (size of hand)—

Place sterile gauze over burned

area.

Bandage entire area snugly.

Rebandage only after 3 days.

REMEMBER-SHOCK IS THE GREAT KILLER IN BURNS

48
For large burns of any degree—

If doctor or hospital is available

within an hour or less —

Treat for shock.

Rush to hospital.

If in isolated area —

Remove clothing from burn; cut

around where it sticks for doctor

to remove later.

Cover burn with sterile dressing.

Cover this with 8 to 1 0 layers of

loose, sterile or clean dressing.

Dress burns so separate skin areas

cannot touch burned or unburned

skin.

Treat for shock.

If victim is conscious, he should

drink all he can of solution containing Vi teaspoon baking soda

and V2 teaspoon of salt to 1 quart

of water to replace fluid leaked

through burn.

Plasma is very important in early

treatment of burns, so notify doctor of extent of burn so he may

49
judge if plasma is needed.

DO NOT—Touch burn with fingers.

DO NOT— Breathe on burn.

DO NOT—Apply antiseptic.

DO NOT —Break or drain blisters.

DO NOT—Change dressing. Doctor should do this.

Chemical Bums

Flush thoroughly with water to remove all of chemical.

Treat like other burns.

Electrical Burns

Treat like other burns, but cover

wider area because they are usually more extensive than they appear to be.

Snow burn—Windburn—Sunburn

Mountaineers and snow travelers

are particularly susceptible to these

injuries. Protection to prevent this

is far better than treatment afterwards— use preventive lotions especially those containing paraaminodenzoic acid.

Snow-surveyors' lotion:

1/3 tanic-acid powder by volume

1 /3 glycerin

1/3 rubbing alcohol

50
INJURIES DUE TO COLD OR SNOW

Frostbite

Signs and Symptoms

Considerable pain in hands and

feet, but not in cheeks, ears, nose.

Grayish-white color due to frozen

tissues.

First Aid

Until victim can be brought indoors, cover frostbitten part v/ith

v/oolen cloth or with warm skin,

such as hand or armpit.

Do not rub.

Bring into warm room, but avoid

direct heat.

Give him a warm drink.

Rewarm the frozen part quickly in

warm room, or by immersing it in

water at body temperature (90° to

100°) or by wrapping it in warm

blankets.

Gently massage near, but not on,

frosted part with coarse dry towel.

Start near the heart and work toward the frozen part to restore

circulation.

Suggest that the victim does not

smoke.

Prolonged Exposure to Cold

Signs and Symptoms

Numbness and drowsiness.

Victim staggers, his eyesight fails,

and he may become unconscious.

51
First Aid

If only chilled and not unconscious,

put him in warm bed and give

warm drink.

If breathing seems to have

stopped, apply "mouth-to-mouth

breathing."

When victim responds, give him

warm drink and put him in warm

bed.

Snow Blindness

Prevention

Wear dark glasses in snow country, particularly in early spring and

at high elevations.

Symptoms

Burning, smarting, sandy feeling

in eyes.

Pain in eyes or forehead.

Sensitivity to light, eyes watering.

First Aid

Cold compresses on eyes.

Wash eyes with boric-acid solution.

Wear dark glasses.

52
BONE FRACTURES

Fracture of Arm or Leg

Signs and Symptoms of Simple Fractures

Victim may hear or feel bone snap;

grating.

Pain and tenderness at break.

Inability to use injured part or to

move adjacent joints.

Broken part swollen and deformed,

discolored.

Signs and Symptoms of Compound Fracture

Same as above, plus presence of

wound extending from fracture

through the skin.

Fractured bone may protrude.

Frequently, severe bleeding.

First Aid

Keep broken ends and adjacent

joints quiet.

If bleeding, cut away clothing and

control flow by sterile compress,

then bandage. Use tourniquet

only as last resort.

Move the victim only if absolutely

necessary. If you must move him,

get splints, pads, and ties ready,

then —

Completely immobilize fractured bone and next joint in

either direction from fracture by

well-padded splints. If long

leg or arm bones are broken

and victim must be moved some

distance, apply traction splint.

53
When you apply traction splints,

take special care not to apply

excessive pressure. When bone

is protruding, first place sterile

dressing over wound; then splint

in place. After splint is in

place, examine every 20 minutes to be sure limb swelling has

not cut off circulation.

Skull Fracture and Concussion

Signs and Symptoms

Bump or cut on head.

Victim dazed or unconscious.

Fluid or bleeding from ears; bleeding from mouth or nose.

Pulse rapid and weak.

Pupils of eyes unequal in size.

First Aid

Keep victim lying down.

Move only if necessary, and then

horizontally.

Give no stimulants.

54
Apply sterile gauze and bandage

to open scalp wound.

If necessary, turn head gently to

one side to drain mucus and other

secretions.

Get doctor as soon as possible.

Do not leave victim alone.

Spine Fracture

Signs and Symptoms

Pain in neck or back.

If victim cannot open and close

fingers readily/or grasp your hand

firmly, his neck may be broken,

if he can move fingers, but not feet

or toes, his back may be broken.

Severe shock.

If unconscious and spinal injury is

suspected, treat as a neck fracture.

First Aid

Don't let victim move, lift his head,

or drink water. {"

Cover with blankets. \

Get doctor if possible. \

If you must move a victim with a

fractured neck, your method will

depend on materials available—

face up on rigid surfaces, face

down on nonrigid surfaces. Transport neck injuries face up always.

Do not tilt head forward, backward, or sideward under any

circumstances.

Several people should slide him

face up on wide board or other

55
rigid support along long axis

of the body.

Pad head well at sides to keep

face upward.

Tie hands across chest, and tie

head and body rigidly to board.

When moving victim with fractured

back, tie to rigid support with pad

under lower spine.

Blanket lift can be used if victim

stays face down.

Never permit a victim with suspected spine fracture to get into

sitting position.

If you suspect lung puncture, ask

the victim to breathe shallowly.

Pelvis Fracture

Signs and Symptoms

Much pain around pelvis if standing or walking. May be little or

no pain if lying down.

Severe shock.

First Aid

Move victim on back on rigid

stretcher, door, board.

Bandage knees and ankles together.

Bend or straighten knees, whichever is most comfortable.

56
Rib Fracture

Signs and Symptoms

Severe pain on deep breathing or

coughing.

Break may be felt by fingers on rib.

Shallow breathing.

If lung punctured, frothy bright red

blood may be coughed up.

First Aid

Object is to control pain and restrict rib motion.

If lung is punctured or rib is

broken, do not bandage; have victim lie quietly; move him lying

down; ask him to breathe shallowiy.

Apply 2 or 3 triangular cravat

bandages around body —

Tie first one loosely over break

with knot over a pad on side opposite break. As victim exhales, tighten knot.

Repeat above with 2 more cravats, one above and one below

the first one.

Nose Fracture

Do not splint.

Apply sterile compress to wound;

hold compress lightly in place with

4-tail bandage.

57
Lower Jaw Fracture

Place palm of hand below ¡aw and

raise it gently to bring teeth together.

Support ¡aw with bandage under

chin, tied on top of head.

If victinn vomits, release bandage,

support ¡aw with hand, and rebandage.

Collarbone Fracture

Signs and Symptoms

Fracture sometimes can be felt by

finger.

In¡ured shoulder lower than other

shoulder.

Victim usually cannot raise arm

above shoulder.

First Aid

Put arm in triangular bandage

sling, with hand raised above elbow level and ends of fingers

uncovered.

Tie arm snugly to side of body.

Elbow Fracture

If arm straight, apply fixation splint

entire length of arm.

If arm bent, apply arm sling and

bind upper arm to body.

58
Hand or Wrist Fracture or Crushing

Apply padded spMnt to front of

hand, from middle to beyond fingertips.

Place arm in triangular-bandage

sling, palm down, with hand 4

inches higher than elbow.

Finger Fracture

Immobilize by splints and ties.

Support hand, slightly raised, in

sling.

Kneecap Fracture

Straighten limb.

Tie limb to well-padded 4-inch

board reaching from buttock to

heel, leaving kneecap exposed. In

emergency, a blanket can be used

instead of board.

Foot and Toe Fracture or Crushing

Remove shoe and stocking, by cutting if necessary.

Apply several dressings padded

with cotton or a small pillow; bandage snugly in place.

59
DISLOCATIONS-SPRAINS-STRAINSBRUISES

Dislocations

Signs and Symptoms

Intense pain.

Deformity.

Swelling.

No movement.

First Aid

Apply cold compresses.

If necessary to move victim, support a dislocated elbow or shoulder in loose sling; pad under knees

if hip dislocated.

Keep other dislocations immobilized in dislocated position, except

first two finger joints or ¡aw, which

can be reduced as shown in sketch.

SprainsSprains—(tears of ligaments that support a joint).

Signs and Symptoms

Pain at joint.

Swelling.

Discoloring.

First Aid

Elevate the part, if practical; put

wrist in sling, ankle on padded

support.

Apply cold applications—snow,

ice, or running water in early

stage; hot applications later.

If above cannot be done, immobilize as much as possible by

bandaging.

60
Strains

Strains—(injuries to muscles or tendons)

Symptoms

Pain in muscles, increasing stiffness.

First Aid

Rest injured muscle.

Apply heat, but don't blister.

Gently rub upward on injured part.

Massage to loosen up muscles.

Muscular Cramps

Signs and Symptoms

Apparent knot in muscles, calf,

thigh, or arm muscles; very painful;

immobile.

Foot or leg draws up or off to

angle; sharp pain.

Muscular spasm and quiver.

First Aid

Elevate knotted muscle higher than

body trunk.

Warm, if possible.

Firm massage toward heart, with

balm if available. Do not pound

or bruise.

Rest; apply heat.

Bruises

Signs and Symptoms

Pain, swelling, discoloration.

61
First Aid

Apply ice or cold cloths immediately to reduce swelling and relieve

pain.

Elevate injured part.

If skin is broken, treat as any open

wound.

BANDAGING

Always apply sterile gauze pad

directly on wound, then bandage

over this.

Never use absorbent cotton directly

on wounds.

Never use adhesive tape directly

on a wound except a narrow

bridge, sterilized over flame, to

hold wound edges together, as

with butterfly taping.

Tie a knot where easy to reach.

Bandage snug but not tight; leave

ends of fingers and toes uncovered, if possible, to check on

constriction.

62
i/J 3 4

4

63
WOUNDS

Treat all wounds, no matter how small to prevent infection. When bleeding is not severe, infection is the

chief danger.

First Aid

If wound is serious and doctor is

nearby, cover wound with sterile

pad, bandage, and take victim to

doctor.

In isolated areas thoroughly wash

wound with soap and water, if

possible, then cover with sterile

pad and bandage; otherwise cover

and bandage until washing can

be done.

If wound is large enough so that

it will have to be sewed up—

Take victim to doctor as soon

as possible after washing, covering with sterile gauze, and

bandaging. If doctor cannot

be reached for several hours,

close wound by finger pressure,

apply butterfly taping, then

bandage.

Dressings on small wounds that

are not infected need not be

changed.

Puncture Wounds

Encourage bleeding by mild

pressure.

Apply sterile pad and bandage.

Always get doctor to clean wound

to prevent lockjaw.

64
Abdominal Wounds

Keep victim quiet and on his back.

Give him nothing to drink.

Do not clean wound; cover with

sterile dressing and bandage.

First Aid

If intestine is protruding, don't

push it back in —

Cover with sterile dressing kept

moist with warm salt water — 1 teaspoon to a pint of water.

Raise knees.

Get to hospital as soon as poss

ble, treating for shock enroute.

Animal Bites

Wash wound thoroughly with soap

and water.

Apply sterile pad and bandage.

See doctor as soon as possible.

Eye Wounds

Object imbedded in eye or surrounding tissues —

Do not attempt to remove.

Apply sterile pad and bandage

loosely if eyeball is injured, firmly

otherwise.

Get to doctor as soon as possible.

65
To remove object not imbedded in

eye —

Pull down lower lid to see if object is there.

If so, remove it gently with handkerchief corner.

If not, grasp upper eyelashes, have

victim look upward, and pull eyelid forward and downward over

lower eyelid.

Flush out eye with V2 teaspoon of

boric acid in glass of water.

If object still there cover with

sterile pad and bandage.

Objects Under Skin and Nails

Apply antiseptic, such as tincture

of merfhiolate or alcohol.

Sterilize needle, knife, or tweezers

in flame, then remove object.

Encourage bleeding by gentle pressure.

Apply sterile pad and bandage.

If splinter breaks oflF under nail,

scrape nail thin, then cut out

V-piece over splinter and remove

as above if patient cannot be taken

to doctor within 12 hours.

Blisters

Prevention

If heels are susceptible to blistering, on dry skin before beginning

trip apply 2-inch adhesive tape

long enough to go from under

arch, around heel, and up onto

tendon; smooth carefully.

66
First Aid

Wash with soap and warm water.

Sterilize needle over open flame.

Puncture blister at edge.

Gently press out water or blood

with sterile pad.

Apply sterile adhesive compress.

If blister has broken, wash dry with

sterile gauze, apply sterile adhesive compress.

Infected Wounds

Signs and Symptoms

Throbbing pain and heat.

Extreme swelling, redness.

Pus and red streaks.

Tenderness, fever.

First Aid

Rest in bed.

Make hot application of 3 heaping tablespoons of salt in 1 quart

of water, put infected part directly

in the solution preferably.

Change often enough to keep hot;

continue for 1 hour.

Elevate part, then repeat hot application in 3 to 4 hours.

Repeat process until victim can see

doctor.
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

Heart Attack

Signs and Symptoms

Pain — violent agonizing pain

around heart, usually behind upper breast bone.

Shortness of breath.

First Aid

Reassure victim. ^^—

Keep him warm.

Keep him absolutely quiet and in

position comfortable for him.

Move victim to doctor as soon as

possible.

Give morphine if available.

/I.

Fainting -^^-

Prevention

Victim should sit down and put

head between knees, or lie down

immediately.

Signs and Symptoms

Perspiration.

Pale face, drooping eyelids.

Dizziness.

Shallow breathing.

Slow, weak pulse.

Unconsciousness finally.

First Aid

Keep victim in lying-down position with head low.

Loosen tight clothing.

68
Sprinkle cool water on face or use

ammonia inhalant on nose unless

bleeding.

Keep him resting until fully recovered.

Appendicitis

Signs and Symptoms

Pain over all or part of abdomen.

Nausea and vomiting.

Pain and tenderness in lower right

part of abdomen.

First Aid

Put victim to bed. WATER

Don't give food, water, or laxative.

Apply cold compress to relieve

pain.

Move victim to doctor as soon as

possible.

LAXATIVE

Diarrhea

Put victim on tea or hot water and

dry toast diet until he has no bowel

movement for 24 hours.

Resume normal diet.

Internal Injuries

Signs and Symptoms

Nature and extent of injury usually

is not clear.

Severe shock is often present.

69
First Aid

Keep victim lying down, treat for

shock.

Do not give him liquids or food.

Transport him carefully in a lying

position.

Move victim to hospital as soon as

possible.

Earache

Do not allow victim to blow nose

hard.

Apply sack or cloth pouch partly

filled with hot salt heated in frying pan or some other heat-retaining material.

A drop of warm mineral oil in ear

often brings relief.

If this is not effective, try cold pads.

v*^

Foreign Bodies in Ear or Nose

Insert warm mineral o\\} let only

doctor remove object.

TRANSPORTING VICTIMS

Do not be hurried into moving an injured or ill person.

Poor methods can result in increased injuries. Victims

often must be moved long distances under pioneering

conditions, so plan and execute the job carefully to

avoid aggravating injury or shock. Consider possibility of helicopter evacuation where difficult trail transportation is the other alternative.

70
Preparation

Always give essential first aid before transporting, then there is not

so great a hurry to move.

Make victim as comfortable as possible; loosen tight clothing; always

treat for shock.

To put blanket under victim, pleat

2/3 of it beside him, grasp him

at hips and shoulders, roll him

about 14 turn away from blanket.

Push the pleated part under him,

roll him back over the blanket and

Vs turn in other direction. Then

pull blanket on through.

If there is any chance that the victim's back or neck has been injured, pleat the blanket at his head

and let all pulling be along the

long axis of his body.

Be sure fractured parts are well

padded.

If a victim of a compound fracture

of a leg has to be carried a long

distance, traction splints will help

to decrease serious shock and

make him more comfortable.

Watch for dangers of dislocation

with too much traction. Do not

use traction on arms except in rare

cases where serious shock is expected.

71
Improvised stretchers are satisfactory for short distances; for longer

travel, especially through rough

country, use the best equipment

and manpower available, allov/ing

for extra men to spell off the

others.

Folding-type canvas or metal cots,

or even chairs in some cases, are

good emergency stretchers.

An air mattress provides for greater

comfort on a stretcher and therefore less shock danger.

Toboggan and basket stretcher v/ith

extra blankets should be flown in

and dropped if possible for backcountry stretcher cases.

Loading

To load or unload a stretcher, three

bearers are needed, a fourth is desirable.

Place stretcher close to victim, who

is on back with feet tied.

Three bearers face victim's uninjured side, one at shoulder, one at

hips, one at feet.

Bearers kneel on knees nearest victim's feet, place arms under victim,

at neck, shoulder, back, thighs,

legs, feet.

72
Bearer in command says "lift," all

lifting victim together up on their

knees. Bearer in command pushes

stretcher against bearer's toes.

At his command "lower/' the bearers gently lower victim to stretcher.

Unloading: Procedure is reversed.

Carrying

To carry stretcher, bearers are on

ends, and usually two on each side

if terrain permits.

Stretcher is raised and started off

on given signals.

The front and side bearers start on

left foot, rear bearer on right foot.

Victim is carried feet first except up

hills, steep grades, or stairs.

Leg fracture victims are carried uphill feet first and downhill head

first.

Rescue crew with a several-mile

carry should have 1 0 to 12 men,

paired off according to size, with

each pair carrying stretcher for 10

to 1 5 minutes.

Watch victim for increased signs

of shock and apply shock treatment; and check his dressings.

73
Victim is usually transported with

head lower than body, unless head

is injured or breathing is difficult.

Victim should be able to see where

he is going.

Serious cases should be transported lying down.

Victims with head injuries need

particular care. Victim with injury to back of head should be

laid on his side.

Never jackknife an injured person

into the back seat of a car.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1958 0-F—452426

74
First Aid for Snow Surveyors

Principles of first aid

BB Bleeding

No breathing

EEB Poisoning

Shock

Fl« Heat injuries

Bone fractures

Cold or snow injuries

ffi| Dislocations, etc.

Bandaging

Wo unds

HM Medical emergencies

BB Transporting victims