U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2015–5126

Prepared in cooperation with North Dakota State University

Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and 

Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota—Effects of 

a Changing Climate
Cover. Lakes and wetlands in the Crystal Springs area of North Dakota. Photograph by David M. Mushet, 

U.S. Geological Survey, July 30, 2014.
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of 

Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in 

South-Central North Dakota—Effects of a 

Changing Climate

By David M. Mushet, Martin B. Goldhaber, Christopher T. Mills, Kyle I. McLean, 

Vanessa M. Aparicio, R. Blaine McCleskey, JoAnn M. Holloway, and Craig A. 

Stockwell

Prepared in cooperation with North Dakota State University

Scientific Investigations Report 2015–5126

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2015

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Suggested citation:

Mushet, D.M., Goldhaber, M.B., Mills, C.T., McLean, K.I., Aparicio, V.M., McCleskey, R.B., Holloway, J.M., and 

Stockwell, C.A., 2015, Chemical and biotic characteristics of prairie lakes and large wetlands in south-central North 

Dakota—Effects of a changing climate: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2015–5126, 55 p., 

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20155126.

ISSN 2328-031X (print)

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)

ISBN 978-1-4113-3975-0
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Study Area.......................................................................................................................................................2

A Changing Climate .......................................................................................................................................3

Methods...........................................................................................................................................................8

Water Chemistry ...................................................................................................................................8

Aquatic Vertebrates .............................................................................................................................9

Macroinvertebrates............................................................................................................................10

Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands......................................10

Water Chemistry .................................................................................................................................10

Aquatic Vertebrates ...........................................................................................................................14

Macroinvertebrates............................................................................................................................14

Discussion.....................................................................................................................................................22

Water Chemistry .................................................................................................................................22

Aquatic Vertebrates ...........................................................................................................................25

Macroinvertebrates............................................................................................................................26

Implications for Waterfowl................................................................................................................26

Conclusions...................................................................................................................................................29

Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................29

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................29

Appendixes 1–5............................................................................................................................................33

Figures

1. Photograph showing flooding caused by rising water levels in Lake 156 near

Crystal Springs, North Dakota ....................................................................................................2

2. Map showing location of 178 lakes and wetlands in Kidder and Stutsman Counties,

North Dakota, originally sampled from 1966 to 1976 by Swanson and others (1988)

and resampled in 2012 and 2013.................................................................................................3

3. Map showing location of select lakes and wetlands in southeastern North Dakota

in relation to areas of sand .........................................................................................................4

4. Graph showing average annual precipitation for North Dakota Climate Division 5,

1895 to 2014....................................................................................................................................5

5. Graph showing water elevations for Cottonwood Lake study area wetland P1,

North Dakota, 1978–2013 .............................................................................................................6

6. Graph showing water elevations of Devils Lake, North Dakota, 1930 to 2014, 

U.S. Geological Survey streamgage 05056500.........................................................................7

7. Graph showing cumulative annual precipitation and cumulative mean annual

discharge of the Sheyenne River near Cooperstown, North Dakota, from double

mass curve analysis.....................................................................................................................7

8. Satelite imagery of Stutsman County, North Dakota ..............................................................8
iv

9. Graph showing aquatic vertebrate and macroinvertebrate sampling locations in a

typical lake or wetland with emergent vegetation................................................................10

10. Graph showing comparison of specific conductance of 167 prairie lakes and

wetlands sampled from 1966 to 1976 and resampled in 2012 and 2013 .............................11

11. Histogram showing distribution of prairie lakes and wetlands among seven salinity

classes based on specific conductance of their water.......................................................12

12. Graphs showing comparison of chemical and other environmental characteristics

of 167 prairie lakes and wetlands sampled from 1966 to 1976 and resampled in 2012

and 2013........................................................................................................................................13

13. Piper diagram of water from prairie lakes and wetlands ....................................................14

14. Graph showing major ion concentrations in Chase Lake, North Dakota , modeled

using Geochemists Workbench modeling code and the dissolution of high

magnesium calcite across a gradient of increasing water volumes.................................17

15. Boxplot showing macroinvertebrate population metrics of prairie lakes and

wetlands within five salinity classes based on specific conductance of their 

water.............................................................................................................................................21

16. Aerial photographs showing Lake 153, Stutsman County, North Dakota..........................23

17. Specific conductance of lakes in the Crystal Springs, North Dakota, area from

sampling conducted in 1966 to 1976 and 2012 and 2013.......................................................24

18. National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) photographs of Lake 144 from July

13, 1990, and September 25, 1997.............................................................................................25

19. Graphs showing breeding population of six waterfowl species that displayed

marked increases during the 1993 to 2014 post-drought period.........................................27

20. Graphs showing breeding population of four waterfowl species that did not display

marked increases during the 1993 to 2014 post-drought period.........................................28

Tables

1. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands sampled from 1966 to 1976

by Swanson and others (1988) and resampled in 2012 and 2013........................................11

2. Comparison of changes in mean values for concentrations of major ions, specific

conductance, and pH between prairie lakes and wetlands in till and those in

outwash, Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota ...........................................16

3. Species occurrence and mean number of captures in 162 prairie lakes and

wetlands sampled for aquatic vertebrates in 2012 and 2013 ..............................................17

4. Specific conductance, pH, and turbidity characteristics of prairie lakes and

wetlands containing aquatic vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands from 2012

and 2013 sampling of lakes and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County,

North Dakota ...............................................................................................................................18

5. Major cation characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands containing aquatic

vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands from 2012 and 2013 sampling of lakes

and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota ...............................19

6. Major anion characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands containing aquatic

vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands from 2012 and 2013 sampling of lakes

and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota ...............................20
v

Appendix Tables

1. Analytical laboratory methods used in 2012 and 2013 sampling of prairie lakes

and wetlands in south-central North Dakota.........................................................................35

2. Analytical laboratory methods used in 1966 to 1976 sampling of 178 prairie

lakes and wetlands in south-central North Dakota..............................................................36

3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands .....................................................37

4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands................................................47

5. Range of major ion concentrates for prairie lakes and wetlands in which

macro-invertebrate taxa occurred ..........................................................................................52

Conversion Factors

International System of Units to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Length

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

Area

square meter (m2

) 0.0002471 acre 

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square kilometer (km2

) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Volume

liter (L) 33.82 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

milliliter (mL) 0.03382 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as 

°F=(1.8×°C)+32.

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as 

°C=(°F–32)/1.8.
vi

Supplemental Information

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm at 

25 °C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in either milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Note to USGS users: Use of hectare (ha) as an alternative name for square hectometer (hm2) is 

restricted to the measurement of small land or water areas. Use of liter (L) as a special name 

for cubic decimeter (dm3) is restricted to the measurement of liquids and gases. No prefix other 

than milli should be used with liter. Metric ton (t) as a name for megagram (Mg) should be 

restricted to commercial usage, and no prefixes should be used with it. 
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and 

Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota—Effects 

of a Changing Climate

By David M. Mushet, Martin B. Goldhaber, Christopher T. Mills, Kyle I. McLean, Vanessa M. Aparicio, R. 

Blaine McCleskey, JoAnn M. Holloway, and Craig A. Stockwell

Abstract

The climate of the prairie pothole region of North 

America is known for variability that results in significant 

interannual changes in water depths and volumes of prairie lakes and wetlands; however, beginning in July 1993, 

the climate of the region shifted to an extended period of 

increased precipitation that has likely been unequaled in the 

preceding 500 years. Associated changing water volumes also 

affect water chemical characteristics, with potential effects on 

fish and wildlife populations. To explore the effect of changing climate patterns, in 2012 and 2013, the U.S. Geological 

Survey revisited 167 of 178 prairie lakes and large wetlands 

of south-central North Dakota that were originally sampled 

in the mid-1960s to mid-1970s. During the earlier sampling 

period, these lakes and wetlands displayed a great range of 

chemical characteristics (for example, specific conductance 

ranged from 365 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees 

Celsius to 70,300 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees 

Celsius); however, increased water volumes have resulted in 

greatly reduced variation among lakes and wetlands and a 

more homogeneous set of chemical conditions defined by pH, 

specific conductance, and concentrations of major cations and 

anions. High concentrations of dissolved solids previously 

limited fish occurrence in many of the lakes and wetlands sampled; however, freshening of these lakes and large wetlands 

has allowed fish to populate and flourish where they were previously absent. Conversely, the freshening of previously saline 

lakes and wetlands has resulted in concurrent shifts away 

from invertebrate species adapted to live in these highly saline 

environments. A shift in the regional climate has changed a 

highly diverse landscape of wetlands (fresh to highly saline) 

to a markedly more homogeneous landscape that has reshaped 

the fish and wildlife communities of this ecologically and 

economically important region.

Introduction

The climate of the prairie pothole region (PPR) is well 

known for its dynamic shifts between periods of drought and 

deluge; however, recent increases in precipitation beginning 

in July 1993 have resulted in corresponding increases in water 

depths and volumes of the region’s abundant lakes and wetlands, not likely experienced in the previous 500 years (Winter 

and Rosenberry, 1998). At a large scale, these climate-induced 

water-level increases have, in part, contributed to major flooding issues that have plagued parts of the PPR including the 

closed Devil’s Lake basin of North Dakota (Todhunter and 

Rundquist, 2004; Vecchia, 2008). As with Devil’s Lake, most 

other prairie lakes and wetlands are also within closed basins, 

resulting in similar water-level rises and flooding but on a 

smaller spatial and economic scale (fig. 1).

Proactive resource management will require an understanding of how the chemical composition and biotic communities of prairie lakes and wetlands shift in response to changes 

in climate (Euliss and others, 2004). Additionally, because 

most climate change models predict a greater frequency and 

severity of wet and dry periods (Schneider and others, 2007), 

baseline information gathered during the current (2015) high 

water-level conditions will be invaluable for understanding 

how these systems respond to future changes in climate. 

During the summers of 2012 and 2013, we documented 

abiotic characteristics and biotic communities of 167 prairie 

lakes and large wetlands that were originally studied from 

1966 to 1976 by Swanson and others (1988). Knowledge 

derived from the original sampling provided information on 

linkages between chemical composition of prairie lakes and 

wetlands and their use by wildlife. The resampling of these 

lakes and wetlands provided information equally useful given 

the emerging landscape-level threats that climate change 

poses to aquatic systems. This information will be especially 

important to inform management decisions made by U.S. 

Department of the Interior agencies that oversee a multitude 

of prairie lakes and wetlands (refuges, waterfowl production 

areas, and conservation easements). This information is of 
2 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Figure 1. Flooding caused by rising water levels in Lake 156 near Crystal Springs, North Dakota. Photograph by David M. Mushet, 

U.S. Geological Survey, September 28, 2011.

broad importance because public and private wetlands greatly 

affect U.S. Department of the Interior trust species and other 

ecosystem components valued by society. 

The Swanson and others (1988) survey of prairie lakes 

and large wetlands focused primarily on quantifying chemical characteristics across a gradient from fresh to hypersaline 

waters (less than [<] 800 to greater than [>] 60,000 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius [μS/cm at 25 °C]). 

Salinity nomenclature used in Swanson and others (1988) and 

this report follow the salinity classification in Cowardin and 

others (1979). Although Swanson and others (1988) performed 

only limited surveys of biotic communities, they were able to 

relate their findings to potential effects on fish and wildlife. 

The insights provided by Swanson and others (1988), relative 

to the biota of the lakes and wetlands sampled, are important 

because ecosystem structure is heavily affected by biotic 

interactions that often exceed the impacts of abiotic factors 

(Zimmer and others, 2002; Hanson and others, 2005; Anteau 

and others, 2011). Thus, during this re-sampling we surveyed 

fish, salamander, and aquatic invertebrate communities in 

these lakes and wetlands in addition to abiotic characteristics. 

The inclusion of detailed quantifications of biotic communities allowed us to better define associations between chemical 

characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands and their biotic 

inhabitants. Specifically, we interpreted the occurrence of fish, 

amphibians, and a variety of invertebrate taxa in the context 

of pH, specific conductance, and major ion concentrations. We 

explore the effects on other wildlife species using known associations among predatory fish and salamanders, invertebrate 

abundance and biomass, and waterfowl.

Study Area

Swanson and others (1988) carried out their study in 

Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota, because 

these two counties uniquely include three dominant physiographic features of the PPR within their borders (fig. 2). We 

resampled this area for the same reason and also to build on 
A Changing Climate 3

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Lake or wetland and 

 index number

Base map from North Dakota Geological Survey surface 

geology data, 1997, 1:500000

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) Elevation, in meters 

 above NAVD 88

360

765

Kidder Stutsman

Wells Foster

Logan LaMoure

Griggs

Emmons

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Burleigh

Barnes

EXPLANATION

0 10 20 MILES

100° 99°30’ 99° 98°30’

47°30'

47°

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Chase Lake National 

Wildlife Refuge

Cottonwood Lake 

Study Area

Figure 2. Location of 178 lakes and wetlands in Kidder and Stutsman Counties, North Dakota, originally sampled from 

1966 to 1976 by Swanson and others (1988) and resampled (N=167) in 2012 and 2013.

the data assets from the original sampling effort. The western 

part of Stutsman County includes a glacial stagnation moraine 

known as the Missouri Coteau. The Missouri Coteau is characterized by a hummocky knob-and-kettle landscape formed by 

the melting of ice blocks buried by thick superglacial drift and 

the subsequent collapse of the drift into the resulting voids. 

Innumerable prairie pothole lakes and wetlands exist in the 

basins created within this poorly drained, collapsed, glacial 

topography. The eastern part of Stutsman County is primarily 

drift prairie where glaciers retreated at a fairly even rate leaving behind an undulating plain of low-relief ground moraine. 

Wetlands in the drift plain are less numerous and generally 

more shallow than those in the stagnation moraine of the Missouri Coteau. Kidder County is situated to the west of Stutsman County and encompasses a vast area of glacial outwash 

plain where meltwater from receding glaciers sorted substrate 

materials resulting in sandy, moderately drained soils (fig. 3).

A Changing Climate

The PPR is well known for its dynamic continental climate (Kantrud and others, 1989). Large variations in temperature and precipitation result from complex interactions among 

air masses originating from polar, Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico 

sources (Borchert, 1950; Bryson and Hare, 1974). Variations 

in temperature and moisture content of these competing air 

masses lead to great seasonal and interannual differences in 

precipitation and evaporation rates. Additionally, long-term 

(10 to 20 year) cycles between periods of drought (Woodhouse 

and Overpeck, 1998) and deluge (Winter and Rosenberry, 

1998) can dominate the climate of the region. These wet/dry 

climate cycles can persist for 10 to 20 years (Duvick and 

Blasing, 1981; Karl and Koscielny, 1982; Karl and Riebsame, 

1984; Diaz, 1983, 1986). 
4 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Figure 3. Location of select lakes and wetlands in southeastern North Dakota in relation to areas of sand.

Kidder Stutsman

Wells Foster

Logan LaMoure

Griggs

Emmons

Sheridan

Burleigh

Barnes

EXPLANATION

Cross-bedded sand

Sand Lake or wetland and 

 index number

Geologic contact

0 10 20 MILES

100° 99°30’ 99° 98°30’

47°30'

47°

0 10 20 KILOMETERS

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geology data, 1997, 1:500000

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

Currently, lakes and wetlands in Stutsman and Kidder 

Counties, North Dakota, are experiencing the effects of an 

extended wet period. This wet period immediately followed 

a severe drought (1988 to July 1993; Winter and Rosenberry, 

1998). The average annual precipitation for the study area 

(Climate Division 5 of North Dakota) immediately preceding the drought (1958 to 1987) was 44.68 centimeters (cm). 

The average annual precipitation during the drought (1988 

to 1992) was 38.70 cm. The average annual precipitation for 

the 22-year period following the drought (1993 to 2014) was 

50.54 cm, which was 5.86 cm above the 30-year pre-drought 

average, 11.84 cm above the average during the drought years, 

and 4.68 cm above the 45.86 average annual precipitation for 

the entire period of record (1895–2014; fig. 4; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015).

Precipitation that falls directly on the water surface represents the primary water input to wetlands, and loss of water by 

evapotranspiration represents the largest water losses (Shjeflo, 

1968; Eisenlohr and others, 1972; Winter, 1989). Runoff is 

the second-most important input of water, occurring primarily 

as snowmelt runoff, which represents about 15 to 30 percent 

of annual water input and as much as 50 percent in some 

wetlands (Shjeflo, 1968; Eisenlohr and others, 1972). In some 

studies of wetlands, surface runoff has represented as little as 

3 to 4 percent of total water input (Winter, 1989). Groundwater input and loss of water by flow to groundwater represent 

minor components of the water balance of prairie pothole wetlands, particularly those in glacial till (Shjeflo, 1968; Eisenlohr 

and others, 1972; Winter, 1989).

Increases in winter precipitation can be more influential on water levels of lakes and wetlands in the PPR than 

increases occurring at other times of the year when losses 

to infiltration and transpiration are much greater (Vecchia, 

2008). The 30-year average for winter precipitation (October 

to March) for Climate Division 5 of North Dakota for the 

period immediately preceding the drought (1958 to 1987) was 

9.89 cm. The average winter precipitation during the drought 

(1988 to 1992) was 6.85 cm. The average winter precipitation 

for the 22-year period following the drought (1993 to 2014) 

was 12.01 cm, 1.82 cm above the average winter precipitation 
A Changing Climate 5

20

25

Year

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189519001905191019151920192519301935194019451950195519601965197019751980198519901995200020052010

Average yearly precipitation, in centimeters

Average annual precipitation over the entire period 

of record

Average for drought 

years (1988 to 1992)

Average for 

post-drought years 

(1993 to 2014)

Figure 4. Average annual precipitation for North Dakota Climate Division 5, 1895 to 2014(National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, 2015). 

for the entire period of record (10.19 cm; 1895–2014; National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015). Correlation 

of amounts of winter precipitation to the relative importance 

of snowmelt runoff to pond water input the following spring 

can be problematic because snowmelt runoff exceeding direct 

rainfall input and runoff in the following open-water period 

only occurs when snow accumulates in cold winters until 

the spring and melts quickly when the ground is still frozen 

(Shjeflo, 1968). For example, Eisenlohr and others (1972) 

determined that, during their study, the year with the highest 

precipitation from November to April had the lowest basin 

inflow from that precipitation.

Average precipitation amounts for the remainder of the 

year (April through September, hereafter referred to as “growing season precipitation”) also were greater post drought. 

The 30-year average growing season precipitation for the 

period immediately preceding the drought (1958 to 1987) was 

32.35 cm, whereas the average growing season precipitation 

for the 22-year period following the drought (1993 to 2014) 

was 36.00 cm, 2.6 cm above the average growing season precipitation for the entire period of record (33.40 cm; 1885–

2014). The average growing season precipitation during the 

drought (1988 to 1992) was 28.19 cm (National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, 2015). Increased rain during the 

growing season can result in pronounced increases in wetland 

pond water levels such as occurred in 1964 and 1965 (Eisenlohr and others, 1972) and in 1993 (Rosenberry and Winter, 

1997; Winter and Rosenberry, 1998). 

Anthropogenic changes to the PPR hydrologic landscape 

through wetland drainage have undoubtedly increased the 

catchment area and thus the amount of water entering many 

of the region’s lakes and larger wetlands, especially those at 

lower elevations (Anteau, 2012); however, climate effects that 

include increases in precipitation following the 1988 to July 

1993 drought (Winter and Rosenberry, 1998) likely have had 

an equal if not greater effect on water levels in the region of 

our study. The dominance of climate effects over drainage 

effects can be demonstrated by examining water-level changes 

in regional lakes and wetlands that have not been affected 

by drainage or similar landscape alterations. For example, a 

hydrograph of water elevations in Lake 112 clearly shows a 

shift to higher water levels following the drought conditions 

(figs. 2 and 5). Lake 112 (also known as wetland P1) is located 

in the Cottonwood Lake study area (fig. 2). The U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service purchased this area in 1962 and since 

that time the area has been managed as a Federal Waterfowl 

Production Area (Swanson and others, 2003). Most of the 

Cottonwood Lake study area has never been tilled and none 

of its wetlands have been drained. Additionally, the study area 

includes the local topographic high within its boundaries; 

therefore, there are no higher elevation wetlands outside of 

the study area with potential to affect water levels of lakes and 

wetlands within the study site. Given the undisturbed nature 

of the site’s hydrology, it was selected as a long-term wetlandmonitoring site by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and USGS 

researchers in 1978 (Winter, 2003). In addition to wetland P1, 

other lakes and large wetlands within the Cottonwood Lake 
6 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

557

Year

557.5

558

558.5

559

559.5

560

560.5

561

19791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013

Water-surface elevation, in meters above North 

American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88)

Wetland is dry at an 

elevation of 557.7 meters

above NAVD 88

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Figure 5. Water elevations for Cottonwood Lake study area wetland P1, North Dakota (Lake 112; fig. 2), 1978–2013.

study area displayed similar increases in water depths following the period of drought (1988 to 1992).

Similarly, Lake 87 (Chase Lake) is embedded within one 

of the largest tracts of native prairie in North Dakota. Chase 

Lake is fully encompassed within the 1,776-hectare (ha) Chase 

Lake National Wildlife Refuge (fig. 2), 1,683 ha of which 

was designated as a wilderness area in 1975. An additional 

1,148 ha adjacent to the Chase Lake National Wildlife Refuge 

is owned and managed as a Wildlife Management Area by 

the North Dakota Game and Fish Department. Thus, anthropogenic impacts to surface waters around Chase Lake have 

been minimal. However, water levels in Chase Lake have risen 

markedly in the years of increased precipitation beginning 

in 1993. Chase Lake is home to one of the largest breeding colonies of Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (American white 

pelicans) in North America. These birds nest on several small 

islands within the lake. Rising water levels during the past 

20 years have flooded these islands forcing the birds to nest on 

peninsulas and new islands that have formed as rising levels 

cut off peninsulas from their land connections and formed new 

islands. Another indicator of the rising waters in Chase Lake 

has been a marked freshening of its water to the point that this 

lake, formerly known for its lack of any aquatic vertebrate life, 

now supports populations of tiger salamanders Ambystoma

mavortium (barred tiger salamanders) and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnows; Mushet and others, 2013). 

Increasing water levels in areas with little drainage 

and other anthropogenic effects highlight the importance of 

increased precipitation; however, even in areas with greater 

anthropogenic disturbances, water levels increased in response 

to increased precipitation in the post-drought period. These 

increases can be seen in a hydrograph of Devils Lake water 

levels, the region’s largest closed-basin lake (fig. 6). The 

Devil’s Lake basin is dominated by agriculture with substantial wetland drainage and other hydrologic modifications. 

Although wetland drainage and land-use changes within the 

Devils Lake basin have undoubtedly affected water-level rises 

and resultant flooding issues to some degree, the recent (1993 

to 2014) water-level increases can be attributed primarily to 

increased precipitation in the region (Vecchia, 2008). Todhunter and Rodenquist (2004) determined a similar increase 

in water discharge from the Sheyenne River just south of the 

Devils Lake basin that started in 1993 primarily as a result of 

greater runoff from precipitation increases rather than land-use 

change or wetland drainage effects (note the linear relationship 

but with a change in slope starting in 1993; fig. 7). Similarly, 

Landsat satellite imagery acquired before and after the 1988 

to 1992 drought (fig. 8) show an increased abundance of water 

across the region’s landscape following the drought years 

(also see Liu and Schwartz, 2012) that cannot be accounted 

for by simple drainage effects that concentrate water from 

multiple smaller wetlands into larger wetlands and lakes at 

lower topographical positions (that is, consolidation drainage 

as discussed by Anteau [2012]).
A Changing Climate 7

424

426

Year

428

430

432

434

436

438

440

442

444

1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Water-surface elevation, in meters

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Figure 6. Water elevations of Devils Lake, North Dakota, 1930 to 2014, U.S. Geological Survey streamgage 05056500.

0

25

50

75

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

0 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 12,500 15,000 17,500 20,000 22,500 25,000 27,500 30,000

Cumulative mean annual discharge, in centimeters per second

Cumulative annual precipitation, in millimeters

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Figure 7. Cumulative annual precipitation and cumulative mean annual discharge of the Sheyenne River near 

Cooperstown, North Dakota, from double mass curve analysis (modified from Todhunter and Rodenquist, 2004). 
8 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

99°08' 99°06' 99°04'

47°08'

47°06'

47°04'

47°02'

99°08' 99°06' 99°04'

47°08'

47°06'

47°04'

47°02'

0 1 2 3 MILES

0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS

A B

Landsat Imagery obtained from U.S. Geological Survey 

at http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/

Figure 8. Satelite imagery of Stutsman County, North Dakota. A, September 2, 1992 (Landsat 5 bands 5, 4 and 3). B, May 23, 

2013 (Landsat 8 bands 6, 5 and 4).

Methods

In 2012 and 2013 we revisited the lakes and wetlands 

studied by Swanson and others (1988) in 1966 to 1976. During 

our visit to each lake and wetland, we collected water samples, 

measured in-situ parameters including pH, water temperature, 

water depth, and water clarity. We also sampled aquatic vertebrate and macroinvertebrate communities.

Water Chemistry

We collected water samples for chemical analyses from 

167 of the 178 lakes and wetlands sampled by Swanson and 

others (1988). Lakes for which landowners were unreachable 

or for which access was denied were not sampled. To ensure 

comparability of data, procedures for water sample collection 

and chemical analyses (appendix 1) closely matched previous 

methods (appendix 2). Samples were collected from the lake/

wetland center or outside (that is, towards the center of the 

lake/wetland) of the deep-marsh zone as defined by Stewart 
Methods 9

and Kantrud (1971) at the 1.5-meter (m) depth contour, whichever was shallower. The order in which lakes and wetlands 

were sampled was adjusted to approximate the seasonal order 

in which the lakes and wetlands were originally sampled by 

Swanson and others (1988) and sample locations were selected 

to avoid effects of groundwater seepage. We sampled about 

one-half of the lakes and wetlands in 2012 (N=79) and the 

remainder (N=88) in 2013. 

Before collecting a sample, we measured water pH, 

specific conductance, temperature, turbidity, and maximum 

depth (up to a depth of 3 m) of the lake or wetland. For lakes 

>3 m deep, maximum depth was recorded as >3 m. Specific 

conductance and temperature were measured using a WTW 

Model 315i meter with a TetraCon® 325 standard conductivity measuring cell, pH was measured with a Beckman Coulter model 250 pH meter equipped with a combination pH 

electrode, and turbidity was measured using a 20-cm diameter 

freshwater Secci disk. We then used a tube type water sampler 

(Swanson, 1978) to collect water samples so that the water 

collected was depth integrated (that is, representative of the 

overall water column rather than just a single depth interval). 

A single sample consisted of 3 liters of water stored in two 

1.5-liter bottles. We rinsed sample bottles three times with 

lake/wetland water before filling with the sample water. Samples were stored on ice for transport to the USGS laboratory at 

the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center in Jamestown, 

N. Dak. Duplicate samples were collected from 8 percent of 

the lakes and wetlands as a quality-control measure. 

All water samples were processed at the USGS laboratory in Jamestown on the same day as collected. Samples 

were filtered through a 0.45-millimeter (mm) pore size Supor®

membrane (Pall Life Sciences part #66553) using a 142-

mm diameter polycarbonate plate filter holder (Geotech part 

#83150009) and a GeopumpTM equipped with silicone tubing 

(Geotech part #8705000). The first approximately 200 milliliter (mL) of filtered sample was discarded. A subsample 

for anion and alkalinity analyses was collected in a 250-mL 

polypropylene bottle and a subsample for cations was collected in a nitric-acid-washed 30-mL polypropylene bottle and 

preserved with 0.10 mL trace metal grade concentrated nitric 

acid. The plate filter assembly and tubing was rinsed thoroughly with deionized water between samples. All subsamples 

were shipped to the USGS National Research Program laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, for subsequent analysis. Anion and 

alkalinity subsamples were shipped and stored at 5 degrees 

Celsius (oC). 

Anions (sulfate [SO4-], chloride [Cl-]) were determined 

by ion chromatography with suppressed electrical conductivity 

detection. A Dionex DX 600 ion chromatograph equipped with 

an IonPac® AS18 analytical column, an IonPac® AG18 guard 

column, and an anion self-regenerating suppressor (ASRS 

Ultra II) was used to analyze SO4- and Cl-. Detection limits 

for all anionic species were 0.1 milligrams per liter (mg/L). 

Cations (calcium [Ca2+], potassium [K+], magnesium [Mg2+], 

sodium [Na+]) were analyzed by inductively coupled plasmaoptical emission spectroscopy. A Perkin Elmer 7300 DV 

inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy 

was used with a cesium chloride ionization buffer added inline prior to sample nebulization to suppress the ionization of 

lithium and potassium.

Despite thorough rinsing of filtration equipment between 

samples, the very high salinities of some samples created the 

potential for sample carryover. A total of 10 filtration blanks 

of ultrapure water were filtered periodically throughout the 

2-year sampling period as described above to assess the potential for sample carryover. Maximum concentrations of species 

determined in the blanks were as follows, Ca2+=0.25 mg/L, 

Mg2+=0.14 mg/L, Na+ is less than or equal to (≤) 0.4 mg/L, 

K+≤0.04 mg/L,Cl-=0.3 mg/L, SO4

2-=3.0 mg/L, and alkalinity 

as bicarbonate (HCO3

-

)=4.0 mg/L. The concentrations of all 

major cations, anions, and alkalinity in most samples were at 

least 20 times larger than the respective maximum concentrations detected in the blanks. The exceptions were one sample 

that had a Cl- concentration 10 times larger than the maximum 

detected in blanks and eight samples that had SO4

2- concentrations between 3 and 20 times larger than the maximum 

detected in blanks. 

Duplicate samples were collected and analyzed from 

14 lakes and wetlands. The concentrations of major ions and 

alkalinity for duplicate samples were all within 6 percent 

except for Cl- in Lake 28, which was within 10 percent, and 

Na+ in lake 75, which was within 8 percent. The majority of 

concentrations were within 2 percent. Charge imbalance calculations were carried out in WATEQ4F (Ball and Nordstrom, 

1991). Seventy percent of samples had charge imbalance less 

than 5 percent, 97 percent of samples had charge imbalance 

less than 10 percent and all samples had charge balance less 

than or equal to 15 percent. 

Aquatic Vertebrates

We sampled fish and salamander communities within 

lakes and wetlands concurrent with our sample collections 

for water chemistry analyses. Within each sampled lake and 

wetland, we placed seven aquatic vertebrate funnel traps 

(Mushet and others, 1997) at evenly spaced (30 m) intervals 

parallel to the shoreline along the 1-m depth contour or at the 

open water edge of any emergent vegetation, whichever was 

deeper (fig. 9). The tops of each trap extended beyond the 

water surface allowing captured individuals access to surface 

air thereby increasing survivorship (Mushet and others, 1997). 

We oriented the 2-m driftnet and elongate opening of each trap 

parallel to the shoreline. The location of each trap array in a 

particular lake or wetland was largely determined by ease of 

access and ability to obtain needed landowner permissions. 

All traps were in place for 24 hours before retrieval. Upon trap 

retrieval, we enumerate all captured fish, salamanders, and 

other vertebrates by species. Following identification and enumeration, we immediately released captured individuals back 

into the lake/wetland. We supplemented information on the 

presence or absence of game fish using stocking data obtained 

from the North Dakota Game and Fish Department.
10 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

0 10 20 30 METERS

0 20 40 60 FEET

Lake or wetland center

Emergent vegetation

Shoreline/upland

Invertebrate 

sampling site

Salamander trap

Figure 9. Aquatic vertebrate (fish, salamanders) and macroinvertebrate sampling locations in a typical lake or wetland with 

emergent vegetation.

Macroinvertebrates

Concurrent with fish and salamander sampling, we 

sampled aquatic macroinvertebrate communities using a 

500-micron-mesh, D-shaped, aquatic dip-net. We collected 

dip-net samples at each of 12 locations evenly spaced among 

and along the same depth contour (1 m) as the 7 salamander/

fish traps. The placement of salamander/fish traps and the 

relative location of macroinvertebrate sampling in a typical 

lake or wetland with an emergent vegetative zone are shown 

in figure 9. At each of the 12 sampling locations, we collected 

1 vertical sample of the water column and 1 horizontal sample 

along the lake/wetland bottom. We collected the vertical 

sample by lowering the dip-net to the wetland bottom with 

the net opening and handle oriented vertical to the wetland 

bottom. We then tilted the handle so the net was in a horizontal 

position and quickly pulled it up through the water column to 

the wetland surface. We collected bottom samples in a similar 

manner except, instead of reorienting the direction of the net 

after lowering it to the lake/wetland bottom, we swept the 

vertically oriented net for a distance of 1 m along the bottom 

before pulling it to the surface. The net opening remained 

vertical to the wetland bottom during the pull to the surface to 

minimize the capture of invertebrates from the water column 

as the net was brought to the water surface. 

Once a sample was collected, we concentrated invertebrates by rinsing the net contents through a 500-micron 

screened plankton cup and then transferring the screened 

contents from the plankton cup into a polypropylene sample 

storage jar. Ethyl alcohol was added to each jar until a concentration of 80 percent was reached to preserve the sample. 

We stored all samples in this 80 percent ethyl alcohol solution 

until processed in the lab. Processing consisted of pouring the 

contents of each sample jar through a 500-micron plankton 

cup, rinsing the sample with water to remove any excess ethyl 

alcohol, and separating macroinvertebrates from debris over 

a light table. We identified macroinvertebrates to the lowest 

taxonomic resolution possible and enumerated them by taxon. 

Macroinvertebrates were statistically summarized by 

abundance and species metrics. For each lake and wetland 

sampled, we computed species richness (S), log sum of 

abundance, and Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H’). Lakes 

and wetlands were then categorized by salinity types (that 

is, fresh [0 to 800 μS/cm at 25 °C], oligosaline low [801 to 

4,000 μS/cm at 25 °C], oligosaline high [4,001 to 8,000 μS/cm 

at 25 °C], mesosaline [8,001 to 30,000 μS/cm at 25 °C], and 

polysaline [30,001 to 45,000 μS/cm at 25 °C], based on the 

Cowardin and others [1979] salinity classification) and community metrics were compared by salinity type using an analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Tukey’s Honestly 

Significant Difference (HSD) test for pairwise significance. 

The polysaline lake was not included in the ANOVA because 

only one lake fell into that category.

Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of 

Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands

Water Chemistry

As expected from increased water volumes, water in 

the lakes and wetlands studied generally freshened since the 

original measurements by Swanson and others (1988) (fig. 10; 

appendix 3). Salinity, as measured by specific conductance, 

decreased from a median of 3,200 μS/cm at 25 °C from the 

1966 to 1976 sampling to 1,794 μS/cm at 25 °C in 2012 and 

2013 (table 1). When sampled by Swanson and others (1988), 

only 57 percent of the lakes and wetlands had specific conductance values <4,000 μS/cm at 25 °C. During our 2012 and 

2013 sampling, lakes and wetlands had freshened such that 

80 percent of those sampled had specific conductance values 

<4,000 μS/cm at 25 °C (fig. 11). All major ions, except Ca2+, 

showed temporal reductions in concentration measures (that 

is, median, mean, minimum, maximum) (table 1). Alkalinity 
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 11

1.E+02

1.E+03

1.E+04

1.E+05

1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05

Specific conductance, in microsiemens per centimeter at 

25 degrees Celsius, 1996 to 1976

Specific conductance, in microsiemens per centimeter at 

25 degrees Celsius, 2012 to 2013 

No change

Figure 10. Comparison of specific 

conductance (microsiemens per 

centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius) of 167 

prairie lakes and wetlands sampled from 

1966 to 1976 (Swanson and others, 1988)

and resampled in 2012 and 2013.

Table 1. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands sampled from 1966 to 1976 by Swanson and 

others (1988) and resampled in 2012 and 2013.

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter]

Chemical 

characteristic

1966 to 1976 2012 and 2013

Median Mean Minimum Maximum Median Mean Minimum Maximum

pH 9.0 18.6 7.4 10.2 8.9 18.8 8.1 9.9

Specific conductance 3,200 8,376 365 70,300 1,794 2,897 449 40,350

Alkalinity (as HCO3-) 600 928.9 150 10,800 562 613.5 223 2,290

Calcium (mg/L) 30 42.7 1 196 40 44.7 5.8 164

Magnesium (mg/L) 140 403.4 1 11,600 103 161.5 31.8 1,050

Sodium (mg/L) 475 2,011.0 3 21,800 255 574.0 9.0 13,000

Potassium (mg/L) 78 190.5 4 3,600 38 58.8 5.5 484

Sulfate (mg/L) 725 3,977 16 87,500 689 1,360 10.4 27,000

Chloride (mg/L) 105 613.5 5 13,470 44 153.5 2.9 2,520

1

Determined from the mean hydrogen ion concentration.
12 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota Number of lakes and wetlands

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Fresh, Oligosaline (low),

801 to 4,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Oligosaline (high),

4,001 to 8,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Mesosaline,

8,001 to 30,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake and wetland type

Polysaline,

30,001 to 45,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Eusaline,

45,001 to 60,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Hypersaline,

 greater than or equal to 

60,000 μS/cm at 25 °C

1966−76

2012−13

0 to 800 

μS/cm at 25 °C

μS/cm at 25 °C Microsiemens per centimeter 

 at 25 degrees Celsius

 EXPLANATION

Figure 11. Histogram showing distribution of prairie lakes and wetlands among seven salinity classes based on 

specific conductance of their water.

as HCO3-, K+, Mg2+, Na+, and Cl- displayed great changes 

between the two sampling periods (fig. 12B, D, E, F, H). Sulfate also had lower median and mean concentrations in 2012 

and 2013 (table 1) but the decreasing trend (fig. 12G) was not 

as apparent as for other major ions. Calcium concentrations 

varied for individual wetlands between the two periods but 

without a distinct trend (fig. 12C). All lakes and wetlands were 

saturated or supersaturated with calcite during both original 

sampling and resampling so that Ca2+ concentrations are likely 

buffered by precipitation/dissolution of carbonate minerals. 

Likewise, little temporal variation in pH was observed due to 

buffering by high concentrations of HCO3

- (table 1; fig. 12A).

Swanson and others (1988) identified seven different 

water types in the study lakes and wetlands as determined 

from dominance of major cations and anions: calcium bicarbonate (N=2), magnesium bicarbonate (N=39), magnesium 

sulfate (N=30), sodium bicarbonate (N=18), sodium sulfate 

(N=81), sodium chloride (N=7), and magnesium chloride 

(N=1); however, in our 2012 to 2013 sampling of the same 

lakes and wetlands water of only four different chemical types 

occurred: magnesium bicarbonate (N=46), magnesium sulfate 

(N=38), sodium bicarbonate (N=14), and sodium sulfate 

(N=69). Plotting lakes and wetlands along the ion-defined axes 

of a Piper diagram (fig. 13) provides a visualization of the 

shifts towards more homogeneous water types that occurred 

between the two sample periods. All chemical characteristic 

changes were consistent with changes expected because of 

increased precipitation inputs and resultant dilution effects. 

Of the 167 lakes and wetlands sampled in both the 1966 to 

1976 and 2012 to 2013 periods, only 30 did not display a 

marked decrease in overall ion concentrations as measured by 

specific conductance (fig. 10). 

Swanson and others (1988) also reported significantly 

larger concentrations of most major ions being associated with 

lakes and wetlands in outwash compared to ion concentrations 

of lakes and wetlands situated on glacial till. One exception 

was calcium, which occurred in higher concentrations in 

lakes and wetlands on till. We determined that the trend of 

lakes and wetlands on outwash having higher concentrations 

of major ions, excluding calcium, persisted in our 2012 to 

2013 sampling (table 2). Additionally, we determined that the 

change in ion concentrations between the two sample periods 

was significant for all non-calcium, chemical characteristic 

comparisons (table 2).

To further explore the linkage between rising water levels 

and water chemical characteristics, we used Geochemists 

Workbench 10® modeling code (Bethke and Yeakel, 2015) to 

model major ion concentrations in Lake 87 (Chase Lake) with 

the dissolution of high magnesium calcite (Ca0.9Mg0.1CO3

) 

across a gradient of increasing water volumes. We used May 

1973 starting concentrations as measured in the lake by Swanson and others (1988) and performed dilutions from 0 to a 3 

fold increase in water volume. When ion concentrations from 

our June 22, 2012, sampling are plotted on the modeled concentrations (fig. 14), a 2.6 fold volume increase is suggested. 
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 13

Figure 12. Comparison of chemical and other environmental characteristics of 167 prairie lakes and wetlands sampled 

from 1966 to 1976 (Swanson and others, 1988) and resampled in 2012 and 2013. A, pH; B, alkalinity as bicarbonate; C, calcium; 

D, potassium; E, magnesium; F, sodium; G, sulfate; H, chloride.

7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5

pH, in standard units

pH, in standard units

1,000

10,000

100

100

1,000 10,000

Alkalinity, in milligrams per liter

Alkalinity, in milligrams per liter

0

50

100

150

200

0 50 100 150 200

Calcium, in millgrams per liter

Calcium, in millgrams per liter

10

100

1,000

10,000

10 100 1,000 10,000

Magnesium, in milligrams per liter

Magnesium, in milligrams per liter

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Sodium, in milligrams per liter

Sodium, in milligrams per liter

10

100

1,000

10,000

10 100 1,000 10,000

Sulfate, in milligrams per liter

Sulfate, in milligrams per liter

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1 10 100 1,000 10,000

Chloride, in milligrams per liter

Chloride, in milligrams per liter

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

1 10 100 1,000 10,000

Potassium, in milligrams per liter

Potassium, in milligrams per liter

1966 to 1976 

2012 to 2013

A B

C D

E F

G H
14 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Magnesium

Percent

Sulfate + chloride 

Calcium + magnesium 

Percent

Sodium + potassium

Sulfate

Carbonate + bicarbonate 

Chloride

Percent

Calcium

A. 1966 to 1976 (178 sites sampled)

Figure 13. Piper diagram of water from prairie lakes and wetlands. A, 1966 to 1976 (N=178) and B, 2012 and 2013 

(N=167).

Aquatic Vertebrates

Due to access and timing limitations, we only sampled 

aquatic vertebrates in 162 of the 167 lakes and wetlands sampled for water chemistry. In the lakes and wetlands sampled 

in 2012 and 2013, 10 fish and 2 amphibian species occurred 

(table 3; appendix 4). Fathead minnow was by far the most 

prevalent aquatic vertebrate species, occurring in 81.5 percent 

of the lakes and wetlands sampled. Fathead minnow was 

also the most abundant with an average of 2,186 individuals 

captured per site. Culaea inconstans (brook stickleback), tiger 

salamander, and Perca flavescens (yellow perch) were the next 

most commonly occurring species, captured in 38.3, 36.4, and 

33.3 percent of sample sites, respectively. Etheostoma exile

(Iowa darter) and Lithobates pipiens (northern leopard frog) 

occurred in 11.1 percent and 10.5 percent of sites sampled, 

respectively. All other aquatic vertebrate species, primarily game fish, occurred in less than 10 percent of the lakes 

and wetlands sampled. Chemical characteristics of lakes and 

wetlands in which specific taxa occurred are provided in 

tables 4–6. 

Macroinvertebrates

In the lakes and wetlands sampled for aquatic macroinvertebrates (N=163), we captured specimens representing 

117 unique taxa (appendix 5). Occurrence of macroinvertebrate taxa across the range of lakes and wetlands sampled 
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 15

 

 

Magnesium

Sulfate + chloride 

Calcium + magnesium 

Sodium + potassium

Sulfate

Carbonate + bicarbonate 

Calcium Chloride

B. 2012 and 2013 (167 sites sampled)

Percent

Percent

Percent

Figure 13. Piper diagram of water from prairie lakes and wetlands. A, 1966 to 1976 (N=178) and B, 2012 and 2013 

(N=167)—Continued.

varied greatly, ranging from 10 taxa that occurred at >100 

of the 163 lakes and wetlands sampled to 28 taxa that only 

occurred in a single lake or wetland. Daphnia (water flea), 

Calanoida (calinoid copepod), Hyllela (amphipod), Gammarus (lake amphipod), and Corixidae (water boatmen) were the 

most abundant taxa captured (range of total captures =39,315 

[Gammarus] to 742,947 [Daphnia]). Water boatmen, Hydracarina (water mites), Chironominae (chironomid midges), 

amphipods, Orthocladiinae (orthoclad midges), Cyclopoida 

(cyclopoid copepods), Trichocorixa (a water boatman genus), 

calanoid copepods, water fleas and lake amphipods were the 

most prevalent taxa, occurring at 155, 151, 148, 148, 122, 

120, 116, 110, 110, and 109 sites, respectively. Invertebrate 

species richness, total macroinvertebrate abundance, and 

Shannon-Wiener diversity index all differed significantly 

among salinity types (fig. 15). Oligosaline lakes and wetlands 

with specific conductance between 4,000 and 8,000 μS/cm 

at 25 °C had the highest species richness, whereas polysaline 

(30,001 to 45,000 μS/cm at 25 °C) and mesosaline (8,001 to 

30,000 μS/cm at 25 °C) lakes and wetlands had the lowest 

species richness. In terms of macroinvertebrate abundance, 

mesosaline lakes and wetlands had the highest total abundance, whereas fresh sites (0 to 800 μS/cm at 25 °C) had the 

lowest total abundances of macroinvertebrates captured. The 

Shannon-Wiener diversity index indicated that fresh and oligosaline lakes and wetlands had similar invertebrate diversity 

and the lowest diversity occurred in mesosaline sites.
16 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Table 2. Comparison of changes in mean values for concentrations of major ions (milligrams per liter), 

specific conductance (microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius), and pH between prairie lakes 

and wetlands in till and those in outwash, Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota.

[N, number of sites; mg/L, milligrams per liter; %, percent; t, t-statistic; HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate]

Chemical 

characteristic

Geologic 

setting N Mean concentration (mg/L) Change Change (%) t p-value

1966 to 1976 2012 to 2013

Calcium (mg/L) Till 50 56 59 3.5 6.3 -0.9588 0.3424

Outwash 117 35 38 1.1 3.1 -0.3670 0.7167

Magnesium (mg/L) Till 50 221 131 -90 -40.7 1.9660 0.0549

Outwash 117 497 174 -322 -64.8 2.9968 0.0033

Sodium (mg/L) Till 50 916 271 -645 -70.4 2.7500 0.0083

Outwash 117 2,463 704 -1,759 -71.4 5.4173 0.0000

Potassium (mg/L) Till 50 91 41 -49 -53.8 3.3740 0.0014

Outwash 117 238 66 -171 -71.8 4.7911 0.0000

Chloride (mg/L) Till 50 213 62 -151 -70.9 2.7300 0.0088

Outwash 117 796 192 -603 -75.8 4.2761 0.0000

Sulfate (mg/L) Till 50 1,546 810 -736 -47.6 1.8047 0.0776

Outwash 117 5,444 1,595 -3,850 -70.7 4.0159 0.0001

Alkalinity (as HCO3-) Till 50 586 516 -69 -11.8 1.4670 0.1480

Outwash 117 1,085 655 -431 -39.7 3.9288 0.0001

Specific conductance Till 50 4,284 2,116 -2,168 -50.6 3.0293 0.0039

Outwash 117 10,159 3,750 -6,410 -63.1 5.9500 0.0000

pH Till 50 18.30 18.75 0.44 5.1 -2.8724 0.0060

Outwash 117 18.85 18.82 -0.02 -0.3 0.5865 0.5587

1

Determined from mean hydrogen ion concentrations.
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 17

Table 3. Species occurrence and mean number of captures in 162 

prairie lakes and wetlands sampled for aquatic vertebrates in 2012 and 

2013.

Species

Frequency 

of occurrence, 

in percent 

Mean 

captures

Fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) 81.5 2,185.9

Brook stickleback (Culaea inconstans) 38.3 13.1

Tiger salamander (Ambystoma mavortium) 36.4 19.3

Yellow perch (Perca flavescens) 33.3 27.9

Iowa darter (Etheostoma exile) 11.1 1.8

Northern leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens) 10.5 8.5

Walleye (Sander vitreus) 7.4 0.2

Northern pike (Esox lucius) 3.1 0.4

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) 1.8 0.6

Black bullhead (Ameiurus melas) 1.8 0.4

Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) 0.6 0.7

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) 0.6 0.3

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

.01

0.1

1.0

10

100

Mass solution, in kilograms

Fluid components, in grams per liter

Cloride

Bicarbonate 

Potassium

Calcium

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

May 1973 June 22, 2012

Sulfate

Sodium

Magnesium

Figure 14. Major ion concentrations in Chase Lake, North Dakota (Lake 87), modeled using 

Geochemists Workbench modeling code and the dissolution of high magnesium calcite across 

a gradient of increasing water volumes. Starting concentrations are from the May 1973 sampling 

by Swanson and others (1988). Concentrations measured on June 22, 2012, are also indicated.
18 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Table 4. Specific conductance, pH, and turbidity (Secchi depth) characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands containing aquatic 

vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands from 2012 and 2013 sampling of lakes and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County, 

North Dakota.

[N, number of sites; μS/cm at 25 oC; microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; m, meter]

Species N

Specific conductance 

(μS/cm at 25 °C) pH Turbidity by Secchi depth (m)

Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean1 Minimum Maximum Mean

Fathead minnow 

(Pimephales promelas) 132 449 15,430 2,508.8 8.1 9.9 8.83 0.2 3.0 0.78

Brook stickleback 

(Culaea inconstans) 62 500 15,430 2,534.8 8.2 9.9 8.80 0.2 2.6 0.74

Tiger salamander 

(Ambystoma mavortium) 59 461.8 12,000 3,560.7 8.4 9.9 8.85 0.2 3.0 0.87

Yellow perch 

(Perca flavescens) 54 449 6,900 2,112.1 8.3 9.3 8.84 0.2 3.0 0.83

Iowa darter 

(Etheostoma exile) 18 672 2,361 1,656.6 8.1 9.8 8.74 0.2 3.0 0.91

Northern leopard frog 

(Lithobates pipiens) 17 707 3,838 1,679.7 8.2 9.7 8.74 0.3 3.0 0.79

Walleye 

(Sander vitreus) 12 651 3,128 1,833.2 8.1 9.1 8.70 0.2 3.0 1.17

Northern pike 

(Esox lucius) 5 246 670 443.6 8.6 8.9 8.73 0.3 1.1 0.71

Common carp 

(Cyprinus carpio) 3 867 1,434 1,239.3 8.7 8.8 8.74 0.6 1.67 1.10

Black bullhead 

(Ameiurus melas) 3 651 1,845 1,385.7 8.7 8.9 8.76 0.2 0.5 0.40

Smallmouth bass 

(Micropterus dolomieu) 1 644 644 644 9.0 9.0 9.00 1.0 1.0 1.00

Bluegill 

(Lepomis macrochirus) 1 672 672 672 8.9 8.9 8.90 0.64 0.64 0.64

1

Determined from mean hydrogen ion concentration.
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 19

Table 5. Major cation characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands containing aquatic vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands 

from 2012 and 2013 sampling of lakes and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota.

[N, number of sites; mg/L, milligrams per liter]

Species N

Calcium (mg/L) Magnesium (mg/L) Sodium (mg/L)

Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean

Fathead minnow 

(Pimephales promelas) 132 8.6 164.0 42.8 31.8 970.0 141.9 9.2 3,460 444.1

Brook stickleback 

(Culaea inconstans) 62 8.6 164.0 50.0 35.2 615.0 146.2 9.5 3,460 423.0

Tiger salamander 

(Ambystoma mavortium) 59 5.8 121.1 44.6 35.3 970.0 195.9 31.5 2,650 706.5

Yellow perch 

(Perca flavescens) 54 11.0 82.0 41.3 31.8 414.0 134.2 9.2 1,460 349.0

Iowa darter 

(Etheostoma exile) 18 10.0 82.9 55.5 64.6 154.0 109.1 21.4 287 161.6

Northern leopard frog 

(Lithobates pipiens) 17 12.7 86.2 44.8 52.8 414.0 115.2 21.3 1,227 252.2

Walleye 

(Sander vitreus) 12 23.1 82.9 43.2 45.1 217.0 101.8 30.1 512 223.7

Northern pike 

(Esox lucius) 5 15.6 64.7 36.5 35.2 98.5 74.9 9.5 200 66.7

Common carp 

(Cyprinus carpio) 3 31.3 82.9 59.4 66 112.0 88.3 66.0 109 86.9

Black bullhead 

(Ameiurus melas) 3 651 1,845 53.7 45.1 112.0 87.7 36.1 166 119.4

Smallmouth bass 

(Micropterus dolomieu) 1 15.1 15.1 15.1 72.8 72.8 72.8 27.3 27.3 27.3

Bluegill 

(Lepomis macrochirus) 1 31.1 31.1 31.1 64.6 64.6 64.6 21.4 21.4 21.4
20 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Table 6. Major anion characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands containing aquatic vertebrates and fishless lakes and wetlands 

from 2012 and 2013 sampling of lakes and wetlands in Stutsman County and Kidder County, North Dakota.

[N, number of sites; mg/L, milligrams per liter]

Species N

Sulfate (mg/L) Chloride (mg/L) Carbonate/bicarbonate (mg/L)

Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean Minimum Maximum Mean

Fathead minnow 

(Pimephales promelas) 132 33.8 8,560.0 1,054.7 6.0 984.0 125.1 223 1,272 595.3

Brook stickleback 

(Culaea inconstans) 62 59.4 8,560.0 1,061.7 6.8 984.0 128.8 229 1,236 560.8

Tiger salamander 

(Ambystoma mavortium) 59 10.4 7,314.0 1,706.3 7.5 759.0 177.6 262 2590 725.0

Yellow perch 

(Perca flavescens) 54 18.5 2917.0 843.4 2.9 616.0 114.1 223 6,900 2,112.1

Iowa darter 

(Etheostoma exile) 18 112.0 924.0 566.4 6.8 66.2 32.5 305 644 433.4

Northern leopard frog 

(Lithobates pipiens) 17 47.5 2,917.0 632.0 9.8 615.0 82.9 229 712 494.5

Walleye 

(Sander vitreus) 12 59.5 1,140.0 581.8 13.2 163.0 48.3 254 707 501.6

Northern pike 

(Esox lucius) 5 33.8 304.0 151.5 6.9 26.6 15.1 246 670 443.6

Common carp 

(Cyprinus carpio) 3 137.0 515.0 381.0 16.9 23.2 20.5 330 421 377.7

Black bullhead 

(Ameiurus melas) 3 121.0 619.0 449.3 13.3 57.4 40.9 254 353 298.3

Smallmouth bass 

(Micropterus dolomieu) 1 66.9 66.9 66.9 7.5 7.5 7.5 390 390 390

Bluegill 

(Lepomis macrochirus) 1 112.0 112.0 112.0 6.8 6.8 6.8 342 342 342
Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands 21

0

1

2

3

4

Abundance

Log sum of abundance

Lake and wetland type

A

BC C

B

B.

C.

A.

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Species richness

Number of species

AB

B

AB

A

EXPLANATION

75th percentile

90th percentile

90th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Outlier

Outlier

Interquartile

range

Fresh, Oligosaline (low),

801 to 4,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Oligosaline (high),

4,001 to 8,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Mesosaline,

8,001 to 30,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

Polysaline,

30,001 to 45,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C

0 to 800 

μS/cm at 25 °C

μS/cm at 25 °C Microsiemens per centimeter 

 at 25 degrees Celsius

0.5

0

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

ShannonWiener Diversity Index

A AB AB

B

Diversity

Figure 15. Boxplot showing macroinvertebrate 

population metrics of prairie lakes and wetlands 

within five salinity classes based on specific 

conductance of their water. A, Species Richness; 

B, Log sum of abundance; and C, ShannonWiener Diversity Index. Lake and wetland types 

identfied in the boxplot with different letters (that 

is, A, B, or C) were significantly different from 

each other at p-value =0.05.
22 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Discussion

Increased precipitation since July 1993 has resulted in 

increased depths and volumes in prairie lakes and wetlands, 

the dilution of most major ion concentrations, the expansion 

of fish throughout the region, and shifts in macroinvertebrate 

communities towards those favoring fresh waters. The freshing of the region’s aquatic habitats has likely affected other 

taxa not specifically evaluated in this effort, for example, 

waterfowl.

Water Chemistry

The freshening of saline lakes and wetlands resulted 

in the complete absence of eusaline and hypersaline habitat 

types and only a single polysaline lake during the 2012 and 

2013 sample period. The freshening of lakes and wetlands that 

occurred following the 1988 to July 1993 drought also resulted 

in a decrease in the number of water types into just four of 

the seven determined by Swanson and others (1988). The 

absence of sodium chloride and magnesium chloride water 

types in our 2012 and 2013 sampling is undoubtedly related 

to the reduction in chloride concentrations between the two 

sample periods (1966 to 1976 range =5 to 13,470 mg/L; 2012 

to 2013 range =2.9 to 2,520 mg/L). Only 1 saline lake had a 

specific conductance value >20,000 μS/cm at 25 °C during 

the 2012 and 2013 sampling, and only 11 lakes and wetlands 

had a specific conductance >10,000 μS/cm at 25 °C. This lack 

of saline lakes and wetlands is in stark contrast to the 1966 to 

1976 sampling when 22 lakes and wetlands had specific conductance values >20,000 μS/cm at 25 °C and 38 had values 

>10,000 μS/cm at 25 °C. 

The freshening of Lake 153 provides an example of the 

great shifts in chemical characteristics of lakes and wetlands 

that occurred between the two sampling periods (fig. 16). In 

the 1966 to 1976 sampling, this hypersaline lake was the most 

saline lake or wetland sampled with a specific conductance of 

70,300 μS/cm at 25 °C (appendix 3). By 2013, it had become 

an oligosaline lake with a specific conductance of 8,000 μS/

cm at 25 °C. Sulfate concentrations in Lake 153 dropped from 

87,500 mg/L in 1972 to 1,424 mg/Lin 2013, chloride concentrations decreased from 1,738 to 229 mg/L, magnesium 

concentrations decreased from 11,600 to 239 mg/L, sodium 

concentrations decreased from 20,600 to 430 mg/L, and potassium concentrations dropped from 3,600 to 85.5 mg/L during 

this same period.

Although the salinity of most lakes and wetlands was 

lowered by wetter conditions occurring after 1992, some 

remained relatively unchanged and the salinity of others 

increased. In the majority of cases in which an increase in 

salinity occurred, the change was the result of rising water 

levels causing a lake or wetland with lower dissolved ion 

concentrations to merge with another water body containing 

higher dissolved ion concentrations. As an example, Swanson 

and others (1988) highlighted a lake complex in the Crystal 

Springs, N. Dak. area. Of particular interest were four lakes 

(Lake 150, Lake 151, Lake 156 [Stink Lake], and Lake 157). 

When sampled by Swanson and others (1988), the specific 

conductance of these four lakes was 7,000; 2,090; 29,500; and 

35,000 μS/cm at 25 °C, respectively (appendix 3). Following 

the 1988–1992 drought, rising water levels caused these four 

lakes to merge into a single water body. Specific conductance 

values, measured in 2012 at the four original lake locations 

sampled by Swanson and others (1988), had changed to 6,810; 

6,740; 6,900; and 6,830 μS/cm at 25 °C, respectively, reflecting the ability of water within these three lakes to freely mix 

once connected into a single water body (fig. 17). Although 

Lakes 156 and 157 showed marked decreases in specific conductance values between the two periods, Lake 150 changed 

very little and Lake 151 increased due to the mixing of waters 

from four lakes with a wide range of ion concentrations into a 

single water body with homogeneous chemical characteristics. 

This merging of lakes and wetlands, and intermixing of water, 

occurred throughout the study region during the post-drought 

years, which contributed to the loss of diversity in chemical 

characteristics that included increases in salinity in some lakes 

and wetlands. 

Of the six lakes and wetlands displaying increases in specific conductance >1,000 μS/cm at 25 °C between the sample 

periods (Lakes 3, 14, 16, 144, 151, and 175), increases in four 

were the direct result of merging with other water bodies with 

higher concentrations of dissolved solids; however, Lakes 3 

and 144 did not merge with any other water bodies during the 

study period. The reason for the salinity increase in these two 

lakes may be related to groundwater effects with potential to 

overcome dilution effects from increased precipitation and surface runoff into basins. The response of the entire hydrologic 

unit, upland plus wetland plus salts and water in the subsurface, can lead to complex changes under unusually wet conditions (Heagle and others, 2013; Nachshon and others, 2014). 

Lake 144 (1973 specific conductance value =36, 000 μS/cm 

at 25 °C; 2013 specific conductance value =40,350 μS/cm at 

25 °C; appendix 3) is of special interest because it was the 

only lake or wetland sampled that was classified as polysaline (that is, specific conductance between 30,000 and 45,000 

μS/cm at 25 °C). The next closest lake or wetland in terms 

of 2012 to 2013 salinity was Lake 43, which had a specific 

conductance value of 18,430 μS/cm at 25 °C. An examination 

of aerial imagery of Lake 144 revealed that, although within a 

closed basin and lacking a surface spill point, this lake varied 

little in size between the two sample periods as compared to 

surrounding lakes and wetlands in similar settings (note how 

Lake 144 changes little in size between the two years while 

surrounding wetlands are substantially larger in 1997; fig. 18). 

Also, this lake was located near the intersection of an area of 

low permeability glacial till and an area of high permeability 

outwash. The unique location of this lake at the intersection 

of two areas with greatly different hydrologic conductivities 

may have set the stage for a stronger effect of groundwater on 

the water budget than for other lakes and wetlands sampled; 

however, additional work is needed to verify this hypothesis.
Discussion 23

A

B

National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) image 

obtained through EarthExplorer (earthexplore.usgs.gov)

Figure 16. Aerial photographs showing Lake 153, Stutsman County, North Dakota. A, September 24, 

1997, and B, September 25, 2012. 
24 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Swanson and others, 1988

Lake 151

2,090 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 156

29,500 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 150 south

11,200 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 150 north

5,200 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 157

35,000 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 170

9,600 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 158

3,400 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 148

15,900 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 151

6,740 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 156

6,900 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 150 south

6,810 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 150 north

6,810 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 157

6,830 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 170

4,008 μS/cm at 25 °C

μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 158

3,988 μS/cm at 25 °C

Lake 148

5,850 μS/cm at 25 °C

EXPLANATION

Microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius

A

B

Figure 17. Specific conductance 

of lakes in the Crystal Springs, 

North Dakota, area from sampling 

conducted in A, 1966 to 1976 

(aerial photograph reproduced 

from Swanson and others, 1988) 

and B, 2012 and 2013 (aerial 

photograph from July 2012).
Discussion 25

A B

National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) imagery

obtained through EarthExplorer (earthexplorer.usgs.gov)

Figure 18. National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP) photographs of Lake 144 (indicated with a star) from A, July 13, 1990, 

and B, September 25, 1997.

Aquatic Vertebrates

Fish presence has been historically limited by shallow water levels and high salinities that are characteristic of 

prairie lakes and wetlands (McCarraher, 1960; McCarraher 

and Thomas, 1968; Rawson and Moore, 1944). The changes 

that occurred to lakes and wetlands between the two sample 

periods resulted in a landscape much more favorable for fish 

habitation (that is, deeper and fresher lakes and wetlands); 

in fact, fish were caught in 86 percent of the 162 lakes and 

wetlands sampled for fish. The presence of gamefish increased 

from 9 lakes during sampling in the 1960s and 1970s (Swanson and others, 1988) to 62 lakes during the 2012–13 sampling. Shallow lakes have generally been defined as lakes with 

a maximum depth of less than 3 m (for example, Minnesota 

Department of Natural Resources, 2012. Of the 167 lakes and 

wetlands we sampled in 2012 and 2013, only 34 would be 

considered shallow following this definition (that is, 133 of the 

lakes and wetlands had maximum water depths greater than or 

equal to 3 m). 

When salamanders are considered in addition to fish, 97 

percent of the lakes and wetlands supported vertebrates (fish, 

salamanders, or both) during 2012 to 2013. Our findings of 

fish and salamander presence along alkalinity and specific 

conductance gradients are consistent with species thresholds 

identified in previous studies. Fathead minnows typically do 

not occur in alkaline waters above 2,000 mg/L (McCarraher 

and Thomas, 1968). The maximum alkalinity for a lake or 

wetland with fathead minnows during our sampling was 1,272 

mg/L. Brook sticklebacks are also limited to alkalinities below 

2,000 mg/L (Scott and Crossman, 1973). The maximum alkalinity of lakes and wetlands with brook sticklebacks was 1,236 

mg/L. Similarly, brook sticklebacks, yellow perch, and barred 

tiger salamanders are limited to waters with a specific conductance <25,000 μS/cm at 25 °C (Scott and Crossman, 1973); 

4,500 μS/cm at 25 °C (Koel and Peterka, 1995); and 12,500 

μS/cm at 25 °C (Swanson and others, 1988), respectively. In 

our sampling, we determined these species to be completely 

absent in waters above 15,430 μS/cm at 25 °C (brook stickleback); 6,900 μS/cm at 25 °C (yellow perch); and 12,000 μS/

cm at 25 °C (barred tiger salamanders). The occurrence of 

fathead minnows in lakes and wetlands was mostly consistent 

with known thresholds (that is, maximum =12,000 μS/cm at 

25 °C; Burnham and Peterka, 1975); however, we did find 

fathead minnows in one lake with a specific conductance of 

15,530 μS/cm at 25 °C. It should also be noted that although 

tiger salamanders have similar tolerances to salinity as fathead 

minnows (12,500 and 12,000 μS/cm at 25 °C, respectively), 

we found that they were more tolerant of alkalinity and thrived 
26 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

in alkaline waters >1,500 mg/L where fish were absent. In 

addition to the three common fish species already discussed, 

Iowa darters were only captured in lakes and wetlands with 

specific conductance between 672 and 2,361 μS/cm at 25 °C, 

indicating a preference for fresh water. 

Macroinvertebrates

Swanson and others (1988) present several examples of 

invertebrate shifts that occur in response to changes in salt 

concentrations. As an example, they describe how Lymnaea 

stagnalis (swamp lymnaea) was restricted to lakes and wetlands with relatively low dissolved salt concentrations (that is, 

specific conductance <5000 μS/cm at 25 °C). Above 5,000 μS/

cm at 25 °C, the swamp lymnaea is replaced by Stagnicola

spp. as the dominant pond snail; however, Stagnicola is 

restricted to water with salt concentrations <10,000 μS/cm at 

25 °C. Swanson and others (1988) also describe how relatively 

few species can tolerate salt concentrations of highly saline 

lakes and wetlands and that these highly saline sites have 

invertebrate communities dominated by Artemia salina (brine 

shrimp), Ephydra spp. (brine flies) and Corixidae (water boatmen). Gleason and others (2009) also determined that many 

aquatic invertebrate taxa occur across a relatively broad range 

of salt concentrations; however, the most highly saline waters 

are populated by relatively few taxa, including brine shrimp, 

copepods, and a small number of Coleoptera (beetle) and 

Diptera (fly) species.

 Our 2012 and 2013 sampling of macroinvertebrate communities identified associations of invertebrates to salinity gradients that paralleled those presented by Swanson and others 

(1988) and reviewed by Gleason and others (2009). Lymnaea 

stagnalis occurred in lakes and wetlands with specific conductance values ranging from 721 to 3,587 μS/cm at 25 °C, 

well below the 5,000-μS/cm at 25 °C threshold identified by 

Swanson and others (1988). Stagnicola spp. were present in 

waters ranging from 1,153 to 6,740 μS/cm at 25 °C. Only a 

single lake or wetland sampled in 2012 to 2013 had salt concentrations resulting in a specific conductance >35,000 μS/cm 

at 25 °C (Lake 144). Invertebrates in this lake were restricted 

to only 10 taxa: brine shrimp, two copepods (Calanoida and 

Harpactocoida), a water flea, ostracods, water boatmen, one 

beetle (Hygrotus), and three flies (Ephydridae, Stratiomyidae, 

and Eristalis). This polysaline lake was the only lake sampled 

in which brine shrimp, Eristalis (hover flies), and harpacticoid copepods (Harpacticoida) occurred. We suspect that, at 

the even higher salt concentrations observed from 1966 to 

1976, additional taxa would fall out of the community until 

only brine shrimp, brine flies, and salt-tolerant copepods 

and water boatmen remained as described by Swanson and 

others (1988); however, the freshening of lakes and wetlands 

throughout our study region has made macroinvertebrate 

communities that are dominated by only the most salt-tolerant 

species a very rare occurrence. Instead, diverse macroinvertebrate assemblages that include representatives from the wide 

range of less salt-tolerant species are more likely to reside in 

the more homogeneous habitat types resulting from the recent 

freshening of the region’s saline lakes and wetlands. 

The decline of species richness with increasing salinities 

is consistent with findings of Swanson and others (1988) and 

findings from similar closed basin lakes in Wyoming, Canada, 

and Australia (Timms, 1981; Hammer and others, 1990; and 

Wollheim and Lovvorn, 1995). Additionally, lakes and wetlands with high salinities had increased invertebrate abundances. Similar studies indicate this increase in invertebrate 

abundance in saline lakes and wetlands with low diversity is 

caused by a shift to small, but highly abundant, suspended 

macroinvertebrates such as copepods and corixids dominating the more saline lakes (Rawson and Moore, 1944; Timms, 

1981; Galat and Robisnson, 1983; Wollheim and Lovvorn, 

1995). The increased availability of lower salinity habitats 

may likely benefit most waterfowl species that consistently 

prey on macroinvertebrates such as amphipods and snails but 

would not favor shorebirds such as phalaropes, avocets, and 

yellowlegs, species that consistently feed on the diving beetles 

and corixids commonly present at higher salinities (Wollheim 

and Lovvorn, 1995).

Implications for Waterfowl

Waterfowl breeding populations are surveyed annually 

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and populations of most 

species are known to favorably respond to the number of early 

season breeding habitats (May ponds) available on the landscape (Zimpfer and others, 2014). Wetland modeling efforts in 

the PPR (Johnson and others, 2005, 2010) have predicted that 

under a warming climate, increases in evapotranspiration will 

likely overcome any precipitation increases associated with 

a changing climate and favorable waterfowl habitat conditions will shift from the traditionally more productive areas 

of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Canada, such as the area 

we sampled, to the eastern edges of the region where wetland 

drainage and other alterations affecting wetlands have been 

greatest; however, May pond numbers throughout the PPR of 

the United States were high during much of the 1993 to 2014 

period because of the trend towards increased precipitation. 

The increased water on the landscape of our study region 

generally provided favorable conditions for most waterfowl; in 

fact, six waterfowl species have displayed marked population 

increases since 1993 reflective of the increased availability 

of aquatic habitats (including May ponds) across the region 

(Zimpfer and others, 2014; fig. 19). 

Although many waterfowl species responded favorably 

to increased availability of water on the landscape, some 

species failed to show a positive response (fig. 20), indicating that other factors were more important population effects 

for these species. One of the waterfowl species that failed to 

increase during the post-drought years of our study was Anas 

americana (American wigeon). Swanson and others (1988) 

highlighted this waterfowl species and suggested that high salt 
Discussion 27

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

11,000

12,000

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

2,500

3,500

4,500

5,500

6,500

7,500

8,500

9,500

Breeding population, in thousands

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

19541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020141954195819621966197019741978198219861990199419982002200620102014

19541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020141954195819621966197019741978198219861990199419982002200620102014

19541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020141954195819621966197019741978198219861990199419982002200620102014

A B

C D

E F

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Figure 19. Breeding population of six waterfowl species that displayed marked increases during the 1993 to 2014 postdrought period. A, Anas platyrhynchos (mallard); B, Anas strepera (gadwall); C, Anas discors (blue-winged teal); D, Anas 

crecca (green-winged teal); E, Aythya americana (redhead); and F, Anas clypeata (northern shoveler). Data from Zimpher 

and others, (2014).
28 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

500

2,500

4,500

6,500

8,500

10,500

12,500

Breeding population, in thousands

2,500

3,500

4,500

5,500

6,500

7,500

8,500

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

19541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020141954195819621966197019741978198219861990199419982002200620102014

19541958196219661970197419781982198619901994199820022006201020141954195819621966197019741978198219861990199419982002200620102014

A B

C D

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Pre-drought/

drought

Post drought

Figure 20. Breeding population of four waterfowl species that did not display marked increases during the 1993 to 2014 

post-drought period. A, American wigeon (Anas americana); B, northern pintail (Anas acuta); C, canvasback (Aythya 

valisineria); and D, lesser scaup (Aythya affinis). Data from Zimpher and others (2014).

concentrations affected this species through the positive association of Ruppia maritima (widgeongrass) with higher water 

salinities. As its name implies, widgeongrass is a plant species 

favored by American wigeon. Widgeongrass is dominant over 

other less salt-tolerant plant species in lakes and wetlands with 

high salt concentrations. Due to its tolerance of high salinity 

water, widgeongrass is commonly present in coastal bays and 

other marine environments but also occurs in brackish and 

saline inland waters (Gleason and others, 2009). Although we 

did not sample plant communities in this study, it is likely that 

the freshening of most lakes and wetlands led to less favorable 

conditions for the growth of widgeongrass, which is outcompeted in fresher environments, and concurrently for the American wigeon populations that this plant supports; however, 

another waterfowl species that is known to respond positively 

to widgeongrass, the redhead, showed a marked increase in 

the post-drought years despite less favorable conditions for 

widgeongrass growth. 

Although likely negatively influencing widgeongrass, 

the freshening of lakes and wetlands likely produced conditions more favorable to deep-marsh emergent plants such as 

cattails (Typha spp.) and bulrushes (Schoenoplectus spp.) that 

flourish in waters with lower salt concentrations (Gleason and 

others, 2009). Swanson and others (1988) listed four features 

of prairie lakes and wetlands that largely affect use by waterfowl: (1) plant and invertebrate communities needed to meet 

waterfowl nutritional requirements, (2) overwater nesting 

cover, (3) a source of suitable (fresh) drinking water, and (4) 

escape cover for flightless birds. Both American wigeon and 

redhead populations would likely have been affected similarly 

by decrease in widgeongrass availability. Also, availability 

of drinking water and escape cover (deep-marsh emergent 

vegetation) would have both been positively affected for these 

species; however, the redhead is an overwater nesting species, whereas the American wigeon is an upland nester. Thus, 

the increased availability of overwater nesting habitat in the 

form of increased stands of cattails and bulrushes surrounding 

lakes and wetlands may have affected redhead populations in a 

manner that compensated for negative effects from decreased 

availability of widgeongrass. Likewise, the American wigeon 

could have been affected by both a decrease in nutrient availability and a decline in nesting habitat if conditions in the 

uplands also were negatively affected by agricultural development or other upland land-cover effects. To fully understand 
References Cited 29

the ultimate effect of changing chemical characteristics on 

waterfowl, populations and their unique habitat requirements 

must be considered at the species level. Additionally, other 

factors influencing waterfowl populations (for example, landcover in surrounding uplands, wintering habitat conditions, 

conditions along migratory corridors) must also be considered.

Conclusions

Between the original 1966 to 1976 sampling and our 2012 

to 2013 sampling, most prairie lakes and wetlands in Stutsman 

County and Kidder County, North Dakota, have increased 

markedly in size, depth, and water volume. These increases are 

largely related to precipitation increases that started following a 

drought that persisted from 1988 to July 1993. Increased water 

volumes in prairie lakes and wetlands have resulted in lower 

concentrations of most major ions through dilution. The freshening of these water bodies has resulted in a reduction in the 

diversity of water types that have historically supported diverse 

plant and animal communities in the region. Many lakes and 

wetlands were previously too salty for fish; however, the 

freshening of these wetlands to levels favorable to fish and an 

increase in surface connections facilitating fish movements into 

new areas have resulted in most sampled lakes and wetlands 

now containing fish, primarily fathead minnows and brook 

sticklebacks, but also including several game-fish species. This 

increase in fish prevalence across the prairie pothole landscape 

has resulted in tiger salamander populations being restricted 

primarily to sites where salt concentrations have remained 

high enough to restrict fish populations and to sites that have 

remained isolated in the terms of lacking surface water connections suitable for fish movements. The changed chemical 

characteristics, fish communities, and invertebrate communities of sampled prairie lakes and wetlands likely also affect 

the suitability and use of these sites by waterfowl and other 

wildlife; however, effects, both positive and negative, will need 

to be assessed on a species specific basis. Whether these high 

water conditions, which have resulted in the fresh, relatively 

homogeneous habitat conditions for a region known for its 

diversity, will continue is unknown; however, the response of 

habitats and dependent wildlife to changing climate conditions 

will likely be far more complicated than has been indicated by 

previous modeling efforts suggesting an overall drying trend 

resulting from increased temperatures.

Acknowledgments

Funding for this research effort was provided by the U.S. 

Geological Survey’s Climate and Land Use Change Mission 

Area, Climate and Land Use Research and Development 

Program. We thank Glenn Guntenspergen, James LaBaugh, 

Garth van der Kamp, and U.S. Geological Survey for providing constructive reviews on earlier drafts of this report. 

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Appendixes 1–5

Appendixes 1–5 35

Appendix 1. Analytical laboratory methods used in 2012 and 2013 sampling of prairie lakes and wetlands in south-central North 

Dakota.

[Temp, temperature; mV, millivolts; mg/L, milligrams per liter; nm, nanometer]

Field methods

pH Beckman Coulter 250 pH/Temp/mV meter (part #511201) with Beckman Coulter combination pH electrode 

(part #511053). Two point standardization with 7.00 and 10.01 pH buffers.

Specific conductance WTW Model 315i meter with a TetraCon 325 standard conductivity measuring cell.

Laboratory methods

Total alkalinity Titrimetric: Endpoint titration with sulfuric acid using a Thermo 940-960 autotitrator. 

Sulfate Ion chromatography detection limit 0.1 mg/L.

Chloride Ion chromatography detection limit 0.1 mg/L.

Magnesium Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy; wavelength 285.211 nm.

Calcium Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy; wavelength 317.933 nm.

Sodium Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy; wavelength 589.592 nm.

Potassium Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy; wavelength 766.495 nm.
36 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 2. Analytical laboratory methods used in 1966 to 1976 sampling of 178 prairie lakes and wetlands in south-central North 

Dakota (reproduced from Swanson and others, 1988).

[A 50-milliliter (mL) aliquot was placed in a 100-mL volumetric flask. The pH level was adjusted with hydrochloric acid to about 4, and 5 mL of 10-percent 

lanthanum solution was added. The volume was brought to 100 mL (the resulting solution had a lanthanum content of 1 percent). Calcium, magnesium, sodium, 

and potassium were then determined through atomic absorption spectrometry. ±, plus or minus; °C, degrees Celsius; nm, nanometer; Å, angstrom; mg/L, milligram per liter]

Field methods

pH Colorimetric: Model 17-N wide range pH comparator (Hach Chemical Co., Loveland, CO). Electrometric: 

Portomatic Model 175 I. L. pH meter with combination electrode (Instrumentation Laboratory, Watertown, 

Mass.).

Specific conductance Electrometric: portable Model Mark IV Lectro mho-meter with unbreakable sprole cell K–1 (Labline Instruments Inc., Melrose, Ill.).

Laboratory methods

pH Electrometric: research Model 7415 L. N. pH-meter with combination electrode (Leeds & Northrup Co., Philadelphia, Pa.).

Total alkalinity Titrimetric: sulfuric acid titration with phelolphthalein and brom cresol green-methyl red indicators.

Specific conductance Electrometric: multipurpose Model 4959 resistance/conductance bridge with glass/platinum electrodes (Leeds & 

Northrup Co., Philadelphia, Pa.).

Fixed residue Gravimetric: furnace heating at 550 ± 5 °C.

Total residue Gravimetric: oven heating at 103 ± 2 °C.

Sulfate Turbidimetric: wavelength at 450 nm.

Chloride Titrimetric: mercuric nitrate titration with buffered diphenylcarbazone indicator.

Magnesium Spectrometric: Model 303 P-E spectrometer (Analytical Methods, Perkin-Elmer Corp., Norwalk, Conn.). 

Primary wavelength at 2,852 Å and burner at 90 °C to optical path for 0.1–60 mg/L; secondary wavelength at 

2,025 Å and burner at 90 °C to optical path for 0.1–600 mg/L.

Calcium Primary wavelength at 4,227 Å and for 0.1–1.5 mg/L; Primary wavelength and burner at 90 °C to optical path 

for 0.1–150 mg/L.

Sodium Primary wavelength at 5,890 Å for 0.1–75 mg/L; secondary wavelength at 3,302 Å for 0.1–700 mg/L.

Potassium Primary wavelength at 7,665 Å for 0.1–20 mg/L; primary wavelength and burner at 90 °C to optical path for 

0.1–100 mg/L; secondary wavelength at 4,044 Å for 0.1–140 mg/L.
Appendixes 1–5 37

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

1 5/1969 9.1 860 4,150 1,185 105 28 8 860 60

1 6/7/2013 9.0 771 2,723 899 49.5 64.9 22.3 573 52.6

2 3/1973 9.1 1,170 4,600 1,250 70 1 3 1,280 48

2 6/5/2013 9.0 861 4,614 1,780 34.6 55.2 22.3 1,000 28.8

3 9/1972 9.3 980 4,400 1,250 30 58 18 975 70

3 8/10/2012 9.1 741 6,350 3,301 49.8 150 44.8 1,395 98.9

4 6/1969 9.6 3,760 19,500 8,750 15 140 4 1,600 704

4 7/1/2013 9.0 748 1,933 448 45.1 88.6 18 296 47.2

5 6/1969 8.9 850 2,150 400 65 143 18 23 43

5 7/1/2013 8.8 421 867 137 16.9 66 31.3 66 14.7

6 9/1972 8.8 460 30,000 30,000 480 2,640 131 4,040 870

6 9/10/2013 8.9 470 5,180 2,970 66.3 348 44 857 92.4

7 3/1973 8.8 570 2,800 700 85 42 14 546 81

7 6/27/2012 8.5 644 1,850 494 41.0 81.3 38.4 273 35.2

8 6/1969 9.1 960 2,300 350 55 109 3 292 45

8 6/27/2012 8.1 605 1,885 522 41.4 72.6 41.3 285 32.9

9 9/1972 9.3 1,540 4,700 1,050 155 124 10 1,055 150

9 8/10/2012 9.3 839 1,934 357 44.4 95.9 8.69 282 46.2

10 9/1972 8.7 950 3,300 875 110 134 25 574 80

10 8/10/2012 9.8 615 1,347 270 30.4 78.8 9.99 186 29.7

11 6/1969 9.2 1,550 4,350 1,200 65 62 8 1,280 72

11 6/10/2013 9.0 804 1,693 306 19 59.2 18.3 344 38

12 6/1969 9.0 1,300 7,850 2,630 350 228 9 1,440 302

12 7/12/2013 8.9 715 2,969 1,020 77.8 96.8 31.5 536 62.7

13 6/1969 9.0 760 3,100 1,000 120 120 15 400 75

13 7/12/2013 8.9 707 2,972 1,030 77 101 31.6 512 65.6

14 7/1972 9.1 480 1,750 350 25 64 31 280 38

14 7/12/2013 8.7 657 2,804 966 70.4 92.9 38.5 450 56.2

15 5/1973 9.3 2,120 23,050 8,000 1,555 666 8 5,760 522

15 6/25/2012 8.9 1,246 11,190 5,902 663 377 27.4 2,650 225

16 7/1972 9.4 760 2,800 525 95 128 10 456 60

16 6/25/2012 8.9 1,228 11,450 5,827 668 367 27.6 2,610 221

17 9/1972 9.0 680 2,800 700 35 60 15 530 46

17 7/16/2013 9.0 482 1,450 413 14.5 60.2 26.3 221 23.9

18 11/1972 9.4 2,590 10,200 2,200 260 59 8 2,780 170

18 7/26/2013 9.2 867 2,925 864 52.3 61.8 16.9 610 51.2
38 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

19 7/1970 9.6 6,040 42,000 8,000 6,670 1 2 11,500 960

19 7/16/2013 9.4 2,590 10,410 2,940 652 64.6 5.8 2,550 179

20 7/1972 9.1 830 7,050 2,125 300 170 25 1,564 167

20 8/5/2013 9.0 619 1,414 357 32.6 112 22.3 177 30.8

21 7/1970 9.4 5,960 64,000 22,500 13,470 62 2 21,800 660

21 7/18/2012 9.2 1,077 6,640 2,031 474 128 24.5 1,296 122

22 3/1973 9.1 610 25,000 10,250 2,470 910 15 5,920 814

22 6/10/2013 8.6 670 11,700 5,530 656 373 48.1 2,310 295

23 9/1972 8.7 1,410 34,000 13,750 3,485 1,560 24 10,760 1,460

23 7/15/2013 8.8 832 6,950 2,860 457 203 34.9 1,490 168

24 7/1970 9.6 10,800 40,000 13,750 2,775 27 3 12,000 972

24 8/5/2013 9.3 1,050 3,498 1,090 94 60.6 13.8 817 64.7

25 6/1969 9.1 450 960 95 45 75 17 33 70

25 6/27/2012 8.4 354 698 100 8.1 51.4 49.0 37 6.88

26 7/1972 9.0 1,420 31,300 15,500 2,295 2,984 7 8,160 800

26 6/25/2012 8.6 593 12,530 6,964 759 873 68.0 1,880 189

27 7/1969 9.1 380 30,100 18,750 2,480 1,492 83 6,880 348

27 7/15/2013 8.8 538 9,730 5,390 552 572 77.7 1,640 204

28 7/1972 9.0 800 2,140 310 60 192 8 192 80

28 7/11/2012 8.6 560 979 85 19.8 98.5 15.6 54 29.7

29 10/1976 8.2 270 1,020 250 20 62 35 67 15

29 7/9/2012 8.7 254 651 121 13.2 45.1 27.7 36 9.84

30 6/1967 9.3 1,720 14,900 6,875 945 200 100 3,660 245

30 7/31/2013 9.3 1,040 6,440 2,480 388 176 14.6 1,460 103

31 9/1972 9.3 640 3,900 1,000 240 190 11 595 80

31 7/31/2013 9.2 592 1,081 163 32 82.2 18.1 135 22.9

32 9/1973 8.9 700 32,000 14,500 2,405 1,580 56 8,400 652

32 7/22/2013 8.9 619 7,210 3,490 371 405 24.9 1,300 121

33 5/1971 9.1 620 1,280 225 25 174 104 40 26

33 7/2/2013 9.0 477 706 38 12.6 81.2 19.7 29 15.2

34 5/1971 9.1 500 1,380 300 35 174 28 48 30

34 7/2/2013 8.9 374 607 34 11.6 61.4 25.1 20 10.8

35 5/1971 8.9 240 565 49 15 39 52 14 5

35 7/2/2013 8.6 246 500 59 10.5 35.2 47.5 10 5.54

36 5/1971 9.2 670 1,360 200 30 170 18 70 36

36 7/25/2012 9.2 456 721 35 15.5 81.4 18.7 26 12.2
Appendixes 1–5 39

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

37 5/1971 8.9 700 2,350 500 70 204 27 208 78

37 7/25/2012 9.2 676 1,290 216 32.4 108 11.4 156 41.8

38 11/1972 9.0 530 1,140 90 35 59 10 64 76

38 7/5/2012 8.8 404 712 60 17.9 62.0 23.1 30 28.0

39 5/1971 9.5 150 365 40 20 45 17 11 8

39 7/18/2012 8.5 223 449 49 6.0 31.8 32.4 9 8.58

40 5/1971 8.3 400 690 48 15 73 50 22 11

40 7/20/2012 9.1 521 462 104 9.2 95.8 18.1 49 19.9

41 11/1972 9.0 350 770 75 20 52 13 36 15

41 7/24/2012 9.0 390 644 67 7.5 72.8 15.1 27 11.4

42 5/1971 8.7 590 3,500 1,250 140 282 61 264 74

42 8/7/2013 9.2 843 2,580 709 107 105 18.6 480 91.6

43 5/1971 8.9 1,250 47,000 33,750 4,255 3,024 68 11,200 960

43 7/25/2012 9.0 939 18,430 9,556 1,292 657 24.2 4,147 330

44 7/1972 9.4 1,280 10,200 3,125 575 424 8 1,950 280

44 7/25/2012 9.2 926 3,262 962 136 197 8.86 433 69.2

45 7/1972 9.4 1,280 8,150 1,850 410 412 7 1,530 188

45 7/24/2012 9.1 931 3,762 1,188 179 212 11.7 524 72.6

46 7/1971 8.8 560 1,440 125 145 156 27 106 36

46 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

47 5/1971 9.3 930 4,400 1,000 280 192 13 562 184

47 6/10/2013 9.1 719 1,293 139 46.1 98.4 19.6 142 36.9

48 7/1969 9.5 1,510 10,100 1,625 1,720 10 1 1,860 174

48 7/18/2012 9.2 1,236 4,422 843 354 71.6 14.2 857 61.0

49 9/1972 9.3 890 3,700 900 160 110 12 746 55

49 8/7/2013 8.9 670 1,359 275 26.6 90.4 29.7 200 21.1

50 9/1972 8.4 700 2,100 400 35 194 47 240 50

50 8/1/2012 9.1 646 1,089 108 13.4 89.5 12.7 119 20.5

51 9/1972 9.3 1,940 12,000 5,000 45 75 13 3,780 280

51 8/1/2012 8.8 1,220 4,687 1,623 77.1 80.5 19.6 966 88.8

52 9/1972 9.4 1,290 8,500 2,750 160 134 12 2,000 170

52 8/1/2012 8.8 873 3,652 1,338 37.6 91.9 35.7 687 48.6

53 9/1972 9.5 2,630 11,200 4,375 265 101 10 3,910 250

53 7/26/2013 9.0 745 3,651 1,480 27.7 85.9 35.6 797 49

54 5/1973 9.3 840 13,500 7,500 390 103 73 5,000 240

54 6/17/2013 9.0 561 3,392 1,390 22.3 80.4 30.3 659 41.3
40 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

55 9/1972 8.5 720 2,230 440 35 52 39 418 53

55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

56 9/1972 10.0 320 1,950 550 15 62 25 280 60

56 7/26/2013 8.9 603 1,449 348 11.6 80.4 21.3 218 34.5

57 9/1972 9.2 980 3,600 1,000 35 122 9 630 80

57 8/3/2012 9.0 609 1,514 352 14.3 86.9 11.0 216 34.4

58 9/1972 9.4 810 3,100 800 70 280 8 375 104

58 8/6/2012 8.8 648 1,109 132 23.0 99.4 24.1 88 41.3

59 9/1972 9.3 920 3,100 700 85 164 10 350 150

59 8/6/2012 9.0 717 1,642 418 38.5 143 23.1 165 87.0

60 9/1972 8.4 390 750 28 15 70 30 25 25

60 8/6/2012 8.8 353 625 76 8.8 57.9 25.1 30 17.8

61 9/1972 9.2 1,040 2,220 220 65 152 11 270 110

61 8/9/2013 8.7 748 958 10 14.6 103 31.6 64 32.1

62 9/1972 8.8 800 2,700 600 50 232 29 250 100

62 8/9/2013 8.8 521 1,160 295 13.5 101 34.9 94 40.2

63 8/1973 9.6 3,430 18,000 6,500 25 500 12 4,840 424

63 8/3/2012 9.1 634 1,768 464 17.5 73.6 26.5 255 32.0

64 8/1973 8.7 920 4,000 230 25 118 29 755 84

64 8/3/2012 8.9 633 1,794 457 17.6 74.4 26.6 259 32.5

65 9/1972 8.8 460 1,200 125 45 86 16 135 22

65 8/7/2013 9.0 460 740 34 35 66.6 22.8 62 11.3

66 10/1972 9.2 1,100 4,800 1,500 150 67 22 1,260 80

66 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

67 9/1972 9.5 1,400 5,900 2,500 350 166 5 1,980 110

67 7/30/2012 9.0 820 3,876 1,347 129 102 11.8 768 46.5

68 9/1972 9.7 4,040 34,000 21,250 3,250 860 1 17,120 430

68 7/30/2012 9.2 1,272 11,200 4,577 513 185 21.5 2,572 129

69 9/1972 9.5 970 2,800 550 60 142 3 424 90

69 7/30/2012 9.0 659 1,487 316 26.4 94.5 13.6 169 39.6

70 9/1972 9.3 1,410 6,800 2,000 295 162 24 2,320 140

70 8/9/2013 8.9 734 2,689 886 72.5 80.9 36.6 551 46.2

71 10/1972 8.9 910 6,200 2,500 175 464 35 1,215 150

71 8/12/2013 8.9 494 2,826 1,220 46 183 56.5 366 48.1

72 9/1972 9.0 320 580 38 5 54 11 35 14

72 7/18/2013 8.3 350 537 19 2.9 38.3 37.6 18 6.56
Appendixes 1–5 41

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

73 9/1972 9.6 1,790 3,600 1,000 210 73 4 1,330 100

73 7/18/2013 9.9 1,230 3,956 1,020 125 58.7 8.6 830 56.8

74 9/1972 9.3 1,330 4,500 855 205 188 6 835 80

74 7/18/2013 9.1 578 1,459 308 43.4 80.6 25 184 21.5

75 9/1972 10.2 390 4,200 1,375 200 164 13 576 80

75 7/22/2013 8.7 608 2,626 996 107 191 26.9 298 54.7

76 9/1972 9.1 490 1,020 75 30 79 12 64 50

76 7/27/2012 9.0 474 990 187 16.9 97.5 17.3 55 40.9

77 9/1972 9.5 900 8,000 4,000 780 396 13 2,300 198

77 8/12/2013 9.2 622 3,587 1,230 181 126 29.5 666 67.7

78 5/1973 9.6 4,840 25,000 6,250 5,240 80 30 17,280 244

78 6/17/2013 -- 1,090 4,290 1,010 374 89.1 15.4 927 53.2

79 5/1973 9.7 920 3,200 500 215 43 7 605 82

79 6/17/2013 9.3 945 2,993 609 234 65.5 17.4 578 55.4

80 9/1972 9.4 570 3,900 1,000 285 192 14 582 80

80 7/29/2013 9.0 630 2,546 877 138 167 36.3 373 53.3

81 9/1972 8.6 670 2,000 450 126 119 19 374 62

81 7/29/2013 8.8 427 1,148 292 44.9 83.5 41 119 22.9

82 6/1967 8.8 480 3,140 1,250 95 200 58 384 80

82 7/16/2012 8.7 446 2,190 851 47.4 154 51.4 213 50.7

83 6/1967 8.3 270 1,075 500 15 72 108 38 17

83 7/6/2012 8.2 229 707 173 19.2 52.8 49.8 21 8.81

84 9/1972 8.7 590 2,900 700 75 256 11 220 62

84 7/6/2012 8.9 364 812 163 9.8 70.9 32.8 41 15.4

85 7/1972 8.7 480 1,920 475 50 150 39 215 42

85 7/6/2012 9.1 487 1,175 223 21.9 97.7 26.7 96 24.5

86 5/1973 8.5 550 1,180 120 20 111 47 40 19

86 6/22/2012 8.6 513 747 48 13.3 80.3 31.6 30 14.0

87 5/1973 9.1 1,700 38,000 25,000 1,925 3,520 22 6,640 726

87 6/22/2012 8.7 992 11,310 7,304 431 970 40.8 1,920 234

88 5/1973 8.8 1,200 8,500 2,300 335 610 16 1,360 224

88 6/27/2012 8.7 587 2,094 781 57.4 148 44.0 243 48.2

89 5/1973 8.7 1,000 9,500 3,900 400 810 28 1,560 264

89 6/29/2012 8.7 565 2,102 740 54.1 144 46.4 233 47.2

90 7/1972 7.9 290 800 100 25 53 59 44 37

90 6/27/2012 8.5 327 1,509 600 18.7 114 74.1 100 20.3
42 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

91 7/1972 9.0 300 1,020 300 25 65 46 86 36

91 7/16/2012 8.7 330 1,434 515 21.4 112 64.1 86 21.9

92 7/1972 9.5 290 930 260 25 91 34 73 33

92 7/16/2012 9.0 324 1,677 689 28.2 136 49.5 124 19.5

93 6/1972 9.1 270 1,080 240 30 79 50 108 39

93 7/5/2012 8.8 382 1,417 491 23.2 86.8 82.9 109 19.8

94 7/1972 9.4 310 1,080 290 30 61 89 105 31

94 7/5/2012 9.2 305 2,045 825 35.9 118 82.7 189 23.6

95 6/1972 8.5 550 2,250 500 100 140 43 285 58

95 6/25/2013 9.0 490 1,384 358 34.1 104 39.6 120 32.5

96 6/1972 8.8 700 3,900 1,375 165 200 36 542 94

96 6/25/2013 9.0 494 1,355 347 33.3 101 40.7 115 30.8

97 6/1972 8.6 430 1,625 350 50 161 45 153 46

97 6/25/2013 8.8 492 1,365 360 33.5 103 39.7 116 31.8

98 7/1972 9.9 520 1,550 360 70 126 41 196 54

98 8/24/2013 8.8 562 1,527 431 38.5 119 58.7 131 35.7

99 7/1972 9.2 580 1,300 140 20 130 15 89 28

99 7/2/2012 8.6 397 1,366 442 10.7 124 40.0 64 11.0

100 7/1972 9.1 430 1,160 190 20 108 13 60 24

100 7/2/2012 8.8 319 1,184 387 15.4 92.9 58.7 55 12.9

101 6/1972 8.5 360 940 110 20 94 44 60 25

101 6/19/2013 9.0 428 1,166 328 15.9 89.9 56.2 72 24.8

102 6/1972 9.5 600 4,800 650 165 310 32 760 168

102 6/19/2013 8.9 438 1,201 348 17.7 95.3 56.6 81 27.5

103 6/1972 8.1 480 2,530 500 100 134 66 336 82

103 6/19/2013 9.2 562 2,109 757 77.4 123 78.6 246 77.2

104 6/1972 9.0 420 930 90 50 67 51 86 36

104 6/26/2013 8.7 416 1,456 488 28 112 45.3 120 29

105 6/1967 8.5 570 1,700 150 40 100 48 105 67

105 6/14/2012 8.5 743 1,495 667 50.8 129 66.9 242 84.0

106 6/1972 8.5 380 1,380 325 20 162 91 64 42

106 6/18/2012 9.0 465 1,125 315 7.5 110 58.0 48 25.0

107 6/1972 8.4 610 2,500 500 60 154 59 322 65

107 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

108 6/1972 8.7 390 8,100 2,750 435 524 93 1,690 152

108 6/18/2012 8.8 431 3,340 1,719 126 204 86.2 442 64.0
Appendixes 1–5 43

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

109 6/1972 7.8 370 980 110 45 65 47 87 40

109 6/18/2012 8.7 464 1,192 375 27.6 86.1 69.4 104 31.2

110 6/1972 8.2 490 3,200 400 110 184 66 530 68

110 8/20/2013 9.1 449 2,308 924 44.6 148 60 260 46.3

111 6/1972 7.9 310 670 50 15 52 50 28 38

111 6/14/2012 8.7 438 743 122 9.2 62.1 62.7 32 21.7

112 10/1972 8.7 440 2,500 1,000 20 290 115 134 58

112 6/27/2013 8.4 387 3,220 1,850 20.8 370 121 196 40.6

113 10/1972 8.4 440 1,750 350 50 118 65 86 54

113 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

114 6/1972 8.2 620 2,350 400 115 109 83 475 104

114 9/9/2013 9.0 712 1,681 359 43.9 76 59.6 240 61.9

115 6/1972 8.4 630 5,000 700 82 216 131 700 65

115 6/21/2013 8.7 568 3,714 1,110 459 207 77 491 47.6

116 6/1972 8.4 560 10,800 1,500 2,135 14 21 2,430 132

116 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

117 5/1972 9.5 530 4,600 350 940 4 18 1,110 33

117 6/13/2013 9.0 505 3,250 820 449 36.3 37.1 695 20.3

118 5/1972 9.0 410 3,330 300 585 4 19 700 30

118 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

119 5/1972 8.5 390 6,300 1,200 200 80 40 1,360 52

119 8/2/2013 8.6 579 3,838 1,220 318 60 43.1 821 35

120 5/1972 9.0 970 6,280 1,000 555 56 22 960 54

120 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

121 5/1972 9.0 750 2,050 190 155 50 26 470 24

121 8/19/2013 9.0 436 1,852 613 51.9 72.1 40.2 293 21.1

122 5/1972 9.0 330 2,400 350 320 19 24 490 32

122 8/19/2013 9.0 592 2,875 760 195 62.9 59.7 507 36.5

123 5/1972 9.0 390 2,750 290 160 160 29 380 46

123 8/19/2013 8.7 288 1,661 619 52 106 62.5 156 21.6

124 5/1972 9.0 530 4,800 1,125 470 196 60 800 72

124 8/19/2013 8.8 353 1,845 608 57.4 112 71 166 24.2

125 5/1972 8.1 370 5,700 2,000 225 430 140 720 95

125 9/10/2013 8.4 379 2,917 1,430 67 226 111 303 49.2

126 5/1972 9.0 660 4,700 800 500 104 24 1,020 45

126 6/20/2012 8.5 498 2,155 760 126 89.0 80.5 336 27.1
44 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

127 5/1972 9.0 640 9,500 2,000 1,065 294 57 2,030 100

127 8/20/2013 9.0 547 2,697 881 137 105 76.9 407 33.7

128 5/1972 8.5 320 6,500 1,625 485 270 87 1,200 75

128 6/20/2012 8.7 494 2,461 782 124 88.8 81.8 304 27.4

129 5/1972 8.5 300 1,400 300 25 100 78 67 24

129 6/4/2012 8.4 306 1,252 427 25.4 86.5 104 42 16.8

130 5/1972 8.5 330 1,340 300 25 90 92 54 20

130 6/4/2012 8.4 338 1,162 405 24.0 81.1 117 41 15.2

131 5/1972 8.0 310 1,460 350 30 110 78 66 26

131 6/4/2012 8.5 347 1,153 407 24.0 84.6 110 44 16.2

132 5/1972 9.0 650 3,400 700 275 200 62 407 92

132 6/5/2012 8.7 512 2,240 804 157 134 58.9 298 55.4

133 6/1967 9.2 330 490 44 20 25 40 18 25

133 7/8/2013 9.0 262 879 248 13.6 50.7 50.7 62 26.3

134 9/1972 8.9 490 3,500 300 325 216 56 400 118

134 7/8/2013 8.8 505 2,224 690 149 160 66.3 203 44.2

135 9/1972 9.0 1,000 30,000 15,000 1,870 2,200 116 9,800 720

135 7/8/2013 8.9 506 2,687 1,040 78.7 142 52.4 366 42.2

136 9/1972 8.9 370 970 110 30 76 24 75 23

136 7/1/2013 8.7 380 656 68 7.9 53.1 42.2 31 11.6

137 9/1972 9.8 170 7,000 1,500 915 262 60 1,200 150

137 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

138 6/1967 8.6 410 12,500 3,750 1,740 209 268 1,300 190

138 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

139 6/1967 8.8 660 9,400 3,500 1,225 210 45 1,556 175

139 8/22/2013 8.9 514 3,547 1,020 379 190 23.4 514 68.3

140 9/1972 8.5 450 2,060 500 45 118 56 243 50

140 7/9/2013 8.8 447 1,512 487 23.2 103 42.8 137 22.4

141 5/1972 8.9 430 47,000 35,000 3,000 704 131 3,900 380

141 6/6/2013 8.7 717 15,430 8,560 984 615 164 3,460 182

142 5/1972 8.5 380 14,600 4,750 1,990 780 131 2,690 192

142 6/6/2013 8.9 604 4,359 1,670 318 270 39.5 632 80.8

143 9/1972 9.1 750 10,140 5,625 125 728 30 2,730 325

143 7/9/2013 9.0 591 3,181 1,150 153 182 38.5 431 69.6

144 5/1973 9.5 610 36,000 25,000 4,785 1120 77 19,520 428

144 6/6/2013 8.6 580 40,350 27,000 2,520 1050 94.1 13,000 484
Appendixes 1–5 45

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

145 9/1972 8.9 550 2,500 550 50 187 43 320 37

145 8/8/2012 9.7 395 984 283 17.7 84.3 18.2 107 15.2

146 9/1972 8.9 500 21,000 12,750 885 2020 52 5,500 570

146 8/8/2012 8.9 635 6,580 3,684 166 437 82.3 989 109

147 9/1972 9.3 810 22,500 14,750 935 2560 68 5,800 580

147 8/8/2012 8.9 545 5,950 3,307 140 437 81.3 905 114

148 7/1969 9.5 570 15,900 5,000 1,295 816 30 3,200 250

148 7/13/2012 8.9 659 5,850 2,321 429 310 69.4 865 97.4

150 11/1966 8.6 580 7,000 3,500 555 390 116 1,432 180

150 7/9/2012 8.7 677 6,810 2,836 534 345 49.7 977 118

151 5/1969 9.0 530 2,090 500 75 88 31 112 31

151 7/13/2012 8.8 631 6,740 2,760 528 347 62.2 989 116

152 6/1967 8.6 510 9,000 3,625 1,005 200 162 1,420 132

152 7/11/2012 8.5 676 3,306 2,917 615 414 82.0 1,227 110

153 9/1972 8.2 770 70,300 87,500 1,738 11,600 90 20,600 3,600

153 7/11/2012 8.6 598 8,000 1,424 229 239 67.9 430 85.5

154 9/1972 9.4 750 4,200 1,500 235 320 22 580 140

154 7/24/2013 8.8 585 3,128 1,140 163 217 65.3 377 59.9

155 12/1975 9.3 1,550 9,300 1,875 640 825 20 1,435 316

155 8/22/2013 8.8 574 2,939 1,090 153 205 59.3 332 54.4

156 8/1976 10.1 560 29,500 21,250 3,355 841 30 6,400 532

156 7/9/2012 8.9 617 6,900 2,894 544 348 57.4 959 118

157 5/1969 8.4 560 35,000 21,250 3,000 1180 196 6,440 752

157 7/13/2012 8.8 623 6,830 2,900 548 379 58.0 1,048 127

158 5/1969 8.6 480 3,400 950 100 106 82 148 56

158 9/5/2013 8.9 576 3,988 1,760 163 293 77.4 544 67

159 6/1972 8.7 430 1,320 250 45 124 76 104 38

159 6/14/2012 8.6 536 1,297 387 30.4 112 50.5 111 29.0

160 5/1967 8.5 320 1,420 360 20 113 60 90 36

160 6/12/2013 8.8 361 1,165 387 9.3 97.9 66.9 60 16.4

161 5/1967 8.9 640 1,080 85 20 104 21 90 50

161 6/12/2013 9.1 428 844 144 9.6 88.2 32.8 34 19.3

162 10/1973 8.3 460 1,000 70 30 106 83 40 40

162 6/21/2013 8.9 342 672 112 6.8 64.6 31.1 21 10.7

164 9/1973 8.4 390 1,850 345 50 88 62 212 50

164 8/12/2013 9.1 494 2,209 909 39.3 136 80.5 287 37.7
46 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 3. Chemical characteristics of prairie lakes and wetlands (major Ions).—Continued

[HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; --, no data]

Lake 

number1

Date 

sampled pH

Alkalinity 

(as HCO3-)

(mg/L)

Specific 

conductance

 (μS/cm at 25 oC)

Sulfate 

(mg/L)

Chloride 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Sodium

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

165 9/1973 8.5 1,200 2,600 80 100 84 62 330 96

165 7/20/2012 8.8 530 2,578 964 45.3 141 75.3 285 34.9

166 9/1972 9.0 1,280 8,800 4,750 815 560 11 2,470 220

166 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

167 7/1970 8.6 1,580 19,500 12,000 720 1260 114 3,500 400

167 6/22/2012 8.7 955 11,570 7,314 435 939 38.0 1,850 226

168 9/1973 8.6 720 3,200 400 125 220 26 470 82

168 7/9/2013 8.8 503 2,361 919 66.2 149 54.9 268 43.1

169 6/1967 8.8 870 9,800 4,500 425 200 44 1,688 170

169 7/16/2013 8.9 850 4,252 1,560 177 156 23.4 755 77.8

170 6/1967 9.0 420 9,600 4,000 915 204 171 2,000 235

170 7/24/2013 9.0 545 4,008 1,480 235 263 42.1 534 77.2

171 6/1967 9.3 2,300 15,000 6,000 890 20 13 394 133

171 8/5/2013 9.3 2,370 8,320 2,290 574 35.3 6.7 2,380 104

172 6/1967 8.6 380 880 175 20 76 42 45 24

172 7/2/2012 8.8 368 1,118 304 6.9 89.1 64.7 51 10.3

173 4/1968 8.7 385 840 97 13 60 64 26 20

173 6/12/2012 8.6 556 1,292 540 18.3 148 74.3 98 30.2

174 4/1968 8.2 320 775 115 15 55 46 32 19

174 6/12/2012 8.6 555 1,373 553 18.3 148 73.4 91 30.0

175 4/1968 7.5 160 375 18 13 15 34 3 19

175 6/12/2012 8.6 535 1,390 556 18.2 148 73.5 91 29.9

176 7/1975 7.6 290 990 200 10 70 54 36 19

176 6/27/2013 8.6 666 1,647 448 15.1 159 42.9 118 34.9

177 8/1975 7.4 300 590 32 15 25 59 8 4

177 9/12/2013 9.0 451 1,131 352 15.9 107 50.5 78 24.3

178 6/1967 8.3 530 2,575 1,250 60 182 45 264 68

178 7/15/2013 8.8 608 1,448 377 23.6 118 32.2 118 29.2

180 10/1973 8.0 390 2,900 725 105 168 84 240 68

180 7/20/2012 9.0 408 1,970 726 31.4 145 81.2 153 26.1

181 6/1967 8.7 670 3,050 1,175 125 204 50 360 17

181 8/22/2013 8.7 467 2,582 1,090 58.9 184 60.4 270 63.5

1

There are no lakes numbered 149, 163, and 179.
Appendixes 1–5 47

Appendix 4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands.

[--, not sampled]

Lake 

number1

Fathead 

minnows

Brook 

stickleback

Iowa 

darter

Yellow 

perch

Northern 

pike Walleye Smallmouth bass Bluegill Common carp

Black 

bullhead

Barred tiger 

salamander

Northern 

leopard 

frog

1 392 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 267 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 4,642 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4 10 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 1,046 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

6 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

7 11 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

8 2 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

9 386 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

10 56 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0

11 1,745 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

12 2 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

13 55 0 0 142 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

14 212 0 0 565 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

15 2,419 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

16 872 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0

17 6,100 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 179

18 85 47 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 0

20 51 0 0 137 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

21 5,888 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0

23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 426 0

24 998 0 0 124 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 0

25 1,842 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0

27 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 0

28 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

29 3 0 0 54 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0

30 51 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

31 1,167 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

32 758 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

33 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

34 256 0 0 15 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

35 484 1 0 29 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

36 38 0 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

37 1,712 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
48 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands.—Continued

[--, not sampled]

Lake 

number1

Fathead 

minnows

Brook 

stickleback

Iowa 

darter

Yellow 

perch

Northern 

pike Walleye Smallmouth bass Bluegill Common carp

Black 

bullhead

Barred tiger 

salamander

Northern 

leopard 

frog

38 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

39 42 0 0 52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

40 3,671 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

41 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0

42 254 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0

43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

44 1,610 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

45 141 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

46 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

47 5,733 6 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

48 113 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

49 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

50 1,349 43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 1

51 2,114 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0

52 2,781 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 0

53 2,018 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 0

54 9,169 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

56 1 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

57 50 0 0 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

58 580 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 0

59 54 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

60 1 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

61 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0

62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 139 0

63 219 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

64 8 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

65 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0

66 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

67 543 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

68 534 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 143 0

69 576 1 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0

70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

71 52 0 0 183 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

72 0 0 0 81 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

73 1,348 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 96 0

74 3 0 0 162 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Appendixes 1–5 49

Appendix 4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands.—Continued

[--, not sampled]

Lake 

number1

Fathead 

minnows

Brook 

stickleback

Iowa 

darter

Yellow 

perch

Northern 

pike Walleye Smallmouth bass Bluegill Common carp

Black 

bullhead

Barred tiger 

salamander

Northern 

leopard 

frog

75 0 0 0 282 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

76 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

77 0 0 0 773 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 0

78 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

79 13,809 67 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

80 144 1 0 369 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

81 67 0 0 117 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

82 7 1 1 17 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0

83 3,286 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

84 1,868 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14

85 2,129 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 8

86 2,573 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27

87 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0

88 144 0 0 91 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

89 8 1 0 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

90 8,350 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

91 184 1 45 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0

92 921 55 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

93 101 12 4 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

94 4,122 7 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

95 19,167 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

96 7,769 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

97 13,756 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

98 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

99 3,370 31 52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 4,081 69 58 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

101 739 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

102 1,167 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

103 74 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

104 10,276 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

105 19,552 208 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

106 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

107 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

108 1,266 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 15

109 2,852 35 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 19

110 214 1 10 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

111 3,534 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0
50 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands.—Continued

[--, not sampled]

Lake 

number1

Fathead 

minnows

Brook 

stickleback

Iowa 

darter

Yellow 

perch

Northern 

pike Walleye Smallmouth bass Bluegill Common carp

Black 

bullhead

Barred tiger 

salamander

Northern 

leopard 

frog

112 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 0

113 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

114 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 20

115 3,053 327 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

116 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

117 11,324 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

118 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

119 355 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 1

120 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

121 12,183 24 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

122 963 0 0 129 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

123 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0

124 542 0 4 234 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

125 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

126 1,675 0 0 113 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

127 1,284 1 0 56 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0

128 0 51 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0

129 9,549 93 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

130 13,517 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

131 7,764 331 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

132 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 0

133 1,156 128 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

134 6,204 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

135 4,784 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 247

136 53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

137 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

138 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

139 8,835 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

140 13,996 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 46

141 11,060 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

142 257 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

143 3,471 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

144 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

145 842 87 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2

146 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 243 0

147 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 163 0

148 3,962 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Appendixes 1–5 51

Appendix 4. Aquatic vertebrate captures in prairie lakes and wetlands.—Continued

[--, not sampled]

Lake 

number1

Fathead 

minnows

Brook 

stickleback

Iowa 

darter

Yellow 

perch

Northern 

pike Walleye Smallmouth bass Bluegill Common carp

Black 

bullhead

Barred tiger 

salamander

Northern 

leopard 

frog

150 101 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

151 200 67 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

152 857 2 0 77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

153 41 19 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

154 422 0 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

155 14 1 0 231 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

156 297 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

157 137 0 0 91 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

158 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

159 8,064 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

160 9,131 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

161 11 0 0 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

162 10 1 0 12 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0

164 237 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

165 13,339 9 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

166 48 0 0 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

167 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 0

168 31 0 3 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0

169 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 419 0

170 737 2 0 56 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

171 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 294 0

172 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

173 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0

174 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0

175 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0

176 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 285 0

177 568 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 798

178 7,879 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5

180 4,975 35 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

181 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0

1

There are no lakes numbered 149, 163, and 179.
52 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 5. Range of major ion concentrates for prairie lakes and wetlands in which macro-invertebrate taxa occurred.

[N, number of samples; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate]

Taxon N

Specific 

conductance

(μS/cm at 25 oC)

pH Calcium

(mg/L)

Magnesium

(mg/L)

Sodium

 (mg/L)

Sulfate

(mg/L)

Chloride

(mg/L)

Alkalinity as 

HCO3-

(mg/L)

Minimum/maximum

Corixidae (nymphs) 155 461.8/40,350 8.10/9.89 5.8/164 35.2/1050 9.5/13,000 10.4/27,000 2.9/2,520 229/2,590

Hydracarina 151 448.8/18,430 8.10/9.89 5.8/121 31.8/970 9.22/4,147 10.4/9,556 2.9/1,292 223/2,590

Chironominae 148 448.8/15,430 8.10/9.89 5.8 /164 31.8/970 9.22/3,460 10.4/8,560 2.9/984 223/2,590

Hyalella azteca 148 448.8/18,430 8.10/9.89 8.6/82.9 31.8/970 9.22/4,147 10.4/9,556 2.9/1,292 223/1,272

Orthocladiinae 122 461.8 /15,430 8.10/9.89 6.7/164 35.3/970 17.8/3,460 18.5/8,560 2.9/984 254/2,370

Cyclopoida 120 448.8/15,430 8.10/9.84 6.7/164 31.8/939 9.22/3,460 10.4/8,560 2.9/984 223/2,370

Trichocorixa 116 461.8/12,000 8.10/9.89 8.6/117 36.3/939 21.3/2,650 10.4/7,314 6.9/759 229/1,272

Calanoida 110 448.8/40,350 8.10/9.89 5.8/164 31.8/1050 9.22/13,000 10.4/27,000 6/2,520 223/2,590

Daphnia 110 448.8/40,350 8.10/9.40 5.8/164 31.8/1050 9.22/13,000 10.4/27,000 6/2,520 223/2,590

Gammarus lacustris 109 461.8/7,210 8.10/9.74 8.69/121 35.2/437 9.5/1,395 10.4/3,684 6.8/615 229/1,220

Oligochaeta 99 448.8/ 18,430 8.10/9.84 9.99/121 31.8/970 9.22/4,147 18.5/9,556 2.9/1,292 223/1,246

Haliplus 97 448.8/15,430 8.10/9.89 6.7/164 31.8/939 9.22/3,460 18.5/8,560 2.9/984 223/2,370

Ostracoda 97 537/40,350 8.10 /9.74 5.8/164 35.3/1050 17.8/13,000 18.5/27,000 2.9/2,520 288/2,590

Callibaetis 88 448.8/11,570 8.10/9.89 6.7/121 31.8/939 9.22/2,610 10.4/7,314 2.9/668 223/2,370

Enallagma 81 448.8/18,430 8.10/9.89 6.7/164 31.8/970 9.22/4,147 10.4/9,556 2.9/1,292 223/2,370

Caenis 78 448.8/11,200 8.10/9.84 8.69/117 31.8/437 9.22/2,572 18.5/4,577 2.9/615 223/1,272

Nehalennia 78 448.8/12,000 8.10/9.89 6.7/121 31.8/873 9.22/2,572 34.4/6,964 6/759 223/2,370

Tanypodinae 76 448.8/18,430 8.10/9.74 6.7/121 31.8/970 9.22/4,147 18.5/9,556 2.9/1,292 223/2,370

Mystacides 74 448.8/7,210 8.10/9.84 8.86/104 31.8/405 9.22/1,460 10.4/3,490 2.9/548 223/1,220

Sigara 64 461.8/11,200 8.10/9.89 8.6/121 51.4/437 21.3/2,572 10.4/4,577 6.9/513 229/1,272

Simocephalus 56 448.8/7,210 8.10/9.84 8.69/121 31.8/437 9.22/1,490 18.5/3,684 2.9/615 223/1,236

Collembola 52 500/12,000 8.10/9.20 19.6/121 35.2/939 9.5/2,650 59.4/7,314 7.9/759 229/1,272

Cenocorixa 51 712/18,430 8.10/9.40 5.8/164 35.3/970 30.1/4,147 10.4/9,556 14.6/1,292 327/2,590

Oecetis 51 500/15,430 8.33/9.89 5.8/164 35.2/615 9.5/3,460 18.5/8,560 2.9/984 246/2,590

Notonecta 46 712/11,570 8.50/9.89 6.7/86.2 35.3/939 30.1/2,380 10.4/7,314 13.4/574 262/2,370

Gyraulus circumstriatus 45 448.8/5,950 8.10/9.84 8.69/121 31.8/437 9.22/905 18.5/3,307 2.9/459 223/867

Physa gyrina 43 537/6,900 8.10/9.74 11/121 38.3/437 17.8/1.227 18.5/3,684 2.9/615 288/734

Diaphanosoma 41 448.8/6,350 8.10/9.29 8.86/82 31.8/414 9.22/1,395 49.3/3,301 6/615 223/1,236

Helobdella 38 537/6,580 8.33/9.22 8.86/121 38.3/437 17.8/989 10.4/3,684 2.9/459 288/926

Phryganea 33 448.8/12,000 8.52/9.74 8.69/82.9 31.8/873 9.22/1,880 49.3/6,964 6/759 223/1,077

Pisidiidae 33 448.8/2,308 8.33/9.74 11.4/104 31.8/148 9.22/344 10.4/924 2.9/44.9 223/804

Chaoborus 32 607/11,200 8.41/9.74 12.7/121 61.4/572 19.8/2,572 10.4/5,390 7.5/615 288/1,272

Laccophilus 29 537/6,640 8.10/9.89 8.6/121 38.3/370 17.8/1,296 18.5/2,031 2.9/474 254/1,230

Triaenodes 29 800/12,000 8.10/9.89 6.7/82.3 35.3/873 135/2,572 163/6,964 32/759 494/2,370

Hydroporus 28 672/15,430 8.51/9.84 6.7/164 35.3/939 21.4/3,460 112/8,560 6.8/984 330/2,370

Physa jennessi 27 537/6,900 8.33/9.18 16.9/110 38.3/379 17.8/1,048 18.5/2,900 2.9/548 288/867

Peltodytes 26 537/9,730 8.10/9.11 15.4/121 38.3/572 17.8/1,640 18.5/5,390 2.9/552 254/1090

Dasycorixa 24 1,125/11,570 8.10/9.33 6.7/86.2 35.3/939 48.1/2,650 275/7,314 7.5/663 431/2,370
Appendixes 1–5 53

Appendix 5. Range of major ion concentrates for prairie lakes and wetlands in which macro-invertebrate taxa occurred.—Continued

[N, number of samples; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate]

Taxon N

Specific 

conductance

(μS/cm at 25 oC)

pH Calcium

(mg/L)

Magnesium

(mg/L)

Sodium

 (mg/L)

Sulfate

(mg/L)

Chloride

(mg/L)

Alkalinity as 

HCO3-

(mg/L)

Minimum/maximum

Molanna 24 448.8/4,422 8.40/9.20 11.4/104 31.8/204 9.22/857 38.1/1,719 6/354 223/1,236

Bezzia 22 625/18,430 8.48/9.20 15.4/82 55.2/939 26.3/4,147 34.4/9,556 6.9/1,292 353/1,090

Ceriodaphnia 22 448.8/8,300 8.10/9.33 6.7/82.3 31.8/437 9.22/2,380 49.3/3,684 6/574 223/2,370

Limnephilus 17 656/6,580 8.43/9.74 12.7/117 53.1/437 31.1/989 68.2/3,684 7.9/166 306/707

Erpobdella 15 698/2,582 8.40/9.2 18.6/110 51.4/184 37.4/480 10.4/1,090 7.5/149 305/843

Pleuroxus 13 800/11,570 8.10/8.96 17.3/82.3 66/939 54.5/1,850 137/7,314 16.9/548 288/955

Oreodytes 12 537/11,700 8.33/9.17 27.6/117 38.3/970 17.8/2,610 18.5/7,314 2.9/668 338/1,228

Cymatia 10 1,661/7,210 8.10/9.89 8.6/121 58.7/437 156/1,300 522/3,684 20.8/371 288/1,230

Stagnicola elodes 10 1,153/6,740 8.48/9.14 26.3/110 60.2/437 44.1/1,227 407/3,684 14.5/615 347/734

Buenoa 9 958/6,950 8.69/9.29 13.8/82.3 60.6/437 64.4/1,490 10.4/3,684 14.6/474 545/1,077

Glossiphonia 8 537/2,209 8.33/9.20 11.4/80.5 38.3/148 17.8/287 18.5/909 2.9/39.3 350/676

Sida 8 537/1,934 8.33/9.84 8.69/37.6 38.3/112 17.8/282 18.5/357 2.9/44.4 350/839

Anax 7 958/5,950 8.74/9.84 9.99/81.3 78.8/437 50.6/905 10.4/3,307 6.9/140 319/748

Enochrus 7 656/2,875 8.43/9.17 31.6/117 53.1/123 30.2/507 47.5/760 7.9/195 319/592

Gyrinus 7 625/2,109 8.50/9.17 25.1 82.7 57.9/123 29.7/293 76/825 8.8/77.4 288/562

Ilybius 7 1,153/11,570 8.41/8.77 38/121 84.6/939 44.1/1,850 375/7,314 15.1/435 347/955

Placobdella 7 984/3,876 8.68/9.74 11.8/82.7 84.3/141 95.5/768 223/1,347 17.7/129 305/820

Eurycercus 6 537/1,514 8.33/9.20 11/41 38.3/112 17.8/218 18.5/357 2.9/44.9 350/619

Gyraulus parvus 6 721/3,587 8.87/9.20 18.7/80.5 81.4/190 26.3/666 34.9/1,230 15.5/379 449/670

Lymnaea stagnalis 6 984/3,340 8.70/9.74 18.2/86.2 84.3/204 107/442 283/1,719 17.7/126 395/587

Sphaeromias 6 672/3,220 8.41/8.88 15.6/121 64.6/370 21.4/366 85.4/1,850 6.8/78.7 342/565

Theromyzon 6 740/2,578 8.68/9.10 22.8/75.3 66.6/141 61.6/285 34.4/964 17.5/45.3 330/670

Planorbella trivolvis 5 537/1,527 8.33/8.85 37.6/110 38.3/119 17.8/131 18.5/515 2.9 38.5 330/562

Stratiomyidae 5 1,153/40,350 8.51/9.29 13.8/110 55.2/1,050 44.1/13,000 407/27,000 24/2,520 347/1,050

Acentria 4 1,456/3,262 8.72/9.22 8.86/80.5 112/197 120/433 431/962 28/136 416/926

Agraylea 4 740/3,262 8.77/9.22 8.86/64.7 66.6/197 50.6/433 34.4/962 6.9/136 368/926

Coptotomus 4 1,192/2,689 8.61/8.94 36.6/74.3 80.9/148 98/551 375/886 18.3/157 464/734

Dytiscus 4 1,192/3,220 8.41/9.17 45.3/121 86.1/370 104/246 375/1,850 20.8/77.4 387/562

Hesperocorixa 4 984/1,347 8.43/9.84 9.99/117 78.8/89.5 41.2/186 108/405 13.4/30.4 338/646

Hygrotus 4 1,162/40,350 8.43/8.70 15.4/164 81.1/1,050 41.2/13,000 405/27,000 24/2,520 338/1,090

Strictotarsus 4 712/11,200 8.68/9.22 8.86/69.4 62/197 30.1/2,572 59.5/4,577 17.9/513 404/1,272

Culicoides 3 6,640/15,430 8.70/9.20 24.5/164 128/615 1,296/3,460 2,031/8,560 474/984 717/1,228

Cyphon 3 656/15,430 8.70/8.82 34.9/164 53.1/615 31.1/3,460 68.2, 8,560 7.9/984 380/717

Graphoderus 3 958/2,109 8.68/9.17 31.6/78.6 86.1/123 64.4/246 10.4/757 14.6/77.4 464/748

Leydigia 3 2,094/3,340 8.70/8.77 44/86.2 144/204 233/442 740/1,719 54.1/126 431/587

Neoplea 3 537/1,162 8.33/8.78 23.1/117 38.3/81.1 17.8/41.2 18.5/405 2.9/24 338/404

Aeshna 2 1,347/1,768 9.10/9.84 9.99/26.5 73.6/78.8 186/255 270/464 17.5/30.4 615/634

Agabus 2 1,384/2,109 9.00/9.17 39.6/78.6 104/123 120/246 358/757 34.1/77.4 490/562
54 Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota

Appendix 5. Range of major ion concentrates for prairie lakes and wetlands in which macro-invertebrate taxa occurred.—Continued

[N, number of samples; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate]

Taxon N

Specific 

conductance

(μS/cm at 25 oC)

pH Calcium

(mg/L)

Magnesium

(mg/L)

Sodium

 (mg/L)

Sulfate

(mg/L)

Chloride

(mg/L)

Alkalinity as 

HCO3-

(mg/L)

Minimum/maximum

Armiger crista 2 537/800 8.33/8.61 37.6/67.9 38.3/239 17.8/430 18.5/1,424 2.9/229 350/598

Branchinecta 2 2,723/4,614 8.98/9.01 22.3/22.3 55.2/64.9 573/1,000 899/1,780 34.6/49.5 771/861

Corisella 2 5,950/6,350 8.91/9.10 44.8/81.3 150/437 905/1,395 3301/3,307 49.8/140 545/741

Crenitis 2 1,162/1,252 8.43/8.45 104/117 81.1/86.5 41.2/41.7 405/427 24/25.4 306/338

Cyrnellus 2 1,118 8.77/ 8.83 58/64.7 89.1/379 50.6/1,048 304/2,900 6.9/548 368/623

Donacia 2 1,160/3,587 8.82/9.15 29.5/34.9 101/126 94.4/666 295/1,230 13.5/181 521/622

Ephydra 2 3,547/40,350 8.63/8.87 23.4/94.1 190/1,050 514/13,000 1,020/27,000 379/2,520 514/580

Hydroptila 2 644/1,933 8.95/9.01 15.1/18 72.8/88.6 27.3/296 66.9/448 7.5/45.1 390/748

Orconectes 2 1,153/1,417 8.51/8.78 82.9/110 84.6/86.8 44.1/109 407/491 23.2/24 347/382

Paracymus 2 1,192/2,804 8.68/8.71 38.5/69.4 86.1/92.9 104/450 375/966 27.6/70.4 464/657

Rhantus 2 2,109/3,220 8.41/9.17 78.6/121 123/370 196/246 757/1,850 20.8/77.4 387/562

Saldula 2 1,355/2,804 8.71/8.97 38.5/40.7 92.9/101 115/450 347/966 33.3/70.4 494/657

Valvata tricarinata 2 448.8/1,845 8.52/8.85 32.4/71 31.8/112 9.22/166 49.3/608 6/57.4 223/353

Agrypnia 1 1,434 8.68 64.1 112 85.9 515 21.4 330

Alboglossiphonia 1 1,160 8.82 34.9 101 94.4 295 13.5 521

Amnicola limosus 1 651 8.71 27.7 45.1 36.1 121 13.2 254

Anabolia 1 1,292 8.61 74.3 148 98 540 18.3 556

Artemia 1 40,350 8.63 94.1 1050 13000 27000 2520 580

Berosus 1 3,306 8.48 82 414 1227 2917 615 676

Cercyon 1 12,000 8.6 68 873 1880 6964 759 593

Cernotina 1 625 8.8 25.1 57.9 29.7 76 8.8 353

Chydorus 1 1,850 8.5 38.4 81.3 273 494 41 644

Dubiraphia 1 3,838 8.58 43.1 60 821 1220 318 579

Empididae 1 1,414 9.02 22.3 112 177 357 32.6 619

Eristalis 1 40,350 8.63 94.1 1050 13000 27000 2520 580

Harpacticoida 1 40,350 8.63 94.1 1050 13000 27000 2520 580

Hebrus 1 2,993 9.26 17.4 65.5 578 609 234 945

Hydrellia 1 1,509 8.5 74.1 114 100 600 18.7 327

Hydrobius 1 500 8.56 47.5 35.2 9.5 59.4 10.5 246

Ilyocryptus 1 1,292 8.61 74.3 148 98 540 18.3 556

Laccobius 1 2,102 8.7 46.4 144 233 740 54.1 565

Libellula 1 8,320 9.33 6.7 35.3 2380 2290 574 2370

Merragata 1 3,714 8.69 77 207 491 1110 459 568

Moina 1 2,723 8.98 22.3 64.9 573 899 49.5 771

Palmacorixa 1 1,661 8.73 62.5 106 156 619 52 288

Pericoma 1 656 8.72 42.2 53.1 31.1 68.2 7.9 380

Polycentropus 1 1,677 8.95 49.5 136 124 689 28.2 324

Prionocera 1 1,153 8.51 110 84.6 44.1 407 24 347
Appendixes 1–5 55

Appendix 5. Range of major ion concentrates for prairie lakes and wetlands in which macro-invertebrate taxa occurred.—Continued

[N, number of samples; μS/cm at 25 oC, microsiemens per centimer at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; HCO3-, hydrogen carbonate]

Taxon N

Specific 

conductance

(μS/cm at 25 oC)

pH Calcium

(mg/L)

Magnesium

(mg/L)

Sodium

 (mg/L)

Sulfate

(mg/L)

Chloride

(mg/L)

Alkalinity as 

HCO3-

(mg/L)

Minimum/maximum

Probezzia 1 4,614 9.01 22.3 55.2 1000 1780 34.6 861

Promenetus exacuous 1 537 8.33 37.6 38.3 17.8 18.5 2.9 350

Scapholeberis 1 979 8.62 15.6 98.5 53.6 85.4 19.8 560


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8711 37th Street Southeast

Jamestown, North Dakota 58401

(701) 253–5553

Or visit the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Web site at:

http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/

Mushet and others—Chemical and Biotic Characteristics of Prairie Lakes and Large Wetlands in South-Central North Dakota—SIR 2015–5126

ISSN 2328-031X (print)

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20155126