St.Croix 

F

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility Study U.S. Department of the Interior • National Park Service

St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility Study U.S. Department of the Inter

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

i

Feasibility Study for a

St. Croix National Heritage Area

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

U.S. Department of the Interior - National Park Service
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iii

INTRODUCTION

The Department of the Interior, National 

Park Service (NPS), has prepared this 

National Heritage Area Feasibility Study

to determine the feasibility and suitability 

of designating the island of St. Croix as a 

national heritage area. This study meets the 

requirements of the “Draft National Heritage 

Area Feasibility Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003) 

and the National Environmental Policy Act.

The United States purchased St. Croix and 

the other U.S. Virgin Islands (St. John, St. 

Thomas, Water Island, and several smaller 

islands) from Denmark in 1917. Today the 

island is an unincorporated territory of the 

United States. Located in the Caribbean Sea, 

approximately 1,100 miles from Miami, St. 

Croix covers 84 square miles and contains the 

easternmost point of the United States. The 

island has two primary towns — Frederiksted 

with a population of 3,765 and Christiansted 

with a population of 2,865. The 2000 U.S. 

Census estimated the total population of the 

island to be 53, 234.

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

Congress directed the Secretary of the 

Interior to undertake a national heritage area 

feasibility study for St. Croix in the St. Croix 

National Heritage Area Study Act of 2006 

(Public Law 109-338). The goal of the study 

was to determine if the island of St. Croix 

meets the criteria established in the National 

Park Service’s “Draft National Heritage Area 

Feasibility Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003) 

for designation. Funding for the study was 

initiated in fi scal year 2007. 

A copy of the St. Croix National Heritage 

Area Study Act can be found in appendix A.

THE NATIONAL

SIGNIFICANCE OF ST. CROIX

St. Croix contains an assemblage of nationally 

signifi cant natural, cultural, historic, and 

scenic resources that relate to the larger 

story of American heritage. The largest of 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
the three U.S. Virgin Islands, St. Croix lies 

at a geographic crossroads, connecting the 

Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean currents 

with the westerlies and easterly prevailing 

trade winds. This ideal location, along with 

the fertility of the island and the productivity 

of its surrounding waters, has attracted and 

sustained people from around the world. 

Similar to the United States’ broader heritage, 

St. Croix became a collage of cultures due 

to the long-standing exchange of traditions, 

customs, and beliefs between Amerindians, 

Africans, West Indians, South Americans, and 

Europeans. Today, the people of St. Croix 

embrace their unique cultural mix, coexisting 

in a spirit of mutual respect and cooperation.

St. Croix embodies a wealth of natural, 

historical, and cultural features that represent 

the unique blending of American, African, 

and European heritage. The island has an 

extensive network of sites set aside to protect 

these resources — places that are accessible 

to the public to learn about and experience 

fi rst-hand the stories of the island’s distinctive 

cultural connections. For instance, Salt 

River Bay protects the fi rst recorded confl ict 

between Amerindians and Europeans. The 

area surrounding the bay also contains 

archeological evidence of the most extensive 

and intensive prehistoric occupation in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, possibly dating back as far 

as 4,000 years. 

Since Columbus’s fi rst contact with St. Croix 

and its native inhabitants, seven fl ags have 

fl own over the island. Before becoming part 

of the United States, the Island was claimed by 

Spain, Holland, England, France, the Knights 

of Malta, and Denmark. With each of these 

shifts in colonial occupation, new traditions 

grew out of ongoing interactions between 

Europeans, Amerindians, and Africans. A 

number of protected estates, forts, museums, 

and historic districts across the island 

preserve St. Croix’s turbulent colonial history. 

Today, Crucians celebrate Transfer Day, which 

marks the transfer of St. Croix from Denmark 

to the United States.

Right:

Sugar factory ruins 

and baobab tree at 

Butler Bay. 

NPS photo.

Below:

Salt River Taino 

ballcourt stone. 

NPS photo.

iv
v

Africans, who were brought to St. Croix to 

provide slave labor for the European colonies, 

showed their resilience and resourcefulness 

in the face of great adversity. As Africans 

and their descendants adapted and survived 

the harsh conditions of enslavement and 

discrimination, they contributed to the 

economic, social, and cultural development 

of St. Croix. Slavery was abolished on St. 

Croix in 1848 after a series of slave revolts, 15 

years before the Emancipation Proclamation 

in the United States. Today, African heritage 

is found throughout the rich traditions and 

customs of the Crucian people. For example, 

Emancipation Day celebrates when 30,000 

enslaved Africans marched in Frederiksted 

to successfully demand their freedom. This 

holiday is celebrated throughout the island 

with festive music, local dances, old-time tea 

meetings, reenactments, donkey races, and 

vibrant contemporary cuisine—refl ecting 

an evolution of customs that can only be 

attributed to the distinctiveness of the 

Crucian people.

The story of St. Croix’s heritage is not limited 

to the places and events described above. 

St. Croix’s national signifi cance is further 

supported throughout the pages of this 

feasibility study. The study team determined 

— through its extensive research of the island 

and interaction with the people who live 

there — that there is not one single thing that 

sets St. Croix apart, but rather an assemblage 

of authentic natural, cultural, historic, and 

scenic features that celebrate the heritage of 

the Crucian people. This heritage is not only 

a testament to the vitality and uniqueness of 

St. Croix, but to our nation’s rich and varied 

heritage overall.

STUDY FINDINGS

The feasibility study team concludes that St. 

Croix meets each of the 10 interim evaluation 

criteria for designation as a national heritage 

area, based on the “Draft National Heritage 

Area Feasibility Study Guidelines” (NPS 

2003). As described throughout this study, St. 

Croix contributes in substantial ways to our 

country’s national heritage. It also contains an 

assemblage of natural, cultural, historic, and 

scenic resources that make up a nationally 

distinctive landscape. The rich and varied 

stories about St. Croix lend themselves to an 

intriguing set of themes that connect people 

to the various heritage resources of the island. 

Furthermore, the designation of St. Croix 

as a national heritage area has strong public 

support, and there is a local capacity and 

commitment to undertake the responsibilities 

of initiating a future national heritage area.

Left:

The seven fl ags of 

St. Croix. 

NPS photo. 

Below:

Preparation of 

traditional foods.

Photo credit:

Nate Olive
vi

PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT

The study team underwent an extensive 

public involvement eff ort to promote 

public understanding of national heritage 

areas and how they are managed; inform 

the public about the study and maximize 

their participation in the process; assess 

public support for a national heritage area 

designation; and determine if there is local 

capacity and commitment to coordinate 

a future national heritage area. Eff orts 

included town meetings, workshops, radio 

interviews, television talk shows, newspaper 

articles, booths at local events, brochures, 

fl yers, and newsletters. Comment cards and 

an interactive website were also developed 

that allowed people to conveniently submit 

their input on a wide range of topics — 

ranging from heritage resources of the island 

to partnership opportunities for a future 

coordinating entity. The public input that 

the study team received was overwhelmingly 

supportive of the designation and committed 

to the success of a St. Croix National Heritage 

Area.

A summary of public involvement can be 

found in chapter 1. Documentation of public 

support can be found in appendix B.

PLANNING HISTORY

Public involvement opportunities during this 

planning eff ort were extensive, and meetings 

were well attended by St. Croix residents. 

There were 11 local public meetings hosted by 

the National Park Service at which the public 

asked questions and provided comments 

about national heritage areas. Meeting 

attendance ranged from about 15 to 60 people 

depending on the location.

Much of the information gathered during the 

fi rst seven meetings was included in the Draft 

St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility 

Study in July 2010. The draft feasibility study 

Christiansted public 

meeting. 

NPS photo.
vii

presented a vision statement developed and 

supported by the public; an inventory of St. 

Croix’s heritage resources that collectively 

represents a nationally distinctive landscape; a 

study area boundary supported by the public; 

fi ve heritage themes to connect the various 

resources and tell the story of St. Croix; three 

management alternatives; and an evaluation of 

the designation criteria. 

By the time of the release of the draft 

feasibility study, the community had become 

very familiar with the eff ort and supportive 

of national heritage area designation for St. 

Croix. There was a 30-day public comment 

period on the draft study, including four 

public meetings. The study team received 16 

written comments and additional letters of 

support from St. Croix business owners and 

organizations. Comments were focused on 

the inclusion of additional heritage sites and 

organizations working to protect the heritage 

resources of St. Croix. Editorial comments 

and corrections were also received. Many 

of the comments provided further detail on 

the resources and history of St. Croix. Some 

of the comments exposed a contemporary 

debate among St. Croix historians regarding 

some of the details of the island’s history. The 

study team made changes to the document 

based on the comments received. However, 

the comments did not change the fi ndings of 

the study.

VISION STATEMENT

The public crafted and refi ned the vision 

statement below during public meetings 

and a visioning workshop. Participants 

in the workshop endeavored to make the 

vision statement specifi c to St. Croix by 

adding terms like “kallaloo” to describe their 

Crucian culture. (Kallaloo is a Caribbean 

stew containing many ingredients, much 

like the diverse mix of cultures that make 

up the Crucian people.) The vision clearly 

communicates the strong sense of place and 

identity in the public’s vision for the potential 

St. Croix National Heritage Area. The 

resulting vision statement follows. 

St. Croix’s authentic natural, cultural, 

historic, and scenic features are a 

celebration of our people, young and old 

alike, and a testament of our splendor. 

This is our shared heritage where Crucians 

— past, present, and future — represent 

a colorful kallaloo of our nation, the 

Caribbean, and the world.

HERITAGE THEMES

During the scoping phase of the project, 

the study team collected input from the 

public on the nationally signifi cant places, 

people, traditions, customs, and beliefs. 

The information was analyzed and fi ve 

distinct categories emerged. During the 

following round of public meetings, the study 

team presented these categories and the 

preliminary thematic framework. At these 

meetings the public provided overwhelmingly 

supportive feedback on the thematic 

framework and additional information on the 

intangible values associated with each of the 

themes. The heritage area themes are listed 

below. A complete description can be found 

in chapter 3.
viii

Early Cultures

This theme highlights early Amerindian 

presence on St. Croix. It emphasizes 

migration of Amerindian peoples within the 

region, settlement on St. Croix, and European 

contact. 

Slavery and Emancipation

This theme highlights the experience of 

Africans as slaves and free people on St. 

Croix. It emphasizes the history of slavery 

on St. Croix and the infl uences on St. Croix 

culture.

The Seven Flags of St. Croix

This theme highlights the seven fl ags (Spain, 

Holland, England, France, the Knights of 

Malta, Denmark, and the United States) 

of colonial administration of St. Croix. It 

emphasizes the political, economic, and 

cultural contributions of the many diff erent 

colonial powers.

Geography and the Natural Environment 

— Crossroads of the Caribbean

This theme highlights the unique geography 

and natural environment of St. Croix. It 

emphasizes the island’s rich biological 

diversity, its idyllic location for attracting and 

sustaining people from diverse cultures, and 

the ongoing eff orts of Crucians to balance 

sustainable land uses with the protection 

and enjoyment of the island’s extraordinary 

natural environments. 

Modern-Day St. Croix — 

Cultures in Contact

This theme highlights the multicultural 

society of St. Croix and emphasizes how these 

cultures and traditions combine to form a 

vital part of the living fabric of the St. Croix 

community.

MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES

This feasibility study evaluates the following 

three alternatives — No Action (alternative 

1), National Heritage Area Designation 

(alternative 2), and a Privately Managed 

Heritage Area (alternative 3). 

In Alternative 2: National Heritage Area 

Designation, the two organizations — St. 

Croix United for Community, Culture, 

Environment, and Economic Development 

(SUCCEED) and the St. Croix Landmarks 

Society — that submitted applications to serve 

as the coordinating entity were evaluated. 

Based on the results of the evaluation, both 

organizations successfully demonstrated 

their capability to serve as the coordinating 

entity. However, SUCCEED received the 

highest overall score thereby demonstrating a 

higher likelihood of achieving the goals of the 

national heritage area. If a national heritage 

area is designated and if SUCCEED is named 

the coordinating entity, it is assumed that St. 

Croix Landmarks Society will participate in 

the St. Croix National Heritage Area coalition.

A description of the management alternatives 

can be found in chapter 4. An explanation of 

the evaluation process and methodology can 

be found in appendix G.
ix

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ST. CROIX ..........................................................................................................3

BACKGROUND .....................................................................................................................................5

PURPOSE OF THIS FEASIBILITY STUDY ................................................................................................5

A NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA ...........................................................................................................5

PROJECT BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................5

THE STUDY AREA ..............................................................................................................................5

A COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH ...................................................................................................6

PRIVATE PROPERTY ............................................................................................................................7

THE FEASIBILITY STUDY PROCESS .........................................................................................................8

THE TEAM .........................................................................................................................................8

INVOLVING THE PUBLIC .....................................................................................................................9

WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THE PUBLIC MEETINGS — THEMES AND RESOURCES ...........................10

THE INITIAL VISION STATEMENT FROM THE PUBLIC WORKSHOPS ....................................................17

COORDINATION WITH CONCURRENT EFFORTS ................................................................................17

COMPLIANCE WITH THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT .................................................18

WHAT ARE THE NEXT STEPS? ..........................................................................................................19

CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION .........................................21

HISTORY OF ST. CROIX ........................................................................................................................23

ST. CROIX BEFORE THE EUROPEANS ................................................................................................23

ST. CROIX AFTER EUROPEAN CONTACT ...........................................................................................31

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE UNITED STATES — NAVAL TO CIVIL ADMINISTRATION ........................48

OTHER ASPECTS OF CRUCIAN CULTURAL HERITAGE ........................................................................49

PROTECTED SITES ............................................................................................................................50

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT .............................................................................................................51

THE ISLAND’S ECOLOGY .................................................................................................................52

PROTECTED SITES ............................................................................................................................58

CLIMATE CHANGE ...........................................................................................................................58

SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................................60

POPULATION ...................................................................................................................................60

RACIAL PROFILE ..............................................................................................................................60

LANGUAGE .....................................................................................................................................60

UNEMPLOYMENT ............................................................................................................................60

MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME .......................................................................................................60

POVERTY .........................................................................................................................................61

INDUSTRY .......................................................................................................................................61
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CHAPTER 3: THEMES .................................................................................................63

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................65

THEME 1: EARLY CULTURES ............................................................................................................65

THEME 2: SLAVERY AND EMANCIPATION .......................................................................................66

THEME 3: THE SEVEN FLAGS OF ST. CROIX .....................................................................................66

THEME 4: GEOGRAPHY AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT— CROSSROADS OF THE CARIBBEAN .67

THEME 5: MODERN-DAY ST. CROIX – CULTURES IN CONTACT ........................................................67

CHAPTER 4: ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES ..............................71

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................73

ALTERNATIVE 1: NO ACTION ...........................................................................................................73

ALTERNATIVE 2: NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA ...................................................................................74

ALTERNATIVE 3: PRIVATELY ORGANIZED HERITAGE AREA ................................................................76

OVERALL CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................77

COORDINATING ENTITY OPTIONS CONSIDERED AND DISMISSED ........................................................78

CHAPTER 5: APPLICATION OF NPS NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA CRITERIA ............79

CRITERIA AND EVALUATION ................................................................................................................81

OVERALL CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................106

APPENDIXES, SELECTED REFERENCES, AND PREPARERS ......................................107

APPENDIX A: ST. CROIX NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA STUDY ACT .....................................................109

APPENDIX B: PUBLIC SUPPORT .........................................................................................................110

APPENDIX C: NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES LISTINGS FOR ST. CROIX ...........................158

APPENDIX D: INVENTORY OF RESOURCES IDENTIFIED BY THE PUBLIC AND THEMATIC ALIGNMENT .160

APPENDIX E: INVENTORY OF HISTORIC SITES WITH TOURISM POTENTIAL ON ST. CROIX FROM 

THE “ST. CROIX HISTORIC ATTRACTIONS FEASIBILITY STUDY” COMMISSIONED BY THE 

ST. CROIX LANDMARKS SOCIETY IN 1996 .........................................................................................170 

APPENDIX F: PUBLIC INPUT RECEIVED DURING THE UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA’S ECOTOURISM STUDY 

ON ST. CROIX ....................................................................................................................................186

APPENDIX G: COORDINATING ENTITY EVALUATION .........................................................................187

SELECTED REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................191

PREPARERS AND CONSULTANTS ........................................................................................................201
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Tables

Table 1: Summary of Public Meetings ......................................................................................................10

Table 2: Chronology and Cultural Series for St. Croix Employed in this Text (Adapted from Morse 1995, 

2004 and Rouse 1992) ...............................................................................................................23

Table 3: St. Croix’s Population by Race .....................................................................................................60

Table 4: Employment by Major Industry Sectors .......................................................................................61

Table 5: Tourism Economic Indicators ......................................................................................................62

Table 6: St. Croix Themes and the NPS Thematic Framework ...................................................................68

Table 7: Conceptual Financial Plan from Proposed Coordinating Entity ..................................................102

Table 8: Conceptual Expenses from Proposed Coordinating Entity .........................................................102

Maps

Map 1: Study Area Boundary ....................................................................................................................6

Map 2: Early Cultures ..............................................................................................................................12

Map 3: Slavery and Emancipation ...........................................................................................................13

Map 4: The Seven Flags of St. Croix ........................................................................................................14

Map 5: Geography and the Natural Environment — Crossroads of the Caribbean ...................................15

Map 6: Modern-Day St. Croix — Cultures in Contact ..............................................................................16

Map 7: Map of St. Croix, 1752 ...............................................................................................................32

Figures

Figure 1: Moist Forests ............................................................................................................................54

Figure 2: Dry Forests ...............................................................................................................................54

Figure 3: Woodlands ...............................................................................................................................54

Figure 4: Shrublands ...............................................................................................................................54

Figure 5: Herbaceous Communities .........................................................................................................54

Figure 6: Wetlands ..................................................................................................................................54

Figure 7: Other Land Types ......................................................................................................................54

Figure 8: Coral Reefs ...............................................................................................................................54

Figure 9: Seagrass Beds ...........................................................................................................................54

Figure 10: Other Marine Communities ....................................................................................................54
xii

This Feasibility Study is organized into fi ve 

chapters plus appendixes. Each section is 

described briefl y below. 

CHAPTERS

Chapter 1: Introduction provides a brief 

description of St. Croix and an overview of 

the study’s purpose, legislative history, and 

legal requirements. This chapter also describes 

the public involvement strategy and outcomes 

including the vision statement, themes, and 

heritage resource inventory. 

Chapter 2: Study Area History and Description

includes a brief history of the island, starting 

from the island’s fi rst inhabitants through today. 

The chapter also describes the natural and 

socioeconomic environments. 

Chapter 3: Themes describes the fi ve themes 

developed through the public involvement 

process and their alignment with the NPS 

thematic framework.

Chapter 4: Management Alternatives describes 

and evaluates three alternatives — no action, 

national heritage area, and privately organized 

heritage area. The chapter also evaluates 

coordinating entity options for the national 

heritage area alternative.

Chapter 5: Application of the NPS Heritage 

Area Criteria evaluates the feasibility and 

suitability of congressional designation of the 

island of St. Croix as a national heritage area 

according to the four steps and ten criteria 

established in the National Park Service’s 

“Draft National Heritage Area Feasibility Study 

Guidelines” (NPS 2003).

APPENDIXES

Appendix A: St. Croix National Heritage Area 

Study Act includes the legislation prompting this 

study.

Appendix B: Public Support includes a list of 

organizations that have participated in the study, 

letters of support from 27 organizations and 

government agencies, eight letters of support 

from members of the 28th Legislature of the 

Virgin Islands, and a resolution to support the 

designation of a St. Croix National Heritage Area 

that was passed in the 28th Legislature of the 

Virgin Islands.

Appendix C: National Register of Historic 

Places Listings for St. Croix includes the many 

sites on St. Croix that are listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places.

Appendix D: Inventory of Resources Identifi ed 

by the Public and Thematic Alignment includes 

an inventory of the resources identifi ed in the 

public involvement process and their thematic 

alignment.

Appendix E: Inventory of Historic Sites with 

Tourism Potential on St. Croix from the “St. 

Croix Historic Attractions Feasibility Study” 

Commissioned by the St. Croix Landmarks 

Society in 1996 includes a detailed inventory of 

the historic sites on St. Croix with information on 

ownership, use, features, etc.

Appendix F: Public Input Received during the 

University of Georgia’s ECOTourism Study 

on St. Croix includes data collected from public 

workshops on St. Croix as part of a separate but 

complementary ecotourism study. 

Appendix G: Coordinating Entity Evaluation

includes the request for information from 

applicants, selection factors, and a letter from the 

Southeast Regional Director of the National Park 

Service to the coordinating entity selected for the 

potential St. Croix National Heritage Area.

GUIDE TO THIS DOCUMENT
Chapter 1:

Introduction

1
2
3

 t. Croix is in the Caribbean Sea, 

approximately 1,100 miles from Miami. The 

island is 21 miles long and 6 miles across at its 

widest point. The eastern and northwestern 

ends of the island are hilly and steep. Rolling 

coastal plains make up the southern coast. 

The tallest point is Mt. Eagle at approximately 

1,165 feet. Point Udall, the eastern tip of the 

island, is also the easternmost point of the 

United States.

St. Croix was likely formed by a sedimentary 

uplift that is derived from older volcanic 

rocks. The fertile central valley of the island 

is considerably younger and is probably 

the remains of a coral reef that formed as 

the island was uplifted. The diverse marine 

and terrestrial communities of St. Croix 

include extensive coral reefs, productive 

seagrass beds, wetlands, closed canopy moist 

forests, dry forests, woodlands, desert-like 

shrublands, and herbaceous communities 

(active and abandoned pasturelands). 

St. Croix is the most agricultural of the U.S. 

Virgin Islands. The island was fi rst colonized 

because the combination of its fertile coastal 

plain and climate was ideal for the cultivation 

of sugarcane. West Africans were taken 

as slaves and brought to St. Croix to work 

on the cotton and sugar plantations. The 

island’s economy was dominated by the sugar 

industry until slavery was abolished in 1848. 

Today the economy lags behind the other U.S. 

Virgin Islands, and the median household 

income on St. Croix is about half that of the 

national average. Major revenue sources 

include the Cruzan Rum distillery, a large oil 

refi nery, tourism, and government sector jobs 

(U.S. Census 2000).

Inferences from archeological investigations 

conducted throughout the Caribbean as 

well as South and Central America provide 

evidence dating the earliest cultures on St. 

Croix possibly as far back as 4,000 years. 

Christopher Columbus had the fi rst recorded 

armed confl ict between Europeans and 

Amerindians when he visited St. Croix on his 

second voyage. In the following years a total 

of seven colonial fl ags have fl own over St. 

Croix (Spain, Holland, England, France, the 

Knights of Malta, Denmark, and the United 

States).

The United States purchased what is now 

the U.S. Virgin Islands (St. Croix, St. John, 

and St. Thomas, Water Island, and several 

other smaller islands) from Denmark in 1917 

for $25 million. The U.S. Virgin Islands are 

Butler Bay sugar 

factory. 

NPS photo.

S BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ST. CROIX
4

an unincorporated territory of the United 

States. St. Croix is the largest of the U.S. 

Virgin Islands. The island is divided into seven 

subdistricts, but areas of the island are often 

identifi ed by the former colonial estates. The 

island has two primary towns: Frederiksted 

with a population of 3,765 and Christiansted 

with a population of 2,865. The 2000 U.S. 

Census estimated the total population of the 

island to be 53, 234. 

Right:

View of Buck Island 

from Pt. Udall. 

NPS photo.

Below:

Effi gy vessel from 

St. Georges. 

NPS photo.
5

PURPOSE OF THIS FEASIBILITY 

STUDY

The purpose of this feasibility study is to 

determine if the island of St. Croix meets the 

suitability and feasibility requirements for 

designation as a national heritage area. The 

National Park Service (NPS) has prepared 

this study at the request of the Secretary of 

the Interior as directed by Congress in the St. 

Croix National Heritage Area Study Act (see 

appendix A).

A NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA 

A national heritage area is a locally managed 

place designated by Congress where natural, 

cultural, historic, and/or scenic resources 

combine to form a cohesive, nationally 

distinctive landscape arising from patterns of 

human activity that are shaped by geography. 

These patterns make national heritage areas 

representative of the national experience 

through the physical features that remain and 

the traditions that have evolved with them. 

Continued use of a national heritage area by 

people whose traditions helped to shape the 

landscape enhances the area’s signifi cance 

(NPS 2003). National heritage area 

designation will not impact private property 

or fi shing rights.

PROJECT BACKGROUND

Delegate to Congress Donna Christensen 

sponsored legislation that directs the National 

Park Service to study the suitability and 

feasibility of establishing a national heritage 

area on St. Croix. Local supporters view the 

potential designation as a way to strengthen 

the island’s identity; promote a sense of 

cultural pride in the island’s youth; sustain 

the island ways of life on St. Croix; improve 

the economy and quality of life of St. Croix 

residents; share St. Croix’s story with the 

world; and preserve, protect, and promote St. 

Croix’s heritage resources. 

THE STUDY AREA

The study area for the potential St. Croix 

National Heritage Area includes the entire 

island of St. Croix and its off shore marine 

environments (see chapter 5, criterion 9). The 

study boundary is based on an assemblage 

of natural, cultural, historic, and scenic 

resources that are spread across this area 

that together represents distinctive aspects of 

American heritage through the remarkable 

culture of the Crucian people. Many of these 

heritage resources were identifi ed by the local 

citizens of St. Croix, including more than 100 

unique sites that relate to the major heritage 

themes of the island. Many of these heritage 

resources are described throughout this study, 

and the sites identifi ed by the public can be 

found in appendix D.

The rationale for extending the boundary 

beyond the island itself is because of the 

integral connection between the people of St. 

Croix and the marine resources that surround 

the island. These marine environments and 

productive fi sheries have played an important 

role in shaping St. Croix’s heritage and are 

essential to many of their traditions, customs, 

and folklife. Not only have St. Croix’s 

extensive coral reefs, numerous bays, lagoons, 

off shore islands, and productive fi sheries 

helped to sustain the Crucian people, but they 

are also a source of great pride to share with 

visitors. 

BACKGROUND
6

The Caribbean Sea was also fundamental 

to the beginning of St. Croix’s heritage by 

providing the migration routes necessary to 

bring native Central and South Amerindians 

to the island more than 4,000 years ago. 

Today, the crystal-clear Caribbean waters that 

surround St. Croix continue to attract people 

from around the world, further enriching the 

cultural diversity of the island.

The study area extends 3 nautical miles out 

from the island to the U.S. Virgin Islands 

territorial boundary. This boundary includes 

most marine habitats that surround the island. 

The potential heritage area does not 

include the shallow and deep-water coral 

communities of Lang Bank that extend 10 

miles east from the island because of the 

3-mile territorial boundary limit (NOAA 

2007). Although the potential heritage area 

boundary follows the territorial boundary, 

designation as a heritage area would have 

no eff ect on private property rights, fi shing 

rights, land-use zoning, property taxes, or 

governmental jurisdictions.

Map 1 shows the study area boundary for 

the potential national heritage area. A map 

showing the extent of St. Croix’s marine 

environments can be found in chapter 2. 

A COMMUNITY-BASED APPROACH 

National heritage areas expand on traditional 

approaches to resource stewardship. They 

typically support community-based initiatives 

that connect local citizens to the preservation 

and planning process. By embracing a 

community-based approach, national heritage 

areas can bring together diverse eff orts, such 

as education, recreation, heritage tourism, 

and historic preservation. Committed to 

both protecting and promoting the natural, 

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CARIBBEAN

 

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CHRISTIANSTED

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Pull

Point Tague

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(Point 

Udall)

Grass

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Mount

Victory

HAMS

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Mt Eagle

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SEVEN HILLS

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Rohlsen

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Vagthus

Point

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Point

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BUCK

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L O N G R E E F

 

GREEN

 CAY

Queen Mary Hwy.

0

0

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2 Kilometers

North Study Area

Boundary Map

St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility Study

United States Department of Interior / National Park Service
7

cultural, historic, and scenic assets of a 

specifi c area, national heritage areas play a 

vital role in maintaining both the physical 

character and cultural legacy of the United 

States. 

Through the eff orts of a local coordinating 

entity, residents, businesses, governments, 

and nonprofi t organizations come together 

to improve the regional quality of life through 

the protection of shared cultural and natural 

resources. This cooperative approach 

allows national heritage areas to achieve 

both conservation and economic growth in 

ways that do not compromise local land use 

controls. 

PRIVATE PROPERTY

Designation of a national heritage area does 

not provide the coordinating entity or any 

federal agency authority to regulate land 

or land uses. Participation in projects and 

programs is always voluntary, with zoning 

and land-use decisions remaining under the 

jurisdiction of local governments. In addition, 

the coordinating entity is also prohibited from 

using the federal funds it receives through 

enabling legislation to acquire real property 

(NPS 2003).

A national heritage area is not a unit of the 

national park system, and no land is owned 

or managed by the National Park Service. 

National Park Service involvement is always 

advisory in nature, and the agency does not 

make management decisions. After a national 

heritage area is designated by Congress, 

the National Park Service partners with 

local community members to help plan and 

implement activities that emphasize heritagebased interpretation, conservation, and 

development projects. The National Park 

Service also provides administrative oversight 

of federal funding that the national heritage 

area receives.
8

SUGGESTED STEPS IN A NHA FEASIBILITY STUDY

Step 1 is to defi ne the study area to identify natural, cultural, 

and/or political limits that best encompass important 

resources related to the history of the region and potential 

themes that may be identifi ed. (Addressed in chapter 1)

Step 2 requires a public involvement strategy to promote 

public understanding of the study; to maximize public 

participation and their contributions to the study process; 

and to assess public support for designation and local 

capacity and commitment to undertake heritage programs. 

(Addressed in chapter 1)

Step 3 is to determine if St. Croix contributes in substantial 

ways to our country’s national heritage, and if so, determine 

if themes exist that would connect the various heritage 

resources to help the public understand, appreciate, and 

celebrate the island’s importance. (Addressed in chapter 3)

Step 4 involves inventorying natural and cultural resources 

of the island to determine if St. Croix is a nationally 

distinctive landscape; if the resources are important to and 

retain integrity for the identifi ed themes; and if there are 

outstanding opportunities for conservation, recreation, and 

education. (Addressed in chapter 5, criteria 1 and 3, and 

appendixes C, D, E, and F)

Step 5 is to evaluate alternative ways to manage the 

potential national heritage area and the effects of not 

designating the island as a national heritage area. The 

purpose of this evaluation is to identify the most feasible 

management approach and examine the effects of the 

status quo. (Addressed in chapter 4)

Step 6 is to delineate the boundary of the potential national 

heritage area. This step is based on an evaluation of the 

study area to determine if all or part of it should be included 

in the designation. (Addressed in chapter 1)

Step 7 is to determine the administration and fi nancial 

feasibility of managing the potential national heritage 

area. This is an evaluation of the preferred management 

alternative described in Step 5, and includes development 

of a conceptual fi nancial plan for the proposed coordinating 

entity of the national heritage area. (Addressed in chapter 

5, criterion 6)

Step 8 involves an evaluation of public support for 

designation and local commitments to partnerships on 

heritage projects and programs. The level of support and 

commitment is important to determine the capacity of local 

citizens to undertake the responsibilities of a future national 

heritage area. (Addressed in chapter 5, criterion 7)

THE TEAM

An interdisciplinary team of National Park 

Service (NPS) staff from the Denver Service 

Center and the Southeast Archeological Center 

were assembled to conduct this study at the 

request of the NPS Southeast Regional Offi ce. 

Since 2008, the study team has worked closely 

with a group of local representatives on St. Croix, 

as well as hundreds of island residents, through 

extensive public engagement (see the “Involving 

the Public” section below). 

The local team included representatives from 

the Virgin Islands Departments of Education, 

Agriculture, Tourism, Planning and Natural 

Resources; the University of Virgin Islands 

Cooperative Extension Service; St. Croix 

Historic Preservation Committee; the National 

Park Service; and the offi ce of the Virgin Islands 

Delegate to Congress. The team was invaluable to 

the study eff ort — assisting with public outreach 

eff orts during the course of the study; facilitating 

public meetings to identify a coordinating entity 

for the potential national heritage area; providing 

important contacts with other local agencies, 

citizens, and organizations; and sharing insights 

about the island’s heritage resources. 

This study has been prepared according the 

NPS “Draft National Heritage Area Feasibility 

Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003). These guidelines 

provide a step-by-step process to evaluate the 

suitability and feasibility for designating St. 

Croix as a national heritage area according to 10 

interim evaluation criteria (see chapter 5). These 

criteria were used to evaluate the island’s heritage 

resources, determine if opportunities exist to 

conserve and better understand those resources, 

and determine if there is public support and 

commitment to manage the potential heritage 

area. This evaluation can be found in chapter 5 of 

this document. The National Park Service’s study 

process to evaluate the criteria includes eight 

major steps, which are summarized on the left.

THE FEASIBILITY STUDY PROCESS
9

The results of these steps are synthesized 

throughout the chapters of this document. 

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the 

feasibility study; chapter 2 describes St. 

Croix’s history, natural environment, and 

socioeconomic environment; chapter 3 

describes the island’s heritage themes; chapter 

4 evaluates the management alternatives; and 

chapter 5 evaluates the 10 interim evaluation 

criteria.

INVOLVING THE PUBLIC

Open public engagement was fundamental 

to every step of this feasibility study 

process. The reason for such an integrated 

public involvement approach is because 

ultimately a future national heritage area 

designation requires strong support and 

active participation from its local citizens. 

Without engaging the public throughout the 

study process, it would have been diffi cult 

to foresee a successful national heritage area 

on St. Croix. To achieve this goal, a public 

involvement strategy with the following 

objectives was developed for this study:

• Promote public understanding of national 

heritage areas and how they are managed.

• Inform the public about the study and 

maximize their participation in the 

process.

• Assess public support for a national 

heritage area designation.

• Determine if there is local capacity and 

commitment to coordinate a future 

national heritage area.

A variety of public involvement eff orts were 

undertaken throughout the study process 

to achieve these objectives, including 

town meetings, workshops, television talk 

shows, radio interviews, newspaper articles, 

booths at local events, brochures, fl yers, 

and newsletters. Comment cards and an 

Public meeting at 

Sunny Isle Pavilion. 

NPS photo.
10

interactive website were also developed that 

allowed people to conveniently submit their 

input on a wide range of topics, ranging from 

heritage resources of the island to partnership 

opportunities for a future coordinating entity. 

The U.S. Virgin Islands Delegate to Congress, 

Donna M. Christensen, conducted meetings 

and announcements in addition to the 

National Park Service’s outreach eff orts. 

The National Park Service hosted a series 

of town meetings across the island to gather 

public input on the various steps of the 

study. Public turnout was excellent during 

these meetings, and participants were highly 

engaged and oftentimes deeply passionate 

when talking about the heritage of the island. 

Table 1 provides a summary of these meetings, 

including dates, locations, and number of 

participants.

WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THE 

PUBLIC MEETINGS — THEMES AND 

RESOURCES

Important outcomes of these meetings were 

the development of heritage themes and the 

identifi cation of heritage resources across 

TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF PUBLIC MEETINGS

Summary of Public Meetings Held by NPS

Date Location on 

St. Croix Venue Number of Participants

July 24, 2008 Christiansted American Legion Hall 61

July 25, 2008 Frederiksted Pier 69 Courtyard 50

July 28, 2008 Mid-Island University of the Virgin Islands 30

September 24, 2008 Christiansted Senior Center 25

September 24, 2008 Frederiksted Rotary Club 16

September 25, 2008 Christiansted American Legion Hall 25

September 27, 2008 Mid-Island Sunny Isle Pavilion 15

July 8, 2010 Christiansted American Legion Hall 40

July 9, 2010 Frederiksted Rotary Club 30

July 10, 2010 a.m. Mid-Island University of the Virgin Islands 15

July10, 2010 p.m. Mid-Island University of the Virgin Islands 15

 Total Number of Participants 322
11

the island. The fi ve theme categories that were 

developed included early cultures; slavery 

and emancipation; the seven fl ags of St. Croix; 

geography and the natural environment —

 crossroads of the Caribbean; and modern-day 

St. Croix — cultures in contact (see chapter 

3). For each of these themes, local citizens 

were asked to identify on maps the location of 

places, objects, and events that are important 

to understanding that particular aspect of St. 

Croix’s heritage. The following series of maps, 

as well as the resource inventories included 

in appendixes D and F, provide a summary of 

public input received. Although many of these 

sites identifi ed by the public are important to 

the St. Croix story, some are not open to the 

public, lack interpretation, or lack the integrity 

to be included among the fi rst tier of heritage 

resources included in chapter 5, criterion 1. 

Meeting participants were also asked to 

describe their traditions, customs, and beliefs, 

which are a valuable part of St. Croix’s heritage. 

Below is a list of the topics discussed during this 

outreach eff ort. 

• Crucian dialect

• traditional clothing and festival costumes

• diverse ethnic cuisine (e.g., seasoned rice, 

kallaloo, pâté, ginger beer, guavaberry, 

coquito)

• agriculture (e.g., sustainable farming, family 

gardens, cattle ranching)

• music and dance (e.g., quelbe songs, cariso, 

calypso, quadrille, reggae, scratch)

• arts and crafts (e.g., musical instruments, 

furniture, baskets, rugs, masks, jewelry, 

calabash) 

• festivals and parades (e.g., St. Croix 

Agricultural and Food Fair, Tea Meeting, 

Jump Up, Bull and Bread (Liberty Day), 

Mango Melee, Crucian Christmas)

• trees (e.g., baobab, mango, sausage, yellow 

cedar)

• friendship with Puerto Rico and other 

Caribbean islands

• obeah (i.e., folk magic)

• medicinal plants

• open-air church meetings

• Lent and Easter week celebrations

• funeral traditions

• proverbs and sayings

• oral traditions

• fi shing and camping

• masquerading

• cultural headdresses

• donkey races

• kite making and fl ying

• rum making

• burning candles

• indigenous people

• pirates

• Rastafarian culture

• conch shell blowing

• sports — cricket, horse racing, and baseball

The sidebars found throughout this document, 

written by local Crucians, provide an 

opportunity to better understand the meanings 

of many of these topics, as well as the meanings 

of many of the places found on the initial theme 

maps.

Mocko Jumbies. 

NPS photo.
12

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CHRISTIANSTED

FREDERIKSTED

Fort Frederik

PullPoint Tague

Point

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MountVictory

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Salt River Bay National Historical Parkand Ecological Preserve

Buck Island ReefNational Monument

OIL REFINERY

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5

4. Half Penny Bay5. Indian Pictograph6. Robin Bay

Legend

1. St. George Village2. Salt River3. Cape of Arrows

Map 2: Early Cultures

U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service

* Many sites associated with this theme are sensitive and therefore not on this map.
13

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MountVictory

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Buck Island ReefNational Monument

OIL REFINERY

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11

3

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5

6

6. Custom House

9. Estate Butler Bay 

17. Botanical Garden

11. Northwest Caves12. Estate Caledonia13. Mt. Victory School

14. Annaly Bay

15. Annaly Bay Tide Pools 16. Maroon Ridge18. Diamond School20. Queen Mary Highway

23. Bethlehem Central Factory24. Old Kingshill School 

28. Estate La Vallee30. Estate Morningstar31. Estate Sion Hill33. Peter’s Rest School34. La Grande Princesse School

35. Bülowsminde36. Estate Orange Grove 43. Christiansted 

44. Christiansted National  Historic Site 

50. East End School 

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Legend

1. Whim Plantation3. Frederiksted 4. Fort Frederik 5. Buddhoe Park

34

7. Estate La Grange 

42. Richmond Jail

41. Peter’s Farm Hospital

10. Estate Mt. Washington 37. Estate Little Princesse

46. Estate Cane Garden

51. Estate Coakley Bay

8. Estate Oxford

29. Estate Rust op Twist 2. Estate Concordia

38. Estate Contentment

48. Estate Castle Nugent 21. Lower Love Chimney

26. Estate Clifton Hill

32. Estate Castle Coakley

22. Golden Grove Greathouse (UVI)

19. Estate Diamond/ Cruzan Rum Factory

45. Baobab Tree

49. Great Pond 

27. Slob Historic District 47. Estate Longford

39. Anna Heegaard Gravesite

9 10

19

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25. Friedensfeld Church

40. Friedensthal Church and Manse

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Map 3: Slavery and Emancipation 

U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service
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Fort Frederik

PullPoint Tague

Point

EastPoint(Point Udall)

GrassPoint

Cane Bay

MountVictory

HAMS

BLUFF

Mt Eagle1169ft356m

 

 

SEVEN HILLS

Henry E.RohlsenAirport Sandy

Point

VagthusPoint

LongPoint

SurlainePoint

MilordPoint

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BUCK

ISLAND

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BUCK ISLAND CHANNEL

Butler

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Salt River Bay National Historical Parkand Ecological Preserve

Buck Island ReefNational Monument

OIL REFINERY

Queen Mary Hwy.

7. Estate Concordia8. Whim Plantation

9. Estate La Grange10. Lawaetz Museum11. Estate Prosperity 12. Estate Butler Bay 14. Estate Caledonia 15. Estate Oxford16. Mt. Victory School

17. Hams Bluff Lighthouse 18. Estate Long Point 19. Estate Diamond/ Cruzan Rum Factory 22. Botanical Garden 23. Estate Grove Place

24. Lower Love Estate 25. Estate Bethlehem 26. Cane Bay 27. Estate La Vallee29. Estate Rust op Twist 30. Old Kingshill School31. Bethlehem Central Factory

32. Spanish Town 34. Slob Historic District36. St. Ann’s Church37. Friedensfeld Church 

28. Estate Belvedere 

38. Estate Morningstar 39. Estate Sion Hill

40. Estate Castle Coakley41. Salt River 42. Estate Judith’s Fancy43. La Grande Princesse School44. Peter’s Rest School 45. Estate Grange46. Estate Anna’s Hope 

48. Bülowsminde49. Friedensthal Church and Manse50. Christiansted 51. Richmond Jail53. Government House

58. Estate Castle Nugent 

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Legend

1. Frederiksted2. St. Paul’s Church3. Holy Trinity Church 4. St. Patrick’s Church5. Fort Frederik 6. Custom House

16

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49

54. Protestant Cay

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47. Estate Cane Garden

52. Christiansted National  Historic Site

55. Pirate Martel 56. Site of Von Rohr  Botanical Garden (1790) 57. Fort Louise Augusta

52

20. Diamond School21. Hogensborg

20

21

13. Estate Mt. Washington

13

34

33. Kingshill Church 

35

35. Estate Clifton Hill

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59. East Hill School 

60. Estate Coakley Bay 

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Map 4: The Seven Flags of St. Croix

U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service
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Salt River Bay National Historical Parkand Ecological Preserve

Buck Island ReefNational Monument

OIL REFINERY

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Legend 1. Sandy Point 

2. Frederiksted Harbor 3. Mahogany Road 4. West End Beach5. Northwest Coastal Road 6. Butler Bay 

7. Underwater Sea Fans 8. Monks Baths 9. Northwest Caves10. Hams Bay 11. Hams Bluff 12. Waterfall 

13. Annaly Bay & Tidepools 14. Maroon Ridge 16. Moist Forest 17. Sustainable Farm 18. Estate Oxford 

19. Rain Forest 20. Lawaetz Garden 21. Grove Place22. Botanical Garden23. Agriculture Station 24. Hermitage 

25. Scenic Road26. Mt. Eagle 27. Cane Bay28. North Shore Road29. Salt River30. La Reine Market

31. Estate Blessing 

46

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32. Ruth Island 33. French Pond 35. Estate Thomas Exp. Farm36. Estate Orange Grove 

37. Cormorant Beach38. Long Reef 39. Christiansted Harbor 40. Protestant Cay 41. Gallows Bay 42. Altoona Lagoon 

43. La Presvallee44. Senepol Cattle 45. Great Pond 46. Southgate Coastal Reserve 47. Green Cay48. South Shore Road 

49. Robin Bay 50. Buck Island 51. East End Marine Park 

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52. Jack Bay53. Isaac Bay 

53

52

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54. Point Udall

15. Estate Caledonia

34. Vagthus Point

15

34

Map 5: Geography and the Natural Environment — Crossroads of the Caribbean

U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service
16

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Salt River Bay National Historical Parkand Ecological Preserve

Buck Island ReefNational Monument

OIL REFINERY

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1. Frederiksted2. CMC Arts3. Fort Frederik 

5. Armstrong’s Ice Cream

Legend

6. St. Croix LEAP7. Mt. Victory 8. Sustainable Farm 

9. Cruzan Rum Factory11. Estate Grove Place 12. Agricultural Station 

13. University of VI14. La Reine Market15. Salt River 16. Est. Thomas Exp. Farm 

17. Hovensa 18. St. John Airfield19. Estate Orange Grove 20. Christiansted 

21. Christiansted National  Historic Site 22. Gallows Bay 23. Senepol Cattle

25. Buck Island27. Base Array Telescope

21

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7 16

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10. Botanical Garden

9

4. Whim Museum

4

27 24

24. Buccaneer Hotel26. East End Marine Park

Map 6: Modern-Day St. Croix — Cultures in Contact

U.S. Department of the Interior / National Park Service
17

THE INITIAL VISION STATEMENT 

FROM THE PUBLIC WORKSHOPS

A vision statement was developed that clearly 

communicates the Crucian people’s vision 

for the potential St. Croix National Heritage 

Area. This statement evolved from many 

public meetings and a visioning workshop 

held on the island. The goal of the visioning 

workshop was to bring interested citizens 

together to discuss and describe the future for 

the potential heritage area and their role in its 

achievement. Participants in the workshop 

endeavored to make the vision statement 

specifi c to St. Croix by adding terms like 

“kallaloo” to describe their Crucian culture. 

(Kallaloo is a Caribbean stew containing 

many ingredients, much like the diverse mix 

of cultures that make up the Crucian people.) 

The resulting vision statement follows.

This vision statement is consistent with the 

concept behind all national heritage areas — 

to provide a community-based approach that 

connects local citizens to the preservation and 

enjoyment of their natural, cultural, historic, 

and scenic resources that contribute to our 

nation’s heritage. 

If St. Croix is designated as a national heritage 

area, the proposed local coordinating entity 

may choose to put forth a new or revised 

vision statement that not only captures the 

essence of the Crucian culture, but also 

conveys the purpose and direction of their 

organization. 

COORDINATION WITH

CONCURRENT EFFORTS 

The study team had the opportunity to work 

with a number of other local initiatives that 

focus on promoting, preserving, or increasing 

public understanding about St. Croix’s 

heritage. As described above, the study 

team worked closely with representatives 

from various local agencies, as well as 

other institutions and local organizations 

that provided valuable information and 

ideas during the study eff ort. Each of these 

entities has eff orts underway that emphasize 

the heritage of the island — ranging from 

educating local youth about the origins 

of unique Crucian customs, to promoting 

heritage-based tourism, to preserving St. 

Croix’s heritage resources through a network 

of protected areas. The following is a list of 

the agencies, institutions, and organizations 

the study team coordinated with during 

the study. Many of their ongoing eff orts are 

described in chapter 5.

• Virgin Islands Department of Education

• Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture

St. Croix’s authentic natural, cultural, 

historic, and scenic features are a celebration 

of our people, young and old alike, and a 

testament of our splendor. This is our shared 

heritage where Crucians — past, present, and 

future — represent a colorful kallaloo of our 

nation, the Caribbean, and the world.
18

• Virgin Islands Department of Tourism

• Virgin Islands Department of Planning 

and Natural Resources

• Offi ce of the Virgin Islands Delegate to 

Congress

• University of the Virgin Islands 

Cooperative Extension Service

• U.S. Forest Service, International Institute 

for Tropical Forestry

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

• St. George Village Botanical Garden

• St. Croix Environmental Association

• St. Croix Historic Preservation 

Committee

• St. Croix Landmarks Society

• Crucian Heritage and Nature Tourism

• Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute

• University of Georgia

The National Park Service has recently 

worked on other planning eff orts on St. Croix 

that provided the study team with useful 

information about important natural and 

cultural aspects of the island’s environment. 

These include an environmental assessment 

for a proposed marine research and education 

center at Salt River Bay National Historical 

Park and Ecological Preserve (NPS 2008b), 

and an archeological overview and assessment 

of Buck Island Reef National Monument 

(Hardy 2006). Congress recently directed 

the Secretary of the Interior to conduct two 

separate special resource studies for sites on 

St. Croix — Castle Nugent Farms (Public Law 

109-317) and Alexander Hamilton, Estate 

Grange, and Other Sites (Public Law 111-11). 

These eff orts are currently underway.

COMPLIANCE WITH THE NATIONAL 

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT

This study complies with the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which 

mandates all federal agencies to analyze the 

impacts of major federal actions that have 

a signifi cant eff ect on the environment. 

The National Park Service’s guidance 

for addressing this act is set forth in NPS 

guidance (Director’s Order 12, 2005), which 

outlines several options for meeting the 

requirements of the act, depending on the 

severity of the environmental impacts of the 

alternatives.

A “categorical exclusion for which no formal 

documentation is necessary” was selected 

as the most appropriate NEPA pathway for 

this feasibility study. The study is excluded 

from requiring an environmental assessment 

because it matches one of the categories that 

under normal circumstances has no potential 

for impacts to the human environment. The 

categorical exclusion selected states the 

following:

Legislative proposals of an 

administrative or technical nature — 

for example, changes in authorizations 

for appropriations; minor boundary 

changes and land transactions; 

proposals that would have primarily 

economic, social, individual, or 

institutional eff ects; and comments 

and reports on referrals of legislative 

proposals. (DO-12 Handbook, NPS 

2005.) 

The study matches this categorical exclusion 

because it was directed by Congress to 

determine if St. Croix meets the suitability 

and feasibility requirement for designation 

as a national heritage area. In essence, the 

study is a report on a legislative proposal. If 

Congress decides to designate St. Croix as a 

national heritage area, then a comprehensive 

management plan would be developed for 

the area. Depending on the types of projects, 

programs, and other actions proposed in 
19

that plan, then an environmental assessment 

would likely be necessary at that time.

The categorical exclusion selected for this 

study requires no formal documentation; 

however, the study still contains several key 

NEPA components. Principally, the study 

relied heavily on public input to support its 

fi ndings — the result of a comprehensive 

public involvement strategy. These outreach 

eff orts also gauged local support for the 

potential designation and helped to identify 

options for a proposed local coordinating 

entity. The study also evaluates diff erent 

management alternatives for the potential 

national heritage area, as well as a “no-action” 

alternative that looks at the eff ects of no 

formal designation. The study also provides 

a description of the island’s environment, 

including natural, cultural, economic, and 

social aspects — which provides the basis 

for an environmental assessment if one is 

necessary for a future national heritage area 

management plan.

WHAT ARE THE NEXT STEPS?

Based on the study fi ndings, the Department 

of Interior will make a recommendation to 

Congress. Congressional legislation would 

then be required to designate St. Croix as a 

national heritage area.
20
Chapter 2

Study Area History and Description

21
22
23

 T. CROIX BEFORE THE 

EUROPEANS

Much of what is known about St. Croix’s 

prehistory comes from inferences derived 

from archeological investigations conducted 

throughout the Caribbean as well as South 

and Central America (Hardy 2008). There are 

generally four major periods that are used to 

describe the sequence of cultural occupation 

in the region. They are Period I, which 

includes the Casimiroid (Lithic, 4000-2000 

BC) and Ortoiroid (Archaic, ca. 2000-500 BC) 

Series; Period II, which includes the Saladoid 

Series (Early Ceramic), ca. 500 BC-AD 500; 

Period III, which includes the Ostionoid 

Series (Late Ceramic), ca. AD 500-1490; and 

Period IV, Taino (European Contact, AD 

1492-1550).

The prehistoric chronology for St. Croix 

today demonstrates the cultural relations to 

Puerto Rico, the eastern Dominican Republic, 

and the rest of the Greater Antilles, and this 

chronology is largely based on the work by 

Hatt (1924) and Irving Rouse (1992) and 

modifi ed by Morse (1995, 2004). The periods, 

series, subseries, and styles and modes are as 

follows: 

• Prosperity (ca. 200/100 BC–AD 400) 

and Coral Bay–Longford (ca. AD 400–

600), phases of the Cedrosan Saladoid 

subseries and corresponding to Rouse’s 

Periods IIa and IIb, respectively; 

• Magens Bay–Salt River I (ca. AD 600–

900) and Magens Bay–Salt River II (ca. 

AD 900–1200), phases of the Elenan 

Ostionoid subseries and corresponding 

to Rouse’s Periods IIIa and IIIb, 

respectively; 

• Magens Bay–Salt River III (ca. AD 1200–

1500), refl ecting the later infusion of 

Chican cultural infl uences into the Virgin 

Islands at the end of the Ostionoid period 

and corresponding to Rouse’s Period IV 

(see table 2).

TABLE 2: CHRONOLOGY AND CULTURAL SERIES FOR ST. CROIX EMPLOYED IN THIS TEXT 

(ADAPTED FROM MORSE 1995, 2004 AND ROUSE 1992)

Periods 

(Rouse) Series Subseries Phase Years

IV Ostionoid Chican–Taino Magens Bay–Salt River III AD 1200–1500

IIIb Ostionoid Elenan Magens Bay–Salt River II AD 900–1200

IIIa Ostionoid Elenan Magens Bay–Salt River I AD 600–900

IIb Saladoid Cedrosan Coral Bay–Longford AD 400–600

IIa Saladoid Cedrosan Prosperity 200/100 BC–AD 400

HISTORY OF ST. CROIX S
24

Period I, Casimiroid 

Series ca. 4000–2000 BC

The oldest known archaeological sites in the 

Antilles have been found in Cuba and on 

the island of Hispaniola and date to roughly 

4000–3500 BC. Stone tools that have been 

recovered archeologically from these sites 

are similar to those found on sites on the 

Yucatan Peninsula, suggesting that these 

earliest Caribbean migrants traveled across 

the Yucatan Channel from Central America by 

boat (Wilson 1997:4).

Casimiroid sites are generally noted for lithic 

artifacts manufactured of fi ne-grained fl int. 

These include core tools, blades, burins, 

awls, and scrapers, in addition to anvils and 

hammerstones. Little information is known 

about the subsistence base of the Casimiroid 

culture (NPS 2009).

Period I, Ortoiroid 

Series ca. 2000–500 BC

A second wave of Caribbean migrations that 

would directly result in peoples colonizing 

the larger islands of the Greater Antilles 

occurred around 2000 BC, the beginning 

of the Ortoiroid or Archaic period (ca. 

2000–500 BC) (Rouse 1992; Peterson 1997). 

Many archeologists (e.g., Rouse 1992, Wilson 

1997) contend that this migration occurred 

when peoples from the Orinoco delta region 

of South America moved northward along 

the Lesser Antilles until they reached their 

northernmost extent of the Greater Antilles 

(Cuba), though their actual origins are little 

understood. The tools most closely identifi ed 

with these Archaic cultures are ground 

stone artifacts (which were fi rst introduced 

to the region at this time), blades, small 

sharp fl akes, bone tools, stone celts, and 

shell gouges (Hayward and Cinquino 2002; 

Hofman and Hoogland 2003; Kozlowski 

1974; Lundberg 1989; Veloz Maggiolo and 

Ortega 1976). There is also limited evidence 

that some Ortoiroid peoples used pottery, 

but whether pottery manufacture and use 

was a local creation or was an adoption by 

later populations as a result of contact with 

Saladoid peoples is unknown (Chanlatte Baik 

and Narganes Storde 1990; Keegan 1994; 

Veloz Maggiolo et al. 1991).

According to Hardy (2008, 2006), the 

evidence for Ortoiroid occupation on 

St. Croix is currently limited. Although 

questionable, Betty’s Hope is the only 

recorded site that may include an early 

Ortoiroid occupation.

Period II, Saladoid 

Series ca. 500 BC–AD 500

Root crop horticulture and possibly pottery 

are cultural elements fi rst introduced to the 

Caribbean islands sometime around 500 

BC, when the bearers of Saladoid cultural 

series began to migrate from Venezuela 

to the peninsula of Paria and the island 

of Trinidad (Boomert 2000a). Villages 

throughout lowland Amazonia, in general, 

followed a consistent pattern settlement and 

organization typical for many tribal societies 

around the world — a cleared, central plaza 

surrounded by structures, further surrounded 

by ringed or partially ringed middens.

By ca. 400 BC, these peoples and/or cultural 

traits had made their way to Puerto Rico, 

Hispaniola, and likely the Virgin Islands 

(including the area now containing Virgin 

Islands National Park and Salt River Bay 

National Historical Park and Ecological 

Preserve). Radiocarbon dates for the region 

indicate that the earliest part of the Saladoidera, locally known on St. Croix as the 
25

Prosperity Phase, lasted from about 200–100 

BC until AD 400.

When they arrived in the islands, these 

early Saladoid peoples would have likely 

encountered the descendants of the “Archaic” 

Ortoiroid cultural groups mentioned above 

(Curet 1992; Keegan 2000; Rouse 1964, 1986, 

1989, 1992; Siegel 1989, 1992). What kinds of 

interactions may have occurred are unknown. 

Archeologists recognize two major decorative 

ceramic series within Saladoid culture — 

Huecan and Cedrosan — in addition to daily 

use or utilitarian wares. Rouse reported 

(1992:102) that Huecan ceramics are found 

more often on St. Croix, Vieques, and eastern 

Puerto Rico, while Cedrosan pottery is 

typically found on St. Thomas, northern 

Puerto Rico, and the Mona Passage. Sites 

on St. Croix like Prosperity, Richmond, 

St. Georges, and Salt River have produced 

pottery of both subseries. Reasons for how 

and why these two distinct ceramic series 

came to be so disproportionately distributed 

are currently open to several interpretations. 

One explanation is that two separate 

migrations occurred nearly simultaneously, 

involving distinct peoples with separate 

ceramic traditions. A second explanation 

is that these ceramic subseries represent 

variations within a single culture, refl ecting 

either diff erent lineage groups or specialized 

uses.

A third, more controversial alternative 

is that the La Hueca style represents a 

separate cultural migration that preceded 

the recognized entry of Cedrosan Saladoid 

culture. This Huecan culture is believed to 

Salt River 

Bay National 

Historical Park 

and Ecological 

Preserve. 

NPS photo.
26

have arrived on Vieques and other islands 

of the northern Lesser Antilles prior to 

the entry of the Cedrosan Saladoid culture 

(Chanlatte Baik 2003). This Huecoid culture 

would have had a distinctive material culture 

that included unpainted pottery (no redon-white painted wares), fi ne zoned-incised 

cross-hatching decoration (ZIC wares) with 

red or white staining used only to fi ll areas of 

fi ne incisions or engravings, and a lapidary 

industry that manufactured fi nely crafted 

ornaments made from nonlocal, semiprecious 

stones. Ornaments were also made of shell, 

mother of pearl, polished black wood, and 

bone. It is believed that these ornaments 

sometimes depicted animals not found on 

the islands but only in the Amazonian and 

Orinocan basins, such as Andean condors. 

The fact that some of these semiprecious 

stones appear to have originated from this 

same region begs for the argument that a 

long-distance island-to-mainland exchange 

network outside the Orinoco River valley 

existed at this time. A reexamination of the La 

Hueca/Sorcé materials and data by José Oliver 

(1999) has called for a reassessment of this 

discussion, with future archeological inquiries 

focusing on questions of social relations and 

interactions.

Whichever explanation may be the case (or 

any combination thereof), Huecan subseries 

pottery typically consists of zone-incised 

and cross-hatched (ZIC) designs normally 

restricted to vessel rims and fl anges, while 

Cedrosan pottery has fi ne white-on-red 

painting (Righter 1997:73).

In general, Saladoid pottery is thin-walled 

and hard-fi red, and it includes inverted 

bell-shaped bowls (with open and fl aring 

rims more common than restrictive or 

straight rims) and carinated vessel walls 

(Allaire 1997a:22; Righter 1992). Other 

vessel traits include double bowls, globular 

vessels, pierced lugs or tabular handles, and 

D-shaped handles (Hayward and Cinquino 

2003). Saladoid pottery also occasionally 

incorporates polychrome paints, like purple, 

black, yellow, and orange, as well as fi gures 

(called adornos) depicting both humans and 

animals (Petersen 1997:23).

Stone, shell, and bone tool kits included awls, 

knives, fl ake tools, bone points and harpoons, 

hooks, and net sinkers. Ground stone objects, 

such as metates, grinding stones, adzes, and 

celts, were also made and used (Hayward and 

Cinquino 2002). Some petaloid celts show 

evidence of having been highly polished and 

were possibly solely used for ceremonial 

purposes, while others were used for grinding 

or pecking objects. Other artifacts associated 

with Saladoid culture and daily life activities 

include carved shell masks, pendants made of 

shell, turtle bone, ceramic spindle whorls, and 

coral hammerstones (Righter 1992:27).

Extensive circum-Caribbean and interisland 

trade networks among the early Saladoid 

cultures are evidenced by nonlocal shells 

and semiprecious stones used in the lapidary 

industry mentioned above (Allaire 1997a; 

Boomert 1987; Cody 1991; Crock and Bartone 

1998; Oliver 1999; Watters 1997; Watters 

and Scaglion 1994). Beads and amulets were 

carved from amethyst, aventurine, malachite, 

turquoise, carnelian, jadeite, and quartz 

(Righter 1997:74; Rodríguez 1997:86). Such 

items have occasionally been recovered in 

burials. By about 1,400 years ago, however, 

these artifacts all but disappeared from 

archeological contexts.

Saladoid peoples maintained gardens and 

horticultural fi elds (deFrance et al. 1996; 

Lathrap 1970; Newsom 1993; Newsom 

and Wing 2004; Steward 1948). Possible 

evidence for manioc cultivation is provided 

by the presence of ceramic griddles on many 
27

archeological sites, although these griddles could have been used with a 

number of plant foods; griddles recovered in the lowland Amazon and 

Orinocan basin of South America have been dated between 2,000 and 500 

BC. They also hunted, fi shed, and gathered shellfi sh.

Early Saladoid villages are often located in ecotones (areas where two 

or more ecological zones converge). Villages tend to be located near 

mangroves, estuaries, continual or intermittently running fresh water, 

lagoons, coral reefs, and soils suitable for growing their crops. Villages are 

also located along watersheds and near river mouths and are associated 

with alluvial soils (Morse 1989).

Communities consisted of houses clustered around central cleared plazas, 

often interpreted as multifunctional areas that would have often been 

used for ceremonial functions (Rodríguez 1997:84). Beyond the houses, 

villages were ringed by circular or U-shaped middens. The houses were 

large and round, ranging from more than 32 feet to approximately 105 

feet in diameter, and they were built of poles and thatch. It is believed that 

these structures housed extended families (Keegan 2000:141). In the later 

part of the Saladoid period, there appears to have been an expansion into 

the mountainous interiors of the islands.

Three-pointed fi gures made of stone, wood, clay, or shells were present 

throughout the Saladoid culture region; they were initially called zemis

by early archeologists. It is now known that zemis used by the Taino at 

the time of European contact were representations of specifi c deities; 

the function of the three-pointers remains unknown (Rouse 1992). 

Early versions were small and simple, while later versions (during the 

Ostionoid) became quite large and were elaborately carved.

Saladoid burial customs included interment in middens surrounding the 

sacred plaza space and in the central plaza itself as a kind of cemetery 

(Curet and Oliver 1998; Righter 2002; Sandford et al. 2002:220). Interred 

individuals are often recovered in fl exed, tightly fl exed, or seated positions 

(Hardy 2008; Sandford et al. 2002; Winter et al. 1991), though Siegel 

(1992) reports several extended burials at the Maisabel site on Puerto 

Rico. Prestige goods have reportedly been recovered from middens 

surrounding the central plaza and not with individuals, possibly indicative 

of egalitarian reverence in death. The practice of burying the dead 

in unmarked graves in central spaces may be indicative of kin-based 

corporate groups with social organization possibly largely on lineal 

descent (Curet and Oliver 1998).

The social organization of Saladoid communities has generally been 

interpreted as egalitarian, based largely on an apparent absence of 

hierarchical patterns of settlement, burial, and artifact distributions. 

In Your Own Words:

Early Cultures

“We sometimes overlook the fact 

that our islands were inhabited by 

indigenous Indian folk for some 

three millennia before the advent 

of settlement by European and 

African people. Archaic, Arawakan-

[speaking] and Cariban-speaking 

groups each in succession settled 

these islands and established their 

respective cultures. On St. Croix 

alone more than 20 settlements and 

the accompanying horticultural 

lands flourished for many centuries 

in relative peace and stability 

before they were decimated by the 

European invasion in 1515 AD. 

Salt River was the most prominent 

of these sites, with villages on 

both shores of the estuary and an 

impressive batey, or ceremonial ballcourt, where traditional ceremonies 

were regularly enacted. My own 

view is that there exists no location 

of comparable size anywhere in the 

region that offers better resources 

and conditions for the study and 

appreciation of Antillean Indian 

culture than our Virgin Islands, 

particularly St. Croix.” 

Arnold R. Highfield

Professor Emeritus of Social Sciences 

& Linguistics

University of the Virgin Islands
28

However, this terminology does not account 

for the variability of forms of social order, 

such as ranking and temporary hierarchies, as 

found in middle range societies. It is believed 

that Saladoid peoples had some kind of 

tribal form of social organization, possibly 

something similar to Big Man societies, with 

achieved social status that over time could 

become a hereditary position of leadership 

(Boomert 2000, 2001; Curet 1996, 2003; Siegel 

1989, 1996).

Several Saladoid-era sites have been found 

on St. Croix. These include Prosperity I, St. 

Georges, Enfi eld, Longford, Cane Bay, Great 

Pond, Milord Point, Richmond, Robin’s Bay, 

Salt River, and Judith’s Fancy (Hardy 2006). 

Period III, Ostionoid 

Series ca. A.D. 500-1490

By ca. AD 400, Late Saladoid cultures were 

being infl uenced by yet another wave of 

cultural changes that were beginning to 

spread throughout the Caribbean. A number 

of archeologists recognize several possible 

sources for these infl uences — innovation 

by Saladoid groups or trade and interaction 

with other groups, such as peoples of the 

Barrancoid culture that originated from 

the llanos region of central Venezuela and 

northeast Colombia (also known as the 

Intermediate or Isthmo-Colombia region) 

(Boomert 2003:147). Late Saladoid and early 

Ostionoid ceramic styles of Puerto Rico 

and the Virgin Islands showed signifi cant 

infl uences from the Barrancoid styles of 

ceramics. It has been suggested that these 

infl uences were due to long distance trade 

between the two areas. 

Ostionoid culture developed further into 

two regionally based variants — Elenan, 

distributed from Guadeloupe to eastern 

Puerto Rico (including the Virgin Islands), 

and Ostionan, located in western Puerto 

Rico and Hispaniola (Rouse 1992:107). Some 

View of Great 

Pond. 

NPS photo.
29

researchers, however, hold that these variants 

actually represent distinct cultural phases that 

developed out of Saladoid phases; the Elenoid 

phase was in the eastern half of Puerto 

Rico, Vieques, and the Virgin Islands, and 

the Ostionoid phase comprised the western 

half of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage. 

However, these “boundaries” are not fast.

Later in Period III, Chican (Taino) culture of 

Puerto Rico began to infl uence the Elenan 

culture of the Virgin Islands.

The prevailing theory among Caribbeanists 

is that the Saladoid culture evolved into the 

Ostionoid. So the Ostionoid period represents 

a continuation of the Saladoid period in 

terms of ceramic-making, agriculture, and 

sedentism. However, there seems to be a 

breakdown in cultural continuity between 

the Caribbean Islands and mainland South 

America, evidenced by a lack of trade goods, 

such as the Saladoid exotic stone pendants 

and the rise of regional ceramic styles in both 

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Many 

people of the Elenan (Magens Bay–Salt River 

I) culture continued to live at the same sites 

as their Saladoid ancestors. By approximately 

AD 1200 (Magens Bay–Salt River II on St. 

Croix), these trading interactions had been 

revived (Rouse 1992:126).

Another change is the increase in size and 

complexity of communities in the Ostionoid 

period — for example the appearance of 

ball courts and ritualistic items and a ranked 

hierarchy of chiefdoms that appear to have 

controlled specifi c regions. Some villages 

remained small and may have served as 

agricultural hamlets or activity camps; others 

grew to be regional centers of power (Curet 

1992b, 1996a; Rouse 1992; Siegel 1992, 1996). 

Some of these hierarchical centers had only 

one plaza, while others contained multiple 

plazas. It appears that the central plaza of the 

Saladoid villages evolved into cleared areas 

enclosed by either low, earthen embankments 

or stones, referred to commonly as ball courts 

or batey (Taino). These ball courts appear to 

have served a multifunctional public space 

use.

What is clear about this time period in both 

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands is rapid 

population growth in terms of site numbers 

and size of sites. Just prior to European 

contact there appears to be a clustering of 

large sites around major ceremonial centers, 

such as Caguana in western Puerto Rico, 

Cuevas-2 in eastern Puerto Rico, and possibly 

Salt River Bay on St. Croix. These sites may 

have been centers of religious and political 

power that extended over large territorial 

units.

Elenan and Chican ceramics are typically 

poorly proportioned, with fl at bases, thin 

rims, and raised loop or strap handles; they 

are often polished and painted completely in 

red or red smudged with applied or modeled 

zoomorphic images (Righter 1992:27, Rouse 

1992:124). Chican ceramics are typically 

incised with curvilinear designs and have 

incurving shoulders. Chican pottery is 

typifi ed by carinated bowls and decorated 

with incised and punctated designs and 

elaborate lugs, and fl at bases decrease in 

popularity. Ceramics from Salt River and 

other sites across St. Croix demonstrate some 

stylistic affi nity with eastern Puerto Rico and 

eastern Hispaniola (Dominican Republic), 

such as the Boca Chica and Ostiones styles. 

Studies by Morse (1989, 1995, 2005) and 

Lundberg and Righter (1999) have found 

that many of the style attributes demonstrate 

continued close contact with the developing 

Ostionoid chiefdom societies, more familiarly 

known today as Taino.

Other artifacts and features include petaloid 

stone celts; zemi objects of stone, shell, and 

clay; and the introduction of petroglyphs. 
30

As populations increased and villages either 

grew or budded off , a need for further self 

defi nition of in-group status membership 

developed. The use of fi ne ceramics and 

limited exotic stone beads and amulets were 

no longer enough to diff erentiate between 

elite and commoner status groups. New 

symbols were developed and adopted as 

means of indicating status and, by ca. AD 

900 (prior to a resurgence of trade and 

interaction networks), included ornately 

carved three-pointer stones and zemis, duhos

inlaid with shell and gold, and ornately carved 

semiprecious stones.

Ostionoid religious and burial practices 

apparently developed largely out of earlier 

Saladoid traditions, with subsequent 

infl uences from Chican cultures. Human 

burials refl ected a general shift in emphasis 

toward the family unit, and were directly 

related to individual structures or houses — 

although in some places the dead continued 

to be interred in the central plazas (Curet 

1992a, 1992b, 1996:120; Sandford et al. 

2002). There have been reports from other 

islands that burials also occurred in caves. 

Grave goods interred with some individuals 

are believed to be indicative of social status 

(Rouse 1992:116).

Sites on St. Croix from this period can be 

found at Salt River, Cotton Valley, Coakley 

Bay, Richmond, Halfpenny Bay, Robin Bay, 

and Aklis (Hardy 2006).

Period IV, Taino and Island Carib (European 

Contact) Series ca. A.D. 1492–1550

By 1492 the cultures of the Greater Antilles 

and the Leeward Islands had developed into 

the Taino chiefdom societies encountered 

by Columbus and other Europeans. Many 

scholars believe that Columbus’s men 

encountered Taino people who had been 

recently conquered by Island Carib invaders. 

Others have speculated that these Island 

Caribs were actually Arawaks who had been 

infl uenced by mainland Caribs (Hardy 2006; 

Hatt 1924; Honychurch 1997:294). 

Much of what we know about the Taino 

comes from observations made by the fi rst 

Europeans who arrived in the Caribbean in 

the 15th and 16th centuries. The Taino were 

agriculturalists who lived in well-organized 

villages. In addition to a variety of agricultural 

products, they made use of marine resources 

by using nets, hooks, and large arrows. The 

Taino were skilled boatsmen and navigators. 

They built and maintained large canoes for 

interisland travel by hollowing out large 

trees. Many items were traded between the 

islands, such as cotton; ground and polished 

stone beads; raw stones; ornaments and 

tools made of shell, bone, stone, and wood; 

tobacco; foods; and feathers (among other 

items) (Deagan and Cruxent 2002:38; Rouse 

1992:17). Observers in the 15th and 16th 

century recorded aspects of their culture and 

religion. 

At fi rst contact, the Spanish viewed Puerto 

Rico as being controlled by a series of Taino 

chiefs, or caciques. These were the religious 

and political leaders of discrete geographical 

areas, and they were loosely affi liated with 

paramount chiefs in a ranked hierarchy 

organization.

The Island Carib peoples planted manioc 

and sweet potato in rain forest garden plots 

near their villages. Women and men lived 

in separate structures — women in several 

round huts and men in a large rectangular 

house. Fishing was not widely practiced. 

These people were not organized in 

chiefdom societies like the Taino, but were 

more egalitarian in social structure (Allaire 
31

1997b:182). They made and used a variety 

weapons, including the longbow (with 

arrows tipped with wood or stingray spines 

and poisoned with manchineel juice), war 

clubs (boutou), and blowguns. They also 

used special warfare tactics, like using smoke 

from hot chili peppers to blind their enemies 

(Allaire 1997b:183). They did not produce or 

have three-pointers or zemis.

The Spanish noted that the Taino of Puerto 

Rico were engaged in resisting Carib attacks 

from the Virgin Islands. On St. Croix, no 

Carib style artifacts have been recovered, 

and there has been no obvious archeological 

evidence for a Carib presence in the Virgin 

Islands in general. There is not any evidence 

for Carib-style artifacts (namely, the Cayo 

ceramic complex from St. Vincent) north of 

Guadeloupe. In nearby Puerto Rico, the Taino 

began to align themselves with neighboring 

groups, and they were called Carib when they 

fought against the Spanish. The problem was 

the assignment by the Spanish of “Carib” 

to anyone who was deemed a troublemaker 

—someone who took arms against the 

Spanish authorities.

Ultimately, by the second decade of the 16th 

century, both Taino and Carib cultures in 

these areas were nearly extinct.

ST. CROIX AFTER

EUROPEAN CONTACT

Before the Europeans came to the Americas, 

St. Croix was inhabited by Amerindian 

societies who arrived on the island 2,000–

4,000 years ago. These early explorers and 

settlers were the ancestors of today’s South 

American Arawakan-speaking societies, 

and they were a part of a larger migration of 

many groups of people out of the Middle and 

Lower Orinoco River Valley. 

Once on the island, these peoples underwent 

numerous societal changes, interacted with 

their neighbors, and maintained contacts 

with their South American homelands. Over 

time, some of these societies developed into 

the Taino chiefdoms that were encountered 

by Christopher Columbus on the islands of 

the Greater Antilles, and possibly St. Croix 

(Dookhan 1974; Hardy 2006). 

Columbus visited St. Croix on November 14, 

1493, during his second voyage, and gave the 

island its name (Santa Cruz, or “Holy Cross”); 

it was called Ayay by the Taino and Cibuquiera 

by the Island Caribs. The explorers anchored 

off Salt River, and a team of 25 men went 

ashore to obtain fresh water. They observed 

a small village with only a few huts. The team 

encountered a small group of women and 

small boys; a debate remains among scholars 

concerning who these people actually were. 

The Spanish took these people captive, and as 

they were returning to the 17-vessel fl eet they 

encountered a canoe containing four men, 

two women, and a boy. After a brief skirmish, 

the Spanish quickly overtook the small group 

of Amerindians, killing one and taking the 

Columbus 

Landing Site. 

NPS photo.
32

rest captive. Thus, the fi rst recorded armed 

confl ict between Amerindian peoples and 

Europeans occurred on St. Croix (Dookhan 

1974; Hardy 2006).

It is estimated that at the time of Columbus’s 

encounter at Salt River there were about 20 

small villages on the island. The residents 

of St. Croix fought with the Taino of Puerto 

Rico against the Spanish from roughly 1510 

to 1520. In 1550 King Charles V reportedly 

drove the indigenous peoples away from St. 

Croix, “the king having ordered them treated 

as enemies and exterminated” (Knox 1852).

The Efforts of the 17th Century

By the beginning of the 17th century, the 

island was deserted (Hardy 2006).

European explorers and settlers paid little 

attention to St. Croix until the fi rst half of the 

17th century. No European groups attempted 

to colonize the island until the 1630s, when 

several attempts were made by English, 

Dutch, and French, all of which were quickly 

stopped by the governor of Puerto Rico.

In 1636 Jan Snouck obtained a charter from 

the Dutch West India Company to settle 

St. Croix, although the Dutch settlers did 

not actually arrive on the island until 1642 

(Figueredo 1978:62). The Dutch, joined by 

about 120 French colonists, settled near 

present-day Christiansted, while the English 

settled around present-day Frederiksted 

(Boyer 1983:3; Rogoziski 2000:82).

The small Dutch community, consisting of 

roughly 10 houses and a church, was called 

St. Jean, while the harbor was called Bassin 

(Island Resources Foundation 1988:4–5). The 

actual date of the establishment of St. Jean is 

not known, but because it was purportedly 

a Dutch settlement it would have to have 

been between 1642 and 1650. The St. Jean 

settlement was not based on plantation 

agriculture, but rather on maritime trade. 

Map 7: Map of 

St. Croix, 1752.

Photo credit: 

St. Croix 

Landmarks Society 

and NPS.
33

According to the limited research available, 

this community was an active trading center 

(Island Resources Foundation 1988:3).

The Dutch also built a small settlement at 

Salt River, founded by Louis Capoen in 

1642, consisting of a three-sided earthen fort 

known as Fort Flamand (today known as 

Fort Sale), complete with 11 mounted canons 

(Figueredo et al. 1989:22). A 1752 Spanish 

map shows fi ve habitations of the “English 

settlement” situated along the eastern shore of 

the bay and a Jacobin monastery.

The island continued to change hands 

between these European powers until 

1650, when the French took control. About 

300 planters were sent to St. Croix from 

St. Christopher, and they quickly began to 

clear much of the forest to create fi elds for 

agriculture (Taylor 1970). They planted coff ee, 

ginger, indigo, and tobacco. In 1653 King 

Louis XIV deeded the island to the Knights of 

Malta, but by 1665 control had been given to 

the French West India Company. This eff ort 

failed because the company was plagued with 

fi nancial problems. In 1674 the company’s 

control was dissolved, and St. Croix was ruled 

directly by the French Crown (Dookhan 1974; 

Hardy 2006).

Under French rule the island had a brief 

period of economic and agricultural 

prosperity, as well as a surge in its small 

population. By the end of the 1680s, however, 

illegal trade, war, privateering, and piracy had 

made the small colony no longer economically 

feasible. In 1696 the French removed the 

settlers to its other Caribbean island colonies, 

burning their houses and leaving behind their 

horses, cattle, and sheep (Dookhan 1974; 

Hardy 2006; NPS 2008c).

Except for a small contingent of English 

colonists numbering between 150 and 600, 

and about 450 slaves who arrived and settled 

near the middle of the island around 1729, St. 

Croix would remain relatively uninhabited 

until the Danish took possession in 1734. 

In so doing, they would create an indelible 

European infl uence on the cultural landscape 

of the island.

The fi rst Moravian missionaries in the Virgin 

Islands arrived in 1732, in St. Thomas. The 

Moravians were the followers of John Huss 

and had been persecuted extensively since the 

1400s. In the Virgin Islands and throughout 

the Western Hemisphere, the Moravian 

Church’s mission was to teach piety and 

equality. Moravian missions were planned 

communities with standardized building 

layouts. 

Danish Settlement,

Agriculture, and Economy

On June 13, 1733, King Christian VI of 

Denmark purchased St. Croix and gave 

control to the Danish West India and Guinea 

Company. Under the leadership of Frederik 

Moth, the town of Christiansted was 

established on the ruins of the small French 

settlement at Bassin.

Frederiksted was planned, and forests 

began to be cleared from lands from Estate 

La Grange in 1751 (Svensson 1980). The 

following year, the directors of the Danish 

West India and Guinea Company approved 

the plans developed by surveyor Jens M. 

Beck. Despite eff orts to encourage economic 

development, the town did not develop into a 

bustling commercial center. Fort Frederik was 

built between 1752 and 1760, and in 1776 it 

was the fi rst foreign fortifi cation to salute the 

newly established United States. 
34

To prepare St. Croix for settlement, 

development, and cultivation, the island’s 

forests (previously cleared by French 

colonists) were once again destroyed 

(Haagensen [1758]:29; Hall 1994:59). These 

lands were then subdivided into rectangular 

parcels to provide equally sized and valued 

properties to investors (Hopkins 1988:7); each 

parcel measured roughly 2,000 feet by 3,000 

feet for a total of 150 Danish acres (40,000 

square feet to the acre) (Boyer 1983:11;Taylor 

1970:123–124). Despite the fact that the 

island was ruled by the Danish West India and 

Guinea Company, it was diffi cult to get Danes 

to settle. The growth of the settlement was 

due primarily to the large number of English 

who came to the island as both planters and 

merchants, mostly from other islands — St. 

Eustatius, Virgin Gorda, and Tortola (Hardy 

2006; NPS 2008c). For example, from 1742 to 

1804, nearly 40% of all owners of large estates 

were English, compared to 23% Danish, 8% 

Dutch, 5% French, and 24 % from various 

other countries (Hall 1994:16). As a result, 

the primary language spoken was English; the 

fi rst newspaper, The Royal Danish American 

Gazette, was published in English (Hall 

1994:15). An English-based creole, or lingua 

franca, developed and was used for trade.

To entice settlers to come to St. Croix and 

establish plantations, they were granted seven 

years of tax exemptions. Even with incentives 

like this, establishing a sugar plantation was 

expensive, with enormous investments that 

could either pay off handsomely or end up 

disastrously. The earliest plantation houses 

were simple and modest, made of wood, and 

it was not until after the 1750s when many of 

the grand estate houses were built.

By 1750 the 370 tracts had been divided 

into 231 plantations, 105 of which grew 

cotton, 95 grew sugar, and 31 were primarily 

provisioning and stock estates. By 1770 most 

of these estates were established and running. 

Between 1750 and 1767, 33 cotton plantations 

converted to sugar production, and by 1815 

cotton estates had virtually disappeared from 

St. Croix. By the early 19th century, cotton 

had lost much of its economic and social 

signifi cance within the Crucian plantation 

system. 

Cotton was a vital and integral part of the 

establishment of plantation agriculture 

in the Virgin Islands and throughout the 

Caribbean. According to Historian George 

F. Tyson in his article “On the Periphery of 

the Peripheries: The Cotton Plantations of 

St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 1735-1815,” 

between 1750 and 1800 West Indian cotton 

plantations dominated the Atlantic market 

place. They produced two-thirds of the raw 

material consumed by the expanding English 

textile industry and supplied the bulk of the 

European imports. Most cotton growing 

estates on St. Croix were in the driest areas 

of the island, on the rolling coastal plains and 

small knolls of the leeward side of the island 

where they were buff ered from northerly 

blustering winds by the northside mountain 

range.

Cotton quickly exhausted soil fertility, and 

the industry as a whole was short-lived in the 

agricultural history of the West Indies. On 

St. Croix, cotton plantations existed from 

1735 until the fi rst decade of the 19th century 

when drought, insect infestation, and soil 

exhaustion took their toll.
35

Sugar agriculture became the lifeblood of 

the Danish colony, gaining dominance on St. 

Croix in the second half of the 18th century. 

Until 1754, the colony was controlled by the 

Danish West India and Guinea Company, 

which maintained a monopoly that required 

planters to sell their sugar to them and no one 

else. The island’s “Golden Age” (1754-1815) 

began when the Danish Crown purchased the 

shares of the company, took over its debts, 

and implemented a free trade policy. Many 

settlers arrived, especially from neighboring 

English islands. In 1767 there were 64 sugar 

works on the island. In 1796, there were 114 

windmills and 44 animal mills on the island, 

and in 1803 there were 181 sugar estates. In 

1755, 1.5 million pounds of sugar were being 

produced on Crucian estates; by 1770, nearly 

17 million pounds were being produced. At its 

peak, in 1812, Crucian estates were producing 

46 million pounds of sugar annually 

(Westergaard 1917:255).

Typical sugar estates from the Golden Age 

would have been comprised of a main house, 

servants quarters (to support the main house), 

cisterns, a cook house, kitchen garden, 

overseer’s house, hospital, slave village and 

associated buildings and areas (provision 

grounds, cemetery), a windmill or animal mill 

(or both), and the buildings of the factory 

area (a boiling house, curing house, storage 

houses, and a distillery). A well tower was also 

often present on estates; well towers, or water 

pumping mills, used water funneled through 

a channel to drive either a cane mill or as a 

pump. In some instances there may have been 

a family cemetery on the property. 

Animal mills were the fi rst mills on St. Croix. 

They consisted of a round shed surrounded 

by an earthen or low stone wall that housed 

grinding machinery. By the middle of the 

18th century, however, windmills were being 

erected across the island. These mills were 

of the Dutch style, in which the dome and 

sails could be turned directly into the wind. 

Speed was regulated by using wood shutters 

or louvers in portions of the sail, in lieu of 

canvas. The fi nal kind of mill, those driven by 

steam, was expensive, and even though they 

were available early in the 19th century, they 

did not gain popularity on St. Croix until after 

emancipation.

The windmills, animal mills, steam mills, 

and central factories that dot the island’s 

landscape evoke the colonial experience, and 

although picturesque they are representative 

of the period when sugar and rum were two 

of St. Croix’s most important commodities. 

Most of the windmills seen today were 

built early in the period of 1750 to 1800. A 

few estates had two windmills, along with 

auxiliary ox or mule mills. Mills were essential 

to sugarcane processing (Landmarks Society 

2009). 

Animal mill 

at Whim 

Plantation. 

NPS photo.
36

In 1747 the Danish West India and Guinea 

Company allowed the planters to have 

self-rule and administration. By 1753 these 

planters had appealed to the Danish Crown 

to purchase the company’s Caribbean 

holdings, which occurred in 1754. With the 

crown directly involved, a long period of 

growth followed. Between 1760 and 1800, 

as a result of free-trade policies, St. Croix’s 

population increased dramatically, and great 

profi ts were realized from the production 

of sugar, molasses, rum, and cotton. The 

capital of St. Thomas and St. John was moved 

from Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas to 

Christiansted, where it remained until 1871 

when it was returned to Charlotte Amalie 

(Dookhan 1974).

For some time St. Croix was one of the 

wealthiest islands in the West Indies. The 

prosperity was due greatly to sugar cultivation, 

rum production, and slave labor. St. Croix’s 

economy existed through trade. The island 

exported fi ve commodities — sugar, rum, 

cotton, molasses and hardwoods — and 

imported almost everything it needed (NPS 

1993). By the end of the 18th century, St. 

Croix was regarded as one of the premier 

sugar islands of the Caribbean (St. George 

Village Botanical Garden 2009).

Right:

Windmill 

ruins at Estate 

Mt. Victory. 

Photo credit:

Nate Olive.

Below:

Whim 

Plantation 

Greathouse. 

NPS photo.
37

The remains of greathouses and the plantations of St. Croix 

provide opportunities to explore colonial occupation from 

an archeological perspective. In some cases sites have been 

preserved as museums illustrating the colonial era on St. Croix. 

Whim Plantation and the Lawaetz Family Museum Estate Little 

La Grange are two examples of museums on the island that give 

visitors a glimpse into the colonial period. The Whim Estate dates 

back to 1743, and the Lawaetz Estate of Little La Grange goes 

back to the 1750s (Landmarks Society 2009).

The price of sugar in the world market was stable for the fi rst 

decades of the 19th century, and St. Croix’s plantation owners 

were doing well. In 1803 the population of the island was 30,000, 

with 26,500 enslaved Africans engaged in planting and processing 

sugarcane. The economic decline of the sugarcane industry that 

began ca. 1915-1920 on St. Croix can be attributed to a declining 

work force of enslaved Africans and competing beet sugar prices 

that caused a sharp decline in the profi tability of cultivating 

sugarcane. 

Military and Defense

To protect her investment, Denmark began to develop and 

improve the coastal defenses and strengthen the military. The 

Danish authorities viewed Bassin Harbor as one that could be 

easily defended and would provide safe anchorage for vessels. 

Construction of a redoubt was reportedly begun on the ruins of 

Fort Louise Augusta (Olsen 1960:11). By March 1735 the new 

earthwork, measuring 100 feet by 116 feet, was completed on 

three sides, with a few simple houses for quarters on the fourth 

side. Work commenced on the construction of bastions on 

the northwest and southwest angles. By October 1735 a small 

residence for the colonial governor had also been built along 

the fourth side of the earthwork. Following a severe hurricane 

in August 1738, work began on a more permanent, masonry 

fortifi cation (Cissel 1987:1).

Construction began on Fort Frederik, on the western side of the 

island in the newly planned community of Frederiksted, in 1752. 

Fort Frederik was to be the locus of two of the biggest events in 

St. Croix’s history — the slave revolt of 1848 and the Fireburn of 

1878 (described in the later “Change, Revolution, and Revolt” 

discussion).

In Your Own Words:

Military and Defense

“Despite its relatively small size, St. Croix 

offers a continuum of history unique under 

the U.S. flag. One such theme documents the 

drama of human conflict and the military. 

The curtain lifts to the first documented 

hostile encounter between Europeans and 

Native Americans, with the tragic skirmish 

at Salt River on Columbus’ second voyage 

of exploration in 1493. The earthwork 

fortification at Salt River—the oldest 

surviving example in the Americas—bears 

stark testimony to the struggles between 

the English, French, Dutch, and Spanish for 

empire and dominance in the New World 

in the 1600s. Because of Danish neutrality, 

its military presence shifted from external 

defense to an emphasis on protecting shipping 

from attacks by pirates and privateers, and 

the prevention or suppression of insurrections 

in 1746, 1759, 1848, 1878, and 1915-1916. The 

forts in Christiansted and Frederiksted are 

diminutive examples of classic European 

military architecture from the 17th century, 

and display a wealth of Scandinavian cannon 

to whet the interest of artillery buffs. Fort 

Frederik has the distinction of being the site 

of the first foreign salute to the patriot flag 

during the War for American Independence. 

Finally, shed the stereotype of the military 

as an anonymous impersonal establishment 

and learn what life was really like for the 

soldiers who served in their country’s tropical 

colonies.”

William F. Cissel
38

When the Danish Crown took control of the 

Danish West India Company’s possessions 

in 1754, military eff orts began to protect 

commercial shipping, as well as to keep 

domestic peace (i.e., quell any possible 

slave revolts and civil unrest). Throughout 

the 1780s, following a review of St. Croix’s 

defense systems, many improvements were 

made on coastal fortifi cations and batteries, 

and several new structures were built. 

In addition to Forts Christiansvaern and 

Frederik, batteries and guard houses were 

placed at key locales near shipping channels. 

These batteries include 

Fort Sophia Frederika (Protestant Cay), 

Fort Louisa Augusta (Christiansted 

Harbor), Gasion’s Battery (next to 

Greig’s Fort or Fort Sale, at Salt River), 

Catharina’s Fort (north of Frederiksted), 

Carden’s Battery (also referred to as 

Wisemenog Battery on a 1799 Oxholm 

map, along the north shore east of 

Christiansted),

Gordon’s Battery (on the west shore, near 

Sprat Hall), and

Hendericksen’s Battery (Cissel 1987:2). 

There were also several guard houses, referred 

to on maps dating to the 1780s as “Old Guard 

Right:

Fort 

Christiansvaern. 

NPS Photo.

Center:

Fort Frederik. 

NPS photo.

Below:

Cannon carriage 

at Fort Frederik. 

NPS photo.
39

House” — two on the south shore (one at 

Long Point and one at Cane Garden Bay) and 

one at Salt River.

By the 1760s there were two militia composed 

of Free Blacks, one in Christiansted and one 

on St. Thomas (Cissel 1987). They patrolled 

the streets on Sundays and in emergencies, 

and on Christmas and New Years they were 

joined by all men able to bear arms. As part 

of an 1829–30 reorganization of the militia 

corps (described below), an infantry company 

was established composed of Free Black men 

(called the Frikorps). This milita corps was 

disbanded in 1852, following a brief uprising 

in Christiansted where they opened fi re on a 

crowd. In 1907 they were reformed, though 

only in a ceremonial role.

In 1829 the militia corps were reorganized, 

and included 15 units and two cavalry 

squadrons, which were composed of planters, 

estate managers, or overseers (Cissel 1987:5). 

One infantry company was to be stationed at 

Christiansted and one at Frederiksted (and a 

third on St. Thomas). The Fire Brigade, which 

before 1848 was comprised almost exclusively 

of Free Blacks and Free Coloreds, was not 

part of the militia.

In 1851 the military were organized again, and 

the Royal West Indian Troops were replaced 

with the West Indian Military Force. The new 

forces required an increase in manpower in all 

three companies.

Alexander Hamilton

St. Croix is known for being the home of 

Alexander Hamilton during his adolescent 

years. Historians believe that he was born 

on Nevis in 1755 or 1757. He arrived on St. 

Croix in May 1765 with his mother, Rachel 

Faucett Lavien, his father James Hamilton, 

and his brother, James. By July 1765 

Hamilton’s father and Rachel had separated, 

and in January 1766 James returned to Nevis 

without his family. Rachel raised her boys in 

a small apartment above a store that she ran 

in Christiansted, where she sold plantation 

supplies. Alexander soon gained employment 

from one of her suppliers, Nicolas Cruger 

and David Beekman, at 7-8 King Street. As 

a youth, he clerked at their trading house, 

which imported nearly everything needed 

for a plantation to operate — cattle, mules, 

foodstuff s, fl our, bread, wood, hoops, 

shingles, bricks, and enslaved Africans. They 

exported sugar, molasses, rum, hardwoods, 

dye woods, and cotton. 

He continued to clerk at Beekman and Cruger 

following the death of his mother in 1768, and 

eventually he was taken in by Thomas Stevens.

On August 31, 1772, a severe hurricane 

struck St. Croix that was to have great 

consequences for young Hamilton. This storm 

was extremely destructive, and Alexander 

wrote his observations in an eloquent letter 

to his father, where he provided details of 

the storm’s wrath. He showed the letter 

to his friend and mentor Reverend Knox, 

who encouraged him to have it published 

anonymously in the Royal Danish American 

Gazette. This letter caused quite a stir, and 

many people inquired about the identity 

of the author. Reverend Knox began an 

eff ort to raise funds necessary to bring 

Hamilton to New York to get the education 

he so desperately desired. It is believed that 

Hamilton left St. Croix some time after June 

3, 1773, never to return. When he left he 

took with him his experiences, both tragic 

and inspiring, experiences that would mold 

his beliefs and frame his future. Hamilton’s 

early years on St. Croix shaped his thinking 

about business, economics, slavery, and 

how he would regard the American colonies 

(University of Virginia 2009). 
40

In Your Own Words:

Significant People

“My Book ‘Saint Croix 1770-1776’ illuminated the support St. Croix had 

provided to the birth of our Nation just during that short period of 

history. My research for two future books has revealed so much more 

that needs to be recognized. For example:

(1) Honorable William Alexander Leidesdorff – Born 23 October 1810 on 

East Street in Christiansted who became the first African American 

millionaire, the first African American Diplomat being appointed 

as Consul to Mexico, and the creator of the first public school in 

California.

(2) Major General Adrian Benjamin Bentzon – The Governor General 

of the Danish West Indies who was forced to step down during the 

British occupation and became master negotiator for John Jacob 

Astor in creating his financial empire. Returning to St. Croix after 

the occupation, he became Governor General and married the Cruzan 

Creole woman Francisca Henrietta Coppy. Their granddaughter, 

Marie Therese Blanc is recognized by L’Academie Francaise as being 

the greatest French female Novelist who wrote under the pen name of 

her Grandfather as “Th. Bentzon.”

(3) Peter Bentzon – The Cruzan Silversmith (1783-1850) who lived and 

worked in his Christiansted Building at 53A Company Street and 

later in Philadelphia. His silver is in several prominent museums 

around the world and he is recognized as the first African American 

Silversmith to have his own registered Hallmark.”

Robert A. Johnson
41

Slavery

Most of St. Croix’s slave population originated in the Gold Coast and 

Guinea Coast in West Africa. Other slaves were shipped to St. Croix from 

other Caribbean slave colonies. When the Danish Crown took control 

of the colony in 1754, codes intended to protect enslaved Africans from 

harsh treatment were created, such as requiring planters to provide 

minimum amounts of food and clothing and being free from work on 

Sundays and holy days, among other rules (Boyer 1983:27, Hall 1994:59). 

These codes were never enforced.

The earliest slave houses were built of wattle-and-daub, with a thatch 

roof made of grass or sugarcane leaves. Stone masonry and rubble 

construction of slave housing did not begin in earnest on St. Croix until 

the end of the 18th century (Chapman 1996:129). Early houses would 

have been individual units consisting of two rooms each. During the 19th 

century, multiunit row houses were constructed that were comprised of 

two units (four rooms), four units (eight rooms), or even more. The slave 

village was often located near the sugar industrial complex. The slave 

village complex would have typically included a provisioning ground(s) 

and a cemetery.

It is not known when they fi rst arrived on St. Croix, but baobab trees 

began to be established on the island about the same time as the arrival 

of enslaved Africans. According to stories told by the descendants of 

enslaved Africans, the slaves arrived on the island wearing necklaces made 

of jumbie seeds, or seeds of the baobab tree (Parkenham 2004). Many 

baobab trees still stand on St. Croix today. The baobab tree is considered a 

spiritual tree by Africans and their descendants. The trees were planted at 

the entrance or center of the slave villages and/or estates, and they served 

as places for gathering and sharing information and storytelling. Tamarind 

trees were also imported to the island, and along with native kapoks these 

large trees came to be known by enslaved Africans, Free Blacks, and their 

descendants as “jumbie” or spirit trees (Schrader 1996). These trees were 

believed to harbor bad spirits, and the mocko jumbies, or stilt walkers, 

would walk around their bases and scare the spirits away by whipping 

and chanting (Arnold Highfi eld, pers. comm. with Meredith Hardy of the 

National Park Service, Tallahassee, FL 2/2010). 

Many estate owners expected their slaves to feed, clothe, and house 

themselves (Hall 1994:80; Rogoziski 2000:138). Enslaved Africans 

accomplished this by selling surplus produce from the provisioning 

grounds in the Sunday market. Market items included cabbages, tomatoes, 

poultry, pigeons, eggs, yams, cassava, pumpkins, oranges, wild plums, 

rope tobacco, cassava bread, fi sh, and fi rewood. It was the women’s role 

In Your Own Words:

Free Africans

“St. Croix was settled by different 

racial and ethnic groups. Most know 

of the Ciboneys, Caribs, Tainos, etc., 

who migrated originally from South 

America. However, not enough 

is known about the documented 

evidence of free Africans who lived 

here in independent communities 

from at least 1650 until the end of 

the 17th century. This fact changes 

American history because not 

only can ‘Native Americans’ be 

considered as indigenous to the 

Americas, but Africans as well. Some 

escaped from plantations on the 

island, but others escaped from ships 

sailing in this area and established 

settlements. This makes St. Croix 

one of a few places belonging to the 

United States that can make this 

claim. One day we may even find 

out that the African presence on 

St. Croix predates the Maroons who 

escaped from slavery, and came as a 

result of voyages in this part of the 

world in Pre-Columbian times. This 

would definitely be a milestone in 

American history.”

Gerard M. Emanuel
to sell these items at market (Hall 1994:114–115). The Sunday market 

system allowed enslaved Africans to actively participate in both local and 

global economies. The money earned from selling produce and crafts in 

these markets was used to purchase goods like tobacco pipes, jewelry, and 

clothing (Mintz and Hall 1991; Rogoziski 2000:139; Tomich 1991).

Enslaved Africans living in the more urban areas of Christiansted and 

Frederiksted were often trained and employed in such varied positions 

as domestic help, wheelwrights, cigar makers, hairdressers, seamstresses, 

tailors, and artisans (such as carpenters, smiths, and musicians). They also 

maintained an internal market system that complemented the Sunday 

market system maintained largely by plantation slave women. Selling such 

goods as bread, butter, coff ee beans, candles, and notions on the street 

(Hall 1994:91), urban slaves would provide rural slaves with goods, while 

the latter would provide urban slaves with produce, fodder, and fi rewood.

Enslaved Africans in the Danish colonies experienced some of the most 

austere conditions known. Runaway slaves (Maroons) on St. Croix 

retreated to the mountainous parts of the island where they established 

remote hiding places to escape the harshness of their enslavement (Hardy 

2006; Norton and Espenshade 2007). The Danish colonies, including St. 

Croix, were the fi rst to cease participation in the slave trade in 1792, not 

for humanitarian reasons, but economic.

From the establishment of slavery in the Danish West Indies, enslaved 

Africans were observed organizing and participating in numerous social 

and entertaining activities. In urban areas, enslaved Africans held dances 

and fetes (religious feasts or festivals), as did freed persons, though both 

enslaved Africans and whites were prohibited from attending those held 

by freed persons (Hall 1994:98). In the 1770s, slave dances on St. Croix 

could last no later than the 8 p.m. curfew, while those of freed persons 

could last until 10 p.m. (Hall 1991a:338). Tea and coff ee parties were also 

held. For the New Year, enslaved Africans would elect kings, queens, 

princesses, and courts, and hold dances and parades similar to the John 

Canoe celebrations of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Other forms of diversion 

included gambling with cards and dice, cockfi ghting, throwing stones 

with or without slings, horse racing, and bangelar (a form of stick fi ghting 

reminiscent of martial arts).

Social hierarchies, perpetuated by the owners, based preferential 

treatment on the lightness of skin color. Lighter-skinned slaves tended 

to be employed in domestic settings, or were allowed to become craft 

slaves, while darker-skinned individuals worked the fi elds (Hall 1994:75). 

An internal social hierarchy also existed, created and supported by the 

enslaved Africans themselves. Enslaved Africans with important religious 

In Your Own Words:

The Baobab Tree

“This wonderful tree — and 

St. Croix has more of them 

than any other place in the 

new world — represents so 

many facets of the Island. 

Rugged strength and unusual 

appearance, dignity and 

grace . . . beauty in the 

eye of the beholder and an 

underlying function in all 

realms. From the beautiful 

blooms I will watch open 

tonight and the bats that will 

pollinate them, to the ability 

to survive for months and 

months without nourishment. 

This tree, like the islands 

inhabitants over the decades, 

refuses to die, refuses to 

give in, but instead gives all 

willing to appreciate her, a 

gift of awe inspiring hope. 

She and her many sisters 

at Butlers Bay represent 

St. Croix to me.”

Michael Hartlage

42
or social roles — for example, obeah and 

other healers and diviners from West African 

religious spheres — garnered greater internal 

respect (Hall 1994:81).

Change, Rebellion, and Revolt

The second half of the 19th century was a 

period fi lled with changes, rebellions, and 

progress. In 1746 a rebellion planned by 

Mingo Tamarin and the Freed Negro Corps 

was suppressed before the rebellion was 

carried out. Another slave revolt occurred 

in 1759 and never made it past the planning 

stage. Several enslaved Africans on Søren 

Bagge’s plantation conspired to revolt on 

Christmas Day. The conspirators were caught, 

and 13 of the leaders were executed (one 

committed suicide).

Governor Peter von Scholten, who served 

from 1827–48, believed that the colonial slave 

was roughly comparable socially and in status 

to the cottager and the ufrie (unfree) peasant 

of Denmark, and that the colonial plantation 

was roughly equivalent to the 18th-century 

Danish manorial system (Hall 1994:196). He 

set in motion the means to end slavery in the 

Danish Virgin Islands. 

In 1834 the Danish Monarch issued a royal 

decree that allowed enslaved Africans to 

purchase their freedom and to change owners 

if they were mistreated. Their working hours 

were shortened, and were given the option of 

working on Sundays. Owners were required 

to provide essential provisions.

In 1839 Governor von Scholten established 

the formal education of all children under the 

age of nine, slave and nonslave, for at least 

three hours a day, and of all children above 

the age of nine on Saturday mornings (County 

School Ordinance). He established eight 

schools across St. Croix that would prepare 

the children for their freedom; the schools 

still standing include Diamond School, La 

Grande Princesse School, Peter’s Rest School, 

Kingshill School, and Mt. Victory School 

(ruin). 

A royal decree by Christian VIII in 1847 

immediately emancipated all children born to 

slaves and ordered the complete abolition of 

slavery by the year 1859. For many enslaved 

Africans, this was not soon enough. On the 

morning of July 3, 1848, the enslaved Africans 

of St. Croix assembled in Frederiksted 

and demanded their freedom, and this 

insurrection quickly spread across the island. 

Most of the people of European descent 

took refuge in boats in the harbors. The 

enslaved Africans destroyed the houses of 

the police assistant, the town bailiff , and one 

Left:

Kapok tree near 

Creque Gut. 

NPS photo.

43
44

wealthy merchant. Compared to the slave revolts of Haiti, Jamaica, and Barbados, 

however, there was little bloodshed.

When Governor von Scholten arrived from Christiansted later in the day, the 

enslaved Africans demanded their freedom within one hour. The governor 

granted the slaves immediate emancipation, which was ratifi ed on September 22, 

1848. The emancipation decree read as follows.

1. All unfree in the Danish West India Islands are from to-day free.

2. The estate negroes retain for three months from date the use of the houses 

and provision grounds of which they have hitherto been possessed.

3. Labour is in future to be paid for by agreement, but allowance of food to 

cease.

4. The maintenance of the old and infi rm, who are not able to work, is, until 

further determined, to be furnished by the late owners.

— The General Government of the Danish West India Islands, St. Croix, 

the 3rd July, 1848.

This declaration of emancipation did not immediately stop the insurrection. Many 

estates were plundered and destroyed, and the former owners were threatened. In 

Christiansted, 2,000 enslaved Africans began to march on the town. The military 

attempted to guard the town, and grapeshot was fi red into the crowd, killing 

several protesters. On July 4, eff orts were made to inform all the enslaved Africans 

that they were free, but some violent acts and destruction of property continued 

for several more days.

Despite these eff orts, the former enslaved Africans would not experience 

complete freedom until 1878. Following emancipation, many freed could not 

be compelled to work, and the sugar and cotton estates suff ered. On January 26, 

1849, Governor-General Hansen issued the Labor Act entitled “Provisional Act 

to Regulate the Relations between the Proprietors of Landed Estates and Rural 

Population of Free Labourers” (Boyer 1983:59; Marsh 1981:336). In reality, this 

was an attempt to put the newly freed people of color back into slavery. The act 

forced free people of color to work on contract for periods of one year (October 

to October), to be renewed every August. These contracts, however, could be 

renewed for no longer than three years (Marsh 1981:336). Saturdays and Sundays 

were to be free from work. Each worker was to be given a dwelling that consisted 

of a house, or row house, subdivided into several rooms with one family per 

room. Each family was also to be given a small provision ground that measured 

roughly 40 square feet. Three classes of workers were created based on extremely 

low wages. Parents had to take their children with them to work or pay fi nes, 

and a system of travel passports was created. Children over the age of 6 were of 

working age, and when they turned 16 they could negotiate their own contracts 

(Marsh 1981:337). If a laborer was late to work, a half-day wages would be docked 

(Williams 1984:330).

In Your Own 

Words:

Maroon Ridge

“Maroon Ridge is unique 

in its majestic and sublime 

beauty as well as its rich 

cultural and historical 

significance. This sacred 

place was the site where 

various waves of Maroons 

(or runaway slaves) (over 

a period of 200 years) 

escaped from slavery 

seeking refuge prior to 

‘jumping ship’ to freedom 

in Puerto Rico. People 

will come/flock to this 

location to feel the magic 

of this place of freedom. 

You can feel the energy. 

People from the states will 

be intrigued by the fact 

people successfully escaped 

slavery and sought refuge 

here. Similarly it will seem 

as a place of cultural pride 

and heritage for our local 

virgin islanders now and 

for generations to come.”

Monica Marin
45

Complaints registered by laborers were 

largely denied, or cases were found in favor 

of landowners. The numerous though 

small-scale strikes and insurrections were 

to no avail. Then on October 1, 1878, 

Contract Day, an annual holiday normally 

fi lled with dancing, singing, and drinking, 

the laborers revolted. Rumors circulating 

around Frederiksted of police brutality and 

the discontinuation of travel passports for 

work added fuel to the growing economic 

instability of the post-slavery era.

This revolt, which came to be known as the 

Fireburn, was devastating. Large portions 

of Frederiksted were burned; 53 estates 

were ransacked and burned along with 879 

acres of land (Boyer 1983:70). Men marched 

around town and attacked the garrison at 

Fort Frederik, while women and children 

torched barrels of rum in the warehouses 

(Brown 1981). Three whites and 74 blacks 

were killed. The unrest lasted for fi ve days, 

but the governor’s declaration of a state 

of siege remained in eff ect from October 8 

through 31. Three warships, French, British, 

and American, were brought in to help end 

the uprising. The damage in Christiansted 

totaled roughly $670,500, while the damage in 

Frederiksted was just over $1 million. 

Immigration

The island’s fi rst inhabitants are believed to 

have come from South America. The later 

Colonial Era brought Europeans and enslaved 

West Africans. After the emancipation of 

enslaved Africans on St. Croix in 1848, 

immigrants from the Eastern Caribbean came 

to St. Croix in search of jobs and freedom. 

From 1917 to the 1950s Puerto Ricans 

relocated to St. Croix in search of sugarcane 

industry jobs and a new home. Many Puerto 

Ricans came to St. Croix because they were 

forced to leave there homes on the island 

of Vieques when the U.S. military took over 

much of the island. Tourism and oil industry 

jobs fueled the 1960s and 1970s wave of 

inter-Caribbean migration. During this same 

period, Palestinian entrepreneurs came to 

open small businesses. In 2000 less than half 

of the population was born on the island 

of St. Croix. (U.S. 2000 Census). Recent 

waves of immigration include people from 

the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, the 

Philippines, and South American countries.

David Hamilton Jackson, Labor 

Organization, and the Free Press

David Hamilton Jackson was born on Estate 

East Hill, Christiansted, St. Croix, in 1884 

and was baptized a Moravian, as recorded 

at Friedensthal Moravian Congregation. His 

parents were both teachers, and he decided 

to follow in their footsteps; around 1910 he 

began to study law at Howard University. 

Upon graduation he returned to St. Croix 

and established a practice. In 1915 he became 

president of the St. Croix Labor Union, which 

he organized with Ralph Bough. That year he 

was selected by the membership to travel to 

Denmark and petition King Christian X on 

behalf of the island’s residents to advocate 

health benefi ts and increased wages for Virgin 

Islands’ workers. He successfully convinced 

the king to abolish the strict government 

control and censorship of the press, which 

had been the precedent since 1779. Upon his 

return to St. Croix, Jackson began publishing 

a free press newspaper, The Herald. In 1916 

the St. Croix Labor Union called for a general 

strike. 

Jackson was also a member of the St. Croix 

Labor Union Bank, and he went on to serve 

as a judge (1931) and legislator; he was a 

member of the Colonial Council from 1923–

26, and the Municipal Council from 1941–46. 

Today, the fi rst Monday of November is 
46

celebrated as David Hamilton Jackson Memorial Day (formerly Liberty 

Day) in commemoration of freedom of the press.

Agricultural Pursuits of the

Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

With the failed attempt at acquisition of the Virgin Islands by the United 

States in 1902, Denmark began to invest in her Caribbean colonies and 

initiated several economic and agricultural measures. Attempts were made 

to revitalize and improve agriculture across the Virgin Islands, and to 

introduce new products. 

A private enterprise, the Danish Plantation Company, was established in 

1903, which focused on cattle, cotton, and sugar cultivation. However, 

they had no factories of their own, and most sugar that was grown was 

processed at the West India Sugar Factory (Estate Bethlehem), which 

was owned by the West Indian Sugar Company. This factory processed 

sugar and cotton from 23 estates across St. Croix (20 grew sugar, three 

grew cotton) (Dookhan 1974). Other centralized sugar factories of the 

period were the Central Sugar Factory (Estate Richmond, Christiansted), 

Bartram Brothers Factory (Estate Lower Love), and Hagemann’s Factory 

(Estate La Grange). Sugar was brought to these factories by a railway 

(built ca. 1909) that spanned 12 miles across the island (Rollinson 2001). 

Three locomotives operated on sections of the railway, with a main line 

running north-south that connected two lines running east-west. Smaller 

locomotives brought cane from smaller lines to a meeting place where 

it was reloaded onto the bigger locomotive and taken to the factories. A 

rail line connecting Christiansted and Frederiksted was planned, and a 

concession was granted, but it was never built.

In 1895 the Danish government established a Botanical Experiment Station 

at Estate Grange, the purpose of which was to encourage improvements 

to agricultural practices and generally encourage a “diversifi ed economy” 

(Dookhan 1974:234). They also grew trees that were available for 

reforesting eff orts on the island; in one advertisement from 1901, the 

station had available for distribution “4500 Thibet trees, 2000 Divi-divi, 

709 lignum vitae, and several mahogany” (Canegata 1968:48). The station 

was in operation for only 10 years. In 1910 a new Agricultural Experiment 

Station was established at neighboring Anna’s Hope.

By 1916 attempts toward revitalizing the cotton industry were abandoned. 

Several farmers converted their estates to cattle or stock estates. In 1880 

George Elliot of Estate Longford imported 60 N’Dama heifers and two 

In Your Own Words:

Agriculture

“The St. Croix Heritage Area 

is unique and special because 

it will offer Americans and 

other visitors an opportunity 

to immerse themselves in 

a rich blend of historic, 

environmental and cultural 

expressions reflective of the 

island’s long history as a largescale producer and exporter of 

tropical agricultural products 

such as indigo, cotton, and most 

importantly sugar cane. That 

agricultural heritage, based 

on slavery and other forms of 

coerced labor, is remarkably 

well documented, and readily 

manifests itself not only by 

dozens of well-preserved, 

easily accessible, 18th century 

sugar plantations like Mount 

Washington, Little Princess and 

Whim, but also in the form of 

two, still thriving, world-class, 

colonial seaports and an enduring 

African-European-American 

Creole culture.”

George Tyson
47

to four bulls. The subsequent breeding and development by the 

Nelthropp family of Granard Estate, and further breeding eff orts 

centered at Estate Longford and Castle Nugent in the early 20th 

century, led to the development of Senepol cattle (also known as 

Nelthropp Cattle, Cruzan Breed, and St. Croix Cattle).

The Senepol breed is a direct descendant of Bos taurus, with 

characteristics that have been cross-bred from both longhorn 

(N’Dama) and shorthorn (Red Poll) humpless cattle. Senepol 

are a medium-sized beef breed, and they were developed to 

specifi cally handle the tropical Caribbean climate, primarily 

because most cattle brought to the region originated in temperate 

climates. Reproduction was challenged by the environmental 

and heat stresses of the Caribbean. The crossing of N’Dama 

cattle, with their tolerance of heat and resistance to insects, and 

the gentleness, quality meat, and high milk production of the 

Red Poll led to a highly successful breed that has been exported 

throughout the Caribbean, Brazil, Panama, elsewhere in South 

America, the “sun belt states” (from Florida to Texas), Australia, 

and Zimbabwe. Both cattle and embryos continue to be sold 

and shipped around the world, and the breed has traditionally 

demanded premium prices on the world market.

Castle Nugent, on the island’s south shore, is the largest 

continuously run (from the 1880s until today) cattle raising and 

breeding operation on St. Croix, and it is especially noteworthy 

for its association with the Senepol breed.

Castle Nugent 

Senepol cattle. 

NPS photo.

In Your Own Words:

Political and Economic 

Integration

“As a former professor of Caribbean and Latin 

American History I would like to voice my 

support for the designation of St. Croix as a 

National Heritage Area. The unique history 

of an island where Europeans first landed 

on what is now a part of America is known 

to many: the elimination of slavery without 

violence, the transfer from Denmark to the 

United States by mutual agreement, the role 

played by geography in ensuring protection 

of the Panama Canal during World War I 

and the contribution to the safety of the seas 

in World War II. Of equal importance is the 

fact that Saint Croix has achieved locally a 

level of political and economic integration 

only dreamed of by civil rights leaders as a 

future possibility for mainland America. As 

the French scholar and historian Alexis de 

Tocqueville pointed out after traveling in 

the newly established United States in 1820, 

America alone had made the democratic 

ideal Europeans had written about a political 

reality. In like manner, inhabitants of the 

small island of Saint Croix have already 

proven beyond any doubt that reciprocal 

concern and respect enables immigrants from 

Europe, Africa, South America and Asia to 

create and sustain a harmonious and stable 

society in accordance with the traditions and 

laws of the United States.” 

Patricia Gill Murphy, PhD
48

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE

UNITED STATES — NAVAL TO

CIVIL ADMINISTRATION

On several occasions the United States 

attempted to purchase the Virgin Islands, 

once in 1865 and again in 1902 (Hardy 

2006). In 1916 the United States, fearing 

that Germany might seize the harbor at St. 

Thomas and use it as a submarine base, fi nally 

purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark 

for $25 million. The U.S. Navy assumed 

administrative duties for the new territory, 

but the colonial system of government was 

maintained. The governor could be appointed 

from either Army or Navy personnel, but 

essentially all upper government offi cials 

were naval offi cers. The Navy’s eff orts were 

centered on improving social services for the 

islands, including education, health, police, 

and fi re protection. They facilitated mosquito 

control eff orts, built dams and wells following 

a severe drought in 1924, and implemented 

vaccinations for small pox. They also 

encouraged the importation of Puerto Ricans 

for labor. Although these eff orts resulted in a 

decline in death rates, they did not improve 

the economic situation of the islands. In 1927 

Virgin Islanders were granted U.S. citizenship.

In 1931 the Department of the Interior 

assumed administration responsibilities for 

St. Croix and the Virgin Islands. In 1935 

women were given the right to vote. In 1936 

the Organic Act (49 Stat. 1808; 48 USC 

1405-1405c) was passed, which allowed the 

establishment of a local government under 

the control of the Secretary of the Interior. 

All residents of the Virgin Islands were given 

the same rights enjoyed by all U.S. citizens, 

according to the U.S. Constitution, and 

gave all adult U.S. citizens who could read 

English the right to vote in federal elections 

(Rogoziski 2000:294). In the 1954 revised 

Organic Act, these governmental structures 

were further explained.

In the 1920s and 1930s, the cultivation of 

surplus foodstuff s did not occur except for 

local consumption. Sugarcane agriculture 

and cattle husbandry continued, albeit to an 

ever lessening degree due to several factors 

that included decreasing labor supply, 

deteriorating soil quality, unreliable rainfall, 

topography, and high evaporation rates (DOI 

1932:13). In 1929 St. Croix’s largest sugar 

company collapsed following a prolonged 

drought, but in 1934 the Virgin Islands 

Company was established to reinvigorate the 

sugar industry (Boyer 1983; DOI 1948:11). 

In 1932, 41,000 of 51,000 acres of land were 

devoted to cattle grazing (DOI 1932:16). By 

the late 1940s, St. Croix was supplying the 

other Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico with 

most of their beef (DOI 1948:11). 

Agriculture continued to decline in 

profi tability due to the increased production 

of sugarcane and sugar beets throughout the 

rest of the world, which kept sugar prices 

low (DOI 1948:11). Economic insecurity 

continued until the 1950s when tourism 

emerged as one of the island’s leading 

industries (Dookhan 1974; Hardy 2006). 

From the 1950s to the 1970s, industrial 

development dramatically altered and 

improved St. Croix’s economy. In 1966 one 

of the world’s largest oil refi neries, Hess Oil 

Virgin Islands Corporation, was established 

(today HOVENSA), which destroyed Krause 

Lagoon on the island’s south shore. Also in 

1966, the Harvey Alumina Virgin Islands plant 

was established. New housing developments 

were constructed to handle the increasing 

numbers of workers at these plants. Today, 

manufacturing industries include petroleum 

refi ning, watch assembly, rum distilling, 

construction, and electronics. The primary 

industry, however, is tourism, with an 

increasing interest in heritage tourism.
49

OTHER ASPECTS OF

CRUCIAN CULTURAL HERITAGE

Town Planning, Architecture, and Design

The development of both Christiansted and Frederiksted as urban centers 

refl ects trends in 18th century urban planning and architectural design that 

grew out of the Italian Renaissance and Baroque traditions of the late 15th 

through 17th centuries.

Danish architecture and town planning was especially infl uenced by the 

Dutch, whose country had been controlled by Spain until 1648 and who were, 

therefore, well versed in Spanish design principles. These principles were 

codifi ed in the Laws of the Indies in 1573 (Duff y 1985:13). 

Christiansted has retained the Baroque and neoclassical fl avor of the 

earliest days of Danish rule through the island’s Golden Age. The lower 

fl oors originally housed merchant shops, warehouses, and businesses, while 

the upper fl oors served as residences. Many estate owners maintained 

townhomes.

On the other hand, the reconstruction of Frederiksted following the Fireburn 

allowed local craftsmen to construct the gingerbread-style of the Victorian-era 

(1837–1901) cottages that stand today.

Christiansted. 

NPS photo.

In Your Own Words: 

Historic Places

“To me, one of the most unique 

elements of St. Croix’s heritage is 

its architecture. It tells the story 

of the people who have lived 

here, how they have lived, what 

they’ve made, what they built, 

what they have left behind.

I’d love to see a more 

international restoration/

exhibit of African heritage/West 

Indian heritage. Frederiksted 

gingerbread houses, restored 

slave quarters, an historic 

market, etc – a museum that 

highlights and showcases these 

elements of our heritage.”

Robin Sterns
50

PROTECTED SITES 

St. Croix has an extensive network of sites 

set aside to protect historical, cultural, and/

or scenic resources. Many of these sites 

are mentioned in the previous section and 

some are described in chapter 5, criteria 1, as 

components of the assemblage of resources 

that represent distinctive aspects of American 

heritage. Additional resources that were 

identifi ed during the public involvement 

process and are important to the St. Croix 

story are listed in appendix D; National 

Register of Historic Places listings are 

included in appendix C. 
51

St. Croix is the largest of the three U.S. Virgin Islands. It is 21 miles 

long and 6 miles across at its widest point. The island’s total land area 

is 84 square miles. Mountain ranges stretch from east to west, primarily 

along the northern portion of the island, sloping to a broad and rolling 

expanse of coastal plains to the south. These mountains are characterized 

by numerous steep-sided valleys that have been eroded by intermittent 

streams, locally referred to as guts. The tallest point is Mt. Eagle at 

approximately 1,165 feet. Point Udall, the eastern tip of the island, is also 

the easternmost point of the United States.

St. Croix was formed by a sedimentary uplift that is derived from older 

volcanic rocks. The sedimentary rocks underlying the mountain ranges 

on the island were formed from the debris of eroding volcanic rocks and 

volcanic ash during the late Cretaceous period and are approximately 80 

million years old. Limestone exposed on the surface of the fertile central 

valley of the island is considerably younger (during the Miocene epoch, 20 

million years ago) and is likely the remains of a coral reef that formed as the 

island was being uplifted. (Whetten 1974; Nagle and Hubbard 1989).

The island is relatively low in elevation and has little rainfall in comparison 

to larger Caribbean islands. Average rainfall is about 55 inches, but can vary 

greatly across the island depending on elevation, slope aspect, and rainfall 

patterns. Average temperature of the island is 79 degrees Fahrenheit.

St. Croix is the southernmost of the U.S. Virgin Islands, separated from St. 

Thomas and St. John by a 13,500-foot-deep ocean trench. Before dropping 

off into deep water, a narrow shelf surrounds the island, providing 

ideal habitat for long, fringing coral reefs, patch reefs, and other coral 

communities. 

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Point Udall. 

NPS photo.

In Your Own Words:

Sandy Point

“The Sandy Point exemplifies the 

Cruzan philosophy of caring for 

the good of all. The beautiful real 

estate of Sandy Point (the loveliest 

beach in the Caribbean) was donated 

to the cause of saving turtles. Our 

conservation effort has been a huge 

success and St. Croix’s program is 

world-renowned. Our culture of 

preservation and conservation makes 

us extraordinary environmentalists.” 

Ginger Brown Vanderveer
52

The distribution of plant and animal communities across the island is 

infl uenced by a combination of natural factors, including its subtropical 

climate, prevailing winds, seasonal rainfall patterns, topography, soils, and 

coastal exposure. The island’s ecology is also infl uenced by severe droughts 

and fl oods, hurricanes, fi res, landslides, and occasional earthquakes.

Human infl uences have also shaped the island’s environment. Early 

inhabitants, European settlers, and enslaved Africans brought plants and 

animals with them from their homelands — many species of which continue 

to play important roles in Crucian culture. The baobab, an African spirit 

tree, is one such example, brought to the island by enslaved Africans during 

the Colonial Era. 

Adverse human infl uences include the deforestation of a large percentage 

of the island during the Colonial Era for timber, cultivation, and plantation 

development. Today, habitat loss and disturbance continue to result from 

commercial and residential development, road construction, infi lling of 

coastal areas, intensive farming and grazing, and pollution (Thomas and 

Devine 2005).

St. Croix is the most agricultural of the U.S. Virgin Islands. It was fi rst 

colonized because of its ideal climate for growing sugarcane — once 

boasting more than 200 active sugar plantations (NPS 2001). Sugar 

production was the center of the island’s economy during the 18th and 

19th centuries until slavery was abolished in 1848. Today, cattle ranching, 

particularly Senepol cattle, is an important activity. There are also 

numerous eff orts by organizations, such as Farmers in Action and the St. 

Croix Farmer’s Cooperative, to revive farming on St. Croix. To honor 

the agricultural heritage of the island, each year the people of St. Croix 

celebrate by hosting the popular Agricultural and Food Fair — a four-day 

festival of locally produced agricultural products, livestock, arts, crafts, and 

native cuisine.

THE ISLAND’S ECOLOGY

Understanding the diverse terrestrial and marine communities of St. 

Croix is central to appreciating the island’s rich natural heritage. These 

ecosystems not only add to the island’s scenic beauty, but they also provide 

essential elements for sustaining the Crucian people and are the source for 

many of their traditions, customs, crafts, and cuisines. The following brief 

descriptions of St. Croix’s primary terrestrial and marine communities is 

based on Thomas and Devine (2005). 

In Your Own Words:

Land Stewardship

Sustainable Farming

“St. Croix was once known 

as the Breadbasket, a prime 

agricultural area in the 

Caribbean. Current sustainable 

farming practices, such as those 

employed and taught at Creque 

Dam Farm, can offer a way 

to recapture that legacy, and 

empower crucians to act on 

their independent spirit and in 

the spirit of self-sufficiency. As 

an island, the fact is that our 

resources can come from our own 

fields or come through a channel 

that creates dependency on 

outside sources. By moving in the 

direction of island-wide practices 

of sustainable farming and 

upholding these values, we can 

help to provide a firm foundation 

of resources that allow us to 

meet our needs and thrive as a 

culturally rich destination.”

Terisa ‘Wren’ Shoumate

Mt. Victory remainder estate
53

In Your Own Words:

Great Pond “The Food Basket of St. Croix”

“Not too many people know the significance that Great Pond played in the lives of Crucians. For 

generations Great Pond had a predictable cycle. Each year around Easter the pond’s mouth would close 

due to an accumulation of sand. As evaporation by sun and wind took place, the water level would be 

reduced and the salinity increased and this would cause the fish to stay at the surface gasping for air.

This would happen around late May early June and there would be a movement of people from different 

parts of the island to Great Pond. With wash pan on their head or in donkey carts people would mass 

along the shores of the pond to get their share of fish. Some would wade in the water others would use 

pitch forks to get their fish. They would be cleaned and salted with the previous year’s salt and taken 

back home.

After the fish were all caught the crowds would disappear. In August some will be back to sweep and 

collect the fine salt at the southwest corner of the pond. They would make brooms out of Mahran 

branches and sweep the salt into small mounts to be picked up with shovels and placed into small white 

sacks made from flour sacks. 

Some would return in September to harvest the larger “rock” salt crystals from the deeper parts of the 

pond. The rock salt was used in their brine barrels to cure fish, pork, venison and beef. Salted meats were 

a staple and the best way to store them for long periods.

Great Pond played another significant role. It provided fishermen with moss to bait their fish traps. St. 

Croix had greater rainfall due to the dense forest and the guts (stream) would run for weeks. The spots 

were these streams ran into the pond helped grow the moss. The fishermen would gather the moss to bait 

their fish traps. The moss no longer grows in the pond.

In October the rains would return and fill the pond until the mouth would open and let the excess 

water out to the sea. This began the yearly cycle again. The last time that Great Pond went dry was the 

summer of 1959. What attributed to the change will only lead to speculation.

Another feature that has changed Great Pond is the fast growth of mangrove. There was no mangrove 

in or around Great Pond. The first mangroves started showing themselves when the hills in Mount 

Washington were stripped of all vegetation and soil just poured into the pond. Within one year mangrove 

were sprouting along the eastern fringes of the pond. They continued to sprout until today the pond is 

almost all mangrove.”

Robert Schuster
54

Figure 1: Moist Forests Figure 6: Wetlands

Figure 5: Herbaceous Communities Figure 10: Other Marine Communities

Figure 2: Dry Forests Figure 7: Other Land Types

Figure 4: Shrublands Figure 9: Seagrass Beds

Figure 3: Woodlands Figure 8: Coral Reefs
55

Terrestrial Communities

Moist Forests. Less than 2% of St. Croix is classifi ed as moist forest, 

characterized by broadleaf evergreen trees with crowns that interlock to 

form multilayered, closed canopies. Plant species are adapted to these wetter 

conditions, and they compete with one another for sunlight. The island has two 

diff erent types of moist forest — gallery and basin. Gallery moist forests occur 

in steep valleys along riparian areas of intermittent streams that carry runoff 

from upper elevations. On St. Croix, this forest occurs in the more mountainous 

northwest portion of the island; Caledonia Gut is an example of this habitat type. 

Basin moist forests occur in coastal low-lying areas where rainwater collects from 

runoff . An example of this forest type can be found at Annaly Bay.

Dry Forests. Dry forests occur across 9% of St. Croix, primarily in lower 

elevations along the northwestern coast of the island. In this forest type, dryness 

is more pronounced, and as a result semi-deciduous and semi-evergreen trees are 

typically limited to only two canopy layers. Trees are also shorter than in moist 

forests. Steep slopes, thin soils, salt spray, and windier conditions are other factors 

that infl uence the presence of dry forests. The lower, north-facing slope of Mt. 

Eagle is an example of a semi-evergreen dry forest on St. Croix.

Woodlands. Woodlands are more sparsely vegetated than forests with open tree 

canopies. Few native woodlands exist on St. Croix, in part because of humancaused disturbances; however, almost 6% of the island is classifi ed as this plant 

community. Abandoned farm and pasturelands on cleared forest land throughout 

the island are two such examples. Cultivated and naturalized palm woodlands 

are also scattered across the island. An example of native evergreen woodlands, 

characterized by the presence of Teyer palms, can be found at Creque Dam on St. 

Croix. 

Shrublands. Shrublands are the dominant plant community on St. Croix, 

covering about 35% of the island. Shrubland types include coastal hedge, 

thickets, sclerophyllous evergreen shrublands, mixed dry shrublands, and gallery 

shrublands. Their distribution depends on a number of factors, including plant 

species composition; elevation; dry, shallow, rocky soils; strong winds; salt spray; 

and intense sunlight exposure. Sea grape, thorny casha, Turk’s cap cactus, Agave 

missionum, the endangered tropical lilythorn (Catesbaea melanocarpa), and the 

endangered Vahl’s boxwood (Buxus vahlii) are species unique to this habitat type. 

The desert-like eastern end of the island, which is interspersed with prominent 

pipe organ cactus, is an example of a unique shrubland thicket found on St. Croix.

Herbaceous Communities. Herbaceous (nonwoody) vegetation communities 

consist primarily of annual and perennial grasses. The coastal grassland found on 

the hills above Salt River Bay is the only native example of this plant community 

found on St. Croix. Maintained and abandoned pasturelands found throughout 

the island are examples of nonnative herbaceous communities caused by human 

activities. An example of pasturelands can be found near Great Pond on the south 

side of the island. Combined, native and nonnative herbaceous communities 

account for about 18% of the island’s land cover.

In Your Own Words:

Natural Areas – 

Annaly Bay

“My first visit to Annaly 

Bay was magical – the soft 

susurrations of the surf on 

ancient stone, the sounding 

crash of sea on cliff. The 

sheer beauty – MAJESTY! – of 

Annaly speaks to the sacred 

spirit and soul of the islands. 

Protect it! Share it! Enjoy It!”

Russell Cutts
56

Wetlands. Wetlands cover just over 2% of St. 

Croix, consisting of vegetation communities 

that are seasonally, tidally, semi-permanently, 

or permanently inundated with either fresh or 

salt water. Wetland types vary widely across 

the island and include mangrove swamps, 

mixed swamps, salt fl ats, salt ponds, and 

freshwater ponds. These wetland types play 

an important role in supporting a number of 

the island’s diverse plant species, including 

black, red, and white mangroves; swamp 

ferns; and swamp apple trees.

Mangroves are also vital to protecting the 

coastlands and marine communities of St. 

Croix. Not only do they buff er the island 

from wave action during storms, these 

sheltered habitats also provide breeding, 

rearing, and feeding grounds for fi sh and 

wildlife. Furthermore, mangroves collect and 

fi lter storm water runoff , capture sediment 

from eroding soils, and help remove excess 

nutrients from sewage and fertilizers. These 

are vital functions that help to sustain the 

productivity of fi sheries, seagrass beds, and 

coral reefs that surround the island. An 

example of mangroves on St. Croix can be 

found at Salt River Bay National Historical 

Park and Ecological Preserve, which supports 

the last major natural mangrove stand set in 

an estuary in the Virgin Islands. Restoration 

is underway at this park and preserve to help 

them recover from damage sustained during 

Hurricane Hugo in 1989.

Other Land Types. The remaining 28% of 

the island is classifi ed using three diff erent 

land types: developed areas, croplands, and 

sparsely vegetated areas — such as beaches 

and rocky cliff s. Developed areas are the 

most prevalent of these types, consisting of 

residences, commercial buildings, industrial 

centers, roads, and other infrastructure. 

Croplands are found mostly in the central, 

interior portion of the island and are 

characterized by cultivated farm plots for 

growing fruits, vegetables, herbs, ornamentals, 

and other produce. The shoreline of the 

island includes beaches of sand, cobble, and 

gravel, which provide important nesting 

habitat for rare sea turtles and foraging habitat 

for various shorebirds, including rare roseate 

and least terns. 

Marine Communities

Coral Reefs. St. Croix has an extensive 

coral reef system that rings much of the 

island. These reefs support extraordinary 

biodiversity while maintaining complex interrelationships with other marine ecosystems, 

such as adjacent seagrass beds. More than 40 

species of corals have been recorded on the 

reefs of St. Croix.

St. Croix’s coral reefs can be further divided 

into the following communities: fringing, 

bank, barrier, linear, and patch reefs; 

colonized hard pavement; gorgonian (softcoral) dominated pavement; and colonized 

bedrock and beach rock. Fringing reefs are 

the most common type found, located near 

the island’s shoreline. Elkhorn coral is the 

primary reef-building coral of the entire 

Caribbean — two-thirds of Buck Island 

is surrounded by this type, which reaches 

heights of more than 30 feet. St. Croix’s coral 

reefs support a variety of marine animals, 

including more than 400 species of reef fi sh.

The extreme clarity of seawater surrounding 

the island provides exceptional snorkeling 

opportunities to see these complex marine 
57

ecosystems — making coral reefs a source 

of pride for the people of St. Croix to share 

with visitors. Unfortunately, like most coral 

reefs around the world, they are being 

threatened by a number of factors, including 

sedimentation from runoff , more intense 

hurricanes, higher water temperatures, 

overfi shing, pollution, and diseases (NPS 

2008a).

Seagrass Beds. Extensive seagrass beds, 

composed primarily of manatee and turtle 

grass, border much of the northeastern and 

southern coastline of St. Croix. These highly 

productive habitats are vital to the health of 

the island’s marine ecosystems, providing a 

rich source of nutrients for many organisms. 

Seagrass beds also provide ideal habitat for a 

variety of animals, including grazing areas for 

endangered leatherback, hawksbill, and green 

sea turtles. They are also important nurseries 

for juvenile reef fi sh, playing an important 

role in maintaining the health and diversity 

of the island’s coral reef ecosystems. Seagrass 

beds also protect the island’s coastline 

because of their extensive root systems that 

help to anchor coastal sediments. Seagrass 

beds are impacted by many of the same issues 

described above for coral reefs. Siltation, 

infi lling, and dredging associated with human 

development are three primary threats.

Other Marine Communities. Algal 

plains, algal ridges, and various substrate 

communities are the other marine community 

types of St. Croix. Green algae, calcareous red 

algae, and coralline algae can be found within 

the algal plains and algal ridges — a signifi cant 

source of calcium carbonate and the basic 

building block of St. Croix’s extensive coral 

reef system. Substrate communities that 

surround the island are composed of small 

marine organisms that inhabit fi ne sediments, 

rubble, sand, scattered coral rock, and dredge 

materials.

Rare Plants and Animals

Endemic plant species include the St. Croix 

century plant (Agave eggersiana) and the St. 

Croix touch me not (Malpighia infesstisima). 

Two rare plant species that are currently 

protected under the federal Endangered 

Species Act include tropical lilythorn 

(Catesbaea melanocarpa) and Vahl’s boxwood 

(Buxus vahlii). Although this feasibility study 

is not intended to provide an exhaustive list 

of rare species that occur on St. Croix, this 

section highlights a number of unique plants 

and animals that are indigenous to the island. 

Other rare plant species include Agave 

eggersiana (no common name), Machaonia 

woodburyana (no common name), and 

Marrón bacora. Rare birds include the 

Lesser Antillean bullfi nch, prothonotary 

warbler, hooded warbler, Caribbean martin, 

white-crowned pigeon, bridled quail-dove, 

snowy plover, willet, Caribbean coot, ruddy 

duck, roseate tern, white-tailed tropicbird, 

frigatebird, and brown pelican. Rare fi sh and 

coral species include the ivory bush coral, 

dusky shark, mangrove rivulus, night shark, 

sand tiger shark, speckled hind, striped 

croaker, Warsaw grouper, and white marlin. 

Rare reptiles include the St. Croix ground 

lizard, slipperyback skink, leatherback sea 

turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, green sea turtle, 

and loggerhead sea turtle. Rare mammals 

include the red fi g-eating bat. (Thomas and 

Devine 2005, USVI Department of Planning 

and Natural Resources 2005.)
58

PROTECTED SITES 

St. Croix has an extensive network of 

areas set aside to protect both marine and 

terrestrial environments. Many of these 

areas are described in chapter 5, criteria 1, as 

components of the assemblage of resources 

that represent distinctive aspects of American 

heritage. Additional resources that were 

identifi ed during the public involvement 

process and are important to the St. Croix 

story are listed in appendix D; national 

natural landmarks listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places are included in 

appendix C. 

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to any signifi cant 

changes in average climatic conditions 

(average temperatures and precipitation) 

or seasonal variability (storm frequencies) 

lasting for an extended period of time. Recent 

reports by the U.S. Climate Change Science 

Program, the National Academy of Sciences, 

and the United Nations Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007) 

provide clear evidence that climate change is 

occurring and will accelerate in the coming 

decades. Although climate change is a 

global phenomenon, it manifests diff erently 

depending on regional and local factors.

Climate change could result in many changes 

to St. Croix, some of which may already be 

occurring — such as more intense hurricanes 

and higher water temperatures. A few of the 

possible implications of climate change on 

the island’s heritage resources are described 

below.

The island’s marine environments are perhaps 

the most susceptible to even minor changes in 

climatic conditions. More frequent and severe 

storms can directly impact coral communities 

as a result of intensive wave action, which 

can snap off elkhorn coral branches and turn 

elkhorn coral thickets into rubble because 

the coral cannot reattach to the substrate and 

continue to grow (NPS 2008a).

More intense storms could also increase 

erosion on the island, which degrades water 

quality. This may increase the spread of 

coral diseases, such as white-band disease, 

which kills coral tissue and can quickly 

eliminate entire colonies. Increases in water 

temperatures, as a result of climate change, 

may also contribute to an increase in mass 

coral bleaching (NPS 2008a). Even slight 

temperature changes can lead to the loss of 

coral communities and displace many marine 

organisms that inhabit them.

Climate change may also be having a 

profound eff ect on ocean carbon chemistry 

and its acid/alkali balance. As oceans absorb 

carbon dioxide released from the burning of 

fossil fuels, the resulting chemical reactions 

increase the water’s acidity. This process is 

known as ocean acidifi cation, which adversely 

impacts marine organisms. Examples include 

a decrease in the rate at which reef-building 

corals produce their skeletons; a reduction in 

the ability of marine algae and zooplankton to 

maintain protective shells; and a reduction in 

the survival of larval marine species, such as 

fi sh and shellfi sh (NOAA 2008).These impacts 

could have a dramatic eff ect on the ecological 

health of the coral reefs surrounding St. 

Croix. Because of the important contribution 

of these marine environments to St. Croix’s 

natural heritage, their future degradation or 

loss of could severely diminish the island’s 

heritage resources.

As stated earlier, climate change could 

lead to more frequent and severe storms, 

especially during hurricane season. 
59

This could exacerbate existing erosion 

problems associated with commercial and 

residential developments, road construction, 

and intensive farming and grazing. The 

combination of these factors could degrade 

the island’s natural environment and scenic 

beauty. Longer and more intense hurricane 

seasons could also turn away visitors seeking 

tourism opportunities on St. Croix.

Climate change could also lead to more severe 

seasonal droughts — impacting the health and 

distribution of terrestrial plant communities. 

For example, prolonged drought conditions 

could reduce the extent of moist forests in 

the northwest portion of the island, which 

could eventually be replaced by dry forests 

and woodlands. Droughts could also impact 

the island’s farming and ranching industries, 

which are vital to St. Croix’s economy and 

agricultural heritage.

Last, climate change could lead to an eventual 

rise in sea level. Relatively small islands, 

such as St. Croix, are especially vulnerable 

to this phenomenon. Potential impacts from 

sea-level rise include coastal erosion, stormsurge fl ooding, coastal inundation, saltwater 

infi ltration, loss of coastal properties and 

habitats, declines in soil and freshwater 

quality, loss of transportation routes, and the 

potential loss of life.

The full extent of how climate change will 

infl uence the natural and cultural heritage of 

St. Croix is unknown. However, addressing 

this far-reaching and long-term issue will 

require both global and local initiatives. 

This study does not provide defi nitive 

solutions or direction on how to resolve 

these issues. Rather, this section is intended 

to recognize that the heritage of St. Croix is 

vulnerable to the infl uences of climate change, 

and vigilance is needed to ensure the longterm protection of the island’s resources from 

this serious ecological threat.
60

POPULATION

The U.S. Census estimated the total 

population of St. Croix in 2000 to be 53,234, 

the largest population of the three U.S. 

Virgin Islands. According to the same source, 

the population increased by 6% between 

1990 and 2000. Much of this increase can 

be attributed to in-migration from the 

continental United States, Dominican 

Republic, Trinidad, Dominica, St. Kitts, 

St. Lucia, Montserrat, Haiti, Jamaica, the 

Philippines, and South American countries. 

Conversely, there is an out-migration trend 

among those in their most productive work 

years who are seeking higher quality jobs. 

(U.S. Census 2000; U.S. Virgin Islands Bureau 

of Economic Research 2008c.) 

RACIAL PROFILE

The population of St. Croix is very diverse 

and refl ects a long tradition of migration to 

the island. The table below provides data for 

the breakdown of the St. Croix population by 

race. 

LANGUAGE

The offi cial language of St. Croix is English, 

although Spanish and French are often 

heard on the island. Because of St. Croix’s 

large Puerto Rican population, much of 

the population is bilingual, and Spanish is 

spoken as the primary language in many of 

the households. In addition to English, the 

island has both Spanish language radio and 

television. 

Crucian, an English-based Creole, is spoken 

on St. Croix. Crucian was developed as a 

common dialect by enslaved Africans that 

came to St. Croix from diff erent regions of 

West Africa. Crucian continues to change as 

it is infl uenced by popular culture and new 

cultural infl uences. Today’s Crucian includes 

many words of Spanish origin in addition 

to terms, idioms, and proverbs from reggae, 

dancehall, and rap music. There are some 

older sayings that are also part of the dialect. 

UNEMPLOYMENT

In 2008 St. Croix had a 6.8% unemployment 

rate. The unemployment rate increased 

in 2009 to 8.9%. However, the 2009 

unemployment rate was still lower than the 

national average of 9.7%. (U.S. Virgin Islands 

Bureau of Labor Statistics 2010.)

MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME

In 1999 the median household income was 

$21,401, compared with the national median 

household income of $44,900 (U.S. 2000 

Census). The low median household income 

is compounded by the relatively higher cost of 

living on St. Croix (U.S. Virgin Islands Bureau 

of Economic Research 2008c). 

SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

TABLE 3: ST. CROIX’S POPULATION BY RACE

Race Percentage

Black or African American 73.3%

Other races (Hispanic or 

Latino, Asian, and other race 

populations)

10.7%

White 11.6%

Two or more races 4.4%

Source: U.S. Census 2000
61

POVERTY

In 1999, 34.8% of St. Croix residents were 

living below the poverty line, compared with 

the national average of 12.4%. St. Croix is the 

poorest of the three U.S. Virgin Islands. The 

greatest concentrations of those living below 

the poverty line are located in the interior 

of the island and in the coastal areas near 

Frederiksted and Christiansted. (U.S. Census 

2000.)

INDUSTRY

Table 4 compares the distribution of 

employment by major industry sectors. 

Manufacturing (oil refi nery, rum exports, and 

watch assembly) remains an important driver 

of the St. Croix economy. 

TABLE 4: EMPLOYMENT BY MAJOR INDUSTRY SECTORS

Industry Employment Share

Agriculture, forestry, fi shing and hunting, and mining 0.9%

Construction 12.7%

Manufacturing 11%

Wholesale trade 1.8%

Retail trade 11.5%

Transportation and warehousing and utilities 5.5%

Information 1.8%

Finance, insurance, and real estate 4.9%

Professional, scientifi c, management, administrative, and waste 

management services

6.4%

Educational, health, and social services 16.9%

Arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation, and food services 11.4%

Other services (except public administration) 5.2%

Public administration 10%

Source: U.S. Census 2000
62

TABLE 5: TOURISM ECONOMIC INDICATORS

1990 2007

U.S.V.I. visitors 1,811,500 2,611,300

St. Croix visitors 194,500 149,200

U.S.V.I. cruise ships 1,142 752

St. Croix cruise ships 14 6

U.S.V.I. visitor expenditures (millions of dollars) 697 1,433

U.S.V.I. tourism-related employment (number of jobs) 8,640 8,773

Source: U.S. Virgin Islands Bureau of Economic Research 2008b

Tourism, which is primarily refl ected 

in the arts, entertainment, recreation, 

accommodation, and food services category 

in table 4, is an important component of 

the St. Croix economy. St. Croix has fewer 

visitors than the other U.S. Virgin Islands. 

However, according to the U.S. Virgin Islands 

Department of Tourism, the average stay for 

overnight visitors is slightly longer than the 

U.S. Virgin Island average of 4.2 days. (U.S. 

Virgin Islands, Commissioner of Tourism, 

Beverly Nicholson pers. comm. with Kate 

Randall, National Park Service, Denver, CO 

2/2010).
63

Chapter 3

Themes
64
65

 he stories of related natural and 

cultural resources are told or interpreted 

within the organizing framework of themes. 

Themes provide the connections that people 

can use to understand the importance of an 

area and its resources. In other words, themes 

“represent” the broad stories that integrate 

the collection of individual resources so 

that they can be seen within the context of 

the whole. Themes are the tools used to (1) 

develop a cohesive, central, relevant idea(s); 

(2) link a tangible resource to its intangible 

meaning(s) and/or a universal concept; and 

(3) connect cultural and natural resources 

to the larger ideas, meaning, and values 

of which they are a part. Themes are the 

building blocks — the core content — of an 

interpretive program, which is central to the 

national heritage area concept.

A good theme structure helps residents 

and visitors understand the region’s overall 

contributions to our national heritage. These 

elements may include natural and cultural 

resources; important events or decisions; 

and the roles of specifi c places, people, social 

movements, beliefs, folkways, and traditions. 

The themes for the potential St. Croix 

National Heritage Area were derived from an 

understanding of the island’s contributions 

to our country’s national heritage through the 

public involvement process.

The unique stories of people and places that 

the potential St. Croix National Heritage 

Area has to tell the rest of the nation are 

encompassed by the following fi ve themes. 

These heritage themes are the key ideas 

through which signifi cant resource values 

are conveyed to the public. Each theme may 

connect to a number of specifi c stories or 

subthemes. Other themes may be developed 

and/or these themes may be modifi ed in the 

future if the need arises. 

The fi ve themes for the potential St. Croix 

National Heritage Area align with seven 

of the eight themes in the “National Park 

Service Revised Thematic Framework.” 

This framework was used in developing the 

potential St. Croix National Heritage Area 

themes to better understand the contributions 

of this remote island territory to our country’s 

national heritage. The themes for the potential 

St. Croix National Heritage Area fi t within the 

National Park Service thematic framework as 

described below.

The themes for the potential St. Croix 

National Heritage Area were developed 

through public input on the nationally 

signifi cant people, places, traditions, customs, 

and beliefs. The information was analyzed by 

the study team, and fi ve distinct categories 

emerged. The study team presented these 

categories as the preliminary framework 

for the development of themes at a series of 

workshops. The public validated the theme 

categories and provided additional input 

on the intangible values associated with 

the people, places, traditions, customs, and 

beliefs. The following fi ve themes for the 

potential St. Croix National Heritage Area are 

the product of this process.

THEME 1: EARLY CULTURES

This theme highlights early Amerindian 

presence on St. Croix. It emphasizes migration 

of Amerindian peoples within the region, 

settlement on St. Croix, and European contact. 

The people living on the island before the 

arrival of the Europeans left a rich record of 

their lives as seen in archeological evidence. 

People have lived on St. Croix from possibly 

as long as 4,000 years ago. The many periods 

of cultural occupation of the region tell the 

stories of migration, settlement, trade, and 

INTRODUCTION T
66

cultural exchange and contact. The early 

inhabitants of St. Croix migrated to the 

islands from South and Central America. 

They adapted and developed a society with 

a complex social structure and economy that 

made use of the island’s natural resources.

Columbus visited St. Croix on his second 

voyage. His visit marks the fi rst recorded 

confl ict between Europeans and Amerindians. 

At the time of contact, the island of St. Croix 

was inhabited by people who adapted to 

new technology and ideas. Ultimately, their 

communities were destroyed and replaced by 

Europeans and Africans, but their ongoing 

infl uence is seen in the distinctive character of 

the island today.

THEME 2: SLAVERY AND 

EMANCIPATION 

This theme highlights the experience of Africans 

as slaves and free on St. Croix. It emphasizes 

the history of slavery on St. Croix and the 

infl uences on St. Croix culture.

Africans, who were brought to St. Croix to 

provide slave labor, showed the resilience 

and resourcefulness of people facing great 

adversity. As Africans and their descendants 

endured the conditions of enslavement and 

discrimination, they also contributed to the 

economic, social, and cultural development 

of St. Croix. African heritage is found in the 

traditions and landscapes of the island.

As a European colony, St. Croix played 

an important role in the triangular trade 

route that connected Europe, Africa, and 

the Caribbean in the sale of human cargo, 

sugar, and rum. Slavery ended on St. Croix in 

1848 after a series of slave revolts motivated 

Governor General Peter von Scholten to 

abolish slavery in the Danish colonies — 

much earlier than in the United States. St. 

Croix preserves an archeological and written 

record of the experience of Africans during 

and after slavery.

THEME 3: THE SEVEN

FLAGS OF ST. CROIX

This theme highlights the seven fl ags (Spain, 

Holland, England, France, the Knights of Malta, 

Denmark, and the United States) of colonial 

administration of St. Croix. It emphasizes the 

political, economic, and cultural contributions 

of the many diff erent colonial powers.

The people of St. Croix have developed 

a distinct Crucian culture that includes 

evidence of the European powers that sought 

to benefi t from the abundant resources of 

the island. St. Croix was subject to shifting 

colonial power struggles as European nations 

sought economic gain and strategic positions 

in the Caribbean. In the colonial period, new 

traditions grew out of ongoing interaction 

between Europeans, Amerindians, and 

Africans, creating new institutions, values, 

and technologies. 

The fi rst European contact with St. Croix 

occurred when Columbus landed there 

in 1493 and claimed the island for Spain. 

However, the fi rst to establish a substantial 

colonial presence on St. Croix were the Dutch 

and English in the early 1600s. At various 

times in the turbulent years that followed, 

the Dutch, English, Spanish, and French all 

sought to control St. Croix. The French were 

ultimately successful and established a colony 

there by the mid 1600s. The island was briefl y 

owned by the Knights of Malta in the 1660s. 

The French reasserted their presence with the 

formation of the French West India Company 
67

in 1665. In 1733 the Danish West Indies 

Company bought the island from France. In 

1917 St. Croix, along with the islands of St. 

John and St. Thomas (and several smaller 

islands), was purchased by the United States 

of America from the Danish government.

THEME 4: GEOGRAPHY AND 

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT — 

CROSSROADS OF THE CARIBBEAN

This theme highlights the unique geography and 

natural environment of St. Croix. It emphasizes 

the island’s rich biological diversity, its idyllic 

location for attracting and sustaining people 

from diverse cultures, and the ongoing eff orts of 

Crucians to balance sustainable land uses with 

the protection and enjoyment of the island’s 

extraordinary natural environments. 

St. Croix lies at a geographic crossroads — 

connecting the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic 

Ocean currents, the westerlies and easterly 

prevailing trade winds, and tropical island 

landscapes and seascapes. These unique 

attributes foster an exceptional diversity of 

terrestrial and marine environments that have 

attracted and sustained people for thousands 

of years.

This is evidenced by the earliest visitors who 

most likely migrated to the island from South 

and Central America, possibly 4,000 years ago. 

Because of the bounty of the island’s natural 

resources, these early settlers could sustain 

themselves by cultivating small plots of land, 

hunting, fi shing, and gathering wild fruits and 

other foods. European explorers brought 

Africans and enslaved them, and European 

agricultural practices during the plantation 

era were destructive to the island’s natural 

environment.

Today, the people of St. Croix celebrate 

their freedom from past oppression, and 

much of the island’s natural environment 

has recovered from exploitation during the 

colonial period. Now, St. Croix embodies a 

wealth of natural and cultural heritage, which 

continues to attract people from around 

the world — serving as a crossroads to the 

Caribbean and beyond.

THEME 5: MODERN-DAY ST. CROIX 

— CULTURES IN CONTACT

This theme highlights the multicultural society 

of St. Croix and emphasizes how these cultures 

and traditions interact to form a vital part of 

the living fabric of the St. Croix community. 

The population of St. Croix refl ects a long 

tradition of migration that has brought 

together West African, European, Caribbean, 

and American traditions. Infl uences can 

also be traced to South America and Asia. 

Modern-day migration continues to bring 

new stories and traditions, which contribute 

to the dynamic and vibrant island culture. 

This long-standing exchange of stories, ideas, 

and traditions on St. Croix makes the island 

what it is today — a colorful collage of the 

world.

Although the face of St. Croix is forever 

changing, the people maintain a strong sense 

of Virgin Islands and Caribbean history in 

defi ning who they are today. The majority of 

the population descends from enslaved West 

Africans, who today proudly celebrate their 

African heritage and collective struggle against 

oppression. Others have come to the island at 

diff erent times and for diff erent reasons from 

all over the world. The many cultures and rich 

history of St. Croix have instilled a deep sense 

of place and identity in its people. 
68

TABLE 6: ST. CROIX THEMES AND THE NPS THEMATIC FRAMEWORK

St. Croix National Heritage Area Themes National Park Service Thematic Framework

Early Cultures I. Peopling Places*

3. migration from outside and within

6. encounters, confl icts, and colonization

VII. Transforming the Environment 

1. manipulating the environment and its resources

3. protecting and preserving the environment

Slavery and Emancipation I. Peopling Places*

3. migration from outside and within 

4. community and neighborhood

6. encounters, confl icts, and colonization

III. Expressing Cultural Values 

2. visual and performing arts

5. architecture, landscape architecture, and urban design

6. popular and traditional culture 

IV. Shaping the Political Landscape

1. parties, protests, and movements

V. Developing the American Economy 

1. extraction and production

4. workers and work culture

5. labor organizations and protests

6. exchange and trade

7. governmental policies and practices 
69

The Seven Flags of St. Croix I. Peopling Places*

3. migration from outside and within

4. community and neighborhood

6. encounters, confl icts, and colonization

III. Expressing Cultural Values 

2. visual and performing arts 

3. literature 

5. architecture, landscape architecture, and urban design 

6. popular and traditional culture 

IV. Shaping the Political Landscape

3. military institutions and activities 

V. Developing the American Economy 

1. extraction and production 

4. workers and work culture 

6. exchange and trade 

7. governmental policies and practices 

VIII. Changing Role of the United States in the World 

Community

1. international relations

2. commerce

3. expansionism and imperialism 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment –

 Crossroads of the Caribbean

I. Peopling Places*

3. migration from outside and within

6. encounters, confl icts, and colonization 

V. Developing the American Economy 

1. extraction and production

VII. Transforming the Environment 

1. manipulating the environment and its resources

3. protecting and preserving the environment 
70

Modern-Day St. Croix –

Cultures in Contact

I. Peopling Places* 

3. migration from outside and within 

4. community and neighborhood 

6. encounters, confl icts, and colonization 

III. Expressing Cultural Values 

1. educational and intellectual currents

2. visual and performing arts 

3. literature 

6. popular and traditional culture

*The “Peopling Places” theme examines population movement and change over time.
Chapter 4

Assessment of Management Alternatives

71
72
73

 his section evaluates a range of 

management alternatives including no action, 

designation as a national heritage area, and a 

privately organized heritage area. The national 

heritage area designation alternative also 

provides an evaluation of coordinating entity 

options. These alternatives were evaluated 

on their potential to protect the heritage 

resources of St. Croix, to secure funding, 

and to build partnerships and bring groups 

together to tell the St. Croix story.

ALTERNATIVE 1: NO ACTION

The no-action alternative is a continuation 

of the current management and trends. 

Under this alternative, no federal designation 

would be pursued. The eff orts to preserve 

and enhance heritage resources described 

in “Chapter 5: Application of NPS National 

Heritage Area Criteria” criteria 1 and 3, would 

continue for the foreseeable future. 

Eff orts to preserve and enhance the heritage 

resources of St. Croix are substantial. 

Despite the relatively small population and 

struggling economy, the people of St. Croix 

have demonstrated a sustained commitment 

to their heritage. The many individuals, 

organizations, businesses, nonprofi t 

organizations, and government entities 

working towards heritage-related goals would 

continue on St. Croix. These eff orts would 

continue within their areas of expertise and 

infl uence, largely independent of one another. 

Partnerships and collaboration would 

occasionally occur at the project level, but 

eff orts to coordinate heritage-related goals at 

the island scale would be unlikely.

There would be no technical assistance 

off ered through the National Park Service’s 

National Heritage Area program or associated 

federal funding. NPS management of the 

Christiansted National Historic Site, Buck 

Island Reef National Monument, and Salt 

River Bay National Historical Park and 

Ecological Preserve would continue. NPS 

special resource studies for Alexander 

Hamilton, Estate Grange, and Other Sites

and Castle Nugent Farms may expand 

NPS management of heritage resources 

based on the fi ndings of the studies and 

subsequent congressional action. Other 

federal programs to expand the protection 

of St. Croix’s heritage resources, such as the 

National Register Travel Itinerary program; 

the National Register Teaching with Historic 

Places program; the Rivers, Trail, and 

Conservation Assistance program; and the 

National Historic Landmarks program would 

continue to be available on a competitive 

basis.

Nonprofi t organizations on St. Croix would 

continue to receive funding from a variety of 

sources, including foundations, government 

grants, membership, events, and individual 

donations. St. Croix’s remote location and 

status as a U.S. territory has made it diffi cult 

for island-based organizations to connect with 

the U.S. foundations and donors. Without 

the federal recognition associated with a 

national heritage area designation, it would 

continue to be diffi cult for these organizations 

to make connections with U.S. foundations 

and donors. On-island support for eff orts 

to protect St. Croix’s heritage resources has 

provided organizations with critical fi nancial 

support over the years, despite a per capita 

income level that is approximately half the 

U.S. average (U.S. Census 2000). The U.S. 

INTRODUCTION

T
74

Virgin Islands Territorial Government has 

also provided grants to organizations and 

activities, but funds are generally scarce. 

Funding for eff orts to protect heritage 

resources on St. Croix would continue to be 

challenging.

ALTERNATIVE 2:

NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA 

The national heritage area alternative would 

necessitate congressional designation of St. 

Croix as a national heritage area. Designation 

of a national heritage area would not entail 

federal acquisition of land. The eff orts to 

preserve and enhance heritage resources 

described in chapter 5, criteria 1 and 3, would 

likely benefi t from establishment of a St. 

Croix National Heritage Area. New programs 

and activities to support heritage resource 

protection would likely be developed. 

The designation could also broaden the 

American stories of pre-contact civilizations, 

colonialism, and slavery to include the 

contributions of the remote U.S. territory. 

Technical assistance and guidance would be 

made available to the coordinating entity and 

partner groups through the NPS National 

Heritage Area program and the NPS National 

Heritage Area website. As a national heritage 

area, St. Croix could use the NPS arrowhead 

and would be featured on the NPS website. 

The guidance, technical assistance, and 

federal recognition of these heritage resources 

could bolster tourism, preservation, and 

education eff orts.

The island-scale planning eff orts would assist 

in the development of a unifi ed heritage 

marketing message and logo to be used in the 

promotion of the national heritage area. The 

coordinating entity of the potential St. Croix 

National Heritage Area would collaborate 

with the many island nonprofi t organizations, 

schools, units of government, and businesses 

to strengthen St. Croix’s identity and work 

towards shared heritage goals. These eff orts 

could reinforce connections between the St. 

Croix people and their culture and encourage 

a sense of pride, especially in the island’s 

youth. Businesses would also benefi t by the 

unifi ed marketing message and promotion of 

the island as a heritage destination.

The coordinating entity would be 

responsible for raising funds or in-kind 

donations (volunteer hours, offi ce space, 

printing, etc.) to match the federal fi nancial 

assistance. The coordinating entity would 

seek funding from a variety of sources 

that are available on a competitive basis, 

including corporate donations, federal 

grants (National Endowment for the Arts, 

National Endowment for the Humanities, 

Environmental Protection Agency, etc.), the 

Virgin Islands government, foundations, 

and donors. National designation would 

elevate the signifi cance of St. Croix’s heritage 

resources and the contributions to American 

heritage, possibly bolstering fund-raising 

success. A small fee for membership could 

also be collected from member groups. 

Funding for eff orts to protect heritage 

resources on St. Croix would likely improve.

Coordinating Entity

During the scoping phase of the St. Croix 

National Heritage Area Feasibility Study, 

two organizations showed interest in 

serving as the potential St. Croix National 

Heritage Area coordinating entity. The 

organizations — St. Croix Landmarks Society 

(Landmarks Society) and St. Croix United 

for Community, Culture, Environment, and 

Economic Development (SUCCEED) — 
75

were both strong candidates. The planning 

team developed factors for evaluation (see 

appendix G) based on the relevant guidance 

from the “Draft National Heritage Area 

Feasibility Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003), 

lessons learned from other national heritage 

areas, and input from the public. The 

factors were used to develop the application 

questions (see appendix G) and the requested 

supporting materials. 

The factors were organized into four sections: 

(1) Community Representation and Public 

Support, (2) Partnerships and Fundraising, (3) 

Organizational Capacity, Infrastructure, and 

Commitment to National Heritage Area, and 

(4) Public Vision. Questions to the applicants 

were developed for three of the four sections. 

The questions for the Public Vision section 

were developed by the planning team 

from public scoping input and included 

(1) preference for a new organization that 

represents existing local organizations, (2) 

preference for an organization that brings 

together existing organizations without 

competition (funding and program), (3) the 

organization’s commitment to and focus 

on national heritage area goals, and (4) 

preference for a broad-based, grassroots 

organization that represents community 

interests. Each of the four sections was given 

equal weight in the calculation of the overall 

score. A summary of the coordinating entity 

options and evaluation is included below.

Coordinating Entity Option 1 — St. 

Croix United for Community, Culture, 

Environment and Economic Development

(SUCCEED). SUCCEED is a local 

umbrella organization that represents 

agriculture; business; culture; nature and 

the environment; archeology and history; 

education and training; music, dance, and 

other performing arts; tourism; architecture; 

cuisine and culinary arts; urban planning and 

community development; and youth interests. 

The member organizations (nonprofi ts, 

businesses, and government) include the 

Caribbean Center for the Arts; Caribbean 

Design Group; Crucian Heritage and Nature 

Tourism; Department of Education; Farmers 

in Action; Fort Frederik; Hinds Unlimited; 

History, Culture, and Tradition Foundation; 

Missionaries of the Soil; The Nature 

Conservancy; Per Ankh Institute; U.S. Virgin 

Islands Sustainable Economic Development, 

Inc.; Solar Delivered, LLC; St. Croix Chamber 

of Commerce; St. Croix Environmental 

Association; Sustainable Systems and Design 

International; Virgin Islands Conservation 

Society; the University of the Virgin Islands; 

Virgin Islands Social Historians Associates; 

and Walsh Metal Works. 

SUCCEED was formed in 2006 to promote 

a Maroon Sanctuary Park and associated 

“Heritage Enterprise Zone” in the northwest 

quadrant of St. Croix. The organization also 

hosted a forum, “The Viability of the Past in 

the Economic Future of St. Croix,” to identify 

options for heritage-based community 

economic development.

SUCCEED will seek nonprofi t 501(c)(3) 

status. Until such status is obtained, the 

organization will work with a fi duciary agent 

to receive federal and private funds. 

Coordinating Entity Option 2 — St. 

Croix Landmarks Society (Landmarks 

Society). Landmarks Society is a nonprofi t 

organization founded more than 60 years 

ago. The organization’s mission is to advance 

the understanding and appreciation of the 

unique historical and cultural legacy of St. 

Croix through preservation, research, and 

education. The society was instrumental 

in developing the St. Croix Heritage Trail, 

in partnership with the Virgin Islands 

Department of Tourism. The heritage trail 
76

is a driving tour that traverses the length 

of St. Croix, linking the historic towns of 

Frederiksted and Christiansted with the fertile 

central plain, the mountainous north, and the 

arid east end of the island. The route off ers a 

cross section of the island’s history, culture, 

landscapes, and outdoor activities. The 

organization also manages several historic 

estates and a nature preserve. In addition, 

the organization has an extensive library and 

archives and educational outreach program. 

Coordinating Entity Evaluation

Landmarks Society and SUCCEED both 

successfully demonstrated their capability to 

serve as the coordinating entity. SUCCEED 

received the highest overall score, thereby 

demonstrating a higher likelihood of 

achieving the goals of the national heritage 

area. Thus, it was determined by the study 

team that SUCCEED would be the preferred 

coordinating entity for this alternative.

ALTERNATIVE 3: PRIVATELY 

ORGANIZED HERITAGE AREA

St. Croix has taken great strides to protect 

their resources. The heritage programs 

and activities outlined under “Chapter 

5: Application of NPS National Heritage 

Area Criteria,” criteria 1 and 3, would 

likely continue under a privately organized 

heritage area. Opportunities for enhanced 

or expanded resource protection under 

a privately organized heritage area would 

be limited by the lack of funding and staff 

resources.

Similar to alternative 1, there would be no 

technical assistance off ered through the 

NPS National Heritage Area Program or 

associated federal funding. Management of 

existing NPS sites would continue. A privately 

organized heritage area would have access 

on a competitive basis to the other federal 

programs to expand the protection of St. 

Croix’s heritage resources (the National 

Register Travel Itinerary; the National 

Register Teaching with Historic Places; Rivers, 

Trail, and Conservation Assistance; and the 

National Historic Landmarks program).

Without matching funds from the federal 

government, opportunities for cost-sharing 

partnership projects would be limited. 

Without the federal recognition associated 

with a national heritage area designation, 

it would continue to be diffi cult for these 

organizations to make connections with 

U.S. foundations and donors. A privately 

organized heritage area of local residents, 

nonprofi t organizations, businesses, and 

government agencies would need to secure 

501(c)3 status before they could raise funds, 

or a member organization could act as a 

fi duciary agent. The heritage area could 

raise money from foundations, government 

grants, membership, events, and individual 

donations on a competitive basis. However, 

the voluntary entity would likely lack the staff 

and infrastructure to focus on fundraising 

eff orts. The privately organized heritage area 

would draw on the resources of existing 

organizations, most of which are understaff ed 

and operate on small budgets. Therefore, the 

resource demands of the privately organized 

heritage area might outweigh the benefi ts 

to the organizations. Funding for eff orts to 

protect heritage resources on St. Croix would 

continue to be challenging.
77

Eff orts to coordinate businesses, nonprofi t 

organizations, and government entities to 

develop heritage tourism on St. Croix under a 

privately organized heritage area would likely 

have limited success. Because self-designation 

would not bring any resources to the eff ort, 

membership would provide little incentive 

to the organizations. Over the years there 

have been several eff orts to promote heritage 

tourism on St. Croix at the island scale. These 

eff orts to organize the many organizations 

working towards similar heritage-related goals 

have had limited success because of the lack 

of resources and national exposure.

OVERALL CONCLUSION 

Through the evaluation of the three 

alternatives, it is determined that a national 

heritage area designation has the greatest 

potential for heritage resource protection, 

raising funds from diverse sources, and 

building reciprocal partnerships and bringing 

groups together.

A privately organized heritage area is a 

plausible alternative to national heritage 

area designation, although there would be 

signifi cantly less opportunity for resource 

protection, funding, and marketing. Without 

the federal matching funds, the privately 

organized heritage area would rely on existing 

resources to accomplish common heritage 

goals. This would place a heavy burden on 

the member organizations, which would 

have to contribute signifi cant staff time 

and/or fi nancial resources. The return for 

the member organizations would be less 

appealing, and they would be less likely to 

participate. The privately organized heritage 

area alternative would also lack the prestige 

associated with federal recognition. This 

prestige is critical to attracting heritage 

tourists to the remote island and to raising 

money from off -island sources. 
78

Under alternative 2, the idea of a federal 

commission to serve as the coordinating 

entity was also considered and dismissed. A 

federal commission would be comprised of 

members appointed by the Secretary of the 

Interior. A federal commission is generally an 

interim coordinating entity for the formative 

years of the national heritage area and the 

development of the management plan. During 

public scoping, the public articulated their 

desire to have a local, community-based 

organization as the coordinating entity. The 

public also voiced a distrust of the local 

government because of recent scandals 

and fi nancial mishandlings of government 

funds. Attitudes toward the National Park 

Service are mixed and have been recently 

infl uenced by eff orts to acquire land for the 

Salt River Bay National Historical Park and 

Ecological Preserve. The public expressed 

concerns regarding the loss of local control 

and landownership. A federal commission 

was dismissed because of the lengthy and 

cumbersome process of formation, followed 

by the later processes of identifying or 

forming a permanent coordinating entity, 

which would delay the implementation of a 

potential St. Croix National Heritage Area. 

Also, there was a perception of federal or local 

government associated with this option that 

was unfavorable with the public.

COORDINATING ENTITY OPTIONS CONSIDERED AND DISMISSED
79

Chapter 5

Application of 

NPS National Heritage Area Criteria
80
81

 he National Park Service has developed 

10 interim evaluation criteria that should be 

analyzed and documented in the feasibility 

study to demonstrate that the area qualifi es 

as a national heritage area. The study team 

conducted an intensive review and provided 

documentation to address each of the listed 

criteria. As the sections below demonstrate, 

the potential St. Croix National Heritage 

Area meets each of the 10 interim evaluation 

criteria for designation, based on the National 

Park Service’s “Draft National Heritage Area 

Feasibility Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003). 

CRITERION 1: 

An area has an assemblage of natural, historic, 

or cultural resources that together represent 

distinctive aspects of American heritage worthy 

of recognition, conservation, interpretation, 

and continuing use. These resources are best 

managed through partnerships among public 

and private entities, and by combining diverse 

and sometimes noncontiguous resources and 

active communities. 

St. Croix exhibits distinctive natural, cultural, 

historic, and scenic resources that relate 

to the larger stories of American heritage. 

There is a rich collection of historic buildings 

and other cultural resources that illustrate 

a unique blending of European, American, 

and African heritage. St. Croix retains some 

of the best examples of historic structures 

indicative of colonial life in the Caribbean, 

as well as archeological sites that represent 

an indigenous heritage that extends back 

as much as 4,000 years. St. Croix also has 

various natural areas that support a variety of 

terrestrial and marine ecosystems. 

St. Croix has an extensive network of sites set 

aside to protect a variety of natural, historical, 

and cultural resources. This diverse heritage 

is currently managed by territorial and federal 

government entities, nonprofi t organizations, 

foundations, and individuals that work 

together to preserve and interpret these 

resources to benefi t the larger community 

and the American nation as a whole. These 

partnerships provide a framework for the 

continued management and preservation of 

the distinct resources of St. Croix that relate 

to American heritage in the Caribbean.

The following provides a brief description of 

these protected sites, many of which are open 

to the public to learn about and experience 

the island’s heritage. These protected sites 

and areas are important to the people of St. 

Croix, allowing them to pass on their natural, 

historical, and cultural heritage from one 

generation to the next. The study team has 

also assembled an inventory of sites (found in 

appendixes D and E) that were identifi ed by 

the public as part of the St. Croix story; many 

of these sites are not open to the public or 

currently lack interpretation.

Natural, Cultural, Historic, 

and Scenic Resources

Apothecary Hall. The Apothecary Hall was 

restored by the St. Croix Landmarks Society 

and opened in 1996. This Danish colonial 

pharmacy is the only Danish pharmacy 

museum in the Western Hemisphere that 

exists in its original building. The pharmacy 

was located in this building from 1828 to 

1970.

Buck Island Reef National Monument. The 

National Park Service manages Buck Island 

Reef National Monument. Buck Island Reef 

was established in 1961 to preserve “one of 

the fi nest marine gardens in the Caribbean 

Sea.” The 176-acre island and surrounding 

coral reef ecosystem support a diversity of 

native fl ora and fauna, including several 

endangered and threatened species such as 

T CRITERIA AND EVALUATION
82

hawksbill turtles and brown pelicans. The elkhorn coral barrier reef that 

surrounds two-thirds of the island has extraordinary coral formations, 

deep grottoes, abundant reef fi shes, sea fans, and gorgonians. The island 

also has exquisite white coral sand beaches. (NPS 2001.)

Christiansted National Historic Site. The National Park Service 

manages the Christiansted National Historic Site. The historic site 

consists of 7 acres centered on the Christiansted waterfront/wharf area. 

On the grounds are fi ve historic structures — Fort Christiansvaern (1738), 

the Danish West India & Guinea Company Warehouse (1749), the Steeple 

Building (1753), the Danish Custom House (1844), and the Scale House 

(1856). The National Park Service uses these resources to interpret the 

drama and diversity of the human experience at Christiansted during 

Danish sovereignty — colonial administration, the military and naval 

establishment, international trade (including the slave trade), religious 

diversity, architecture, trades, and crime and punishment (NPS 2010). 

The Christiansted National Historic Site is part of the Christiansted 

National Historic District.

Christiansted National Historic District. Founded on the site of an 

earlier French settlement, Christiansted was laid out in a grid pattern with 

two market places. The Christiansted Historic District, which includes the 

Christiansted National Historic Site, illustrates a continuation of building 

activity since the Danish colonial era. (National Register 2010.)

Estate Diamond/Cruzan Rum Factory. The Cruzan Rum Factory is 

a popular destination for tourists. The factory provides tours and rum 

tastings. The property also contains a few ruins from the former sugar 

plantation, including a windmill, steam chimney, and altered greathouse.

Estate Little Princess. The Nature Conservancy manages Estate Little 

Princess, established in 1749 as a sugar plantation. The property is now 

a 25-acre preserve and home to the Conservancy’s headquarters for the 

In Your Own Words: 

Apothecary Hall

 “As a child, whenever I passed 

the Apothecary Hall or Merrill’s 

Apothecary, I would close my 

eyes and hold my breath and 

even prayed. This happened 

not only because the word, the 

name ‘apothecary’ was totally 

foreign and unlike any other 

word I knew, but also because 

I was a Catholic child in a 

Catholic school and knew what 

‘purgatory’ was. And that 

was not a good place to walk 

carelessly. I imagined an arm 

would reach out, grab me and 

pull me inside to a place that 

precedes hell. To this day, the 

record of my mother purchasing 

medicines to give me when I 

contracted polio in 1945 are still 

there. This is cultural heritage 

that speaks to our attitudes, 

beliefs and values. This museum 

tells us who we were 75 years 

ago and what we used to cure 

our ills.”

Olaf G. Hendricks, MD
83

Virgin Islands and Eastern Caribbean. This property is listed 

on the National Register of Historic Places, and the property 

contains an excellent set of sugar plantation ruins including a 

renovated greathouse and hospital, windmill, factory with a steam 

chimney, well tower, village houses, and stock pen. In addition, 

the estate serves as a demonstration site, showcasing innovative 

green technologies such as gray water reuse, solar power, solar 

water heating, and constructed wetlands that are used for sewage 

treatment. The conservancy also manages other preserves on the 

island, including Herman Hill, Jack and Isaacs bays, Long Point, 

and Estate Montpellier.

Estate Mt. Washington. This former sugar estate has since been 

restored and is open to the public. The plantation greathouse is 

considered one of the most beautiful restorations on the island. 

The property around the building is a designated bird sanctuary. 

(Tyson, Buckingham, and Cissel n.d.) 

Estate Thomas Experimental Forest. The International 

Institute for Tropical Forestry, a division of the U.S. Forest 

Service, manages the Estate Thomas Experimental Forest on St. 

Croix. This 148-acre forest is in an urban green space in the most 

densely populated part of the island. The institute manages the 

area with an integrated approach that includes school education 

programs, fi eld demonstrations, interpretation, and outdoor 

recreation, while also maintaining an emphasis on tropical 

forestry research. Both residents and visitors to St. Croix benefi t 

from these innovative eff orts to integrate research, recreation, and 

environmental education.

Page 82:

Fort 

Christiansvaern. 

NPS Photo. 

Far Left:

Estate Whim.

NPS photo.

Left:

Fort Frederik. 

NPS photo.

In Your Own Words:

Estate Mt. Washington

“My favorite place to take visitors 

and folks new to St. Croix is Estate 

Mt. Washington near Frederiksted. I 

am very grateful to the owners, the 

Ayers Family, for allowing visitors to 

come on their private property and 

enjoy the way they have restored it 

and preserved as much of it as possible. 

They even provide an information 

sheet about the history of the estate. 

The most interesting thing to me on 

the site is the (reconstructed, I think) 

cockpit mill where you can easily see 

one of the early ways that the cane was 

crushed. This is a gem in the crown of 

our beloved St. Croix.”

Jayne Edwards 
84

Estate Whim Plantation Museum. Listed on the National Register 

of Historic Places, Estate Whim was one of the most prosperous sugar 

plantations of the 18th and 19th centuries. Estate Whim is owned by 

the Virgin Islands government and is operated as a museum by the 

St. Croix Landmarks Society. The Whim Greathouse and adjacent 

structures stand as a superb example of Danish neo-classicism as 

adapted for use in the West Indies. The site of an old slave quarters lies 

just north of the T-shaped complex, and a working windmill stands as 

a monument to a vanished era of Caribbean history. (National Register 

2010.)

Fort Frederik. A National Historic Landmark since 1997, Fort Frederik 

was built in the 1750s. In 1776 the fi rst salute from foreign soil to the 

new nation of the United States of America was fi red from the fort. It is 

from this fort that Governor Peter von Scholten emancipated the slaves 

on July 3rd, 1848. The fort now includes a museum and art gallery and 

is surrounded by a park that includes a bust of slave rebellion leader 

Buddhoe and a statue of a freedom fi ghter blowing a conch shell 

signalling emancipation. (Tyson, Buckingham, and Cissel n.d.) 

Frederiksted National Historic District. The Frederiksted National 

Historic District, which includes Fort Frederik and the Customs House, 

is comprised of a collection of architectural styles (Danish Military, 

Neo-Classical, late Victorian, English Gothic Revival, and Georgian). 

These many styles help tell the important stories of this town. The town 

was laid out by Jens M. Beck in 1751, and it is an important example of 

Danish town planning and settlement. Construction was controlled by 

a 1747 building code, which resulted in the low hipped roofs, masonry 

structures, and many arcaded walkways. (National Register 2010.)

Friedensthal and Other Churches. The Moravians arrived in St. Croix 

in 1734, and by 1815 they had established three fl ourishing missions, 

including Friedensthal (Valley of Peace) Moravian Church and Manse 

(parish house) and Friedensfeld “Field of Peace” Midlands Moravian 

Church. By the 18th century, with a strong move to abolish slavery 

afoot in the Danish West Indies, the Moravian missions prepared the 

enslaved Africans for self-suffi ciency by teaching them manual skills 

and religion. The parish house dates from 1830, and the present church 

building dates from 1852. (National Register 2010.)

There are several historic churches found throughout the island, 

including St. Patrick’s Roman Catholic Church, Holy Trinity Lutheran 

Church, St. Paul’s Anglican Church, Lord God of Sabaoth Lutheran 

Church, Holy Cross Catholic Church, St. John’s Anglican Church, 

Kingshill Lutheran Church, St. Ann’s Catholic Church, Holy Cross 

In Your Own Words:

Frederiksted Town

“Freedom City”

“I love Frederiksted. This charming and 

historic town is so full of promise, and 

I have to be a part of it. It’s the ringing 

church bells in the morning. It’s the 

locals flocking to beaches on Sunday 

afternoon. It’s the children fishing off 

Frederiksted Pier. It’s a quiet drive 

through the rainforest. It’s saying ‘hello’ 

and ‘good morning’ to passersby. It’s the 

quiet and the stillness of time. It’s the 

stunning sunsets and front row seat to the 

Caribbean Sea. This is Frederiksted. 

My home.”

Aesha Duval

“[T]he home of Abraham Markoe, Queen 

Mary, General Buddhoe, Alexander 

Farrelly, Horace Clarke and many more 

men, and women who changed the island 

and the world. The place where slaves 

demanded their freedom and where 

sugar and rum built warehouses and 

townhomes of extraordinary character 

that still stand. Frederiksted has beautiful 

buildings that can serve as guesthouses/

where we celebrate our music/our dance 

– St Gerard’s Hall Friday night Quadrille/

Sunset Jazz and Crucian Christmas 

Festival. Frederiksted is the birthplace of 

my father, his parents and grandparents. 

Crucian culture and tradition has been 

preserved and developed in Frederiksted!”

Frandelle Gerard, ED
85

Anglican Church, and St. Luke’s African Methodist 

Episcopal Church. These churches are still used today 

and refl ect the social diversity and religious tolerance 

that characterized the island since Danish times. (Tyson, 

Buckingham, and Cissel n.d.) 

Government House. Located in Christiansted, this 

building is an outstanding example of Danish colonial 

architecture during the sugar plantation era. Government 

House is in the Christiansted National Historic District. 

This building is one of the largest governor’s residences in 

the Lesser Antilles. Inside are reproductions of the original 

furniture. These furnishings were a gift from the Danish 

government, who took the originals with them when 

they left in 1917. In 1871 the capital of the Danish West 

Indies was moved back to its original location in Charlotte 

Amalie; however, Government House continued to serve 

as a government building and today it is the focal point of 

many government social and cultural events. The building 

currently serves as the Offi ce of the Governor.

Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge. Green Cay was 

established in 1977 to protect a 14-acre island directly 

off the north coast of St. Croix. The refuge, managed 

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is designated to 

protect one of only two remaining natural populations of 

the endangered St. Croix ground lizard, which became 

extinct on the main island because of the introduction of 

the Indian mongoose. The island consists of dry, forested 

areas with cactus scrub and small rocky beaches. More 

than 30,000 conch shells buried under volcanic rock tell 

of almost 1,000 years of human occupancy, dating back as 

early as AD 1020.

Lawaetz Family Museum Estate at Little La Grange. 

Owned by the Lawaetz family since 1896, this West 

Indian greathouse museum contains old furnishings and 

heirlooms, providing a view of colonial life in the Danish 

West Indies in the early 1900s. The estate dates back to 

1776. The property also features fruit and fl ower gardens. 

Maroon Ridge. Located on the island’s rugged and 

remote northwest end, Maroon Ridge is a signifi cant part 

of the history of St. Croix and considered sacred by many 

Crucians. It was once a sanctuary for runaway slaves, 

In Your Own Words: 

Religious Toleration

“Religious toleration is one of the least recognized of 

Denmark’s legacies on St. Croix. In 1734, when Denmark 

began its colonization of the island after its purchase 

from France, the Danish State Church (Lutheran) and 

the Dutch Reformed Church were the only two legally 

permitted denominations. Already, in 1732, Moravian 

(United Brethren) missionaries had first journeyed to 

St. Thomas to convert the African slaves, and were 

persecuted for undermining the established order. The 

settlement of St. Croix, however, would usher in many 

changes. In a futile attempt to deprive traditional 

enemies of another opportunity to extend their influence 

and power, the French stipulated that only Danes could 

settle on St. Croix. Efforts to encourage Danes to become 

farmers on their new possession were unsuccessful, so 

Danish colonial authorities had to cast a blind eye to the 

steady influx of planters and merchants—many wealthy 

and socially prominent—from neighboring Dutch and 

English islands. The Danes soon found themselves the 

minority in an ethnically diverse white population. In 

order to placate cultural sensitivities based on national 

origin, the Danish Crown proclaimed a remarkable 

degree of religious toleration in ‘the Danish Islands in 

America’ in the mid-1750s. Within varying degrees of 

freedom, Moravian (United Brethren), Anglican, Roman 

Catholic, and Presbyterian congregations soon joined 

the Lutherans and Dutch Reformed, and remain active 

to this day. Although officially ignored, there was a 

Sephardic Jewish congregation in Christiansted in the 

1760s. Today, St. Croix offers a wide variety of religious 

communities, including a Reformed synagogue, and a 

mosque for the island’s Muslims. The architecture of 

historic churches often reflect the national origins of 

their respective denominations, and their furnishings 

bear loving witness to a commitment of faith by many 

generations. Whatever your preference, come worship 

with us and feel the spirit!”

William F. Cissel
86

or Maroons, during the colonial era, and it is the site where some Africans 

killed themselves by jumping off the 300-foot cliff to the ocean below to avoid 

being re-enslaved. The Trust for Virgin Islands Land acquired a conservation 

easement in 2009 to preserve 30 acres of land near Maroon Ridge in Estates 

Prosperity and Sweet Bottom. The purposes of the easement are to (1) to 

protect the natural scenic, forested, open space; native plants and animals; 

and biological diversity of the area, and (2) enhance the public benefi t derived 

from the preservation eff ort.

Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve / 

Columbus Landing Site. Salt River Bay National Historical Park and 

Ecological Preserve was established in 1992 to protect prehistoric and 

Colonial Era archeological sites and ruins within a dynamic, tropical 

ecosystem. The area also contains the Columbus Landing Site National 

Historic Landmark and the remaining earthwork fortifi cation of Fort Sale, 

built during the French period of occupation. The National Park Service and 

government of the U.S. Virgin Islands jointly manage this 1,015-acre park. The 

area protects some of the largest remaining mangrove forests in the Virgin 

Islands, as well as coral reefs and a deep undersea canyon (NOAA 2005). 

This Salt River Bay site is the only known place where members of 

Columbus’s expedition set foot on what is now U.S. territory, and it was 

the site of the fi rst armed clash between Europeans and Amerindians. The 

area around the Salt River contains the remains of some 1,500 years of 

Saladoid, Ostinoid, Taino, and probably Carib occupation. During the Taino 

occupation, the area served as the seat of a chiefdom, which contained an 

important religious structure and a ball and dance court. More than 100 years 

of archeological investigations have demonstrated that the Salt River area was 

the focus of the most extensive and intensive prehistoric occupation in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands. (National Register 2010.)

Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge. Managed by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Sandy Point was established in 1984 to protect 2 miles of 

continuous sandy beach on the southwest end of St. Croix. The refuge’s 

combination of sandy beach, near-shore deep water access, and lack of 

fringing reefs provide ideal conditions and nesting habitat for leatherback sea 

turtles. Inland, coastal woodlands and mangrove-fringed salt ponds provide 

habitat for a variety of migratory and tropical birds. Conch middens found in 

this 360-acre refuge, remind visitors of Sandy Point’s important archeological 

history. The Aklis site, dating back to AD 400, is on the National Register of 

Historic Places. 

Southgate Coastal Reserve. The St. Croix Environmental Association is 

responsible for managing the Southgate Coastal Reserve, located 3 miles east 

of Christiansted. The reserve totals 100 acres and encompasses a coastal salt 

In Your Own Words:

Government House

“The most famous, impressive, 

meaningful and highly utilized 

building on St. Croix. This majestic 

building, in a sense, recapitulates 

Marie Antoinette’s ‘let them 

eat cake’ when compared to its 

fellow structures in downtown 

Christiansted. It has witnessed our 

emancipation; our Fireburn; and 

our political, social and economic 

transformations. It housed 

Danish, U.S. and Virgin Islands 

governors. It has accommodated 

the Municipal Council, various 

government offices and municipal 

and federal courts. It, along with 

the three forts, provide some of 

the most unique architectural 

styles under the U.S. flag. I am 

especially proud of the fact [that] 

my ancestors, the Sobotkers, 

owned what is now the West Wing 

on Queen Cross Street. It’s also 

a pleasure when visitors from 

all over the globe, including St. 

Thomas, marvel at the beauty, 

formality and scale of the 

structure.”

 Olaf G. Hendricks, MD
87

pond, mangrove forest, beach, forest, and upland grassland. The pond and 

surrounding wetlands provide habitat for many resident and migrant birds, 

including several species classifi ed as threatened or endangered. Three 

rare species of sea turtles also nest on the beach. The reserve has carefully 

assessed the site’s habitats and community support for development of the 

site for bird-watching, education, and recreational activities. The association 

also manages a property in Estate Barron Spot and a conservation easement 

in Estate Prosperity.

St. Croix Archeology Museum. Located in Christiansted, this small 

museum is operated by the St. Croix Archeological Society and the building’s 

owner. The museum displays and interprets pre-Columbian artifacts found 

on St. Croix.

St. Croix East End Marine Park. The U.S. Virgin Islands, Department of 

Planning and Natural Resources, manages the St. Croix East End Marine 

Park, which encompasses about 60 square miles on the eastern end of 

St. Croix. The park is designated to protect and manage the natural and 

cultural resources of this area, extending from the high-tide line to 3 miles 

off shore (TNC 2002). The Department of Planning and Natural Resources 

also manages other protected areas on the island, including properties 

at Caledonia Gut, Creque Dam, Estate Great Pond, Long Point, Cotton 

Garden, Salt River Bay, and Spring Garden. (U.S. Virgin Islands Department 

of Planning and Natural Resources 2005.) 

St. George Village Botanical Garden / Estate St. George National 

Historic District. St. George Village Botanical Garden is on a 16-acre site 

just off the Queen Mary Highway. The botanical collections include more 

than 1,500 native and exotic species and varieties. The property overlaps 

two listings on the National Register of Historic Places. The St. Georges 

Archeological Site is a 23-acre Amerindian settlement that overlaps the 

present-day garden. The Estate St. George Historic District represents a 

successful, late 18th century sugar plantation. Owned by the Heyliger family 

during the era known as the “Golden Age of Sugar” (1770–1782), the estate 

continued to process sugar until 1916. After the closing of the largest sugar 

concern, Bethlehem Sugar Central in 1930, the estate became a cattle ranch. 

Currently used as a botanical park, the district includes factory ruins, a 

blacksmith shop, a two-story overseer’s house, an early 19th century slave/

worker village, a lime kiln, cemetery, and a water system with wells and an 

aqueduct. (National Register 2010.) The mission of the St. George Village 

Botanic Garden is one of conservation, education, and preservation of 

the ethnobotanical heritage of St. Croix and the U.S. Virgin Islands. This 

is accomplished through the maintenance of living plant displays, historic 

displays, a research library, and one of the most complete herbarium 

collections in the eastern Caribbean, as well as ongoing outreach programs 

and events.

In Your Own Words: 

Sandy Point

 

“Sandy Point National Wildlife 

Refuge is significant culturally, 

historically, and naturally. 

Culturally and historically Sandy 

Point National Wildlife Refuge is 

listed in the National Register of 

Historic Places. Conch middens, 

bleached and hardened over 

thousands of years, remind us of 

an important part of Sandy Point’s 

archeological history. The Aklis Site, 

dating back to 400 AD and occupied 

for 200 years, is on the National 

Register of Historical Places. Sandy 

Point is also significant because of 

the natural and marine resources. 

The Sandy Point National Wildlife 

Refuge is one of only 13 known 

significant leatherback turtle nesting 

sites worldwide. I have lots of 

personal recollection and experiences 

at Sandy Point.”

Olasee Davis 
88

In Your Own Words:

The Von Scholten Schools

“The Von Scholten Schools in the former Danish West Indies are important landmarks in public education and 

the special history of the people of the Virgin Islands. They mark the establishment of the first, compulsory, free 

educational system for enslaved and free children in the New World. 

Colonization ran up against the precepts of the Enlightenment sweeping Europe in the 18th and 19th century, 

which cast the role of government as one of responsible, even sacred, regard for the welfare and salvation of 

the people in their charge at home and abroad. Even though the Danish Government sold investors on the idea 

of slave-based profits, the obligations of duty led them to plan for the eventual and certain emancipation of the 

workers. The ill-planned emancipation in 1833 in the English Territories prompted Denmark to prepare for an 

orderly transition to freedom, which involved universal education.

In the 1830s King Frederik VI and his family personally planned and approved all the details of the program: 

the curriculum and teachers (the German Moravian missionaries), the language of instruction (English) and the 

design and architect for the schools [that] were to be on all the islands in the territory.

Their design was of the highest order in the Neo-classical style promoted by the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in 

Copenhagen. The ‘Hellenic’ style referenced the democratic aspirations of the Enlightenment modeled after Greece 

and Rome and came to embody through its beauty and harmony the Enlightenment itself.

Some of these von Scholten Schools continued through the transfer of the territory from Denmark to the United 

States (1917), continuing as schools up until the 1960s with one on St. Croix still in use as a school today. In building 

the schools, the enslaved craftsmen were able to secure their freedom before emancipation, which occurred in 1848 

some eight years after the start of the Von Scholten Schools. 

The ‘Danish School’ in Frederiksted was, and is now again, a sumptuously beautiful structure. This Palladian 

gem, specifically chosen by the King to be converted into a school, was intended to inspire its users by harmonious 

elements [and] to instill pride, dignity and seriousness of purpose.

The King and Royal Household monitored the work of the school. 

I was able to interview some of its students, there in the 1960s, who felt special in being able to attend school there.

The recent restoration of the Von Scholten ‘Danish School’ in Frederiksted, St. Croix was awarded the National 

Preservation Honor Award, the highest such award of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.

History is very immediate here on St. Croix with 18th and 19th century buildings such a large part of daily life. 

Historic buildings remind people who they are, where they’re from and are anchors for the future.”

William Taylor, AIA
89

Slob Historic District. The Slob Historic 

District began as a large sugar plantation in 

the mid-18th century. Owned by the Bodkin 

family until 1784, the estate boasted a factory 

building, a water mill tower, a greathouse 

constructed ca.1750, and a slave village. 

Following the slave emancipation in 1848, the 

fortunes of the estate declined, and much of 

the rich land became grazing land for sheep 

and cattle. In 1878 workers agitated by the low 

wages permitted under a new labor law rioted 

and burned the plantation. Today, visitors can 

see the greathouse that has survived, although 

with some alterations. The district also 

includes fi ve late-18th-century and two early19th-century slave cottages in the slave village 

— the birthplace of Cyril King, the island’s 

fi rst native-born governor. Also surviving are 

the stables and an 18th century sugar factory 

building.

Von Scholten Schools. Between 1827 and 

1848, Governor General of the Danish West 

Indies, Peter von Scholten, established eight 

schools on St. Croix. The schools were to 

prepare enslaved children for their eventual 

freedom. Diamond School, La Grande 

Princesse School, Peter’s Rest School, and 

Kingshill School are still used as educational 

or community centers. The ruins of Mt. 

Victory School can be seen from the Creque 

Creek Dam road. La Grande Princesse School 

and the Diamond School are listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places.

Other Private Preserves. There are 

numerous nonprofi t organizations and 

individuals dedicated to preserving the 

island’s rich natural heritage by acquiring 

properties and carefully managing them for 

the long-term preservation of their resources. 

For example, the St. Croix Landmarks 

Society has obtained a number of properties, 

including Estate Clairmont, Davis Bay, Estate 

Butler Bay, and Estate Little La Grange. The 

society is managing a portion of Butler Bay 

as a nature preserve, which includes almost a 

mile of waterfront, a 60-foot waterfall, and a 

rainforest. (U.S. Virgin Islands Department of 

Planning and Natural Resources 2005.) 

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 

CRITERION 2:

Refl ects traditions, customs, beliefs, and folklife 

that are a valuable part of the national story.

The distinctive mix of traditions, customs, 

beliefs, and folklife of St. Croix refl ect a long 

history of migration to the island. The island’s 

fi rst inhabitants are believed to have come 

from South and Central America. The later 

Colonial Era brought Europeans and slaves 

taken from West Africa. Much later, Puerto 

Ricans from the island of Vieques came to 

St. Croix in search of agricultural jobs and a 

new home after U.S. military forced them to 

leave their homeland. This unique diversity 

of cultural traditions can be experienced 

through the island’s traditional music, dance, 

food, and cultural events.

Since Columbus’s fi rst contact with St. Croix 

and its Amerindian inhabitants, seven fl ags 

have fl own over the island. Before becoming 

part of the United States, Spain, Holland, 

England, France, the Knights of Malta, and 

Denmark have all claimed control of St. 

Croix. With each of these shifts in colonial 

occupation, new traditions grew out of 

ongoing interactions between Europeans, 

Amerindians, and Africans. These cultural 

traditions contribute to the stories of 

encounters, confl icts, and colonial beginnings.

Africans, who were brought to St. Croix to 

provide slave labor for the European colonies, 

showed their resilience and resourcefulness 

in the face of great adversity. As Africans 

and their descendants adapted and survived 

the harsh conditions of enslavement and 

discrimination, they contributed to the 
90

economic, social, and cultural development 

of St. Croix. Denmark’s involvement in 

the slave trade ended in 1802. Slavery was 

abolished on St. Croix in 1848 in response to 

an uprising by the enslaved Africans, 15 years 

before the Emancipation Proclamation in the 

United States. Today, African heritage is found 

throughout the rich traditions, customs, 

beliefs, and folklife of the Crucian people. 

The vibrant traditions, customs, beliefs, and 

folklife of St. Croix contribute to and expand 

the national stories of migration, colonial 

beginnings, and slavery and emancipation. 

Many of these cultural traditions are 

described below.

Local Foods. The cuisine of St. Croix brings 

together Amerindian, African, East Indian, 

and European cooking styles infused with 

tropical ingredients. The union of fl avors, 

ingredients, and methods has forged a rich 

and vibrant contemporary cuisine that tells 

the stories of the island’s history and natural 

environment. 

The island’s fi rst inhabitants brought manioc 

seeds (also known as cassava, yucca, or 

tapioca) from South America to St. Croix, 

where they successfully cultivated this dietary 

staple. They also cultivated pumpkin, sweet 

potato, pineapple, and papaya. They used 

native seafood and spices, including red 

snapper, kingfi sh, snails, lobster, conch, crab, 

and squid. Contemporary foods such as sweet 

cassava bread trace their origins back to the 

island’s fi rst inhabitants (Bareuther 1994). 

One can see a griddle stone used to make 

cassava bread at the St. Croix Archeology 

Museum.

Much of St. Croix’s cuisine can be traced to 

West Africa and the culinary resourcefulness 

of Africans living in slavery. The cuisine was 

limited by the meager rations, what they were 

able to grow in small gardens, and the native 

fruits and wild herbs they were able to collect. 

Their dietary staples included salted meats 

and fi sh, cassava, yam, potato, orange, wild 

plum, corn, cornmeal, and bacon. Despite 

the limitations, Africans living in slavery 

developed rich hearty soups, including maufe 

Local fruits. 

Photo credit: 

Nate Olive.
91

and kallaloo, and contemporary favorites 

such as fungi and salt fi sh. The Heritage 

Gardens at St. George Village Botanic Garden 

feature collections of plants that have been 

historically used in the Caribbean to supply 

basic human needs. (St. George Village 

Botanic Garden 2009.)

Other infl uences can be traced to the seven 

nations that once colonized St. Croix, in 

addition to the infl uence of other Caribbean 

islands. The Puerto Rican population living 

on the island has introduced dishes that may 

have distant links to Spain, such as sofrito. 

Popular East Indian foods like curry are also 

part of the local cuisine.

The island is home to Castle Nugent Farm, 

which is believed to be one of the largest and 

oldest ongoing cattle ranch in the West Indies. 

St. Croix is known for its red Senepol cattle, a 

cross of the African N’Dama (fi rst brought to 

the island on slave ships) and English Red Poll 

cattle. Much of the beef is sold on the island 

and has infl uenced the local cuisine. Other 

agricultural products produced on the island 

are featured at roadside stands, the farmers 

market, and the Agricultural Experiment 

Station. 

The events and festivals of St. Croix are a 

good opportunity to sample local foods. The 

popular four-day Agricultural and Food Fair 

features foods such as kallaloo, roast goat, 

roast pork, maubi, benye, paté, crab and rice, 

and pumpkin fritters, in addition to candies 

and preserves like dundesla and gooseberry. 

Mango Melée, which celebrates the local 

fruits of the island, including mangos, is an 

event held at St. George Village Botanical 

Garden.

Music and Dance. Scratch music and quelbe 

songs date back to the days of slavery when 

the instruments were made from found 

objects and the lyrics communicated local 

news. St. Croix is known for its contemporary 

scratch bands that use new instrumentation 

such as the ukulele banjo, a conga drum 

played with a stick, squash, tailpipe, and the 

Traditional music 

and dance. 

Photo credit: 

Nate Olive.
92

steel triangle. The traditional music has also been expanded 

to include other styles, such as calypso, pop music, and 

meringues. The music of scratch bands can be heard at 

festivals, local dances and fairs, church services, and on the 

radio.

St. Croix takes great pride in cariso songs, which employ 

African melodic styles and were used traditionally to 

communicate local news and opinions and to tell local 

history. The call-and-response music is often performed 

by groups of women. The performances can be seen at 

educational and holiday events. Other folk traditions that can 

also be experienced on St. Croix include the songs and dance 

of the African-style bamboula and the dramatic tea meetings 

and masquerade jigs that likely came to the island from other 

Caribbean islands. 

The St. Croix Heritage Dancers led by Bradley Christian 

perform traditional Virgin Island folk dances such as the 

quadrille. St. Croix has maintained quadrille folk dance. 

Quadrille dance performances can be seen at St. Gerard’s 

Hall, at festivals, on holidays, and at schools.

Contemporary music and dance on St. Croix are alive with 

calypso, meringue, jazz, salsa, pop music, and reggae. 

Architecture, Urban Design, and Place Names. The 

history of St. Croix is evident in patterns of development, the 

architecture of the structures, and the stories of the people 

who lived in them. Many of these structures are still in use, 

although the type of use has changed over time. 

The infl uence of Denmark lives on in the architecture, urban 

design, and place names. St. Croix continues to use the 

estates (old plantation names) to identify neighborhoods and 

areas of the islands. The Danes designed the Frederiksted 

and Christiansted street grids, street widths, and setbacks 

that are still visible today. The design of these urban centers 

refl ects trends in 18th century Danish urban planning 

and architectural design that grew out of the Italian 

Renaissance and Baroque traditions of the late 15th through 

17th centuries. Fort Christiansvaern and Fort Frederik 

are outstanding examples of Danish fortifi cations. Other 

examples include the Von Scholten Schools scattered 

throughout the island and the Christiansted Government 

House. The two- and three-story townhouses and the twostory shop-residences lining the streets of Christiansted were 

used as warehouses and businesses with residences above. 

In Your Own Words:

Furniture Making

“Among the many unique aspects to St. Croix in 

the U.S.V.I. is the very old tradition of the craft 

of furniture making. The West Indian style in 

antique furniture is well known, but St. Croix 

has its own distinct and robust presence within 

that style. 

Not only did St. Croix provide much of the 

timber, through export, that went into the finest 

furniture the world has ever known from the 

18th Century Boston, New York, Philadelphia 

and Baltimore craftsmen, but St. Croix also 

found itself at the same time the focal point of 

African, English and Danish influences and 

skills. Combined with an abundant supply 

of native woods like mahogany (Swietenia 

mahagoni) or satinwood (Zanthoxylum flavum 

-- now nearly extinct on St. Croix) and the 

wealth that surrounded the early sugar trade, 

this confluence of tastes, talents, materials and 

money blossomed into a woodworking tradition 

that draws craftsmen, collectors and historians 

from all over the world to this very day.

As a craftsman and scholar of West Indian 

furniture I have had wonderful opportunities 

to work with the Lawaetz Museum and Whim 

Museum. I have restored many pieces for 

both. Through the Lawaetz Museum I met 

Ib and Greta Strange who visited St. Croix 

from Denmark. Ib was a classically trained 

woodworker who first came to see the island 

out of historical interest. He saw the Lawaetz 

Museum and its furniture, and within a year 

he booked a return trip with his family and set 

about donating his expertise and talents working 

to restore the museum collection and teaching me 

much in the bargain. In fact, Ib passed away on 

the Frederiksted beach while watching the sunset 

with his wife after a day of fine woodworking. 

He is just one example of the many people who 

cherish St. Croix for its heritage, its traditions 

and its diversity and who commit with singleminded determination to preserve them.”

Richard K. Starr
93

Today, these buildings house restaurants or 

shops with offi ces above. 

The wood frame folk cottages on the back 

streets and outskirts of Christiansted and 

Frederiksted formerly housed free people of 

color and emancipated slaves. These one- to 

two-story clustered structures opening to 

communal courtyards had their origins in 

both Africa and Europe. (Jackson 2008.) 

A complete list of sites listed in the National 

Register of Historic Places can be found in 

appendix C.

Folk Medicine and Beliefs. The practice 

of herbal medicine by West Indian Weed 

Women developed among Africans living 

in slavery during the plantation era. This 

tradition continues on in modern-day St. 

Croix, although Weed Women are sometimes 

identifi ed as herbalists or bush doctors. A St. 

Croix Weed Woman collects, prepares, sells, 

and prescribes the use of medicinal plant 

remedies. Medicinal plants are collected from 

gardens, fi elds, and woods upon a client’s 

request. Medicinal plants are commonly 

administered in teas and used for healing 

baths. Weed Women commonly provide the 

patient with the plant species and the part of 

plant used, in addition to detailed directions 

on preparation and dosages. Much of the 

knowledge that has been handed down 

from generation to generation is being lost. 

The Medicinal Herb Garden at St. George 

Village Botanic Garden features more than 

50 medicinal plants used by St. Croix Weed 

Women. (Morris and Oakes 1958; St. George 

Village Botanic Garden 2009.)

Art and Handicrafts. Since the days of 

slavery the people of St. Croix have made 

instruments, masks, headdresses, fi ne 

clothing, baskets, mahogany furniture, rugs, 

chair caning, and needlework in the island’s 

craft traditions. The popularity of these craft 

traditions is fading, and it is diffi cult to locate 

handmade, locally produced traditional 

Folk medicine. 

Photo credit: 

Nate Olive.

In Your Own Words:

Folk Medicine

“From the smell of balsam or lemongrass tea in the morning, to 

a cup of soursap tea to put you to sleep, the children of St. Croix 

have fond memories of ‘bush tea’ and the grandmas that used 

to serve them to make life just a little bit better. As adults, we 

still look for painkiller bush to ease that back pain or drink some 

kind of aloe based drink to help clear the cold off the chest. We 

are closer to our environment than our modern trappings would 

indicate and along with doctor’s prescriptions and sometimes in 

lieu of them, we seek the comfort of nature’s medicine chest.”

Monique Clendinen-Watson
94

handicrafts for sale on the island. However, 

the handmade traditional instruments and 

masks can often be seen at the island’s many 

cultural events. Contemporary handicrafts 

produced on the island include jewelry, hats, 

clothing, and bowls.

Cultural Events. St. Croix observes U.S. 

and territorial holidays in addition to 

countless other cultural events during the 

year. Celebrations are known to start a day or 

two before and extend a day beyond a given 

holiday. The multitude of cultural events 

refl ects the island’s many cultural infl uences 

and festive spirit. The following is a list of 

some of the many holidays, parades, festivals, 

and cultural events and activities that take 

place on St. Croix.

The territorial holidays observed on St. 

Croix include Virgin Islands/Puerto Rico 

Friendship Day, Virgin Islands Transfer Day, 

and Emancipation Day. The Virgin Islands/

Puerto Rico Friendship Day celebrates the 

connections to Puerto Rico resulting from 

large waves of migration during the 1930s to 

1950s. The holiday is celebrated throughout 

the island with Hispanic and Virgin Island 

culture, music, dance, crafts, and foods. The 

Eastern Caribbean Friendship Week is also 

celebrated on the island. Transfer Day marks 

the transfer of St. Croix from the Danish to 

the United States. Transfer Day ceremonies 

are performed at the Lawaetz Family 

Museum at Little La Grange. Emancipation 

Day commemorates the day that many 

thousands of enslaved Africans marched 

into Frederiksted to successfully demand 

their freedom. The holiday is celebrated 

throughout the island with a tea party, music, 

dance, old-time tea meetings, reenactments,

donkey races, and food.

The parades held during Crucian Christmas 

Festival, Three King’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, 

and Mardi Croix continue the tradition of 

masquerading, where men and women dress 

up in assorted costumes and move about 

town with musical accompaniment.

The Crucian Christmas Festival is celebrated 

from late December to early January. The 

festival brings together the people of St. Croix 

with contests, music, food, dance, parades, 

mocko jumbie performers, and donkey rides. 

The fi ve-day Virgin Island’s Agricultural and 

Food Fair festival on St. Croix showcases 

agricultural products, livestock, foods, dance, 

and music of the islands. 

Other festivals include Mango Melée (a 

festival celebrating local fruits, including 

mangos), Jump-up (a nighttime festival held 

in Christiansted), and Sunset Jazz (a monthly 

event held on the Frederiksted waterfront). 

Other events and cultural activities identifi ed 

by the people of St. Croix as being signifi cant 

to their heritage include open air church 

meetings, funeral traditions, and conch shell 

blowing.

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 

CRITERION 3:

Provides outstanding opportunities to conserve 

natural, cultural, historic, and /or scenic 

features.

St. Croix provides outstanding opportunities 

to conserve, natural, cultural, historic, and 

scenic features that are fundamental to the 

island’s heritage. Many of these features 

are in an extensive network of publicly and 

privately managed areas. These areas are 

described in detail in criterion 1 and include 
95

terrestrial and marine reserves, colonial sugar 

plantations and mills, sustainable farms, and 

historic buildings and forts. There are also 

eff orts to conserve the less tangible features 

of St. Croix’s heritage, such as preserving and 

promoting local festivals and events.

Although current eff orts to conserve 

these features of St. Croix’s heritage are 

substantial, oftentimes resources, funding, 

and coordination are limited to adequately 

conserve these resources for the future. A 

heritage area designation could enhance 

these and other types of public outreach 

eff orts to improve the conservation of the 

island’s heritage resources. This could 

be accomplished by improving planning, 

communication, and coordination between 

groups with similar eff orts, and by providing 

a more eff ective framework for developing 

partnerships between various levels of 

government and the private sector. In turn, 

these partnerships would be able to more 

eff ectively develop new programs designed to 

conserve heritage resources of the island. 

The following describes a few organizations 

on the island that are working to conserve 

natural, cultural, historic, and/or scenic 

resources on St. Croix. There is also a wide 

range of local business on the island that are 

tied to nature-based tourism, such as charter 

boat operators who off er snorkeling, diving, 

and fi shing trips. These types of businesses 

provide visitors with a variety of fi rst-hand 

opportunities to experience the island’s 

diverse heritage resources. Furthermore, 

many of the agencies and organizations 

described in criterion 1 that manage protected 

sites and areas on St. Croix also provide 

various conservation activities in those areas. 

Caribbean Museum Center for the Arts 

(CMCArts, Inc.). Located in a historic 

building on the Frederiksted waterfront, 

CMCArts, Inc. was founded in 1994 to collect, 

preserve, and exhibit the visual arts of the 

Caribbean community; provide an interactive 

environment that encourages children, youth, 

and adults to explore and learn positive forms 

of expression; and off er creative learning 

experiences that foster an understanding of 

the rich cultural and artistic traditions of the 

Caribbean.

Crucian Alliance for the Safeguarding of 

our Heritage and Ancestry (CASHA). 

This alliance was founded to identify, 

safeguard, protect, retain, and promote all 

political, cultural, legal, and demographic 

documents that rightfully belong to the 

people of St. Croix.

Crucian Heritage and Nature Tourism 

(CHANT). CHANT is a nonpolitical, 

community based coalition committed to 

the advancement of Crucian heritage and 

nature tourism as a vehicle for sustainable 

community development on St. Croix. This 

group works with tourism providers and 

other public interest groups on the island to 

promote heritage and nature tourism and 

to support the expansion of resources and 

infrastructure that will benefi t all members of 

the tourism industry.

Farmers in Action. Farmers in Action 

is a nonprofi t organization dedicated to 

the redevelopment of a viable agricultural 

industry on St. Croix. Farmers in Action 

is also working to refurbish the site of the 

Bethlehem sugar factory.

Our Town Frederiksted. Our Town 

Frederiksted is dedicated to the revitalization 

of the Frederiksted Historic District’s 

economic, social, and physical structure. The 

historic district of the town of Frederiksted is 

one that is very important to the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. The organization is committed to 

maintaining the unique culture and heritage 

of Frederiksted. 
96

Per Ankh. Per Ankh is a nonprofi t 

organization that provides folkloric 

performances and a holistic wellness resource 

center. 

The Society of Virgin Islands Historians. 

The Society of Virgin Islands Historians is 

an incorporated body of historians active 

in regional and international scholarly 

community since 1986. The society is 

committed to promoting an awareness of 

history and related matters of the Caribbean 

and the Virgin Islands.

St. Croix Environmental Association. 

This association is a nonprofi t, grassroots 

organization with a mission to promote the 

conservation of natural resources, provide 

education, and advocate for environmentally 

responsible actions that benefi t St. Croix. 

The organization provides environmental 

education for children and adults to promote 

a healthy and sustainable environment on the 

island. The association is an affi liate of the 

Virgin Island Conservation Society, which 

in turn is an affi liate of the National Wildlife 

Federation.

St. Croix Friends of Denmark. The St. 

Croix Friends of Denmark is a nonprofi t 

organization that promotes the ties between 

Denmark and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The 

organization is concerned with the history, 

culture, and natural resources of the islands.

St. Croix Hiking Association. The St. Croix 

Hiking Association is dedicated to educating 

the St. Croix community and visitors about 

the areas of natural, cultural, and historical 

signifi cance. 

St. Croix Historic Preservation Committee. 

The St. Croix Historic Preservation 

Committee oversees the Christiansted and 

Frederiksted historic and architectural control 

districts. 

St. Croix Life Environmental Arts Project 

(LEAP). Located in the forested area north 

of Frederiksted, LEAP harvests wood from 

fallen trees (island mahogany, tibet, and 

saman) to create furniture and other artisancrafted products.

St. Croix Landmarks Society. The St. Croix 

Landmarks Society is a nonprofi t organization 

with a mission to advance the understanding 

and appreciation of the unique historical 

and cultural legacy of St. Croix through 

preservation, research, and education. The 

society was instrumental in developing the St. 

Croix Heritage Trail, in partnership with the 

Virgin Islands Department of Tourism. The 

heritage trail is a driving tour that traverses 

the island, linking the historic towns of 

Frederiksted and Christiansted with the fertile 

central plain, the mountainous north, and the 

arid east end of the island. The route off ers a 

cross section of the island’s history, culture, 

landscapes, and outdoor activities. The 

organization also manages several historic 

estates and a nature preserve. In addition, 

the organization has an extensive library and 

archives and educational outreach program.

St. Croix United for Community, Culture, 

Environment, and Economic Development 

(SUCCEED). SUCCEED is a local umbrella 

organization that assists with strategic 

planning and partnership building. The 

organization represents a coalition of the 

following heritage-based organizations on St. 

Croix:

• CHANT 

• History, Culture, and Tradition 

Foundation 

• Missionaries of the Soil

• The Nature Conservancy

• Per Ankh Institute

• St. Croix Environmental Association

• U.S. Virgin Islands Coalition for 

Sustainable Economic Development

Virgin Islands Council on the Arts. The 

Council’s mission is to enrich the cultural life 

of the Virgin Islanders through leadership 

that preserves, supports, and strengthens 

excellence in the arts.
97

Virgin Islands Farmer’s Cooperative. The 

mission of the Virgin Island’s Farmer’s 

Cooperative is to assist member farmers in the 

production and marketing of locally grown 

fresh produce. The produce of the members 

(meats, fruits, vegetables and herbs, etc.) helps 

satisfy the demand for locally grown fresh 

produce in the territory.

Virgin Islands Humanities Council. The 

Virgin Islands Humanities Council provides 

opportunities for the diverse population of 

the Virgin Islands to participate in humanities 

programs that promote a love of learning, 

encourage dialogue, enhance understanding, 

and broaden people’s judgment. 

Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute. 

The mission of this institute is to provide 

a working educational farm enterprise 

that integrates sustainability in education, 

environment, and community through 

quality instruction in agroecology and related 

fi elds. Located on more than 100 acres in the 

highlands of St. Croix, the institute provides 

experiential learning, outdoor lectures, fi eld 

laboratories, personal and group research 

projects, leadership development, and local 

environmental awareness. 

These are just a few of the many organizations 

working to conserve St. Croix’s heritage 

resources.

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 

CRITERION 4:

Provides outstanding recreational and 

educational opportunities.

St. Croix provides a wide range of outstanding 

recreational and educational opportunities 

for island residents and visitors to experience 

and appreciate the remarkable heritage of the 

Crucian people. These opportunities, which 

can include snorkeling at coral reefs, touring 

colonial sugar plantations, and attending a 

Crucian festival, are described in detail in 

criteria 1 and 2. Each opportunity allows 

visitors to engage in a distinct aspect of the 

island’s heritage and become more closely 

connected to the island’s culture.

St. Croix’s extensive network of protected 

natural areas provides opportunities for the 

public to learn about and experience fi rsthand the island’s ecological diversity. These 

areas include various inland, coastal, and 

marine protected areas that preserve tropical 

rainforests, coastal woodlands, sandy beaches, 

coral reefs, off -shore islands, mangrove 

swamps, and various other unique Caribbean 

island environments. Outdoor recreational 

opportunities include both adventurous and 

leisurely pursuits, such as diving, snorkeling, 

fi shing, swimming, hiking, biking, and driving 

and walking tours. Many local agencies, 

organizations, and private businesses integrate 

educational components into their tours 

and programs, providing opportunities for 

the public to gain a deeper appreciation for 

St. Croix’s natural environment and how it 

infl uenced the history of the island and its 

people.

St. Croix’s heritage is equally rooted in its 

long-lasting agricultural traditions, and today 

small family farms, orchards, and cattle 

ranches are prevalent throughout the island. 

A variety of opportunities exist for visitors 

to learn about local farming practices and 

customs, such as the annual Agricultural and 

Food Fair — a four-day festival that features 

locally produced agricultural products, 

livestock, arts, crafts, and native cuisine. The 

Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute is 

also on the island, which underscores the 

value of agriculture to the Crucian people. 

The institute is a working educational farm 

enterprise that promotes the development of 

agroecology, an innovative fi eld that combines 

agricultural productivity with resource 

conservation by using ecological and local 

management techniques. 

The island once boasted more than 200 active 

sugar plantations during colonial times. 
98

Many of these plantation ruins are on private 

estates that off er recreational and educational 

opportunities for the public. The most 

visited of these is the Whim Estate, a restored 

plantation with a Danish greathouse and 

windmill for grinding sugarcane. This estate is 

managed by the St. Croix Landmarks Society. 

This local organization also manages Estate 

Butler Bay as a nature preserve, Estate Mount 

Washington as a bird sanctuary, and the 

Lawaetz Family Museum at Little La Grange. 

Estate Little Princess is another example. 

Estate Little Princess is now managed by 

The Nature Conservancy as a preserve and 

demonstration site for sustainable green 

technologies. The estate also serves as the 

conservancy’s Virgin Islands and Eastern 

Caribbean headquarters. St. George Village 

Botanical Gardens, which off ers a unique 

blend of botanical, historical, and cultural 

heritage programs to visitors, is also on a 

former Danish sugar plantation. 

St. Croix off ers several festivals, museums, and 

cultural attractions that provide recreational 

and educational opportunities for visitors 

and residents to experience Crucian culture. 

The celebrations for U.S. Virgin Islands /

Puerto Rico Friendship Day, Emancipation 

Day, Crucian Christmas Festival, and many 

other holidays/festivals/ events proudly 

showcase the food, music, dance, crafts, and 

traditions (mocko jumbies, masquerading, 

tea parties, donkey races, etc.) of St. Croix. 

Several island museums provide opportunities 

to learn about the Island’s history, including 

the St. Croix Archeological Society Museum, 

Lawaetz Family Museum at Little La Grange, 

and the Apothecary Hall. Other important 

attractions include the Christiansted National 

Historic Site, St. George Village Botanical 

Garden, and the Island’s many historic 

churches.

These recreational and educational 

opportunities contribute signifi cantly to the 

quality of life on the island and are major 

attractions for visitors from around the 

world. Although the number and types of 

opportunities abound on St. Croix, there 

is great potential for enhancing heritage 

tourism on the island and instilling a greater 

appreciation for the island’s heritage with 

local youth. In fact, many of the youth 

eventually leave the island to seek better 

opportunities on the mainland of the United 

States — further diminishing the connection 

between younger generations and their rich 

Crucian heritage.

A national heritage area designation would 

likely create many new opportunities to 

improve and maintain heritage-based 

educational programs for students, adults, and 

visitors. It would also enhance collaborative 

eff orts between local organizations and 

businesses to provide heritage and naturebased recreational and educational 

opportunities. Through partnerships and 

grants, these groups would be able to develop 

new interpretive materials, exhibits, and 

programs, as well as maintain, improve, 

and expand existing recreational areas and 

educational facilities on the island. 

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 

CRITERION 5: 

The resources important to the identifi ed theme 

or themes of the area retain a degree of integrity 

capable of supporting interpretation.

The resources important to the identifi ed 

themes of the area are extensive, and many 
99

retain a high degree of integrity capable of 

supporting interpretation. These themes 

capture the essence of St. Croix and refl ect 

the events and movements that are important 

to the history of the United States. There are 

widespread, well preserved, and accessible 

heritage resources on St. Croix that represent 

the fi ve themes. In this section, each theme is 

briefl y described and a few of the resources 

that retain a high degree of integrity and 

currently support interpretation are 

identifi ed. 

Additional heritage resources identifi ed by the 

public listed in appendixes D and E are also 

important to the themes of the area. These 

resources present opportunities to further 

develop interpretation. The potential and 

number of these sites is now being realized. 

Through the creation of a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area, and the associated funding and 

support, the opportunities to tell the stories of 

St. Croix would grow.

Theme 1 — Early Cultures. The people 

living on the island before the arrival of the 

Europeans left a rich record of their lives as 

seen in archeological evidence. People have 

lived on St. Croix from possibly as long as 

4,000 years ago. The many periods of cultural 

occupation of the region tell the stories of 

migration, settlement, trade, and cultural 

exchange and contact. The early inhabitants 

of St. Croix migrated to the islands from 

South and Central America. They adapted 

and developed a society with a complex social 

structure and economy that made use of the 

island’s natural resources.

Although there are several sites scattered 

across the island, many of them are on private 

land or are too sensitive to allow for public 

access. Interpretation of this theme would 

primarily occur at Salt River Bay National 

Historical Park and Ecological Preserve and 

the St. Croix Archeological Museum.

Theme 2 — Slavery and Emancipation. 

Africans, who were brought to St. Croix to 

provide slave labor for the European colonies, 

showed the resilience and resourcefulness of 

people facing great adversity. As Africans and 

their descendants survived the conditions of 

enslavement and discrimination, they also 

contributed to the economic, social, and 

cultural development of St. Croix. African 

heritage is found in the traditions and 

landscapes of the island.

The resources on St. Croix tell a complete 

story of the experience of Africans as 

slaves and free people on St. Croix. The 

marketplace where slaves were auctioned 

is interpreted by the National Park Service 

at the Christiansted National Historic Site. 

The conditions, experience, and community 

of enslaved Africans working on sugar 

plantations is interpreted on the grounds of 

the Whim Plantation Museum, St. George 

Village Botanical Garden/Estate St. George 

National Historic District, and the Slob 

Historic District. A section of Christiansted, 

known today as Free Gut, was set aside for 

freed slaves to build their homes. Traces of 

the early architecture are still evident in this 

area today. Guided tours of the mountainous 

northwest quadrant of the island, where 

runaway slaves (Maroons) sought refuge in 

the cliff s and caves from the harsh conditions 

of slavery, are available. The remaining 

six Von Scholten schools, where enslaved 

African and nonslave children were given an 

education, are destinations on the St. Croix 

Heritage Trail. The stories of slave uprisings 

and emancipation are interpreted at Fort 

Frederik and the Frederiksted National 

Historic District.
100

Theme 3 — The Seven Flags of St. Croix. 

The people of St. Croix have developed 

a distinct Crucian culture that includes 

evidence of the European powers that sought 

to benefi t from the abundant resources of 

the island. St. Croix was subject to shifting 

colonial power struggles as European nations 

sought economic gain and strategic positions 

in the Caribbean. In the colonial period, new 

traditions grew out of ongoing interaction 

between Europeans, Amerindians, and 

Africans, creating new institutions, values, 

and technologies. 

The resources on St. Croix illustrate the 

colonial infl uence and experience on St. 

Croix, especially the infl uence of Denmark. 

The Salt River Bay National Historical Park 

and Ecological Preserve interprets the site 

of the fi rst recorded armed confl ict between 

native Amerindian peoples and Europeans, 

as well as the 17th century European rivalry 

and settlement. The Christiansted National 

Historic Site/ Christiansted National Historic 

District provides guided and self-guided tours 

of the historic structures and grounds that 

interpret the Danish economy and way of 

life there from 1733 to 1917. Interpretation 

of Danish colonial plantations is available at 

the Whim Plantation Museum, Estate Little 

Princess, Estate Mt. Washington, Lawaetz 

Family Museum Estate at Little La Grange, 

and St. George Village Botanical Garden/

Estate St. George National Historic District. 

The Apothecary Hall displays pharmaceutical 

bottles and paraphernalia in the original 

setting used to serve the Danish military

garrison and local residents. 

Theme 4 — Geography and the Natural 

Environment — Crossroads of the 

Caribbean. St. Croix lies at a geographic 

crossroads — connecting the Caribbean 

Sea and Atlantic Ocean currents, the 

prevailing westerly and easterly trade 

winds, and tropical island landscapes and 

seascapes. These unique attributes foster 

an exceptional diversity of terrestrial and 

marine environments that have attracted and 

sustained people for thousands of years.

The marine and terrestrial resources that 

support this theme are extensive. Buck Island 

Reef National Monument is a 176-acre 

island and surrounding coral reef ecosystem 

that supports a large variety of native fl ora 

and fauna, including the hawksbill turtle 

and brown pelican. Opportunities at Buck 

Island Reef National Monument include 

hiking, snorkeling, boating (by permit), and 

swimming. Salt River Bay National Historical 

Park and Ecological Preserve protects and 

interprets a submarine canyon, extensive 

mangroves, and coral reefs. Opportunities 

at Salt River Bay National Historical Park 

and Ecological Preserve include kayaking, 

snorkeling, scuba diving, and hiking. Sandy 

Point National Wildlife Refuge hosts the 

largest nesting population of leatherback 

sea turtles under United States jurisdiction. 

Opportunities at Sandy Point National 

Wildlife Refuge include hiking, nature 

photography, and wildlife photography. 

Theme 5 — Modern-Day St. Croix — 

Cultures in Contact. The population of St. 

Croix refl ects a long tradition of migration 

that has brought together West African, 

European, Caribbean, and American 

traditions. Infl uences can also be traced 

to South America and Asia. Modern-day 

migration continues to bring new stories and 

traditions, which contribute to the dynamic 

and vibrant island culture. This long-standing 

exchange of stories, ideas, and traditions on 

St. Croix makes the island what it is today — a 

colorful collage of the world.

Much of the support for this theme can 

be found in the less tangible aspects of St. 

Croix’s culture, which are discussed in 

criterion 2. However, the opportunities for 

interpretation of this theme still abound. 

These opportunities include the exhibits, 

classes, and performances at the Caribbean 

Museum of the Arts; the locally harvested 
101

and/or produced foods available at the 

Agricultural Station and La Reine Market; 

the events, programs, and exhibits at the 

St. George Village Botanic Garden; and the 

collection of building styles that document 

the many cultural infl uences and periods of 

St. Croix in Frederiksted.

Based on the existing integrity of many 

resources, the study team concluded that St. 

Croix meets this criterion.

CRITERION 6: 

Includes residents, business interests, nonprofi t 

organizations, and local and state governments 

who are involved in the planning, have 

developed a conceptual fi nancial plan that 

outlines the roles for all participants, including 

the federal government, and have demonstrated 

support for the concept of a national heritage 

area.

There is signifi cant support among the 

residents, businesses, nonprofi t organizations, 

and government for the designation of 

a St. Croix National Heritage Area. This 

area would provide a mix of strategies to 

strengthen the local economy through the 

protection and promotion of the island’s 

heritage resources. The designation of a St. 

Croix National Heritage Area could also 

invigorate connections between the people of 

St. Croix and their heritage and bring together 

community-based organizations working 

for similar heritage goals. The approach to 

heritage tourism development on St. Croix 

includes (1) developing small, locally owned 

businesses, and (2) engaging both visitors 

and hosts in learning about St. Croix. These 

improvements could have a positive impact on 

overall visitation and tourist experiences on 

St. Croix, while also positively impacting the 

communities of St. Croix.

The public demonstrated overwhelming 

support for the designation of a St. Croix 

National Heritage Area in the many public 

scoping meetings and comments sent to the 

planning team. Participants at the public 

scoping meetings included representatives 

from government, nonprofi t organizations, 

and local businesses, in addition to architects, 

philanthropists, academics, artists, writers, 

musicians, teachers, students, and residents. 

Heritage goals expressed by participants in 

the planning process include strengthening 

the island’s identity; promoting a sense of 

cultural pride in the island’s youth; sustaining 

the island ways of life on St. Croix; improving 

the economy and quality of life of St. Croix 

residents; sharing St. Croix’s story with 

the world; and preserving, protecting, and 

promoting heritage resources (including 

natural resources, historical architecture, 

arts and crafts, written and oral traditions, 

agritourism, local foods, music, and dance). 

The planning team received letters of support 

for the designation of a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area from eight members of the 

28th Legislature of the Virgin Islands and 

24 government agencies and nonprofi t 

organizations (included in appendix B).

The proposed coordinating entity developed 

the following three-year conceptual fi nancial 

plan based on current economic conditions. 

The plan seeks to match anticipated NPS 

funds for the development of a management 

plan with money raised from a combination 

of government, private, corporate, 

foundation, membership, and earned income 

sources in addition to volunteer and in-kind 

contributions. The overhead expenses are 

estimated to be about 18% of the anticipated 

budget, which is competitive with other 

nonprofi t organizations.

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that the proposed coordinating entity meets 

this criterion. 
102

 TABLE 7: CONCEPTUAL FINANCIAL PLAN FROM PROPOSED COORDINATING ENTITY

FUNDING SOURCE ANTICIPATED AMOUNT

 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

NPS Grant $150,000 $150,000 $150,000 

U.S.V.I. Government: Executive and Legislative 

branches

90,000 95,000 100,000

Private Support: Nonresident Virgin Islanders 2,500 4,000 6,000

Business and Corporate Support 15,000 25,000 30,000

Grants: Federal and Private Foundations 35,000 35,000 45,000

Membership 1,000 1,500 2,000

Earned income (education programs, 

trademark merchandise)

1,000 2,000 3,000

Program support (conference/symposia 

sponsorship, “buy a brick” type campaign, 

and social events)

10,000 15,000 20,000

Value of in-kind and volunteer (non-cash) 25,000 30,000 30,000

TOTAL $329,500 $357,500 $386,000

 TABLE 8: CONCEPTUAL EXPENSES FROM PROPOSED COORDINATING ENTITY

EXPENSE ANTICIPATED AMOUNT

 Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

Management plan (contracted services) $130,000 $110,000 $110,000

Salaries and wages

 Executive Director @ 10% 8,000 8,560 9,159

 Development Director @ 30% 18,000 19,260 20,608

 Administrative Assistant/Clerical @ 40% yr 1; 60%yr 2 and 3 12,000 25,680 27,478

 NHA Program Coordinator 100% 50,000 53,500 57,245

 Contracted Services (bookkeeping) 10,000 15,000 15,000

Travel 2,000 4,000 2,500

Insurance 2,000 4,000 4,000

Offi ce rental @ 60% 4,800 8,640 10,080

Offi ce operations (equipment, supplies, furniture) 10,000 2,500 2,500

Advertising (print and electronic media) 3,000 4,000 4,000

Collaterals (pens, mouse pads, banners, etc.) 2,500 3,500 4,000

DVD documentation, updates, duplication 13,000 15,000 15,000

Program expenses (events, materials, etc.) 28,000 38,000 40,000

Employee costs (18% of salaries and wages) 15,840 19,260 20,608

Utilities @ 60% (telephone, internet, electricity, water, etc.) 7,000 9,500 10,500

TOTAL $316,140 $340,400 $352,678
103

CRITERION 7: 

The proposed coordinating entity and units 

of government supporting the designation are 

willing to commit to working in partnership to 

develop the heritage area.

Signifi cant support for the proposed 

coordinating entity and the designation of 

a St. Croix National Heritage Area has been 

demonstrated by units of government who 

have attended public meetings, written letters 

of support, or served on the local planning 

team. 

In summer 2008, a local planning team was 

assembled to work in partnership to develop 

the St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility 

Study. Active members of the team included 

representatives from the U.S. Virgin Islands 

Department of Education, U.S. Virgin 

Islands Department of Planning and Natural 

Resources, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of 

Tourism, Offi ce of Congresswoman Donna 

M. Christensen, the National Park Service, 

and the University of the Virgin Islands 

Cooperative Extension Service. Local team 

members served in a technical advisory 

capacity and spearheaded outreach eff orts 

— including public service announcements, 

local radio and TV talk programs, public 

meetings and workshops, and the provision 

of informational materials at the Agricultural 

and Food Fair. The units of government 

represented on the local planning team are 

committed to working in partnership with the 

proposed coordinating entity.

Representatives from the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Department of Tourism attended 

public meetings and expressed support 

for the designation. National heritage area 

designation is consistent with the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Department of Tourism’s strategic 

plan for St. Croix.

Several members of the 28th Legislature of 

the Virgin Islands sent letters of support 

for the proposed coordinating entity and 

the designation of St. Croix as a national 

heritage area. Letters (included in appendix 

B) were sent by Craig W. Barshinger, Senator 

(Chairman of the Committee on Economic 

Development, Energy and Technology); 

Adlah Donastorg, Senator; Wayne A. G. 

James, Senator (Chairman of the Committee 

on Education, Youth, and Culture); ShawnMichael Malone, Senator (Chairman of the 

Committee on Planning and Environmental 

Protection); Terrence Nelson, Senator; 

Nereida Rivera-O’Reilly, Senator; Patrick 

Simeon Sprauve, Senator (Chairman of the 

Committee on Health, Hospitals, and Human 

Services); and Alvin L. Williams, Jr., Senator 

(Chairman of the Committee on Education, 

Youth, and Culture). A resolution in support 

of the designation of a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area was passed on December 21, 

2009. The resolution was signed on January 8, 

2010. A copy of the resolution can be found in 

appendix B. 

Letters of support from the U.S. Virgin Islands 

Department of Labor, University of the 

Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, 

Virgin Islands Council on the Arts, and many 

501(c)3 organizations (such as the U.S. Virgin 

Islands Coalition for Sustainable Economic 

Development, Virgin Islands Council on 

the Arts, Crucian Heritage and Nature 

Tourism, Trust for Virgin Islands Lands, St. 

Croix Environmental Association, St. Croix 

Landmarks Society, Per Ankh, Inc., and the 

Virgin Islands Social History Associates) have 

committed to working in partnership with the 

proposed coordinating entity. 

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 
104

CRITERION 8:

The proposal is consistent with continued 

economic activity in the area.

St. Croix has the highest rate of 

unemployment among the U.S. Virgin Islands. 

The median per capita income (1999) for 

St. Croix was $21,401, less than half the 

U.S. average (U.S. Census 2000). This is 

compounded by the relatively higher cost 

of living on the Virgin Islands (U.S. Virgin 

Islands Bureau of Economic Research 

2008c). The tourism industry on St. Croix 

is not as developed as the other U.S. Virgin 

Islands, partly because of local resistance to 

mainstream or commercial tourism. Recent 

eff orts to promote heritage tourism on St. 

Croix have resonated with the people of St. 

Croix who believe in the mutually benefi cial 

economic, preservation, and educational 

opportunities in heritage tourism.

A national heritage area designation based 

on the natural, cultural, historic, and scenic 

resources of St. Croix could attract heritage 

tourists to the island. Numerous studies 

have shown that heritage tourists stay longer 

and spend more than other tourists. One 

of the purposes of national heritage areas 

is to support and diversify tourism-related 

economies. The national heritage area 

coordinating entity would work with local 

businesses and organizations to build their 

capacity and develop a common marketing 

approach. Overall, economic activity in the 

tourism sector would likely experience a 

positive impact.

In addition to tourism, the major industries 

of St. Croix include petroleum refi ning and 

manufacturing (watches and rum). These 

industries, which are an important source of 

jobs on the island, would unlikely be aff ected 

by the designation of a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area. 

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 

CRITERION 9: 

A conceptual boundary map is supported by the 

public.

The study area boundary (the whole island) 

to be used as the conceptual boundary for the 

potential St. Croix National Heritage Area 

is supported by the public. During a series 

of public meetings that were held on the 

island in 2008, local citizens identifi ed more 

than 100 unique sites that relate to the major 

heritage themes of the island. These places 

are scattered across the island and tell the 

stories of Columbus landing, colonialism, and 

slavery and emancipation, and they showcase 

the island’s diverse natural environment and 

modern-day culture. Maps that show the 

locations of these heritage sites can be found 

in chapter 1. The identifi cation of so many 

heritage resources on St. Croix, including its 

off shore marine environments, provides a 

strong basis for using the entire island for the 

proposed national heritage area.

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion.
105

CRITERION 10:

The coordinating entity proposed to plan and 

implement the project is described. 

SUCCEED is a local umbrella organization 

that represents agriculture; business; culture; 

nature and the environment; archeology 

and history; education and training; music, 

dance, and other performing arts; tourism; 

architecture; cuisine and culinary arts; urban 

planning and community development; 

and youth interests. A seat on the board of 

directors is currently allotted for each of 

these interests. As an umbrella organization, 

SUCCEED currently has several member 

organizations. As the coordinating entity, 

SUCCEED would reach out to additional 

nonprofi t organizations, educational 

institutions and groups, and units of 

government to build the membership base 

of support for the national heritage area. 

Members could serve on committees, 

including community planning, education 

and research, history and research, and public 

policy. 

As the coordinating entity, the staff would 

include an executive director, development 

director, national heritage area program 

coordinator, and administrative assistant. 

The staff would report to the executive 

director, and the executive director would 

report to the board of directors. SUCCEED 

anticipates dedicating approximately 60% 

of the organization’s time and resources to 

the national heritage area. Adjustments to 

the time and resource allocation would be 

made periodically to refl ect the funding and 

program needs. The organization has enacted 

a policy under which they will not compete 

with member organizations for on-island 

sources of funding.

SUCCEED would work to garner support 

from and to give support to the nonprofi t 

organizations, local businesses, and units 

of government working towards heritagerelated goals. As the coordinating entity, 

SUCCEED will work to build the capacity 

of member groups, pool diverse community 

resources and facilitate partnership 

relationships, coordinate and promote 

existing heritage programs and activities, 

develop demonstration projects, and support 

scholarship on St. Croix heritage-related 

topics. 

Based on the supporting information 

described above, the study team concluded 

that St. Croix meets this criterion. 
106

OVERALL CONCLUSION

The feasibility study team concludes that St. 

Croix meets each of the 10 interim evaluation 

criteria for designation as a national heritage 

area based on the National Park Service’s 

“Draft National Heritage Area Feasibility 

Study Guidelines” (NPS 2003). As described 

throughout this study, St. Croix contributes 

in substantial ways to our country’s national 

heritage. It also contains many natural, 

cultural, historic, and scenic resources that 

make up a nationally distinctive landscape. 

The rich and varied stories about St. Croix 

lend themselves to an intriguing set of themes 

that connect people to the various heritage 

resources of the island. Furthermore, the 

designation of St. Croix as a national heritage 

area has strong public support and there is a 

local capacity and commitment to undertake 

the responsibilities of a future national 

heritage area.
107

APPENDIXES, SELECTED REFERENCES, AND PREPARERS
108
109

APPENDIX A: ST. CROIX NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA STUDY ACT

120 STAT. 1848 PUBLIC LAW 109–338—OCT. 12, 2006

Subtitle B—St. Croix National Heritage Area Study

SEC. 311. SHORT TITLE.

This subtitle may be cited as the ‘‘St. Croix National Heritage Area Study Act’’.

SEC. 312. STUDY.

(a) IN GENERAL.—The Secretary of the Interior, in consultation with appropriate State historic 

preservation offi cers, States historical societies, and other appropriate organizations, shall conduct 

a study regarding the suitability and feasibility of designating the island of St. Croix as the St. Croix 

National Heritage Area. The study shall include analysis, documentation, and determination regarding 

whether the island of St. Croix—

(1) has an assemblage of natural, historic, and cultural resources that together represent 

distinctive aspects of American heritage worthy of recognition, conservation, interpretation, 

and continuing use, and are best managed through partnerships among public and private 

entities and by combining diverse and sometimes noncontiguous resources and active 

communities;

(2) refl ects traditions, customs, beliefs, and folklife that are a valuable part of the national story;

(3) provides outstanding opportunities to conserve natural, historic, cultural, or scenic 

features;

(4) provides outstanding recreational and educational opportunities;

(5) contains resources important to the identifi ed theme or themes of the island of St. Croix 

that retain a degree of integrity capable of supporting interpretation;

(6) includes residents, business interests, nonprofi t organizations, and local and State 

governments that are involved in the planning, have developed a conceptual fi nancial plan that 

outlines the roles of all participants (including the

Federal Government), and have demonstrated support for the concept of a national heritage 

area;

(7) has a potential local coordinating entity to work in partnership with residents, business 

interests, nonprofi t organizations, and local and State governments to develop a national 

heritage area consistent with continued local and State economic activity; and

(8) has a conceptual boundary map that is supported by the public.

(b) REPORT.—Not later than 3 fi scal years after the date on which funds are fi rst made available for 

this section, the Secretary of the Interior shall submit to the Committee on Resources of the House of 

Representatives and the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the Senate a report on the 

fi ndings, conclusions, and recommendations of the study.

(c) PRIVATE PROPERTY.—In conducting the study required by this section, the Secretary of the Interior 

shall analyze the potential impact that designation of the area as a national heritage area is likely to have 

on land within the proposed area or bordering the proposed area that is privately owned at the time 

that the study is conducted.
110

APPENDIX B: PUBLIC SUPPORT

The following organizations, government entities, and businesses have participated in the 

study process or sent letters of support for one of the proposed coordinating entities and the 

designation of St. Croix as a national heritage area.

3⁄4 Ancestry Discovery Group*

3⁄4 Caribbean Museum Center for the Arts*

3⁄4 Crucian Christmas Festival Organization

3⁄4 Crucian Heritage and Nature Tourism, Inc.*

3⁄4 Crucian Alliance for the Safeguarding of our Heritage and Ancestry 

3⁄4 Cruzan Bikeways

3⁄4 Cruzan Pathways/Iceman Productions

3⁄4 Family History Group

3⁄4 Farmers in Action

3⁄4 Florence Williams Public Library

3⁄4 Interfaith Coalition of St. Croix*

3⁄4 Merwin Foundation*

3⁄4 Our Town Frederiksted*

3⁄4 Per Ankh, Inc.*

3⁄4 Rotary - Mid-Island

3⁄4 St. Croix United for Community, Culture, Environment, and Economic Development*

3⁄4 Society of Virgin Islands Historians*

3⁄4 St. Croix Archeological Society*

3⁄4 St. Croix Chamber of Commerce* 

3⁄4 St. Croix Environmental Association*

3⁄4 St. Croix Foundation*

3⁄4 St. Croix Friends of Denmark, Inc.*

3⁄4 St. Croix Hiking Association*

3⁄4 St. Croix Historic Preservation Committee*

3⁄4 St. Croix Landmarks Society*

3⁄4 St. Croix State Historic Preservation Offi ce

3⁄4 St. George Village Botanical Garden

3⁄4 Trust for Virgin Islands Lands, Inc.*

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Coalition for Sustainable Economic Development*

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Education

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Labor*

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Natural Resources

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Tourism

3⁄4 U.S. Virgin Islands Mocko Jumbie

3⁄4 University of Georgia, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources

3⁄4 University of the Virgin Islands – Cooperative Extension Service*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Conservation Society*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Council on the Arts*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Cultural Heritage Institute

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Farmers Cooperative

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Humanities Council*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Kayak and Canoe Outfi tters*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Social History Associates*

3⁄4 Virgin Islands State Nurses Association*
111

3⁄4 Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute, Inc.*

3⁄4 Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

*Letter of support was submitted and is included in this appendix

The following members of the 28th Legislature of the Virgin Islands sent letters of support for the 

proposed coordinating entity and the designation of St. Croix as a national heritage area. 

3⁄4 Craig W. Barshinger, Senator 

Chairman of the Committee on Economic Development, Energy and Technology

3⁄4 Adlah Donastorg, Senator

3⁄4 Louis Patrick Hill, Senator

President of 28th Legislature of the Virgin Islands

3⁄4 Wayne A. G. James, Senator 

Chairman of the Committee on Education, Youth, and Culture

3⁄4 Shawn-Michael Malone, Senator 

Chairman of the Committee on Planning and Environmental Protection

3⁄4 Terrence Nelson, Senator

3⁄4 Nereida Rivera-O’Reilly, Senator 

3⁄4 Patrick Simeon Sprauve, Senator 

Chairman of the Committee on Health, Hospitals, and Human Services

3⁄4 Alvin L. Williams, Jr., Senator 

A resolution in support of the designation of a St. Croix National Heritage Area was passed on 

December 21, 2009. The resolution was signed on January 8, 2010. 
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158

St. Croix National Register Listings 

Resource Name Year Listed 

1 Aklis Archeological Site 1976 

2 Bethlehem Middle Works Historic District 1988 

3 Christiansted Historic District 1976 

4 Christiansted Historic District 1976 

5 Christiansted Historic District 1966 

6 Christiansted Historic District 1966 

7 Coakley Bay Estate 1976 

8 Columbus Landing Site 1966 

9 Columbus Landing Site 1966 

10 Danish West India and Guinea Company Warehouse 1974 

11 Diamond School 1976 

12 Estate Butler's Bay 1978 

13 Estate Grove Place 1978 

14 Estate Hogansborg 1978 

15 Estate Judith's Fancy 1978 

16 Estate La Reine 1980 

17 Estate Little Princess 1980 

18 Estate Mount Victory 1978 

19 Estate Prosperity 1978 

20 Estate Saint George Historic District 1986 

21 Estate St. John 1978 

22 Fairplain Archeological District 1976 

23 Fairplain Archeological District 1988 

24 Fort Frederik 1996 

25 Frederiksted Historic District 1976 

26 Friedensfeld Midlands Moravian Church and Manse 1976 

27 Friedensthal Mission 1978 

28 Ft. Frederik of U.S. Virgin Islands 1997 

29 Great Pond Archeological Site 1976 

30 Green Kay 1976 

31 La Grande Princesse School 1976 

32 Little La Grange 1976 

33 Lower Granard Archeological District 1976 

34 Prosperity Archeological Site 1976 

35 Richmond Prison Detention and Workhouse 1978 

36 River Archeological Site 1976 

37 Salt River Bay National Historic Site and Ecol. Preserve 1992 

APPENDIX C: NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES LISTINGS FOR ST. CROIX
159

38 Sion Hill 1976 

39 Slob Historic District 1987 

40 St. Georges Archeological Site 1976 

41 Strawberry Hill Historic District 1987 

42 Upper Salt River Archeological District 1976 

St. Croix National Historic Landmarks (total 2) 

1 Columbus Landing Site 1960 

2 Fort Frederik 1997 

National Natural Landmarks (total 4) 

1 Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge 1980 

2 Sandy Point 1980 

3 Salt River Bay 1980 

4 Vagthus Point 1980 
160

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Agricultural Station Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Altoona Lagoon Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Anna Heegaard Gravesite Slavery and Emancipation H 

Annaly Bay Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 

Annaly Tide Pools Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 

Apothecary Hall Seven flags H 

Archeological Sites 

(St. Georges, River, Great Pond, and Aklis) Early Cultures H 

Armstrong’s Ice Cream Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Baobab Tree (Christiansted Parking Lot and others) Slavery and Emancipation H, C 

Base Array Telescope Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Belvedere Seven Flags H, C 

Bethlehem Sugar Factory Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Buccaneer Hotel Modern-Day St. Croix H, C 

Buck Island Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix N, S, H, C 

APPENDIX D: INVENTORY OF SITES IDENTIFIED IN PUBLIC MEETINGS & THEMATIC ALIGNMENT
161

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Buddhoe Park Slavery and Emancipation H, C 

Bull and Bread (Liberty Day) Modern-Day St. Croix H, C 

Bülowsminde Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S, N 

Cane Bay Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment N, H 

Cape of the Arrows Early Cultures C 

Caribbean Museum for the Arts Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Christiansted Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Christiansted Harbor Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, N 

Christiansted National Historic Site Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Concordia Seven Flags H, C 

Cormorant Beach Geography and the Natural Environment S 

Diamond School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

East End Marine Park Geography and the Natural Environment N 

East End School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 
162

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Emancipation Day Slavery and Emancipation H 

Estate Anna’s Hope Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Bethlehem Seven Flags H, C, S, N 

Estate Blessing Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Estate Butler Bay Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S, N Estate Caledonia Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, N 

Estate Cane Garden Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment H, N 

Estate Castle Coakley Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Castle Nugent Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, S 

Estate Clifton Hill Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, S 

Estate Coakley Bay Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Concordia Seven Flags H, S 

Estate Contentment Slavery and Emancipation H 

Estate Diamond/ 

Cruzan Rum Factory Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H 
163

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Estate Grange Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, N 

Estate Grove Place Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix H, N 

Estate Judith’s Fancy Seven Flags H, C, S, N 

Estate La Grange Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H 

Estate La Vallee Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Little Princess Seven Flags H, S, N 

Estate Long Point Seven Flags H 

Estate Longford Slavery and Emancipation H 

Estate Lower Love Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Morningstar Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S 

Estate Mt. Washington Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, N, S 

Estate Orange Grove Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Estate Oxford Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C 

Estate Prosperity Seven Flags H, C 
164

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Estate Rust op Twist Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Estate Sion Hill Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S 

Estate Thomas Experimental Forest Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix N 

Estate Upper Love Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Estate Whim Plantation Museum Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Father Friederich Martin Gravesite 

(Estate La Grande Princesse) Seven Flags H 

Fort Frederik Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Fort Louise Augusta Seven Flags H, C 

Frederiksted Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, S, N 

Frederiksted Custom House Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S 

Frederiksted Harbor Geography and the Natural Environment N 

French Ponds Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Friedensfeld Moravian Church and Manse Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, S 

Friedensthal Moravian Church Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C, S 
165

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Gallows Bay Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C, N 

Golden Grove Greathouse/ 

University of the Virgin Islands Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Government House Seven Flags H, S 

Great Pond Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 

Green Cay Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Guts/Waterways Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment H, N, C 

Half Penny Bay Early Cultures C 

Hams Bay, Bluff, and Lighthouse Geography and the Natural Environment N, S, H, C 

Hams Bluff Lighthouse Seven Flags N, S, H, C 

Hermitage Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Historic Wells (22) Seven Flags H 

Holy Cross Anglican Church Seven Flags H, S 

Holy Cross Catholic Church Seven Flags H, S 

Holy Trinity Lutheran Church Seven Flags H, S 
166

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Hovensa Modern-Day St. Croix S 

Indian Pictograph Early Cultures H, C 

Isaac Bay Geography and the Natural Environment N, S 

Jack Bay Geography and the Natural Environment N, S 

Kingshill Lutheran Church Seven Flags H, S 

Kingshill School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

La Grande Princesse School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

La Presvallee Geography and the Natural Environment N 

La Reine Market Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix H, C 

Lawaetz Family Museum and Garden 

at Little La Grange Seven Flags H, C, S, N 

Long Reef Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Lord God of Sabaoth Lutheran Church Seven Flags H, S 

Lower Love Chimney Slavery and Emancipation H 

Mahogany Road Geography and the Natural Environment S, N, H, C 
167

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Markets (Frederiksted, Frederiksted Fish Market, Christiansted, and 

Christiansted Sunday Market) Slavery and Emancipation H 

Maroon Ridge Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 

Moist Forest Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix S 

Monks Baths Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Mt. Eagle Geography and the Natural Environment S, N 

Mt. Victory Modern-Day St. Croix C 

Mt. Victory School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

North Shore Road Geography and the Natural Environment S 

Northwest Caves Slavery and Emancipation, Geography and the Natural Environment N, H 

Northwest Coastal Road Geography and the Natural Environment S 

Peter’s Farm Hospital Slavery and Emancipation H 

Peter’s Rest School (Von Scholten School) Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H, C 

Point Udall Geography and the Natural Environment S, N, H, C 

Protestant Cay Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment N, H, S, C 
168

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

Queen Mary Highway/Centerline Road Slavery and Emancipation H, C, N 

Rain Forest Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 

Richmond Jail Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H 

Robin Bay Geography and the Natural Environment, Early Cultures H, C, S 

Ruth Island Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Salt River Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix, Early Cultures H, C, S, N 

Sandy Point Geography and the Natural Environment S, N 

Scenic Road Drive Geography and the Natural Environment S 

Senepol Cattle Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix N, C 

Slob Historic District Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags H 

South Shore Road Geography and the Natural Environment S, N 

Southgate Pond & Coastal Reserve Geography and the Natural Environment S, N, H, C 

Spanish Town Seven Flags H 

St. Ann’s Catholic Church Seven Flags H, C 
169

Inventory of Sites Identified in Public Meetings & Thematic Alignment 

Resource/Site 

Theme Alignment 

(Early Cultures, Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the 

Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix) 

Historic (H), Cultural 

(C), Scenic (S), 

Geography and the 

Natural Environment 

(N) 

St. Croix LEAP Modern-Day St. Croix C 

St. George Village Botanical Garden Slavery and Emancipation, Seven Flags, Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix, Early Cultures H, C, S, N 

St. John’s Anglican Church Seven Flags H, S 

St. Luke’s African Methodist Episcopal Church Seven Flags H, S 

St. Patrick’s Roman Catholic Church Seven Flags H, S 

St. Paul’s Anglican Church Seven Flags H, S 

State Little Princesse Slavery and Emancipation H 

Under Water Sea Fans Geography and the Natural Environment N 

Virgin Islands Sustainable Farm Institute Geography and the Natural Environment, Modern-Day St. Croix N 

Von Rohr Botanical Garden Site Seven Flags H 

Waterfall Geography and the Natural Environment N 

West End Beaches Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, N 

West End Salt Pond Geography and the Natural Environment H, C, S, N 
170

APPENDIX E: INVENTORY OF HISTORIC SITES WITH TOURISM POTENTIAL ON ST. CROIX 

FROM THE “ST. CROIX HISTORIC ATTRACTIONS FEASIBILITY STUDY” COMMISSIONED BY THE 

ST. CROIX LANDMARKS SOCIETY IN 1996
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177
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179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186

During the National Park Service’s study, the 

University of Georgia also conducted public 

workshops on St. Croix as part of a separate 

ecotourism study. As part of the university’s 

public outreach eff ort, Crucians were asked to 

identify features and events on the island that are 

important to their heritage. The following is a list 

of their responses. (Duplicate responses received 

during public meetings hosted by the National 

Park Service are not included.)

• Ball parks at Frederiksted

• Baobab tree at Grove 

• Beaches, tide pools, and lagoons

• Beresford Manor

• Bioluminescent marine organisms

• Blue Mountain

• Bordeaux Park

• Butler Bay plantation and waterfall

• Carambola

• Caribbean Dance Company

• Caribbean Museum Center for the Arts

• Castle Nugent

• Cemeteries and Funerals

• Churches

• Columbus Landing Site

• Cramer’s Park

• Creque Dam and Road

• Dannika’s

• Davis Bay

• Diving “The Wall”

• Dorcsh Beach

• Dunbavin School

• Easter camping

• Estate Annaly

• Estate Bethlehem

• Estate Butler Bay

• Estate Diamond Keturah

• Estate Fire Burn

• Estate Lebenan/Island Dairy

• Estate Mt. Pleasant

• Estate Mt. Victory

• Farmer’s Market

• Fish Market

• Fountain Valley

• Frederiksted Harbor

• Frederiksted Library

• Goat Hill

• Government House

• Greathouses

• Ham’s Bluff Lighthouse

• Henry Rohlsen

• Heritage Trail

• Horse Races

• Hotel on the Cay

• Jack and Issac’s Bays

• Jewelry shops (Sonia, Brian, Waylan)

• Kayaking North Shore

• La Reine

• Manners Bay

• Mt. Eagle (springs)

• Mt. Victory Camp and Drive

• Old Danish School

• Old Rum Factory -La Grange

• Pirate Days

• Plantation Life

• Plantation Night Club

• Plantation Ruins

• Rainbow Beach

• Salt River Burial Grounds

• Saman tree at Little LaGrange

• Seven Hills

• Silk Cotton Trees

• Slave Quarters

• Southgate Farm

• Spy Glass Hill

• St. George

• St. Gerard’s Hall -Quadrille Dance

• Steeple Building

• Stomps

• Sunday Market Squares

• Sunset beach

• Teque Forest

• The Caribbean Sea

• Theatres

• Three Kings Parade

• Turtles at Sandy Point

• Wilkes Bay

• Williams Delight Burial Site

• Wills Bay

• Windsor Farm

APPENDIX F: PUBLIC INPUT RECEIVED DURING THE

UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA’S ECOTOURISM STUDY ON ST. CROIX
187

COORDINATING ENTITY FEASIBILITY 

AND SELECTION FACTORS 

Relevant guidance from the Interim National Heritage Area Feasibility Study 

Guidelines, National Park Service - August 2003.

1. Is the organization located in the proposed region? (Congressional testimony) 

2. What is the organization’s conceptual approach to achieving national heritage area goals? 

(Congressional testimony) 

3. Does the public support the organization as the proposed NHA coordinating entity? 

(Criteria 6) 

4. Does the organization represent the interested/affected community? (Criteria 1, Step 7) 

5. Partnerships (Criteria 6, 7) 

a. What is the organization’s experience with partnerships? 

b. What is the organization’s potential for partnerships? 

c. What NHA partnership commitments has the organization received? 

6. Fundraising (Appendix 3 and 4, Criteria 2, Step 7 and 8) 

a. Explain the organization’s past experience with fundraising. 

b. Provide estimate of funds to be raised by the organization and sources. 

c. Provide a 3-year financial plan. 

d. What NHA funding commitments has the organization received? 

7. What is the existing organizational capacity and infrastructure? 

Lessons learned from existing national heritage area coordinating entities.

1. Will the organization threaten the financial solvency of other community organizations? 

2. Is the organization reputable in the community? 

3. What will the transition to a NHA coordinating entity entail (time, logistics, and resources)? 

4. Does the organization complement the existing portfolio of organizations, business, and 

government services? Or is it redundant? 

5. Can the board members/staff provide reasonable time commitments? 

6. What is the management structure? What are the decision-making processes? 

7. Do the board chairman and executive director have facilitation, management, strategic 

planning, partnership, fundraising, and consensus-building experience? 

The vision for the St. Croix coordinating entity that was developed through a variety of 

public involvement efforts, including town meetings, workshops, comment cards, and 

the interactive website. 

1. Does the proposed entity fulfill the public’s vision for a coordinating entity? 

APPENDIX G: COORDINATING ENTITY EVALUATION
188

COORDINATING ENTITY APPLICATION/REQUEST FOR INFORMATION 

Section One: Community Representation and Public Support 

1. Is your organization located in the region proposed for 

national heritage area designation? Supporting Materials 

to be Provided 

x Board member bios 

x General

membership list 

and/or member 

number totals 

x List of advisory or 

special program 

committees with 

history and purpose 

2. Does your organization represent the communities (academic, 

business, nonprofit, neighborhood, ethnic, etc.) that will be 

affected by the potential designation of a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area through board membership, general 

membership, advisory committees, or programs? 

3. How would your organization complement the existing 

portfolio of organizations, businesses, and government 

services on St. Croix? 

4. How would your organization strengthen community 

representation and public support for a St. Croix National 

Heritage Area? 

Section Two: Partnerships and Fundraising 

1. What is your organization’s experience with partnership 

(government, community, business, nonprofit, etc.) projects? Supporting Materials 

to be Provided 

x 3-year financial 

plan, (see 

attachment 1) 

x List of partnership 

commitments (see 

attachment 2) 

2. What partnership commitments for national heritage area 

coordination or special programs has your organization 

received? 

3. What are your organization’s plans for partnership projects or 

partnership building? 

4. What is your organization’s fundraising experience? 

5. Will your organization compete with member organizations or 

other St. Croix community organizations for funding? 
189

Section Three: Organizational Capacity, Infrastructure, and Commitment to 

National Heritage Area 

1. What is your organization’s conceptual approach to achieving national heritage area goals? 

2. Does your organization represent the broad issues that concern St. Croix’s natural historical, 

scenic, and cultural resources? 

3. Will your organization’s focus/mission be the national heritage area? How will the national 

heritage area work fit with your organization’s existing programs, etc? Approximately what 

percentage of time will be focused on the national heritage area? 

4. What is the organization’s capacity (staff, volunteers, etc.) and infrastructure (office, copy 

machines, etc.)? 

5. What will your organization’s transition to the NHA coordinating entity entail (time, 

logistics, and resources)? 

6. Can the board members/staff provide reasonable time commitments? 

7. What is the management structure? What is the decision-making process? 

8. Do the board chairman and executive director have facilitation, management, strategic 

planning, partnership, fundraising, and consensus-building experience? 
190
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PREPARERS AND CONSULTANTS

NPS Denver Service Center 

Chris Church, Natural Resource Specialist; B.S. Wildlife and Fisheries Science; 14 years experience, 3 years with 

National Park Service

Barbara J. Johnson, Planning Division Chief; BA in Environmental, Population, Organismic Biology, BA in 

Environmental Conservation, MS in Environmental Science; 25 years experience, 6 with the National Park 

Service

Pat Kenney, DSC Planning Branch Chief; B.S. Zoology; 23 years experience, 19 years with the National Park 

Service 

David Kreger, DSC Planning Branch Chief; B.S. Environmental Resource Management; 31 years experience, 19 

years with the National Park Service 

Cynthia Nelson, Project Manager (from 2008-2009); B.A. Political Science, M.A. Public Administration; 17 years 

experience, 4 years with the National Park Service

Kate Randall, Project Manager, Landscape Architect; B.A. International Studies and Environmental Studies, 

M.L.A. Landscape Architecture; 11 years experience, 3 years with the National Park Service

Gretchen Ward, Cultural Resource Specialist; B.A. History, B.A. Anthropology, M.A. Archeology; 26 years 

experience, 20 years with National Park Service

NPS Southeast Region

Chris Abbett, Assistant Regional Director, Partnerships

K. Lynn Berry, Heritage Area Program Coordinator

Patty Wissinger, Heritage Area Program Coordinator (former)

NPS Southeast Archeological Center

Meredith Hardy, PhD, Regionwide Archeological Survey Program, Archeological Technician

Local Planning Team

Donna Christensen, United States Virgin Islands Delegate to U.S. Congress

Errol Chichester, U.S.V.I. Dept. of Agriculture, Deputy Commissioner

Olasee Davis, University of the Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, Ecologist/Extension Specialist II

Myron Jackson, U.S.V.I State Historic Preservation Offi ce, Director of Historic Preservation (former); Virgin 

Islands Cultural Heritage Institute, Executive Director

Edgar Lake, U.S.V.I Department of Education, Cultural Education Offi ce, Culture Researcher 

Brad Nugent, U.S.V.I Department of Tourism, Assistant Commissioner

Makeda Okolo, Offi ce of Representative Donna M. Christiansen, Legislative Aide

Joel Tutein, National Park Service, Superintendent for Buck Island Reef National Monument, Christiansted 

National Historic Site, and Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve

NPS Denver Service Center — Publication Services

Phil Thys, Visual Information Specialist, B.A. Marketing Management, A.A. Graphic Arts Communications; 25 

years experience, 19 with the National Park Service

Christy Fischer, Writer/Editor; B.A. Anthropology, 26 years with the National Park Service
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As the nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for 

most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use 

of our land and water resources; protecting our fi sh, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving 

the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for 

the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The department also has a major 

responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island 

territories under U.S. administration.

NPS SACH/T24/101526 September 2010 

Printed on recycled paper

St.Croix 

F

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility Study U.S. Department of the Interior • National Park Service

St. Croix National Heritage Area Feasibility Study U.S. Department of the Interi

St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands