a-^'

Rangeland Improvement

through Seeding

and Weed Control

on East Slope

Sierra Nevada

and on Southern

Cascade Mountains

'"^ . 'iÁj\ O ~ 1556 %

,--A

LR/^"

Agriculture Handbook No. 88

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

October 1955 • Forest Service
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge help from several colleagues and cooperators. Soil Conservation Service nurseries of the Pacific coast region

and particularly Dr. A. L. Hafenrichter provided seed and gave advice on

promising species and on preparation of this report. The University of

California Departments of Soils and Agronomy, School of Forestry, and

Agricultural Extension Service (particularly J. C. Hayes and T. S. Brown,

Farm Advisors of Modoc and Lassen Counties) provided background

information and coordination with related University tests and demonstrations. Excellent plans were made by District Ranger C. A. Abell in establishing test range seedings on the Shasta National Forest in 1945.

A. L. Hormay, a colleague of the authors, made exploratory tests before

1945. J. H. Robertson, University of Nevada, reviewed the manuscript.

Dr. Cornelius was transferred from the staff of the California Forest and

Range Experiment Station to the Agricultural Research Service in 1954.

II
CONTENTS

Paqe

Introduction 1

Improvins sasebrush range 5

Bis sagebrush sites 7

Black sagebrush sites 20

Silver sagebrush sites 22

Improving dry grassland sites 28

Cheaigrass areas 28

Tarweed areas 30

Improving weedy mountain meadows. 32

Buttercup-infested areas 32

Rush-sedge-grass areas 35

Seeding grasses in pine type 37

Page

Seeding grasses in aspen and red fir

types 41

Management of improved range areas. 43

Costs of seeding and weed control.... 44

Literature cited 45

Appendix 46

Characteristics of grasses and

legumes recommended (table

14) 46

Common and botanical names of

species mentioned 49

Washington, D. C. October 1955

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. C—Price 25 cenU

III
Rangeland Improvement Through Seeding

and Weed Control on East Slope Sierra Nevada

and on Southern Cascade Mountains

By DONALD R. CORNELIUS, range conservat'ioniit. Agricultural Research Service, and M. W.

TALBOT, associate director, California Forest and Range Experiment Station,' Forest Service

INTRODUCTION

Eight years of research in the pLiteau region of northeastern California (fig. 1) have shown that seeding and weed control are practical

means of quickly restoring i)roductivity and reducing erosion on

deteriorated rangelands. These practices are especiall}- applicable

where recovery cannot be expected within a reasonable time from improved grazing management alone, that is, where the original perennial grasses have been killed and replaced by undesirable species.

This handbook summarizes results and experience indicating how seeding and weed control can be accomplished in this area.

Potentially productive areas on which these improvement ];)ractices

are needed and are currently feasible amount to at least half a million

acres in the plateau region of California. Increasing the productivity

of this rangeland would materially benefit the livestock industry and

the general economy of the region. The increased forage could also

relieve grazing pressure on adjacent ranges and assist in their improvement through grazing management. Soil stabilization, watershed improvement, and increased game forage are other possible benefits from such range improvement practices.

The part of northeastern California to which this report applies

most directly has a gross area of about 13 million acres. The findings

may also apply to similar ranges in adjacent portions of Oregon and

Nevada. Slightly more than one-half of this land in California is in

national-forest, grazing-district, and Indian lands. The remainder

is privately owned.

Northeastern California is a volcanic plateau ranging in altitude

from ?>M0 to 8,000 feet. Volcanic and granitic formations are intermixed in the southern fourth of this region. Scattered over the plateau are numerous low buttes and mountains formed from old volcanic

cones, but few peaks exceed 7,500 feet in altitude. Alirupt lava rim

rocks are common. Over much of the area the terrain is flat or rolling.

Large plains and valleys occur throughout the central and eastern

parts of the plateau at e'levations below 6,000 feet. Smaller flat open-

'Maintained at Berkeley, Calif., by the Forest Service, U. S. Department of

Agriculture, in cooperation"with the University of California.
HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

''//.''/.{/.^//.''/.

CALIFORNIA

'^y///^ The region

Main experinnental areas

Figure I.—Plateau region and main experimental areas.

in<>-s are interspersod among the timbered mountains at higlier

elevations.

The plateau has a semiarid climate with wet winters and springs

and dry summers. Precipitation averages about ^0 inches a year, but

ranges from 10 inches in the lowlands to 40 inches in the higher

mountains. Blacivs Mountain Experimental Forest in Lassen County

is fairly representative of average conditions. At its headquarters

only () percent of the annual precipitation fell during July, August,

and September in the period 1045-5?, (table 1). Winter snow and

spring rains accounted for about two-thirds of the yearly precipitation. The winters are cold, the summers relatively hot. with maximum

tem])eratures of 90° to 95° F. and relative humidity generally low,

occasionally dropping to 10 percent or less. Because of the dry sum-
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING

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4 HANDBOOK SS, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

mer, 8uccessf'ul riui<>e seedin^ï requires différent methods than are used

in ]uauy other i)arts of the West.

(irazinji and timber ¡¡roduc-tion are the two main land uses. The

phuit cover consists of timbered areas intei'min^iled with open areas

of mixed sa^^ebrush and «rrasaland. The pine timber <j:rows in fairly

open stands which afford appreciable grazing, and practically all

of the sagebrush and grassland areas are grazed. After logging or

forest fire, dense pine stands produce higher forage yields until timber

rejiroduction or coarse brush reoccupy the land. Only dense fir stands,

])atches of dense timber of other types, or small areas of steep, rocky

land are of no forage value. Perhaps 80 percent of the total area is

grazed by cattle or sheep. Deer graze much of the same area, as well

as land too rough for domestic livestock.

The i)lateau region is an important source of green feed during the

summer when forage is dry on most range areas of the State. Forage

growth is active mainly from March or April to July. The main

sunnner grazing zone lies between 5,500 and 8,000 feet elevation.

Si)ring grazing occurs between 3,500 and 5,500 feet.

The experimental work reported here was done in 1945 to 1953.

The range plant nursery (fig. 2) and a major i^art of the field plots

Avere on the Lassen National Forest at an elevation of 5,600 feet.

Pilot field seeding of forage plants to improve range land was started

in 1946, cooperatively by the administrative and research branches of

figure 2.—Range plant nursery for preliminary testing for adaptation, Halls Flot,

Lassen National Forest.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 5

the Forest Service in California. These pilot fields varied from 50

to 100 acres in size. Small research plots were established along with

the pilot fields to test adaptation of grasses, legumes, and a fewbrowse plants on 7 national forests in 6 différent counties of northeastern California.

In this area range condition varies from excellent or good in most

timbered lands to poor in many mountain meadows and sagebrush

flats where grazing animals concentrate. The field ])lots were established to obtain information on a wide variety of i^lanting sites comprising a total of 10 types of range : Big sagebrush, black sagebrush,

silver sagebrush, cheatgrass, tarweed, weedy meadow, rush-sedge, pine

understory, aspen understory, and fir-forest openings. Somewhat

ditferent methods and species were found to be suitable for the various

rangeland types.

IMPROVING SAGEBRUSH RANGE

Sagebrush types occupy about 5 million acres in northeastern California alone. They offer the best opportunity for increasing range

production throughout the plateau region. For many years sagebrush has been encroaching on areas formerly dominated by grasses.

Open-range livestock grazing weakened the grass stands, and the

relatively unpalatable and aggressive sagebrush thickened over extensive areas where it once composed only a minor part of the range

vegetation. Today, good possibilities of improving forage production

exist on three rather distinct types : Big sagebrush, black sagebrush,

and silver sagebrush (fig. 3). All three occur in northern California

and adjoining States.

Big sagebrush is mostly associated with deep well-drained soils,

a condition usually found on the slopes and knolls. It is most abundant and attains its largest size in a broad irregular zone between the

low salty deserts and the high mountain slopes—an extensive zone

of great importance to the gi'azing industry of the "West. This zone

is generally at elevations of 3,500 to 7,500 feet.

The black sagebrush type, although smaller in acreage than the big

sagebrush type, occurs widely throughout the same zone. Occurrence

of black sagebrush usually indicates shallow soil underlain by bedrock,

claypan, or a cemented layer of iron oxide, at a depth ranging from

a few to 20 or 30 inches. The boundaries of this soil type, and of the

kind of vegetation characteristically associated with it, are usually

abrupt.

The silver sagebrush type in general occurs in fiat, saucerlike depressions where drainage is so poor that springtime flooding, sometimes

for several weeks, may occur in all but the drought years. When the

heavy clay soil dries in late summer, large cracks appear. A sharply

defined type line commonly occurs at the margin of the flooded area.

Immediately above this line, black sagebrush is usually the dominant

species. Occurrence of silver sagebrush is determined more by soil

and drainage than by elevation. For example, it occurs on some wet,

cold slopes at elevations of 7,000 to 8,000 feet.

349081°—55-
6 HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

yi^t1|IÄi*^^i-**"»*^"'

!-#*-<"-- **1,>*?'^./V- "

M^'^ 7*€.?*-';,''?^'.-*"

«t»aiÍS&

Sa»íi¿-,.

"íírfi..;;....

^wl

F-47SI32. 478131. 47SI33

Figure 3.—Sagebrush types in northeastern California: A, Big sagebrush, generally on deep

well-drained soils; B, black sagebrush, usually on shallow soil where drainage is not a

problem; C, silver sagebrush, on soil saturated or submerged for several weeks after snow

melts.

^-
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 7

Big Sagebrush Sites

Site Selection

Steepness of slope, eroclibility of soil, occurrence of rocks, and

amount of precipitation are the four principal factors to consider in

selecting big sagebrush sites for seeding. Slojx^s greater than about

35 percent are too steep to work safel}- with tillage implements. Steep

slopes with soils easily eroded by water should not be jilowed. I^oose,

sandy soils are susceptible to wind erosion, and consequently recommendations for range improvement will dejtend u])on the amount of

plant cover that can be kept on the land or tlie ju-omptness with whicli

a new cover can be established. Rockiness and rougluiess of terrain

may limit the work that can be done. An average of Í) inches of

precipitation per year may be regarded as the mininnnn under which

seeding can be considered practical with presently known techniques

and with «jrasses now available.

' &

Species Adaptation

Nine species of forage plants have been found adai^ted for seeding

on the big sagebrush type. They include intermediate wheatgrass,

pubescent wheatgrass. tall wheatgrass, crested wheatgrass,- Fairway

crested wheatgrass, bluebunch wheatgrass, big bluegrass, Ladak alfalfa, and cicer milkvetch.

Both altitude and annual precipitation affected ada])tation. At

elevations of 3,500 to ö,000 feet and precii^itation of 9 to 15 inches,

bluebunch wheatgrass and crested wheatgrass have done best. Above

5,000 feet and where preci]iitation is more than 15 inclies, Fairway

crested, intermediate, pubescent, and tall wheatgrasses have pi'oved to

be well adapted. These four are less drought resistant than crested

wheatgrass, but have produced well with 15 inches of i)recipitation.

Tall wheatgrass does not mature seeds above 7,000 feet in elevation

at this latitude; consequently, its jiersistence over a long period of

years may be questioned, and it can be safely recommended for use

only below 7,000 feet. Tall wheatgrass also proved well adapted to

alkaline soil in flat, poorly drained areas at elevations of o,000 to

5,500 feet.

Seasonal needs for grazing may influence the selection of a grass

for seeding. Crested wheatgrass and Fairway crested Avheatgrass

provide early spring grazing but dry np o to 5 weeks earlier than

intermediate, pubescent, or tall wlieatgrass. Tall wheatgrass stays

green the longest of these three. Leaves of ytubescent wlieatgrass dry

about 10 days earlier than those of intermediate wheatgrass, but both

remain green a few weeks longer than those of Fairway crested wheatgrass.

Big bluegrass produces most of its growth in the sju'ing, the foliage

remains green throughout the sunnner and, if cut oft', tlie plant i)roduces good regrowth. The Albion strain of big bluegrass has been

''Refers to Agropyron descrtoniw. commf>nly called Standnrcl crested wheatgrass, and also called desert \Yhe;itgrass in some refont publications. Fairway

crested wheatgrass is used here as the common nanje of .1. ciiatnlnm.
8 HANDBOOK 8 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

more pi'odiictive tlian the Sherman strain at elevations above 5,000

feet, and responds better wliere nif^ht temperatures are characteristically cool (4).^ The Sherman strain has been more widely grown but

thrives better in localities where the nights are warmer.

Ada])t*d grasses and legumes can extend the grazing season. Some

extension may be attained by sowing grass mixtures, but a better

plan would be to use early growing grasses in one grazing unit and

later developing species in another unit. If sown in mixture, the

dirt'ei-ent grasses may not be utilized at the best stage for highest yield

and peri)etuation of the plants.

How yields of ditferent grasses may compare was shown by a range

improvement exjieriment on the Shasta National Forest. This i-ange

ai-ea, at 4.500 feet elevation and with 13 inches average precipitation,

is representative of a large acreage of the drier parts of the big sagebiusli type. Pei'eimial native bunchgrasses and sawbrush had been

plowed out during early settlement days. But dry-land farming

proA'ed submarginal and cultivation was discontinued. Big sagel»rush then reinvaded the area and became dominant. Cheatgrass and

weedy forbs were connnon associated s])ecies, along with scattered

plants of native bunchgrasses such as squirreltail.

The experiment began by ])lowing the land in the summer of 1945

and drilling seed of 12 forage species before the fall rains. Unfortunately, three desirable wheatgi'asses—intermediate, pubescent, and

tall wheatgrass—were not available for testing when the plots were

seeded.

Crested wheatgrass gave a high and relatively consistent yield over

the 7-year period (table 2). Big bluegrass produced the highest yield

in the entire test in 1950, and hacl the highest average yield. However,

it was erratic in pi-oduction, and its yield in 195.H was about one-fourth

of that in 1950. Bluebunch and beardless wheatgrasses gave fairly

high and consistent yields uJitil 1952, when the vigor of the plants was

seriously reduced by snow mold disease. Slender wheatgrass produced the highest yield in 1948, but this relatively short-lived grass

failed to reproduce, and its yield declined markedly after the fifth

year.

Smooth brome became sodbound and declined in yield after the third

year. For optinunn yields smooth brome requires higher fertility

and soil moisture than this site provided. No fertilizer was tried oil

this particular area, but a deficiency of nitrogen for best growth of

smooth brome was definitely indicaited by yellowish color and other

symptoms. Density and number of jilants'of smooth brome did not

decrease, but vigor and general productivity did after the fourth year.

Five other species started fairly well, but failed to maintain a stand

through the test period. In 1948 their production of forage, in pounds

per acre, was: Canada wildrye, 951; mountain brome, 704; orchardgras.s 55?,; burnet, 427; and Reed canarygrass, 411. The stands declined rapidly after 1948, and by 1953 were very thin. These species

tlierefore are not recommended for use on bio- sagebrush sites.

While intermediate and tall wheatgrasses (tig. 4) were not included

m this trial, results of two tests on the Lassen National Forest show

'Italic numbers in pnrentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 45.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 9

TABLE 2.—Forage production of 7 seeded forage species and of the

adjacent untreated range, Shasta National Forest, WlfJ-öS ^

Species

Big bluegrass

BUiebiinch wheatp;rass_

Beardless wheat grass _.

Slender wheatgrass

Crested wheatgrass

Smooth brome

Western wheatgrass—

Untreated range

Yield of forage, ovendry weight

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Lhs.

per

acre

1,226

1,039

1,446

897

126

Lhs.

per

acre

687

973

600

1,615

1,415

1,274

465

135

1952

Lhs.

per

acre

1,351

1,039

970

645

901

590

534

95

Lbs.

per

acre

2, 596

1, 210

1, 509

1, 352

1, 020

545

651

127

Lhs.

per

acre

2,344

1,097

1, 895

500

802

252

668

296

Lhs.

per

acre

1, 130

233

681

494

127

1953

Lhs.

per

acre

595

759

338

621

Average

per

acre

1, 450

1, 109

1, 041

1, 030

1, 003

627

588

151

1 Seeded in 1945.

the high yieldiiifr iibility of these species, particularly at higher elevations with more favorable moisture conditions. Both tests were on

depleted sagebrush range that had never been culti^•ated. Elevation

was 5,600 feet, average annual precipitation 18 inches. One test, including plots on both big sagebrush and black sagebrush sites, compared 9 different grasses, sown in 1947 and harvested in 19-1:9-5?).

Yields for the two sites, being closely similar, were averaged (table

3). The second test, in the big sagebrush only, compared 10 different

grasses representing 6 species, sown in 1949 and harvested in 1951-53

(table 4).

In both tests, intermediate wheatgrass and tall wheatgrass gave

the best yields. One selection of each, intermediate wheatgrass accession No. P-áSíT," and tall wheatgrass accession No. P-2326, were

particularly outstanding in the 1949 trial. The larger form of intermediate wheatgrass (P-28-27) also produced much higher yields m

this second test than the short form ( P-14).

Peak production for tall wheatgrass came 1 year later than for

intermediate wheatgrass in the 1949 test. This finding is m accord

with results obtained under dryland conditions in Idaho {10). The

Lassen National Forest site was not suitable for Siberian wheatgrass,

bhiebunch wheatgrass, and Sherman big bluegrass—plants that have

performed better at lower elevations having warmer and even drier

conditions.

Western range technicians generally report that the yield of forage

reaches a maximum in the second to fourth years after seeding. Then

the yield begins to diminish gradually even though basal density of

the stand may increase. Vigor is reduced, and hence forage yield

per unit area is lowered. Such a decline was noted among the grasses

'The Soil Con.servation Servir-e nurseries of the Pacific Northwest supplied

sepd of all of the jdants referred to hy the I'-sei'ies accession numbers.
10 HANDBOOK S8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-478140. 478139

Figure 4.—Individual plants of two species of wheatgrass. A, Intermedíate wheatgross,

which spreads by short rhizomes. 6, Tall wheatgrass, showing its typical bunchgrass

habit of growth. This species has no rhizomes.

TAI'.LK —Foidcjc i>roihictioii Ijy 0 graxxef;, hig sagebrush and black

!<(ig<'J>rnxh niti's^ LuxK<^ii Nuflonal Forest, 19^9—53'^

Sijocics

Intermediate wheatgrass.

Tall wheatgrass

Western wheatgrass

Slender wheatgrass

Crested wheatgrass

Pubescent wheatgrass

Beardless wildryo

Smooth brome

Timothy

Yield of forage, ovendry weight

1049 i 1050 : 1051

Pounds

per

acre

623

554

715

302

332

381

407

Pounds

per

acre

1,002

978

560

772

662

843

640

583

418

Pounds

per

acre

747

928

697

527

696

519

569

210

260

1953

Pounds

per

acre

1, 111

879

712

379

603

605

397

388

Average

Pounds

per

acre

893

835

656

508

588

575

538

SflO

362

Seeded in 1947.
KANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 11

TABLE 4.—Forage prodiiced by 10 graxftei^, big sagebru,sh she., La.si^en

Nafionat Forent, 19-51-53 "-

Species Accession Xo.

Yield of forage, ovendry weight

1951 1952 1953 Average

Pounds Pounds'Pounds

per

acre

Intermediate wheatgrass P-2327 1,547

Tall wheatgrass P-2326 609

Big bluegrass P-S903 (All)ioii)

Pubescent wheatgrass . P-41 613

Intermediate wheatgrass P-14 668

Siberian wheatgrass.

Big bluegrass

Bluebunch wheatgrass.

Big bluegrass

Bluebunch wheatgrass.

P-27 ...

P-6303__

P-7845_.

Sherman.

P-6409._

390

per

aere

1, 206

1, 115

641

588

584

657

376

184

27

82

per

aere

602

1, 026

539,

246

186

264

361

335

296

197

Pounds

per

acre

1, US

917

590

482

479

437

368

260

162

140

1 Seeded in 1949.

included in tlie longer test on the Sliast:i National Forest (table -2).

The decline was most conspicuous in smooth brome, but ajjparent in

all the grasses that maintained a stand throughout the test period.

Despite this leveling oft' in yield 8 years after sowing, the seeded

areas were nevertheless producing ;¿ to 9 times as nnich forage as the

previously plowed, nonseeded range. The plots were not grazed.

Longevity and productivity of grass stands might be somewhat different under use by livestock. But the indications are strong tliat

established stands of these species will persist for a long period of years

under good mamtgement. Crested wheatgrass especially has demonstrated both persistence and consistently good yields. For example,

one of the oklest seedings of this grass at iNlandan, N. Dak., has been

productive since 1915 (14).

Legumes available for testing have not proved as well adapted as

grasses for range seeding in Northeastern California. Of some ?>0 legumes tested in the big sagebrush tyi^e, Ladak alfalfa gave best results

for elevations between 0,500 to 5,500 feet. Cicer milkvetch was best

from 5,500 to 7,500 feet. Although these legumes are adapted to the

soil and climatic conditions, rodents and other wild animals often kei)t

them from becoming established. Legmnes are needed throughout

the range country to build up and nuiintain soil fertility and to provide

better mitrient balance for livestock. Included in a mi.xture with

grasses, legumes usually add to the protein, vitamin, and mineral

content of forage. This addition is especially important during the

season when grasses are maturing and drying. Continued search and

test of native or introduced legumes will'be required to meet the need

for better adapted plants. Dut until the rodent and raljl)it danutge

on wild land can be minimized, legumes cainiot take their proper place

ui range seeding mixtures.
12 HANDBOOK SS, V. S. DKPAIITMENT OF AQUICULTURE

Methods of Preparing Land

Experiments in all tliiee S!i<iebnisli types show that competing vegetation must be eliminated or reduced to establish grass stands by

seeding. Burning, s])raying with herbicides, and mechanical clearing

AAÚ11 work. Each method has advantages and limitations. A detailed

description of methods of contiolling sagebrush on western rangelands

is given in U. S. Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No.

207:2 (7).

Mechanical clearing.—Plowing with disk-type equipment proved

practical on most of the deteriorated range suitable for seeding on big

sagebrush sites. Big sagebrush has brittle, easily broken stems, making it rather easy to kill with this equipment. The species does not

sprout from the crown or root, and consequently breaking or cutting

oti' the top of the plant results in good control. The disk plow and

one-way Wheatland ])low gave virtually the same excellent kill of

sagebrush, but the disk-plowed ])lots produced a better stand of sown

grass and a higher yield of forage (table 5). The disk plow was

more etl'ective than the one-way i)low in reducing competition from

forbs. sedges, and native grasses because of its deeper ])enetration and

adjustable angle of the disk. In general, the yield of forage increased

as density of sagebrush decreased.

Rockiness of the area largely determines the best type of plow to

use. One-way Wheatland plows are adapted to moderately rocky

land, whereas lighter disk plows are limited to virtually rock-free

areas. Big sagebrush averaging about 2 feet tall was fairly well controlled by using a light farm disk or mower. Where sagebrush is

reinvading seeded rock-free range, mowing may be used to kill the

sagebrush before it attains much size. If the area is protected from

T.\p,LE 5.—Denfiify of rei^idval fiaqchrui<h^ and forage production in

relation to method of land preparation, on a seeded big sagebrush

site

Forage production '

Method Density of

sagebrush Seedlings

per square

foot

Yield, ovendry, per

acre

untreated. .

Percent

18.7

2. 1

.0

1. 5

. 1

Number

----

2. 1

2. 6

4. 4

Pounds

287

Mower 494

One-wav plow 644

Light farm disk .. _ 445

Disk plow _ _ _ 1 294

'Plots prepared and forage mixture drilled in autumn, 1947; seedling count

made m 1948; yield measured in 1950. The forage mixture sown (in pounds per

acre) consisted of: Smooth brome 4, mountain brome 4, western wheatgrass 4,

1-airway crested wheatgrass 2H, alfalfa »i, timothy %.

Untreated plot not seeded ; yield is from native plants. Yields on treated plots

are from seeded and native plants.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 13

grazing for a year to permit production of a liay crop, then a mower

can be proñtably used to harvest the hay and coiitrol the sagebrush in

one operation.

Spraying with herbicides.—Spraying with '2,4-dichl()r()])lieiK)xy

acid (2,4-1)), carefully planned and applied, can conti-ol big sagebrush. The butyl-ester form of '2,-1-D, applied at the rate of 2 ¡Sounds

in an emulsion of i/o gallon diesel oil and U gallons of watei' j^er acre,

gave 85 to 95 percent kill in rei)licated tests extending over a 6-year

period on the Lassen National Forest (Hg. 5). The best time to si)ray

big sagebrush was when growth of tlower stalks was o to 4 inches in

length. At this stage the developing flower stalks still appear similar

to new twig growth. This stage was reached between INIay 20 and

June 20 at 5,600 feet above sea level—earlier at lower elevations, later

at hiffher elevations.

MAY 20 JUNE 20 JULY 2 0

TIME OF SPRAYING

JUNE 20

¡Big sagebrush B|Black sagebrush [||| Silver sagebrush

figure 5.—Control of three species of sagebrush as influenced by time and rate of spraying

with butyl ester of 2,4-D.

3496S1''—55 3
14 HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Several snppleinental Held-scale s^iraying tests at elevations of

4,000 to 7,r)00 feet in other parts of northeastern ('¡alifornia resulted

in satisfactory kills of 85 to 95 percent of big sagebrush. Some of the

variation in percent liill may I'esult from unrecognized genetic differences in sagel)rush. Ward (l-i) has recently reported that two

forms of big sagelti'ush, with difl'ei'ent chromosome numbers, occur

in northeastern California.

Thorough coverage of the foliage with spray solution was found

necessaiy to obtain a good kill of sagebrush. A method for determining and recording clistribution of the spray particles was developed

in the coui'se of the experimental spraying {2). Bond paper was

sensitized with tamiic acid solution and placed on the groimd across

the swath to be sprayed. Iron chloride added to the sjiray solution

during the calibration of the equipment gave a dark gray mark on

the sensitized paper showing size and distribution of particles (fig. 6).

• «

*»>

fe!^ » v

t-ic^ c* ^ -»»' ^^

«S'* 3-

-^V '^t. "*- .-^

:./-. ^^'. .^;V, TV ^

t

m # _' • #

) c

'^-i^"*^-*»">¿ alt ' Í,

r

F-478129. 478130

figure 6. At left, spray pattern representing complete coverage with 10 gallons per acre.

This is considered to be ideal droplet sire and density. At right, spray pattern representing 10 gallons per acre with poor coverage.

Spraying with ^,4-D increased forage production in the present

study either with or without seeding. The test was in a rocky, deteriorated area of big sagebrush, where the stand of good perennial

grasses lietore spraying averaged one jdant i^er S(|uare foot. Spraying

alone increased forage production to nearly four times that of the

untreated range. This imi)rovement occurred in the second year after

tlie competing sagebrush had been killed (table 6). The grass plants

mcrea.sed m density, vigor, and vield.

Spraying and seeding together increased production sixfold, on

uie a\ erag-e. A mixture of introduced forage grasses was drilled the

tall atter tlic spraying. Three years later an average of three grass
RANGELAND IMPROVKMKNT THUOUGH SKEDING 15

TABLE 6.—Forage froduction- under several comhluatioiiK of ^¡>ray'ing,

tillage^ and seeding on big sagebrush range, lO'iil-').) '

Forage yield, oveiidry, ])er aere

Treatment

1950 1951 1952 1953 A verase

Plowed and drilled

Sprayed, disked, and drilled

S irayed ; not seeded

No treatment

Pou mls

573

522

462

110

Po u mis

1,007

817

542

147

Pounds

Í,'Ó86"

427

141

Pounds

1, 183

943

602

149

Pounds

921

842

508

137

'Sprayed with 2,4-D in July 1948; seedinü, done in fall of 1948.

plants per square foot were fully established, even thouph diskinp; to

prepare the seedbed had reduced the native grasses about 50 percent.

Introduced grass plants made up three-fourths of the vegetation and

native grasses one-fourth.

These results show that introduced grasses can he successfully

drilled into sprayed sagebrush areas witliout plowing. Sowing, however, cannot be done satisfactorily without some tillage to prepare a

seedljed. Where disk-harrow equipment can be operated on sprayed

sagebrush areas, the tillage will usually be sufficient to prepare a seedbed and to break down the dead bi'ush ahead of the drill. A brushland drill (tig. 7) recently developed t)y the Forest Service also gave

Figure 7.—Brushland drill for sowing seed on trashy seedbeds and on uneven soil surfaces.
16 líANDBOOK 88, U. S. DIOPAHTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

adequiito til]ii<j,e aiul poi't'onnod woll where rocks and brusli would

liiive s(()|)|)e(l ordinär}' diilliiifr ( (|MÍ])nieiil. Hecanse eacli di'ill jirm is

iii(le]H>ii(li'n( h' liiiiiicd, dcpdi oí' seeding is fnii'ly nniform on rouf^h

oround. ^\h^m this (ype of (h'il] heeonies generally availalile, it may

be possible to use it on spra^-ed sagebrush areas without disking or

plowing.

The principal use for s])raying, we believe, will be on land supiwrting enough perennial grasses to pi'oduce an adequate cover of forage

after tlie sagebrusli is killed. Spraying is especially adapted to

rocky hind that cainiot be plowed, and also to some sloping land that

might erode seriously if plowed. On s]o])es and easily eroded soils,

jiarticnlar care must be taken not to kill sagebrush by spraying unless

the understory of native grasses is adequate to jn-event serious erosion

or a seeded cover can be I'apidly establish.ed. Although sagebrush is

not desirable as a forage plant, it does help to protect the soil against

washing and blowing. If native grasses are not present to revegetate

the i-ange, introduced gi'asses should be sown.

Range managers will want to consider certain other hazards in the

use of selective herbicides. P'irst, the sagebrush crowns protect remnants of perennial grasses from grazing, and therefore sagebrush

should not be destroyed by spraying unless grazing can be managed to

])erinit the gi-asses to regain and retain their vigor. Also, 2,4-D can

be very detrimental on some sheej) ranges by killing many perennial

herbs, such as geranium, and scattered legumes. Bitterbrush, snowberry, aspen, and willow, particularly valuable browse plants for sheep

and deer, can l)e damaged l\y spraying. These hazards can be minimized by careful selection of area, equipment, and time of

ap])lication.

llinn'/ng.—Effectiveness of liurning i]i seedbed preparation was

demonsti-ated along with the species-adaptation testing. One series of

drilleil plots was established in 1!)4S on a controlled burn in the big

sagebrush type. The burn, on a selected tract in the Modiic National

Forest, was clean and provided an excellent seedbed for drilling

without tillage.

Crested wheatgrass and four other adajited wheatgi-asses were sown

within a few weeks after the burn. The area was grazed moderately

the Hrst year after sowing, then rested 1 year, and grazed heavily the

third year. By 1950 ci-ested wheatgrass had developed a basal density

of 4.r» percent, an optinuim coverage for the site. Native perennial

grasses that survived the tire added 2Á) percent of basal density, making

a total of (i.n peicent. On the adjacent unburned range, "perennial

native gi'asses—mainly sciuirreltail, western needlegrass, bluebunch

wheatgrass. and Idaho fescue—had a density of 4.2 percent.

Burning i-educed the native grasses by more than .50 jiercent in this

pxpernncnt. Idaho fescue jjroved to be especially susceptible to injury

Ijy lire. Cheatgrass, an introduced w-eedv aimna'l, was decreased from

2.;5 percent basal density on the unburned range to l.f) percent on the

burned and seeded area, l^ut (ire also removed saaebrnsh, which on

the unburned range reduced the yield of the forage. Thus, forage

increased m quantity and became more accessible to livestock as a

result of the combine.l use of tire and seeding to improve this kind

of rany-e.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 17

New sagebnisli seedliii<ïs liave orown since tlic burn, and evontnally

some action will be needed to rednce them. An averajie of 4,G!)S seedling sagebrush plants per acre were fonnd in VM) on the burned area.

The unburned range had 2,52;) seedlings and 2.i).'")8 mature i)lants,

making a total of 5,481 per acre. Hurning might have contributed

to the abundance of seedlings but did not ajipear to l)e entirely res])onsible; climatic conditions for establishment of sagebrush Wedliuys

apparently were unusually favorable. Observations of nearby sagebrush areas indicate that big crops of sagebrush seedlings have" grown

in only 1 j^ear in 10 on these raugelands.

Despite the sagebrush seedlings, the grass was vigoi'ous and pioductive on the area as a whole in the fifth year after sowing. In small

enclosures fenced from livestock and rabbit grazing, crested wheatgrass yields were at the rate of 2.194 pounds of forage, dry weight, per

acre; intermediate wheatgrass. 1.9:){) ]iounds ]ier acre. The^c yields

were comparable to those obtained on another area ])lowe(l and seeded

at greater ex])ense, and they indicate the ])ossibilities of increased

production from seeding burned-over range in the big sagebrush type.

Studies in the Intermountain lîegion (6') have shown that burning

big sagebrush to reduce com]ietition with associated grasses can be an

elïective range improvement i)ractice on selected areas. Tiisk, difficulty, and expense can be reduced by thorough pi'e]iaration in iid\ anee,

by accurate sizeup of the best time to bui'n, bv skillful ham II i no- of the

burn, and by meeting requirements of local tire-control antliorities.

Good management of grazing is just as important after burning as

after spraying to allow new seedlings to develop and released plants

to gain vigor.

To obtain the best forage returns, burns on sagebrush range from

both controlled and wild fires should be seeded in autunm of the same

year; otherwise, soil becomes compacted and com]:)etition from cheatgrass and other range weeds will be increased greatly.

Methods and Rate of Seeding

Covering of seed was found essential for good establishment of

grasses. Throughout the 7 years of testing, drilling gave consistently

petter stands of grass than broadcasting, with two exceptions. Drilling was not necessary on burned-over timberland with heavy ash, nor

where needle fall of conifei-s or leaf fall of asjien was suflicient to

cover the seed. On l)urned-over sagebiush land, however, ash did

not cover the seed adequatel}-. There and on plowed .seedbeds drilling

was necessary.

Consistently better stands of grass were obtained Avhei'e the soil on

plowed seedbeds was firmed before drilling. For example, in one

experiment with land roller and disk, used singly and in combination,

the comparative results, expre.ssed in number of seedlings per squar.e

foot, were: Plowed, 1.2; plowed and disked, 1.3; plowed and rolled,

1-5; and plowed, disked, and rolled, 1.7. In this experiment a cast

iron roller was used, but elsewhere log rollers and conci-ete cylinder

rollers proved satisfactory. Usually rolling and drilling can be done

in one operation when theVoller is pulled ahead of the drill.
poi.i9cI ifuiuj M víq peAvo^oj a.iaAv sSuipaes .laciuiejcbv^^ X[.u'.è ^s.xv.è.i }sa|

I ¿Hi JO I uj -.i.ioioujs^iis sse[_ue,iq siu[ .7>'UIAVOS [[1;; A[.Uî^I -SUIAVOS

'81-61 "! iwjwas I

998

8S8

¿US

S9I

spunoj

j 9JOB

lad 'A'jpu8A0

'ppiA aS'BJOj

9J0B]tUI jod

paqsiiciB^sa

ajoi? jod 'sqi 21

9J0B J9d 'sqi zi

aJOB ,i9d 'sqj ß

9J3B J9C[ 'sqi 9

:il!-ip >lS!P-9lSuig

-dl.lV iOd Sfll g 'lllJp A\0JJllJ-d99Q

9J.1V. aad sq] 9 'puTîq .vq jSBjpBOjff

I Suipaos JO a^vi puv poqj9j\[

a/Juvj iia¡ij(¿aljví< Ijiq ^ßuipjaü ¡o Jinu. puo

poyfaiu iiq 'ssrDdaft)cH¿ji pdp^a.tj ¡0 ppn/i pu» ^ii9aiiis¡¿qD/s^—-^ inaxx

•i[)(lap :)seq 3q) si qoui

Vi Oí Vi nos pe.m^xoí-AAKeq uQ 'poioo.i Aiopmbopu e.ioAv Adq; e.ioj.eq

^no pai.ip ua;j:o daap q.iui '/i; uuq; s'sa[ pa^uiqti s.oiu[paas íjuilf.iauí^^j;

•¿([pidiu ooj pat.q) [los aqj^ •aoua.o.unua jo aunj p; s.oiu[paas jo ss()[ ui

paqnsa.i :ouii\ios AVü[[i;q^' 'U'^i'l I í'^oqii ac[ [)[Uüqs sau[ii¿a[ pui: sassiî.i.o

¿iiiAvos JO qjdap aq; pos Apuiîs UQ qios aq^ jo aiu^xa^ uodu spuadap

qjciap ranuujdo "pa.iaAOo aq p[noqs paas s4[nsa,i [ujssaj.jiis isoui .lojj

asu aáuu.i .loj pado[aAap

aai; spoqjaui Siupaas pun .i.iauiq.juai piaioiga aaoui su paoupa.i aq A[[iui

-pB,i.ïf i[iAV .liiupaas JO sap!.i 'os[y (-xqpuaikly 'fj diqv] m a.ii: saioads

[unpiAqDin .loj sajiM ¿uipaai^') •ssiiXoiii'^H'^^ pa|sa,ia .u)j pup luiqi

.iap:a.i.îii ju'aaiad oy oj 03 ap:.!" K p: UAVOS aq i)[uoqs 'spaas .ia:rf,nq aAuq

q.nqAV 'ssii.tópiaqAv pia^saqiid pui! '[[i:j Mp;ii)am.ia4ui si: q.)ns sass>!,i.ri

'a[cIu[L'xa dO¿ -saiaads Áq sauads 'sai.iUA puiuxl .lad spaas jo .laquiuu aq^

SXÎ K.jiv,A ¡p.ü ua.iu juin .lad sifui[paas jo .laquiuu pa.usap 1; eoupo.id 04

pa.iuiba.i ajiî.i Sutpaas aqj •as.i'uo.^ j() -spíaiÁ" ai[j asua.iaui jou pqj

ámjiiiqd JO sa4iM .laiAuaj-j -jooj a.uuibs .led s.T)in[paas ^'o P'^-^i-i'^Ai!

aj¿i punod-6 aqj ju 'Jiuqjeas luo.ij paj[usaa 4i!q4 piuî^s SSIM-O aqj^

•a.iji! ,iad spunotl 9 uuqj

aSujoj JO p[aiA: .laqSiq piui sjinqd aioui ^ijmioqtitóis aAi!.rf spunod

6 .'ipjp î[Sip-ai.îfais aqj qjiAV jsaq paAO.id a.iou .wd paas jo spunod aui^vj

(l aiq«j)'puiq pa.u.o[d ii.îÎno.i uo peas ax[4 ííur.iaAoa jnoq^tAv :rfui4Si;o

-pmiq puiu[ uuqj ,ia44aq qanui paAoad pui; pup Avo.i.mj-daap u uuqj

ssiJjgjiiatpAV pajsa.io jo spui:4S .ia44aq aAtó [[up >[sip-a[.o!uis v jo as^^

•paas aqj .SuLiaAoa ,TOJ JOOJ aAi4oa,j4a uv si (pi) Avo.i.uiq ad id aq4 'suo[4

-unjis qons ,ÍOKI aAiJiuua4[u ii[uo aqj aq A"i!ui puuq A"q .10 4uauiduiba

.laAiod Aq peas'" ííui4sÍ!opi!0.ií[ suoi4.-)n.i4sqo .iaq40 .10 s>i.)o.t jo asnuaaq

pa[[i.ip aq jouuuo''¿uipaas .loj appîjins asiAv.iaq4o 'puiqaJ^uiM qonjv^

annxinoTHOV ¿10 XNoiwxHVdMa •« "a 'ss MOoeaMVH 81
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 19

and a few weeks of warm weather. Seedliiifis <rerniinated too soon,

and losses were heavy during the winter. Plots sown to firass later

in the fall of that same year had no germination nntil sprinji', and a

better stand was obtained. Since theVarliness or lateness of storms is

unpredictable, it would be desirable to sow in late fall, between October 10 and 30. for elevations of al)out 5,600 feet. In Nevada at

elevations of 4,G50 and 5,200 feet, Robertson (P) also found that late

fall seedino- o-ave better results than early fall seedinj;.

Early sprino- proved suitalile for sowiiio- areas that are readily accessible. However, if equipment and supjdies have to be moved an

appreciable distance, muddy roads and fields and early sprinji" storms

make spriufr sowino- too difiicult and costly. By tlie time ]ilantin<i- can

be done in the sprin-i'. it is too late for "the slow-startino: 2:rasses to

become sufficiently well develo]ied to survive the summer season without rain. Lepuuies develo]i more rajndly than "Tasses and have responded better to spring sowing tlian to fall sowing. If a mixture of

grasses and legumes is to l>e sown, early spring would be the ))referable

time.

Stand Establishment

Grazing by livestock should be withheld until new seedling plants

have had an opi)ortunity to l)ecome well established. The period of

time will vary for difièrent species, seasons, and sites, but as a general

rule a full year after seeding is required to avoid pulling up many

seedlings which do not become Hrmly anchoi'ed the Hrst growing season. Special situations may justify ])rotection into the second year.

Occasionally a satisfactory stand of grass develo])ed despite early

livestock grazing. Such an example occurred with the newly seeded

crested wheatgrass on the 1048 controlled l)ni'n of big sagebrush. Tlie

autumn, winter, and spring proved exceptionally favorable for growth

of the crested wheatgrass seedlings. Although grazed the first summer after sowing, they developed iiito vigorous plants as large at the

end of 1 year as would normally be expected in 2 years. Conversely,

the big bluegrass sown on plots at the same time and treated in the

same manner as the crested wheatgrass germinated well, but the seedlings were pulled u]) by livestock, and the stand of grass was a failure.

Rodents and I'abbits were observed to damage range seedings in

varying degree during the test period. The rodents included ground

sqiurrels, mice, and gophers. Rabbits destroyed some new seedings

of forage grasses. Rodents and rabbits eliminated legumes from some

grass-legume mixture seedings. Rabbits were not controlled successfully on the experimental range areas except by fencing. On one

small test area they consumed nearly two-thirds of the forage. Where

hvestock and rabbits were excluded, the amount of grass at maturity

was 2,0G5 pounds per acre comi)aied to 7!<2 ])ounds per acre on a

small plot fenced against livestock but grazed by rabbits. On tliis

area the grass stand was established befoie the i>eak of the rabbit

population occuiTed. If seeding is desired for a large range where

the rabbit po])u]ation is high, the best solution may be to defer seeding

until the number of I'abbits can be reduced liy natural enemies or

until more effective control methods are develoijed.
20 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Black Sagebrush Sites

Site Selection

Since sliiiUow soils cliariulerize the black sagebrush range, special

attention slioiild be given to soil depth in selecting areas for seeding.

The depth of soil above rock or consolidated snbstratuni should be

2 feet or more for good grass growth. The black sagebrush type is

generally found on gentle slopes; so steejmess is no problem in most

localities. lîockiness, however, jn'evails through most of the black

sa"-ebrush rauüeland. and for this reason nuich of the area cannot be

treated with tillage e(|niiinieut.

Species Adaptation

Gi'asses found adajjled for use in seeding deteriorated )>lack sagebrush lange were: Intermediate wheatgrass, tall wheatgrass, western

wheatgrass, Standard crested wheatgrass, pubescent wheatgrass, Fairway ciested wheatgrass, and smooth brome.

In one comprehensive test for yielding ability of 0 grasses on the

Lassen National Forest, intermediate wheatgrass and tall wheatgrass

gave the highest and the next highest yields, respectively, and far

exceeded 7 other species in relative production (table 3). Nitrogen

deticiency accounted for the low production of smooth brome on the

test ai'ea. On soils of higher fertility, especially at somewhat higher

elevation and with better soil-moisture conditions, smooth brome has

performed better than it did here. The test was made at 5,600 feet,

near the u|)per limit of adaptation for Standard crested wheatgrass;

at higher elevations Fairway crested wheatgrass has persisted and

produced better than the Standard strain.

Methods of Preparing Land

MrrJuniiriil i-liitriiu).—Of the several kinds of tillage equipment

tested, a disk plow gave best control of competing vegetation in the

black sagebrush type (table 8). Plowinjr has proved best only on

relatively rock-free areas. A light farm cTisk, which can be operated

on some land too rocky for ])lowing, gave good control of black sagebrush when the land was disked twice and the disk blades were kept

sharp. Difliciilty was encountered with the one-way "Wheatland plow.

INfany small i)lants of black sagebrush slipped between the disks; other

plants were not killed because the disks merely rolled over them.

Mowing was ineffective, since it was impossible to cut low enough to

kill many of the plants. This difficulty was partly caused by the

rough surface of the soil. Erosion between the black sagebrush plants

had left many of them on pinnacles of soil.

A>'ffy;«r/.—Spraying with i2,4-I) gave satisfactory control of black

sagebrush, e(|ual to that of bio- saoebnish. Rocky rangeland that

camiot be iff owed is most suitable'for spraying. "Desirable native

grasses though limited in amount, are allowed to increase when released from sagebrush competition by spraying with selective herbicides. Comparative yields from sprayed and unsprayed strips of
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 21

similar raiifre afford a measure of tliis stinmlus. Saiidbero- blueo'rass

and other native »rasses produced 2To pounds of forage per acre in

11)51 on nnsi)rayed black saoebiusli ran«;e on the Modoc National

Forest. An adjacent area spiayed with 2,-1-1) by airplane the year

before produced 578 ])ounds of foraii-e i)er acre. ()n an area supp'ortino; a fair stand of Idaho fescue, a hioher producino- native ffrass. the

yields per acre were 470 pounds without spravin<i- and s;);5 poiuids with

spraying.

TABLE 8.—Density of reshhia? sageh rush, and farage prochirfion in

relation to method of land preparation, o7i a seeded hlaek sa,jehrush

site

Method

Untreated

Mower

One-way plow_

Lifiht farm disk

Disk plow

Density

of sagebnish

Forage production i

Percent

26. 4

7. 7

4. 5

\. 1

.7

Seedlings

per square

foot

Yield, ovendry, ¡jer

acre

Niihihcr

3. 5

4. 8

6.3

0. 1

Pounds

168

311

483

456

1, 638

' Plots prepared and forase mixture drilled in autumn, 1047; seodlins count

made in 1948; yield measured in 11».50. Forage mixture as in footnote 1, table 5.

Untreated plot not seeded; yield is from native ])lants. 'fields on treated jilots

are from seeded and native plants.

Rails and pipe harrows ( 12) oave unsatisfactory results in tests on

black sagebrush. This rather suiall shrub is often multiple stennned

and is not easily pulled out or bi-oken off. For example, in one Hehl

test of the pipe harrow on Lassen National Forest, black sageluiish

plants were reduced only from 1-!,197 per acre to 5,]^;]—an insufficient

kill for successful range imjn-ovement.

Method and Rate of Seeding

As on the big sagebrush sites, drilling seed in the fall generally gave

best results. After spraying, some tillage is desirable before drilling;

this may be done with a light farm disk or the rockland tiller ( tig. S).

In a test with the rockland tiller, aliout half of the native grasses survived and drilling a<lded an aveiage of '2.4 grass seedlings per square

foot. Plowing and drilling produced ;5.8 seedlings ])ei- S(|uare foot

but eliminated all the native grasses, an undesirable result cm erodible

areas. In general, however, tlie best results fi'om the drilling may be

expected on a seedbed that has l)een prepared by plowing and rolling.

In these tests the optimum rate of sowing was 8 to 12 pounds per

acre, and the best depth of covei'ing, one-half inch. On laml too rocky

or rough for either plowing or dritlitig, yet delicient in foiage cover,

349081°—.^5 i
22 l-JANDBüOK SS, V. S. DKPARTMIONT OF AGRICl'LTURE

figure 8.—Rockland tiller used fo prepare seedbed for range seeding.

pTass seed cnii be rovered by usinj;- a l^ipe liairow in tlie fall after sap-eitnish has been killed \vitli a hormone spray applied the preceding

spring.

Stand Establishment

To insure establishment of seedlings, the same protection from grazing is necessary on the black sagebrush as on the big sagebrush range.

The young grass plants must be given time to become adequately rooted

before being grazed.

Silver Sagebrush Sites

Sife Selection

In the silver sagebrush tyi)e the soil is Hooded when the snow melts

in the spring. Where water usually stands more than 4 or 5 weeks,

tion

I'pe tlian m either bi"- sagebrush

seeding is inadvisable unless drainage can be improved. Preparatif

for seeding is more difficult in this type than in either big sagebrus

or black sagebrush.

Soil ^ feet or more in depth has generally produced enough forage

to justify the expense of seeding. Loam soils have given best results

in revegetation, but clay soils, which are most prevalent in this type,

also have given satisfactory stands of grass.

Silver sagel)rush is usually found on relatively level land, exceptât

elevations of 7,000 to 8,000 feet. Here the steeper slopes may present

an erosion hazard, and special care must be taken in tillage to prepare

the land for seed i no;.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 23

Species Adaptation

Grasses proved adapted for seeding on silver sagebrush sites were:

Tall -wlieatgrass, western wheatgrass, meadow foxtail, beardless wildrye, smooth brome, and thickspike wheatgrass. All of these grasses

satisfactorily withstood a few weeks of tiooding.

Intermediate wheatgrass, pubescent wheatgrass, and Siberian

wheatgrass did not Avithstand flooding well enough to warrant their

use on areas that are likely to be under water or even waterlogged for

more than 2 weeks after snow melts in the spring. Reed canarygrass

also failed to persist on these sites; although it withstood submergence, it did not survive the dry sunniiers on the heavy clay or loam

soils found in the silver sagebrush type. These findings on the relative

resistance of forage plants to flooding ai-e in very close agreement

with those obtained in Canada (J).

Methods of Preparing Land

Mechanical cleari)uj.—Plowing gave excellent results a)id is recommended for silver sagebrush areas. The disk ]:)low gave the best control of any of the methods tested (table 9). The one-way plow was

better than the light farm disk, but neitlier is to be recommended if

a disk plow can be used. The light farm disk was less effective on

silver sagebrush than on black sagebrush (tables 8 and 9) because

silver sagebrush sprouted from the crown but black sagebi-ush did not.

Sprouting of the silver sagebrush occurred wherever the plants were

not completely cut oft' a few inches below the soil surface. The most

effective depth for plowing was 6 to 8 inches. IViowing proved less

successùil : practically all of the silver sagebrush stubble sprouted.

Drilling without controlling sagebrush failed to produce forage

seedlings: grasses could not be established on bare soil between the

TABLE 9.—Density of refàâvcJ fiogehrrifih, and forage production Í7i

relation to method of land preparation, on a ¡needed silver sagehrush

site

Method

Untreated

Mower

One-way plow..

Light farin disk.

Disk plow

Density of

sasebriish

Forage jiroduction

Seedlings

per square

foot

Yield, ovendry, per

acre

Percent

26. 4

17. !) i

!). 4

4. f)

. 1

Number

0. 7

. 5

1. 4

.3. 0

Pounds

26

66

.57

276

1, 01)1

' Plots prepared and forage mixture drilled in autumn, 1947; seedling count made

in 1948; yield measured in 19.50. Forage mixture as in footnote 1, table 5.

Untreated plot not seeded: yield is from native plants, ^'iolds on treated plots

are from seeded and native plants.
24 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

SiioebiMish plants. The soil was fully occupied by the sajrebrush roots

even thoufi-h only about 25 iiercent of the ground surface was covered

bythosaojobrnshcanopy (fig. 3, ^).

* Plows must be weighted and set at the proper angle to eradicate

silver sagebrush, a tougher i)lant than either big sagebrush or black

sagebrush. Also, heavy equii)ment or added weight on the plow

usually is necessary to'penetrate the heavy-textured soil, especially

during the late sumnier when the soil becomes dry and hai'd. Notched

blades' (tio: 9) gave better penetration than smooth disk blades and

have been*' more^ generally satisfactory m uprooting this tenacious

sagebrush species.

7r>,V/^^/;,^/._I>i,lo;ing of the soil improved di-ainage and increased

forage yield, and was conveniently done at the time of plowing. A

disk^'plow was used to make ridges (fig. 10). The center strip, which

formed the ridge, was double plowed, and the back furrows were

thrown to the center. A dead furrow was left open between the

ridges to serve as a shallow ditch or swale for drainage ( fig. 11 ). The

ridges were laid out in the direction of natural drainage. The gradient

has'~been found to be slight on the floor of the valleys or depressions

where this sagebrush tyjie occurs.

Ridiies were constructed 12 feet apart in the first experiment, becinnino- ii\ 1949. to test this method of drainage improvement against

recular plowing. Reseeding followed both treatments. Ridged plots

averaged 27 ]iercent more forage ])roduction than level plots in the

years 1951-5.''), as shown in the tabulation below.

Forage jiield, air dry (pounds)

Ridged Flat-plowed

l!l.-,l 1, 3.5.5 922

1!I52 643 554

1!15;{ Sß3 771

Avera;:e 054 749

The percentage dift'erence between I'idged and level jilots was greater

in 1951 when the ]>lots were submerged about 8 weeks than in 1952 or

1953 when flooding occurred for only 2 or 3 weeks each spring. It

was concluded that difl'erences in growing conditions, rather than a

decrease in eííectiveness of the ridges, accounted for the lower yields.

Later exjieriments conducted with ridges spaced 18 feet apart revealed advantages for the wider spacing. The flatter slopes permitted

more uniform depth of seeding. Also, in large-scale seeding the 18-

foot spacing would fit the larger ]ilows better.

Sprnj/ing.—Spraying silver sagebrush with 2,4-D with the same

procedure and formulation used for big sagebrush gave a high percentage kill (fig. 5). Forage production was extremely low without

treatment (table 10). Where the sagebrush was killed the forage

yield increased more than sevenfold, chiefly as a result of increased

vigor of native N'évada bluegrass. On most depleted silver sagebrush

range areas, howcA^er, the thin renniants of native grasses do not

Avarrant the use of chemical s])rays alone as an improvement practice.

Seeding of ada]ited grasses is usually required and should follow some

tillage treatment to jirepare a seedbed. For this purpose, use of a

light farm disk ahead of the drill has proved satisfactory.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 25

F-463989

Figure 9.—Stubble plow used in preparing silver sagebrush range for reseeding.

X'-'

^. ..-rv • -Hi.,

*^ >. •'. 7

< .

figure 10.—Disk plow used for plowing ridges to improve drainage on a silver sagebrush

site before seeding.

Spraying and seeding gave an average forage yield lo times greater

tlian that of the untreated range (table 10). Nevada bluegrass, a

highly desirable native grass, occurred on the untreated i)lots at an

average rate of 11 ¡¡hints ])er milacre, or 1 plant for each 4 Sipiare feet.

New plants of Nevada bluegi'ass became established on the si)rayed

l)lots; an examination the third year after spraying revealed 44 plants

per milacre. or 1 plant i)er sciuare foot. Virtually the same number

of plants, 45 per milacre, were counted f)n the spi-ayed and seeded

plots; 19 were introduced, and 2G native grass plants. Disking and
26 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-478 45

figure I I.—Silver sagebrush range ridged to improve drainage and prepare area for seeding.

'I'AI'.I.K 10.— Y'/iJd of foniiji- (t)i tniili'il nnd idifrcatcd silrer xagebrush

ruiiye, liJ-jJ and lOôo

Treatment '

Yield per acre, ovendry

1951 1953 Average

Xoiii'_ . _ _

Po It nils

91

562

948

1, 036

Ponnilii

28

356

631

729

Pounds

60

Si)ravcd with 2,4-D 459

S])raved and drillofl '^ 790

Plowed and drilled ^ 882

' Applied in 1948.

- Forage mixture .-ieeded per acre included: Smooth bromo, 2.5 lbs.; western

wheatgrass, 2.5 lb.-?. ; Fairway created wheat grass, 2.0 lbs. ; orchardgrass, timothy,

Chewings fescue, and redtoi), 1.0 lb. each; Reed canarygrass, 0.5 lb.

drillin<iliii(-U'liiiiiiiiiti'(l al)()ut half of the native <>-r:isses. The increased

yieUl fi-om spraying and seeding, then, residted from the introduction

of higlier yielding gi'asses and more vigorous growth of remainiíig

native plants. Spraying and seeding are especially suited to areas

that have scattered rocks sufficiently near the surface to stop plowing

but not too near to prevent disking and drilling.
RANGIOLAND IMPKOVIOMICNT TlllíOldH SKKDlNfl

Methods and Rate of Seeding

27

Drillino- seed in Sei)(eiul)er or October before flie fall slorms arrive

])roved to be the most satisfactoi'v seediiiü' practice foi- silver sagebrush raiijie. A suitable mixture is: Tall wheat^ii'ass, 5 poiinds; westtern wlientgrass or beaixlless wildrye, 4 pounds: and meadow foxtail,

3 pounds, makino- a total of 12 poiuuls pci' acre. Tliickspike wheatgrass can be substituted for western wheati>-rass or beardless wildiye.

If a single species is desiied, then 1.! pouiuls of tall wheatgrassOr

western wheatgrass is recommended. Seeds should be covei'ed, but

not more than one-half inch deej).

Broadcasting seed in the fall resulted in poor stands of gi-ass on the

lieavy soils. Sowing in spi'ingaud early sumniei- is also unsatisfactoi-y,

because silver sagebrush areas are tlien too wet and muddy for the

use of machinery. Scattering the seeds in the floodwater in early

spring failed to establish a grass stand.

Stands of grass contaiivng ripe seed can be mowed, bunched until

fall, and then scattered to seed the plowed area. This method of

establishing native grasses succeeded in ;> ditferent years. Advantages

were: First, a mulch was i)rovided and this aided seedling establishment, and second, adapted native grasses could be used when tlieir

seed was not commercially available. Nevada bluegrass ))redondnated

on the areas thus mowed and seeded. Meadow barle}' and tufted hairgrass were also present and propagated readily by this method. Care

must be taken to mow the grasses before too much seed is lost l)y

shattering. (írass should not be mowed from weedy meadows for

this type of seeding. Some weeds, though, may l)e controlled l)y

spraying with selective herbicides a year in advance oi mowing. On

the experimental area, enough seed and nudch material was mowed

from 1 acre to seed ~> acres.

figure 12.—Buncher attachment for use on mower in harvesting native hay as seeding

material.
28 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICt'LTURE

A bunclipr attacliinciit for the iiiowcv (lio-. 1:>) was used to Vmnch

the jii-ass al llie time of inowinji-. This not only saved time and hibor,

ill comparison with separate mo\vin<r and ral<in<>-, but also reduced

loss from shatteriii^i;- of t he seed.

Stand Establishment

Livestock oenerally should not ;;iaze newly seeded silver safrebnish

ran<'-e until tîie second year after plantinp- in order to allow plants to

develop satisfactorily." On clay soil subject to sprin<>- Hooding, the

development of roots at the root crowns of the young seedling plants

was slower than in well-drained loam soil. Also, soil temperature

during the spring was lowei' on the tiooded area, and growth of new

seedlings was retarded. Often crown roots did not develop at all

during'~the first sunnner. These roots were necessary to anchor the

o-rass plant adequately in the soil. The seedling grass plants with only

primary roots were easily pulled up by grazing animals, and a good

stand of grass was ruined by grazing before the plants v^'ere firmly

anchored.

IMPROVING DRY GRASSLAND SITES

Cheatgrass Areas

Cheatgrass, a weedy annual grass from liurope, invaded much of the

Great l^asiu sagebrush zone during the early part of the 20th century.

(This i)lant is known locally as bronco grass and occasionally as

downy chess.) On unplowed rangeland at that time, the stand of

pereimials had been rechiced by heavy livestock use, fire, insects, diseases, or drought. Big sagebrush ju'edominated on much of this land

until it was removed by wildfire. Then cheatgrass came in to occupy

0])en ground resulting from this reduction in perennials. Large areas

of rangeland formerlv ilominated by perennial grasses and forbshave

thus been transformed into a less ¡iroductive annual-grass range.

At the same time much grassland was cleared for cultivated crops,

but farming was discontinued on large acreages that proved to be

subniarginal for dryland grain ]irodnction. These fields quickly

reverted to I'angeland covered by dense stands of cheatgrass.

The chief disadvantages of cheatgrass are its short season of green

growth for grazing, great finctuation in amount of forage from year

to year, and high fire hazard ])resented by the dry mature vegetation

through the sunnner and fall. Op]>ortunity is great for improving

rangeland In'converting cheatgrass areas to ])erennial grasses. A^Hiere

enough native perennials remain, the im]n-oveinent can be accomplished by managing grazing to restore the desirable grasses. On

hind that can be worked by tillage equipment, improvement will be

quicker and more positive through reseeding of perennial grasses.

Medusa-head, another weedy annual grass of more recent introduction from Euro]^e, has become a further threat to the productivity of

some of these cheatgrass areas. Cheatgrass, tliougli inferior to perennial grasses, ])rovides some forage, but medusa-head is un]:)alatable to

livestock. Finding ways to control or replace this later invader has

barely been started, and no conclusive recommendations can be made

at this time.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 29

Site Selection

Some abandoned subinarii'mal croplands liavo boon dania^od by

erosion. In general, bowever, cbeatorass-infostod raiigoland tliat was

formerly cultivated oners tbe most favorable soil and topograpbic

conditions for seeding in tbis region. Tbe Helds can be tilled. »Seedlings are establisbed rapidly and come into use soon. Often sncb

areas are already fenced. Tbey are located near ranch headquarters,

an advantage in supplementing native range. Previously nnplowed

lands with cbeatgrass are not so fortunately situated. Some of their

characteristics, siicb as steep slopes, broken terrain, boulder-strewn

surface, and shallow soils, limit or preclude tillage and drilling.

Species Adaptation

Our idot tests and observations of results from lield-scale sowings

on privately owned ranches sbow tbat the following forage species

are adapted for use on cbeatgrass rangeland : Crested wbeatgrass, big

bluegrass, intermediate wbeatgrass, tall wbeatgi'ass. bhiebuncb wheatgrass, beardless wbeatgrass. and Ladak alfalfa. For cbeatgrass areas,

as for big sagebrush range, tbe final cboice of grass for seeding will depend upon tbe season when additional forage is needed most. Crested

wbeatgrass and big bluegrass reacb their peak of production in early

spring. Intermediate wbeatgrass grows tbrougb spring and early

summer. ^Maximum yields of tall wbeatgrass, bluebuncb wbeatgrass,

and beardless wbeatgrass are not attained until late sunnnei'. Wbere

rodents or rabbits do not prevent growtb of alfalfa, Ladak alfalfa

may be sown in alternate rows witb the grass.

Method of Preparing Land

Considerable tillage was found necessary to reduce competition

from weeds on cbeatgrass areas before seeding gi'asses. Prompt preparation of seedbed and seeding of grasses or legumes after a cereal

crop atfords tbe cheapest and best procedure for establishing a stand

of perennial forage plants. Tbe grain stubble needs only to be disked

before tbe forage seed is drilled into the stul)ble.

Growing a cereal grain or hay croj) before seeding grasses or legumes for grazing has two main advantages. First, tbe cereal crop

suppresses many weeds and reduces their seed ]n-oduction. Second,

the grain crop I'opays some of tbe cost of tillage. Tbe feasibility of

tliis method will depend ui)on local conditions, including facilities at

hand for raising a bay or grain crop. Rye grown as a grain crop

before grass establishment resulted in unfavorable competition from

volunteer rye plants, but com])etition from volunteer plants of wheat,

barley, or oats was comparatively unimportant. If cereal rye is

gi'own, it should be cut for hay before its seed develops.

^Vl\(íYe raising a cereal crop was imi)ractical, plowing was found

necessary to prepare cbeatgrass land for seeding to perennial grasses.

A year of summer fallow w'as justified if the cbeatgrass had been permitted to produce seed before plowing. In such cases, the field

should be plowed in the fall and disked tbe next spring to kill cheat-
30 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

o-rass before it lieads out. Then in tlie fall the area should be rolled

before drilling;. Good stands of crested wheatjirass have been obtained by this method, but some cheatgrass was present for 2 or 3

years until tlie crested wlieatgrass became well enough established to

sujipress tlie cheatgrass.

Poverty weed, wild morning-glory, Jim Hill mustard, and other

Aveeds of cultivated lands also competed with new grass plants in

early stages of establishment. These weeds occur much more frequently on land formerlv cultivated than on uii])lowed range. A year

of sunimer fallow did not eradicate them, but was highly beneficial in

establisliing a grass stand. The ])erennial weeds were so weakened

tiiat their competition with the young grass plants was negligible.

Tx)cal conditions will deteiuiiiie the number of cultivations needed

during summer fallow.

Method and Rate of Seeding

Siiiffle disk drills gave excellent results on cheatgrass areas that had

been plowed and rolled to give a seedl)ed of good firmness and tilth.

Optimum planting depth was from i/o to 1 i"t'h, depending upon

texture of surface soil. Nine pounds of crested wheatgrass per

acre has been the optimum rate for seeding; proportionately higher

rates are needed for sjjecies with larger seeds. A good rate for a legnme-grass mixtuie was Ladak alfalfa, ?> pounds, and crested wheaturass. () jxainds JMM- acre. Alternate row seeding of legume and grass

has given best results.

Tarweed Areas

Tarweed is a native annual weed growing between 4,000 and 7,000

feet in elevation. It occurs abundantly on small areas of meadow

and sagebrush range where the native perennial vegetation is almost

completely gone. Tarweed is especially common in valley floors,

along livestock driveways, or around watering places. These livestock concentration areas usually have high potential capacity for

grazing if desirable forage plants can be reestablished and grazing

properly managed.

Site Selection

In the ]irocess of range decline, i^n'tions of the tarweed areas have

developed an erosion pavement. These places are less suited to improvement by seeding than others which still have some surface soil.

If 2 feet or more of soil is present and soil fertility is adequate, a

satisfactory stand of grass may lie established regardless of the presence of an erosion pavement. On badly depleted areas, soil fertility

tests should be made before large-scale seeding operations are

attempted.

Species Adaptation

In an adaptation test including 40 diiferent grasses and legumes, 5

grasses proved best for seeding on tarweed-infested range: Intermediate wheatgrass, pubescent wheatgrass, Chewings fescue, tall
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 31

wheatgrass, and tall fescue. Chewino-s fescue oave rather short

growth and sh.ould not be sown alone. In mixture witli some of the

taller growing grasses, Chewings fescue added to density of the resulthig protective sod. A suitable mixture would include 8 pounds of

mtermediate or pubescent wheatgrass and 2 pounds of Chewings

fescue per acre. The need on these critical livestock concentration

areas is to restore a dense turf as soon as possible to arrest fui'ther erosion and to reduce damage by tranijiling, which occurs so frequently.

Tall wheatgrass and tall fescue performed best on the more moist

and poorly drained sites where tarweod had replaced the original

meadow grasses. Intermediate wheatgrass and imbescent wheatgrass

proved better adapted to somewhat drier sites with good internal soil

drainage. 'fc^

Alefhods oí Preparing Land

Early to midsummei' ])lowing proved best for preparing land for

seeding. The plowing should be done before tai'weed matures seed.

A light farm disk Avas tried but did not cut deeply enough to kill all

of the tarweed. A disk could be used where the soil is friable ; a heavy

plow would be needed on hard, compacted soils. The essential requirement is to kill the tarweed befoi'e seed is produced. If mucli

surface soil has liee'i lost, plowing and then disking may be needed to

provide a satisfactory seedbed.

A^efhod and Rate of Seeding

Tarweed areas generally are too wet for early spring seeding. Fall

sowing has given much better results than sowing in late si)ring. as

soon as equipment can be used on the land. Two methods of seeding

have given satisfactory results : Drilling seed at a depth of one-half

inch, and scattering mature meadow-grass hay containing seed of the

native grasses. Using grass hay gave better results tlian sowing seed

on crusted or compacted soils or on erosion pavement. Drilling 10

to 12 pounds of seed per acre has given satisfactory stands of grass on

the extensive areas where soil is in reasonably good tilth.

Stand Establishment

Fertility of the soil has been the ^uincipal factor in success or

failure of stand establishment on tarweed sites. Both phophorus and

nitrogen were found to be deficient on one experimental seeding on

the Lassen National Forest. A good stand of grass was obtained

where fertilizer was ai)plied at a núe to supply 8() pounds of nitrogen

and 80 pounds of pliosplioric acid e(iui\'aleiit ])er aci'e. The average

yield of forage, di'y weight, on plots seeilcd to intei'uiediate wlieatgrass

was 43 pounds without fertilizer and 1,008 ¡¡ounds with fertilizer.

Tall wheatgrass produced 48 and 44!» pourjds, respectively.

Heaving of small seedling grass plants by frost action was a problem

on the tarweed areas. Fertilization reduced this loss. The more
32 HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

vio-oroiis and liir<rei' plants on the fertilized plots were better rooted

than the plants on the unfertilized plots. Heaving loss also Avas lower

on the i)lots seeded with hay from maturo native grasses; this indicated that the mulch helped' reduce damage from heaving. A direct

comparison was not ])ossib1e because native species were used on these

plots and introduced grasses were sown on the drilled plots.

IMPROVING WEEDY MOUNTAIN MEADOWS

Meadows produce much more forage jx'r acre than dry upland range

and so are especially imjiortant, even though they make up less than

5 percent of the rangeland in the region studied. Livestock tend to

concentrate on meadow ai-eas. Through years of season-long grazing,

plants of high quality and palatability have declined while coarser

vegetation, such as wire I'ush and other weedy plants, has increased.

On many meadows this weedy vegetation now predominates. Some

meadow areas have been virtually deinided of any plant cover and

can readily be seeded.

Buttercup-Infested Areas

Low palatability of plantaiideaf b\ittercu]), Avestern buttercup, biscuitroot, and other meadow weeds has favored an increase in the

density of these plants while more desirable gi'asses and legrunes have

decreased under grazing pressure. Furthermore, the tops of buttercup and biscuitroot dry up about midsummer and virtually disappear,

so tliat nothing of value I'emains for the cattle to graze. Yet despite

their short period of growth, these weeds greatly suppress growth

of grass.

Site Selection

The best areas for improvement with tillage equi]iment are the more

level rock-free areas with soil of good depth, tilth, and fertility.

Many of the smaller semiwet meadows in the areas of old lava flows

are too rocky for ¡slowing, but can be improved by spraying.

Species Adaptation

(Trasses found adapted to seeding on buttercup-infested meadows

are: JMeadow foxtail, tall wheatgrass, smooth brome, redtop, timothy,

tall fescue, and Reed canarygrass (ñg. 13). Meadow foxtail proved

widely adapted to various soils on which it was tested. Tall wheatgrass and smooth brome required deep, fertile soils for best production.

Tall wheatgrass was most tolerant of alkaline soils. Redtop did

relatively better on acid soils. Reed canarygrass persisted and yielded

well on semiwet or wet meadow sites but did not survive on soils that

dry out in the summer. Timothy persisted well on wet meadows but

was short-lived on drvland areas.
RANGELAND lAlPROVEMENT THROUGH ÖEEDING 33

IÍ

, 1

:v "lA

Figure 13.—Meadow successfully seeded to mixture of redtop, timothy, and tall oatgrass,

Little Shasta Valley, Shasta National Forest.

Methods of Preparing Land

"Weedy meadows may be improved by two general methods: Selective herbicides can be used if enouah native «grasses are left to cover

the ground within a year or two after s|)rayiiig. Or the meadow can

be])lo\ved and seeded with adapted grasses.

Spraying with selective herbicides gave e.xcellent resuhs on meadows

dominated by weedy plants that are susceptible to -2.4-1), such as

plantainleaf buttercup (1). Two i)onn<ls of alkanolamine form of

2,4-D in 10 gallons of oil-water eundsion i)er aci'e was the most efficient spray treatment. Tlie oil-water emulsion included \-2 gallon

of diesel oil and !)V2 gallons of water. Full bloom of jîlaintaiideaf

buttercup was the best stage of develo])ment for spraying. After

spraying, the suppressed native grasses, including Nevada bluegi-ass.

tufted haiigrass, and leafy redtop, increased lapidly in ground cover

and in yield. Quality of forage was correspondingly im])roved.

Spraying not only resulted in higher total i)rodiiction (table 11),

but more important, it increased the piopoition of grasses. From

plots sprayed in 1948, the forage harvested in 1949 was 98 percent grass

and 2 percent weedy vegetation; from unsi)rayed plots, 20 percent

grass and 80 percent weeds. Some weeds, such as bistort knotweed,

common camas, and squawroot (yami)a), were resistant to the 2,4-T)

spray.

Of the treatments tried, jdowing and seeding resulted in the greatest

annual production of forage from this weedy meadow. The plowed
34 HANDBOOK SS, V. S. UEPAKTMKNT OF AGRICULTURE

plots could not be sown until ¡ifter a 1-year fallow period, needed to

let the heavy chunks of sod weather down. Then a satisfactory seedIHMI was ])re'pare(l. Tlic sown j^i'asses not only produced more volume

of foi'a<'e (li;;-. 11)- '"'^ "'^" ''«'I'nii'"''! ^''I'l'n '^ to 4- weeks lon<iei' in tlie

sununer than the native i-iasscs on either the untreated or on the

s])rayed meadow plots.

figure 14.—At left of phofo, weedy meadow plot; blossoms of weeds with low forage value

and short stature of native grasses are noticeable. At right, a fall growth of grasses with

high grazing capacity resulted fiom plowing and seeding.

TAIíLE 11.—Yield of forage per acre^ dry weight, from loeedy meadoio

Hprayed with 2.1^-1>^ s¡)rayed and seeded., or plowed and seeded

Year Sprayed

only '

Sprayed

and

seeded '

Plowed

and

seeded ^

No treatment

lfl4(l_.. 1, 2ÜÜ

467

450

' 1, ISO

* 7111

Pounds Pounds Pounda

3 1,266

1950 3 145

1951 1,073

Vit;

1, 142

4,070

998

' 166

1952__ 3 815

1953 * 695

AveraRe . , 804 904 2,070 3 617

' Treated in 1948.

- Plowed in 1948, .-leeded in 1950.

3 Half or more in weed.-.

< Considcrahio S(|ua\\ro()t i)rescnt.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 35

Method and Rate of Seeding

Drilling seed in the fall gave the best establishment of grass. Tlie

meadows wei'e too wet through the spring for satisfactory nse of

sowing equipment. Broadcast sowing without covering the seed resulted in failure. The mixture of grasses and rate of sowing per acre

recommended for meadows are as follows: Smooth brome, 4 pounds;

tall wheatgrass, 4 pounds; timothy, 2 pounds; and meadow foxtail,

2 pounds.

Stand Establishment

Reasonable control of grazing until the ycmng grass stands become

established is required in the meadow type, as in other types, but the

reason is ditferent. In meadows, trampling of young plants when

the soil was wet in early spring was the chief cause of injury. Flooding is a special problem in this type. Three grasses, meadow foxtail.

Reed canarygrass, and tall wheatgrass, withstood considerable flooding without loss in germination or injury to tlie established plants.

During the period of grass establishment, poisoning of rodents is

advantageous. On the Lassen National Forest, one ])oisoning helped

in reducing damage by ground squirrels and mice on a semiwet

meadow that was seeded in the tests. Any rodent poisoning program

should be worked out with the local countj' agricultural commissionei',

farm advisor, or rejn'esoitative of the Fish and "Wildlife Service

because the poisons are toxic to livestock and humans.

Rush-Sedge-Grass Areas

The rush-sedge type occurs in the lower, more level meadows that

may be flooded for several weeks each spring. The soil in this type

remains moist through the sinnmer. Occasionally this kind of "wet

meadow" range is mowed for hay for winter feeding of livestock.

Much of the hay is stacked, but some is left in the windrow for fall

foraging by the cattle before heavy snowfall. The hay stubble also

provides some gi-azing for livestock after the close of the grazing

season on summer ranges at higher elevations.

Site Selection

Natural drainage and the possibilities for bettering it are im]iortant

considerations in selecting rush-sedge areas foi' imjirovement thi'ough

seeding. The expense and time needed to work the tough sods into a

usable seedbed proved to be much greater on these meadows than on

dry rangeland types.

Species Adaptation

The grasses adapted to the rush-sedge meadow are: Reed canai-ygrass, smooth brome, tall wheatgrass, tall fescue, and timothy. Each

species has advantages and disadvantages, depending upon local conditions and the objective of managemeiit. In northeastern C'alifornia

a moist soil throughout the summer seems necessary for persistence of

Reed canarygrass. Smooth brome produced high yields of palatable
36 HAXDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

forage on fertile soils tliat reiiiaiii wet until suiniiier but have good

internal (li-aina<ie. Tall \vlieat<ri';iss withstood nooding. had tolerance

to alkaline soil, and yielded a heavy ei-op of foi'age. Tall fescue and

timothy may be incliided as part of a mixture where quick establishment is impoi-tant. These oi'asses, however, ])i'oved to be less persistent than the other species.

Is one of (nir tests to date has found a legume well suited for improvement of these vret meadow sites. Native legumes occur on some

meadows, and it seems probable that species from othei' mountainous

areas miaht be adapted. Broadleaf birdsfoot trefoil has shown some

])i'()mise Of persistence but has been difficult to establish, and oidy

extremely sparse stands have been obtained.

Method of Preparing Lar)d

Plowing was the only completely successful method of preparing

these wet meadows for seeding. Coarse rushes aiul sedges ])ersiste.d

lUU1er treatments that included heavy disking and hari'owing. liven

where the rushes were heavily disked, the sod was only partially

broken, and establishment of seedling grasses was very jioor. The

draft in plowing is heavy; great chunks of sod are turned up by the

plow (fig. ].'(). P^allowing for 1 or 2 years appeared to be necessary

before a satisfactory seedbed could be prejiared. Disking and rolling

were re(|uired to make a seedbed sufficiently level and firm for sowing

to a uniform depth in soil of gooil tilth.

F-478135

Figure 15.—Tough sods of plowed rush-sedge require a year or two of weathering before

a seedbed can be prepared.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 37

One preliminary test Avitli two selective herbicides, 2,4-D and

trichloroacetic acicl (TCA), showed promise for control of wire rush.

On field plots sprayed with 2,-i-D, a reduction of 89 i)ei'cent in wire

rush was obtained. Further study and observation will be needed to

determine whether the remaininp; wire rush will be sui)])ressed by

increased growth of native grasses that were resistant to 2,4-1). No

procedure has been fonnd entirely satisfactory for seeding gi'asses

into the sprayed sod. Where suitable native grasses exist in sufficient

amount, it appears practical to use selective herbicides to reduce tlie

wire rush and thus hasten conversion of these areas to gi'ass without

cultivation.

Seeding Method and Stand Establishment

The methods and rates of seeding prescribed earlier for buttercupinfested weedy meadows were found suitable also for the rush-sedgegrass meadows.

The principal precaution to assure stand establishment is to avoid

spring grazing while soil is so wet that livestock trampling would

destroy many young grass plants.

SEEDING GRASSES IN PINE TYPE

Only on burned or logged areas is improvement of grazing capacity

through seeding usually worthwhile on pine ranges in this region.

Although grazing is common in open ponderosa pine forests, little of

the timbered range is in critical condition. Ordinarily the native

plants are either yielding about all the forage the site can produce

along with the timber, or are not so seriously depleted that their

productivity cannot be restored through grazing management. After

wild fires or logging operations, however, grass seeding may be justified for controlling erosion, restoring forage production, or checking

invasion of undesirable plants. Overall land-use objectives will

determine whether or not grass should be sown.

'\^1iere timber production is the primary objective and erosion is

not a problem, grass seeding can be undesirable because a dense stand

of grass competes with pine seedlings. If only a quick, temporary

ground cover is desired to help prevent erosion, short-lived grasses

can be used and relatively inexpensive seeding methods may suffice.

^^Hiere grazing use is an important or a primary consideration, seeding

persistent, high-yielding forage species is usually desirable on burns

and areas disturbed by logging. In such cases considerable expense

for partial clearing of deln-is is often justified. Eeduction in fire

hazard is another benefit from sowing perennial grasses that help

control cheatgrass, which usually invades burned-over timberland in

this area and is highly flammable when dry. Perennial grasses remain

green longer, and even after drying burn more slowly than cheatgrass.

Site Selection

Soil depth and fertility are impoitant factors to be considei'ed in

selecting areas for seeding in the pine type. For forage production
38 HANDBOOK SS, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

alone, seedin«-- is usually ])i()fitab]e only on the better soils. However,

stabiiization of erodiblè soils and ]>rotection of watersheds may justify

seediní'üi'asson a wide ran<ie of soils.

Species Adaptation

Grasses adapted to seedin<i in pine areas are smooth brome, intermediate wheatgrass, crested wlieat<irass, Fairway crested wheatgrass,

timothy, and mountain brome. Smooth brome has grown remarkably

well at elevations of 6,000 to 7,500 feet, on deep fertile soils where

animal jn'ecipitation exceeds 20 inches. This palatable sod grass has

also done well in a few tests on timber burns, for example, on the

Modoc National Forest. Here in July 1947 a wild fire burned a mixed

forest of ponderosa i)ine and white fir at an elevation of about C,000

feet. A forage mixture was broadcast by airplane in November. The

sowing included: Smooth brome, 8.6 pounds per acre; slender wheatgrass,'~0.9; timothy, 0.6; western wheatgrass, 0.1; and yellow sweetclover, 0.4—a total of 5.6 ]ioiuids of seed pev acre. Smooth brome

became well established; only a trace of the other grasses, mainly

timothy, appeared. The density and yield of forage was excellent in

1950 (fig. 16). Forage i)roduction was 2,332 pounds dry weight per

acre as determined from milacre samples cut on August 3, at the time

grazing began for that season.

Another highly successful seeding was done on about 6,000 acres

of burned-over ]ionderosa pine timberland on the Modoc National

Forest in 1051. 'I'his area was somewhat drier, and the soil more shallow and less fertile than the 1947 burn. A mixture of smooth brome,

crested wheatgrass, and timothy was sown in early October by airplane. In 1953, the establishment, development, and response of the

grasses was determined on a representative area. Smooth brome gave

the greatest number of established plants per unit area. The spread

of smooth brome by strong rhizomes gave this grass the advantage

over the two bunchgrasses in providing ground cover; crested wheatgrass and timothy spread vegetatively only by tillering. Kesults of

this test, and others, show that smooth brome was most suitable in the

zone between elevations of 6,000 and 8,000 feet. Crested wheatgrass

was best adapted to the lower adjoining zone from 6,000 feet downward

to 3,500 feet.

Timothy is a desirable addition to mixtures for use at elevations of

6,0( i( ) to 8,000 feet, because it possesses good seedling vigor and establishes a cover (juickly, and the seed is relatively inexpensive. Timothy

seeds, being small, are more likely than other seeds to go into the ash

or small cracks in the soil and be covered ; consequently, the chances

for germination are improved. Timothy is a comi:)aratively shortlived grass, a desirable cliaracteristic where only a temporary cover is

Avanted to stabilize erodible soils. But it cannot be depended upon to

l^ersist as long as smooth brome or crested wheatgrass.

Intermediate wheatgrass was not sown because at that time the

seed was too exjiensive. Plot tests have shown it to be widely adapted

for large-scale planting, and it will be used more extensively as seed
RANGELAND IMPROVKMENT THROUGH SEEDING 39

F-478)38, 478137

Figure 16.—Ground cover established on timber burn by airplane seeding of grass mixture.

A, The slope and the type of timber stand burned; B, smooth brome at the same location,

photographed at close range.

supplies become o;eiieral]y iivailable. Italian iye<ii'ass, often called

annual ryegrass in California, is widely used in seeding burned-over

chaparral lands in foothill and coastal areas of tlie State, but is not

sufficiently cold resistant for use in the plateau region.
40 líANDBOOK 88, IT. S. DKPARTMKNT OF AGRICULTURE

Methods of Preparing Land

Newly buj-iied timber aieas I'iirely lequiie tillaoe to ])repare a seedbed. Competing ve<ietati()ii is usually at a minimum, and the surface

iayer of ash ancfloose soil provides a favorable condition for seeding.

It may be necessary to remove partially burned trees so as to permit

easier oj^eration of seedinfï equipment if ground equipment is used.

Areas left thoroughly disturbed by recent logging also do not

ordinarily require tillage for seedbed preparation. The loose soil

covers the seed as it settles. Where native plants have not been

destroyed but merely cruslied or cut off, seeding probably will not be

successful because of competition from their resprouting. On steep

skid trails or other slo])ing areas, water diversion devices such as water

bars, small dams, and drainage channels usually are needed to help

control erosion. These devices should be installed before seeding to

insure that seed and young plants are not w^ashed away by snowmelt

or heavy rains.

Method and Rate of Seeding

Prompt sowing of burned or disturbed areas is desirable to take

advantage of available seedbed conditions. By sowing as soon as

feasible, full advantage is taken of the ash, falling pine needles, or

loose soil for covei'ing the seed. Seeding before the first rain gives

better assurance of obtaining good results than seeding after rainfall.

Rain frequently causes a crust to foriu on the soil surface.

Broadcasting seed by airplane has proved most economical for sowing burned-over timberland. Satisfactory stands have been obtained

despite rough topogi-aphy and surface obstructions. "When broadcasting by airjilane, flagmen are usually necessary to attain uniform coverage of the area. Clean, heavy grass seed makes for better handling,

less cost per unit for seeding, and less danger of spreading undesirable

weeds.

Sowing disturbed areas with hand or power broadcasters generally

has been satisfactory. "\^nien the soil surface has been crusted by rain

or snow, harrowing following seeding may be necessary.

Drilling on burned or disturbed areas assures more uniform distribution and coverage of the seed. However, this method is much

more exi:)ensive than broadcasting and can only be used on relatively

smooth land. Fallen trees, brush, or rock on burned areas will usually

make drilling difficult—or on many areas, impossible.

For drilling, 8 pounds of crested wheatgrass or 12 pounds of smooth

brome of good purity and germination may be considered suitable

basic rates, and also a guide to compounding mixtures. Somewhat

heavier rates are recommended for broadcasting. However, for sowing by airjdane lighter rates are customarily used, because the plane's

load limit is a determining factor in deciding upon the rate to seed.

Six pounds per acre has given satisfactory results under favorable

conditions. Small heavy-seeded grasses such as timothy are better

than larger, chaffier seeds such as smooth brome. Since the grasses

have different advantages, a mixture (table 12) will often be preferable to a single species.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 41

TABLE 12.—Forage mixtures suggei^ted for sowing by airplane on

hurned-over timherland

Species recommended

Crested wheat grass or Fairway crested

wheatgrass

Intermediate wlieatgrass

Smooth brome

Timothy

Yellow sweetclover

Quantity of seed per acre

Drv sites,

3,500 to

5,000 feet

elevation

Medium

sites,

5,000 to

7,000 feet

elevation

Moist

sites,

7,000 to

8,500 feet

elevation

Foinxis

3. 0

2. 0

Pounds

1.0

2.0

2.0

1.0

1.0

Pounds

3. 0

2. 0

1. 0

SEEDING GRASSES IN ASPEN AND RED FIR TYPES

Many scattered openings can be grazed in the aspen and red fir

timber types. The openings produce green forage when most ranges

at low elevations are dry and green forage supplies are extremely

limited. The aspen and fir ranges occur in general above 6,000 feet

in elevation. The growing season is short, but soil moisture is ample

and forage plant growth is rapid. Precipitation and water yield per

unit area are higher than in any of the other types dealt with in this

handbook. Consequently, the aspen and red fir types are important

producing areas, for both water and forage, out of proportion to their

comparatively small acreage of grass.

Sife Selection

Two classes of sites offer opportunity for improvement by seeding

in the aspen and red-fir types : In aspen, openings plus the ground

under tree canopies (fig. 17) ; in fir, openings only. All the aspen

areas studied had suitable soils and growing conditions for range

grasses. Openings in the red fir were generally less favorable, primarily because the soil was acid and low in fertility. In both types,

steepness of slope and accessibility for livestock use are factors to be

considered in selecting sites for seeding.

Species Adaptation

Among the grasses tested, six sj^ecies proved most suitable for seeding in the aspen type: Smooth brome, orchardgrass, tall oatgrass,

timothy, mountain brome, and slender wheatgrass.

In the red fir type, few seedings have been tried and grasses have not

persisted as well as in the aspen type. Chewings fescue was the only

species that persisted out of 16 grasses sown in a set of test plots lit

the openings of the red fir forest on the Siskiyou Summit area, Klam-
42 HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

f-igure 1 7 .- -Successful seeding of grass mixture under aspen, Bear Camp area. Long Valley,

Modoc National Forest.

ath National Forest. Mountain brome and orchardgrass became

established in an earlier test, and these grasses along with blue wildrye,

intermediate wheatgrass, and big bluegrass apj^eared fairly promising

the Hrst year but did not survive through the second year. Low soil

fertility seemed to cause these grasses to die out.

Method of Preparing Land

Seeding mider aspen canoj^y does not require any tree cutting or

other preparation of the land. Openings in both aspen and red tir

may require some seedbed treatment. On the Siskiyou Summit area,

a sparse stand of pussypaw vegetation was readily reduced by use of a

spring-tooth harrow. This harrowing apjieared to give all of the

pre])aration necessary before seeding grasses in the openings of the

red iir. Both aspen and Hr types are relatively free from aggressive

competing plants like sagebrush and cheatgrass.

Method and Rate of Seeding

Broadcasting is satisfactory for seeding forage species in the aspen

type. Airplane sowing on large areas and hand broadcasting on

small ones have been successful on the Modoc National Forest (fiji.

17). Grass seed should be sown early in the autumn before aspen

leaves fall. Tlien the aspen leaves ]irovide satisfactory cover for the

seed, as earlier Forest Service work in I'tah has shown (cS'). A mixture suitable foi- sowing in the aspen type is: Timothy, 3 pounds;

mountain or smooth brome, 3 pounds; tall oatgrass, 3 pounds; and

orchardgrass, 3 pounds. A total of 12 pounds per acre is the optimum

rate.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 43

In openings in the red fir timber type, :i drill may be used on the

more level ridge tops or saddles. On stee])er areas bi'oadcasting may

be the onl}^ possible method. T"''nder snch cii'fiimstances, some covering of the seed would be desirable. This might be done by a spiketooth harrow or brush drag.

Sfand Establishment

No difficulties were encountered in establishing satisfactory stands

of grass in the aspen type. The red Hr type presents a special problem.

In the opening at Siskiyou Smnmit, Klamath National Forest, some

vegetative cover proved beneficial to grass seedling establishment.

Seedling grass i)lants emerged and develo])ed better imder rabbit brush

plants than where no vegetative cover was present. These results

indicated the desirability of testing a mulch. Small ])iles of red Hr

boughs were placed to provide shade and mulch on newly sown areas,

but this mulch did not help the grass become established. Serious

deficienc}' in fertility, especially in calcium and phos])horus, was

indicated by greenhouse pot-cultm-e tests, conducted b}' Dr. J. VI am is,

soil chemist. University of California. Although it was not ]iossible

to complete fertilitj' tests in the field, results indicate that successful

establishment of grasses on open areas in the red fir type may require

considerable investment to supply the necessary nutrients and restore

organic matter. Specific recommendations for this class of severely

depleted rangeland must await results of further research.

On range areas in these two types, because slopes are steep and

precipitation high, the joint attaimnent of nnixinnnn forage i)roduction and adequate watershed protection depends upon maintaining a

good density of vigorous forage plants. Precautions therefore should

be taken in grazing to prevent close utilization and excessive trampling

that may cause erosion after seeding and damage to the seeded grasses.

Otherwise grasses will not persist.

MANAGEMENT OF IMPROVED RANGE AREAS

Improvement of range areas by seeding and weed control will require certain changes in ¡xrazing management to lealize full benefits

of these practices. The first need will usually be to defer grazing,

either to allow proper development of new seeded plants or to permit

recuperation of desirable plants released from competition through

weed control. Unless the desirable plants are allowed to develoj) good

root systems and crowns, they will be weakened and thinned by grazing and undesirable plants will invade the range. In all cases, grazing

should be withheld until seed has been set. The requi'red period of

deferment will be at least one full season. Under semiarid conditions,

however, a good seed crop often does not develop until the second

growing season after seeding.

Of special appeal to the livestock o]:)erator is the greater flexibility

in grazing season obtained by seeding gi'asses adairted to his specific

needs. In this study crested and Fairway crested wheatgiass provided

grazing from 3 to 4 weeks earlier in the spring than was available
44 HANDBOOK 8 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

fioin native ])ereiiiual gérasses or cheat-xrass. Where green forage

had been deficient in niid- to late-suinnier on some of the rangeland

in tlie niedinm elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, it was possible to use

such grasses as smooth brome, intermediate wheatgrass, or tall wheatgrass to meet the need for later summer grazing.

Stocking rates can be materially increased on improved range after

the new plants are well established. Carrying capacities 2 to 13 times

greater than the former ca])acity have been obtained by range improvement in the plateau region. ís^o specific figure can be given for an

optimum stocking rate because so many factors are involved. A safe

rule of thumb has been to stock at a rate that leaves about 50 percent

of tlie year's herbage production on the land at the end of the grazing

season. This would be roughly equivalent to a stubble height of 4

inches for most of the grasses and sites considered here. Observations

indicate that in comparison with native forage species the recommended introduced grasses tolerate an equal or greater degree of

grazing.

Good distribution of grazing animals has been difficult to attain

with open grazing when ]iarts of the range were seeded and the remainder left in native forage plants. When given free choice, livestock generally preferred the introduced grasses. Consequently, these

grasses have been grazed closer than was desirable, and the native

grasses often were underutilized. On most ranclies. seeded range

areas are grazed as separate units. Therefore, distribution of livestock is a critical i)roblem only on localized portions of range managed

under open grazing. On open shee]i ranges, herding can be used to

distribute grazing pressure. On cattle ranges, additional fencing is

required. Extra fencing can be held to a minimum, however, by

careful planning before seeding. INIoreover, the fencing will aid in

]mtting into etfect some form of deferred and rotation grazing, a

practice often recommended for range improvement and for obtaining

more uniform use of the range. &^

COSTS OF SEEDING AND WEED CONTROL

Xo single improvement practice is best for all lands in any one

range type. Local conditions of soil, vegetation, and management

factors will determine the choice of ]n-actice or combination of practices best suited to the individual ranch enterprise. Cost may be a

limiting factor.

Initial cost per acre of land preparation, spraying, and seeding will

vai-y from area to area and from year to year. In the period 1951 to

1054 on large-scale public-land projects, cost of equipment operation

varied from 35 cents an acre for airplane seeding to $4 an acre for

plowing (table 13). Costs are affected by the distance that equipment

and materials must be transported, topography and rockiness of area,

efficiency of equipment operators, and fluctuations in the price of

labor, seed, and materials. The cost of seed and spray materials is

not given in table 13. Assuming an average rate of seeding at 10

pounds per acre and a cost of 35 cents per pound for seed, the cost of

the total operation would be increased $3.50 per acre. Likewise, in
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 45

spi-íiying with 2,4-D the total cost would be increased $'2.35 per acre

at 1954: prices of spray materials. The materials include 2 pounds

of acid equivalent of 2,4-T) and one-half oallon of diesel oil to be

applied as an oil-water emulsion of 10 «iallons per acre.

TABLE 13.—Sample rosfs of ope rut'nu/ (•(pi/pmi'iif in rangeland

improvement, W-'>l-54

Job

Plowing.

DiskingRolling-.

Drilling

Broadcasting seed.

Do

Do..

Spraving.

"Do-.

Do.

Equipment

One-wav plow

Offset disk

Log or east-iron roller.

Grain drill

Whirlwind seeder,

hand operated.

Tractor mounted,

bait spreader type.

Airplane '

Boom type sprayer. .

Turbine type sprayer

Airplane '

Unit size

8-10 feet.

10 feet--.

12 feet-..

10-12 feet

10-qt. capacity17-gal. capacity

1,200 1b. load--

80 ft. swath

20 feet

60 feet

150 gal. load---

40-45 ft. swathAcres

per

hour

3

4

5

4

\\Q0

5

12

koo

Cost

per

acre '

$4. 00

3. 00

2 1. 00

1. 50

2. 50

1. 25

0. 35

1. 00

1, 25

1. 00

' Seed and spraying materials not inchided.

2 Rolling and drilling may be done in 1 ojjeration at no more cost per acre than

for drilling alone.

' Xoorduyn ^S'orseman and Stearman airjjlanes were used.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) CoRNELiu.s, DONALD R., and GUAH.VM, CHARI.KS A.

10.5.J. CHEMICAL CO.NTKOI. OF lUTIKRCIP 0.\ Mf)TNTAIN MEADOWS. .Tour.

Forestry 51: 6.'!l-(i34, lllus.

(2) GRAHAM, C. A.

19.53. A PRACTICAL WAY TO EVALT'ATE SI'ÜAY Dl SI lUBl " IION. .lour. liange

aiangt. 0: 2.5.5-250. ¡llus.

(3) HAFENRICHTER, A. L.. MTI.LEN. LOWELL A., and RROW.X, ROBERT L.

1!)49. GRASSES AND LEGI'MES FOR SOIL ('0^SER\•ATlO.\ IN IHE PACIFIC .NORTHWEST. U. S. Dept. Agr. Alise. Pulí. 078, .5(3 pp., illus.

(4) HiESEY, WILLIAM M.

19.53. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIES AND HYBRIDS OF POA UNDER

CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE. Aiuer. Jour. Bot. 40: 20.5-221. illus.

(5) MCKENZIE, R. E.

1051. THE AHILITY OF FORAGE PLANTS TO SURVIVE EARLY .SPRING FLOODING.

Sel. Agr. 31 : .358-3(5".

(6) I'ECHANEC, .JOSEPH F., STEWART, ííEORGE, and P.LAISDELL, .TAMES P.

19.54. SAGEBRUSH BI-RNIXG—GOOD AND Ií.*D. U. S. liept. Agr. Farmers'

Bill. 104N, 34 pp., illns.

(7) STEWART, GEORGE, I'LUMMER, A. PERRY, ROBERTSON, .IOSEPH H.. and

HULL, A. C, Jr.

1954. CONTROLLING SAGEBRTTSH ON R-\NGELANDS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers'

Bui. 2072, 30 pp., illus.
46 HANDBOOK 8 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(8) PLUMMKI!, A. PioiiiiV, iiud STICWAKT, GEORGE,

l!)4-t. SKICDlNü GRASS ON DKTICUIOUATED ASPEN RANGE. U. S. ForeSt Serv.,

Iiiteriiuiniit.iiu Forest and Riinge Expt. Sta. Ues. Paper 11, 6 pp.

(Processed.)

(9) KoiiEinsON, JosEi'H H.

1ÍI47. SEASON, DATE, AND DEPTH OF PLANTING CRESTED WHEATÜHASS AND

OllIEK GliASSKS AT LOWER EI.EVATIO.\S I.N .NORTHERN NEVADA. U. S.

Forest Serv., Iiiterniountain Forest and Kaiiue Expt. Sta. Re.s.

Paper 14, 4 pp. ( I'rocessed.)

(10) STARK, R. H., TOEVS, J. L., and HAFENRICHTER, A. L.

l'.»4(l, (iiiASSEs AND CULTURAL METHODS FOR RESEEDJ.Ní; ABANDONED FARM

LANDS IN SOUTHERN IDAHO. Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 2Ô7, 3« pp.,

illns.

( 11 ) TNII-KII STATES DEPARTMENT OF AoRicrLTrEE.

IIMK YEARBOOK OF AGRICTT-TTKE GRASS. S!)2 pp., ¡llUS.

(12) T'MTED STATES FOREST SERVICE.

I'.i.'l. 11ANDHOOK OF RANGE RESEEDiNG EQUIPMENT. S.'i pp., íHUS. Washington, D.C. ( Proce.ssed. )

(13) WARD. GEORGE H.

l!t.')3. ARTEMISIA, SECTION SERIPHIDIUM, IN NORTH AMERICA, A CYTOTAXONOMic STUDY. Stanford Univ., Dudley Herbarium Contrih. 4:

^r,r,- 2^)~>, illus.

(14) WllEEI.KR, W. A.

HL'iO. FOR.\GE .\Ni) PASTURE CROPS. 7~,\> jip., illus. Xew York.

APPENDIX

TABLE 14.—ChuriictcriHt'ics uf firaSKCx und hyumcs rrcoinniniiled

S\H'c\e

Bliii'gras.';. hig

Brnmr. n]Mi]nl;iiii

Brome, smooth

Growlli hiiliil Silc adaptation Purity 2

A Jong-li'afcd I^Jiiiifligrass.

Produces a liigli yield of

forage in early spring

and makes good regrowth after summer

grazing. Roots poorly

in seedling stage and is

easily pulled up by grazing animals.

Shorl-lived bunchgrass.

Seed large and heavy

and seedhngs e.\cept ionally vigorous. Similar to

slender wheatgrass and

timothy in providing

(luick ground cover.

Highly palatable sod-forming grass which spreads

vigorously by rhizomes. ' Medium in seedling

vigor and ease of establishment. GnJws mainly I

during spring and fall at !

medium elevations; during summer, at high elevations.

Moderately dry sites in

sagebrush or iiine zones

on wide range of soils

from 3,500 to 7,500 feet.

Albion strain best at

high elevations; Sherman strain at low elevations.

Sandy or sandy loam soils

at 5,0011 to 8,000 feet cm

burned-ovei' timberland.

Well-drained, fertile clay

loam soils with 20 inches

or more precipitation per

year. Southern strains

such SLS Lincoln, Achenbach, and Fischer best

up to 5,000 feet; Manchar

and other northern

strains, above 5,000 feet.

Percent

81

92

Germi

nation 2

Percent

49

Normal

seedins

rate per

acre

Pounds

6-10

85

85 8-12

See footnotes at end of table.
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 47

TABLE 14.—Characteristics of grasses and legumes rceoniineiulcd—Continued

Species Growth habit ' Site ada]itation Purity -

Oei

Nornuil

sceiliiiK

I rato per

aere

Canarygrass. Reed

Fescue, Chewings

Fescue, tall

Fnslail. nieadiiw

Timothy.

Oatgrass. tall

Orchardgrass

Redtop

Wheatgrass, beardless

Coarse bunchgrass with

short rhizomes; produces

higli forage yields but

palatability is low.

Seedling vigor low but

vigor of established

plants high. Seed shatters liadly and therefore

is rather expensive.

Bunchgrass with tufted

growth habit. Foliage

remains green throughout summer but production is low.

Coarse bunchgrass which

produces high yields of

forage and seed. Remains green through

summer but sensitive to

summer drought.

Bunchgrass with eaily

maturing seed stalks,

but foliage stays green

throughout summer.

Good seedling vigor, j

Seed chaffy and diflicult

to drill alone.

High yielding bunchgrass;

medium in palatability.

Biuichgrass which produces moderate yields

of high quality forage.

Seedling vigor is strong.

Sod-forming grass of medium production and

palatability. Grows

throughout most ofsummer; fairly late in setting

seed. Seed is small,

but yields are fairly high

and seed is readily available.

Short-lived bunchgrass.

Seedlings vigorous and

quickly established but

stands decline after 2 or

3 years on drier sites.

Small, heavy seed is

suited to broadcasting

on ash.

Similar to bluebunch

wheatgrass but absince

of awn makes seed Ca.sier

to drill.

Wet meadows with deep

fertile soil and constant

supply of moisture

t lirough summer as from

subirrigation witiiout

stagnation. Thrives

from 4,(HIII to 8,11011 feet.

.\cid soil of low fertility in

o|ienings of red-fir fonst

at ti,ll()Û to 9,0(10 feet elevation.

Wet or moist meadows

with alkaline to slightly

acid soils.

Wet meadows or areas

submerged up to 2 weeks

in spring. Withstands

slightly alkaline soil,

also niiideralely drouglit

resistant.

Moist, lire]! soils

Moist, shady conditions

under canopy of aspen.

Wet meadows with medium to fertile soils that

may be weakly acid;

not suited to alkaline

soils. Klevalion 4,0(10

to 8,000 feet.

Light textured soil on

liurned-over timberlands, or in mixtures for

wet meadows at 5,000 to

8,000 feet. Not drought

resistant.

Same as bluebunch wheatgrass, ^^'h¡tmar strain

being most widely used.

Percent

96

97

96

90

Percent

80

Pounds

.1-10

80

90

(S)

92 90

99

92

(3)

90

90

(SI

5-10

0-12

10-12

92 87 fi-12

(.51 (.5)

90 90 .5-10

( 5) (.?)

5-10

4-8

6-12

See footnotes at end of table.
48 HANDBOOK 88, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 14.—Cluirnctcrifílics of (/nisscs and legumes recommended—Continued

Species Ornwtli lialiil. ' Silo iiilaptat.ion Purity -

Oormi

iiiitiim -

Normal

soediriE

rate per

aere

Wheatgrass,

buuch.

blucV< lieatKrass, crested -

Wheatsrass, Fairway

crested.

Wheatsrass,

mediate.

interWheatgrass, piiheseent

AVheutgrass, slender

Wheatcrass, tall.

Modorate-yieldini; bunchgrass, stable in production through favorable

and unfavorable seasons.

Grows throughout summer and stays green for

late summer grazing.

Seedling vigor weak.

Vigorous, well known

b u n c h g r a s s. (Also

called Standard crested

wheatgrass and desert

wheatgrass.) flrows

mainly during spring

and provides early

spring forage. Highly

palatable before seed

stalks develop. Strong

seed producer. Seedlings moderately vigorous and slow to develop.

\'ery similar to crested

wheatgrass but shorter

and finer stemmed with

more sjireading crown,

sparsely hairy leaves,

and shorter, more

wedge-shaped seed

heads.

Sod-forming grass with

short rhizomes which

usually appear after

plant is 1 year old. High

seedling vigor and easily

established. Grows during spring and summer

at medium elevations.

Similar to intermediate

wheatgrass but leaves

<lry from a few days to

2 weeks earlier in summer.

Short-lived bunchgrass

with much the .same

characteristics as timothy and mountain

brome. Good emergence and earlier ground

cover than from some

longer lived grasses.

Coarse bunchgrass but

foliage highly palatable.

Remains green throughout summer. Good

seedling vigor.

See footnotes at end of table.

]>ry sites in lower sagebrush zone, :i,500 to 5,000

feet.

Sandy or clay loam soils at

3,500 to 5,000 feet, with

9 to 15 inches annual precipitation. Drought and

cold resistant.

Sandy or clay loam soils,

cold dry sites at 5,000 to

7,500 feet. Drought and

cold resistant.

Wide range ofsoils at 4,000

to 7,.500 feet w ith precipitation of 15 to 25 inches.

Fairly drought resistant.

Moderately tolerant to

alkaline soils; not to

flooding.

Same as hitermediate

wheatgrass but slightly

more drought resistant

and reported to be

slightly better on soils

of low fertility.

Burned-over timberlands

at 5,000 to 8,000 feet.

Strains with different

local adaptation occur.

Wide variety of sites; tolerant to alkali and flooding up to 7 or S weeks in

the spring at snowmelt.

Requires annual precipitation 15 to 25 inches.

Fails to malure seed

above 7,000 feet.

Percent Percent

94 I 90

(3) (3)

Pounds

6-12

95 85

95

Hi)

89

85 6-12

93 85

85

8-12

94

8-12

8-12

90 8-12
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 49

TABLE 14.—Characteristics of grasses and legumes recommended—Continued

Species Growth habit ' Site adaptation Purity 2 Germination 2

Normal

seeding

rate per

acre

Wheatgrass, tliickspikc Sod-formiiip grass, spreading by strong rhizomes.

Areas submergeil for a few

weeks In the sprhig; clay

or sandy soils.

85 88 .VIS

Whcatgrass, woslom... Sod-fornung grass, spreading by vlcorous rhizomes. Foraue production and palatability

high. Seed dormancy

high when first harvested, but improves

with 1 to 2 years'storage.

Seedlings weak.

Areas submerged for a few

weeks in the spring,

noes best on clay loam

soil. Tolerant to alkali.

SO 80 5 15

Wililryc, bcarüloss Similar to western wheatgrass. Seed production

nndependable and seed

is frequently unavailable. Plow germination and weak seedling

Especially adapted to wet

alkaline flats. Occurs

on sandy to clay soils

and from sea le\-el to

8,000 feet in California.

88 90 5-15

Alfalfa, Ladak

development.

Highly palatable and nutritious legume with

deep tap root. Grows

most rapidly during

spring and more slowly

during summer. ReWell-drained soils.

Stand greatly reduced

if rodents or rabbits are

abundant.

98 90 5-10

MUkvetch, cicer _

sponds best to spring

seeding.

Sod-forming legume.

Summer grower and

drought and frost resistant. Contains no harmful alkaloides. May be

sown in spring or fall.

Well-drained soils; clay to

sandy loam. Suitable

at high elevations.

98 90 10-12

' Unless otherwise noted, the species are medium- or long-lived. All are perennials.

' For average good lots of seed: data are from 1948 U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, pp. 743-752, unless another

literature citation is shown in parentheses.

Common and Botanical Names of Species Mentioned

GR-\SSES AND GRASSLIKE PLANTS

Barley Hordeian vulgäre

Barley, meadow Hordeuvi hrachyantherum

Bluegrass, big Poa ampia

Bluegrass, Nevada Poa nevadermH

Bluegrass, Sandberg Poa secunda

Brome, mountain Broinv.'< nuircjinatns

Brome, smooth liromu-s inermi^

Canarygrass, Reed Phalaris arandmacea

Cheatgrass Bromus tprtor-um

Fescue, Chewings Festuca ivlira coimifutata

Fescue, Idaho FeMuca idahoenf^h

Fescue, tall Festuca afundinacea
50 HANDBOOK S8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Foxtail, iiioadow AJo/wrirm.s pnitcnsis

IIii¡i<>'iiiss, tiifled I>psrhainpKÍ(i caespitosa

Medusa-head EhjmuH cupid-ineihi-'ia

OatiiTass, tall Arrhetiatheivnn elatius

Oats Avena sativa

()rchai'd<rrass l><irfylh glomerata

Kedtop Ar/rostis ulh<i

Redtop, leafy Agrostis diegoensis

Eye ¡'^eraJe cereale

IvA'eii'i-ass, Italian (or animal) Loliurn multiforum

Sedjies '' 'arcx spp.

SquiiTeltail Sltaiiiort hystrix

Timothy Phlpiim pratense

AVheat Triticam aesfitium,

"Wheatfrrass, beardless Agrojiyron merme

Wheatfrrass, bluebnnch Agropyron spicatum

"Wheatiirass. Fairway crested Agropyron eristatuin

Wheatjii'ass. crested Agrojiyron desertonim,

A^nieatirrass. intermediate Agropj/ron intermedium

"Wheattrrass, ¡nibeseent Agropyron triehophoi^m.

"Wheatcrass, Siberian Agropyron sihirieum

"Wheatiri'ass, slender Agropyron trachyravlum

Wlieatiz'rass, tall Agropyron elongatuni

"\Ybeat<rrass, thicksjiike Agropyron dasystaehyiim

Wheatp'rass, Avestern Agropyron smithii

"Wildrye, beardless (oi' d'eejiinii-). I'Jy¡nii.\ tritieoides

AVildrye, Canada Khjnnis eanadensis

"Wirernsh Jun cus haïtiens

LF.GUlSrES

Alfalfa, Ladak Mcdieago sativa

]\rilkvetch, cicer Astragalus eieer

S\\ eetclover. yellow .lieJUotus oificinaUs

Trefoil, birdsfoot Lotus cornicvlatus

OriiKi! FoKiis

Burnet Sanguisorha minor

Butteren]), plantainleaf Ranunculus alismarfolivs

Buttercup, western Ranunculus oceidentalis

Biscuitroot Caqswellias^.

Camas, common famassia quamesh

Knotweed, bistort Polyc/onvm Ustortoides

Mornincr-rrlói.y, wild Convolvulus arvenis

Mustard, Jim Hill :^isi/mhrium altissinmm

Poverty weed f^a a.rillaris

I ussy])aw ( 'alypfridiuni uu)hellatum

Squawroot (yampa) Pcrideridia qairdneri

larweed Madia glomerata
RANGELAND IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SEEDING 51

SHRUIVS AXD TREKS

Aspen /'o/n/.his fremuloides

Bitterbrush Piirxh'm tridcntata

Fir, red Ahiex inagii/p'ca

Pine, Jeffrey Pimis Jeffrey!

Pine, ponderosa P/nu-s />oiiríerosa

Rabbitbrush C/iri/sofhinniius hlnnmeri

Sagebrush, big Artemisia fridenfata

Sagebrush, black Artemisia arhasm/a

Sagebrush, silver Artemisia cana

U. S. GOVERNMENT PftlNTiNG OFFICE, |955