|Photo: Cover: Bosnia-Herzegovina
        **Cover:** Supporting Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR, a 1st Armored Division's Abrams tank moves into Bosnia-Herzegovina in late December 1995.
        
        **Introduction**
            3**Bosnia-Herzegovina**
            5.......... *Strategic Setting*
            5.......... *Preparations*
            16.......... *Operation Joint Endeavor*
            19.......... *Operation Joint Guard*
            33.......... *Operation Joint Forge*
            37.......... *Summary and Analysis*
            38**Further Readings**
            42
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        Introduction
        
        Bosnia-Herzegovina was the scene for the most
 violent armed conflict in Europe since World War II. The collapse of 
the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the end of the Soviet Empire and its 
forcible control of Eastern Europe. Even as the Soviet Union was 
breaking apart and its satellite states were shedding the vestiges of 
Communist rule, the nonaligned Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 
also showed cracks in its national structure. Comprised of six 
"republics" and two autonomous regions, Yugoslavia had created a 
favorable impression throughout the world as a model state with diverse 
ethnic groups. In spite of a historical legacy of ethnic conflicts, the 
country of the "South Slavs" could claim over forty years of peace and 
harmony. This way of life, however, changed in the last decade of the 
twentieth century.
        In a complex series of diplomatic and 
political maneuvers, four of the six republics-Slovenia, Croatia, 
Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia-separated from Yugoslavia between 1991
 and 1992. Each secession was contested, with the most horrific 
destruction and violence occurring in centrally located 
Bosnia-Herzegovina. At least half of the entire population-more than two
 million people-was directly affected by a civil war that lasted from 
April 1992 to November 1995. Efforts by the United Nations and the 
European Union were ignored, cease-fires were not honored, civilians 
were massacred, and entire villages were destroyed. The ethnic cleansing
 that ravaged the country defied any semblance of restraint or 
responsibility.
        Spurred by U.S. leadership, a peace 
agreement was signed in December 1995 authorizing the North Atlantic 
Treaty Organization (NATO) to intervene. As called for in the agreement,
 the NATO Implementation Force consisting of 60,000 military personnel, 
one-third of them American, was to enforce the peace and to facilitate 
the reconstruction of the country. To this end, a total of three 
successive peace enforcement operations were undertaken: JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINT FORGE.
        Thousands of pages already have been printed
 about the civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina. This brochure, written by R.
 Cody Phillips of the U.S. Army Center of Military History, is not a 
complete picture of the course of events in that war-torn country, but 
it will provide the reader with an understanding of the U.S. Army's role
 and scope of activities in Operations JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINT FORGE. I hope this absorbing account, with its list of further readings, will stimulate additional study and reflection.
        h
            JOHN S. BROWN
        Brigadier General, USA (Ret.)
        Chief of Military HistoryBosnia-HerzegovinaThe U.S.Army's Role in Peace Enforcement
              Operations, 1995-2004
          Civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina erupted in April 1992. Over the 
next three and a half years between 140,000 and 250,000 people had been 
killed. At least four out of every five deaths were noncombatants. While
 an unknown number had been wounded or maimed-many from the thousands of
 land mines that saturated the country-the horror did not stop there. 
Perhaps as many as 12,000 women were raped, and 520,000 Bosnians found 
themselves homeless. Ethnic cleansing created over 1.3 million refugees,
 many of whom had fled to other countries or were trying desperately to 
escape the fighting and poverty that engulfed the region. Dozens of 
diplomatic initiatives and temporary truces failed before a 
U.S.-brokered agreement in late 1995, the Dayton Peace Accords, finally 
ended the fighting and permitted U.S. military forces to enter the 
country as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 
international force charged with the responsibility of enforcing the 
peace.
          Sadly, by 1998, three years after the 
fighting had ended officially, seemingly irreconcilable differences 
still characterized the former warring factions. While accompanying a 
small patrol in a multiethnic area near Brcko, a battalion command 
sergeant major encountered a young Bosnian Serb who-with all the candor 
and innocence of his twelve years-asked "when the Americans were going 
to leave" so that he and his friends "could start killing each other 
again." It was a stark reminder of the critical importance of the 
U.S.Army in Bosnia-Herzegovina and what made the Army's mission so 
vital, yet so difficult, in the ensuing peace enforcement operations JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINT FORGE.
          Strategic Setting
          Bosnia is located in the southeastern 
region of Europe commonly referred to as the Balkans. The country, which
 includes the large medieval duchy of Herzegovina, is slightly larger 
than
          [5]
          Map: Map 1: Yugoslavia March 1991
          MAP 1
          larger version
          the state of Tennessee. Prior to the 
outbreak of civil war in 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina was one of six 
republics that formed the larger nation of Yugoslavia (Map 1), 
and only eight years earlier its capital, Sarajevo, was the site for the
 1984 Winter Olympics. Prewar images of Bosnia usually depict either 
picturesque rural settings reminiscent of late-nineteenth century Europe
 or cosmopolitan multiethnic towns that reflect a blend of Turkish and 
European history.
          Notwithstanding the pastoral images and 
pacific urbanity of prewar Bosnia, the region had a turbulent history 
that dated as far back as the first century. The thirteenth-century 
Great Schism that formally separated Roman Catholic Christianity and 
Eastern Orthodox Christianity increased tensions in the region as both 
churches, relying respectively on monarchs in the West and the Byzantine
 emperor in the East, attempted to extend their influence over and 
control of the Balkans. A fledgling Bosnian kingdom appeared in the 
fourteenth century, but it barely survived one hundred years before 
being overwhelmed by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. For the next four 
hundred years Bosnia
          [7]
          was a province of the Muslim rulers in 
Istanbul, and many Bosnians converted to Islam. During the Turkish 
dominance of the Balkan region significant numbers of ethnic nationals 
migrated to neighboring lands, forming minority enclaves. Migrants from 
Serbia tended to form the largest of this group in Bosnia and Croatia. 
Following a Russian campaign in the Balkans and the subsequent defeat of
 the Turks, the Congress of Berlin in 1878 placed Bosnia-Herzegovina 
under the control of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This action frustrated
 Russian ambitions in the Balkans and failed to consider the 
nationalistic aspira­tions of the indigenous population. In Bosnia the 
populace tended to align by its ethnic and religious allegiances, with 
Slovenes and Croats associating with the Catholic West (usually Italy 
and Austria), Serbs identifying with the Russians and the Orthodox East,
 and Bosnian Muslims favoring the Islamic Turks. Although tension 
existed among these ethnic groups, their greater concern was to be freed
 of the dominating influence of the imperial powers that surrounded 
them. The Austrian mandate triggered a Bosnian Muslim revolt that was 
ruthlessly suppressed-150,000 Bosnians died. A Serbian rebellion 
followed, and this too was put down. These two Balkan uprisings on the 
eve of World War I effectively neutralized further Turkish influence in 
the Balkans, as well as led to a larger and more aggressive Serbia. The 
assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne by a Bosnian 
Serb-a Serbian nationalist who resided in Austrian-occupied 
Bosnia-sparked the outbreak of World War I. Serbia, allied with Russia, 
valiantly fought the Austrians in a conflict that saw almost half of the
 young males in Serbia killed or wounded. The end of the war and the 
breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire brought about the arbitrary 
unification of the Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and other ethnic minorities 
in the region under a conglomerate kingdom to be known as Yugoslavia 
(meaning South Slavs).
          A depressed economy, ethnic tensions, and 
both external and internal political intrigue made the young Kingdom of 
Yugoslavia a fragile entity even before the outbreak of World War II. 
German forces occupied Yugoslavia in April 1941, and the ensuing 
occupation acerbated the divisions within the fledgling nation. The two 
leading Yugoslavian partisan forces, ostensibly organized to fight the 
Germans, spent inordinate time and resources fighting each other. Other 
ethnic groups affiliated with the Germans or their Italian allies and 
often fought against their partisan countrymen. By 1945 an estimated 1.7
 million Yugoslavians had been killed in the internecine strife, 
representing over 11 percent of the prewar population.
          [8]
          Despite this incredible loss of life and 
significant damage to the country's infrastructure, people rallied to a 
new and reconstructed Yugoslavia-this one organized as a socialist 
federal republic under President Tito (Josip Broz). For thirty-five 
years Tito's firm control over the polyglot state subordinated ethnic 
rivalries to a pan-Yugoslavian ethos. Although ethnic enclaves remained 
scattered throughout the country, particularly in the republics of 
Croatia and Bosnia, there was free and unrestricted movement among the 
population. Within Bosnia, ethnic Croats and Serbs often formed small 
majorities in the countryside and villages, with the former usually 
found in the western and southern sections and the latter customarily 
living in the northern and eastern parts. Bosnian Muslims tended to 
dominate the large towns and cities. Mixed marriages became relatively 
common. By the late 1980s 30 percent of the marriages in the urban 
communities of Bosnia were among couples of different ethnic 
backgrounds. Indeed, especially in larger towns and cities in Bosnia, it
 was not uncommon to find Croatians, Muslims, and Serbs all working in 
the same factory, attending the same school, or living on the same 
street. In fact, Bosnia's multiethnic heritage was one of its most 
prominent characteristics. By 1990 ethnic Croats could be found living 
throughout roughly 70 percent of the state, while Bosnian Muslims and 
Bosnian Serbs-usually intermingled in communities-occupied almost 95 
percent of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Population estimates at the time 
indicated that Muslims comprised over 44 percent, and still increasing; 
Serbs, slightly more than 31 percent; and ethnic Croats, 17 percent.
          Tito died in 1980, with Yugoslavia 
remaining under Communist rule for another ten years. However, the 
collapse of communism throughout Eastern Europe and the disintegration 
of the Soviet Union had a profound effect on the country's future. As 
the Communist Party lost its grip on the Balkan country, the individual 
republics began to assert more control over their internal affairs. 
Concerned that growing Serbian influence in Yugoslavia might affect 
their autonomy, the republics began to seriously consider independence. 
Slovenia, the northernmost republic, was the first to separate in June 
1991. A perfunctory week-long "war" followed, during which the Yugoslav 
Army tried to reassert national authority in the region. The almost 
bloodless conflict quickly ended, and the Yugoslav government accepted 
Slovene independence.
          Very few ethnic Serbs resided in Slovenia, and this situation influenced the Serbian leadership in Belgrade to accept Slovene
          [9]
          secession. In the case of neighboring 
Croatia, however, where rising Croatian patriotism clashed with local 
Serbian nationalists, the response was different. When several attempts 
to achieve a political resolution failed, armed conflict erupted in 
August 1991 and continued intermittently for the next four years. During
 the struggle ethnic Serbs residing in Croatia, aided by elements of the
 Yugoslav Army, seized large tracts of land and held them until Croatia 
forcibly reclaimed the lost territory in 1995.
          In an effort to stem the fighting in 
Croatia, the United Nations (UN) imposed an arms embargo on all the 
republics of Yugoslavia in September 1991. The following year the United
 Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), created in April 1992 as the UN's 
second largest peacekeeping contingent, arrived to enforce a cease-fire 
among the combatants, but the events were moving too rapidly for the UN 
to control. The force never exceeded 10,000 personnel scattered through 
Bosnia and Croatia. As one observer later noted, "UNPROFOR was an army 
... without a clear mission, and almost powerless in the middle of a 
mess."
          Once the European countries recognized the 
independence of Slovenia and Croatia in January 1992, Bosnian leaders 
realized that they too could achieve independence-if only to avoid being
 dominated by neighboring Serbia. In March, in a referendum that was 
boycotted by the Bosnian Serb minority, an overwhelming majority of the 
voters chose to separate from Yugoslavia. Recognizing that 
implementation of this electoral decision might lead to conflicts 
similar to those that already had occurred in Slovenia and Croatia, the 
Bosnian political leadership tried to reach a political resolution with 
the Yugoslav government in Belgrade. But the Bosnian Serb minority 
proved adamantly opposed to such an initiative. On the afternoon of 6 
April a "peace and unity" demonstration in the Bosnian capital of 
Sarajevo was disrupted when Bosnian Serbs fired shots into the crowd and
 killed several demonstrators. The violence marked the beginning of 
civil war in Bosnia.
          Armed largely with weapons received from 
the Yugoslav Army, Bosnian Serbs seized parts of Bosnia and expelled the
 non-Serbian population of ethnic Croats and Muslims. Families that 
delayed their departure or resisted often were killed or had their homes
 and property destroyed. The central government in Sarajevo was slow to 
respond to these initial outrages, and the Bosnian Serbs quickly created
 their own country, the Republika Srpska (Serb Republic), out of 
the territory carved from Bosnia. At the same time, the UN Security 
Council extended the UNPROFOR mandate
          [10]
          to include Bosnia-Herzegovina. Momentum was
 with the Bosnian Serbs, who aggressively prosecuted the war relying on 
overwhelming firepower, Yugoslav Army assistance, and the fear instilled
 in other minorities.
          Sarajevo was quickly surrounded, and 
eventually Bosnian Serb forces occupied nearly 70 percent of the 
country. In a wave of ethnic cleansing not seen in Europe since World 
War II hundreds of thousands of civilians were forcibly removed from 
their homes, and thousands more were killed. Repeated UN and European 
attempts to establish and maintain a cease-fire or negotiate an end to 
the hostilities failed. When the UN secretary general arrived in 
Sarajevo for a high-profile visit and promotion of a new peace 
initiative in early 1993, protestors greeted him with placards that 
read: "Stop defending us your way. We are getting exterminated." By 1994
 reports of mass murders and rapes, incredible property damage, and a 
surging refugee population were shocking testimonies to the unsuccessful
 political and diplomatic efforts to end this civil war.
          U.S. policy had initially favored the 
survival of Yugoslavia as a unitary state. Looking at the rapid 
dissolution of the former Soviet Union and its attendant problems with 
multiple fledgling states, U.S. leaders feared that a similar situation 
would destabilize the Balkans. At first, however, they were content to 
allow the European Community to handle the deteriorating situation. This
 would be "the hour of Europe."
          American hopes for a continental solution 
proved unrealistic. The European Community-soon to become the European 
Union-could not reach a consensus on the appropriate course of action. 
Deferring to the UN to exercise oversight for protecting the civilian 
population and negotiating a peaceful resolution appeared to be the only
 solution, but UNPROFOR had proven too small and lightly armed for the 
tasks. Moreover, its exceedingly restrictive rules of engagement and 
cumbersome command structure had prevented UN peacekeepers from stopping
 even the most egregious acts of violence. In some cases UNPROFOR 
commanders were bullied into silence or retreat, and some UNPROFOR 
detachments even became hostages when the European Union attempted to 
take more forceful action.
          Paralyzed with fears of an escalating 
conflict and frustrated by repeated failures to stem the fighting, 
UNPROFOR allowed the war in Bosnia to rage for three years. In the end, 
the peacekeeping force was barely able to defend itself and protect the 
humanitar-
          [11]
          ian relief coming into the country. Further dampening any 
enthusiasm for a more robust response were NATO's estimates that 
somewhere between 150,000 and 460,000 military personnel, at least half 
to be American, would be necessary to stop the war and reverse all 
Bosnian Serb gains.
          As the war in Bosnia ground on through 1993
 and 1994, a variety of issues complicated any effective U.S. response 
to the unfolding tragedy. The possibility of a massive American military
 presence in south-central Europe seemed reminiscent of what had 
occurred a generation earlier in Southeast Asia. More recently, the 
tragic losses of special operations soldiers in Somalia tempered 
committing others to a conflict with blurred front lines, an imprecise 
mission, and an uncertain enemy. The European Union insisted on pursuing
 diplomatic solutions, unless the United States was willing to commit 
military force on the ground-a course of action that neither the 
American public nor Congress was eager to support. Less significant, but
 troubling nonetheless, Muslim fundamentalists from the Middle 
East-mujahideen-had infiltrated Bosnia to add a new mix to the 
increasingly confused contest. Bosnia was, in the words of U.S. 
Secretary of State Warren Christopher, "the problem from hell."
    The United States and the European 
Union-particularly the United Kingdom and France-could not agree on a 
uniform policy and resolution to the crisis in Bosnia, creating a severe
 strain on the NATO alliance. A significant portion of the UNPROFOR 
personnel came from NATO's European Union members. Although they were 
anxious for the fighting in the Balkans to stop, they were reluctant to 
engage in any activity that might jeopardize their soldiers already in 
the region. Conversely, the United States, with no military personnel at
 the time in Bosnia, advocated more forceful military responses to 
Serbian provocations. The U.S. position came to be characterized as 
"lift and strike": lift the UN arms embargo on Bosnia, and use NATO 
airpower to enforce the no-fly zone over the country and launch punitive
 strikes against Bosnian Serb military targets. The UN, which asserted a
 military presence in the area through its protection force, did not 
have aircraft to enforce the no-fly zone over Bosnia, so it accepted the
 offer of NATO aircraft to perform this task. But the heavily layered 
and cautious UN command insisted on retaining final approval for all 
NATO combat flights over Bosnia.
    Initially, U.S. policy settled on a middle course of easing the tensions in the NATO alliance and using aggressive diplomacy
    [12]
    to contain the war in Bosnia and preserve its 
territorial integrity. The effort was short-lived. In 1994 NATO launched
 limited air strikes, sardonically called "pinpricks," but they did not 
stem the Bosnian Serb offensives. The first combat action in NATO's 
history occurred in late February, when U.S. Air Force aircraft shot 
down four Bosnian Serb planes that violated the no-fly zone. Another 
action followed six weeks later on 10 April, when NATO aircraft engaged 
ground targets in retaliation for Bosnian Serb attacks on a UN safe 
area. But these isolated air strikes accomplished little. The cumbersome
 approval process mitigated both their effectiveness and timeliness, and
 the willingness of both Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims to use UN 
military personnel as hostages or human shields further complicated the 
use of NATO airpower. Worse still, the threat of NATO air strikes failed
 to prevent the horrific massacre of 8,000 Bosnian men and boys in 
Srebrenica in the summer of 1995.
    The court of world opinion already had been 
tilting against the Bosnian Serbs. The Srebrenica massacre ended all 
doubts. In the following weeks a rebuilt Croatian military launched a 
campaign to retake lost territory from Croatian and Bosnian Serbs. 
Concurrently, Croatian Bosnians, concentrated in central and western 
Bosnia, and Bosnian Muslims formed a military alliance and initiated a 
counteroffensive against the Bosnian Serbs. In a series of battles 
throughout the summer the Bosnian Serbs lost large sections of 
territory. In mid-August 1995 a special U.S. envoy and team began a 
series of negotiations among the heads of the different warring 
factions, with the intention of bringing about a cease-fire and a 
permanent peace in the area. Despite being pressed from all directions, 
the Bosnian Serbs were obdurate. When a Bosnian Serb artillery round 
fired into Sarajevo killed thirty-seven civilians and wounded 
eighty-five others, the UN command acquiesced to NATO's insistence on a 
sustained air campaign against the Bosnian Serbs.
    On 30 August NATO launched Operation DELIBERATE FORCE.
 Over sixty NATO aircraft from eight countries, plus British and French 
artillery, hit preplanned targets scattered around Bosnia. Thereafter, 
sustained bombing began and continued until 20 September, when Bosnian 
Serbs agreed to remove their heavy artillery from around besieged 
Sarajevo. The U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Croatian-Bosnian 
counteroffensive, and the aggressive air campaign all combined to bring 
the Serbians, Croatians, and Bosnian Muslims together for peace talks 
that were held at Wright-
    [13]
    Map:  Map 2:  Bosnia-Herzegovia, December 1995
    MAP 2
    larger version
    Patterson Air Force Base, near Dayton, Ohio.
    U.S. diplomats arranged a tenuous cease-fire 
among all the warring factions in October, on the eve of the Dayton 
peace talks. After three weeks of intense negotiations the 
representatives of the former warring factions approved an agreement on 
21 November, which was subsequently formalized in the formal General 
Framework Agreement for Peace in Paris on 14 December. Among its many 
provisions was the establishment of the NATO Implementation Force 
(IFOR), which would include U.S. military personnel deployed to 
Bosnia-Herzegovina (Map 2) to facilitate compliance with the Dayton Accords and to maintain the cease-fire.
    Defining the IFOR mission was not easy. The tasks
 required clearly specified limitations and specific objectives. 
Sensitive to the qualified congressional support and the vicissitudes of
 public opinion, U.S. negotiators charted a careful course to avoid the 
ubiquitous "mission creep" that beleaguered the American experience in 
Somalia and the open-ended U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia. 
Ultimately, IFOR was charged with several major tasks: enforce the 
cease-fire, control air space over Bosnia, separate the former warring 
factions, and supervise boundaries along zones of separation. Military 
movements would be monitored along key routes, and joint military 
commissions were to be formed as consultative bodies among all the 
parties to the peace agreement. Some
    [15]
      of the UN forces already present in Bosnia would be transferred to IFOR; the rest were to be withdrawn.
    The 57,000 military members of IFOR, 20,000 of 
them Americans, were under NATO command. For operational purposes and 
for securing different areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina, NATO organized IFOR 
into three subordinate commands-Multinational Division (North), 
Multinational Division (Southwest), and Multinational Division 
(Southeast). The U.S. area of operations would be in Multinational 
Division (North)-MND (N). Within the American sector other nations 
supplying military personnel included Turkey, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
 Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, and Sweden. Almost as an affirmation
 of the end of the Cold War, a Russian military force would also 
participate with the NATO forces in bringing peace to Bosnia.
    Preparations
    The U.S. military had a small presence in the 
region even prior to the official deployment of ground forces to Bosnia 
in December 1995. Prior to the initial NATO air strikes on Bosnian Serb 
targets in 1994, U.S. Air Force and Army personnel were providing 
humanitarian aid in airlifts of food and other supplies to Croatia and 
Bosnia under the auspices of Operation PROVIDE PROMISE,
 which had begun in July 1992. Five months later a mobile army surgical 
hospital deployed to Zagreb, Croatia. Originally there to support UN 
military personnel and relief agencies, it eventually treated over 6,000
 civilian patients. Months later, British and U.S. special operations 
personnel quietly entered Bosnia to improve communications capabilities 
among the UN forces and reconnoiter possible military targets.
    Planning for a possible deployment of U.S. Army 
ground forces to Bosnia began in April 1992 soon after the war started. 
That same year U.S. Army Europe (USAREUR) units started focusing their 
training on stability operations. The process became more deliberate by 
the summer of 1994, when it appeared that UNPROFOR might be withdrawn 
because of the deteriorating situation in Bosnia. By that time USAREUR 
had prepared a draft operational plan and identified specific 
participating units, including up to nine combat brigades entering from 
multiple avenues to rescue the UN forces and stabilize the region.
    Among U.S. military personnel, such planning was neither a surprise nor much of a secret.As one platoon sergeant assigned to
    [16]
    USAREUR since 1993 had opined: "It's always been 
one of those things-we've been training to come to Bosnia-Herzegovina 
for as long as I've been here." Comparable training and preparations 
also occurred among Army Reserve units in the United States. By early 
summer of 1995 some kind of U.S. Army involvement seemed certain, and 
individual units began preparing for specific scenarios, particularly 
with stability operations training and exercises involving multinational
 headquarters. In the words of one 1st Armored Division staff officer, 
"This thing just didn't sneak up on us; we saw it coming a long way 
out."
    Mission rehearsal exercises (MRE) began in June 
1995, with over 1,000 USAREUR, U.S. Air Force Europe, and U.S. European 
Command (EUCOM) personnel participating in MRE Mountain Shield I. The 
MRE concept was designed to anticipate contingency operations in other 
regions of the world and integrate all training and exercises to 
compliment preparations for possible future missions. MRE Mountain 
Shield II, held three months later, involved over 4,200 personnel and 
focused on a variety of operations in which a U.S. joint task force had 
the mission of extracting a UN protection force from a fictitious 
country. It was understood that Bosnia-Herzegovina was the country in 
question and that the 1st Armored Division would be the lead combat 
element for the mission. With the imminent implementation of a 
cease-fire in Bosnia and the expected start of peace talks in Dayton, 
preparations for a deployment of Army personnel shifted into high gear. 
Leaves were canceled, and USAREUR received authorization from the 
Department of the Army to extend personnel in their present duty 
assignments while accelerating the arrival of newly assigned soldiers in
 order to bring individual units up to full strength.
    MRE Mountain Eagle 95, which included over 10,000
 personnel from the 1st Armored Division and the V Corps, began on 12 
October and continued through most of November. In this multifaceted 
exercise the projected scenario shifted so that units and individual 
personnel received training in peacekeeping operations and negotiation 
techniques. The organizational element to be deployed in this 
contingency operation was designated Task Force Eagle, and every soldier
 within the task force was required to be trained and certified in five 
core categories: rules of engagement, mine awareness, negotiations, 
patrolling, and checkpoint operations. Additional training focused on 
stability and information operations, internal security and force 
protection measures, and working with joint military commissions. 
Several months later, as
    [17]
    his tour in Bosnia was concluding, a company 
commander reflected on how well his unit had functioned and credited the
 success to the training done before the deployment: It was "right on 
the money," which "really paid us big dividends."
    In spite of all the training and preparation for a
 possible mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina, significant problems appeared 
during the actual deployment-and most of them were either unpredictable 
or beyond the control of military planners. Political decisions altered 
the anticipated flow of personnel and logistical support from bases in 
Germany to the Balkans and generally forced more combat forces into the 
theater of operations ahead of their requisite support. This unbalance 
was complicated by an unexpected rail strike in neighboring France, 
which restricted the availability of railcars that were needed to 
transport major equipment items and bulk supplies. The reduction in 
transportation assets was further exacerbated by a paucity of storage 
facilities to pre-position supplies and equipment. Some deploying units 
were under-strength, which increased the workload for personnel in those
 organizations. Traversing non-NATO countries in a military deployment 
and contending with the approach of the holiday season also complicated 
the movement to Bosnia. Just as Task Force Eagle was about to enter the 
war-torn country in force, the Balkan winter set in. Ice, snow, 
knee-deep mud, and swollen rivers added more delays to the deployment.
    To surmount several unforeseen problems, American
 soldiers adopted unusual solutions. When some commanders found 
themselves separated from their units while reconnoitering staging areas
 and routes into Bosnia, they relied upon personal cell phones or other 
units to maintain contact with their own organizations. In another case 
transportation companies used credit cards to pay for fuel and lodging 
for the three-day 1,000-mile trip from Germany to the border of Bosnia. 
Looking over the variety of ad hoc and stopgap solutions employed, one 
brigade commander concluded that the sheer determination and creativity 
of individual soldiers were key factors in completing the deployment.
    The most significant obstacle was crossing the 
Sava River. The longest watercourse in the former Yugoslavia, it 
constituted the northern border between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. 
December was regarded as a high-water period for the Sava, and Mother 
Nature truly challenged the Army engineers who began bridging the 
waterway on 20 December. Days later the river overflowed its banks and 
flooded parts of the American camp, forcing
    [18]
    the engineers to suspend their work. By using all
 assets in theater to construct the largest pontoon bridge since World 
War II, commanders of the lead units crossed the Sava on the 
twenty-ninth in a civilian ferry to reconnoiter what was to become the 
U.S. area of operations MND (N). During the return trip, however, the 
ferry had mechanical difficulties, and portions of the pontoon bridge 
had to be dismantled during a snowstorm in order to extract the stranded
 Americans. But despite all difficulties, on the thirty-first, with the 
bridge finally completed, an M1A2 Abrams tank from the 1st Armored 
Division's 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry, led the American contingent across
 the Sava River into Bosnia-Herzegovina for Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR.
    Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR
    Since the outbreak of civil war in 
Bosnia-Herzegovina, the many cease-fires had been violated-sometimes 
within hours of being implemented. The legacy of numerous unprovoked 
attacks on UNPROFOR personnel also was troubling. Unsure how the former 
warring factions-Bosnian Serbs, Croatians, and Bosnian Muslims-might 
respond to the U.S. military presence, Task Force Eagle's intent was to 
demonstrate overwhelming power and resolve in order to discourage any 
hostile response. Columns of armored vehicles thundered down narrow dirt
 roads and dozens of attack helicopters flew overhead, all demonstrating
 that the present cease-fire would be enforced and the provisions of the
 Dayton Accords would be implemented. As one 1st Armored Division staff 
officer later observed, "The task force deployed with sufficient force 
to annihilate the factional armies. Clearly, this was instrumental in 
ensuring their full cooperation and compliance."
    Officially, the deployment of U.S. forces began 
on 2 December 1995 and concluded on 14 February 1996. By the time that 
the movement was completed, over 24,000 soldiers and 12,000 major 
equipment items had been moved in support of Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR. The heart of the U.S. contingent consisted of the 1st and 2d Brigades, 1st Armored Division (Chart),
 which included thirteen combat support and combat service support 
formations: the 1st Squadron, 1st Cavalry; the 3d Battalion, 5th 
Cavalry; the 4th Battalion (-), 67th Armor; the 2d Battalion, 3d Field 
Artillery; the 23d Engineer Battalion; the 501st Support Battalion; the 
4th Battalion, 12th Infantry; the 2d Battalion (attached), 15th 
Infantry; the 2d Battalion (-), 68th Armor; the 3d Squadron (attached), 
4th
    [19]
    Chart-Organization of Task Force Eagle
    Chart: Organization of Task Force Eagle
    Cavalry; the 4th Battalion, 29th Field Artillery;
 the 40th Engineer Battalion; and the 47th Support Battalion. Several 
smaller companies, batteries, and detachments of various units also were
 included in this force package. To keep the force levels within 
prescribed limits, the USAREUR (Forward) headquarters and major 
logistical facilities were positioned in neighboring Hungary and 
Croatia. The initial deployment required 409 trains and 7,340 railcars, 
507 buses, 1,700 tractor-trailers, and 1,358 aircraft sorties.
    Despite thorough training and a deliberate 
approach to this peace enforcement operation, Task Force Eagle suffered 
its first casualty even before the main contingent was able to cross the
 Sava River into Bosnia. On 30 December a soldier from the 127th 
Military Police Company ran over an antitank mine with his vehicle and 
was seriously injured. The MPs had been conducting a reconnaissance to 
mark the routes for the armored division to follow to its cantonments 
and checkpoints in Bosnia. The episode underscored the dangerous 
environment that U.S. forces soon would be occupying.
    [20]
    Ten days earlier, on 20 December, the UN formally relinquished control to NATO. Leading the U.S. Army forces for Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR
 was V Corps commander Lt. Gen. John N. Abrams, dual-hatted as the 
deputy commanding general of USAREUR (Forward). The ground component 
commander for U.S. forces in Bosnia, Task Force Eagle, was 1st Armored 
Division commander Maj. Gen. William L. Nash, who situated his 
headquarters in the Bosnian city of Tuzla in the center of MND (N). Most
 of the UNPROFOR personnel already in Bosnia simply changed their 
uniforms (usually the UN light blue helmet and armband to the soldier's 
national uniform) and either relocated or remained in place as part of 
the new IFOR. Thus, the French forces shifted to the south, the British 
forces shifted to the west, the Russian and Turkish forces remained in 
the northeast area of Bosnia under the jurisdiction of the MND (N).
    The initial operational task was to separate the 
former warring factions into their respective areas and establish a zone
 of separation. By then, combat activity in MND (N) was largely static, 
with opposing forces fighting from fixed positions. Barbed wire 
entanglements around entrenchments, roadblocks, bunkers, and minefields 
saturated the area. Most of the buildings in and around the zone of 
separation had already been destroyed or extensively damaged. It was an 
austere environment, with one brigade commander affirming that the 
potholes were larger than the roads.
    Task Force Eagle quickly set about its peace 
enforcement mission. After securing the former UNPROFOR cantonment sites
 as well as others, individual units began to assert their control over 
the region through checkpoints on roads and bridges and aggressive 
patrolling. The American soldiers found the former warring factions and 
the ethnic groups exhausted by three years of continuous bloodshed and 
the populace generally docile but most appreciative. In particular, 
those on patrol were offered small tokens of gratitude in the form of 
food and drink, but such gifts were usually declined for security 
reasons.
    A number of isolated and spontaneous incidents 
challenged the American soldiers, but the outcomes demonstrated both 
their restraint and the quality of their training and discipline. For 
instance, soon after starting on a routine patrol, an intoxicated 
civilian blocked a Bradley fighting vehicle and brandished two firearms,
 which he began firing wildly at the armored personnel carrier. The 
vehicle commander simply closed his hatch and waited for the civilian to
 exhaust his ammunition, and then bystanders subdued him and carried him
 away. Random gunfire sometimes was
    [21]
    Photo: Typical U.S. Army checkpoint in Bosnia-Herzegovina
    Typical U.S. Army checkpoint in Bosnia-Herzegovina
    directed at U.S. troops or equipment, but none of
 the shots hit the intended targets. Once a hand grenade was thrown at 
an armored vehicle, but it caused no damage. Other episodes occurred, 
for example, a rock or an empty bottle being hurled at a passing patrol,
 but they were few in number. As the weeks went by, patrol operations 
and checkpoints became a common activity performed by IFOR and casually 
observed by the local civilians. In time, fighting the tedium and 
staying alert weighed heavily on most of the U.S. forces in MDN (N).
    But all the former warring factions were not 
idle. Soon after U.S. troops in Task Force Eagle had established their 
checkpoints and settled into an expected routine, a two-truck convoy of 
Bosnian Serbs challenged an isolated outpost by trying to speed past the
 American guards. The first truck slipped past the checkpoint, but the 
second truck was stopped. The U.S. Army sergeant ordered the twenty-two 
armed Bosnian Serb soldiers out of the truck. In perfect English, one of
 the Serbs said: "I'll kill you." Calmly, the sergeant pointed his rifle
 at the speaker and replied, "I don't think you will," and repeated his 
order. By then, the other four U.S. troops at the checkpoint arrived to 
guard the Bosnian Serbs, while the sergeant collected two-dozen firearms
 and ammunition.
    In another early incident a Task Force Eagle 
patrol observed a man carrying an automatic rifle inside the zone of 
separation. The
    [22]
    patrol approached the individual to confiscate his weapon, but 
noted that several other armed personnel were in a nearby house watching
 the patrol. The patrol leader immediately radioed his headquarters, and
 within minutes several IFOR armored vehicles and a senior officer with 
interpreters arrived on the scene, while attack helicopters hovered in 
the distance. This synchronized tactical response to a potentially 
volatile situation was sufficient to permit all of the civilians to be 
disarmed peacefully. Then too, the generally decentralized troop 
distribution facilitated the quick concentration of necessary force at 
trouble spots.
    Episodes like this were typical of the early phases of Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR.
 What made them especially sensitive and significant was the 
near-certainty that they could easily escalate and spin out of control. 
In a stability or peace enforcement operation, a successful mission was 
credited to commanders and their personnel who did not have to resort to
 force of arms. Every nonlethal option to achieve a desired end was 
encouraged, while convincing the opposing force that implementation of 
overwhelming combat power was imminent. Of note, the small-unit 
leaders-noncommissioned and company-grade officers-were making these 
decisions.
    At least thirty patrols occurred every day, with 
three platoons on alert as a quick-reaction force that could be 
committed to respond to any exigency that might arise. On infrequent 
occasions gunfire would be exchanged between the former warring 
factions, for example, snipers firing across the zone of separation and 
then scampering away before U.S. troops or aircraft could arrive on the 
scene. In other cases civilians of one ethnic background might 
accidentally stray into a different ethnic area, and U.S. forces would 
be called in to rescue the hapless individuals. Each crisis had 
strategic, operational, and tactical implications. In a world dominated 
by instant communications, any violent flare-up or any mistake could 
significantly affect national policies and the fate of the peace 
enforcement operation in Bosnia.
    More complex examples abounded and not all ended 
happily. The Dayton Accords clearly specified limitations on carrying 
arms within the zone of separation or crossing into another ethnic area 
without coordinating such movements through IFOR. Thus, when seven armed
 Bosnian Muslims found inside the borders of the Serb Republic tried to 
surrender to U.S. forces, they were disarmed and transferred to Bosnian 
Serb police, who believed that these men were responsible for the murder
 of some Bosnian Serbs a few days earlier. The men claimed to be 
survivors of the Serbian
    [23]
    massacre in Srebrenica, but the evidence was inconclusive. The 
action complied with treaty requirements, but the International Red 
Cross disputed the Army's decision. General Nash immediately sent a 
senior officer to the Bosnian Serb police station, along with a small 
team of observers from the UN and the recently constituted International
 Police Task Force (IPTF). Their stay was cut short when a hostile crowd
 gathered outside the station. The IPTF inspectors returned the 
following day, only to be denied access to the Muslim prisoners. The 
prisoners were transferred a few days later to another city 30 miles 
away, where another IPTF inspector was able to visit the Muslims and 
report that they had been severely beaten and tortured. The final fate 
of the prisoners remained unknown to American authorities.
    Within the context of the larger operation, the 
episode was minor, but it also was characteristic of the problems 
surrounding Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR.
 On any given day U.S. forces could encounter a variety of isolated and 
unrelated issues, and there was no predicting which ones might suddenly 
surface as an international incident. A sergeant or lieutenant at a 
remote checkpoint was fully aware of the potential ramifications of 
every decision that he made.
    Military authorities constantly worked at 
defusing potential problems and ensuring proper civil-military 
coordination. Although zone-of-separation security was the most visible 
element of Task Force Eagle's activities, commanders also engaged in 
political affairs and economic recovery. To improve the local economy 
and to encourage positive interchange among the indigenous ethnic 
groups, one brigade commander created the Arizona Market-an open-air 
commercial enterprise for Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Serb businesses. 
The joint military commissions demanded significant investments of time 
just to keep the former warring factions talking to each other.
    A recurring problem for the U.S. forces in Bosnia
 was the constant animosity between the ethnic and religious groups. 
Army personnel often noted the deliberate destruction of nonmilitary 
targets-such as private homes, churches, and mosques-that occurred 
during the war. So it came as no surprise that these tensions continued 
when, in accordance with the Dayton Accords, some Bosnian Muslims, or 
"Bosniacs," tried to resettle in areas that they had occupied before the
 war began. One volatile episode began in late April 1996 and continued 
through the following month. Muslim civilians crossed the zone of 
separation and
    [24]
    entered Bosnia Serb territory, with the intention of either 
visiting family grave sites or reoccupying their former homes. They had 
not gone far when armed Serbs met them. Shots were exchanged, with one 
Muslim killed. Some of the Muslim civilians panicked and ran through a 
marked minefield, where six were injured. A reinforced armored column 
from the 3d Squadron, 4th Cavalry, quickly arrived at the site before 
the situation could spin out of control. The U.S. soldiers disarmed the 
Serbians and escorted the Muslims out of Serb territory. In the 
following weeks additional weapons and munitions were confiscated from 
both ethnic groups as Muslims tried to enter the Serbian side of the 
zone of separation and Bosnian Serbs continued to block their efforts.
    The rapid and resolute response to this episode, 
as well as many like it, prevented such situations from spiraling into 
more serious problems. Sometimes, however, the operations were not so 
seamless. In November 1996 a company of American infantrymen, working 
with Russian paratroopers in MND (N), stopped a small group of Muslims 
from provoking neighboring Serbs, making the group leave the zone of 
separation near the burned-out village of Gajevi. But hours later as 
many as 600 Bosnian Muslims suddenly gathered and started moving toward 
Serb territory. Paramilitary Serbian forces quickly arrived to block 
their route of advance after some shots were fired at Serbian homes. 
Familiar with the now-predictable IFOR response to such provocations, 
this clearly was an orchestrated political event that was designed to 
attract media attention. In view of the planned rotation of U.S. forces,
 the incident also may have been prompted to exploit the temporary 
vacuum engendered by the change in forces and the concurrent changes of 
command.
    The Bosnian Muslims, claiming their right to 
resettle in their former homeland as formally acknowledged in the Dayton
 Accords, refused to leave. In response, the Serbian forces started to 
advance on the crowd, and the senior American commander warned them to 
halt or be shot. His action appeared to end the confrontation, with both
 sides eventually dispersing. Nevertheless, in the same region on 12 
November, the Bosnian Serbs and Muslims exchanged random gunfire, 
resulting in the death of at least one Muslim. By now, IFOR personnel 
had determined that the Muslims were carrying weapons into the zone of 
separation and had an undocumented arsenal nearby. Two companies of 
tanks and armored personnel carriers, with trucks and support personnel,
 launched a predawn raid on the arsenal site and confiscated over 1,000 
firearms. As they
    [25]
    were leaving, a hostile Muslim crowd gathered to 
block the American forces from withdrawing. When negotiations with the 
agitators failed, the task force commander tried various nonlethal means
 of dispersing the crowd. Nothing worked. Eventually, the U.S. soldiers 
disembarked from their vehicles and forced a path through the crowd for 
themselves and their vehicles. Individual soldiers were kicked, punched,
 and spat on. When subjected to a flurry of rocks and debris, they 
raised their firearms and pointed them toward the pressing crowd, which 
immediately began to thin and disperse. Although there were no 
casualties, the incident highlighted how easily a situation could become
 uncontrollable and how tense the situation was-even after months of an 
enforced peace.
    It seemed that every military organization among 
the former warring factions maintained a weapons cache or small arsenal.
 One of the mandates for Task Force Eagle was to reduce the volume of 
weaponry in MND (N), to concentrate what remained, and to conduct 
periodic inventories so that the collection neither increased nor 
decreased. It was a task that often engendered some tension between the 
U.S. forces and the ethnic military organization being inspected.
    Not every encounter with the general population 
of Bosnia was confrontational. Inventorying weapons caches, separating 
the former warring factions, and securing the zone of separation between
 them also included identifying and clearing thousands of minefields in 
the area. With the exception of maintaining checkpoints and aggressive 
patrolling throughout the area of operations, no other issue so 
dominated the concerns and actions of U.S. military personnel. Indeed, 
some military authorities regarded land mines as a greater threat to 
U.S. personnel than the former warring factions. Others regarded this 
situation as the most stressful aspect of the Bosnian experience: "You 
never know when somebody's going to step on a mine."
    Bosnia was peppered with at least thirty types of
 antitank and antipersonnel mines, which were responsible for nearly 
one-third of all UNPROFOR casualties. Both mine maps and signage were 
either incomplete or nonexistent, primarily because the inexperienced 
personnel used to seed the fields with mines did not bother to plot what
 and where the devices were positioned. The situation became more 
complex as front lines shifted, and each opposing force laid new 
minefields or overlapped existing ones. Estimates made after three years
 of warfare suggested that more than 750,000 mines were in over 30,000 
areas.
    [26]
    Painting: Photographing Minefields, by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy, 1998
      Photographing Minefields, by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy, 1998
      One Army engineer, who had arrived in Bosnia during the first week of JOINT ENDEAVOR,
 recalled that initially only four minefields were marked in MND (N) and
 that over the next three weeks he had identified 2,000 more in the same
 area. By the end of the first year in Bosnia, with over 4,000 
minefields known and marked, Army personnel concluded that only half of 
all the mines in the American sector had been located.
      [27]
      Photo: Sweeping for mines
        Sweeping for mines
        Predeployment training regarding mines and 
booby traps had been intense and thorough, but accidents still 
happened-often in a thoughtless or unguarded moment. A typical episode 
occurred when Army engineers accompanied a Bosnian Serb officer to 
investigate a mine explosion in an area that had been declared cleared 
of mines. As they approached the area, their Bradley vehicle struck an 
explosive device and was disabled. A lieutenant immediately jumped off 
the vehicle to investigate the damage, in the process detonating an 
antipersonnel mine; he was thrown into the air and landed on an antitank
 mine that, fortunately, failed to explode. In another incident, when a 
military vehicle traveling on a hard-surface road used daily struck an 
antitank mine, Army engineers learned that the former warring factions 
occasionally placed
        [28]
        land mines under asphalt roads. The former 
warring factions knew this, and simply assumed that everyone else was 
familiar with the practice; IFOR personnel had to learn from experience.
 The lessons from these episodes were inescapable. The danger was 
omnipresent and could not be ignored. Extreme fluctuations in the 
temperature, snow and ice, and small alterations of the land surface 
could obscure the presence of land mines or cause some that had been 
dormant for years to become active.
        The former warring factions were responsible 
for removing the mines that they had planted. It was laborious work, 
often made more difficult because few minefields were marked and many 
had been created or enlarged by different military units and ethnic 
factions. IFOR monitored most of the mine-clearing operations, but this 
oversight proved problematic at times. For example, the former warring 
factions also contracted out mine-clearing tasks to nongovernmental 
organizations, and these agencies rarely reported the quantity or 
location of the mines that were removed.
        Besides these conventional explosives, Bosnia
 was littered with booby traps. These devices were usually located in 
the doors and windows of abandoned houses. Sometimes small explosives 
were placed inside innocuous objects, such as soda cans or paper bags, 
and left in public areas for passing civilians to pick up. One civilian 
was killed when the jacket that he retrieved from a roadside exploded. 
Though infrequent and few, these random incidents continued for years. 
As late as 1998 Task Force Eagle continued to encounter explosive 
devices secretly placed in homes, automobiles, or public buildings.
        In addition to concerns over land mines and 
booby traps, IFOR personnel also contended with infrequent gunfire and 
explosions. The very random nature of a shot fired in the darkness of 
night or an explosive thrown from a speeding vehicle only increased 
tensions within communities and among soldiers. Eventually, occasional 
sniper fire became less common than the quickly hurled hand grenade, 
which was "the weapon of choice to settle disputes" among the ethnic 
factions. And, even four years after the Dayton Accords had been 
implemented, such violent acts continued to occur.
        Although the former warring factions 
cooperated in identifying the locations of known minefields within the 
zone of separation, they were incapable of marking all of them. As an 
alternate resource, IFOR personnel soon learned that local farmers could
 be equally helpful because in some instances they had planted crops 
around and through such areas. Nevertheless, the rising number of deaths
 and the gradual
        [29]
        Photo: The experimental Panther used for mine-clearing operations
        The experimental Panther used for mine-clearing operations
        influx of returning refugees forced Task 
Force Eagle personnel to conduct mine-awareness classes for the 
indigenous population. Comic books were among the more popular 
instructional handouts used to warn children (and adults) about the 
dangers of land mines and how to recognize them.
        U.S. military personnel engaged in some 
mine-clearing operations, relying upon mechanical methods, visual 
inspections, and dog teams. The principal proofing method was the 
experimental Panther, a remote-controlled armored vehicle with the 
chassis of an M60 tank. Equipped with two five-ton rollers, the vehicle 
simply drove over areas with the intent of either detonating mines or 
certifying that none was present. As a "proofing vehicle," it was 
effective. But this technique did not always work, and occasionally an 
area would have to be cleared again if a land mine were discovered or, 
more often, detonated. Military dog teams usually were less effective 
and were used sparingly before being returned to USAREUR. In many cases,
 however, the former warring factions
        [30]
        were responsible for clearing minefields from
 the zone of separation, using their own military personnel or 
contractors. Yet given the slow pace of mine-clearing operations, the 
unstable nature of many mines, the unknown location of many minefields, 
and the shear volume of explosive devices, IFOR personnel calculated 
that it would take another twenty years before all the mines in Bosnia 
had been removed-"that's if they don't go out and emplace anymore," 
opined one Army engineer.
        The ethnic animosity that afflicted so much 
of Bosnia-Herzegovina during these years remained profound. By July 1996
 conditions in MND (N) seemed less tense, and some political observers 
speculated that the peace enforcement operation might end later that 
year. But many others were less hopeful. That month, a young girl with a
 severe head wound was taken to a hospital in the Serb Republic of 
Bosnia. While in the operating room, the surgical staff learned that she
 was a Bosnian Muslim and had her removed from the hospital. Struggling 
with her open wound, her family was able to move her to a U.S. medical 
facility, where an Army surgeon completed the operation. The little girl
 lived, but the episode punctuated the intense hostility that still 
existed and the near-certainty that the IFOR mission would not conclude 
anytime soon.
        The incident also underscored a recurring 
difficulty that beleaguered IFOR, particularly Task Force Eagle. The 
objective of this operation was peace enforcement-not humanitarian 
assistance or nation building. And yet, many civilians in Bosnia, as 
well as international relief agencies and nongovernmental organizations,
 expected U.S. forces to engage in a variety of civic action activities,
 to include rebuilding schools, roads, and bridges, and providing food, 
clothing, and medical care. To be sure, Army civil affairs units engaged
 in such tasks, sometimes as a component of a larger mission requirement
 and sometimes on the initiative of an individual unit. For example, 
within the first ten months of JOINT ENDEAVOR,
 Task Force Eagle assisted the U.S. Agency for International Development
 with initiating 126 projects that covered various reconstruction 
efforts and community improvements. Overall, civil affairs units 
coordinated or organized over 500 reconstruction and relief projects 
throughout northeastern Bosnia. Several individual units also engaged in
 relief activities, usually distributing materials that were donated by 
soldiers or sent from community service organizations in the United 
States. A typical response was the donation of clothing and school 
supplies for 800 orphans, which one unit historian regarded as "one of 
the most
        [31]
        important events of the year-long 
deployment." But these efforts had to be balanced against IFOR's larger 
security mission and portended the ubiquitous "mission creep" that had 
bedeviled U.S. forces in similar deployments.
        To meet IFOR's requirement for safe travel 
roads, Army engineers repaired and opened for traffic more than half of 
the roads as well as over sixty bridges in Bosnia. Task Force Eagle 
staff officers identified other minor reconstruction initiatives as 
training missions for engineers, and they often had them funded with 
materials donated by relief agencies or the local citizenry. Thus, many 
technicians and specialists provided assistance in restoring public 
utilities, upgrading communications, and even teaching classes; however,
 such tasks always were subject to other mission requirements. 
Notwithstanding the tandem pressures of American soldiers wanting to do 
more and local civilians and relief agencies expecting additional 
assistance, the United States and its NATO allies were not in a position
 to fund or staff many humanitarian tasks. Simply enforcing the Dayton 
Accords and the overall peace in the region kept IFOR's plate full.
        Characteristic of the U.S. Army's involvement
 in the internal affairs of Bosnia-Herzegovina was the increased 
security and limited logistical support for national elections in 
September 1996. This task included a greater military visibility through
 conducting more patrols, guarding polling places, and escorting the 
delivery of ballots to and from polling places. Army civil affairs units
 worked closely with several government organizations to keep the 
elections on schedule, despite the controversy over which contractor 
would supply ballot boxes: Serbs rejected a Turkish agency, Croats 
objected to a Greek company, and no one wanted firms from western 
Europe. Eventually, the ballot boxes came from Taiwan. The elections 
themselves were successful, but produced no surprises and largely 
reaffirmed the intense ethnic and cultural divisions within the country.
 Nevertheless, the added security precautions and the past ten months of
 IFOR's peace enforcement operations seemed to have worked. In the words
 of one Army engineer: "Contrary [to] all expectations, the election was
 peaceful and boring."
        Even before the JOINT ENDEAVOR
 deployment was completed, planning began for the relief force that 
would replace the 1st Armored Division in Bosnia. This force, comprising
 elements of the 1st Infantry Division, was to be ready for deployment 
by the end of the year if the U.S. government decided to extend the IFOR
 mission. Extending the mission was a delicate issue, and one that the
        [32]
        Army approached carefully. The president had 
promised Congress that U.S. forces would be in Bosnia for only one year,
 but it had become increasingly apparent that neither the IFOR tasks nor
 the provisions of the Dayton Accords would be fully accomplished before
 the end of that time period. An extension was almost certain, but only 
the president had the formal authority to acknowledge this. But despite 
the uncertainty, specific training began in July with MRE Mountain Eagle
 III, which spanned three months and embraced two command post 
exercises, a field training exercise, and individual qualifications 
training.
        To ensure a seamless force reduction and 
redeployment, the Army ordered the 2d Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, to
 Bosnia as a covering force for the redeploying Army units. The first 
brigade elements began to arrive in October 1996. The term covering force
 was necessary at this time, because no public decision had been made 
about extending the U.S. mission into Bosnia. One month later, following
 the U.S. national elections in November, the president announced that 
the mission in Bosnia would be extended another eighteen months, and a 
resolution of the UN Security Council redesignated the Implementation 
Force as the Stabilization Force (SFOR). By then the 1st Infantry 
Division had assumed control of Task Force Eagle, with its 3d Brigade 
subsequently relieving its 2d Brigade, and by the end of the year the 
Army had reduced its strength in Bosnia from around 18,500 to about 
10,500 soldiers. In the latter half of 1997 the 2d Armored Cavalry 
deployed from the United States to relieve the 1st Infantry Division of 
its mission in Bosnia. But even after one year the job for Task Force 
Eagle would not become easier.
        Operation JOINT GUARD
        Operation JOINT GUARD officially replaced Operation JOINT ENDEAVOR
 on 20 December 1996, when the Implementation Force became the 
Stabilization Force. Having established a firm military presence for 
peace enforcement operations, the intent of the U.S. contingent within 
SFOR was to draw down its total force commitment in increments, 
eventually reaching a baseline of about 5,000 American soldiers by the 
projected end of the SFOR mission in June 1998. Keeping a highly visible
 force in such a rugged country while progressively making it smaller 
was a Herculean feat for Task Force Eagle as it accomplished its 
assigned objectives and sustained its operational tempo.
        [33]
        The change in command brought a change in mission. Whereas the IFOR mission had been to implement the peace, the SFOR mandate was to stabilize
 the peace. IFOR had established and maintained the zone of separation, 
located and destroyed weapons systems, identified minefields, and 
created safe travel routes. With a new and much smaller force deployed 
into the country, SFOR was to maintain the zone of separation, to 
monitor civilian movements, to oversee the removal of mines, and to 
inspect weapons sites. More civic action projects and humanitarian 
assistance programs were also scheduled, including additional 
mine-awareness instruction for the civilian population.
        Early in Operation JOINT GUARD,
 as though to underscore the future tone of SFOR activities, Bosniac 
refugees attempted to resettle in a Bosnian Serb area not far from 
Brcko. The effort failed. An ethnic Serb mob attacked and severely 
injured one Bosniac who was trying to construct a prefabricated 
building, and other civilians were threatened. As a result, SFOR 
personnel had to remove the Muslims from the area to ensure their 
safety. The Bosnian Serbs burned the unoccupied buildings. The successes
 of JOINT ENDEAVOR had not 
altered the hearts and minds of the ethnic groups in Bosnia, 
particularly in such strategically sensitive areas as Brcko. This small 
town on the Sava River, seized by Bosnian Serbs early in the civil war, 
was the only land link that connected ethnic Serbs to the east and the 
west.
        The tensions between the ethnic groups thus 
remained and sometimes became violent. Random acts of vandalism and 
isolated outbursts of anger occurred without any identifiable pattern. 
These episodes usually included throwing stones at passing vehicles, 
breaking windows, or making obscene gestures to another ethnic group. 
Occasionally, however, more serious flare-ups occurred that involved 
direct responses from Task Force Eagle.
        The town of Brcko, which was strategically 
important to the Croats, Muslims, and Serbs, was an especially sensitive
 site in MND (N). Originally a multiethnic municipality, Bosnian Serbs 
early in the conflict had seized and fully "cleansed" the town and the 
Croats and Muslims at the end returned and reoccupied portions of it. 
U.S. forces were often called upon to quell disturbances, but in late 
August 1997 a series of incidences escalated into full-scale rioting. 
Task Force Eagle eventually was able to control the situation, but only 
after two U.S. soldiers were seriously injured. As a result of this 
episode, and a concurrent one south of the town, U.S. forces in Bosnia 
received nonlethal weaponry for riot-control situations and the 
appropriate training in their use.
        [34]
        Painting: Sentry at "Mud" Govern, by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy, 1998, depicts SFOR duty near Camp McGovern on the outskirts of Brcko
        Sentry at "Mud" Govern, by Col. Gary N. "Butch" Cassidy, 1998,
          depicts SFOR duty near Camp McGovern on the outskirts of Brcko.
        These public outbursts often had the support 
of ethnic leaders. The sponsoring government or a quasi-official 
government agency generally supplied transportation, usually buses, and 
occasionally even food and a small stipend to participants in a 
demonstration. For example, when radical Bosnian Serbs tried to inflame 
public sentiment in a series of radio broadcasts during August and 
September, U.S. military personnel attempted to seize the transmission 
towers. In response, several hundred Bosnian Serbs arrived at the sites 
in buses to thwart the U.S. forces. A favorite tactic of all the ethnic 
factions was the employment of large civilian groups-often called 
"rent-a-mobs" by NATO personnel. In this case, SFOR personnel were able 
to persuade the Serb authorities to tone down their rhetoric, and the 
crowd dispersed. When the Bosnian Serbs reneged on their promises weeks 
later, Task Force Eagle quickly returned in force. The presence of 
armored vehicles in the predawn hour discouraged the armed guards at the
 transmission towers from resisting occupation and neutralization of the
 communications facility, and the speed of movement did not allow 
sufficient time to organize and bus a mob to the site.
        Regrettably, SFOR could not respond to every 
exigency quickly or with sufficient force to prevent acts of violence. 
In one notable episode in the spring of 1998 Croatians suddenly massed 
in a border village that had been resettled by Bosnian Serbs. Several 
dozen residences and vehicles were burned or damaged. A Canadian unit in
 SFOR responded once the violence began, but it lacked sufficient force 
to overwhelm the Croatians. Although there were no fatalities, the 
incident underscored the fragile ethnic relations that still existed in 
the country.
        For the U.S. Army, the new stabilization 
mission had begun with a limited timetable as a contingency mission for 
USAREUR, with small supplements from other active Army and Army Reserve 
units and personnel. By the latter half of 1997, however, it had become 
apparent that the U.S. mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina would be extended 
again and that it would become an Army-wide operation. Perhaps 
indicative of a probable extension was a congressional appropriation for
 permanent billets to house almost 6,500 soldiers in that country. In 
December the president thus announced that U.S. troops would stay in 
Bosnia beyond the previously set departure of June 1998. Several months 
later, and viewed by many as demonstrable proof of a much longer U.S. 
military presence in Bosnia, a 10,000-square-
        [36]
        foot multiservice post exchange was opened at the main Army cantonment known as Camp Eagle.
        Operation JOINT FORGE
        Operation JOINT GUARD officially ended on 20 June 1998. The new military operation, JOINT FORGE,
 began at the same time, albeit as an open-ended commitment to support 
NATO and the peace enforcement task in Bosnia-Herzegovina. USAREUR 
continued to serve as the Army service component command providing 
oversight for the mission, but in the following years other major 
non-USAREUR organizations assumed the Task Force Eagle mission in 
Bosnia. Ranging from six- to twelve-month tours, these units included 
elements from the 1st Cavalry Division, the 10th Mountain Division, the 
49th Armored Division of the Texas National Guard, the 3d Infantry 
Division, the 29th Infantry Division of the Virginia National Guard, the
 25th Infantry Division, the 28th Infantry Division of the Pennsylvania 
National Guard, the 35th Infantry Division of the Kansas National Guard,
 and the 38th Infantry Division of the Indiana National Guard. In 
January 2003 MND (N) was redesignated Multinational Brigade (North), and
 the total U.S. troop commitment fell below 1,400 military personnel in 
the area of operations.
        Despite the reduced military profile, SFOR 
was kept busy by almost daily confiscations of weapons, routine patrols,
 and reactions to either ethnic clashes or tasks that fell within the 
purview of an expanding mission. The massive amount of munitions that 
continued to be seized from unreported bunkers, hidden caches, and small
 improvised arsenals indicated that all three of the ethnic factions 
might simply be waiting for the peacekeepers to leave before restarting 
their civil war. To discourage the random acts of violence and 
vandalism, quick-reaction teams provided security for public ceremonies 
and major transportation facilities. Mine-clearing operations among the 
former warring factions continued, and Task Force Eagle sponsored 
several civic action projects to rebuild the country's infrastructure. 
Individual and unit training became routine, but served to reinforce the
 SFOR presence in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
        By late 2004 the entire U.S. Army personnel 
strength fell to less than 1,000 soldiers. Although the Stabilization 
Force was obviously becoming significantly smaller and assuming a much 
lower profile, its mission could not be eliminated. Even after nine 
years of peace enforcement operations, the conditions in 
Bosnia-Herzegovina posed
        [37]
        problems that defied a definitive military 
solution. The United States, its NATO allies, and several other 
contributing nations had successfully stopped the civil war, and the 
widespread killing, horrific destruction, and ethnic cleansing that had 
shattered the land a decade earlier were over. Roads could be repaired 
and buildings could be reconstructed. Yet the time when any semblance of
 ethnic harmony and an unsupervised and permanent peace could return to 
Bosnia was not in sight.
        Thus, on 24 November, when Task Force Eagle 
officially closed its base in Tuzla and was disestablished, European 
Union forces assumed responsibility for the Bosnia mission-now 
code-named Operation ALTHEA. At this juncture, military formations from 
Finland became the dominant peace enforcement organization in the former
 Task Force Eagle area of operations. A small U.S. contingent, however, 
remained primarily as a transition security force to ensure that NATO 
units could reenter rapidly if the need arose.
        Summary and Analysis
        The peace enforcement operations-JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINT FORGE-were
 atypical military campaigns. In the spectrum of armed conflict, 
political and diplomatic issues significantly influenced the Army's 
actions and created an inverted role in which the absence of fighting 
was the measurement of success. The U.S. Army, trained to fight, used 
its resources to avoid conflict, to minimize confrontation, and to keep 
the peace. It did its job well. Bosnian casualties plummeted with the 
arrival of the Implementation Force, and IFOR/SFOR casualties were fewer
 than the respective number for either the civilian populace or the 
opposing paramilitary groups. Not one American soldier was killed by 
hostile fire.
        However, there were problems. Random acts of 
violence and vandalism continued throughout the peace enforcement 
operations, albeit with a gradual decline in their frequency over the 
years. Although the Dayton Peace Accords called for the free movement 
and settlement of all ethnic groups and refugees within Bosnia, very few
 people were able to return to and resettle in their former homes or 
communities. With rare exceptions, the ethnic groups consistently and 
categorically thwarted the efforts of those who attempted to move from 
one ethnic-dominated enclave into another. The former warring factions 
may have been war-weary, but all three ethnic groups continued to 
stockpile munitions in anticipation of renewed hostilities. The secret 
arsenals, illegal weapons, and pervasive land mines kept IFOR/SFOR 
personnel constantly busy-and vigilant. The
        [38]
        Photo: The ever-present sign of danger
        The ever-present sign of danger
        peace was maintained, as one brigade 
commander ruefully observed, "partly because the sides want peace, but 
also by cajoling, coaching, and outright compelling peace." It was 
difficult work.
        In addition to the seemingly regular 
confiscations of weapons and munitions, Task Force Eagle continued to 
wrestle with the complex problems of identifying and removing the 
thousands of booby traps and land mines that littered the landscape. 
Thirty months after the first American tank crossed the Sava River the 
U.S. Army reported that 45,000 land mines had been removed (only 9,000 
of them by the former warring factions), yet the database it compiled 
from various sources indicated that some 116,000 land mines were left. 
Nevertheless, with so many undocumented minefields, some either adjacent
 to or overlapping others, the Army estimated that only a fraction of 
the total number of land mines had been removed. In MND (N) alone, rough
 estimates suggested that the total number of land mines-documented and 
undocumented-actually hovered somewhere between 300,000 and 350,000 
individual explosive devices. In an uncharacteristic understatement, one
 Army after action report simply concluded: "Mine clearance, at the 
current rate, could go on indefinitely."
        Yet the tasks were made manageable by the 
superlative training and preparation that preceded the deployment of 
successive Task Force Eagle units and soldiers. On several occasions 
veterans return-
        [39]
        ing from Bosnia commented on how demanding 
their predeployment training had been and how closely it paralleled 
their actual experiences. A battalion commander claimed his personnel 
kept repeating, "This is just like 'Mountain Eagle.'" Others thought 
that headquarters personnel back in Europe had been hiring Bosnians to 
replicate past training exercises because the scenarios were simply too 
familiar. One platoon leader had high praise for the training he and his
 men received before their deployment, but whimsically added that 
trainers could not have anticipated everything, "such as an old lady 
falling into your barbed wire or a farmer who's irate because your tank 
has torn up his road." Perhaps the one significant shortcoming of the 
predeployment training was the inability to work closely with units that
 were later attached or that arrived from other major commands. This 
disconnect in integrated training was especially true for 
reserve-component elements that joined IFOR from stations in the United 
States.
        Unlike other campaigns in American military 
history, the Bosnia operations created an environment in which 
company-grade officers were directly involved every day in actions that 
could have strategic implications. Other IFOR participants were amazed 
that the U.S. Army would entrust captains, lieutenants, and 
noncommissioned officers with authority and responsibility in various 
scenarios that could permanently alter the operational tempo and 
adversely affect the peace in Bosnia. The Army was aware of this great 
responsibility placed upon junior leaders and tailored its training 
accordingly. Citing as a typical example of both its successful training
 and the quality of its small-unit leaders, an after action report noted
 an episode following ethnic riots in the tense community of Brcko in 
August 1997. Observing fifteen buses leaving the city, a lieutenant-on 
his own initiative-followed with his small patrol. Soon, the buses 
stopped, and 400 people disembarked. Many were inebriated and agitated, 
showing no signs of purpose or direction in their activity. The patrol 
halted near the group, and the lieutenant approached the crowd. 
Immediately, his translator ran away, and the crowd surrounded the young
 officer. His patrol readied itself for a confrontation. Calmly, the 
lieutenant asked if anyone in the crowd could speak English, and a man 
stepped forward. In the interview that followed, the lieutenant learned 
that the crowd was hungry and fatigued. While admitting that he could 
not feed or house the large group, he promised to speak to their 
civilian authorities to seek help. This attention pleased the crowd, 
which cleared a path for the lieutenant to rejoin his patrol. The 
lieutenant returned every hour through the night to provide updated 
information for the crowd. What could have
        [40]
        become an international incident became a 
typical and otherwise forgotten episode in a NATO-sponsored peace 
enforcement operation.
        And-on the slightly humorous side-there was 
the story of the American patrol that inadvertently established its 
roadside checkpoint across the border in Serbia. The soldiers were kept 
busy all day, leaving Serbian drivers puzzled until the local U.S. 
commander discovered the error and hustled the Americans back into 
Bosnia.
        JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINT FORGE
 were career-defining experiences for many of the IFOR/SFOR soldiers. 
The multinational effort behind these peace enforcement operations 
represented NATO's first out-of-sector deployment, deemed to be a 
success by all participants. Yet the tenuous cease-fire in Bosnia 
continues only because of the presence of the NATO-sponsored peace 
force. As one brigade commander affirmed, "When somebody sees U.S. Army 
soldiers' boots on the ground, it shows a level of commitment that goes 
beyond any other level of commitment. People know that we're here to 
stay, that we're here dedicated to a purpose and dedicated to an 
accomplishment of a mission. That is not lost on local civilians."
        More importantly, peace enforcement in Bosnia
 may have been a harbinger of future military operations. In waging 
modern wars in the twenty-first century it no longer is enough to simply
 win the battles and go home. Given the multitude of ethnic diversity in
 many geographic areas around the world and the complex issues that 
engender conflicts among ethnic groups, the U.S. Army may be called upon
 to engage in more peace enforcement operations. And these require more 
time and patience. Like major surgery, the operation may be quick but 
the recovery extremely lengthy.
        No one challenges the assertion that the 
IFOR/SFOR presence in Bosnia-Herzegovina kept the peace in that troubled
 country, but a meaningful and lasting resolution may be much further 
away. Peace enforcement operations are not mechanical exercises that 
permit precise planning or exit strategies. As one U.S. Central 
Intelligence Agency analyst observed, "The flames had been damped down 
and covered over, but beneath the surface seismic faults and tensions 
remained." With the stand-down of Task Force Eagle in November 2004, 
conditions today are certainly better than they were a decade earlier, 
but there are still people in Bosnia who nurture past grievances and who
 may seek to resolve them in the future. Until the ethnic groups are 
able to enforce their own peace, the outside stabilization forces must 
remain.
        [41]
        Further Readings
        
        The civil war in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the 
events that followed certainly were the most extensively covered 
political-diplomatic-military issues in the late twentieth century. 
Thousands of articles, hundreds of interviews, and dozens of books have 
presented not only the larger analysis of the Balkans and the rise and 
collapse of Yugoslavia but also the very specific history of Bosnia. It 
is not possible to list every available source, and neither is it even 
possible to cite all the better ones available to the general public. 
Nonetheless, the reader who wishes to pursue a broader and deeper 
understanding of the issues that led to the peace enforcement operations
 JOINT ENDEAVOR, JOINT GUARD, and JOINTFORGE would do well to consider the following sources.
        .....Bennett, Christopher. Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course and Consequences. Washington Square, N.Y.: New York University Press, 1995.
        .....Bildt, Carl. Peace Journey: The Struggle for Peace in Bosnia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1998.
        .....Burg, Steven L., and Paul Shoup. The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe,1999.
        .....Daalder, Ivo H. Getting to Dayton: The Making of America's Bosnia Policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2000.
        .....Holbrooke, Richard. To End a War. New York: Random House, 1998.
        .....Malcolm, Noel. Bosnia: A Short History. Washington Square, N.Y.: NewYork University Press, 1994.
        .....Nation, R. Craig. War in the Balkans, 1991-2002. Carlisle, Pa.: U.S. Army War College, 2003.
        .....Silber, Laura, and Allan Little. Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation. New York: Penguin Books, 1995.
        .....Swain, Richard M. Neither
 War Nor Not War. Army Command in Europe During the Time of Peace 
Operations: Tasks Confronting USAREUR Commanders, 1994-2000. Carlisle, Pa.: U.S.Army War College, 2003.
        [42]
        A small archival collection of unclassified 
after action reports and related memoranda, as well as 300 oral history 
interviews and a lesser number of draft transcripts, are in the custody 
of the U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, D.C. A larger 
archival collection is located at the Army Heritage and Education 
Center, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. In addition, more detailed 
monographs about the U.S. Army's peace enforcement operations in Bosnia 
and the Balkans region are being prepared by the Center of Military 
History, the U.S. Army Europe, and the U.S. Army Special Operations 
Command.
        [43]
        Armed Forces Expeditionary Service Medal
        Armed Forces Expeditionary Service Medal
        PIN : 082464-000
        Return to CMH OnlineLast updated 15 March 2006 | **Introduction**                                                                        | 3 | **Bosnia-Herzegovina** | 5 | .......... *Strategic Setting* | 5 | .......... *Preparations* | 16 | .......... *Operation Joint Endeavor* | 19 | .......... *Operation Joint Guard* | 33 | .......... *Operation Joint Forge* | 37 | .......... *Summary and Analysis* | 38 | **Further Readings** | 42 | h | JOHN S. BROWN
        Brigadier General, USA (Ret.)
        Chief of Military History |  | Return to CMH Online | Last updated 15 March 2006
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|**Introduction**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               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BROWN
        Brigadier General, USA (Ret.)
        Chief of Military History
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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       
|Last updated 15 March 2006