Aó /f;4 k

loiWOOD

S AND KINDS

Agricultural Handbook No. 101

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Forest Service October 1956
ROGER B. RUSSELL and Donovan R. Every of the Forest

Products Laboratory photographic staff made the full-color photographs in this publication. B. Francis Kukachka, in charge of wood

identification, selected the species and prepared the descriptive text

in collaboration with Douglas A. Zischke and Frederick A. Strenge

of the publications staff.

CONTENTS

Page

Hardwoods (broad-leaved species).... 2

American beech 2

American sycamore 2

Rock elm 3

American elm 3

Black walnut 4

Black cherry 4

Hickory 5

White ash 5

Quaking aspen 6

American basswood 6

Sweetgum 7

Black túpelo 7

White oak 8

Red oak 8

Yellow birch 9

Sugar maple 9

Yellow-poplar 10

Cottonwood 10

Page

Softwoods (cone-bearing species) 27

Baldcypress 27

Redwood 27

Incense-cedar 28

Western redcedar 28

Shortleaf pine 29

Ponderosa pine 29

Sitka spruce 30

Engelmann spruce 30

Sugar pine 31

Western white pine 31

Western larch 32

Douglas-fir 32

Western hemlock 33

White fir 33

Glossary 34

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, B. C. - Price 50 cents
WOOD: COLORS AND KINDS

Prepared by Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service

A key element in any business transaction inA'olving wood is the proper identification of species.

Literally scores of different woods are bought and

sold daily for hundreds of uses. A New England

home may be framed with Douglas-fir from Oregon, floored with red oak from Arkansas, sided

with California redwood, and trimmed insicle with

Michigan yellow birch. Its furniture may be

veneered with Pennsylvania black cherr}^ over

Wisconsin basswood and fitted with drawers of

Indiana sycamore and backs of Carolina sweetgum.

It is apparent that familiarity with only locall}^

grown species is not enough in today's lumber

markets.

Often, any one of several species is suitable for a

specific use. Other species, however, may be entirely unfit for that use. Of those suitable, some

are better than others because they are stronger,

perhaps, or more attractive, or hold paint better.

Others may be superior because they are harder,

shrink less, resist decay, or are more easily cut and

joined. It follows, then, that correct identification

is essential to insure selecting the right wood for a

given job.

As the official wood identification agency of the

United States Government, the Forest Products

Laborator}' annually receives thousands of requests for identification service from industry,

other branches of the Federal Government, units

of State and local governments, and the general

public. This service is requested in connection

with business transactions, civil lawsuits, criminal

cases, building codes for homes and other structures, industrial standards, and Government purchase specifications. The Laboratory has also

been called upon to identify wood from tombs of

Egyptian Pharaohs, sunken pirate ships, prehistoric forests, and the beam that supports the

Liberty Bell.

In the great majority of day-to-day transactions, however, wood identification is a relatively

simple problem. By acquiring a little know-how,

many lumbermen, dealers, builders, manufacturers, consumers, students, and home-workshop hobbyists could solve their identification problems on

the spot. Consequently, this publication was prepared as an aid to those persons concerned with

identifying the more common native species of

wood.

Characteristics that are apparent to the naked

eye and that distinguish our native woods from

each other are described for each of 32 species.

Because color is an important identifying characteristic of many woods, special attention hasbeen

paid to describing the natural color of a freshly cut

surface of the wood.

Descriptions of species are accompanied by fuUcolor illustrations showing grain pattern and other

Wood: Colors and Kinds

chai'acteristics. Beginning at the top of the

illustration, end-grained, edge-grained (quartersawed), and flat-grained (plainsawed) surfaces are

all displayed. This is done because certain

identifying characteristics show up best on each

surface. The terms "edge-grained" and "flatgrained" are used in reference to softwood lumber,

while quartersawed and plainsawed refer to hardwood lumber.

The manner in which it is sawed from the log will,

of course, determine whether a piece of wood shows

flat-grained or edge-grained patterns of annual

growth rings on its wide surfaces. Lumber is

manufactured in both forms.

Each color plate presents two species. Where

possible, closely similar species are sliown together

on one plate, so that distinguishing characteristics

can be more conveniently examined. In other

cases, species are paired on one plate because thej^

are often marketed in mixture or used interchangeably.

Certain species are not distinguishable from

close relatives by the wood alone, even under the

microscope. Thus, for example, the wood of many

different species of red oak is identical in structure

and appearance even though the trees from which

it comes may differ markedly in leaf, bark, and

fruit. From the wood user's standpoint, however,

botanical dift'erences in trees usually do not matter

so long as their wood is consistent in properties

and appearance. Where appropriate in the descriptions, dift'erences are mentioned that distinguish a species from closely similar ones not

shown. The general range of growth, properties,

and common uses of each species are also given.

Obviously, many other species could have been

included with the 18 hardwoods and 14 softwoods

described in this publication. Those chosen are

the species most commonly found in retail lumber

markets.

To assist the reader in getting the utmost help

from this booklet, the terms used in the descriptions are defined in a glossary. These terms are in

common use among wood technologists, and the

features of wood to which they apply are regularly

used for identification and other purposes at the

Forest Products Laboratory. The common and

botanical names of species conform to the official

Forest Service nomenclature for trees. Cubicfoot weights of species described are averages

taken at 12 percent moisture content; specific

gravity is based on volume when green and weight

when ovendry.

For information on botanical differences among

species, such as the shape of leaves, patterns of

bark, and form of fruit, the reader is referred to

Trees, the 1949 Yearbook of the U. S. Department

of Agriculture.
HARDWOODS (Broad-Leaved Species)

American beech [Fagus grandifolid)

Range.—The natural j-ano:e of beech in the

United States extends IVom Maine to northern

Florida and westward from the Atlantic coast

into Wisconsin, Missouri, and Texas. It usually

grows in mixture with otlier species, although

pure stands of considerable extent occur in the

Blue Ridge Mountains, especially in North

Carolina.

Properties.—One of the heavy woods, American

beech has an average weight of 45 pounds a cubic

foot and, with a specific gravity of 0.56, is classified as hard. It is rated high in strength and

shock resistance and is readily bent when steamed.

Beech is subject to very large shrinkage and

requires considerable care during seasoning if

checks, warp, and discoloration are to be avoided.

Heartwood ranks low in resistance to decay.

The wood wears well and stays smooth when

subjected to friction, even under water. Although

ranking high m nail-withdrawal resistance, it

has a tendency to split when nails are driven

into it. When pulped by the soda process, beech

yields a short-fibered pulp that can be mixed with

longer fibered pulps to obtain paper of satisfactory

strength.

Uses.—American beech is used for lumber,

distilled products, veneer, railroad ties, pulpwood,

cooperage, and fuel. The lumber is used largely

in the manufacture of boxes, crates, baskets,

furniture, handles, flooring, woodenware, general

millwork, and novelties. Beech is especially

suitable for food containers, since it does not

impart taste or odor.

Description.—Heartwood is white with a reddish tinge to reddish brown. Pores are not visible but wood raj^s can be seen on all surfaces.

On the end grain, the rays appear to be irregularly

spaced, while on quartersawed surfaces they appear to be of difl^erent heights along the grain.

On the plainsawed surfaces, the rays also appear to

be of different height, but they look much narrower in this view. Beech is readily distinguishable from other native species by its weight, conspicuous rays, and tiny pores. {Illustration, p. 11.)

American sycamore {Platanus occidentalism

Range.—American sycamore grows in scattered

groups or singly from southern Maine westward

to Nebraska and southward to eastern Texas and

northern Florida. It grows best on flatlands where

there is a good supply of ground water and along

the edges of streams, lakes, and swamps. At least

half of the stand of American sycamore is in the

central and southern portions of its range in

Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana,

Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee.

Properties.—In weight, American sycamore is

ranked as a moderately heavy wood, averaging

34 pounds a cubic foot. A moderately hard wood,

with a specific gravity of 0.46, it has a close texture

and an interlocking grain. It is moderately strong,

moderately stiff, and has moderately good shock

resistance.

Sycamore has large shrinkage while drying, is

inclined to warp, and is somewhat difficult to

season. Also, it is not dm-able when exposed to

conditions favorable to decay. The wood turns

weh on a lathe and keeps its shape well when bent

to form after steaming. It is only intermediate in

nail-withdrawal resistance but because of its

interlocking grain ranks high in its ability to withstand splitting. Sycamore wood does not impart

taste, odor, or stain to substances that come in

contact with it.

Uses.—The principal uses of American sycamore are for lumber, veneer, railroad ties, cooperage, fence posts, and fuel. The lumber goes largely

into furniture and boxes. Considerable sycamore

veneer is used for fruit and vegetable baskets and

berry boxes. Although generallj" used for the

cheaper grades of furniture, sycamore is used in

one form or another in practically all grades. Other

products made from the lumber include flooring,

scientific instruments, handles, and butchers'

blocks.

Description.—Heartwood is reddish brown or

flesh brown in color. Pores are very small and not

visible to the unaided eye. Raj^s are visible on all

surfaces. The}^ appear uniformly spaced on the

end grain and of uniform height on quartersawed

surfaces. Plainsawed surfaces show raj^s that

appear more numerous and more closely spaced

than in beech. {Illustration, p. 11.)

Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Rock elm (^Ulmiis thomasii)

Range.—Rock elm grows from New Hampshire

to Nebraska and as far south as Tennessee.

Much of the commercially important rock elm is

located in Wisconsin and Alichigan and more

than 80 percent of rock elm lumber and veneer

comes from these 2 States.

Properties.—Rock elm is a heavy wood, averaging 44 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is classified as hard, with a specific gravity of 0.57. It

is stronger, harder, and stiffer than any of the

other commercial elms. With the exception of

hickory and dogwood, rock elm has higher shock

resistance than anj^ other American hardwood.

Although rock elm undergoes large shrinkage

when drjnng, it tends to shrink somewhat less

than the other commercial elms. As with all the

elms, care must be taken to prevent warp during

seasoning. Rock elm is somewhat difficult to

work with hand or machine tools, and the heartwood has low to moderate resistance to decay.

However, all the commercial elms have excellent

bending qualities.

Uses.—Elm lumber is used principally for

containers and furniture. In some cases, the

different species of elm are employed indiscriminately, but when hardness or shock resistance is

required to a high degree, rock elm is preferred.

Rock elm veneer is used in considerable quantities

in manufacturing various types of containers,

espec'ially fruit and vegetable'boxes and baskets.

Large quantities of rock elm also go into

crating for heavy articles, such as furniture, glass,

and porcelain. The strength and toughness of

this wood make it very serviceable for certain

types of containers that must stand rough usage,

sucli as market baskets and bushel baskets for

home use. Considerable quantities are used in

the manufacture of furniture, especially the bent

parts of chairs.

Description.—Heartwood is brown to dark

brown, sometimes with shades of red. Summerwood pores are arranged in concentric wavy lines

that appear lighter than the background wood.

The springwood pores in rock elm are visible

only upon magnification. {Illustration, p. 12.)

American elm (Ulmus americana^

Range.—American elm grows throughout the

eastern United States except in the Appalachian

highlands and southern Florida. About threefourths of the stand of sawtimber size is located in

the Lake States and the Mississippi Delta region.

Wisconsin, Michigan, Louisiana, Arkansas, Ohio,

and Indiana have large volumes of elm.

Properties.—American elm is moderately heavy,

averaging 35 pounds a cubic foot, and moderately

hard, with a specific gravity of 0.46. It rates as

moderately weak, but is moderateh^ stiff and has

good shock resistance.

The wood of American elm has large shrinkage

and care must be taken to prevent warping as it

seasons. Like all of the commercial elms, it has

excellent bending qualities. Its heartwood has

low to moderate resistance to decay. The wood

is slightly below average in woodworking properties, but is among the top woods in ease of gluing.

In nail-withdrawal resistance, it has an intermediate rank.

Uses.—American elm lumber is used principally

in tlie manufacture of containers, furniture, and

dairy and poultr}^ supplies. Because of its excellent bending properties, the wood has been much

used for barrels and kegs. Considerable quantities of veneer go into the manufacture of fruit

and vegetable boxes and baskets. American elm

also is used a great deal for crating heavy articles,

such as furniture, glass, and porcelain products.

It is used in sizable quantities in the furniture

industrjr, particularly for the bent parts of chairs.

Description.—Heartwood is brown to dark

brown, sometimes containing shades of red.

Although the summerwood pores are not visible

as individuals, they are arranged in concentric

wavy lines within the boundaries of the growth

rings. The wavy lines appear lighter than the

background wood. American elm shows a springwood pore zone with a single row of large and

easily visible pores. (Illudration, p. 12.)

Wood: Colors and Kinds
Black walnut (Juglans nigrà)

Range.—Black waltuit throws iiatin-ally over a

large area cxtojidiiig' IVom \ú'rmoiit westward to

Nebraska and southward (o soiitjieni (ieorgia and

southern Texas, 'i'lie area of greatest commercial

production is limited to tJie cenli'al ])art of this

natural range.

Properties.—Black wahuit is classified as a

heavy wood, averaging oS ])oun(ls a cubic fool.

The M'ood is hard, with a s])ecilic gravit^y of 0.51,

is strong and stiil', and has good sjiock resistance.

Even under conditions favorable to decay, l)lack

walnut heartwood is one of our most duj'able

woods. It can be satisfactorily kiln-dried or au'-

dried, and holds its sliape well after seasoning.

Black walnut works easily with handtools and has

excellent machining pro])erties. The wood finishes

beautifully with a handsome grain pattern. It

takes and holds paints and stains exceptionally

well, can be readilj^ polished, and can be satisfactorilv glued.

Uses.—The outstanding use of black walnut is

for fuj-niture. Large amounts are also used for

gunstocks and interior finish, while smaller quantities go into railroad ties, fence posts, and fuelwood. In the furniture industry, it is used either

as solid wood cut from lumber or as veneer and

plywood. It also is extremely popular for interior

finish wherever strikijig effects are desired. The

wood of black walnut is particularly suitable for

gunstocks because of its ability to stay in shape

after seasoning, its fine machining properties, and

its uniformity of texture.

Description.—Heartwood is chocolate brown

and occasionall}" has darker, sometimes purplish,

streaks. Unless bleaclied or otherwise modified,

black walnut is not easily confused with any other

native species. Pores are barely visible on the end

grain but are quite easily seen as darker streaks

01- grooves on longitudinal surfaces. Arrangement

of pores is similar to that in the hickories and

persimmon, but the pores are smaller in size.

(Illustration, p. 13.)

Black cherry (Prunus serótina)

Range.—Black cherry's natural growth range is

tlu'oughout ]Maine westward to eastern North

Dakota and southward to central areas of Florida

and Texas. It also occurs in the mountain ranges

of western Texas. The largest supplies of black

cherry are believed to be located in the Appalachian Mountains in New York, Pemisylvania, and

West Virginia.

Properties.—Black cherry is a moderately

heavy wood with an averagi' weight of o.5 pounds

a cubic foot. Tlie wood is also moderately liard,

with a specific gravity of 0.47. Stiff' and strong,

it rajiks high in resistance to sjiock.

Although it has moderately large shrinkage,

black cherry stays in place well after seasoning

and is comparatively free from checking and

warping. It has moderate resistance to decay.

The wood is difficidt to work with handtools but

ranks high in bending strength. It can be glued

satisfactorily with moderate care.

Uses.—Nearly all the black cherry cut is sawed

into lumber for various products. Much goes into

furniture and considerable amounts are used for

backing blocks on which electrotype plates, used

hi printing, are mounted. Other uses mclude

burial caskets, woodenware and novelties, patterns

and flasks for metalworking, plumbers' woodwork,

and finish in buildings and railway coaches.

Description.—Black cherry, which is not easUy

confused with other native species because of its

distinctive color, has light to dark reddish brown

heartwood. Although individual pores are not

visible to the naked eye, their pattern is sometimes distinctive. On end-grain surfaces, the

pores may appear to form Ihies that parallel the

growth rings, while on plainsawed surfaces, they

may follow the outline of the growth-ring boundary.

The wood ravs of cherry are barely visible on

end-grain surfaces and tend to produce a distinctive flake pattern on true quartersawed surfaces.

They are higher along the grain than those of

walnut and hence show more promhiently on

c'uartersawed surfaces. {Illustration, p. IS.)

Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Hickory (^Caryà)

Species names.—True hickories : shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), shellbark hickory {C. laciniosa),

pignut hickory {C. glabra), and mockernut hickory

(C. tomentosa).

Range.—The true hickories grow throughout

most of the eastern United States except in

northern New England, the northern portions of

Michigan and Wisconsin, and southern Florida.

Close to 40 percent of the total stand of true

hickory is located in the lower Mississippi Valley

region.

Properties.—The wood of the true hickories is

very heavy, averaging from 42 to 52 pounds per

cubic foot, and very hard, with a specific gravity

ranging from 0.56 to 0.66. It also is very strong

as a post or beam, very stiff, and exceedingly high

in shock resistance. Some woods are stronger

than hickory and others are harder, but the combination of strength, toughness, hardness, and

stiffness possessed by hickory has not been found

to the same degree in anj' other commercial wood.

Hickory has very large shrinkage and must

be carefully dried to avoid checking, warping,

and other seasoning defects. It has low decay

resistance but can be glued satisfactorily.

Uses.—Nearly 80 percent of the true hickory

used in the manufacture of wood products goes

into tool handles, for which its hardness, toughness, stiffness, and strength make it especially suitable. Other uses include agricultural implements, athletic goods, and lawn furniture.

Description.—Heartwood is brown to reddish

brown. Pores are visible, but the zone of large

pores is not sharply outlined as in oak and ash.

Pores grade in size from one side of the annual

ring to the other. Wood rays are veiy small and

seen without magnification only on qiiartersawed

surfaces. Tyloses frequently" plug the pores,

rnaking their outlines indistinct. Under magnification, the end grain shows numerous white

lines paralleling the growth ring. {Illustration,

p. U.)

White ash (Fraxinus americana)

Range.—White ash grows throughout the entire

eastern half of the United States except along the

Atlantic Coastal Plain, the gulf coast, and Florida.

It is cut commerciall^y everjnvhere except in the

extreme outer limits of this range and the lower

Mississippi Valley.

Properties.—White ash is a heavy wood with

an average weight of 42 pounds a cubic foot.

Ranked as a hard wood, it has a specific gravity

of 0.55. It also is classified as strong and stiff,

and has good shock resistance.

The wood of white ash is noted for its excellent

bending qualities. In ease of working, tendency

to split, and ability to hold nails and screws, it

has moderately high rank. White ash lumber

can be rapidly and satisfactorily kiln-dried, and

it holds its shape well even under the action of

water. The wood remains smooth under continual rubbing but is low in decaj^ resistance.

Uses.—The use of white ash tliat dwarfs all

others is its utilization for handles. It is the

standard wood for D-handles for shovels and

spades and for long handles for forks, hoes, rakes,

and shovels. The wood is used too in the manufacture of furniture, where it is especially valuable

for the bent parts of chairs. Its good bending

qualities also make it useful for cooperage. White

ash is used almost exclusively for many types of

sports and athletic equipment, such as long oars

and baseball bats.

Description.—Heartwood is brown to dark

brown, sometimes with a reddish tint. As in

black ash, the zone of large pores is visible and

usually sharply defined. The white dots or lines

that indicate summerwood pores are usually

more prominent in white than in black ash.

The small wood rays are generall}^ visible only

on quartersawed surfaces.

White ash is sometimes confused with hickorj^,

but the two species are readil}^ distinguishable.

The zone of large pores is more distinctive in

ash than in hickory. Also, the summerwood

zone in ash shows white dots or lines that are

visible to the unaided eye, but in hickory these

dots or lines are visible only upon magnification.

{Illustration, p. 14-)

Wood: Colors and Kinds
Quaking aspen {Populus tremuloides)

Range.—Quaking aspen grows througliout most

of the northeastern and western United Slates.

The eastern part of its range extends from Maine

southward to Tennessee and westward to tlie

Dakotas. It is also found througliout the western

United States exeept in the extreme Southwest.

Commereial stands of aspen are located pi-incipally

in the Lake States and the Northeast, with smaller

amounts in the central Rocky Mountain region.

Properties.—One of the lightweight hardwoods,

quaking aspen averages 2ß pounds a cubic foot.

The wood is classified as soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35, and is weak, limber, and modei-ately

low in shock resistance.

Although aspen has moderately large shrinkage,

it can be seasoned satisfactorily by air-drying or

kiln-drjáng. In fact, few of the hardwoods shrink

as little as aspen. The wood ranks low in decay

resistance. It also is low in nail-withdrawal resistance, but has little tendency to split under the

action of nails or screws. It is worked easily with

hand or power tools and is fairly easy to finish to a

smooth surface. Aspen glues easily with a variety

of glues and under a wide range of gluing conditions. In painting properties, it ranks with the

best of the hardwoods.

Uses.—Aspen is used principally for lumber

paper pulp, excelsior, and matches. The largest

present-day use of the lumber is for boxes and

crates. It is probably most heavily used for pulpwood, chiefly in the manufacture of book and

magazine paper and corrugating and insulating

boai'ds. Aspen has long been one of the preferred

woods for the manufacture of high-grade excelsior.

Description.—Heartwood is white to very light

brown, with occasional brown streaks associated

with defects. Pores are verj^ small and generally

not visible to the unaided e3^e. Growth rings are

usually faint. Wood rays are small, uniform in

height along the grain, and visible only on quartersawed surfaces. Aspen is similar to cottonwood,

but cottonwood tends to have barely visible pores.

The growth rings in aspen are generally narrower

than those in cottonwood. {Illustration, p. 15.)

American basswood (Tilia americana)

Range.—Basswood grows throughout the eastern half of the United States from Maine westward

to North Dakota and southward to Florida and

eastern Texas. More than half of the total stand

is located in the Lake States, and another quarter

is in the east central part of the range.

Properties.—Basswood is a lightweight hardwood with an average weight of 26 pounds a cubic

foot. The wood is weak, moderatelj^ stiff, and low

in resistance to shock. Its specific gravity of 0.32

classes it as soft.

Although it has large shrinkage, basswood is

fairly easy to air-dry or kiln-dry and stays in place

well after seasoning. It has low nail-withdrawal

resistance, but well resists splitting while being

nailed. In decay resistance, it is low. The wood

is easy to work with tools, takes and holds paint

well, and is easily glued. When pulped by the soda

process, basswood yields a soft, short-fibered, easily

bleached pulp.

Uses.—Most of the basswood cut in this country

is first made into lumber for a variety of items.

The largest amounts are used for crates and boxes.

The manufacture of sash, doors, and general millwork also accounts for much of the basswood

lumber produced each j^ear. In addition considerable lumber and veneer is used in the furnitm-e

industry, especiallj^ as core material overlaid with

high-grade furniture veneers, such as walnut and

mahoganj^.

Description.—Heartwood is creamy white to

creamy broA\Ti or sometimes reddish. Pores are

very small, as in aspen, and growth rings on plainsawed surfaces are generally faint. Wood rays are

broader and higher than m aspen, and the two

species can be readily distinguished by comparing

their quartersawed faces. While the rays of aspen

are low and uniform in height, some of those in

basswood are distinctly higher than others and

frequently darker than the background wood.

{Ilhistration, p. 15.)

6 Agriculture Handbook 101, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture
Sweetgum {Liquidamhar styraciflua)

Range.—Sweetgum grows from southwestern

Connecticut westward almost to Kansas and

southward to eastern Texas and central Florida.

The commercial range in the United States is

confined largely to the moist lands of the lower

Ohio and Mississippi Basins and to the lowlands

of the southeastern coast.

Properties.—Sweetgum is a moderately heavy

wood with an average weight of 36 pounds per

cubic foot. The wood is hard, with a specific

gravity of 0.46, moderately strong when used as

a beam or post, moderately stiff, and has moderately high shock resistance.

Sweetgum has very large shrinkage in drying,

and the sapwood and heartwood recjuire dift'erent

drying processes. The heartwood has low to

moderate decay resistance. In nail-holding ability

and in ability to resist splitting by nails and screws,

sweetgum is rated intermediate. The heartwood

requires special treatment before gluing can be

clone with best results.

Sweetgum ranks above average in turning,

boring, and steam-bending properties but somewhat below average in the other machining properties. Its heartwood can be finished in a wide

variety of color effects and the sapwood can be

rea(Uly staiiunl if a darker color is desired.

Uses.—The principal uses of sweetgum are for

lumber, veneer, plywood, and slack cooperage.

TJu' lumlK'r goes principally into boxes and crates,

furniture, interior trim, and millwork. Veiu'er is

used mainly for boxes, crates, baskets, furniture,

and interior woodwork. Some sweetgum is usecl

for crossties and fuel, and comparatively small

amounts go into fencing, excelsior, and pulpwood.

Description.—Heartwood is reddish brown and

occasionally variegated with streaks of darker

color. Pores are so small that they are not

visible except upon magnification. Growth rings

are usuall}^ indistinct or inconspicuous. Rays

are visible on quartersawed faces. {Illustration,

p. 16.)

Black túpelo ÇNyssa sylvaticd)

Range.—Black túpelo grows in all States east

of the Mississippi River and as far west as central

Texas in the southern part of its range. In the

northern and eastern parts of its range, it grows

under a wide variety of conditions ranging from

swamps to dry mountahisides, but in the South

it is largely confined to well-drained locations.

The largest commercial cuts of black túpelo

lumber are made in the Southeastern States.

Properties.—A moderateh^ heavy wood, black

túpelo has an average weight of 35 pounds a cubic

foot. It is rated as hard, with a specific gravity

of 0.46, and the heartwood is low to moderate hi

resistance to decay. The wood is moderately weak

when used as a beam or post, moderately limber,

and moderate!}' high in ability to resist shock.

Black túpelo has large shrinkage and a tendency

to warp while seasoning because of its interlocking

grain. Considerable care is required in the drying

process to produce straight, flat lumber. The

wood generally requires special treatment before

gluing to obtain the best results and it ranks below

the average of 25 southern hardwoods in machining properties. In nail-withdrawal resistance and

resistance to splitting under the action of nails,

black túpelo has an intermediate rank. It can be

readily pulped by the chemical and semichemical

processes.

Uses.—Black túpelo is used mainly for lumber,

veneer, and paper pulp, and to some extent for

raüway ties and cooperage. The lumber goes

largel}^ into shipping containers and furniture.

Black túpelo has been used for many years in the

manufacture of book and similar grades of paper.

Description.—Heartwood is pale to moderately

dark brownish gra^^ or dirty gray. Pores are very

small, as in sweetgum. Growth rings are generality

inconspicuous to moderately distinct. Rays are

visible on quartersawed surfaces, but show up less

prominently against the background color of the

wood than the rays in sweetgum. {Illustration,

p. 16.)

Wood: Colors and Kinds
White oak (^Quercus)

Species names.—The white oak group includes

white oak {QuercuK alba), clieslmil oak (Q. prinus),

post oak (Q. .Ktellata), overcup oak (Q. lyrata),

swamp chestnut oak {Q. micJtuuxii), l)ur oak

{Q. macrocarpa), chinkapin oak {Q. mueldenbergii),

swamp wliite oak {Q,. bicolor), and hvc oak

{Q. virginiana).

Range.—Wliito oaks grow mainly in the

eastern half of tlie United States, although some

species are found as far wTst as eastei-n Oregon,

Washington, and California. Commercial white

oaks grow east of a line from western Minnesota

to western Texas.

Properties.—The white oaks are heavy woods,

averaging 47 pounds a cubic foot, and are very

hard, with a specific gravity ranging from 0.57 in

chestnut oak to 0.81 in live oak. Led by live

oak, they rank high in strength properties.

The wood of the white oaks is subject to large

shrinkage and seasoning must be done carefully

to avoid checking and warping. Pores of the

heartwood, with the exception of chestnut oak,

are usually plugged with tyloses, a frothlike

growth that makes the wood impervious to

liquids. The heartwood itself is comparatively

decay resistant, generally more so than that of

the red oaks. White oaks are above average in

all machining operations except shaping.

Uses.—Most white oak is made into lumber

for flooring, furniture, general millwork, and boxes

and crates. Large amounts are used for flooring

and furniture and it is the outstanding wood for

tight barrels, kegs, and casks because of the

nonporous heartwood. It has long been the

leading wood for the construction of ships and

boats.

Description.—Heartwood is grayish brown.

The outlines of the larger pores are indistinct

except in chestnut oak, which has open pores

mth distinct outlines. On smooth-cut, end-grain

surfaces, the summerwood pores are not distinct

as individuals. Wood rays are generally higher

than in red oak, the larger ones ranging from ji to

5 inches in height along the grain. As in red

oak, rays appear lighter in color than the background woocl on end-grain surfaces and darker

than the background wood on side-grain surfaces

{Illustration, p. 17.)

Red oak {Quercus\

Species names.—The red oak group includes

northern red oak {Quercus rubra), black oak {Q.

velutina), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), shumard oak

(Q. shumardii), pin oak {Q.. palustris), Nuttall oak

{Q.. nuttallii), southern red oak (Q. falcata), water

oak (Q. nigra), laurel oak {Q. laurißlia), and

willow oak (Q. phello>i).

Range.—Red oaks grow quite generall,y east of

the Great Plains except for a narrow coastal strip

along the Gulf of Mexico and in Florida. The

largest amounts of commercial timber are cut in

Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky, and Missouri.

Properties.—The red oaks are similar in many

properties to the white oaks. A major dift'erence

is that red oak, because it lacks tyloses in its

pores, is extremely porous. A heavy wood, it

averages 44 pounds a cubic foot and the average

specific gravity of the more important species

ranges from 0.52 to 0.60. The wood is hard, stiff,

and has high shock resistance.

Red oak undergoes large shrinkage while drying,

and seasoning must be done carefully to avoid

checking and warping. It is considerably above

average in all machining operations except shaping, and the heartwood ranks low to moderate in

decaj^ resistance.

Uses.—Most of the red oak cut in this country

is converted into flooring, furniture, millwork,

boxes and crates, caskets and coffins, agricultural

implements, boats, and woodenware. Considerable lumber is also used in building construction,

and some is exported. The hardness and wearing

qualities of red oak have made it an important

flooring wood for residences. Preservative-treated

red oak is used extensively for crossties, mine

timbers, and fence posts.

Description.—Heartwood is grayish bro\vn with

a more or less distinctive reddish tint. Pores are

commonly open, and the outlines of the larger

pores are distinct. On smoothly cut end-grain

surfaces, the summerwood pores can be seen as

individuals and readily counted when examined

with a hand lens. Wood rays are commonly

)i to 1 inch high along the grain. On end-grain

surfaces, rays appear as lines crossing the growth

rings. {Illustration, p. 17.)

8 Agriculture Handhook 101, Ü. S. Department of Agriculture
Yellow birch {Betula alleghanieiisis)

Range.—Yellow birch grows in the Lake States,

New England, New York, New Jerse^y, Pennsylvania, and along the Appalachian Mountains iiilo

southern Georgia. It reaches its best development

near the Canadian border, and more than half of

the stand is located in Michigan. The largest

amounts of lumber are produced in Michigan and

Wisconsin.

Properties.—Yellow birch is heavy, averaging

43 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with specific

gravity averaging 0.55. The wood is strong, stiff,

and has very high shock resistance.

Yellow birch has very large shrinkage and must

be seasoned carefully to prevent checking antl

warping. Like all commercial l)irches, it is low in

decay resistance. Altiiough the wood is chfficult

to work with handtools, it can be readily shaped by

machine and ranks high in nail-witluh-awal resistance.

Uses.—Yellow birch is used principallj^ for

lumber, veneer, distilled products, and crossties.

Tjie lumber and veneer go mostly into furniture,

boxes, baskets, erales, woodenware, interior finish,

and general mihwoj'k. It is because of ils pleasing

grai}i pattej-n and ability to lake a liigh polisJi, tJuit

yellow bircli is widely used in the furniture iii-

(histry. Spools, bobbhis, and otlier turned articles

are also imjjorlant pro(hicts.

Yellow l>ircli is one of the principal woods used

for hardwood distillation to produce wood alcojiol,

acetate of lime, charcoal, tar, and oils. It is used

in smaller quantities for pul])wood ajid cooperage.

Description.—Yellow bircli lieartwood is light

redcHsh brown. Pores are very small, sometimes

just barely visible on smoothly cut e)id-gi-ai]i

surfaces, and are unifoimly distributed tJu'ough

tlie ainiual ring cross section. Pore fines ai-e visible

on longitudhial surfaces as very fine grooves I hat

may even be seen througli natural finishes. Wood

rays may be seen o)dy on quartersawed surfaces,

where they appear to be of ojie size and of uniform

height along the grain. Growth rings are moderatelv distinct on plainsawed surfaces. (Illustration,

p. i'8.)

Sugar maple ÇAcer saccharuni)

Range.—Sugar maple grows from Maine to

Alinnesota and southward to eastern Texas and

northern ^Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia.

The largest stands are in the Lake States and the

Northeast. The tree grows singh^ or in groups

in mixed stands of hardwoods.

Properties.—Sugar maple is heavy, averaging

44 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with a specific

gravity of 0.56. Strong and stift', it has high

resistance to shock. Although it has large shrinkage and presents some difficulties in drvhig, the

wood can be satisfactorily seasoned. Its resistance to decay is low to moderate.

Sugar maple ranks higli i]i nail-withdrawal

resistance and intermediate in ease of gluing.

The wood takes stain satisfactorily and is capable

of a high polish. Although generally straightgrained, sugar maple occasionally occurs with

curly, wavy, or bird's-eye grain. The wood tm-]is

well on a lathe, is markedh^ resistant to abrasive

wear, and is without characteristic taste or odor.

Uses.—Sugar maple is used pi'incipally for

lumber, distilled products, veneer, crossties, and

paper pulp. Probably 90 percent of the lumber

is manufactured into such products as flooring,

furniture, boxes and crates, handles, woodenware,

and novelties. It is especially suitable for bowling

alleys, dance floors, and other flooring that is

sul>jected to hard use. Sugar maple is one of the

principal woods used in the hardwood distillation

industry for the production of charcoal, acetic

acid, and wood alcohol.

Description.—Heartwood is liglit reddish brown

and sometimes shows greenish-black streaks near

iiijuries. Pores are extremely small and not visible on any surface. Wood rays maj^ be seen on

the end grain and especially on quartersawed

faces, where the Ifigher ra3"s are distmctive

because of their color and size and smaller rays

appear as fine lines between them. The wood

rays may also be seen on plainsawed surfaces as

very small darker colored flecks that are parallel

to the grain of tlie wood. {Illustration, p. 18.)

Wood: Colors and Kinds

386148°—56 2

9
Yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipiferd)

Range.—Yellow-poplar gcows in all llic States

east of the Mississij^pi River except Maine, New

Hampshire, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and in pai'ts

of Oklahoma and Missoui'i. Virginia, North

Carolina, South Carolina, (ieoroia, and Alabama

contain moi-e. tlnxn half of the yellow-poplar sawtimber in the United States.

Properties.—Moderately light in weight, yellow-poplar averages oO ])ounds a cid)ic foot. The

wood is classed as motlerately soft, with a specific

gravity of 0.40, and is moderately low in bending

and compressive strength, moderately stifí', and

moderately low in shock resistance. Although it

undergoes moderately large shrinkage when dried

from a green condition, it is not difficult to season

and stays in place well when seasoned. The heartwood is low to moderate in resistance to decay.

Yellow-poplar ranks intermediate in machining

properties. Altiiough low in nail-withdrawal

resistance, it has little tendency to split when

nailed. Also, the wood has an excellent reputation

for taking and holding paint, enamel, and stain

and can be glued satisfactorily. Yellow-poplar

containers do not impart taste or odor to foodstuffs, and the wood can be easily pulped by the

chemical and semichemical processes.

Uses.—The principal uses of yellow-poplar are

for lumber, veneer, and pulpwood. The lumber

goes mostly into furniture, boxes and crates,

interior finish, siding, fixtures, and musical instruments. The veneer is used extensively for finish,

furniture, and various forms of cabinetwork.

Description.—Heartwood is brownish yellow,

usually with a definite greenish tinge. The wood

rays, as seen on a smoothh^ cut end-grain surface,

are somewhat more prominent than in cucumbertree. Positive identification of yellow-poplar and

cucumbcrtree is best accomplished microscopicany,

but it is possible to separate them on the basis of

sross features when both woods are at hand.

{Illustration, j). 19)

Cottonwood (Populus^

Species names.—Eastern cottonwood (Populus

deltoides), swamp cottonwood (P. heterophylla),

and black cottonwood (P. tiichocarpa).

Range.—Eastern and swamp cottonwood grow

in small scattered stands or m mixture with other

species. They range from southern New England

westward to the southern part of the Lake States

and southward to northern Florida and eastern

Texas, except in the Appalachian highlands from

New York to Georgia and in the Ozark Mountains

of Arkansas and Missouri. Black cottonwood

grows in the Pacific Coast States and in western

Alontana, northern Idaho, and western Nevada.

Properties.—The cottonwoods are moderatel}^

light in weight, ranging from 24 to 28 pounds a

cubic foot. With a specific gravity of 0.37,

eastern cottonwood is classified as moderately

soft, while black cottonwood's specific gravitj^ of

0.32 classifies it as soft. The cottonwoods are

moderately weak in bending and compression,

moderatelj^ limber, and moderately low in shock

resistance.

Moderately large shrinkage is a characteristic

of cottonwood and it requires careful seasoning if

warp is to be avoided. The heartwood has low

decay resistance and the wood is rather difficult

to work with tools \\'ithout producing chipped or

fuzzy grain. Cottonwood is low in nail-withdrawal resistance but does not split easily when

nailed. The wood is classed among those that

glue satisfactorily with moderate care. It has a

good reputation for holding paint.

Uses.—A large proportion of the annual output

of cottonwood is cut into lumber and veneer and

then remanufactured into containers and furniture.

Both lumber and veneer are used in the furniture

industry for core material, which is overlaid with

high-grade furniture veneers.

Description.—Heartwood of all three cottonwood species is grajásh white to light grayish

brown with occasional streaks of light brown.

The annual rings are rather wide. Pores are

barely visible on smooth cut, end-grain surfaces.

Aside from the color of the heartwood, cottonwood

is extremely simuar to black willow. Separation

of the two species is based mainly on heartwood

color, which is light brown or reddish brown in

willow, or on microscopic examination if only

sapwood material is available. (Illustration, f. 19.)

10 Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
' ' ; , '

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í/rw

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K ' / '

i

/;/',

)

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..iilÁl!

American beech American sycamore

^Vood: Colors and Kindi^ 11
Rock elm American elm

12 Agrietûture Handhook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
A"'

.f./».- '

r>;;;«'-"-'vBlack walnut Black cherry

Wood; Colors and Kiiuls 13
I i,i,iliUf ti Bru ,i»,„Íil,-ÍHif| it,Í,l

•H't

True hickory

X'^

White ash

14 Agrinûture Handhook 101, U. S. Department of AgricuUwre
Quaking aspen Basswood

Wood: Colors and Kinds
Sweetgum Black túpelo

16 Agriculture líaridhool' 10], U. S. Depaitmevt of Agñniltvi
White oak Red oak

Wood: Colors and Kinds 17
'..^-

^. ,>

Yellow birch Sugar maple

Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
fajTÂyja!'? ..>'. .•»

Yellow-poplar Cot+onwood

^^ood: ColoTH and Kinch 19
Baldcypress Redwood

20 Agriculture Handhooh 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Incense-cedar Western redcedar

Wood; Colors and Kinds

21
I í i

i!

n 1

ill

Shortleaí pine Pond erosa pme

22 Agriculture Handhool^ lOU U. S. Department of Agñculture
'_^s

Sifka spruce Engelmann spruce

Wood: Colors and Kinds

23
Sugar pine Western white pine

24

AgricuUure Handbook 101, U. JS. Department of Agñcultwre
\

\

Western larch

Douglas-fir

Wood: Colors and Kinds

25
I í

í ! i i ¡

inlíil

;

I !M!l!t'

i i ¡un

Western hemlock White fir

26 Agriculture Handhook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
SOFTWOODS (Cone-Bearing Species)

Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum)

Range.—Baldcypress grows along the Atlantic

Coastal Plain from Delaware to Florida and westward along the gulf coast nearly to the Mexican

border in Texas and up the Mississippi Valley to

southern Indiana. The heaviest stands occur in

the swamps of the lower Mississippi Valley and

Florida.

Properties.—Baldcypress is moderately heavy,

with an average weight of 32 pounds a cubic foot,

and moderately hard, -with a specific gravity of

0.42. The wood is also moderately strong "and

moderately stift". Its durability under conditions

favorable to decay is outstanding.

Since green baldcypress lumber contains considerable moisture, it requires more care and time

to kiln-dry than manj^ other softwoods. However,

the wood has moderately small shrinkage ancl

slow air-drj^ing is successfully practiced. It does

not impart taste, odor, or color to food products.

Uses.—The principal use of baldcypress is in

bud(h]ig construction, cspeciallv where decav

resistance is required. It is frequently used foiposts, beams, and other memlxys in warehouses

( ocks, factories, and bridges. Because of its liigh

degree of resistance to decay, it is particularly

valuable for greenhouses, stadium seats, coohn»-

towers, and roof planks of dye houses.

Cypress is also used extensivelv for caskets and

burial boxes and for sasli, doors, blinds, interior

trim and paneling, and general miüwork. Containers, such as boxes, crates, vats, tanks, and

tubs, require considerable quantities.

Description.^Heartwood varies in color from

pale brown to blackish brown and sometimes has

a reddish tinge. The wood is without resin canals,

and transition from springwood to summerwoocl

IS abrupt, as in redwood. Heartwood of darker

specimens generally has a more or less rancid odor

and longitudinal surfaces feel distinctly greasv

or waxy. (Illustration, p. 20.)

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)

Range.—Redwood grows along or near the coast

of California in a narrow, irregular strip not more

than 35 miles wide and about 500 miles long, extending from 100 miles south of San Francisco to a

little above the Oregon border. This massive tree

does not grow naturallj^ outside this area, which is

characterized by frequent fogs and considerable

soil moisture. Single acres of redwood have been

found that contained over 1 million board-feet of

lumber.

Properties.—Typical virgin-growth redwood is

moderately light in weight, averaging 28 pounds a

cubic foot. The wood is moderately hard, with a

specific gravity of 0.38, moderately strong, and

moderately stiff. Except for shock resistance, it

has somewhat higher strength properties for its

weight than would be expected.

Redwood is thought to owe its outstanding decay

resistance to the reddish extractive in the tree,

which colors the wood and accounts for its name.

The wood has very small shrinkage, is comparatively easy to season, and holds its shape well after

seasoning. Redwood has only intermediate naüwitlidrawal resistance but takes and holds paint

exceptionally weU. Redwood, the cedars, and

baldcypress make up the group of woods with the

highest resistance to termites.

Uses.—Probably from one-half to two-thirds of

the redwood lumber produced is used in the form

of planks, dimension, boards, joists, and posts. A

large part of this material goes into framing for

houses and industrial buildings, and into bridges,

trestles, and other heavy construction. Much of

the remaining lumber is remanufactured into house

siding, sash, blinds, doors, general millwork, outdoor furniture, and tanks. Richly colored redwood paneling provides pleasing interior effects.

Description.—Heartwood is usually a uniform

deep reddish brown. The wood is without resin

canals and has no distinctive odor, taste, or feel.

Western reclcedar may approach redwood in color,

but the distinctive odor of western redcedar separates the two woods immediately. {Illustration,

p. 20.)

Wood: Colors and Kinds 27
Incense-cedar ÇLibocedrus decurrens)

Range.—Tiicoiisí'-ccdnr ^TOWS IVoiii soulliwcslorn Oregon soiilliwiird llwoiigii ('ulironiiu into

Mexico and Lower ('aliioniin, willi some sinall

stands in western Nevada. Most of the eornniereial enl is conlinetl to the Siei'ra Ne\'a(la

Mountains in California and the nionnlain I'egions

of noi'tliei'n California, and soutliern Oregon.

Properties.—A lightweiglit wood, incense-eedar

averages 2t) pounds per eul)ie foot. The, wood is

moderately soft, with a spécifie gi-avity of ().:'>r),

motli'rately weak, limber, and low in shock

resistance.

Incense-cedar has small shrinkage and is comjiaratively easy to season with little checking

or warping. It ranks among the most decayresistant woods, along witli cy])ress, redwood, and

hlack locust. Also, the woocl splits readily and

evenly and is easy to work with tools. Incensecedar is one of the woods that holds paint longest

and suffers least when protection against weathering becomes inadequate.

Uses.—The princi])al uses of incense-cedar

are for lumber, fence posts, and crossties. Neaily

all the high-grade lumber is used in the manufactui'c of ])encils and Venetian blinds. Since

most incense-cedai' lumber is more or less pecky,

it, is used locally for roughC7, construction. - The j-iiv^

(pialilies of incense-cedar that adapt it particularly

to pencil manufacture are straightness of grain,

softness, and ease of whittling. Its decay resistance makes it well suited for fence posts and

ci'ossi ies.

Description.—Heart wood is reddish brown to

dull bi'own, with an occasional tinge of lavender.

Heartwood has a characteristic cedarlike odor

and acrid taste. Shavings placed on the tongue

foi' a few seconds give a slight burning sensation.

Ti-ansition fi'om springwood to summerwood is

more or less abrupt and makes the growth rings

prominent on ilat-grained surfaces. It is easier

to produce a smootli cut on the end grain of

incense-cedar than on western redcedar. Although incense-cedar and western redcedar cannot

always be separated with certainty on the basis

of gross featu]-es, they can be readily distinguished

under the microscope. {Illustration, JJ. 21.)

Western redcedar (Thuja plicata)

Range.—Western redcedar grows in a belt along

the western coast of Nortli America from southern

Alaska to northern California. From northern

^Vashington the range extends as far inland as

Montana and then spreads a limited distance

north and south on the western slopes of the

Rocky Mountains. More than two-thirds of

the stand of sawtimber is located in the coast

lowlands of Washington.

Properties.—Western redcedar is light in weight,

averaging 23 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is

moderately soft, with a speciñc gravity of O.ol,

weak as a beam or post, moderatel}^ limber, and

low in ability to resist shock. In decay resistance,

the heartwood ranks with the more dm-able woods.

The wood of western redcedar is not difficult

to kiln-dry when proper methods are used, but

requires more care in seasoning than other western

cedars. After it has been properly dried, it stays

in place well and has little tendency to warp.

It is comparatively low in nail-withdrawal resistance but can be easily glued. Western redcedar

takes and holds paint very well and is exceptionally

weather resistant.

Uses.—The principal uses of western redcedar

are for shingles, lumber, poles, posts, and pihng.

The lumber goes largely into exterior siding for

houses, interior finish, greenhouse construction,

flumes, and structui-al timbers, with smaller

amounts being used in the manufacture of ships

and boats, caskets, boxes and crating, sash, doors,

and general millwork. Round western redcedar

poles, most of which are treated with a preservative, are shipped to all parts of the United States

for use as utility poles.

Description.—Heartwood is reddish or pinkish

brown to tlull brown. It has a characteristic

cedarlike odor, but shavings placed on the tongue

do not give quite the sensation that incense-cedar

shavings do. Transition from springwood to

summerwood is the same as in incense-cedar.

The wood is sometimes confused with redwood, but

the cedarlike odor of western redcedar separates

the two species immediately. (Illustration, p. 21.)

28 Afjrlcidturc Handhool: 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Shortleaf pine (Piniis echinata)

Range.—Shortleaf pine, which has the widest

distribution of the southern pines, grows througliout most of the soutlieastern United vStates. It is

generally a tree of the uplands and foothills, but

its range extends into the lower levels. Stands of

shortleaf pine are concentrated in Arkansas, but

Texas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi also

contain large stands.

Properties.—Shortleaf pine, a moderately heavy

wood but ranking with the hghtest of the important southern pines, has an average weight of

36 pounds a cubic foot. Typically, the wood is

moderately hard, with a specific gravity of 0.40,

moderately strong, stiff, and moderately shock

resistant. The heartwood is moderately decay

resistant.

Like all southern pines, shortleaf has moderately

large shrinkage but tends to stay in place well

after seasoning. In nail-withdrawal resistance, it

ranks above hemlock, spruce, and Douglas-fir.

And, like other southern pines, it produces a

resinous substance from which tm'pentine and

rosin can be made.

Uses.—Shortleaf pine lumber is used principally for building material such as intefior finish,

eeduig. frames, sash, sheathing, subflooring, and

joists, and for boxes and crates, caskets, furniture,

woodenware, and novelties. Considerable use is

also made of shortleaf pine for crossties, telephone

and telegraph poles, and mine timbers. In addition, the resin-ricli lieartwood is chstilled to make

wood turpentine, tar, and tar oils. Large amounts

of this southern pine are used for papei- pulp.

Description.—Heartwood ranges from sliades

of yellow and orange to reddish brown or light

brown. Transition from springwood to summerwood is abrupt, wit'j tlie aiuiual rings prominent

on all surfaces. Resin canals are lai'ge and al)undant and are easily found in all annual rings.

Summerwood bands are generally wider than

those of ponderosa pine. In appearance, the wood

of shortleaf pine closely resembles that of longleaf, loblolly, and slash, the other principal

southern pines. {Illu.^ration, p. 22.)

Ponderosa pine {Pinus ponderosa^

Range.—Ponderosa pine grows in every State

west of the Great Plains, with tlie largest stands

and greatest commercial production in California,

Oregon, and Washington. The tree is found on a

wide variety of soils, sites, and elevations and

occurs both in pure stands and in mLxture with

other species. Because it can mamtain itself on

dry sites, this tree is the principal species on areas

of low rainfall.

Properties.—The wood of ponderosa pine varies

considerably in its properties. However, in the

outer portions of trees of sawtimber size, it generally is moderatel}' light in weight, averaging 28

pounds per cubic foot, and moderately soft, with

a specific gravit}' of 0.38. This wood also ranks

as moderately weak, moderatelj^ limber, and moderately low in shock resistance. It has moderatel}"

small shrinkage and little tendency to warp.

Ponderosa pine compares favorably wûth woods

of similar density in nail-withdrawal resistance, is

not easily split by nails, and glues easily. The

heartwood has low to moderate decay resistance.

Uses.—Ponderosa pine is used principally for

lumber and, to a lesser extent, for piling, poles,

posts, mine timbers, veneer, and hewn ties. The

lumber has a variety of uses ranging from highgrade millwork to boxes and crates. For cabinets

and millwork, the clearer, softer material is used,

while the manufacture of boxes and crates consumes the lower grade lumber. Knotty ponderosa

pine has come into wide use as paneling for interior

fijiish.

Description.—Heartwood is j-ellowish to light reddish or orange brown. Transition from springwood

to summerwood is abrupt as in the southern pines,

but the summerwood bands are narrow. Growth

rings are generally most prominent on the flatgrained surfaces, which also frequently exhibit a

dimpled appearance. This appearance is commo]i in

lodgepole pine too, but in lodgepole the dimples are

smaller and more abundant. Tlie resin canals of

ponderosa pine are abundant and easily found hi

all annual rings. They are larger than those in

lodgepole pine, and the heartwood of lodgepole

pine is lighter colored than that of ponderosa.

{Illustration, p. 22.)

Wood: Colors and Kinds 29
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)

Range.—Silka spi'ucc jji-ows aloii^ tlic Pacific

coast from Alaska to iioillicni California. Itis rarely I'ouiul over 40 miles iVoni llie coast and

geiieraÚy grows in niixtiu'c with Douglas-fir,

grand fir, westej'ii hemlock, and western redcedar.

It occasionally foi'ins pure stands.

Properties.—Sitka sjiruee is a moderat-ely lightweight wood, averaging 28 pounds a cubic foot.

The wood also is moderately soft, with a specific

gravity of 0..'>7, modei'ately weak in bending and

compressive strength, modei'ately stiff, and moderately low in resistance to shock. On the basis

of weight, however, it ranks high in strength

properties.

Although the wood has moderately large.

sJu-inkage, it is not difficult to kiln-dry. It works

easily, holds fastenings well, and can be obtained

in clear, straight-gj'ained pieces of large size and

unifoi-m textiu'e with hardly any hidden defects.

Its decay resistance is low. Although planed

surfaces of Sitka spruce lumbej- may show a silky

sheen, the wood has a tendency to produce wooly

or fuzzy grain under the action of planer knives.

As a pulpwood, Sitka spruce ranks high because of

its long, strong fibers and the ease with which it

can be pulped by -any of the pulping processes.

Uses.—Sitka spruce is used principally for

lumber, cooperage, and paper pulp. Some of the

lumber is used for construction just as it comes

from the sawmill, but the greater part is remanufactuj-ed into various products. At least half of

the remanufactured lumber goes into boxes and

crates. I'he other major uses of the lumber are

for furniture, planing-mill pi'oducts, sash, doors,

blinds, and general millwork. Specialty uses include aircraft, ladder rails, and piano sounding

boards.

Description.—Heartwood is light pinkish yeUow

to pale brown. Transition from springwood to

summerwood is gradual, making the annual rings

appear rather inconspicuous on flat-grained surfaces. Resin canals are usually more prominent

than in the other spruces. On end-grain surfaces, the canals appear as small dots or very

short lines that run parallel to the growth ring.

Flat-grained surfaces are lustrous and frequently

exhibit dimpling. The pinkish color of the heartwood distinguishes this species from all other

spruces. {lUudration, p. 23.)

Engelmann spruce {Picea engelmannii^

Range.—In the United States, Engelmarm

spruce grows along the upper slopes of the Cascade

JNIountains in WasJiington, Oregon, and the extreme northern part of California, and in the Rocky

Mountains in northeastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wj^oming, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The

largest producers of Engelmann spruce are Colorado, Montana, and Idaho.

Properties.—Engelmann spruce is rated as light

in weight, averaghig 24 pounds a cubic foot. The

wood is soft, witii a specific gravit}^ of 0.32, and is

weak as a beam or post, moderately limber, and

low in abilit}^ to resist shock.

Engelmann spruce can be readily ah'-dried with

little tendency to warp. It has moderately small

shriidiage and stays in place well when properly

dried. The wood is low in decay resistance but

glues easily under a wide range of gluing conditions. Engelmann space has excellent pulping

and papermaking properties.

Uses.—Engelmann spruce is used principally

for lumber and to a lesser extent for mine timbers,

crossties, and poles. A large proportion of the

lumber goes into building construction and boxes.

Much of it is used for subñooring, sheathing, and

studding. Some Engelmann spruce is pulped for

paper.

Description.—Heartwood is not distinct from

sapwood and ranges from nearh^ white to pale

yellowish brown. Transition from springwood to

summerwood is somewhat more abrupt than in the

other spruces. Resin canals are present, but are

frequently difficult to find. They appear on very

smoothlj^ cut, end-grain sections as small white

dots and on longitudinal surfaces as short, hght^

brown streaks or very fine grooves. The wood of

all the spruces, with the exception of Sitka, is very

similar in its gross and microscopic features and

therefore almost impossible to teU apart. {Illustration, p. 23.)

30 Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Sugar pine (Pinus lamhertiana)

Range.—Sugar pine grows from the Coast and

Cascade Mountain Ranges of southern Oregon,

along the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada

of Cahfornia, through southern CaHfornia in

scattered stands, and into Mexico. The heaviest

stands and largest trees are found in California

from Tulare to Eldorado Counties, in cool, moist

sites on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada at

elevations of 4,000 to 7,000 feet.

Properties.—Sugar pine is lightweight, averaging 25 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is moderately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35, moderately limber, moderately weak, and low in shock

resistance.

In decay resistance, sugar pine heartwood is

rated low to moderate. The wood has very small

shrinkage, seasons readily without checking or

warping, and stays in place well. It is easy to

work with tools, does not split easily ni nailing,

and has moderate nail-withdrawal resistance.

Uses.-—Sugar i)ine is used almost entirely for

lumber m buildings, boxes and crates, sash, doors

ij-ames, general milhvork, and foundrv patterns.

It IS suitable for all phases of house côiistruc^tion,

with tJie high-grade material going into interior

and exterior trim, siding, and paneling, while tJie

lower grade material is used for sheathing, subilooring, and roof boards.

The wood also has proved very satisfactory for

containers because of its light weight and color,

naihng properties, and freedom from taste and

odor. Sugar pine is widely used for foundry

patterns because it meets the exacting requirements and is readilv available in wide, thick

pieces practically free from defects.

Description.—Heartwood is light brown to pale

reddish brown. Resin canals are abundant and

conmionly stain the surface of the wood with

resin. Transition from spriiigwood to summerwood is gradual, making the growth rings appear

less prominent on flat-grained surfaces. {Illustration, p. 24.)

Western white pine (Pinus monticola)

Range.—Western white pine grows from the

Canadian border southward into western Montana

and northern Idaho, and along the Cascade and

Sierra Nevada Mountains through Washington

and Oregon to central California. The heaviest

stands occur in northern Idaho and in adjacent

parts of Montana and Washington. The trees

usually gi'ow in mixture with western hemlock,

western redcedar, western larch, grand fir, and

Douglas-fir, but occasional!}- occur in pure stands

on limited areas.

Properties.—Moderately light in weight, western white pine averages 27 pounds a cubic foot.

The wood is moderately soft, with a specific

gravity of 0.36, weak, moderately stiff, and moderately low in ability to resist shock.

Although the wood has moderately large shrinkage, it is easy to kiln-dry and stays in place well

after seasoning. In decay resistance, it is ranked

as low to moderate. Western white pine works

easily with tools and glues readily. It does not

split easily in nailing and occupies an intermediate

position in nail-withdrawal resistance.

Uses.—PracticaUy all of the western white pine

cut is sawed into lumber. About three-fourths of

this lumber is used in building construction. The

lower grades are used for subflooring and wall and

roof sheathing, while the high-grade material is

made into siding of various kinds, exterior and

interior trim, partition, casing, base, and paneling.

Other uses of western white pine include match

planks, boxes, and mUlwork products.

Description.—Heartwood is cream colored to

light brown or reddish brown. Resin canals are

abundant and transition from springwood to

summerwood is like that in sugar pine. Separation

of western white pine and sugar pine is generally

accomplished on the basis of the resin canals,

which are larger in sugar pine than in the other

white pines. Microscopic characteristics, however,

offer a more reliable means of differentiation than

gross features. {Illmtration, p. 21,..)

Wood: Colors and Kinds 31
Western larch [Larix occidentalism

Range.—Woslcni larch grows in mountain

valleys and on slopes at elevations of 2,000 to

7,000 feel in Wasliiniilon, ()rei;-on, western Montana, and nortliern Idaho. It reaches its best

development and greatest commercial importance

in northern Idaho and western Montana, where it

is generally associated witli other species, although

sometimes forming pure foi-ests of limited extent.

Properties.—A heavy wood, western larch has

an average weiglit of :^8 poinids per cubic foot.

Also, it is moderately haid, with a specific gravity

of 0.51, stiiï, strong, and nioderatelj^ high in

shock resistance.

Western larch and Douglas-fir are frequently

logged together and sold in mixture under the

commercial name of "larch-fir." Heartwood of

both species is moderately decay resistant. Western larch has large shriid-cage in drying and presents

seasoning problems because of the slowness with

which it gives up its moisture. Although it ranks

high in nail-withdrawal resistance, small or bluntpointed nails are preferred to reduce splitting.

Uses.—Western larch is used principally in

building construction as rough dimension, small

timbers, planks, and boards. Considerable

amounts also are made into crossties and mine

timbers. Probably three-fourths of the lumber

produced is used for structural purposes as it

comes from the sawmill. Some of the high-grade

lumber is remanufactured into interior finish,

flooring, sash, doors, blinds, and other products!

Description.—Heartwood is russet brown and

the color is best seen in summerwood bands on

flat-grained surfaces. Resin canals are present,

but are very small and difficult to find unless the

resin has stained the wood surfaces or the exudation actually appears as very small droplets.

Transition from springwood to summerwood is

abrupt and there is little difference in color between the two zones. The heartwood lacks a

distinctive odor. [Illustration, p. 25.)

Douglas-fir {Pseudotsuga menziesii^

Range.—In the United States, Douglas-fir

grows in most forests from the Rocky Mountains

to tlie Pacific coast and from the Mexican to

Canadian borders. Botanically it is not a true

fir. It readies its largest size and fastest rate of

growtli in Washington and Oregon, where large

trees form verj^ dense forests that sometimes

yield as much as 100,000 board-feet of lumber

per acre.

Properties.—Most old-growth Douglas-fir from

the Pacific coast and northern Rocky Mountain

States is moderately heavy, very stiff, moderately

strong, and moderately shock resistant. It averages about 33 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is

also moderately hard, with an average specific

gravity ranging from 0.40 to 0.48. Wide-ringed

second-growth Douglas-fir from the coastal States

and material grown in the southern Rocky ]\Iountain States tends to be lighter in weight and to

have lower strength properties.

The wood of Douglas-fir can be readilj^ kilndried if proper methods are used. Although it is

more difficult to work with handtools than the

soft pines, it holds fastenings well and can be glued

satisfactorUv. Dense Ireartwood has moderate

decay resistance.

Uses.—The principal uses of Douglas-fir are

for lumber, timbers, pUing, and ph^vood. Remanufactured lumber goes mostly into sash, doors,

general mdlwork, railroad car construction and

repair, and boxes and crates. Plj^vood is now iu

wide use for sheathing, concrete forms, prefabricated liouse panels, millwork, ships and boats, and

other structural forms. Chipped Douglas-fir sawmill residue has a considerable market at pulp muls.

Description.—Heartwood is orange red to red

or sometimes yellowish. Resin canals, which are

seen as brownish streaks in the summerwood,

appear to be more abundant and more readily

detectable than in western larch. Transition from

springwood to summerwood is similar to that in

western larch. The heartwood of Douglas-fir may

be confused with that of the southern yellow pines,

but resin canals are larger and much more abundant in southern pines. Most Douglas-fir has a

distinctive odor. {Illustration, p. 25.)

32 Agriculture Handbook 101, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture
Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)

Range.—Western hemlock grows along tlic Pacific coast from Alaska to San Francisco Bay, and

as far inland as nortliern Idaho aTid northwestern

Montana. The best stands are fonnd in the humid

coastal regions of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska

and on the lower slopes of the Cascade Mountains

in Washington and Oregon.

Properties.—Western hemlock is moderately

light in weight, averaging 29 pounds a cubic foot,

and moderately hard, with a specific gravity of

0.,38. It is also moderately weak and its shock resistance is fairly low. Although western hemlock

has modérâtelylarge shrinkage, it is comparatively

easy to season. Heartwood is low in decay resistance but the wood is easy to work witli tools and

has satisfactory gluing properties. Excellenl for

papermaking, it yields a tough, strong, and easily

bleached pulp.

Uses.—Western hemlock is used primarily for

pulpwood and construction lumber and, to a

limited extent, for containers, plywood core stock,

crossties, and mine timbers. The pulp is used for

newsprint and other printing paper, tissues, wrapping papers, and viscose and other cellulose derivatives. Although little western iicndock goes into

lieavy structural material, large quantities are

used for sheathing, siding, subílooiing, joists, studding, planking, and rafters in light frame const I'uction.

Description.—Heartwood of western hemlock is

light leddish brown and frequently has a pur|)lish

cast, especially in the summerwood bands. Transition from s])ringwoo(l to summerwood is gradual

and on end-grain surfaces there is little color contrast l)etween the two zones, 'i'lie wood lacks

normal resin canals.

l-Caslern hemlock hcai'twood is more I'oseate in

color than western liemlock and the transition from

spring-wood to summerwood is so abrupt that the

two zones stand out distinctly. "^I'lie coarser textiu'e of eastern hemlock springwood tends to tear

out in crosscut sawing and to produce a ribbed appearance on the end grain. A smooth cut is difficult to make on the end grain of eastern hemlock,

even with a very sharp knife, while western hemlock cuts very easily and produces smooth surfaces.

{Ilhi4r<itioH, p. 2G.)

White Fir (^Abies)

Species names.—White fir {Ahies concolor),

grand fir (.4. grandis), Pacific silver fir {A. amabilis), California red ñi {A. magnifica), and noble

fii- (A. procera).

Range.—Commercial white fir, which includes

all the above species, grows throughout the

Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. The

largest stands of white fir (.4. concolor) probably

occur in California, but other States contain

larger stands of the other species.

Properties.—Commercial white fir is light in

weight, the various species ranging from 26 to 28

pounds a cubic foot. It is moderatelv soft, with

an average specific gravity of 0.35, moderately

weak, moderately low in shock resistance, moderately stiff, and low in nail-withdrawal resistance.

It is difficult to season, a fact that retarded its use

until satisfactory seasoning methods were developed. Also, its decay resistance is low, but gluing

properties are satisfactor}'. White fir produces

strong, high-quality paper pulp.

Uses.—Wliite fir is used principally for lumber

and pulpwood. The lumber goes largely into

building construction, planing-mill products, boxes

and crates, sash, doors, frames, and general mülwork. Probablv 75 percent or more of all white

fir lumber is used for framing, subflooring, and

slieathing of houses. Pulpwood is used chiefly

in the manufacture of various grades of printing

paper and higli-gi'ade wrapping paper.

Description.—Heartwood is nearly white to

pale rechlish brown and tlu- wood lacks normal

resin canals. Transition from springwood, like

that in eastern hemlock, is more abrupt than

in western hemlock. Also, color of springwood

and summerwood on eiul-grain surfaces is more

contrasting than in western hemlock. The balsam fir of the east is more uniformly white in

color, with less contrasting rings than the western

firs. Wood rays of the western firs freciucntly

contain colored material that makes them stand

out more on edge-grained surfaces than ravs of

the eastern firs, which

{Illuxtrntion, p. 26.)

are generally colorless.

Wood: Colors and Kinds 33
GLOSSARY

Annual growOi ring.—The fii'0\\Hi layer put on in a single

urowth year, ini'liidins sprinfiwooci and sninmcrwood.

Bark.—Outer layer of a tree, comprising the inner bark,

or thin, inner living |)art (phloem) and the outer

bark, or corky layer, composed of dry, dead tissue.

Beam.—A structural nieml^er supporting a load apjjlied

transversely to it.

Bending, steam.—The procPS.s of forming curved wood

members by steaming or boiling the wood and bending

it to a form.

Bird'it-eye.—Small localized areas in wood with the fibers

indented and otherwise contorted to form few to

many small circular or elliptical figures remotely

resembling birds' eyes on the tangential surface.

Common in sugar maple and used for decorative

purposes; rare in other hardwood species.

Bow.—The distortion in a board that deviates from flatness lengthwise l)ut not across its faces.

Broad-leaved trees.— (See Hardwoods.)

Cambium.—The one-cell-thick layer of tissue between the

bark and wood that repeatedly subdivides to form

new wood and bark cells.

Cell.—A general term for the minute units of wood

structure, including A\ood fibers, vessels members,

and other elements of diverse structure and function.

Check.—A lengthwise separation of the wood, usually

extending across the rings of annual growth and

commonly resulting from stresses set up in the wood

during seasoning.

Collapse.—The flattening of groups of cells in heartwood

dviring the drying or pressure treatment of wood,

characterized by a caved-in or corrugated appearance.

Crook.—The distortion in a board that deviates edgewise

from a straight line from end to end of the board.

Cup.—The distortion in a board that deviates flatwise

from a straight line across the width of the board.

Decay.—The decomposition of wood substance by fungi.

Advanced {or ti/pical) decay.—The older stage of decay

in which the destruction is readily recognized because

the wood has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy,

ringshaked, pitted, or crumbly. Decided discoloration or bleaching of the rotted wood is often apparent.

Incipient decay.—The early stage of decay that has

not proceeded far enough to soften or otherwise

perceptibly impair the hardness of the wood. It is

usually accompanied by a slight discoloration or

bleaching of the wood.

Density.—The weight of a body per unit volume. When

expressed in the c. g. s. (centimeter-gram-second)

system, it is numerically equal to the specific gravity

of the same substance.

Diffuse-porous wood.—Certain hardwoods in which the

pores tend to be uniform in size and distribution

throughout each annual ring or to decrease in size

slightly and gradually toward the outer border of the

ring.

Dimension.— (See Lumber.)

Dimension, stock.—A term largely superseded by the term

hardwood dimension lumber. It is hardwood stock

processed to a point where the maximum waste is

left at a dimension mill, and the maximum utility is

delivered to the user. It is stock of specified thickness,

width, and length, in multiples thereof. According to

specification, it may be solid or glued; rough or surfaced; semifabricated or completely fabricated.

Dimensional stabilization.—Reduction through special

treatment in swelling and shrinking of wood, caused

by changes in its moisture content; with changes in

relative humidity.

Dry kiln.— (See Kiln.)

Dry rot.—A term loosely applied to any dry, crumbly rot

but especially to that which, when in an advanced

stage, permits the wood to be crushed easily to a dry

powder. The term is actually a mLsnomer, since all

wood-rotting fungi require considerable moisture

for growth.

Early wood.— (See Springwood.)

Edge-grained.— (See Grain.)

Extractives.—Substances in wood, not an integral part of

the cellular structure, that can be removed by solution

in hot or cold water, ether, benzene, or other solvents

that do not react chemically with wood components.

Fiber, wood.—A comparatively long (one twenty-fifth or

less to one-third inch), narrow, tapering wood cell

closed at both ends.

Figure.—The pattern produced in a wood surface by annual

growth rings, rays, knots, deviations from regular

grain such as interlocked and wavy grain, and irregular

coloration.

Finish.—Wood products to be used in the joiner work,

such as doors and stairs, and other fine work required

to complete a building, especially the interior.

Flakes.— (See Rays, wood.)

Flat-grained.— (See Grain.)

Framing.—Lumber used for the structural members of a

building, such as studs and joists.

Girder.—A large or principal beam used to support concentrated loads at points along its length.

Grade.—The designation of quality of a manufactured

piece of wood or of logs.

Grain.—The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or

quality of the elements in wood or lumber. To have a

specific meaning the term must be qualified.

Close-grained wood.—Wood with narrow, inconspicuous

annual rings. The term is sometimes used to designate wood having small and closely spaced pores, but

in this sense the term "fine textured" is more often

used.

Coarse-grained wood.—Wood with wide conspicuous

annual rings in which there is considerable difference

between springwood and summerwood. The term is

sometimes used to designate wood with large pores,

such as oak, ash, chestnut, and walnut, but in this

sense the term "coarse textured" is more often used.

Cross-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers deviate

from a line parallel to the sides of the piece. Cross

grain may be either diagonal or spiral grain, or a

combination of the two.

Curly-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers are

distorted so that they have a curled appearance, as

in "bird's-eye" wood. The areas showing curly grain

may vary up to several inches in diameter.

Diagonal-grained wood.—Wood in which the annual

rings are at an angle with the axis of a piece as a

result of sawing at an angle with the bark of the tree

or log. A form of cross grain.

Edge-grained lumber.—Lumber that has been sawed so

that the wide surfaces extend approximately at right

angles to the annual growth rings. Lumber is considered edge grained when the rings form an angle of

4.5° to 90° with the wide surface of the piece.

Fine-grained wood.—(See Grain, close-grained wood.)

Flat-grained lumber.—Lumber that has been sawed so

the wide surfaces extend approximately parallel to the

annual growth rings. Lumber is considered flat

grained when the annual growth rings make an angle

of less than 45° with the surface of the piece.

34 Agriculture Handbook 101, U. S. Deimrtment of Agriculture
Grain—Continued

Interlocked-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers are

inclined in one direction in a number of rings of annual

growth, then gradually reverse and are inclined in an

opposite direction in succeeding growth rings, then

reverse again.

Open-grained wood.—Common classification by painters

for woods with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut,

and walnut. Also known as "coarse textured."

Plainsawed limber.—Another term for flat-grained

lumber. . , . , . , Quarlersawed lumber.—Another term for edge-gramed

Spiral-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers take a

spiral course about the trunk of a tree instead of the

normal vertical course. The spiral may extend in a

right-handed or left-handed direction around the tree

trunk. Spiral grain is a form of cross grain.

Straight-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers run

parallel to the axis of a piece.

Vertical-grained lumber.—Another term for edge-gramed

Wavy-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers collectively take the form of waves or undulations.

Q^g^n —Freshly sawed lumber, or lumber that has received

no intentional drying: unseasoned. The term does

not apply to lumber that may have become completely

wet through waterlogging.

Hordujoods.—Generally, the botanical group of trees that

have broad leaves, in contrast to the conifers or softwoods. The term has no reference to the actual

hardness of the wood.

Heartwood.—The wood extending from the pith to the

sapwood, the cells of which no longer participate in

the hfe processes of the tree. Heartwood may be

infiltrated with gums, resins, and other materials that

usually make it darker and more decay resistant than

sapwood.

Honeycombing.—Checks, often not visible at the surface,

that occur in the interior of a piece of wood, usually

along the wood rays.

Joint.—The junction of two pieces of wood or veneer.

/o!si.—One of a series of parallel beams used to support

floor and ceihng loads and supported in turn by larger

beams, girders, or bearing walls.

Kiln.—A heated chamber for drying lumber, veneer, and

other wood products.

A'noi.—That portion of a branch or limb which has been

surrounded by subsequent growth of the wood of the

trunk or other portion of the tree. As a knot appears

on the sawed surface, it is merely a section of the

entire knot, its shape depending upon the direction

of the cut.

Longitudinal.—Generally, the direction along the length

of the grain of wood.

Lumber.—The product of the saw and planing mill, not

further manufactured than by sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a standard planing machine,

cross-cutting to length, and matching.

Boards.—Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and 1

or more inches wide.

Dimension.—Lumber from 2 inches to, but not including

5 inches thick, and 2 or more inches wide.

Dressed size.—The dimensions of lumber after shrinking

from the green dimensions and being surfaced with

a planing machine to usually % or 14 inch less than

the nominal or rough size. For example, a 2- by

4-inch stud actually measures 1^^ by 3^i inches under

American lumber standards for softwood lumber.

Nominal size.—As applied to timber or lumber, the

rough-sawed commercial size by \vhich it is known

and sold in the market.

Structural lumber.—Lumber that is 2 or more inches

thick and 4 or more inches wide, intended for use

where working stresses are required. The grading of

structural lumber is based on the strength of the

piece and the use of the entire piece.

Timbers.—Lumber 5 or more inches in least dimension,

limbers may be classified as beams, stringers, posts,

T caps, sills, girders, purhns, etc.

Wood: Colors and Kinds

to the

las conMeduUanj rays.—(See Rays, wood.)

il/i7/worA\—Generally, all building materials made of

finished wood ¡ind manufacturc'd in niillwork plants

and planing mills. Includes such items as inside

and outside" doors, window and door frames, blinds,

porch work, mantels, panel work, stairways, moldings,

and interior trim. Does not inclufle flooring, ceiling,

or siding.

Moisture content of wood.—The amount of water contained

in the wood. I'sually expressed as a percentage of

the weight of the ovendry wood.

Naval stores.—A term apijlied" to the oils, resins, tars, and

pitches derived from oleoresin contained in, exuded by,

or extracted from trees chiefly of the pine species

(genus Pinas) or from the wood of such trees.

Old growth.—Timber growing in or harvested from a

mature, naturally established forest. \\'hen the trees

have grown most or all of their individual lives in

active competition with their comijanions for sunlight and moisture, this timber is usually straight

and relatively fri'e of knots.

Ovendry ivood. Wood dried to constant weight in an

oven at temperatures above that of boiling water

(usually 101° to 10.5° C. or 214° to 221° F.).

Peck.—Pockets or areas of disintegrated wood caused by

advanced stages of localized decay in the living tree.

It is usually associated with cypress and incensecedar. There is no further development of peck

once the lumber is seasoned.

Pilch pocket.—An oi:)eiiing that extends parallt

annual growth rings and that contains, or

tained, either solid or liquid pitch.

Pitch streak.—A well-deflned accumulation of pitch in a

more or less regular streak in the wood of certain

softwoods.

Pith.—The small, soft core occurring in the structural

center of a tree trunk, branch, twig, or log.

Plainsawed.—(See Grain.)

Planing-mill products.—Products worked to pattern, such

as flooring, ceiling, and siding.

Plywood.—An assembly made of layers (plies) of veneer, or

of veneer in combination with a lumber core, joined

with an adhesive. The grain of adjoining plies is

usually laid at right angles, and almost always an odd

number of plies are used to obtain balanced construction.

Pore.— (See Vessels.)

Porous woods.—Another name for hardwoods, which frequently have vessels or pores large enough to be seen

readily without magnification.

Preservative.—Any substance that is effective, for a reasonable length of time, in preventing the development

and action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various

kinds, and harmful insects that deteriorate wood.

Quarlersaived.— (See Grain.)

liadial.—Coincident with a radius from the axis of the tree

or log to the circumference. .\ radial section is a

lengthwise section in a plane that extends from pith

to bark.

Plate of growth.—The rate at which a tree has laid on wood,

measured radially in the trunk or in lumber cut from

the trunk. The unit of measure in use is number of

annual growth rings per inch.

Rays, wood.—Strips of cells extending radially within a tree

and varying in height from a few cells in some species

to 4 or more inches in oak. The rays serxe primarily

to store food and transport it horizontally in the tree.

Resin passage (or duct).— Intercellular passages that contain and transmit resinous materials. On a cut surface, they are usually inconspicuous. Thi'v may extend vertically parallel to the axis of the tree or at

right angles to the axis and parallel to the rays.

Ring-porous woods.—A group of hardwoods in which the

pores are comparatively large at the beginning of each

annual ring and decrease in size more or less abrtiptly

toward the outer portion of the ring, thus forming a

distinct inner zone of pores, known as the springwood,

and an outer zone with smaller pores, known as the

summerwood.

35
Sap.—All the fluids in a tree exco]3t special secretions and

excretions, such as oleoresin.

SapvMoJ.—The living wood of pale color near the outside

of the log. Under most conditions the sapwood is

more susceptible to decay than heartwood.

Seanoning.—Removing moisture from green wood in order

to improve its serviceability.

Air-dn'ed.—Dried by exposure to air, usually in a yard,

without artificial heat.

Kiln-dried.—Dried in a kiln with the use of artificial heat.

Second groioth.—Timber that has grown after removal by

cutting, fire, wind, or other agency, of all or a large

part of the previous stand.

Sheathing.—The structural covering, usually of boards or

fiberboards, placed over exterior studding or rafters of

a structure.

Softivoods.—Generally, the botanical group of trees that

bear cones and in iiiost cases have needlelike or scalelike leaves; also the wood produced by such trees. The

term has no reference to the actual hardness of the

wood.

Specific graviti/.—The radio of the weight of a body to

the weight of an equal volume of water at 4° C. or

other specified temperature.

SpringiDood.—The portion of the annual growth ring that

is formed during the early part of the season's growth.

In most softwoods and in ring-porous hardwoods, it

is less dense and weaker mechanically than

suramerwood.

Stain.—A discoloration in wood that may be caused by

such diverse agencies as micro-organisms, metal, or

chemicals. The term also applies to materials used

to color wood.

Strength.—The term in its broader sense includes all the

properties of wood that enable it to resist different

forces or loads. In its more restricted sense, strength

may apply to any one of the mechanical properties,

in which event the name of the property under consideration should be stated, thus: strength in compression parallel to grain, strength in bending, hardness, and so on.

Stress.—Force per unit of area.

Stud.—One of a series of slender wood structural members

used as supporting elements in walls and partitions.

Summerwood.—The portion of the annual growth ring

that is formed after the springwood formation has

ceased. In most softwoods and in ring-porous hardwoods, it is denser and stronger mechanically than

springwood.

Tangential.—Strictly, coincident with a tangent at the

circumference of a tree or log, or parallel to such a

tangent. In practice, however, it often means

roughly coincident with a growth ring. A tangential

section is a longitudinal section through a tree or

limb and is perpendicular to a radius. Flat-grained

and plainsawed lumber is sawed tengentially.

Texture.—A term often used interchangeably with grain.

Sometimes used to comVjine the concepts of density

and degree of contrast between springwood and

summerwood. In this publication, texture refers to

the finer structure of the wood (see Grain) rather than

the annual rings.

Twist.—A distortion caused by the turning or winding

of the edges of a board so that the four corners of

any face are no longer in the same plane.

Tyloses.—Masses of cells appearing .somewhat like froth |

in the pores of some hardwoods, notably white oak

and black locust. In hardwoods, tyloses are formed

when walls of living cells surrounding vessels extend

into the vessels. They are sometimes formed in

softwoods in a similar manner by the extension of

cell walls into resin-passage cavities.

Veneer.—A thin layer or sheet of wood cut on a veneer

machine.

Rotary-cut veneer.—Veneer cut in a lathe which rotates

a log or bolt, chucked in the center, against a knife.

Sawed veneer.—Veneer produced by sawing.

Sliced veneer.—Veneer that is sliced off a log, bolt, or

flitch with a knife.

Vertical grain.— (See Grain.)

Vessels.—Wood cells of comparatively large diameter

that have open ends and are set one above the other

so as to form continuous tubes. The openings of the

vessels on the surface of a piece of wood are usually

referred to as pores.

Virgin growth.—The original growth of mature trees.

Wane.—Bark or lack of wood from any cause on the

edge or corner of a piece of lumber.

Warp.—Any variation from a true or plane surface.

Warp includes bow, crook, cup, and twist, or any

combination thereof.

Weathering.—The mechanical or chemical disintegration

and discoloration of the surface of wood that is

caused by exposure to light, the action of dust and

sand carried by winds, and the alternate shrinking

and swelling of the surface fibers with the continual

variation in moisture content brought by changes in

the weather. Weathering does not include decay.

Wood substance.—The solid material of which wood is

composed. It usually refers to the extractive-free

solid substance of which the cell walls are composed,

but this is not always true. There is no wide variation in chemical composition or specific gravity

between the wood substance of various species; the

characteristic differences of species are largely due to

differences in infiltrated materials and variations in

relative amounts of cell walls and cell cavities.

Workability.—The degree of ease and smoothness of cut

obtainable with hand or machine tools.

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Agriculture Handhook 101^ U. S. Department of Agriculture