S o c i a l S c i e n c e T o o l s f o r C o a st a l P r o g r a m s

survey

I n t r o d u c ti o n t o

Design 

& Delivery
Social Science Tools for Coastal Programs

Introduction to Survey Design and Delivery

About This Publication

Some of the most challenging decisions in coastal management stem from 

the relationship between people and the environment. The National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration’s Coastal Services Center provides technical 

assistance to coastal management professionals addressing complex human-based 

problems. “Introduction to Survey Design and Delivery” is the first in a series 

of publications developed to bring information to this audience about the use 

of social science tools in their field of work. For additional information about 

social science tools and applications, please visit www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/human_

dimensions/focus_socialsci.html. 

About the NOAA Coastal Services Center

The Coastal Services Center, an office within the federal government’s National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), works with state and local 

programs devoted to the wise management of our nation’s coastal resources. The 

NOAA Coastal Services Center provides these programs with tools, training, and 

expertise that might otherwise be unavailable. To learn more about the products 

and services available from this agency, visit www.csc.noaa.gov.
Table of Contents

Introduction................................................................................................................ 1

Population and Sample Size ........................................................................................ 1

Survey Delivery Mechanisms...................................................................................... 3

Sampling Techniques.................................................................................................. 5

Constructing Survey Questionnaires .......................................................................... 7

The Report .................................................................................................................. 12

Appendix A: Guide to Survey Sampling and Analysis Terms ...................................... 13

Appendix B: Guide to Survey Types............................................................................ 15



Introduction

Often, the public’s attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs strongly influence management 

decision making. Social science tools, such as a survey instrument, can help identify the 

relationship between the community and natural resources. Surveys are a method of 

collecting data via telephone, mail, or the Internet, as well as in person, using an ordered 

list of questions to gather important information in a systematic fashion. This technique 

allows for the collection of information and opinions from a representative sample 

of individuals related to specific natural resource management issues. This document 

provides insight into the various types and methods of survey research. 

The most important component of any successful survey project is to have a strong 

study conceptualization. Conducting a survey is much more complex than just asking 

a group of people a series of questions to try to solve a problem or better understand an 

issue. Rather, a survey is a systematic examination of a population by means of a series of 

specific, targeted questions. These questions should possess direct application in solving 

an identified problem or issue. The development of a survey simply for the purpose of 

determining what people think (e.g., pleased, displeased, concerned, happy, etc.) often 

generates data that are of limited utility. As with any professional undertaking, the most 

successful projects are generally a result of professional knowledge and expertise. Survey 

research is no different. Research within any academic discipline must follow specific, 

methodic protocols. Once information has been collected, specific statistical data testing 

methods must be employed to produce usable information. The intent of this document 

is to provide insight into the various methodological components of survey research. The 

document serves as an overview of survey-related techniques and as a means for coastal 

managers to understand basic survey information and terminology (Appendix A) to 

strengthen awareness and understanding of such projects.

Population and Sample Size

Determining an adequate sample size is critical in generating usable survey results; 

however, it is difficult to identify a specific population to study large-scale issues such as 

beach access. Beach visitors include local residents and people across a particular state, 

as well as people from other states and nations. In this instance, the number of potential 

visitors is indefinite and virtually impossible to quantify accurately. 

The size of a sample, however, is not nearly as important as the sample design. If you are 

conducting a survey, it is more important to obtain a representative sample than a large 

sample. A sample size that is larger than necessary will in no way compromise the results 

Conducting a survey 

is much more complex 

than just asking a 

group of people a series 

of questions to try to 

solve a problem.


of your study, but it will misuse time, effort, and financial resources. It is more useful to 

identify the population of interest and make efforts to achieve a high response rate rather 

than administer vast numbers of surveys. 

For the most rigorous approach to a sampling, it is important to consider such items 

such as the margin of error, degree of accuracy, and the most practical sampling strategy 

to use. These and other terms are described in Appendix A. With pilot data in hand, an 

experienced individual can help you work out the total sample size you need for the 

degree of accuracy you choose. Information on pilot testing is highlighted in Appendix B.

Fortunately, you do not need to be concerned about knowing the size of an exceptionally 

large population (e.g., a community, township, or user group such as recreational 

fishermen of the Chesapeake Bay). Laws of mathematical probability tell us in such 

instances that population size is of much less concern than the sample size, though there 

are links between the size of your sample and the level of analysis that can be performed 

following the survey. Statistical analysis can be categorized into two types: descriptive 

and inferential. Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, standard deviation) are used 

to summarize or describe the survey results, such as the average number of males and 

females, the number of people over the age of 45, etc. Inferential statistics are a bit more 

complex. Inferential statistics allow the researcher to arrive at a certain conclusion that 

is based on probability. For example, a survey of sea kayakers may suggest that females 

over the age of 45 exhibit greater pro-environmental behaviors than males under the same 

conditions. Inferential statistics reveal the degree to which different variables are related. 

In the previous example, pro-environmental behavior is related to both gender and age.

The following is a general example to show how sampling works with a large population. 

If you survey 500 people, stastically your results are equally significant whether the total 

population is 10,000 or 100,000. For this example, where a large population whose exact 

number is unknown, an appropriate minimum sample size is 384. 

By sampling this number of people (with a 100 percent response rate) you are ensuring 

a 95 percent confidence level with a confidence interval or margin of error of 5. This 

confidence level and margin of error is the standard desired level of significance for most 

survey research. The confidence level reflects how certain you can be that the survey 

results are accurate. In this instance, the results would prove to be 95 percent accurate, 

and the 5 percent margin of error is commonly sought. You could therefore state that 

results of your survey are 95 percent accurate, plus or minus 5 percent of people surveyed. 

Please remember that this sampling scenario is a general example and is not 

applicable to all situations.


Main Points: 

• There is much greater benefit in obtaining a representative sample than in obtaining 

an exceedingly large sample.

• If you have the time, contacts, and resources to be more rigorous about a sampling 

scheme, try to ensure that your responses possess a 95 percent confidence level.

• Determining an adequate sample size is best determined by someone professionally 

trained in survey techniques.

Survey Delivery Mechanisms

Surveys can be administered in many different ways, which are commonly divided 

into two categories: interview-based and self-completed. Common interview-based 

mechanisms include face-to-face interviews and telephone surveys. Self-completed survey 

instruments commonly include mailback surveys, hand-delivered questionnaires, and 

Web surveys. The following table is a brief synopsis of each survey type and various 

positive and negative aspects of each.

Description Positives Negatives

Face-to-Face Interview A directed, one-on-one

conversation ranging from

casual to highly structured

+ Obtain great level of detail

+ Ability to observe nonverbal communication along

with verbal responses

- Analysis of results can

be cumbersome and time

consuming

- Limited generalization to a

greater population

Telephone Survey A directed one-on-one

telephone interview ranging

from casual to highly

structured

+ Highly effective in

generating timely responses

+ Large numbers of surveys

can be acquired in a short

time period

- Skilled interviewer is

needed to help guide

respondents through the

survey

- A representative sample

can be a challenge

- Respondents can end the

call at will

Mail-Back Questionnaire A collection of questions

presented on paper in a

sequential, systematic order

that is received by mail,

completed, and then mailed

back to the researcher

+ generally less expensive

than telephone surveys

+ Participants have a greater

understanding of the

questions since they are read

firsthand

- Potential low response rate

- No opportunity for

clarification if a respondent 

doesn’t understand a

question

Hand-Delivered 

Questionnaire

Method where surveys

are hand-delivered to

respondents and mailed back

to the researcher following

completion

+ Generally greater response

rate compared to mailback

+ Provides an opportunity

for face-to-face interaction

with respondents

- Limited opportunity for

clarification if a respondent 

doesn’t understand an item

- High level of engagement

required from the researcher

Web Survey A collection of questions

presented in a sequential,

systematic order completed

via the Internet

+ Allows great speed and

flexibility to respondents

+ Little-to-no cost and

minimal supplies required

- Requires technical

expertise by researcher

- Respondents can easily

terminate survey before

completion

- Can be confused as SPAM


Face-to-Face Interview/Survey

Face-to-face interviews and surveys involve verbal exchange between the interviewer 

and a single individual. The general distinction between an interview and a survey is 

question structure. 

• Interviews generally use open-ended questions to obtain in-depth information 

about a topic, or qualitative information.

• Surveys generally use numeric and categorical responses leading to more general 

and concise responses, or quantitative information. 

Questions in both methods are highly structured so that results can be compiled and 

compared. If conducted properly, a face-to-face interview results in a generally high 

response rate and high-quality data. Availability of respondents is another consideration. 

Face-to-face interviews require respondents to participate immediately or to schedule a time 

to convene. Appendix B provides additional information on the benefits and limitations of 

interviews and other topical survey areas.

Telephone Survey

Telephone surveys are highly effective in generating timely responses. This method is 

quicker than the face-to-face method. Large numbers of surveys can be acquired in a 

relatively short time period. As with other verbal techniques, a skilled interviewer is 

needed to help respondents understand the purpose, time requirements, and survey 

items. Acquiring a representative sample can be a limiting factor. Partial data are another 

limitation of telephone surveys, and respondents can terminate an interview at any point 

by simply hanging up the telephone. 

Mail-Back Questionnaire

Mail-back questionnaires provide an opportunity to reach a much broader audience 

than many other survey methods. A greater portion of the general population possesses a 

mailing address than a telephone or Internet access. Cost, printing and postage, is relatively 

inexpensive compared to travel expenses. Though mail-back questionnaires are convenient 

for respondents, the researcher must wait a longer time for results and take measures to 

maximize response rates by sending additional surveys and reminder mailings. Current 

names and addresses are also necessary for adequate participation and response. 

Hand-Delivered Questionnaire

This type of questionnaire is essentially the same as other versions except in the way it 

is administered to respondents. This type of questionnaire is provided to respondents 

in person, where they are informed of the purpose of the project. Questionnaires are 

then completed by respondents and returned by mail or picked up at a central location 

If conducted properly, a 

face-to-face interview 

results in a generally 

high response rate and 

high-quality data.


by the surveyor. This method generally receives a greater response rate than the typical 

mail survey. Hand-delivering the questionnaire presents the opportunity for personal 

interaction. Respondents may feel more compelled to complete the survey if a positive 

interaction takes place with the researcher.

Web Survey

Web surveys gather respondent information via the Internet. Information is generally 

collected by e-mailing respondents a link to an on-line survey. Many research and 

consulting companies possess their own electronic collection program. On-line surveying 

can also be independently conducted by means of many Web sites. A few popular Web 

survey sites are Zoomerang, Insiteful Surveys, and Survey Monkey. These sites, as well as 

others, offer a variety of free and pay-service options. An advantage of Web surveys is that 

responses are automatically compiled and outputs are automatically generated. Besides 

time efficiency, other advantages to Web surveys include reduction in paper and printing 

costs, and convenience for respondents, who can complete the survey at their convenience. 

The greatest detriments to Web surveys are that respondents must possess basic typing 

and information technology skills, obtain access to a computer with Web access, and, in 

most cases, have an e-mail account. Additionally, creation of the survey instrument must 

comply with the constraints of the electronic system used to deliver the instrument. 

Sampling Techniques

A sample is a relatively small group of individuals selected to represent one or more 

specific attributes of a greater population. Survey-related research must use a truly 

representative sample for questioning, and there are many strategies for acquiring a 

representative sample. Applying the appropriate sampling technique to a particular 

issue or research question will strengthen the validity of acquired information. Several 

commonly used sampling techniques relevant to broad coastal issues are discussed below.

Simple Random Sampling

This is a relatively simple, yet effective technique to use. With this sampling strategy, 

every member of an identified population has an equal and independent chance of 

being selected to the sample. As an example, if the population of interest is commercial 

fishermen in the state of North Carolina., you can obtain a list of all state-issued 

commercial licenses. From this list, the desired sample size can be chosen at random. 

Assistance with true random selecting of individuals can be obtained by assigning a 

unique number to each fisherman and then using a random number table to select the 

desired number of individuals. A random number table can easily be found by means of 

Applying the 

appropriate sampling 

technique to a 

particular issue or 

research question 

will strengthen the 

validity of acquired 

information.


a quick on-line search or in print in nearly any introductory statistics textbook. Many 

software programs are useful in generating random numbers as well. One such numbergenerating tool is located on the GraphPad Software Web site at the following Web 

address: www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/randomN1.cfm . Diagram A models the concept of 

random sampling.

Diagram A – Simple Random Sampling

Population

Population

Population

Sample

Stratified Random Sampling

This sampling technique (sometimes referred to as quota sampling) requires a bit more 

effort from the researcher. Its intended purpose is for the sample to possess the same 

proportion as the entire population based on one or more attributes. Here the sample 

is divided into strata. As an example, the gender composition of a town is 2/

3

 male, 1/

3

female. Using a stratified random sampling technique guarantees the same gender 

percentages present among the greater population. To use this technique, all individuals 

must first be placed into a specific subgroup. Once subgroups have been created, relevant 

percentages of individuals are randomly selected to the sample. Diagram B depicts a 

stratified random sample with such male and female subgroups.

Diagram B – Stratified Random Sampling

Population

Population

Population


Systematic Sampling

This sampling strategy is useful in an instance where the total population is unknown. 

Public beach visitation is a relevant example. Since a visitor can come from virtually 

anywhere, it is difficult to quantify the total number of potential visitors. The first step 

in this sampling strategy is to determine a desired sample size. Next, a random number 

should be selected. This number is the interval in selecting potential respondents. For 

example, if the number 3 were selected, every third beach visitor encountered would be 

surveyed. This strategy should be continued until the desired number of respondents is 

obtained. Diagram C demonstrates the systematic sampling technique.

Diagram C – Systematic Sampling

Population

Population

Sample

Constructing Survey Questionnaires

Writing a Survey Lead-In/Purpose

An important element of a successful survey is conveying necessary background 

information to the respondent through a lead-in statement. This lead-in should consist 

of one or two brief paragraphs. Elements such as the survey purpose and goals should 

be addressed to help respondents in understanding their purpose for participating. 

Additionally, respondents should be informed of the typical time requirement for 

completion and a statement identifying measures taken to ensure confidentiality of 

individual responses. It is also important to thank the respondent for participating in this 

lead-in statement.

Consider the Level of Respondent Knowledge

When creating a survey, you should consider the level of knowledge respondents possess 

about the topic. Respondents may be highly informed about an issue or have little to 

no knowledge about the subject. For example, off-road vehicle use on barrier islands is a 

highly debated issue along the Atlantic Coast. Island community residents and frequent 

visitors are generally familiar with the issue and display great support or dissent over the 

number of vehicles motoring across the beach. A first-time visitor to the area, however, 

An important 

element of a successful 

survey is conveying 

necessary background 

information to the 

respondent through a 

lead-in statement.


may have no prior knowledge of the issue. Being aware of potential knowledge gaps will 

assist in constructing questions to accommodate a broad range of respondents and aid in 

interpretation of study findings.

Simple Wording

Construct survey questions as simply as possible. Select vocabulary and sentence structure 

that will maximize the understanding of what is being asked. The greater a respondent 

understands what is being asked, the greater the chance that a confident response will 

be made. Consider the following question: what is the relative annual frequency of your 

utilization of RV parks when visiting areas along the South Carolina coast? This question is 

very wordy and contains ambiguous terminology that can easily confuse a respondent. A 

simpler and more effective way of constructing this question would be this: approximately 

how many times per year do you stay in an RV park when visiting the South Carolina coast? 

Minimize Questions

Consider the amount of time it will take a respondent to complete a survey. Generally, 

the shorter the survey, the more accurate and complete the resulting information. Also 

consider the following question for each survey item: what will this question tell us? If you 

are unable to specifically determine how a question will further your knowledge of the 

issue at hand, you may want to consider modification or omission. 

Sequential Questioning

All survey questions should follow a logical and sequential order. For example, a local 

community is trying to create a plan to minimize recreational conflicts between surf fishermen 

and surfers. The local town board is interested in receiving input from local residents on 

strategies to address the issue. The local town board has also identified several strategies 

on its own to potentially minimize conflict and would like to receive public feedback. In this 

situation, it would be best to ask the public for their suggestions before asking them to evaluate 

the ones proposed by the town board. By soliciting public ideas first, respondents are not 

biased toward the ideas of others and have a greater ability to think freely.

Write Neutral, Non-leading Questions

Consider the language used to construct questions. For example, if there are perceived 

managerial problems in an organization, the following would be a leading question: What 

is the cause of current managerial problems in your workplace? A more appropriate and 

neutral line of questioning would be this: Do you feel there are current managerial problems 

in your workplace? If yes, please explain. While the purpose of the survey may be to gather 

information on identifying and improving managerial issues within the workplace, the 

respondent should have the role of actually determining which specific problems (if any) 

are present and need to be addressed.

Construct survey 

questions as simply 

as possible.

Consider the amount 

of time it will take a 

respondent to complete 

a survey.


Determine Appropriate Question Format

There are two basic types of questions: open-ended and close-ended. Open-ended 

responses are referred to as qualitative information and provide in-depth information and 

explore subject matter in an extensive manner not limited by specific answer choices. 

Questions that are answered by selecting a numeric, categorical, or other preconstructed 

response could be thought of as close-ended. Consider the following two questions:

1. What action(s) will you take (if any) to help reduce water consumption along the 

Florida Gulf Coast?

2. Which of the following best describes what you will do to reduce water 

consumption along the Florida Gulf Coast?

a. Limit personal consumption and inform others of the value of this practice

b. Limit personal consumption

c. Inform others of the value of limiting water consumption

d. Take no action

e. Not sure

f. Other (please explain) _________________________________ ________________

Both of the questions have certain advantages. The results of question one will likely 

provide a variety of responses much broader that the choices outlined in question two.

Information acquired through open-ended questions can be cumbersome to analyze and 

difficult to measure. Question two has a limited number of possible actions to reduce 

water consumption. However, in asking this question the researcher has the ability to 

report results in more specific, definitive terms such as 20 percent of Florida Gulf Coast 

residents reported that they will limit personal water consumption, while 45 percent will take 

no action at all, etc.

When using a multiple-choice question format, it is useful to have a choice for No Opinion 

or Not Sure, as well as an Other category in which the respondent can identify an area 

outside of the menu choices. Overall, it is important to consider the format of a question 

(open-ended or closed-ended) according to the type of response it will produce.
10

Using Rating Scales

Rating scales are a commonly used means of measuring attributes such as quality, 

satisfaction, or level of agreement. Consider the following example:

Please rank on a scale of 1 to 5 how satisfied you are with the number of parking spaces at 

beach access areas on the main island (Please circle the number of your response).

______________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5

Very Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Very

Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied

Rating scales should be made up of an odd number of selection choices. By having an 

odd number, a neutral mid-point can be established. This is helpful in creating a point of 

reference on which to base a response. 

Avoid Combined Questions

Combining two questions into one confuses a participant’s response. Essentially they’re 

not sure what they’re answering. Consider this question: Do you visit the city beach or do 

you visit the regional county beach accesses? It is possible to get different responses for this 

question with the same intended answer. It is best to ask as two separate questions:

Do you visit the city beach?

Do you visit the regional county beach accesses?

Or to combine them: 

Where do you visit the beach? Please check all that apply.

___ city beach

___ county beach accesses

Demographic and Sensitive Information

Generally, demographic attributes (gender, age, income, etc.) should be placed at the end 

of a survey. This information requires minimal thought of the respondent. The majority of 

their energy and focus should be placed on more central questions closer to the beginning 

of the survey. Demographic questions, if needed, will require minimal time and effort. 

Only place a demographic item at the beginning of a survey if it directly relates to the 

research question. An example would be if a community were interested in how age 

influences the perception of the level of beach access in a community.

Combining two 

questions into one 

confuses a participant’s 

response.
11

Avoid requesting any information that could be considered sensitive unless absolutely 

necessary. Examples of potentially sensitive information are identified below:

Age

Race

Gender

Income

Physical or mental limitations

Taboo topics such as frequency of drug use or sexual orientation

As previously mentioned, these items should be kept to a minimum, asked only when 

necessary, placed at the end of the survey, and respondents should be provided with a 

written statement informing them that all responses are voluntary and measures have been 

put in place to ensure confidentiality and anonymity.

Pilot Testing

It is of great benefit to pilot or pre-test a survey before initiating a full study. The pilot 

test should be administered to a small group of individuals who are as similar as possible 

to those being sampled. The purpose of this is twofold. First, it allows the researcher 

to gauge the types of responses being received for each question. It may be found that 

respondents do not understand the directions or are misinterpreting a question. Secondly, 

it serves as a means of quality assurance for grammar, sentence structure, and clarity. A 

survey should be clear, concise, and understandable. A pilot test is an additional measure 

that can be taken to maximize the effectiveness of a survey.
12

The Report

It is critical for a final technical report to be as comprehensive as possible while 

maintaining clarity and order. Reports composed of several specific sections often provide 

the greatest utility. Common sections in a technical report should include the following:

• Executive summary – The executive summary should describe the essence of the 

entire document in a single page. The language should be interesting and friendly to 

encourage further reading of the report contents.

• Study purpose – The study purpose section describes the research question or problem 

trying to be solved by the study. Specific documentation of the issue, as well as initial 

assumptions, should be identified here. 

• Methods – This section should be a comprehensive description of the intended 

research process from beginning to end. This section should identify the population 

of interest, desired sample size, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and steps 

to be taken to ensure an adequate response rate. This section should also identify 

proposed data analysis methods.

• Results – The results section should present the study outcomes or findings. Tables 

and graphs are particularly useful in conjunction with narrative text. Commonly, 

the study questionnaire will serve as an outline to this section, presenting each item 

sequentially. 

• Discussion and management implications – The researcher should take great 

care in interpreting results and discussing the possible implications of the newly 

acquired knowledge. 
13

Appendix A

Guide to Survey Sampling and Analysis Terms

Degree of accuracy

This refers to the level to which a sample mirrors or represents the population of interest.

f statistic

The f statistic is identical to the t statistic, but it is used when there are two or more groups to 

compare.

Margin of error

The margin of error is an estimate of the degree to which the responses to a survey would vary if 

conducted multiple times.

Mean

The mean is the average or intermediate response to a survey question. The mean is calculated by 

adding all the responses to a question and dividing by the n.

Median

The median is the number dividing the higher half of a sample from the lower half of the sample 

(the middle number).

N (Total population)

The capital N refers to the total number of individuals in a population.

n (Sample population)

The lower-case n refers to the number of individuals within a sample population. The response n 

refers to the number of respondents providing a specific response to a question.

P (Significance)

The significance statistic can be thought of in terms of the power of the relationship between two 

variables (i.e., comparison between two or more groups). This number (commonly three-digit) is 

the probability that the relationship between variables occurred purely by chance. For example, 

when comparing the ages between males and females, a significance level of .600 means there is 

a 60 percent probability that any differences between ages of males and females occurs merely by 

chance. Generally, a significance or probability level of 95 percent (less than .050) is required for a 

statistical relationship to be significant or accepted as not occurring by chance.
14

Percentage

Percentages commonly refer to the portion of the sample (n) that provided a specific response to a 

survey question.

Population

A group of people to which researchers would like their survey results to be generalizable.

Qualitative

The collection of narrative data to address a research question.

Quantitative

The collection of numeric data to address a research question.

Respondent

An individual who has answered or replied to a series of questions.

Sample

A careful selection of individuals from a population to be studied or surveyed who are 

representative of this larger population.

t statistic

The t statistic is a measurement of how two groups of respondents compare to one another on a 

specific response. For example, a t-test would be used to compare the mean age of males to the 

mean age of females in a sample. The greater the t statistic, the greater the two groups differ.

Standard deviation

The standard deviation is a measure of the degree to which the responses to a specific question 

vary from the mean. Large standard deviations signify that responses varied considerably. 

Small standard deviations signify that responses were close to the mean. In a normal response 

distribution, 65 percent of responses lie within one standard deviation of the mean, and 95 percent 

of responses lie within two standard deviations of the mean.
15

Appendix B

Guide to Survey Types

Questionnaire

A survey instrument through which individuals respond to printed questions 

Benefits

• Easy to quantify the data 

• Time-effective for use with geographically dispersed or large numbers of people 

• Relatively inexpensive 

• Data easily summarized and reported 

• Opportunity for expression without fear of embarrassment (anonymity) 

• Relatively bias free 

• Permit people time to think about answers 

• Questions can be used or modified from other instruments 

Limitations

• Limited provision for unanticipated responses 

• Time and high level of skill needed to develop 

• Low return rates which can skew data 

• Difficult to get at root causes or possible solutions 

• Can be impersonal 

• Questions may miss true issues 

• Questions and answers can be interpreted differently 

• People have been negatively conditioned to the value of surveys 

• May heighten expectations 

• Language or vocabulary may be an issue 

• In general people can express themselves better orally than in writing 

Techniques and Tips 

• Questionnaires can be either open- or closed-ended 

• Open-ended can be easier to construct but more difficult to quantify and interpret 

• Closed-ended can be more difficult to construct but easier to interpret 

• Use closed-ended if there will be 25 or more questionnaires 

• Follow-up phone calls or reminders can increase return rate 

• Setting the stage is very important to get high return rates 
16

• Questions must be very easy to read 

• If questionnaire is to be mailed, ensure correct and complete mailing list 

• Personal contact is best way to motivate people to complete questionnaire 

• Mailed questionnaires take about two months to complete 

• Consider computer-based questionnaires, which can follow more complex question patterns 

than paper and pencil 

• Develop or use question banks 

• Ensure that responses are kept confidential 

• Always pilot the questionnaire 

• For all survey types, incentives may prove beneficial in increasing participation. Incentives 

could include a drawing for a gift certificate or other prize, or an award following the 

completion of the survey. Be sure the emphasis stays on the survey and not the incentive! If 

random drawings are used, be sure not to compromise the anonymity of the respondents.

Oral Survey

Interview using a closed question technique

Benefits

• Reach a large number of people in a relatively short time

• Relatively inexpensive (can be done with trained volunteers)

• Data easy to summarize and report

• High level of return

• Does not depend on reading proficiency

• Good for information that requires sequencing (they can’t read ahead)

• Interviewers can clarify questions

• Can indicate strength to which something is felt 

• Easily adaptable to a wide variety of environments

Limitations

• Little provision for free expression or unanticipated responses

• Requires substantial time and technical skill to develop

• People tend to want to get the “right” answers

• People will use opportunity to vent or describe their issues

• The interviewer can influence the respondents

• People will hurry through answers without thinking about them
17

Techniques and Tips

• Train volunteers to be nonjudgmental and follow sampling scheme

• Keep questions basic and conversational

• Can involve phone interviews

• Let people know how and when data will be used

• Separate data from names

Interview

Active interchanges between people either face to face or via technology

Benefits

• Inexpensive to conduct

• Variety of perspectives can be elicited

• Can be very useful way to build rapport with audience or participants

• Can generate broad and deep data about system

• Interviewer can clarify questions

• Interviewer can clarify answers from the interviewee

• Interviewer can receive additional information in the form of nonverbal clues

Limitations

• Bias due to data collector’s interest

• Partial picture of training needs due to the typically small number

• Time intensive

• Data can be difficult to organize and quantify from open-ended interviews

• Self-reporting of participants may bias data

• Discussion can wander from purpose of interview

• Unskilled interviewers can make clients feel self-conscious

Techniques and Tips

• Can be used to generate “buy-in” from participants

• Good method for increasing the breadth of understanding of a situation

• Good method for refining initial perspective on a situation

• Can be used for initial input in association with survey, which would then validate information

• Rich discussions lead to proportionally larger amount of time analyzing data

• Planned, focused discussion will take more time to create and less time to analyze

• Skilled interviewers can help keep the discussion productive

• Plan for a comfortable private environment free of interruptions

• Do homework before the interview, come prepared
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• Avoid counseling the interviewee

• If the interviewee asks for a comment to be “off record,” accommodate that wish

• Never betray your client’s trust

• Know how to use active listening

• Plan a consistent preamble, including who the interviewer is, who they are working for, what 

kind of questions will be asked, time that will be needed, what will be done with the data

Additional Techniques and Tips

Active Listening

Communicate your understanding and show nonjudgmental acceptance

• Ask non-leading questions: “can you tell me more about that?”

• Rephrase what the speaker said in your own words

• Reflect underlying feelings: “when that happens to me, I feel really bad”

• Avoid analyzing what was described

• Use personal disclosure: “I’m not sure I fully understand what you are saying”

• Face the speaker

• Watch the speaker and listen

• Keep your mind on what the speaker is saying

Avoid Repetition

• Can make respondents angry

• They become irritated when they think you are playing games with them

• At a minimum, change the wording (most folks will catch on)

Use Sensitivity

• Word things tactfully

• Sensitive items best placed middle to end of questionnaire

• More sensitive questions usually best done face to face

Clarity

• Less than 20 words

• Grammatically correct and spelled correctly

• No jargon

• Highlight important words

• Never use more than one variable
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2234 South Hobson Avenue

Charleston, SC 29405-2413

www.csc.noaa.gov

NOAA/CSC/20717-PUB

2007