I..c^,/

/

Si

Seeding in the

Southweste)*!

PINE ZONE

for Forage Improvement

and Soil Protection

Agriculture Handbook No. 89

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Forest Service
CONTENTS

Page

The zone : its topograijhy, soil, and climate 1

Why seed? 3

"To improve range condition and forage supply 3

To ])rotect the soil of disturbed timberlanrls.. 6

Seeding deteriorated openings in the ponderosa i^ine zone 9

Selecting the site 9

Adapted species 9

Heritage production of seeded stands 13

Balancing seasonal forage needs and improving forage 16

Grazing preference 17

Guides for establishing successful seeded stands 19

Site preparation 19

Seed distribution and coverage 23

Rate of seeding 2-1

Drill row spacings 26

Best time for planting 26

Guides for grazing seeded stands 29

Mixnagement of new stands 29

Grazing estal>lished stands 30

Even utilization of seeded stands 31

Costs and returns 31

Seeding for soil protection on burned or disturl)ed timberlands 33

Selecting the site 35

Species adapted for seeding 36

Methods for establishing a protective herbaceous cover 43

Ponderosa pine burns 43

Logging and construction disturbance 45

Seeding rates and pro]5er time for planting 46

Grazing management after seeding 48

Common and botanical names of species mentioned 49

Literature cited 50

COVER ILLUSTRATION.—F-472055

Washington, D. C. October 1955

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U. S. Government Printing Office

^yasll^ngtou 25, D. C. - Price 25 cents
Seeding in the Southwestern Pine Zone for

Forage Improvement and Soil Protection

By FRED LAVIN, range conservationist. Agricultural Research Service,^ and

H. W. SPRINGFIELD, range conservationist. Rocky Mountain Forest and

Range Experiment Station,- Forest Service

THE ZONE: ITS TOPOGRAP[ÍY, SOIL, AND CLIMATE

The ponderosa [)iiie zcnie of Arizoiia and New Mexico covers moiv

than IS million acres oi- ai)i)rt)xiniatelY 12 percent of the area of the

two States. Elevations of its forests range from 5,500 to 8,500 feet.

At the lower and drier borders, pine grows in mixture with Gambel

oak,^ pinyon pine, and juniper. With increasing elevation and moisture the pine changes to a pure stand and reaches o[)timum development at about 7,500 feet. Above this elevation Douglas-fir and limber

pine are usually mixed with ponderosa })ine. Pure dense stands of

i)ouglas-tir are found above s,.")!!!) feet. Spruces and true firs occur

übove the Douglas-fir belt and occupy the coldest, wettest, and highest

forested areas.

Numerous meadows and i)arlvs of varying size (jccur throughout the

pine forests. These su})i)ort a variety of grasses and forbs that furnish valuable forage for both livestock and big game. Most abundant

are the grasses: Ai'izona fescue, mountain mulil}-, pine dropseed, nuittongrass, and western wheatgrass. Blue grama and squirreltail are

cunmionly found in deteriorated areas and at the lower edges of tlie

type. Numerous other herbaceous plants and small shi'iibs also occur

intermingled with these gi'asses.

The to[)Ograi)liy of the p(jnderosa pine zone varies from nearly level

or undulating plateaus to steep, rough mountain slopes. Soils range

from sands to heavy clays. These are shallow and rocky in many

places and vary greatly in depth. They are generally low ¡n organic

matter and have jtoorl}- defined jn-ofiles.

The climate of the ponderosa pine zcuie is favorable for raiige >t'ediiig ('"j.^ The average annual precii)itation varies fiom is to o.->

inches and comes maiidy in -2 periods. Siunmer I'ains. which are rela-

*Mr. Lavin was eiuiilnyed liy the Forest ¡service when the lesearrh re|Hirteil

here was lieing cimdiutefl.

"Central lieadiinarters (if the Staticm maintained at FiTt Cnllins. ('cilo.. in

cooperation with Colorado A&M College : research in the area with which this report is concerned is cooperative with tlie University and State Colleges of Arizona

at Tucson, Tempe, and Flagstaff; the University of New .Alexico, Albiuineniv.e ;

and the New ilexico College <tf Aik.M. Las Cruces. Facilities and services contiibuted by these institutions helped suhstantially in this study. The authors

also wish to acknowledge contributi(jns from the Soil Conservation Service in

furnishing seed and advice: and to numerous Forest Service employees for furnishing facilities and assistance in carrying out the studies, and in preparing

the manuscript.

'.\. list of common and h(itanic:il nnincs of sjiccies mciil inncd .-ipiicars on p. 4'.i.

'Italic nmnbers in parentheses refer to Literature <'jted. p. ."id.

1
2 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

tively intense but of short duration, occur in -hily, August, and September. Moie oentle winter .storms of several days duration occur in

November, December, January, and Febriiaiy. Winter moisture

usually falls as snow, and deep snow is common at the higher

elevations.

The i)roportion of the annual precipitation that occurs as snimner

rain increases from west to east. Thus at Flagstati', Ai'iz., api)roximately 4:0 percent of the precipitation falls during the summer rainy

season, while in the ponderosa pine zone of central New Mexico 60

percent or more occurs during the same period. Drought is connnon.

In almost every year plants suffer from lack of moisture in the s])ring

and again in the fall. In addition, summer rains oi- winter snows, or

both, are deficient enough to sei'iously impair plant growth and forage production 2 or .'> years in each decade.

Temperature extremes are great, commonly ranging from maximums of ± 100° F. to minimums of —30°. Length of growing season

varies from less than !)() days at tlie higher elevations to 150 days or

more at the lower altitudes.

The information and seeding guides presented in this handbookare based on studies made during an 8-year period, 19-i5-5?>, in the

ponderosa pine zone of Arizoiut and New Mexico (fig. 1). As a means

of indicating artilicial seeding results already attained in spécifie areas

of the zone under varying site, elevation, precipitation, and soil conditions, names of the ID^i")-;-».'} experimental areas will be used here for

their reference value (table 1 ).

Although the experimental areas were concentrated in the nortliAvestern and northeastern sections of the zone, apjiroximately 200

widely distributed supplementary range seedings have jirovided sufficient additional information so that recommendations given ai'e considered to be generally applicable throughout the southwestern ponderosa pine zone.

i I Ponderoso pine type

• EKpenmentol study oreos

Fioi'Kt: 1.—I'ouderosa piiio laiuls in the Suulhwest.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE

TAIíLK 1.—.1 rtlficlul-seediny .study areas in tice .south u^esteni potulfro.su

2>ine zone

Experimental area Site

descrii)tion Ele\'ation

Average

animal

l)recipitatioii

Soil

type

texture

class

Arizona:

Fort Vallev .... Natural pine

oijenim;.

do

do

Cutover i)ine

land.

do

Pine tiurn

do

Feel

7, 400

(1, i)00

(•), 500

7, 700

7, 100

7,300

(J, 500

(), 700

8, 300

S, 200

I nclies

23. 2

22. 1

11». (i

IS. 0

22. 0

23. 0

21. 1

22. 0

25. 0

18. 0

Lníí ni

White Horse Lake

Peterson Flat

Little iVlomitain

Coconino Sales

A-T Mountain

Metz [Mountain .. . .

Clay.

Loam.

Clay-loam.

Loam to

clay-loam.

Loam.

Do

Barney Pasture

New Mexico:

Jarita Mesa

No Agua _-

do

Natural pine

opening,

do ... ._

Do.

Do.

Do.

WHY SEED?

To IMPROVE RANGE CONDITION AND FORAGE SUPPLY

There are now thousaiuls of acres of deteriorated natural grassland

openiii<iS in the soutliwestern i)ine forests. Many oí these openiiifis

were once tlie most i>rodnctive ran<)e areas of tlie ponderosa pine zone.

NoAy, forage yields are lov/ and erosion is severe. Because former

valuable grasses have been almost com])letely I'eplaced by low-value

weedy vegetation, improvement tlnoiigh juitural revegetation will be

slow and costly in terms of lost productivity. Since park and meadow

openings in the Southwest are usually not well adapted to tree growth,

us suggested by the work of Peai'son (-iv), I'ange seeding is a practical

and economical method for rapidly restoring many of these deteriorated openings to high productivity.

The reward for ha.stening restoration and increasing forage yiekls

on seriously depleted openings where natural revegetation is slow is

strikingly clemonstratecl by the following. In northern New Mexico,

2 years after seeding, crested wheatgrass ' yielded 1,SG0 pounds of airdry herbage per acre compared with only 5(J pounds from heavily

grazed native range in poor condition (lig. 2). Native range protected from livestock grazing for 8 years was in fair condition and

improving as shown by an increase in the more valuable grasses, but

still produced only 200 ])ounds per acre. Range protected for 23

years had a climax'cover dominated by Arizona fescue and mountain

muhly, iind a herbage production of "l,3()0 pounds per acre. Other

seeded areas in northern Xew ]\Iexico liave produced up to 15 times

more than native range in ]joor condition.

° Crested wheatgrass, as used here, refers to Agroinjioii (UsrrtorKw, ci.iiunonly

called Standard crested wheatgrass.
4

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

F-464933, 464932

FIGURE ij.—A, This detei-iuralcil natural grasmlaiul niieiiiiig in ponderüsa pine

raiifie (iiortliern N. IMex.i iirciduicd mily .">(| pdunds of air-dry lierbage per acre.

Ü, All adjacent 2-year-()ld .stand id' crested wlieatgras.s produced 1,S(J0 pounds

per acre.

Tlie iiK-i'easecl foraae pi'ddiiction obtained fi'om seeding relatively

small, strategic areas can eneouraü'e improvement on adjacent areas

by reducin«^- their grazing load. Artilicial seeding otters the additional advantage of providing a better seasonal distribntion of forage.

Species can be used that start growth earlier in the spring, or stay

green later in the fall, than native sunnuer grasses. One of the major

grazing [iroblems in northern Xew ]\iexico is the need for early spring

forage. Seeded stands of crested wheatgrass are beginning to be used

to relieve this shortage. Not only does this help to loalance the forage

supplies, but it also proviiles a means for deferring grazing on the higli
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 5

mountain raniies where too earl)' orazino- lias been the cause of much

depletion in the past (ñg. 3).

The oreen forage made available by seedino- pi'ovides a more uuti-itious diet than do most of the native species when they are in a dormant, dry condition {10). This advantage is especially valuable

durino; calving and lambing when a high level of nutrition is needed

{23, 2Ji.). jNIoreover, the need for expensive supplemental feed is decreased (^7), and it is often possible to ship grass-fat livestock dii^eet

from range to slaughter.

Severe gully and sheet erosion are conuiion in the deteriorated pine

openings, even in the relatively flat meadows and parks. For most of

these openings, the reestablishment of a good vegetative cover is

Ji'.-^'- .

* ;, .r

•M¡^

l^í*':^ *.. «r/ ,WV

.^.' f^- .i-,^»^ïa;r., va „ . ',

u -J^-.

-»s

F-472057, 472059

FIGURE ?,.—.1, This deteriorated range on the Carson National Forest consisted

mainly of worthless shrubs and weeds and produced less than i.> pounds ot

air-drv grass herbage per acre. B, The range is now being used to relieve

early grazing pressure on higher native range. 2,L'()0 acres, seeded to crested

wheatgrass in 1949, yielded 960 pounds per acre of air-dry grass herbage at

the end of the .second growing season.
6 AGRICULÏURB HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

usually suHicieut lu coiili'ol erusiou ; seeding provides a dependîible and

rapid inetliod of obtaining an adequate protective cover (4,11, 28, 30).

However, if gullying is severe, check dams and mechanical structures

foi- water sju'eadiug are often necessary to ])rovide initial protection

for the planting and to im])rove moisture conditions for ])]ant establishment.

To PROTECT THE SOIL OF DISTURBED TIMBERLANDS

A need exists in the Southwest for the seeding of disturbed timbei'-

lands—that is, timberlands distui'bed by Hre and logging, and by

the construction of roads, ])owei-liiies, ])i])elines, and other improvements—to reduce erosion. "Wlierever practical, such erosion is usually

best controlled by the combined use of mechanical and vegetative

means. Mechanical contiol is largely based on the effective drainage

and proper dis]^ersion of the surface runoff waters (4, "iß). Seeding

sup])lements this by ])roviding a protective cover on the land and

rechicing the amount and effect of rnnofl'.

Forest fires in Arizona and New Mexico bui'ned at an average rate

of more than ;]!),()00 acres a yeai' during the (i-year period 1940-51.

Measui'ements on one pine burn in central Arizona showed initial soil

losses from erosion of 105 tons per aci'e during tlie first summer.

Xatural recovery of i)rotective vegetation and litter Mas slow, and

10 years after tlie fire erosion was still active. Based on siltation rates

of catchment basins in unburned ])arts of the same general area,

normal erosion on compai'able undisturbed timberlands was estimated

to be less tlian one-tentli of a ton of soil a year.

On part of a severe bui'u in northeiii Arizona, a protective cover

of 4.')0 ])ounds of air-dry herbage ])er ai'i'e was olitained in 10 weeks

by seeding with black nnistard. This cover greatly retarded erosion.

()ii unseeded ]iarts of the burn, the soil was nearly bare and it eroded

seriously. On anothei' burn in northern Arizona, intermediate wheatgra.ss produced l,.'!(iO pounds of air-dry lierbage per acre 2 years after

the burn. The cover furnished by this seeded species ])rotected the

soil much better than did the i20 ])ounds per acre of natural weedy

vegetation produced on the unseeded ])art. Seeded sj^ecies, because

of the large amounts of organic matter they produce (17), not only

jn'otect a site against deterioration (-¡O) but may actually improve the

soil for plant growth, both physically and chemically {29). (Fig 4.)

The develoi)ment of skid trails and landings, slash cleanup by bulldozer, and other logging activities destroy much of the herbnceoiis

and litter cover and compact the soil (2,13^20). Severe erosion often

occurs on these areas unless both mechanical and vegetative protection

are provided, resulting in decreased inoduction of both timber (JJ)

and f(jrage, and danuige to im])rovements (fig. 5). The recovery rate

of a desirable natural protective cover is often so slow that the effects

of disturbances i)ersist over several decades and are sometimes cumulative between frequent loggings (:J. IS). In the Southwest where

logging is moving from the gentler, more accessible slopes to the more

rugged terrain, erosion is a matter of increasing concern. Artificial

seeding is rapidly being accepted as a means of decreasing erosion on

areas disturbed by logging.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE

-^-^-Ot^ '- >'" >^.^-" :^'* .^é^. T.;:-^:^^

... " vi «ir .. ir- ^» \ if\ ^»j. i"": • "•• >k- .» > • %' -,--* >.. .jafcí». --T

'-^ f -._'-» t. I - . ,s.;- - • f^ a t-.-. - . /»Sí ^B" ~r^*<'

•* T - -*p* ' ^^ ^^ ...... i¿..

F-472088. 472093

'' iGUKE 4.—Artificial seedinií pruvicles a (luick means cif fiirni.shiní; prutertive cover

to Imi-iied over iMHidero.sa pine tiniberiaiíds. .1. A year-old untreated burn

•"^till lacking a iirotective vegetative cover and .subject tn heavy erosion. B. A

Ijurt of the same burn protected against ero.sion liy seeding to blue wildrve

immediately after the fire.

lliese loo-ginjr operations often drastically decrease the available

forage over large tracts of tiniljerland {2, IS, H). On some of the.se

iireas, seeding can be used to increase forage as an aid to better livestock management. Although artiiiciall}' seeded species compete with

l>nie repi'oduction for water, light, and nutrients, they probably offer

110 greater ob.stacle to pine regeneration than comparable amounts of

349770°—55 2
8

AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

3'"^^^

F-47^035, 47 075

FiGi'iiE 5.—.1, This untreated lugging mad has only a sparse stand of anuual

weeds 2 years after abandimnient and is still subject to severe erosion. B,

l'art of same road 1 year after being seeded to big bluegrass and covered with

slash ; good protection against erosion has been achieved.

iiiituial vegetiitiou [32, -i^)• Tliey also have the important advantage

of being easier to manipuLite for silvicultural purposes through

species selection, rate of seeding, and livestock grazing, than many

undesirable native plants. Prompt seeding can" help keep out undesirable weedy species such as bracken, pine goldenpea, and thistles.

Such species frecpiently ort'er competition to pine seedlings and sometimes make reforestation difficult or impossible.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 9

SEEDING DETERIORATED OPENINGS IN THE PONDEROSA

PINE ZONE

SELECTING THE SITE

Seeding to increase the foiage s\i])p!y on these natni'al grasslands

is most nsefnl wliere the vegetation consists mainly of n'iidesirahU'

plants or where i-enmants of \he more desirable plants are insufficient

for natnral revegetation. On such ranges, soil protection against

erosion is nsnally inadequate and forage yields are low in comparison

with those on similar areas in good condition. ?Iowever, where natural vegetation can be restored within a reasonable time by improved

livestock-management practices alone ( 12, 30), seeding for forage production is seldom justitied. Exceptions to this sometimes occuAvhere

seeding of sites with a fair to good native vegetative cover appears

justitied in order to balance the green forage supply through the

grazing season.

Level or gently slo])ing sites with fei'tile soil and good moisture

conditions are Ijest for planting. They should, therefore, usually

receive first attention in any seeding j^rogram for forage increase and

improvement. Rough terrain and shallow, rocky, or highly erosive

soils are not promising sites, (renei-ally, slopes in excess of 15 ])ercent should not be seeded mdess erosion-control benefits justify extra

seeding costs.

ADAPTED SPECIES

More than 170 species and varieties have been tested for use in seeding openings of the ])onderosa ]iine zone, but oidy -I?» have shown

definite jiromise of being well adapted. The lelative success of these

species is shown in table '2.

The success rating was based on numi)cr. distribution, and vigor of

])lants that became established within the i)liysical limits of the site

environment. Where a full stand of well distributed, vigorous plants

became established the lating was excellent. Poorer stands rated

down through good, fair, jioor, and veiy poor to complete faibne. It

should be noted that relative success is not always directly related to

yield. For example, a low-growing species, such as blue grama, with

an excellent stand might produce less herbage than a fair stand of a

tall-growing species, such as tall wheatgrass.

Species used in seeding must not only be well adapted to the envii'onment in which they are expected to grow, but they must also be suited

to the purjiose foi-which they are needed. The species listed in table .i

provide ample choice in meeting these lequirements in the southwestern ponderosa pine zone. Some of their more important characteristics are therefore descrilted. The two sj^ecies that have given the

most uniformly good results and that have shown the widest range of

adaptability are crested wheatgrass and intermediate wheatgrass.

Crested wheatgrass, a vigorous, drought-resistant, perennial bunchgrass, produces a good ainount of forage. Seedlings are small and

make slow initial growth so that occasionally the first year's results do

not appear successful. T^siuilly, a good stand develops in the second

or thii'd year after seeding. One of the most valuable characteristics

of crested wheatgi-ass is its ability to stait growth early in the spring
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

TAIîLE 2.—Relative succes)^ ratings of 33 species tested at 5 locations

in ponderosa pine openings

Species

Relative success ^

Jiirila

!\k'sa

Fort

Vallev

White

Horse

Lake

Peterson

Flat

No

Agua

Loiifi-lixpfl grasses:

liliiegrass, big

Broine, smooth

( )rchartlgrass

Wlieatgrass:

Beardless

Bliiehunch

Western

Crested

Intermediate

Pul)escent

Tall

Wildrye, Russian

Short-lived grasses:

Brome, mountain

Oatgrass, tall

Rye:

Alountain

Winter ^

Timothy

^^'heatgrass, slenfler

Wildrve:

Blue

Canada

Legumes:

Alfalfa:

Grimm

Ladak

Sweetclover (hieiuiial):

White

Yellow

K

(!

F

G

PJ

F

G

E

E

G

G

G

C!

E

(J

F

E

E

F

E

G

C!

F

G

r;

E

E

E

(5

G

E

G

G

E

G

P

E

G

E

F

F

P

P

F

G

G

F

()

E

r;

E

c;

G

Ci

G

G

r;

E

F

E

F

F

G

G

0 XT

P XT

0 XT

F F

VP XT

G XT

Ci E

F E

P G

F F

F XT

F NT

F NT

G XT

F XT

0 NT

G E

^ p : XT

VP XT

p NT

F XT

F XT

F XT

P = Poor; VP = Very

' Stands ranged from 3 to 8 vears in age.

2 Relative success: E = Excellent: (i = (;ood- F = Fair

poor; O = Failure; NT=Xot tested.

3 Michel's hybrid variety of winter rye was used in all tests.

wheii ^leen foraue is most w^^h^ú to supplement native ranoe. In

llie houtlnvest. it often stay.s oreen and orows tlirouHiont the siuiinier rainy season. It also makes further o-rowtli durino- the fall if

suihcient moi.sture is available.

Intermediate wheatgrass, a lono--lived perennial sod-former, is

easy to establish because of its excellent seedlin<r vioor and rapid

izTowth. It produces a laro;e volume of forao-e under ^favorable coiiaitions and IS also valuable for green feed durino- the spring- and fall

l^eriods. TliLS grass, however, is not so droiight-resistant as crested

^^ lieatgrass. Interineduite wheatgrass does not spread so rapidly by

vegetative means as some of the other sod-formers, such as smooth
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE H

brome and Avestern wheatorass. Established stands often become

sodboimd after several years with a marked decline in ¡¡roiliiction of

both seed and forage.

Big bluegrass, a bunchgrass, is outstanding for its high lierhage

yields under favorable moistuie conditions. P^stablishment, however, is rather slow and uncertain. The young; plants need careful

management because they are easily pulled up and destroyed by grazijig. Big bluegrass is best suited to the more moist sites.

Smooth brome, a longdived sod-former, is easily established because

it has good seedling vigor. It produces large amounts of high-(niality

forage where well adapted, but re(|uires good moisture conditions and

fertile soils. It is not recounnended for the drier sites. Smooth

brome, because of its vigorous vegetative spread, has a tendency to

become sodbound in a few years time.

Orchardgrass, a bunchgrass, germinates readily and produces

strong seedlings. It is shade-tolerant and maintains a good stand

even under a fairly dense pine canopy. Seedlings and young plants

frequently are killed during cold, open winters. In the Southwest,

orchardgrass appears to require somewhat more moisture than does

smooth brome and should only be ])lanted on sites where moisture

conditions are very favorable.

Beardless wheatgrass and bluebunch wheatgrass aie closely related bunchgrasses. In the Sijuthwest, hlnehunch wheatgrass is less

drought-resistant than beardless wheatgrass. These two si)ecies have

not been used much in this region because of their undependable

establishment and slow initial growth.

Western wheatgrass is a native sod-former. Top growth is of

single stems from vigorous luiderground rhizomes. This plant is

very drought-resistant. When to]) growth is killed back by drought,

the underground stems may still survive. "Western wheatgrass is

especially well suited to heavy soils where runoti' water accumulates.

It starts growth early in the spring and makes further growth during

the simimer rainy season and in the fall. The main disadvantage

of this grass for seeding is its slow, undependable germination and

establishment. This is otfset somewhat by its subse(|uent vigorous

vegetative spread.

Pubescent wheatgrass is similar to intermediate wheatgrass in

^n-owth habits and requirements except that it is a more vigcuoiis

sod-former. It has a weaker seedling and is more diihcult to establish than intermediate wheatgrass. Some deterioration in established

5- and 6-year-old stands of ])ubescent wheatgrass indicates that it

maybe rather short-lived under Southwestern conditions.

tall wheatgrass is a robust, high-yielding bunchgrass and one of

the latest maturing of the wheatgrasses. It has a strong, rapidly

growing seedling and is easily established. During cold, open winters, mortality has been high even among mature plants. Tall wheatgrass requires better moisture conditions than either crested or intermediate wheatgrass and should therefore be used only in the moister

parts of the ponderosa pine zone.

Russian wildrye is a deep-rooted pereiniial bunchgrass with an

abundance of basal leaves. It begins growth early in the si)ring

and usually remains creen tln-oughout the sunnner. Fall regrowtli
^2 ACRirrLTFHlC PIANDBOOK XO. 89

is also o-.„„l wlu-n n.l.Mual. moisture is available. The seedlin^- is

rather ^^eak and the v<.uno- plant .levelops slowly. Once establ.shed,

however. Kussiaii wiíclr.ye is vi-orous, persistent, and highly drought-

"^Reed^canaryg-rass and redtop, two long-lived sod-forming grasses

not listed in table "J. are niainlv suited to sites that have a high water

table or nroL.nged periods of llooding. The mature plants can endure

short IHM'iods of drouuht. Eeed canarygrass has given especially good

results in reducing wave-action erosion when ])lanted on the borders of

livestock water ponds and other bodies of standing water. Jvedtop

planted in a gullv l)rought about a gradual rise m the water table by

decreasino- runofr velocity, which resulted m more silt deposition.

This in turn "reatly improved the forage quality and iM'oduction on

a former wet meadow (lig. 6). These grasses, ])articularly reed

canarygrass, are rather slow to become established because of low

seedliui-- vigor. Once established, howevei', they sy^read vigorously

bv rhizomes.

Winter rye, mountain rye, and slender wheatgrass are widely

ada])ted desirable bunchgrasses that have a short life span.^ The

wintiu- rye tested was of the Michel's hybrid variety. In the Southwest this has usually maintained a good stand over two growing

seasons and then (juicklv declined, dying out completely by the third

or fourth veai'. Mountain rye appears to be slightly longer lived,

commonly maintaining a good stand over three growing seasons and

then dying out rapidly. ' Slendei- wheatgrass is the longest lived

species'of this group, usually maintaining a good stand over 4 or T)

crowing seasons and then deteriorating gradually. On the sites tested,

good amounts of viable seed were ])rodiiced by all of these si^ecies but

fctand propagation by volunteer seeding was very poor. The chief

A alue of seeding with these grasses is to HU the need for a quick tem-

])orary cover. They all produce large amounts of forage that is

reatliiy grazed by fivestock. Also, they are easily established because of their large viable seed, strong vigorous seedlings, and rapid

initial growth.

Mountain brome, tall oatgrass. timothy, blue wildrye, and Canada wildrye are other desirable short-lived grasses. These usually

attain ma.ximum growth by the second to ñfth year, depending on

the species, then gradually decline and die out. These grasses liave

the same desirable seed and growth characteristics described for the

preceding grouj) of short-lived species. They are, however, less

dronglit-resistant so that their use is limited to the more moist sites.

Grimm and Ladak alfalfa. Legumes are desirable for their nitrogen-Hxing activity in the soil and for raising the jirotein level of the

forage. Attempts to establish legumes by artificial seeding, however,

have not been encouraging. Of the long-lived legumes, (xrimm and

Ladak alfalfa have shown the most jn-omise for seeding throughout the

jnne zone. They are, however, highly relished by deer, rabbits, and

other wildlife. Hence, grazing injury to the plants in the seedling

stage is usually so great that estalilishment is diflicult.

Yellow sweetclover and white svveetclover, of the short-lived legumes tested, show the greatest jn'omise for seeding use. They ¡U'e

usually easy to establish and often produce a high yield of herbage.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 13

^ »''%*Íi¡á^^.-^ikfÜ

H:

F-450404. 472102

FiGVEE 6.—A. A ileep gully in a furiuer wet meadow before seedlug in l'.)46. B,

Same gully in 11J4S ; redtop provided a highly eiïective vegetative cover for

soil stabilization and pT(juioted rapid healing of the gully.

Both of these species, however, tire biennials and vohmteer seeding even

on the better sites usually has not been adequate to maintain a good

stand for a prolonged time.

HERBAGE PRODUCTION OF SEEDED STANDS

The time required to bring a deteriorated range back to good forage

production Ijy seeding may vary widely. Results indicate that the

more favorable the growth conctitions, especially with regard to the

amount of moisture available, the more rapidly range improvement
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

and hifih forape production can be attained. For example, at White

Horse Lake a stand of crested wheatprass planted in 1046 produced

570 i^onnds of air-dry lierbage per acre at the end of the second prowinp- season under fair moisture conditions. At the same site a 1949

plantinp, after two prowinp seasons with i)oor moisture, produced only

240 pou'iids. At Jarita Mesa, where there were two prowinp seasons

with exceptionally pood moisture conditions, crested wheatprass

yielded 1,680 I;)0UIK1S of air-dry herbape ])er acre in the second season.

Species dirter preatly in their ability to produce hipli herbape yields

under the same prowinp conditions. At Jarita INIesa (table 3), for

example, the 3-year averape yield for hip blueprass was almost liÁ

times as much as that of the next hiphest species, crested wheatprass,

and more than 31^^ times as nuich as for the lowest yieldinp species,

Kentucky liluepra'ss. Of the lonp-lived perennials tested at other

locations, intermediate wheatprass, tall wheatprass. smooth brome,

and crested wheatprass prochiced the hiphest yields, in the order

named, for the moist sites. On the drier sites, intermediate and crested

wheatprass were best. These two species, widely used in seedinp

throuphout the pine zone, have piven consistently pood yields.

Yearly variations in pi'owinp conditions cause considerable variation in herbape production amonp artificially seeded species. Reynolds and Sprinpfield {36') founcl in the Southwest that yields of

crested wheatprass were closely correlated with the amount of precipitation received from November to June. Because this species makes

its best prowth durinp the cool si)rinp weather-, pood moisture is needed

at that time for nuixinunn herbape production. Studies indicate that

other cool-weather prasses are also dei)endent on pood winter-spring

moisture for hiph herbape yields. For example, fipure 7 shows that

herbape yields of intermediate wheatprass, crested wheatprass, and

smooth brome were all more closely related to November-June precipitation than to total annual precipitation.

Caution should be used in projectinp herbape yields for yoiuip,

artificially seeded stands and in com])arinp them with native range;

there are indications that these younp stands may reach an early peak

yield and then decline even under liplit prazinp or complete protection.

This has been true in other repions of the West. In the southwestern

ponderosa pine zone, a decrease in herbape yields has been ol)served for

some of the stands seeded at the bepinninp of the 1945 research propram. However, definite conclusions cannot be drawn from these

observations because of the limited period of record and the influence

of a severe droupht.

In northern Arizona, one pasture of smooth brome that was seeded

more than 30 years apo is still hiphly valued bv the owner for the

preen sprinp feed it furnishes for his sheep. Herbape yields. hoAVeyer, are much lower than for adjacent native raupe in pood condition.

This is i^robably the result of sodbindinp and a nitropen deficiency in

the smooth brome stand. Several stands of crested wheatprass in

both northern Arizona and northern New ^Mexico that have been

prazed for 15 to ¿iO years still equal or exceed pood native range in

forage yields.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 15

1,200 r

I 900

55 600

I

to 300

1

1,

30 r

20

10

1:1 Annual

Y//1 Nov.-June

1948 1949 1950

YEAR

1951

FIGURE 7.—Cnniparative yearly fliK-tiiations ni iirecipitatidii niul hcrliase pj-oductidii of :', species seeded in 1047 on a dry slope, Fort Valley Experimental

Forest, Ariz., 194,S-r.l.

349770°—5,5-
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

TABLE 3.—Ilerlxige 'i/ifhls over a 3-year period for S species seeded in

191^0 at'J<irita Mesa, northern New Mexico ^

Species

Herbage production, in air-dry

weight per acre

1047

Pniiruh

Rig hluegrass 1, 370

Crested wheatgrass , 1, 680

Slender wheatgrass_

Western wheatgriiss.

Smootli brome

Orchardgrass

Tall oat grass

Kentucky bluegrass1,060

610

560

680

640

570

1048 1949

Pounda Pounds

2,610 2, 050

1, 480 1, 140

1, 220 1,070

750 1, 000

760 620

830 420

650 430

490 610

Average

Pounds

2,010

1, 430

1, 120

790

650

640

570

560

1 Annual precipitation in 1947, 28.0 inches; 1948, 26.4 inches; 1949, 20.3 inches.

^Mixtures of species for ranoe seedino- have been tested for such a

short time that only iireliminary indications of their potentialities are

available. At the end of the third growing- season none of 1.5 perennial grass mixtures tested at "White Horse Lake produced a greater

3'ield of herbage than the best single-species planting. This agrees

with results obtained in soutliern Idaho (4^>) and appears to substantiate "Willard's conclusions (46, pp. 431-1^1^7) that where one

species is best ;ula])ted to a site foi' high forage production, any mixture of less well adapted species is likely to reduce the yield.

On improved ])astures where legumes aie ada])ted,, legume-grass

mixtuies may improve forage quality and increase production over

grasses alone (40). The only test of this on rangelauds in the pine

zone M-as at Jarita Mesa. There a mixture of Ladak alfalfa, crested

wheatgrass, orchai'dgrass, and smooth brome, and another of Grimm

alfalfa, crested wheatgrass, and slender wheatgrass, gave good preliminary results. These mixtures outyielded the same grasses seeded

in pure .stands. However, big bluegrass, the highest producing single

sj^ecies. outyielded both of the mixtures.

Balancing Seasonal Forage Needs and Improving Forage

Seasonal foi'age needs can be balanced and the nutritional value of

the forage improved by leng-thening the time during which green

feed is available. To accomplish this, species must be seeded that have

growing pei-iods that will supplement each other as well as the growth

of the native range (17\ J^O, J^5). For example, crested wheatgrass

starts growth very early in the year and provides good, early spring

grazing. Intermediate wheatgrass, however, stays green longer and

is more suitable for late spring and early sunn'ner grazing. With

summer rains^ the native range sjiecies start ffi'owth and furnish green

forage throughout the summer months. Russian wildrve, which

usually makes excellent fall regrowth, is well adapted for fall grazing,

iiie combined use of these three species together with the native range
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 17

could therefore provide a constant supply of oreon forage from early

spring till late fall.

Green range forage as compared with naturally cured ranoc foraae

contains larger amounts of some of the most" important required

nutrients, ¡particularly protein, phosphorus, and vitamin A (10, J7).

Thus, lengthening the period of green feed also impi'oves the nutritional level.

Tahle 4 gives the seasonal value of the more important s])ecies used

in seeding for green forage production. This tahle is l)ased on observation over an S-year period and sup])leinpiite(l hy tlie lesiiHs of

other investigators (i,^, .f^).

T.VBLE 4.—''^ea.^onal value ^ of the move ¡inportant npeeien used in ¡needing for the ¡>rod\ietlou of yreeit forage in the ^^outhirent

Species Fall

Big bluegrass

Crested wheat grass

Russian wildrye

Intermediate wheatgrass

Pubescent wheatgrass

Orchardgrass

Smooth brome

Western wheatgrass

Beardless wheatgrass

Bluebunch wheatgrass. _

Tall wheatgrass

P

F

G

G

F

G

G

F

P

P

G

' Seasonal value; G = Good; F = Fair; P = Po<ir.

When range seeding is clone to increase the length of tlie grazing

season, species are best planted singl^y in se[)arate pastures and grazed

in rotation. This provides forage when needed, and mainigement is

easier than for pastures planted to mixtures (/6', .f^)- Mixtures in

which the component species vary widely in |)alatability and season

of use are difficult if not impossilde to manage efficiently. An example of this occurred near Flagstaff, Ariz., where a mixture of

smooth brome and crested wheatgrass was used. Because tlie smooth

brome was far more palatable to the livestock, it was grazed, and

the crested wheatgrass was left to mature and become even less ])a]-

atable. In 4 years, the smooth brome was almost eliminated by overgrazmg.

Grazing Preference

Grazing preference, or palatability, shoidd be considered when

selecting species for .seeding to meet grazing needs. Limited grazing

trials that allowed livestock free choice of species artiñcially seeded

were made at Jarita Mesa and the Fort Valley Experimental Forest.

Although these trials included only a few species tested for fall graz-
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

ing, ihey ¡llusti'ate (lie diHerence in utilization that can be expecte

when species that vary in palatability are grazed together.

At Jarita Mesa (3.9), cattle wei'e allowed free-choice grazing of

seeded glasses over a 23-day period from August 21 to September 1£

During the first week no one species made up more than 26 percen

of their diet, yet certain species were clearly preferred. As thesi

became scarce, a progressively greater proportion of the others wer(

consumed (iig. 8). C'attle showed the greatest preference for grasse:

that were most succulent during the grazing period : orchardgrass

F-472055, 472056

^'^m'^nl1,ur~'^j''''if- ^7? ^""^^ '" ^^^^ '''^'"^ fl^lf^ " *'i"*' subjected to free-choice fall

li'rhHv n.^i /?' ''!"^5''''=i'^S' a species of low palatability iu the fall, was ouly

nJoi ' ^^"»"^'"fli ^n-nine, a hiiihiy preferred fall species was heavily used.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 19

smooth brome, and slender wheatgrass. Crested wheatgrass, tall oalgrass, and Kentucky bluegrass ^Yere considerably less palatalile, and

big bluegrass and western wheatgrass were grazed the least. At the

Fort Valley Experimental Forest, smooth brome—the most succulent

grass—was preferred to crested and intermediate wheatgrasses by

sheep grazing during a September 20 to October 10 oraziuu^period.

These results suggest that grasses that stay green and succulent well

into late summer and fall provide preferred tV)rage during that period

and may be particularly useful for late-season grazing. Also, they

further illustrate the need for considering the relative palatability

of the component species in mixtures. Unless plants of similar preference are usecl together, selective grazing may eventually eliminate

the highly preferred species.

On large plantings, cattle distribution might be improved by planting highly preferred species on areas that generally receive light use

and the less preferred on heavilv used areas, such as those near water

GUIDES FOR ESTABLISHING SUCCESSFUL SEEDED STANDS

Successful range seeding depends upon the use of good ])lanting

methods. The main considerations are (1) site preparation; (-1) seed

distribution and coverage: (3) seeding rates; and (4) time of ])laiitiiig. Special consideration for all of these often makes the ditference

between success and failuic.

Site Preparation

Removal of the competitive native cover l»efore seeding is essential

for good results. Plants of seeded sjjecies have a difticnlt time becoming established, and they often die if nK)st of the soil moistiii-c

is being used by the low-quality native vegetation of the deteriorated

site. Reynolds and Springtield (jV), for example, fomid tliat the

greater the amount of competition removed the bettei' the estaldishment of the seeded stand.

On heavy or compacted soils in poor physical condition, shallow

cultivation to a depth of ?> or -t inches improves the structure of the

surface soil (-i. 2!^^)). Tliis, in turn, favors seeding success by imjiroviiig the water absorption and aeration conditions necessary for good

plant~growth. Deep cultivation under range conditions usually gives

no particular advantage over shallow cultivation. Actually, it is

sometimes detrimental where seeding has to be done soon after cultivation, because it creates an excessively loose seedbed; or the more

fertile topsoil may be covered by raw, unproductive subsoil {3. 36).

Disk-type plows ( fig. 9. A ) and extra-heavy-duty ottset disk harrows

with weights of 500 pounds or more per foot of cutting width (fig. 9,

B) have generally proved best for preparing sites. They are superior

to moldboard plows and other similar types of equipment, because they

can be operated more economically, with less power, in rockier ground,

and under a wider range of soil conditions.

Disk plowing has generally produced the best site preparatio)i, as

indicated by seeding results. At "Wliite Horse Lake, for exain])le. turning the heavy clay soil to a depth of ;) or 4 inches with a standard disk
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

*^ ,, ;• ^

'icrui-: !).—.1, Tlie linislilaml plow, recently ileveloped by the U. S. Forest

Scrvirf', lias proved very ert'ective for site preiiaratimi iiniler a wide variety of

( (iiiditiiins. Paired disks, lield in the ground under spring tension, rise over

stuuips or rocks, thus reducing breakage. Cost of site preparation is greatly

reduced liy pulling two of these plows in tandem. B. The extra-heavy-duty

offset disk is well suited for preparing sites where soil are heavy and relatively rock-free. Here it is being used to remove low-value plants from a

deteriorated pine o])eiiiiig.

l^)low destroyed tlie conipetiiio veoetatiou and left the soil in a satisfactory condition for plantinji. An averao-e of 0.7 crested Avheatgrass

plant per sqnare foot ^Yas established, enough for a full stand. Once

over with a light oli'set disk gave poorer site preparation, and only
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 21

(Uplant per square foot was established...M.,M(lef|,u,t('sta.ul l>if(,n,.-

cl,s urbed only a small part of the o-n.und surfare aiul removed ton

h tie of the coinpetino- vegetation ; only an ocrasional plant of rresicj

Avheatgrass becan.e establislied. Plantino- withont site ,)repara(ion

res^ilted m a niost complete failure. All seedino- was <h.ne with drills

1^ irmino- the sod by disk harrowin- or eultiparkino- improves stand

estabhslmient m regions other than the ponderosa ,,ine /.one, esi.eciallv

where the seed is planted with a single-disk grain drill on loase soils

{21 Jtß pp. J^ol-Ur). In the Southwest, however, the use of these

methods after initial shallow plowin- has not improved stand e-tab

lishment. The smoother soil surface resultin- from disk hairowii,..-

or cultipackmg is generally not desirable wherever wind and water

erosion is likely to be serious.

1-8 r

1.6

1.4

I

I

1.2

1.0

.4 -

.2 -

t-viJPl Intermediale wheotgross

y//A Crested wtieotgrass

^7771

Disk plow Tandem offset

disk

Pitting No

(reolmeni

METHOD OF SITE PREPARATION

FiornE 10.—Efft^c-t.'i of different iiietliiuls of site pieparatimi upon the cstiililisliment of cie.sted and iiiteriiietliate wheatgra.s.s at ^^'llite Hoi-.se Lake, Ariz.
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

Ili^h sliiiidurds for site picpnratioii should always be observed.

However, tlieie ai'c indii-itious that rultural i-eqiiii'ements may vary

somewhat with seedlin<r vi^jor of the specie.s used (40). At White

Horse J>ake, foi' example, intei'iiiediate wheat<i-rass with its lar^e,

vii^orously oerminatiii<2,- seed and strong' seedliuj; became -well established when i)]aiited after the site was pre])aretl by either a disk plow

or a lialiter tandem disk. Crested wheatgrass, which has a relatively

weak seedlino-, became well estal>lished oidy when planted on the better

pre|»are(l site, obtained with a disk ])lo\v (ñg. 10).

Eíl'ects of different intensities of site i:)reparation may ])ersist over

a number of years. At White Iloise Lake, crested wheatgi'ass planted

after disk jilowiny initially outyielded stands planted where less intensive methods were used. At the end of 4 growing seasons, plantings on the plowed areas were still best, yielding almost 3 times as

much as plantings on areas prejjared with a liglit tandem di.sk, and

more than 4 times as much as those on pitted areas (fig. 11). Differences between the plowing and disking seemed to be mainly the result

of the dei)tli of cultivation, since nearly all of the native "plant com900 r

1950

YEAR

FIGURE 11.—Residiui

, „ , ,. . effect-s of cliftVreiit site-preparation luethods on tlie

piodnrtion of <i-estc(l wheatgras.s planted in V.MS at Wliite Hor.se Lake, Ariz.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 23

petition hud been eliminated. For pittino- and where there was no site

preparation, however, tlie c'omi)etin<i- native ve<ietation had not Iteen

adeqnately removed and plant estahlislmient foi' tlie seeded stand was

poor. The more intensive site-preparation method may thus more

than pay for itself not only in more certain establishment, but in

increased forage yields over several years.

Seed Distribution and Coverage

The main requirements of a good planting method are uniform seed

distribution together with good control of rate and depth of seeding.

Drilling most nearly fulHlls these requirements. Broadcasting is

useful where di'illing is not feasible because of rough, rocky, or trashy

ground or inaccessibility.

Covering the seed helps to protect it against loss from di'ving,

excessive heat, and lodents and insects, fare nmst be exei'cised, however, to prevent covering the seed so deeply that the seedlings are

unable to emerge, (optimum i^lanting depth for most of tlie s])ecies

adapted to pine oi)enings is i/o to 1 inch (7. /..'. :¿0, >"/). Exce])tions

are the smaller seeded species, such as oi'chardgrass, big bluegrass,

timothy, the alfalfas and sweetclovers. The best depth for these is

1/4 to 1/2 inch. Seed should be ])lanted slightly deeper on light sandy

.'¡oils and shallower on heavy clay soils oi' soils that crust readily.

Although drilling is usuall}' the most dei)endable seeding method

{2U 36), broadcasting on a loose, well-pu'epared seedbed will often

give as good results. This is illustrated in the following data for a

plowed seedbed at White Horse í^ake where favorable I'aiufall occuri'ed

soon after planting.

f'oMi'AüA ri\i: Yn:Mis Fl;()^r .'i-YiíAü-Or.n f "i;r,sii:i) WIIKAICUASS

flerflbrd piriiiimtinn Mr-iliii herhnfte i/icld

nnd pltiiitiitfi ifiitlioil ^ /xr iicrc i iifiiinthi)

Diiik plow :

Drill i-Ar,

Broadcast lisO

Disk :

Drill 2(iri

Brondf-ast 1:^0

No preparation :

Drill (iO

Broadcast 25

*All broadcast seeding made without mechanical seed coverage.

On the poor .seedl)eds. however, the benehts of di-illing are more

marked. Here the drilled areas produced more than twice as much

as the broadcast. These results also indicate that drilling cannot entirely compensate for poor seedbed preparation.

The single-disk grain drill has given good residts on trashy or hard

seedbeds. To minimize breakage, it should not be useil on excessively

rocky or trashy sites or on .steep slopes and should be operated at speeds

of only 2 to 8 miles per hour. On loose seedbeds where there is danger

of the seed being planted too deeply, depth regulator bands on the disks

can be used. Seed broadcast on a loose soil surface is usually adequately covered by natural sloughing and settling. "Where the ground

has not been well loosened by cultivation during the preparation of

349770°—55 i
24 AGRICULTURE ITANDROOK NO. 89

the site, or \\li(M-e it lias bocome c'omj)!icted again, iiiechaiiical coverage

is necessary.

Ivotary-type liaii«! seeders ai'e \\ell suited for bioadcasting small

areas. Wliere greater acreages are involved, the use of larger mechanical broadcasters of either the seedbox or rotary type is more

etticient. ^Y\\eu seed coverage after broadcasting is necessary, it can

be done satisfactorily with light harrows or clisks, or w^ith drags

consti'ucted of brusli, i-iils, oi' chain.

Rate of Seeding

Optimum rate of seeding vai'ies witli ((uality of seed, size of seed,

seedling vigor, growth characteri.stics of the species, condition of the

seedheii, and the efficiency of the seeding method (7, 31, 37). Table 5

TABI.K 5.—Stini(hir(h of seed qnnl/fy utul eeroinmended needing raten

fur species adapted to the ponderosa pine zone

S])ocios Purity '

Germination '

Seedintí

rate per

acre 2

Alfalfa:

(Irimm ___

Percent

98

98

85

98

93

85

85

Percent

3 90

3 90

72

85

88

80

85

1 Pounds

8-10

I^adak . _..._ 8-10

BhiCfirass, bis - - - - _ - ii 10

Brome:

Mountain - . . _ . 10-15

8-12

10 12

Sinoot h

Oatürass, talL _...._.._

( )rchard};rass . _ _ _ 6-10

15 '^0

]{ye:

Mountain

Winter . _ . _ 97

98

98

97

92

94

80

95

89

93

95

94

96

85

91

78

3 90

3 90

86

90

90

80

85

91

85

85

90

88

85

85

1 'i '>n

Sweet clover:

White 8-10

8-10

4-6

8-10

8-10

10 1.")

Yellow^^ _ -. _ _

Timothy . . _

Wheatgrass:

]ieardle.ss_ _ ._ , _

]51uebuiieh

^^'estern

Crested-, _ . . 4-7

6-10

6-10

8-10

Intermediate

Pubescent

Slender _

Tall

Wildrve:

Blue 10-15

Canada 10 15

Russian -, 8-10

' ^Vhen seed is used that does not meet the specified standards of puritv and

germmation, seedm« rates must 1)6 increased to compensate,

2 The lower rates are for use under the most favorable seedbed conditions,

where there is a good chance for a large ]3ercentage of the seed to develop into

mature plants. The higher rates are for poorer conditions where there is the

l)ossilHlity that much of the seed will be lost. For seeding mixtures, reduce and

adjust according to the niunber of species sown and the i^roportion desired.

' Medium percent hard seed.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 25

gives the recommended standards of seed quality and seeding rates for

adapted species based upon tests, experience, and othei' available information pertinent to the Soutliwest (7, <S', 12, 4^). For most of the

species, these rates have been nsed with success on either experimental

or project plantings. However, they are not all based on critical

tests of comparative rates and therefore cannot be claimed to l)e

optimum.

The use of appropriate seeding rates is important for successful and

economical range seeding. Too little seed results in a sparse initial

stand that requires a long waiting period before full production is

achieved. ^Moreover, during this time the stand is always open to the

danger of invasion by undesirable, weedy plants {'21). On the other

hand, too much seed increases costs without increasing benefits. It

may actually be harmful where moisture is limited; competition

among individual plants can be so intense that the chances of obtaining a vigorous initial stand will be lessened { )(), .77), and crowding

often reduces herbage yields ( '^ll, pp. 4oI-4P)-

Some of these effects are illustrated by results from tests at Fort

Valley, Ariz., (tig. 12). Crested wheatgrass was seeded at rates of 4,

120

no -

100

1^

1^ 90

iy 80

70

60

50

I2lbs.per acre;

6 in. spocing

\

\

/

\6lbs per acre;

I2in. spocing

/

"/'C.^ (100-percent base)

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

f

A

4 lbs per acre;

/ 18 in. spacing

1948 1949 1950 1951

YEAR

FiGURf; 12.—Effect of seeding rates and drill row s^acings on relative yields of

crested wheatgrass stands ]il;inted in 1047 at Fort Valley Exi)erimental forest,

Ariz. (Annual precipitatinn October 1 to Seiitemlier 30: 19-18, 17.1 inclies;

IWU, 27.4 : lU."i(j, 19..') ; llJ.ll, 1S.2. )
2ß AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

t; and 12 i)oiiiuls pel' acre in drill rows-spaced at 18, 12, and 6 inches,

respectively, in 10-17. During 1048, when the plants were still too

small to fuliy occupy the site, and also in 1949 when moisture conditions were above average, the highest seeding rate produced greatest

yields. But in 19.")() and 19;M, which were dry years, stands from the

"lowest seeding rate proiluced highest yields.

Drill Row Spacings

"When seeding rangelands with a drill, 12-inch drill row spacings

are connnoidv reconunended. In some cases ('>- or 7-inch spacings are

preferred, on moist sites, and spacings wider than 12 inches on the drier

ones.

Tests witli tall fescue in Texas indicated thai plant survival could

be increased by planting in rows sjiaced at least 14 inches or more

apai-t. Also, yields were significantly greater in the wider drill row

spacings at the same seeding rate per acre (J9). Although tests with

crested wheatgrass in Montana and Idaho showed no signiñcant difference in herbage yields from drill row spacings ranging from (i to

30 inches, the 6-inch spacing was preferred for protection against

erosion and weed invasion, and for producing a finer, more palatable

forage (JO).

As already shown (fig. 12), 18-inch drill rows and a low rate of

seeding jnoduced highest yields of crested wheatgrass in dry yeai's

at P'ort Valley, Ariz. Similar results were obtained on dry sites north

of "Williams, Ariz., and in northei-n New Mexico. At all locations,

greatest size and vigor of seedlings and mature ])h>nts alike were

obtained with the widest s])acing (18 inches) and the lowest seeding

rate (4 pounds per acre) (fig. lo). Also, tlie widely spaced plants

stayed greener during dry jiei'iods. However, earlier yields were

higher from the closer Z'ow spacings, and later the plants tended to be

finer stenuned and perhajis most palatable.

At least for crested wheatgi'ass, tlie experimental evidence, together

with observations of many i)lantings, suggests that a drill row spacing

of 12 inches is generally well suited for the conditions found in tlie

southwe.stern ponderosa pine zone. This spacing, together with the

median seediiiü' rates shown in table 5, has resulted in irood forasre

l)roduction. and the ground cover obtained is apparently adequate

protection against erosion and the invasion of undesirable weedy

plants. Any deviation should luoliably be toward closer spacing and

higher seeding rates for the moister sites or poor seedbeds, and wider

spacing and lower seeding rates for drier sites and good seedbeds.

Best Time for Planting

Moisture is the most important single factor affecting the success

ful establishment of seeded stands (7, 20, 36, 41). Temperature,

although important, is much less limiting (41). Throughout the

southwestern ponderosa pine zone the driest weather occurs during

the spring months of A]iril, May, and June, and the next driest occurs in the fall months of Sejitember and October. The largest and

most dependable amounts of rainfall of the entire orowing season are
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 27

F-472105. 472106. 472104

FIGURE 13.—Ad.jacent 3-year-okl stands of crested wlieatgrass at Fort Valley,

Ariz. Larger plants with increased vigor resulted from wider drill row spacings and lower seeding rates. A, 18-ineh spacing, 4 pounds of seed per acre;

B, 12-inch spacing, 0 pounds of seed per acre; C, G-inch spacin.g, V- pounds of

seed per acre.

usually received duriiio; the summer mouths of July and Aufrust.

Xoveniber, December, .lauuary, and February, thouííli usually i-eceiviug good lU'ecipitation, are mainly too cold for germination and

growth (7, J6').
28 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

Foi- tin' soutliwestcni ponderosa pine zone as a whole, plantin(>;s

iniide fioni al>oiit the ini(hlle of June to the middle of July, just prior

to or at the l)e<iintiin<:- of the sunnner rains, have been most consistently

suecessful. However, even plantin^^s in this season may fail in years

when rainfall is creatly below average. Later plantin<is do not have

full advantaii'e of all the sunnuer preeijMtation, and the results ai'e

therefore less dependable. Because seedlinirs from early sumniei'

plantings are generally fui'ther developed, they survive winterkill,

frost heîive. and droupht better than plantings made at other seasons

{7,'20, 36).

The principal dan<iei- to sjuing- plantincfs is from 1 io:ht, infrequent

showers that may provide enough moistui'e for seed germination but

not enough for the survival of the seedling. Plantings during this

season may occasionally be successful when moisture conditions are

unusually "favorable or when the weather is dry enough to prevent

germination until dependable sununer rains begin. Spring plantings

sutler more from weed competition than plantings made at other

times.

Seed jilanted in the fall either germinates before winter begins, or

it lies dormant through the winter and germinates on early spring

moisture. The small size of fall seedlings makes them more susceptible to winterkilling and fi'ost heaving than are larger plants. Mortality during the spring diy period is high for both fall and spring

seedlings unless there is an abuiulant reserve of soil moisture from

melting snow.

A dej)endalile heavy snowfall, which usuall}- occurs at the higher

elevations, increases the possibilities for successful fall plantings.

The snow blanket protects seedlings from frost heaving and other

winter injury. Moreover, the melting snow provides eimugh additional moisture to carry the young plants through the normally dry

sju'ing season.

Figure 14 indicates how important the seasonal distribution of

])recipitation was foi' S grasses seeded over a à-year period at Fort

'\'alley. Ariz. In li)4(;, a year when the largest amount of rain fell in

August, the July plantings excelled. In 11)47, the ]May as well as the

July |)lantings were good because the spring was so dry that the seed

planted in ^lay remained dormant until July. Thus, both plantings

had full advantage of the summer rains. The November plantings of

1!»4S were umisually good because of an exti-emely heavy snowfall thai

melted slowly and ke]it the soil moist until late spring. The September plantings wei'e good in 11)4!) owing to an unusually large

amount of rainfall during Septeml)er and October of that year. Both

^lay and July i)lantings were best m 10.-)() because the jMay-June

l)eriod was very dry and -luly was the only month that received'favorable precipitation. For the 5-year period as a whole, the summer

])lantings were the only ones that consistently rated good or better.

Final judgment of seeding success should be delayed for at least two

growing seasons. Sometimes germination is delayed or seedling

growth is slow during the ñrst year, but such stands frequently overcome any initial setback and are highly successful. Moreover, seedlings of some species, such as crested wheatgrass, are snudi and easily

overlooked the ñrst growing season.

c
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 29

10

CXCELLENT

8

GCOO

6

FAIR

2

VER»

POOB

J A s 0 r n

1946

M J J A s 0 N Ll J F

1948

PLANTING SEASON

FiGUKE 14.—The relation nf seasonal distribntion of iirecipitation to Ihe snecess

of range seeding, tor stands seeded in May. Jnl.v. SciireniluM-. and Xuvcnilicr

1946-50. (F<irt Valle.v Experiiriental Forest, Ai'iz. i

GUIDES FOR GRAZING SEEDED STANDS

Good livestock management is essential for the establishment and

maintenance of seeded stands. Seeding- should be a carefully integrated part of the overall range-management plan, n(jt a .substitute

for it.

For the greatest eíRciency, integrated plans for grazing-management fences, water development, and other range facilities should be

made before seeding. Fences can often be used for the dual pur])ose

of protecting the initial seeded stand and for livestock control after

stand establishment. ]More water develoi)ments and fences are usually justiHed by the increased forage on seeded ranges. Well-located

range improvements will more than pay for tliemselves in benefits

derived from the easiei- management and more etíicient use of the

seeded stand.

Management of New Stands

New plantings need protection for at least the first two growing

seasons so that the plants can develop enough root system and top

irrowth to withstand grazing. If seed has been produced, very light

grazing at the end of the second growing season may be beneficial.

For example, on the Carson National Forest in northern New :\Iexico

light grazing of crested wheatgrass during the second year, when the

seed was in the shattei-ing stage, resulted in a thickening of the stand

iiiid the establishment of new plants in bare spots. On the part of the
30 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

stiiiul pi'oliH'lcd from «iiazin^-, new seedlinjis were miioli less numerous.

Graziiio' of youno- stands wlien tlie ground is moist and soft is especi-

•illv liarinful It causes undesirable soil compaction and, ni addition,

the young plants are easily pulled out of the ground and destroyed

by the grazing animals.

Grazing Established Stands

The most important single rule to follow in the management of

established seeded stands is conservative grazing. This gives maxinnim benefits in maintenance of the stand, m livestock jiroduction,

and in soil protection. Overuse, on the other hand, causes .stand deterioration, which ultimately means lower grazing capacity. Utilization standards have not yet been developed for most of the si)eoies

adapted to seeding. However, ])reliminary research results for crested

wheatgrass {-JO), and experience from grazing large plantings, show

that stands can be satisfactorily maintained when uj) to ;")() percent

of their total herbage is grazed.

The annual grazing capacity of seeded stands fluctuates widely

in resi)onse to growing conditions. When moisture is plentiful, forage

production is high. Hut drought lowers plant vigor and causes low

yields (tiir. 7. p. 15). To avoid jeopardizing the survival of a seeded

stand, grazing management must be llexible enough to take advantage of extra forage during good years and to decrease grazing use

when forage production is low during poor years. If this is not possible, the best alternative is to stock at the lower limits of forage

])ro(luction.

The tluctnations in grazing capacity of crested wheatgrass, based

on .".o-percent utilization at Fort Valley over a 4-year period, point

up the danger of trying to stock a seeded stand on the basis of averaire grazing capacity. Acreage required per cow month: 1948, 1.82;

1049, 0.82: 1950, 2.08; 1951, 2.22; average, 1.73. Had stocking been

based on the average requirement of 1.73 acres per cow month, the

stand would have been overgrazed in 3 out of 4 years.

"While there is admittedly some danger of error in ¡oredicting the

amount of forage that will be available each j'ear on any seeded stand,

the stockman or range administrator can make reasonably satisfactory adjustments in numbers of livestock on the basis of observation

and experience. Visual ap])raisal of the range at the time livestock

are turned in, study of stocking and utilization records of previous

grazing seasons, and consideration of current rainfall and weather

conditions will all aid in setting the proper stocking rate. Utilization

checks should also be made ]')eriodically throughout the grazing season to make certain that the stand is not being overused.

Comi)ositional changes may occur in seeded stands that are grazed

at the same season year after year. For example, continued heavy

spring use of crestecl wheatgrass each year may weaken it to such an

extent that it is unable to resist the invasion of native warm-weather

growers such as blue grama and sand dropseed. Similar changes in

composition may take j^ilace during years Avhen winter and sprint

moisture is extremely low and summer rainfall abundant. In 1950

and 1951, when these conditions prevailed, both blue grama and
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 31

sand dropseed increased fireatly in several crested wheatgrass stands.

Occasional rest from sprinf«; grazinir may hel]) to ])revent undesirable

shifts in com]Josition.

Even Utilization of Seeded Stands

"Wide variations in utilization conunoidy occnr even on relatively

small seeded areas. Overnsiny- one part of a stand while underusinji'

another because of poor livestock distribution is not only inefficient

and wasteful but ma}' injure or destroy the plants on the over<.irazed

areas. Poor distribution can be held to a minimum by fencing, water

development, salting, and riding. Some administrators and stockmen

have found it feasible to haul water to their livestock and to change

watering places and salt grounds at frequent intervals in order to

get the most even and efficient utilization of their seeded stands.

lixperience has shown that livestock will often concentrate their

grazing on a seeded stand and ignore adjacent available native forage.

This is especially true when native plants are dornnint and dry but

the seeded species are green and succulent. ITnder such conditions,

seeded openings must either be fenced and managed as separate units,

or if left unfenced, the use must be based primarily on the grazing

capacity of the seeded area.

COSTS AND RETURNS

Cost and benetits of seeding are both direct and indirect {31). Direct costs include outlay for site prei)aration, seed, planting, fencing,

and in some cases the development of new water facilities. Indirect

costs include such items as interest on investment and loss of grazing

use during the ])eriod required for the establishment of the seeded

stand. Since some failures are inevitable, risk should also be included

as an indirect cost.

Direct beneñts of seeding consist of such obvious values as more

and better forage ])roduction with decreased su]>plemental feeding,

and improved condition of aninu\ls including more salable meat and

wool products. The indirect, less easily evaluated benetits may inthide a moi-e compact operation with reduced costs in handling the

livestock, reduction of noxious and poisonous ])lants, and reduction

of soil erosion.

Because costs and returns are so greatly atlected by location, site

conditions, facilities for doing the work, wage scales, and other variable factors, records from any particular planting can only be ajjplied

in a general way to other areas. Values are given in Hgure IT) for a

U. S. Forest Service ])lanting of 2,200 acres of crested wheatgrass on

the Carson National Forest in northern New ^léxico. This planting

was started in 1949 and completed in li)50.

Figure 15 shows some of the more im]>ortant seeding costs that must

usually be considered and, for this particular planting, their proportion of the total cost. The largest single cost was for site preparation, $3.09 per acre. Equipment-repair cost for this particular ]n-oject, $1.94 per acre, was unusually high; about $1.25 per acre is a more

representative figure (1). Cost foi- crested wheatgrass seed planted

:it an approxinudc rate of 5 ¡»ounds ])ei' acre was OS cents per aci'e;
32 AGRlCULTlîRK HANDBOOK NO. 89

Site preparation

35 %

^'"^ Of fan. fO'/ure

- 9% r TOTAL COS!

PER ACRE

- 3% .

i $8.81

^55^ / Equipment repair

<^^ / 22 %

«N\

see ding \0%

//<

FIGURE lö.—Distribution (if plantiii.u ousts for a i;.L'()()-a(re range seeded to crested

wbeatgrass iu northern New Mexico, l'J4!_l-.jt).

drilling, 84 cents: equipment transportation, GG cents; and supervision

;;nd miscellaneous, -¿'A cents.

Because sliohtly less than 10 percent of all seeding on nationalforest lands in the Southwest has required rejdanting, a charge of

SO cents per acre ('.,» ijei'cent of the total seeding costs) is made for

risk. The value of the native forage lost during the i^ years when the

seeded range was closed to grazing to insure successful establishment

was estimated to be :27 cents per acre. This was based on actual forage

jneasurements and a commei'cial A'alue for the range forage of $3 per

cow month of grazing. In addition to the above costs, fencing is

often re((uired in order to make the most etîective use of a seeded area.

However, such cost cannot be charged entirely to seeding because

fencing might also be necessary for proper livestock control on the

native range.

(rrazing use of this planting Avas begun the third year after seeding.

During that year, 400 cattle were turned into the seeded stand early

in MAJ and kept there for G weeks. At a stocking rate of 3.9 acres
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 33

pel" COW moiitli, less than líT) percent of the current si)ring lu-rbage was

utilized. In addition to o-razing, 10,000 pounds of seed was harvested

from 9-1: acres of the plantinii, aA'erap-inc; 10() pounds to the acre.

Results of () years of measurements on other crested wheatgrass

stands indicate that 3 acres of crested wheatirrass, when moderately

«rrazed at 50 percent or less utilization, will easily ])rovide a month's

«rrazing for a cow in the southwestern ponderosa pine zone. Assuming a longtime average of o acres of crested wheatgrass needed per

cow-month of grazing and a common connnercial value of $3 per

tow-month of pasturage, the annual return from grazing on this

planting is $1 per acre compared with ViMU »'Ciits per acre from nearby

native range. Xo attemi)t is made to evaluate the manj' other benefits

that will be obtained from this ])lanting. Some of these benefits are

a balanced forage supply and early green feed; an improved hioher

native range brought about by a reduction in early spring grazing

pressure; and an improved, protective soil cover.

The potential productivit}^ of the land rather than its current

market value, should be the basic criteria for seeding. For example,

on some sites and under some conditions as nmch as i^20 per acre

might be a good investment. Again, on poor sites and where seeding

cannot help much with critical forage needs, even $4 per acre would

be a poor investment unless other benefits such as erosion control and

watershed improvement justified most of the cost.

Seeding is only one of the ways of improving rangelands. Before

attempting any extensive, costly seeding work, therefore, the possibilities of improving the native range through better management

practices should be carefully considered. And even seeding should

be done as part of an overall range-management plan whereby not

only the seeded area Init tlie native range as well is improved and

properly managed.

SEEDING FOR SOIL PROTECTION ON BURNED OR

DISTURBED TIMBERLANDS

Site protection against erosion is of the utmost importance in the

interest of future timber production on areas Avliere it takes 20 to

30 years to get adequate, natural restocking of ponderosa pine (-33).

Even where tree planting is used to hasten reforestation, some herbaceous cover is needed to hold the soil until the trees can stabilize

the site. In addition, herbaceous cover affords protection to young

pine seedlings against evaporation, temperature extremes, and other

adverse physicarconditions. On the other hand, it offers competition.

Competition always occurs where two oi- more plants make demands

on the same water, nutrients, or light energy in excess of the supply.

The most successful individuals suppress the weaker ones and as a

result the latter are dwarfed or die (4-^). Vegetation also modifies

the microclimate and soil conditions and makes them more favorable

for some of the plant competitors (G). By recognizing and applying these basic |n-inci])les, seeding can be a useful tool for encouraging maximum sustained timber ¡jroduction as well as for watershed

iuxl forage impi'ovement.

The compact clay suljsoils exposed on many deteriorated timberlands are unfavorable for pine establishment (J.¿), because of de-
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

Jlciences in inoislmf, imtrioiits, iuid aeration. These poor soils, compared widi tlie heltei' soils of eonipai-ahle sites that have been protected by a lierbaceous cover, result in slower tree growth and less

timber p"rodiiction (-A?). A seeded herbaceous cover protects the soil

ap-ainst ei'osion and deterioration, and it may even imjirove soil conditions while pine is becomiiiíí established. Inliltration is increased,

often making more moisture available for plant growth.

That herbaceous vegetation is both benelicial and detrimental to

pine reproduction in \his region was sliown by Pearson {32). A

cover of native tall grasses or f<)il)s favored pine germination and

establishment the lirst vear thi'ough jirotection against excessive insolation, wind, wiiitei-kil'ling. and iVost heaving. After the first year,

these benefits were countei-lialanced liy comi)etition for soil moisture

and in some cases light, which slowed the growth of the pine seedlings

and increased their niortality rate. Pine reproduction generally succeeded, despite competition from the herbaceous plants, unless the

latter were of unusual density and luxuriance.

The fact that growth rate and survival of pine repi'oduction were

considerably better on grazed areas suggests regulated grazing as a

practical means of controlling herbaceous competition. This was also

implied in later studies (S'^) in which Pearson found that clipping the

native grasses materially increased pine seedling survival in comparison Avith undisturbed grass plots, aiul gaA'e results I'oughly equivalent

(o an initial sui-face scalping. Best ¡survival, of course, was found

on areas kei)t continuously free of com[)eting vegetation. He also

found that spring-growing si^ecies. such as Arizona fescue, offered

more competition to jiine seedlings than grasses that remained dormant until the begim\ing of summer rains.

On the Metz iNIountain burn, jwnderosa pine seed was planted in

L'-year-old seeded stands of herbaceous vegetation representing a

variety of species and densities. (Termination of the pine seed was

unaffected by either the kind of herbaceous vegetation or differences

in basal densities. At the end of the second growing season, ponilerosa pine seedlings survived in HI ])ercent of the seed spots. Pine

seedling survival tended to be inversely related to the total basal density of the herbaceous vegetation (fig. K;), but there was no apparent

relation between pine seedling survival and the weight of herbage produced. AVhere the competing herbaceous seeded and native A-egetation was completely eliminated by scalping and kept suppressed by

subse([uent weeding, seedlings survived in 00 {percent of the seed spots.

Altiiough herbaceous vegetation, seeded and native alike, adversely

affects pine seedling survival, fairly good survival has been obtained

in spite of this competition. Moreover, the indications are that

adapted grasses and forbs seeded on disturbed timberland sites offer

no greater obstacle to pine regeneration than does natural revegetation. Even though pme reproduction may often be inhibited by a

vegetative cover, it is questionalile whether an attempt to maintain

large areas of bare soil to expedite refcn-estation is either practical or

desirable. This is especially true where sources of tree seed are inadequate. Small areas disturbed in logging operations may not need

treatment to restore vegetative cover where erosion hazaríls are not

areat.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 35

100

80

60

''-f/= -0.4412 (stotislicolly significont

at 5-percent level )

t 40

20

_L .j- -L. _!_ _1_

0 0.5 10 1.5 2.0 2.5

BASAL DENSITY, SEEDED AND NATIVE HERBACEOUS VEGETATION (PERCENT)

FiGUEE 10.—Itelation lietween poiiderdsa pine secdlinu' survival and liasal dcusiity

of herbaceiuis vegetatinii I'm- seed spots planted in Ü-year-nld seeded stands

of herbaceuiis veiretatinn at the Metz Mmintain linin.

SELECTING THE SITE

Eecent burns, on which the Ae<ietatioii and litter have been hiriiely

destroyed by Hre and tlie liionnd surface left co\eied with a layer of

loose ash. are good seedinn' sites that do not recjiiire further seedlfed

treatment ( Hi;-. 17). Older burns, though less favorable, juovide satisfactory seedbeds as long as the soil surface is relatively free of weeds

and loose enough that the seed will become adecjuately covered.

Timbered areas disturlied ])v logging ojjerations or by construction

work to such an extent that native vegetation has been largely destroyed make good seeding sites providing the bared areas are seeded

before they are reinvaded by weedy plants ( Hg. 18). This condition

often exists along abandoned logging roads. 8nch sites usually require the construction of water bars and drainage structuics in iidvaiice

of seeding for effective control of soil movement. Seeding is not recommended for such sites when the ground has been onl}- lightly disturbed and much of the original plant cover remains.

Trials on the C'oconino Sales area in northern Arizona provide evidence that a large amount of soil disturbance with the attendant elimination of native plant competition is necessary' for good seeding

resiUts (fig. 19). T'nsatisfactory stands resulted where seed was

broadcast on sites with 5() percent or less soil disturbance, and satisfactory stands were obtained Adhere 7r> ])ercent or more of the soil was

disturbed.
36 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

^ i" ^

^*«^^ -'vv

^/ ^ '

ff^. y- ^-

-;>'"wr- - T^

FiouRE 17.—This srimiKl snrfnce (if a recent liiirii. (in which all native vegetation

has been ctmiiiletely destmyed and a layer (if hidse ash left, is a favorable site

for seeding.

The feasibility of seeding must be jiuloed individually for each disturbed site. For example, on skid trails where the soil has not been

sutKciently disturbed to eliminate an adecjuate amount of native vegetation, seeding results would pi'obably be poor. On such areas, drainage

structures to prevent erosion together with protection from livestock

grazing to pi'omote natural recovery is probably the best method for

restoring a satisfactory cover.

SPECIES ADAPTED FOR SEEDING

Tests of more than 40 species have been made on disturbed ponderosa

pine timberlands. The 20 best adapted for seeding are shown in

table 6.

Selection of species for a specilic planting depends on the site characteristics and the pui-pose of the planting. Thus to obtain erosion

control, a quick and elfective cover is of greatest importance. The

need on other sites may be for sj^ecies able to become established and

grow on a poor seedbed or with a minimum of grazing protection. On

many plantings length of life of the seeded species, the competition the

species gives to ponderosa pine regeneration, or the likeliliood of losing

the seed by washing nuist be considered. A sufficient number of

adapted species with the characteristics required for seeding on the

various kinds of disturbed timberland sites are available to meet most

needs. Table 7 ju'esents a generalized summary of the important characteristics of the adapted species.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 37

F-472069, 472112

FIGURE IS.—A, A log.irins ruad slmrtly aftei' aliaiKlimineiit. Foi- the iixist effective control of soil moveuient, water liars and drainage facilities shdUkl be constructed and the site seeded, ß. Tiniberland distnrlied liy tlie laying of a

natural-gas pipeline. Seeding would prdlecl this expensive investment against

erosion, and liecanse of the nncessity for pipeline maintenance, grass is more

desir.-dile than trees mi tiiis dislnrlied area.
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

30 r

^ 20

10 -

J_ -L

20 40 60

BARE DISTURBED SOIL (PERCENT)

80 100

FiGT-RE 111—Rehitiimslüii liflwi'eii ilfgrcc of soil clisturljance in a losging (ipcrati(in and siilisccinent sm cess nf seeded :j:rasses. (CdCuniiKj Sales area.)

On I()^::-iii,i:- roads USCMI inreniiitteiitly. and on drainageways, the

lonii'-livt'd sod-forniino- <irasses such as intermediate wlieatffi'ass and

smooth brome will o-ive maximum soil protection and can re-establish

themselves more easily after i-epeated disturbances.

On critii^al areas where erosion control is the primary purpose of

the })lantinü-, species should produce either a dense ¿;round covei', a

laro-e volume of lierba<îe. or better still, a good combination of both

{JO). Outstanding in this respect ai'e intermediate wheat<¡;rass,

orchai'dgrass, and tall wheatgrass among the long-lived perennials,

and slender wheatgrass, Canada wildrve, and blue wildrye among the

short-lived pereimials (table !S). ( )f the annuals, black mustard is

best because of the large amount of herbage it produces. All of these

s])ecies, with the exce|)tion of the mustards, can also be utilized as

foi'age by both livestock and wildlife. The annuals and short-lived

perennials are useful for temporary cover until pine reforestation can

l)e accomplished.

On stee]) slo})es or easily eroded soils, quick initial j)rotection against

soil erosion is especially important. The annual mustards grow

rapidly on burns and produce a den.se initial cover. Although these

plant^ die at the end of the lirst growing season, they leave a large

amount of litter that gives some soil protection the second year

(ñg. -!0). Volunteer seeding is poor. Perennial grasses start much

more slowly the Hrst growing season but provide better cover by the

second growing season (table 8).

There is a possibility of using a combination of a fast-starting

annual and a slower starting perennial, such as black mustard and tall

wheatgrass, to achieve both a rapid initial and a long-lasting protective cover. Preliminary tests of such mixtures are promising. Also,

a mixture of yellow sweetclover and crested wheatgrass has given
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 39

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"S

G

G

te

O

5

bC

G

IS

y.

5:

5 "ci

X

G

t.

G

G

G

>

G

G

G

IG

"G

G

y

_o

S

-S

G

G

K

y.

03

hi

"S

G

_G

"y

S

Ä

G

G

W

G

_c3

f.

"5 G

<

o3

73

os

X

G

bs

O

c

03 fe

PH

O

o

0-,

fe

'.' L'J

o

X —

w L.

II ^-

^A 5

03

n

Ü

^t TJ

7, G ci

7

> O

X!

c3 ^

w G

K ? X

G
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

TABLE 7.—Characteristics of species adapted for seeding disturbed

timherlands ^

Species

Long-lived buiichgrasses:

Big- blucgrass

Orcliardgrass

Crested wheat grass

Tall wheat grass

Russian wildrye

Long-lived sodgrasses:

Smooth brome

Western wheat grass

Intermediate wheat grass

Short-lived bunchgrasses and

legumes:

Talloat grass

Winter rye

¡Mountain rye

White sweetclover

Yellow sweet clover

Slender wheatgrass

Blue wildrye

Canada wildrye

Annuals :_

Black mustard

Lidia mustard

White mustard

Quick

erosion

protection

val ue

F

F

P

F

P

F

P

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

E

G

G

General

erosion

protection

value

F

G

F

G

F

F

G

E

F

F

F

F

F

G

G

G

G

F

F

Seedling

vigor

Seed resistance

to

washing

P

G

F

G

P

F

F

G

F

F

F

F

F

G

G

G

G

G

F

P

F

P

G

F

P

F

G

P

G

G

G

G

G

F

F

G

G

G

Palatability

F

E

F

P

F

G

F

G

F

F

P

î'

F

F

F

F

(2)

' E = Excellent; G = Good; F=Fair; P = Poor.

2 No palatability.

li'ood lesults on one large-scale plantiiifx (n<ï. 21). However, yel]o^v

sweetclover is a biennial that starts o•ro^vth more slowly than annuals

sncli as the mustards. In using mixtures of species with different

initial growth rates, there is always the danger that the faster starting

annual species nuiy use most of the soil moisture during the dry periods

of the ñrst year and causi» the death of the slower starting pereiuiial

{SS\.

Pine burns, cutover lands, and other disturbed areas require species

that are easily established without intensive site preparation, because

site conditions following disturbances often prevent thorough tillage.

One author suggests that the faihu'e of larger seeded species used in

broadcast seeding on burns in northern Idaho was caused by the seed

not being covered (.9). However, results obtained in the Southwest,

indicate that seedling vigor is probably an even more important factor

than coverage. Species that have i^roved most easily established on

disturbed timberlands, without special tillaae or covering, include

among the perennials intermediate, tall, and slender wheatgrass;

orehardgrass; blue wildiye: and Canada wildrye; and, among the

annuals, black and India mustard.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 41

FIGURE :,'((.—This lO-week-nId stand iif India mustard, seeded on a burn, gave

gocid initial protertidn ai;ainst erdsiim. Altlmugli it died «mt at the end «if

the flrst growing season, the large amount of litter gave some iiroteetion the

second year.

TAHLE 8.—f'omparaflre ludiie of specief; uned in ^<eeding for e)'onon

control, a.s ¡ndicufed by herbage yields and ba.sal density '

Species

Metz ^Mountain burn:

Long-lived perennials:

Intermediate \vheafgrass__

Tall wheatgrass

Orchardgrass

Western wheatgrass

Smooth brome

Crested wheatgrass

Grimm alfalfa

Short-lived perennials:

Slender wheatgrass

Mountain rye

Winter rye

White sweetclover

Tall meadow oatgrass

A-1 Mountain burn:

Short-lived perennials:

Canada wildrye

Primar slender wheatgrass

Blue wildrye

Annuals:

Black mustard

India mustard

White mustard

Air-dry

herbage

yield per

acre

Basal

densitv

' Measurements were made at the end of the first growing season for annuals

and at the end of the second growing season for perennials.
42 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. SO

^~^W^ ;^-/'>iM^

0

V:

ítjáíÁí ... if.M r>:,:»-.,'i>._.

'*:'i^\ JMßm

F-47S103

Fl(iri;i: L'l.—A U-.\c:ir-cil(l niixlmc (JT yclldW sweflc|i>\ IM- Mini civsled wlieMlfii'iiss

seedeil cm l.-i-'id aci(\s of piiiiderosa |jiiie liiiiii in iiortliern Arizmia. Tiie fiiir

stand (if cvt'stfd \vlieatf;i-a.ss is (ibsi'ui-ed li.v tiie rank sii'Wtli of yellow sweetciijver. This critical slope was also c(int<mr t\iirijwed as an additiuUiil

uitM-hanica! aid in prcx cntinu' emsidn.

F-47JÛ96

FICURP: 22.—Seed waslun« is a serious iirobleni on seeded liuriis. Ou this expenmental plot, heavy washing of lii;ht chaffy hig hliieiivass seed resulted in tue

liare slope at the back,i;ninnd and the concentration of plants iu the depression.
SEEDING m THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 43

Though successful phuitinos have been obtained on disturbed timberhinds without complete grazing protection, some unsatisfactoi'y

plantings have resulted from excessive grazing and trampling. "Where

grazing use is unavoidable, seeding is feasible with species such as

tall, crested, and slender wheatgrass; (\inada and blue wildrye; and

black mustard. These species are less readily eaten by livestock than

others such as orchardgrass and smooth brome. Or, the more grazingresistant rhizomatous species, such as western wheatgrass, can be used.

All of these species have established satisfactory stands and maintained good vigor over periods up to 0 years in sn'iall-scale test plantings open to grazing on disturbed timberlands.

Seed washing is often a serious problem, especially in areas inrbiding

steep, smooth slopes, and where torrential rains are common. I^iglit

chañ'y or trashy seed are most susceptible to being floated otl' and

washed away by runott' water (fig. 2'2). This danger can be decreased by using species tliat have clean, heavy seed and resist movement, such as tall, intermediate, and slender wheatgrass; black mustard: sweetclover: and mountain rye. Special cleaning treatment to

reduce chafRness might also be well justified.

METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING A PROTECTIVE HERBACEOUS COVER

Ponderosa Pine Burns

Grasses and forbs can be seeded most easily and etlectively on

ponderosa pine burns by broadcasting the seed <>nto the fresh, loose

ash. Other methods of planting are usually not practical because of

the large numbers of standing dead trees, tlie debris, the rf)ugli topography, or the rocky soil. Burns that are allowed to remain untreated are commonly subject to soil compaction and erosion, and

they eventually are invaded by a weedy cover that is usually of low

erosion-control and forage value and in addition intei'feres with the

establishment of any artificially seeded vegetation (tig. 23). On older

burns, satisfactory seeding by bi'oadcasting alone can oidy be accomplished where the gronnd is still free fiom weedy competition and

enough loose ash remains to furnish a good seedbed. l-)ecause few

burns retain these conditions for as long as 1 yeai', they should be

seeded as soon as possible after the fire.

Since mechanical seed coverage on most pine burns is usually not

practical, species that do not require thorough coverage for good

establishment give best I'esnlts. A test of 11 species planted on a

fresh burn at Metz Mountain indicated that the need for mechanical

coverage, as shown by a com]xirison of seed coverage by hand raking

with natural coverage in fresh ashes, varied among individual species.

Although the number of plants established was consistently better

when raking followed broadcasting, this Avas not always true for basal

density and herbage yield, and there were significajit dirierences for

individual species. Table 9 sliows the 11 seeded species arranged

iipproximately in decreasing older of success in tlie unraked plantiiifrs, as indicated by basal densities and herbage yields. These results show that mechanical seed coverage on fresh pine burns is beneficial, but foi' many species not enough so to justify the increased cost

of this practice.
44 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

F-472092, 472094

Fnii'iiK 2."i.—.4. All uiitiealiMl Imru 7 years after the tire, occupied by a sparse

cover of weeds that provide only poor site protection and jjreatly reduce

chances for seeding- success. One of the weeds is braclven, a rhizomatoiis

species that will eventually occupy the entire site and offer severe compétition

to pine reprodnction. B, A stand of slender wheatgrass planted in the fresh

ash immediately after a Imrn, which is providing good soil protectiou and

preventing weed invasion at the end of the second growing season.

IlaiKl-liroadcast seeders ure well suitetl for tise on siiüill burns and

laiger, irreofular l)uriiy ^vllere spot seediiio- is necessary. However, on

large, unifonn areas, airplane seediiio- is more efficient (5). Costs of

airplane seeding compared with those of hand planting on pine burns
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 45

TABLE 9.—Effects of covering seed h]i lutnd ral-ing on hasal dcnsJfi/,

herhaf/e yield, and plant eatahii^hment for a ponderom hum at Metz

Mountain

Species

Slender wheatgrass...

Orchardgrass

Intermediate wlieat

grass

Tall wheatgrass

Mountain rye

Smooth brome

Western wheatgrass.

Tall oatgrass

White sweet clover

Winter rye

•Crested wheatgrass..

Basal density '

Raked

area

Area not

raked

Percent

I. 40

. 46

. 76

. 58

. 58

. 48

. 2S

. 58

. 02

. 88

. 48

Percent

1. 40

1. 16

42

40

22

30

22

20

16

12

Air-dry herbage

yield per acre '

Kaked

area

Ponn<ls

840

300

1, 360

880

1, 110

450

240

320

110

1, 000

280

Area not

raked

Poll tills

880

410

950

800

340

230

300

260

310

330

80

Plants per square

foot '

Raked

area

A^iDuber

4. 2

1. ()

2. 9

1. 1

. 6

2. 0

3. 4

I. 0

. 5

1. 0

2. 5

Area not

raked

N'lrmtier

2. 3

1. 1

I.

1 All counts and measurements made at the end of the second growing season.

are not available for the Southwest. In eastern Oregon, however, it

was relatively inexpensive i-iö). These, airplane seeding costs were

estimated to be only half that of hand broadcasting under normal

conditions, and even less where labor is expensive.

Logging and Construction Disturbance

Ordinary farming equipment is not well suite<l foi' the seedbed preparation that is necessary on much of the disturbed timberlands in the

ponderosa pine zone. It is impossible, for example, to use the commercial single-disk drill on the rougher steeper terrain, and even on

gentle slopes the uneven ground surface residts in only a small percentage of the seed being planted at the proper depth. Therefore,

seeding is most practical where the seed can be broadcast on loose soil

so that natural coverage by slougliing takes place. Drilling or other

types of soil tillage are practical only v.here the ground is not too

rough or steep and debris is not present in sufficient amounts to interfere with these operations. Proper drainage structures are usually

needed to prevent seed washing and excessive erosion while the vegetative cover is becoming establislied. When i)ossible, such structures

should be installed before the planting is done.

Where the soil has been compacted by heavy equipment, settling, or

washing, treatment to loosen the surface is necessary. A plantnig

method, such as drilling, which will loosen the soil surface and distribute and cover the seed all in one operation is desirable. At the

Coconino Sales area in northeiii Arizona 1 years after seeding, crested

wheatgrass drilled into a higldy compacted logging road produced 1.5

times as much protective vegetation as broadcast seeding followed by

covering with slash, 1.7 times as much as broadcasting followed by
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

lioht harrowing-, 1.7 times as much as bi'oadcasting alone, and 28.3

times as much as natural revegetation. . -,, c i i

Drilling- sliouhl he (h)ne on the contour wherever feasible, beeded

stands ost'^ihlished in drill rows running down the slope tend to concentrate runotf water between the rows and to decrease the eñectiveness

of erosion c'ontrol. Therefore, on long narrow timberland disturbances

such as abandoned roads, skid trails, or pipelines where drilling on contour is not possible, some other method of planting is preferred. For

examiile broadcast seediny and then covering with slasli deserves more

consideration in the artiücial revegetation of logging roads and skid

trails because of its initial erosion-control value. This is especially

true for the stee])er slopes. In the beginning, the slash cover is more

elective than the planting for checking erosion. Then as the slash

o-radually deteriorates, the established plants assume the major role m

stabilizing the soil.

Broadcast seeding luoved valuable tor supplying a protective cover

on roadside strips disturbed by mechanical slash cleanup at the Coconiiio (lie --t) and Little Mountain Sales areas in northern Arizona.

This me'tiiod alone was etîective since the soil surface was loose over

most of the area at the time of planting. Stand densities averaged sixtimes as irreat for sjiot seeding after mechanical slash cleanup as for.

seedino- before cleanup. "Where ]ilantiiigs are made after mechanical

slash piling, the best seeding sites can be easily detected and no seed

is wasted on undisturbed soil. JMoreover, the danger of seed being

destroyed in slash-burning and by being buried too deeply during the

cleanup operation is also avoided.

Seeding Rates and Proper Time for Planting

The same seeding rates and standar<ls of seed riuality recommended

for pine openings in table T), p. 2-1. are also suitable for disturbed timberlands. In addition, Idack, India, and white mustard have been

seeded successfully at a see<ling rate of 5 to (i pounds per acre. The

minimum rates are for good seedbeds and for an intensive method of

planting, such as drilling. Under less favorable conditions, the higher

seeding rate should be used. Seed jiurity for black and India mustard,

07 percent ; and seed germination, 85 percent. Seed purity for white

mustard, 0.') penxuit ; and seed germination. 00 percent. These rates are

similar to those used in California for burned brushlands {15).

The {danting time for disturbed timberlands must be correlated

both with favorable moisture couditi<uis and the period when the

disturbance occurs. Careful advanced planning is therefore necessary for successful seeding and greatest efficiency.

Forest Hres in the Southwest mainl}' occur during the hazardous

dry s]>ring i)eriod of April, May, June, and sometimes early July.

Ideally, these fresh burns should be planted immediately precediniT

the first dependable summer moisture. Seed planted earlier may

germinate following light spring showers, which are too scanty to

maintain the seedlings until the more dependable summer rains.

Plantings made after the summer rains have begun are usually handicajiped by compacted and eroded soils and sometimes by weed competition. In addition they lose the benelit of part of the summer

moisture, thus making less growth the lirst season, an important

factor both for initial soil protection and plant survival. For all
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 47

A'

'RH,J

m^

F-472071. 472097

a

FiGüEE 24.—Roadside stiiiis liai-fd of herbaccdus vegetaridii

mechnnioal slash cleamiii can be successfully seeded for soi

improvenienf, to keep out undesirable weeds and maintain

to provide forage for livestock and wildlife, and to improve esthetic

A. A disturbed roadside strip at the Coconino Sales area in nortliern Arizona,

which is being broadcast to tall wheatgrass. li, The same site - .veai-s after

planting.

in the process (if

stabilization and

low tire hazard,

values.
48 ACJKK'l'LTURE HANDBOOK NO. 8 9

practical ])iiri)osos, the liest average plant iiiü' period is between June

1;-) and July 1. Older bui'us still suitable for seeding are subject

to the same conditions as fresh burns and should be planted during

the same ]>eriod.

Looo-ing and construction activities are mainly carried on from the

time the ground is dry in tlie early spring until heavy snowfall in

the winter. The best period foi- planting will, therefore, depend in

part on the time when the disturbance occurs. Here the aim should

be to plant when chances for success without seedbed preparation are

greatest. Thus, spring disturban<'es sliould lie seeded just before

the summer rains—June 1") to July 1—to take advantage of both

favorable moisture conditions and a loose seedbed. Summer disturbances between July 1 and August 15 should be seeded as soon as

possible after they occur. In this way the necessity for tillage because

of soil compaction can usually l)e avoided. Tn locations where dependable, heavy snowfall occui's. fall plantings after Se))tember 15

can be carried on in the same manner as foi' the summer. On compacted sites where loosening of the soil surface is required, seedinoshould be done concurrently with tillage in the period between June

1.^ and August l.^i.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT AFTER SEEDING

Guides presented for grazing seedetl o|)enings also apply in general

to seeiled timberlands.

Some satisfactory plantings have lieen (ibtained on disturbed timberlands in the Southwest without special protection from livestock.

Others, however, have been severely damaged l)v excessive grazing

and ti-ami)liiig during their early growth. To minimize the chances

for failure, it is best to protect new plantings from grazing durin'f

the first L* years whenever possible.

Seeded stands on shee]) ranges can be managed by herding. On

cattle ranges, however, studies in other areas (l.!i) show that measures

such as salting away from seeded ai'eas. closing oti' stock water, fencing, riding, and changing the place where the cattle are turned into

the range are usually necessary to get good cattle distribution. This

is also true for the Southwest. Small, scattered seeded spots on

logged-over lands can sometimes be initially protected by covering

with slash. Also, the use of the less palatable or grazing-resistant

species is a possibility for these areas. Larger seeded areas, such as

burns, are often best and most easily protected and managed by

fencing.

As mentioned earlier, tlie benefits of grazing to encourage pine

seedlings on disturbed timberlands deserves consideration. Pearson

(S2.SJ,) found that clipped grasses and forbs used less moisture thiUi

undipped ones and that moderate to close grazing increased pine

seedling survival unless pine browsing Avas too severe. Preliminary

evidence indicates that grazing mav l)e even more eñ'ective for the

control of seeded stands on disturbed timberlands than for natural

revegetation, since many of the species used for seeding are more

readily grazed than most of the native weedy invaders. Pearson {Sit)

cautioned that grazing to the point of denudation is not advisable

because it results in browsing of pine seedlings, erosion on the slopes,

and the packing of soil in the vallevs.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTFIWESTERN PINE ZONE 49

COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES OF SPECIES

MENTIONED

TREES

Doufïliis-fir Pfieudoti^iiga 7ne?hifr.^n

Firs, true Ahles spp.

Juniper Jini/perus spp.

Oak, Ganiljel Qiiercvfi gainhelii

Pine, limber Plinifi fex/I?.^

V'me, piiiyon /\ rdiiJJ.'<

I'ine, pondei'osa /'. ixiiidcroxa

Spruces ¡'¡ctK spj).

HERBACEOUS PLANTS

Alfalfa. Grinmi Mcdirar/o sátira hört. var.

Alfalfa, Lailak J/. sut/v<( liort. var. LADAK

ISlueirrass, big I'oa ampia

Bhiegrass, Kentiuky P. prate)mH

Bracken Pteridiinn aquilhniii)

Brome, mountain />fo/nus curiiiatax

Brome, smooth li. inermis

Canarygrass, reed Phalaris ariindinarea

Fescue, Arizona Fentaca añzonkui

Fescue, tall (or reed) F. arundinacca

Goldenpea, piuf Theriiwj>sl.s p'nutaram

(xrama, blue liouteloiia f/iardis

Muhly. mountain MaJdenhergia montana

Älustard, black • Praxi^ieanigra

Mustard, India I>. júncea

Mustard, white />. Jitrta {=P. (dim)

Muttono-rass (or mnttf)n blueg-rass) _ Poa fendlei'iana

Oatgrass, tall Arrheuatherai» elat'nis

Orchardgrass Dactglis glomerata

Redtoj) Agrostis aiha

Rye. luountain Sécale montamini

Rye, Michel's hybrid wintei' S. cércate

Squirrekail, bottlebrush Sitanion hystrix

Sweetclover, white Melilotu.s aV>a

Sweetclover. yellow M. ofjirinaJix

Thistles Cirsiinn spp.

Timothy Phleum pratense

Wheatgrass, beardless Agropyron ¡nenne

^Alieatgrass, bluebunch A. xp'icatani

AAlieatgrass, western ( or Iduestem ) _ -1. nmithn

AAHieatgrass, crested; also called

Standard crested wlieatgi-ass .1. dcfiertonnn

Wheatgrass, intermediate -1. intermed'nnn

Wheatgrass, Primar slender A. trachycaulum hort. var.

PPniAK

AMieatgrass, pubescent ^1. trictiopJionini

Wheatgrass, slendei' A. tracf\yea\d\im.
50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 89

HERBACEOUS PLANTS—Continued

WlieiitoTiiss. tull A. eloiigatuiii

Wildrye, blue ElymuH glaucus

Wildrye, (ainada /^'- rrumdensh

Wikhye, Kiissiaii J'^- pmceus

LITERATURE CITED

( 1 ) ANONYMOUS.

l!l."4 UKSKEDI.NC) OF I.OW I'lil 111 !( TI\ K NA \(!K1.A MIS IN NORTIIKIÍN N. M. MAY

SAVE SEASONAL (IIIAZINU. N. Mcx. Stockll lall 1!) I'.) I : 74-7."), illiis.

(•• I Ai;N(ii.n, JOSEPH F.

I'.l.'i;;. EFFECT UF HEAVY SELECTION LOOOINO ON THE IIEKÜACEOUS VECETATKIN

IN' A poNDEL'osA PINE FouEsT IN' Noi;i HEiiN AHizoNA. Jour. Forestry

.')! : Kll-Ki.'i. illiis.

(M) BEAU, FIH.MAN F.

l!)"»:-!. SOILS ANii FEKTILIZEKS. ICd. 4, 4L'() ii|L, illiis. Ni-o' York.

(4) [ÎENNETT, HUGH IIAMMONII.

li)3!J. SOIL coNSEKVATioN, O!).'! pii., ¡llus. Xi'w Vurk .-mil L(III(1<IIL

(."il BoSTTC'K, VEUNON P>.

I'.l.'il. SEEDING BfKNEU OVEE SACRAMENTO MonN'IAIN FOREST LANDS BY AIIÍPLANE piiovKs succEssFi:].. N. Mex. Stockiiiau l(i (]!') : 40, ,s!),

illus.

((¡) r.nACX-r.I.ANQl ET. .7.

l:i.",l.'. PLANT SdCIOLOGY. 4.".1( \)\\.. ¡Iliis. Xcw Yiirk.

( 7 I P>i;iii(a:s. .1. < ».

T.I41'. UESFEDING PU-VCLKES FOl; NEW MEXICO I!.\N(;ES. X. MCX. Á.\ír. líxjlt.

Sta. Bill. L".)l, 4s ¡ip., illiLs.

( s I i'.i:o\\x, F. O.

r.l4S. SEED STATISTICS Foil CKASSI^S. LEcrMi;s. EOl;i;S. .\NI) WOODY PLANTS.

Soil Coiiserw Scrv. Sccil Lali. 4-L-7(i41, .' ii]). 1 Processed.]

(ill I'll lasT, J. H.

l'.i:;4. liESEEDiNi; laiiNEii o\ EK LANDS IN N oi;i'iiEK N IDAHO. Ma lio Agr. Expt.

Sta. Bill. 2(11, -IS lip., ¡lliis.

(KM ('(KiK. <'. V\'AVNI:. AND IPMaüs. LoiUN E.

r.l.'iL'. Nl rUITIVE \ ALEE OF C H i;.^T(a;.VSS AND CUESTED WIIEATCaiASS ox SPKINO

iLVNcacs oE CTAii. .Iimr. Kaiijie Maiifit. ~> : .!.'!l-.'!;!7, illus.

( 11 ) ELLISON, W. D.

I!».":;. (jL^ss ( (i\ KK ia:ni'CEs SPLASH EIîOSDIN DAM.VCE. Sixth Inlcni.-itl.

(irassjand Cmii;. Proc. 2: !I7!M).S4.

I llil Klli|;V, I'^AN L.. AND ^LS-liSlI ALL, C'lIAULES O.

1'.i4J. I:EC.R-\SSIN(I FüR SOIL PEoTi;criON IN THE SOI'THWEST. T'. S. Tiept. -Aiir.

Fanners' Bnl. l!)i:!, (10 pp., illns.

( i:; ) (¡AiaasoN. CEüüGE A., AND RI:.\IMELL, RoiaiUT S.

r.t.'ll. FIRST Y'EAIi EFFECTS OF l.OdCilNG ON PONDEIJOSA PINE fX)IiEST liANdK

LANDS OF oüEcoN AND WASHINGTON. JouL. Forestry 4!) : 70N-71.'-I.

I 14) G.IEKISON, J. <_).

104'.». PüAcriCAI. GTIDES F(M! SEEDING GRASS ON SKID HOADS, TRAILS, AMI

LANDINííS FOLLOWING I.OGGING ON EAST SIDE FORESTS OF WASIIiNinoN AND OREGON. IT. S. Forest Serv. I'aciflc Xortliwest Forest

and Raii;:e Expt. Sta. Res. Xote 4'.), 5 pp. [Pi'ocessed.]

(l."i GLEASOX, CLARK 11.

1944. DIRECTIONS FOE SOWING .MI-STAED FOR EROSION CONTROL IN HIKNED

AiacAS OF soiLHERN CALIFORNIA. U. S. Foiest Scrv. Calif. Fdvest

anil Raiifie Expt. Sta. Res. Note :!7, 2!) pp. [Proce.ssed.]

(1(!) HAFICXRICH'íER, A. L.

1'..>4S. GETTING NEW RANGE PLANTS INTO PRACTICE. Jour. Kau^i'e .Miinj-'t.

1: !)-lS.

(17) Ml LLEN. LOWELL A., AND BROWN, RORERT L.

104'.i. (aíASSEs AND LEGCMFS FOU SOIL CONSERVATION IN THE PACIFIC NonrnWEST. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. (>7.s, ."(1 ¡ip.. illus.
SEEDING IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PINE ZONE 51

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U, S, GOVERNMENT PRIMTING OFFICE; 1955