Kalaupapa National Historical Park 

Geologic Resources Inventory Report 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2010/243 

National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 
THIS PAGE:

From 1866 until 1969, Hawaiian sufferers of

Hansen’s disease (leprosy) were forced to

move to the isolated Kalaupapa Peninsula. 

This view is from the cemetery of St. Philomena church. The steep pali in the background furthered the isolation of the peninsula. 

ON THE COVER:

The Kalaupapa Peninsula juts out from the 

base of the pali along the northern shore of 

Moloka‘i. The pali are some of the tallest sea

cliffs on Earth. 

National Park Service photographs by T. Scott 

Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park).
Kalaupapa National Historical Park 

Geologic Resources Inventory Report 

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2010/243 

Geologic Resources Division 

Natural Resource Program Center 

P.O. Box 25287 

Denver, Colorado 80225 

September 2010 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Ft. Collins, Colorado
The National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Center publishes a range of reports that 

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Resource Publications Management website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/

NRPM). 

Please cite this publication as: 

Thornberry-Ehrlich, T. 2010. Kalaupapa National Historical Park: geologic resources 

inventory report. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2010/243. National Park 

Service, Ft. Collins, Colorado. 

NPS 491/105573, September 2010 

ii NPS Geologic Resources Division 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report iii

Contents

List of Figures................................................................................................................ iv

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................... vi

Credits........................................................................................................................................................................ vi

Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Purpose of the Geologic Resources Inventory ...............................................................................................................1

Park Setting .................................................................................................................................................................1

Geologic Issues .............................................................................................................. 6

Groundwater Flow.......................................................................................................................................................6

Streamflow..................................................................................................................................................................7

Coral Reef Changes......................................................................................................................................................7

Geologic Hazards.........................................................................................................................................................8

Geologic Features and Processes................................................................................ 15

Ancient and Modern Landslides .................................................................................................................................15

Volcanic Features and Processes.................................................................................................................................16

Geological Influences on Biodiversity ..........................................................................................................................17

Map Unit Properties .................................................................................................... 21

Geologic Units of Moloka‘i.........................................................................................................................................21

Geologic History .......................................................................................................... 25

Pre-Quaternary History of the Pacific Basin .................................................................................................................25

Evolution of the Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain..................................................................................................25

Glossary........................................................................................................................ 34

Literature Cited............................................................................................................ 37

Additional References ................................................................................................. 41

Geology of National Park Service Areas......................................................................................................................41

Resource Management/Legislation Documents...........................................................................................................41

Geological Survey Websites........................................................................................................................................41

Other Geology/Resource Management Tools..............................................................................................................41

Appendix A: Overview of Digital Geologic Data....................................................... 42

Attachment 1: Geologic Resources Inventory Products CD
iv NPS Geologic Resources Division 

List of Figures

Figure 1. Photograph of the Kalaupapa Peninsula jutting off the north shore of Moloka‘i.................................................3

Figure 2. Bathymetric and aerial imagery of the northern Pacific Ocean basin...................................................................4

Figure 3. Maps showing the topography and steepness of slopes across the island of Moloka‘i ........................................5

Figure 4. Physiographic map of Moloka‘i Island with features within and near Kalaupapa National Historical Park.............5

Figure 5. An east-west profile of the deeply notched valleys of the northern (windward) pali on Moloka‘i.......................11

Figure 6. Map showing the shoreline geomorphology at Kalaupapa National Historical Park...........................................11

Figure 7. Hazard intensity map for Kalaupapa Peninsula.................................................................................................12

Figure 8. Photograph of lava bedrock benches at Kalaupapa National Historical Park......................................................13

Figure 9. Photograph of beach west of Kalaupapa .........................................................................................................13

Figure 10. Map showing earthquake-hazard zones for the major Hawaiian Islands.........................................................14

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the evolution of the steep pali and Kalaupapa Peninsula on the north shore ................18

Figure 12. Photographs of the steep pali along the northern shore of Moloka‘i ..............................................................19

Figure 13. Photograph of the Kauhākō Crater atop the Pu‘u‘uao shield in Kalaupapa National Historical Park.................20

Figure 14. Geologic timescale ........................................................................................................................................28

Figure 15. Geologic time scale of events affecting the Hawaiian Islands throughout the Cenozoic Era.............................29

Figure 16. Generalized arrangement of plates in the Pacific Ocean basin during the middle Cretaceous..........................30

Figure 17. Map of the current tectonic plates.................................................................................................................30

Figure 18. Evolution of a chain of islands over a stationary hotspot in Earth’s crust.........................................................31

Figure 19. Location of hotspots across the South Pacific.................................................................................................32

Figure 20. Simplified stages of Hawaiian hotspot island volcanism..................................................................................33
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory v

Executive Summary

This report accompanies the digital geologic map data for Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park in Hawai‘i, produced by the Geologic Resources Division in collaboration with its 

partners. It contains information relevant to resource management and scientific research.

This document incorporates preexisting geologic information and does not include new data 

or additional fieldwork.

The Kalaupapa Peninsula juts off the northern shore of 

Moloka‘i as a low-lying tongue of land at the base of 

some of the highest sea cliffs in the world. The site 

attracted early Hawaiians to settle there, and its isolation 

prompted the creation of the Moloka‘i Island Hansen’s 

disease (leprosy) settlement from 1886-1969. Through a 

cooperative effort with other agencies, Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park aims to provide for the 

preservation of the significant cultural, historic, 

educational, and scenic resources of the Kalaupapa 

Peninsula. 

Geology is fundamental to the management of the scenic 

and natural resources of the park. Geology influences 

groundwater and surface water flow, and it contributes 

to climate, weather, hydrology, and topography, which in 

turn affect coral reefs and other submarine habitats. 

Geologic units and structures provide the framework for 

the craggy cliffs, eroded stream valleys, and low-lying 

coastal areas blanketed by lush vegetation. Geologic 

issues of particular significance for resource management 

at Kalaupapa National Historical Park include:

• Groundwater flow and streamflow. Freshwater on the 

island of Moloka‘i is a valuable natural resource. At 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park, fresh water floats 

on salt water within the porous volcanic rock aquifer. 

Saltwater intrusion is a possibility near coastal areas 

and is among the factors limiting groundwater 

availability. Other limiting factors include 

anthropogenic reduction of stream discharge and 

lowering of aquifer water levels. Three large streams, 

Wai‘ale‘ia, Waihānau, and Waikolu, occupy valleys 

notched into the park’s sea cliffs. Transbasin diversion 

within Waikolu Valley removes approximately 20% of 

the annual water yield from the watershed to supply 

freshwater to drier areas of south and west Moloka‘i. 

Research needs exist to determine the effects this 

diversion is having on the hydrologic and biologic 

systems of the Waikolu Valley.

• Coral reef changes. The north shore of Moloka‘i is 

subjected to high wave energy and coral reef 

development is limited to scattered coral colonies on 

basalt boulder habitat. Basalt and boulders are the 

dominant near-shore habitats. Reef communities are 

most extensive in a few sheltered areas around the 

peninsula and adjacent islets. Heavy wave action, 

flooding, hurricanes, sea level rise, climate change, and 

seismic events, in addition to anthropogenic land 

clearing, agricultural development, dredging, 

overfishing, and heavy tourism, disturb coral reef 

growth.

• Geologic hazards. Mass wasting formed precipitous 

sea cliffs at Kalauapapa and they are extremely prone 

to ongoing mass wasting events. This is due to several 

factors including steep slopes, erodable substrate, 

subsurface water movement, storm events, and 

frequent seismic activity. Due to its low-lying 

elevation, Kalaupapa is susceptible to inundation 

during tsunamis. Tsunami modeling factors in all 

seismic events, bathymetry, and storm conditions. 

Coastal erosion affects most of the shoreline at 

Kalaupapa causing beach loss, instability of sea cliffs, 

saltwater inundation, damage to shallow coral reefs, 

and increased sediment load. Seismicity is a concern 

throughout the Pacific basin. Earthquakes occur 

regularly on Moloka‘i as a result of crustal stresses 

arising from areas of structural weakness beneath and 

near the island. Seismicity has caused fatalities, ground 

rupture, localized uplift or subsidence, liquefaction, 

ground settlement, extensive damage to roads, 

buildings and homes, and has triggered tsunamis.

The scenic and natural resources of the park are closely 

linked to its geologic features and processes. Ongoing 

mass wasting is responsible for the steep sea cliffs. Active 

slumps create new land along the coastline at the base of 

the cliffs. Volcanism created the Kalaupapa Peninsula 

and volcanic features such as Kauhākō Crater, lava tubes, 

and other cavernous features offer scientists intriguing 

terrestrial research analogs to lunar volcanic features and 

processes as well as hotspot development and history 

studies. The geology at Kalaupapa is a fundamental 

component to the ecosystem that hosts several 

endangered species. 

Knowledge of the physical properties of the different 

geologic units mapped at Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park is vital to understanding and managing the varying 

ecosystems and natural resources throughout the park. 

The Map Unit Properties Table includes characteristics 

such as erosion resistance, suitability for infrastructure, 

geologic significance, recreation potential, and 

associated cultural and mineral resources for each 

mapped geologic unit. In addition to their physical 

properties, the rock units at Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park contain information related to volcanic 

island evolution and the geologic history of the 

Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic island and seamount chain. 

The glossary contains explanations of many technical 

terms used in this report and the Map Unit Properties 

Table.
vi NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Acknowledgements

The Geologic Resources Inventory (GRI) is one of 12 inventories funded by the National 

Park Service Inventory and Monitoring Program. The GRI is administered by the 

Geologic Resources Division of the Natural Resource Program Center.

The Geologic Resources Division relies heavily on 

partnerships with institutions such as the U.S. Geological 

Survey, Colorado State University, state geologic surveys, 

local museums, and universities in developing GRI 

products.

Special thanks to: T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park) for providing photographs of the park 

used throughout this report. Robert J. Lillie (Oregon 

State University) also provided graphics.

Credits

Author

Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State 

University)

Review

Curt Storlazzi (U.S. Geological Survey)

Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division)

Editing

Jeffrey Matthews (Write Science Right)

Digital Geologic Data Production

Greg Mack (NPS Pacific West Region)

Ron Karpilo (Colorado State University)

Stephanie O’Meara (Colorado State University)

Digital Geologic Data Overview Layout Design

Phil Reiker (NPS Geologic Resources Division)
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 1

Introduction

The following section briefly describes the National Park Service Geologic Resources 

Inventory and the regional geologic setting of Kalaupapa National Historical Park.

Purpose of the Geologic Resources Inventory 

The Geologic Resources Inventory (GRI) is one of 12 

inventories funded by the National Park Service (NPS) 

Inventory and Monitoring Program. The GRI, 

administered by the Geologic Resources Division of the 

Natural Resource Program Center, is designed to 

provide and enhance baseline information available to 

park managers. The GRI team relies heavily on 

partnerships with institutions such as the U.S. Geological 

Survey, Colorado State University, state geologic surveys, 

local museums, and universities in developing GRI 

products.

The goals of the GRI are to increase understanding of the 

geologic processes at work in parks and to provide sound 

geologic information for use in park decision making. 

Sound park stewardship requires an understanding of 

the natural resources and their role in the ecosystem. 

Park ecosystems are fundamentally shaped by geology.

The compilation and use of natural resource information 

by park managers is called for in section 204 of the 

National Parks Omnibus Management Act of 1998 and in 

NPS-75, Natural Resources Inventory and Monitoring 

Guideline. 

To realize these goals, the GRI team is systematically 

conducting a scoping meeting for each of the 270 

identified natural area parks and providing a parkspecific digital geologic map and geologic report. These 

products support the stewardship of park resources and 

are designed for non-geoscientists. Scoping meetings 

bring together park staff and geologic experts to review 

available geologic maps and discuss specific geologic 

issues, features, and processes. 

The GRI mapping team converts the geologic maps 

identified for park use at the scoping meeting into digital 

geologic data in accordance with their Geographic 

Information Systems (GIS) Data Model. These digital 

data sets bring an interactive dimension to traditional 

paper maps. The digital data sets provide geologic data 

for use in park GIS and facilitate the incorporation of 

geologic considerations into a wide range of resource 

management applications. The newest maps contain 

interactive help files. This geologic report assists park 

managers in the use of the map and provides an overview 

of park geology and geologic resource management 

issues.

For additional information regarding the content of this 

report and current GRI contact information please refer 

to the Geologic Resources Inventory web site 

(http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/).

Park Setting

Regional Information 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park covers 4,362 

hectares (10,779 acres) on the island of Moloka‘i. Of this 

area, Federal land is only 9.2 ha (22.88 ac) and park 

boundaries include approximately 809 ha (2,000 ac) of 

water area. The State of Hawai‘i owns nearly all acreage 

within the park with some private ownership over 

approximately 28 ha (70 ac). 

Along with the islands of Maui, Lāna‘i, and Kahoolawe, 

Moloka‘i is part of Maui County. Kalaupapa Peninsula is 

the exception, administered as Kalawao County. The 

island of Moloka‘i covers an area of about 673 sq km 

(260 sq mi) and is 78 km (48 mi) long and 16 km (10 mi) 

wide. It is the fifth largest of the seven main Hawaiian 

Islands. Moloka‘i lies east of O‘ahu, separated by the 40

km wide (25-mi) Kaiwi Channel. Moloka‘i is north of the 

island of Lāna‘i across the Kalohi Channel and is west of 

Maui separated by the Pailolo Channel. 

Moloka‘i is geographically and ecologically split into two 

main areas. The lower western half is arid and lacking 

significant ground cover. This area is destructively

overgrazed allowing invasion of non-native Kiawe trees. 

The higher plateau of the eastern half of the island 

contains lush rainforest receiving over 760 cm (300 in.) of 

precipitation each year. This area is host to an endemic 

flora and fauna that is extremely diverse. 

The Kalaupapa Peninsula (also called the Makanalua 

Peninsula) appears tacked onto the northern shore of 

Moloka‘i as a low-lying tongue of land at the base of 

some of the highest sea cliffs in the world with a vertical 

drop of more than 610 m (2,000 ft). The highest cliffs on 

Moloka‘i stand 1,101 m (3,315 ft) above the Pacific 

Ocean. In 1972, the sea cliffs of the north shore of 

Moloka‘i were designated a national natural landmark 

because of their geological significance. The peninsula 

projects 4 km (2.4 mi) north of the cliffs and is 5 km

(3 mi) wide at the base of the cliffs (fig. 1). 

Cultural History and Establishment of Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park

Kalaupapa National Historical Park contains the location 

of the Moloka‘i Island Hansen’s disease (leprosy) 

settlement set aside for isolation of leprosy patients from 

1886-1969. It was the oldest site for sufferers of the 

disease in the United States enacted by an isolation law 

under King Kamehameha V. Among the more famous 

characters in the Kalaupapa story were Father Damien 

and Mother Marianne Cope. Today, approximately 30 

former sufferers of leprosy continue to live in the colony 

that is now part of Kalaupapa National Historical Park. 

At its peak, nearly 1,200 men, women, and children were 

living there in exile. 
2 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

This park also contains remnants of early Hawaiian 

settlements. Human occupation at Kalaupapa began as 

early as 1,000 years ago. The native population occupied 

much of what is now land contained within the park. The 

park is rich in archaeological resources in an excellent 

state of preservation. Remains include taro patch walls, 

stone terraces, heiau (Hawaiian temples), mollusk shells 

and debris, fortifications, small pavements, pens, a koa

(fishing shrine), house sites, and a sacred lava tube cave. 

Much remains to be discovered, especially in the three 

large valleys within the park. 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park provides habitats for 

rare and endangered species across a diverse landscape. 

Areas within the park have been divided into habitat 

zones including montane rainforest, lowland forest, 

lowland mesic forest, coastal shrubland, coastal dry 

mixed shrubland, coastal grassland, and sea cliffs. These 

distinctions are based on the vegetation patterns, which 

in turn reflect local differences in geological substrate, 

wind patterns, precipitation, and temperature. 

Public Law 96-565 established Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park in 1980 “to provide for the preservation 

of the unique nationally and internationally significant 

cultural, historic, educational, and scenic resources of 

the Kalaupapa settlement on the island of Moloka‘i...” 

Administration of the park is a cooperative effort 

between the National Park Service, the State of Hawai‘i, 

the Department of Health, the Department of 

Transportation, and the Department of Land and 

Natural Resources, the Roman Catholic Church in the 

State of Hawai‘i, and the Hawai‘i Conference 

Foundation. The latter two agencies own church 

buildings within the park. The National Park Service also 

leases more than 400 ha (1,000 ac) within the park held 

by the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands in trust for 

native Hawaiians.

Additional information may be found at 

http://www.nps.gov/kala, the Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park web site. 

Geologic Setting

Moloka‘i is just one volcanic mass (composed of three 

volcanoes–East and West Moloka‘i, and Kauhākō Crater 

[Kalaupapa]) of many subaerial islands and submarine 

seamounts of the Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain. The 

chain stretches over 5,800 km (3,600 mi) from the 

Aleutian trench in the northwest Pacific basin to Lō‘ihi

seamount, which sits approximately 35 km (22 mi) off the 

coast of the Island of Hawai‘i (fig. 2). The chain formed 

due to the movement of the Pacific tectonic plate over an 

essentially stationary mantle hotspot or plume. From 

southeast to northwest, the Hawaiian Islands increase in 

age, degree of erosion, and subsidence into the sea. A 

distinct bend in the chain where the Hawaiian Ridge 

(which includes the Hawaiian Islands at its southeast 

most extent) become the Emperor Seamounts represents 

an change in direction of plate motion millions of years 

ago.

Many islands are made of composites of more than one 

volcano. Two major, distinct volcanic masses comprise 

the island of Moloka‘i, referred to as East and West 

Moloka‘i. The Ho‘olehua Saddle bisects the island and is 

composed of eroded sediment of two large volcanic 

centers (fig. 3). It formed when lava flows from East 

Moloka‘i piled up against the flanks of West Moloka‘i 

and is mantled by easily eroded material as evidenced by 

deep gullies cutting through the landscape. East Moloka‘i

has the highest peak on the island, Kamakou at 1,515 m 

(4,970 ft) in elevation. The East Moloka‘i volcano was 

once much larger. The northern half of the volcanic mass 

catastrophically collapsed along a 40 km (25 mi) long 

scarp, in effect halving the collapse caldera at its summit

(fig. 4). This catastrophic event scattered debris 

northward across the Pacific Ocean bottom and 

generated a huge tsunami that inundated Moloka‘i and 

Lāna‘i 1.4 million years ago. This massive landslide 

created the famous cliffs (also called pali) of Moloka‘i. 

The southern flanks of the East Moloka‘i shield volcano

slope gently to the sea floor. This style of catastrophic 

collapse along a zone of weakness is common to most, if 

not all of the Hawaiian Islands. The collapse occurs as 

each island moves off the hot spot. The crust cools and 

flexes downward, magmas that inflated the volcanic 

masses retreat. Heat flow is decreased resulting in 

significant accumulation of stress and generation of a 

pervasive weakness along a proto-rift system that is 

common to hotspot volcanic islands. The result is a 

catastrophic collapse, generation of significant cliffs and 

a general transformation of the islands from a round 

shape to a more rectilinear shape. 

The landscape within Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park consists of the relatively flat peninsula with gently 

sloping flanks of the Kauhākō Crater, three steep-walled 

interior valleys, and the rim of the adjacent high cliffs. 

The 1,101-m (3,315-ft) steep cliffs or pali formed during 

the catastrophic landslide mentioned above and are 

some of the most dramatic geomorphic features of East 

Moloka‘i. The volcanic flows of the peninsula are 

younger than the rest of Moloka‘i having formed 

approximately 300,000 years ago. A small shield volcano, 

Pu‘u‘uao, erupted during the late Pleistocene as a series 

of horizontal flows forming the Kalaupapa shield. The 

crater atop the younger volcano is approximately 0.5 km 

(0.3 mi) in diameter and reaches below sea level. It is 

filled with brackish water. 

Over half of the park area is part of the older, East 

Moloka‘i volcanic mass. This part of the park contains 

the eroded Wai‘ale‘ia, Waihānau, and Waikolu valleys 

that open into the north shore cliffs (fig. 4). Waikolu is 

the largest and easternmost valley within the park. It 

contains the park’s only perennial stream. Transbasin 

diversion within this valley since 1961 has removed

approximately 20% of the annual water yield from the 

watershed. 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 3Figure 1. Photograph of the Kalaupapa Peninsula jutting off the north shore of Moloka‘i at the base of the steep pali. Note the Kalaupapa settlement just left of center and the Kauhākō Crater to the right. The National Park Service photograph by T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park).
4 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 2. Bathymetric and aerial imagery of the northern Pacific Ocean basin, with deeper areas appearing dark blue to black and the 

Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain (and other relatively shallow areas) visible as lighter blue areas. The white box encloses the Hawaiian 

Islands. The white arrow indicates present motion of the Pacific plate at 95 mm/year (3.74 inches/year). Compiled by Jason Kenworthy 

(NPS Geologic Resources Division) from ESRI Arc Image Service, USA Prime Imagery with information from Eakins and others (2003).
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 5

Figure 3. Maps showing the topography and steepness of slopes across the island of Moloka‘i. Note the presence of steep slopes and 

extreme topographic relief on the eastern half of the island. Kalaupapa is the tongue-shaped peninsula jutting off the north shore at 

the base of some of the highest sea cliffs in the world. The gently sloping Hoolehua saddle forms a transition between the East (Wailau) 

and West (Mauna Loa) Moloka‘i volcanoes. Graphic is figure 5 from Field et al. (2008).

Figure 4. Physiographic map of Moloka‘i Island with features within and near Kalaupapa National Historical Park emphasized. Graphic is 

by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University) from information provided by figure 4 in National Park Service (2000). 
6 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Geologic Issues

The Geologic Resources Division held a Geologic Resources Inventory scoping session for

Kalaupapa National Historical Park on March 20, 2003, to discuss geologic resources, 

address the status of geologic mapping, and assess resource management issues and 

needs. This section synthesizes the scoping results, in particular those issues that may 

require attention from resource managers. Contact the Geologic Resources Division for 

technical assistance.

The primary resource management emphasis at 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park is the preservation of 

the historic settlement structures. However, resource 

management objectives for the park also recognize the 

inherent natural resources. Natural resource 

management goals at Kalaupapa National Historical Park 

include conducting and encouraging research to

(1) further define and gain insight into the park's native 

island ecosystem, (2) develop life history and ecologic 

understanding of plant and animal species facing 

extinction, and (3) develop management strategies for 

preserving endemic island ecosystems (National Park 

Service 2000). Hawai‘i is the only state in the U.S. that is 

subject to earthquakes, volcanism, tsunamis and 

hurricanes. The dynamic nature of the geomorphic 

processes at work on the Hawaiian landscape, including 

coastal erosion, sea level rise, seasonal high waves, 

volcanic activity, and stream erosion (Richmond et al.

2001), combined with human impacts such as road and 

slope grading, stream diversion, infilling of rills, and 

development (Curt Storlazzi, geomorphologist, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written communication, March

2010), increases the importance of baseline information 

of the physical world underlying the tropical ecosystem. 

This section discusses the management of natural 

resources; focusing on the most prevalent geologic issues 

at the park.

Groundwater Flow

The availability of groundwater resources in a particular 

area of Moloka‘i depends on precipitation, age of the 

landscape, elevation, orographic effects, and geologic 

structure. Most of the island’s aquifers are unconfined 

and range from thin brackish water lenses to vertically 

extensive freshwater bodies (Rutherford and Kaye 2006). 

At Kalaupapa, fresh water floats on salt water within the 

porous volcanic rock mass (Kauahikaua 1983). Saltwater 

incursion is a possibility near coastal areas and is among 

the factors limiting groundwater availability at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park. Other limiting factors include 

anthropogenic reduction of discharge to streams and 

lowering of aquifer or groundwater water levels 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006).

Aquifer characteristics vary based on recharge rates and

geologic features (especially rock porosity and 

permeability). Nearly all the aquifers on Moloka‘i are 

volcanic rock. The permeability of volcanic rock is highly 

variable and can change over small geographic areas 

depending on the mode of emplacement, degree of 

weathering, and overall thickness of the rock 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006). At Kalaupapa, vertical 

electrical-resistivity soundings taken along the southern 

base of the peninsula indicate the estimated vertical 

thickness of fresh groundwater varies between 14 m and 

95 m (46 to 312 ft) (Kauahikaua 1983). Kalaupapa is part 

of the wetter, Northeast Aquifer Sector and has a higher 

percentage of rainwater going to runoff and recharge 

rather than evaporation and transpiration such as in 

more arid areas (i.e. the West Aquifer Sector) (Field et al. 

2008). 

There are many demands made on the hydrologic system 

at Kalaupapa Park. Highly variable hydrologic processes 

can change over short intervals of space and time. The 

presence of a slightly less permeable vertical dike can 

impound freshwater, creating thicker aquifers locally 

(Kauahikaua 1983). Understanding the hydrogeologic 

system is vital to effectively manage water resources. 

Understanding groundwater flow is necessary to predict 

hydrologic response to inputs such as contaminants, as 

well as system response to diminished inflow. Failure to 

limit the amount of discharge loss may lead to loss of 

aquatic habitat, disruption of aquaculture practices, and 

saltwater incursion into fresh groundwater aquifers or 

lens-like zones (Rutherford and Kaye 2006). 

The movement of contaminants in the aquifers can be 

modeled by monitoring the composition of inputs like 

precipitation and outputs like streamflow. Other sources 

of inputs include windblown materials, surface runoff, 

sewage, landfills, and fill dirt. Surface and groundwater 

flow is interconnected and contamination in one part of 

the system may be transferred to and detected in other 

parts of the hydrologic system. Streams (discussed in 

next subtopic) provide a measure of the chemical status 

of the watershed’s hydrologic system. Consistent 

measurement of these parameters is crucial to establish 

baseline values that can be used during monitoring 

efforts.

In addition to interpretive studies on the quantity, 

quality, and dynamics of groundwater, the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) Water Resources Division,

Hawai‘i District operates a network of monitoring 

stations that collect information on streamflow, 

suspended sediment, groundwater level, salinity, 

precipitation, and evapotranspiration (Rutherford and 

Kaye 2006). The main contact office is in Honolulu.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 7

Streamflow

Groundwater and surface stream flow are 

interconnected at Kalaupapa National Historical Park. 

Most watersheds on Moloka‘i are typically small with 

steep slopes and little to no channel storage (Richmond 

et al. 2001). Because of these limitations, many streams 

are ephemeral, only flowing after precipitation events 

with water levels rising quickly during storms. This, in 

turn, causes damaging flooding in coastal areas as well as 

transport and discharge of upland sediment to coastal 

areas (Fletcher et al. 2002; Rutherford and Kaye 2006). 

Kalaupapa’s position on the windward, north facing 

coast of the island assures a relatively consistent supply 

of precipitation. Throughout Hawai‘i, watersheds on the 

windward sides of islands tend to have perennial streams 

sustained by groundwater input, whereas the western 

sides are relatively arid (Fletcher et al. 2002; Rutherford 

and Kaye 2006). Flooding data are sparse for Moloka‘i, 

but low-lying coastal plains where streams empty to the 

sea are susceptible to damage from stream flooding, and 

there is significant runoff to the east of Pūwāhi (Fletcher 

et al. 2002). At Kalaupapa National Historical Park, three 

large streams occupy valleys notched into the sea cliffs: 

Wai‘ale‘ia; Waihānau; and Waikolu streams. The 

easternmost Waikolu Stream is the largest valley and 

contains the park’s only perennial stream. These deep 

valleys channelize floodwaters during high precipitation 

events (fig. 5) (Richmond et al. 2001). 

Transbasin diversion within Waikolu Valley (since 1961)

removes approximately 20% of the annual water yield 

from the watershed. Diverted water from Waikolu 

supplies freshwater to drier areas of Moloka‘i. Study 

needs exist for comparing the hydrologic and biologic 

attributes of the Waikolu watershed with the 

neighboring and, as yet, undiverted and pristine 

Pelekunu watershed. According to the Resource 

Management Plan for Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park, such a study could indicate the nature and extent of 

any adverse effects the diversions are having on riparian 

and aquatic habitats in Waikolu Valley (National Park 

Service 2000). Previous studies by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS), Hawai‘i’s Department of Land and 

Natural Resources (DLNR), and others have included a 

basic inventory of the hydrology network for Moloka‘i

(1970), as well as some groundwater (1983, 1991, 1992) 

and surface water studies (1985, 1986, 1990, 1995), and a 

park specific watershed study (1982, 1996) (Rutherford 

and Kaye 2006). Expansion of this research for 

incorporation into a park-wide monitoring plan would 

provide a useful resource management tool.

Kalaupapa National Historical Park is now part of the 

East Moloka‘i Watershed Partnership with the purpose 

of cooperatively managing natural ecosystems with a 

focus on preserving native ecosystems and on watershed 

conservation. The Watershed Partnership is composed 

of landowners, government agencies, and nongovernment organizations (Rutherford and Kaye 2006).

The NPS Water Resources Division (Fort Collins, 

Colorado) is an additional source of technical assistance. 

Coral Reef Changes

One of the largest coral reef complexes in Hawai‘i

stretches along the southern shore of Moloka‘i where the 

island provides a sheltered environment for the reef to 

thrive. The north shore is battered by large open-ocean 

swells and coral reef development is more limited 

(Storlazzi et al. 2002; Barnhardt et al. 2005). The 

predominant near-shore habitat at Kalaupapa is a reef 

community (Eichenlaub 2001). According to the park 

website, coral reef communities are extensive in a few 

sheltered areas around the peninsula and adjacent islets, 

but primarily consist of scattered coral colonies on basalt 

boulder habitat (National Park Service 2010). The 

website also maintains links to inventories of marine life 

for the park. Field et al. (2008) provides a comprehensive 

look at the processes and factors impacting Moloka‘i’s 

coral reefs with special attention to anthropogenic 

influences. Land-derived silt, washed from neighboring 

slopes, threatens the health of the island’s reef by 

blocking light and choking reef organisms (Field et al. 

2008).

Coral reefs are host to amazing marine biodiversity. 

Coral reef ecosystems are also geologically productive,

building islands such as atolls. The erosion of coral reefs 

by wave action can create sand deposits and beaches. As 

stated above, typical reef growth within the coastal areas 

of Hawaiian Islands consists of a thin, 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) 

veneer of coral-algal growth. Reefs exist on either 

volcanic rock platforms or Pleistocene-age limestones 

(Richmond et al. 2001). Natural processes such as heavy 

wave action, flooding, hurricanes, sea level rise, 

sedimentation, climate change, and seismic events 

disturb coral reef growth (Richmond et al. 2001; 

Rutherford and Kaye 2006; Presto et al. 2006). Human 

practices of land clearing, agricultural development, 

dredging, overfishing, and tourism negatively impact 

reefs on Moloka‘i (Cochran et al. 2002). When natural 

reef-building processes are disturbed by human activities

(such as increased sedimentation due to deforestation)

or extreme natural conditions (e.g. high wave energy), 

erosion of the reef will dominate and the reef ecosystem 

will deteriorate (Fletcher et al. 2002; Rutherford and 

Kaye 2006; Storlazzi et al. 2005). 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park identified research 

needs of 1) intertidal mapping (suggested contact at U.S. 

Geological Survey [Santa Cruz, California] is Michael

Field), 2) side scan sonar tow-board surveys and 

collected imagery for a high-resolution habitat 

classification of coral reefs, and 3) bathymetric and 

benthic habitat mapping (see Cochran-Marquez 2005) 

(GRI scoping meeting notes 2003). Seismic-reflection 

profiling can yield a wealth of information about coral 

reef development and provides an alternative to coring 

which can be damaging to a reef, labor intensive, and 

spatially limited (Barnhardt et al. 2005). Offshore 

sediment traps could be used to evaluate the frequency, 

cause, and relative intensity of sediment mobility and resuspension along fringing coral reefs and to identify 

contributions of clastic and carbonate sediments, and the 

impact storm-derived sediment may have on coral reef 

development (Bothner et al. 2006). Storlazzi et al. (2005) 
8 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

presented a model to help understand the physical 

controls on reef morphology and coral species 

distribution for the fringing reef off southern Moloka‘i. 

Their model calculates wave-induced hydrodynamic 

forces on corals of a specific form and mechanical 

strength and predicts coral distribution patterns taking 

into account wave model output for different 

oceanographic conditions. These same types of models, 

quantifying the interplay between wave-induced forces 

and coral species distribution (Storlazzi et al. 2005), 

could be implemented for Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park coral reef habitats. They would be especially useful 

to predict the impact of severe but infrequent storms or 

to determine coral reef degradation caused by natural 

forces versus anthropogenic changes. 

Geologic Hazards

Many natural phenomena pose threats to coastal and 

near-coastal areas of the Hawaiian Islands. Among these 

hazards are mass wasting, coastal erosion, storm-induced 

inundation, tsunami inundation, volcanic activity and 

seismic activity. Local slopes and geologic settings must 

be taken into account to accurately determine hazard 

potential for a specific area such as Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park (Richmond et al. 2001). Important tools 

in hazard assessment include past records of events, 

magnitudes, and occurrence from historic records in 

addition to accurate inventorying and regular monitoring 

of current conditions. Fletcher et al. (2002) produced a 

hazards map for the Kalaupapa Peninsula (fig. 7). 

Mass Wasting

Erosional processes involve the denudation of the 

landscape by either chemical or mechanical means. Rock 

and unconsolidated regolith are worn away or removed 

by wind, water, animals including man. Throughout 

Hawai‘i, anthropogenic changes including nonindigenous species introduction (invasive plants and 

feral ungulates for example), urban development, and 

placement of coastal structures disturb the natural 

system. These structures can increase erosion locally by 

disturbing the groundcover (Fletcher et al. 2002). 

Because Kalaupapa National Historical Park sits on the 

windward side of Moloka‘i, water is the primary erosive 

agent (Rutherford and Kaye 2006). Water in streams 

scours stream valleys carrying sediment toward the coast. 

When water diversion systems and other human

structures interfere, this can result in changes to 

turbidity, deposition cycles, and reduced productivity of 

the riparian and aquatic (both freshwater and marine) 

environment. Changes to the hydrologic system can also 

trigger mass wasting. 

The precipitous sea cliffs (pali) along the southern edge 

of the Kalauapapa Peninsula are extremely prone to mass 

wasting events. This is due to several factors including 

the inherent nature of their formation (the Wailau slide 

ca. 1.5-1.4 million years ago), subsurface water 

movement, storm events, and frequent seismic activity 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006). In May of 1999, a major 

landslide occurred just east of the Pelekunu Valley. This 

slide originated near the top of the 760-m (2,500-ft) high 

sea cliffs and contained enough rock and debris to reach 

the shoreline and create 2.4 ha (6 ac) of land (National 

Park Service 2000). Events of this nature and even 

smaller landslides and slumps can bury habitat, increase 

erosion rates locally, and disrupt the hydrologic system 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006). 

To date, relatively little information on erosion and 

sediment transport is available for the watersheds in 

Kalaupapa National Historical Park. Similarly, no 

modeling of areas at high risk for erosion and mass 

wasting is known for the park area. Such models would 

incorporate ground cover types (soil and regolith), 

vegetation, geologic units and properties (Appendix A), 

slope and aspect, and precipitation (especially rate) to 

predict areas prone to mass wasting. Wieczorek and 

Snyder (2009) have suggested methods to monitor slope 

movements and mass wasting.

Tsunamis

The threat of inundation and destruction by tsunamis

arises from both local and distant sources (e.g. the 

Aleutian trench of Alaska and the South American 

subduction zone). This problem is systemic in the Pacific 

Basin. Hawai‘i, situated in the middle of the Pacific 

Ocean, has been struck by more tsunamis than any other 

place on earth (Dudley and Lee 1998). Since record 

keeping began in 1837, 33 tsunamis have struck Hawai‘i

with varying degrees of severity. At least four of these 

were locally generated from seismicity beneath the 

islands. These locally generated tsunamis are especially 

dangerous due to the limited warning time available 

(Richmond et al. 2001). Following a magnitude-7.1 

earthquake in the Aleutian trench (Alaska) on April 1, 

1946, a tsunami traveled across the Pacific basin and 

struck the Hawaiian Islands causing 159 fatalities (Pacific 

Disaster Center 2008). On May 23, 1960, a magnitude 8.3 

earthquake in Chile caused a 11 m (35 ft) tsunami that 

caused serious damage to Hilo, Hawai‘i, and 61 deaths 

(Pacific Disaster Center 2008). 

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) in Ewa 

Beach, Hawai‘i, provides most countries in the Pacific 

Basin with tsunami warnings. This international program 

requires the cooperation of many seismic, tide, 

communication, and dissemination facilities operated by 

most of the nations bordering the Pacific Ocean. Their 

operational objective is to detect and locate significant 

seismic events in the Pacific region, determine whether a 

tsunami is probable, and to minimize risk to the 

population of the Pacific by providing warnings and 

tsunami information. Seismic activity and ocean surface 

levels of the Pacific Basin are constantly monitored 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006). 

According to the 2007 Tsunami Warning Center

operations manual (after the operations manual by the 

PTWC), a local tsunami warning is issued for any 

earthquake in the State of Hawai‘i with moment 

magnitude (Mw) greater than 6.8. Hawai‘i State Civil 

Defense will sound the tsunami sirens. Initially only the 

county in which the earthquake occurred and bordering 

counties are placed in a warning. If an earthquake has a 

Mw > 7.5, the entire state is placed in a warning.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 9

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory 

(PMEL) has created a tsunami hazard assessment model, 

which is being used to create and update identified 

inundation zones. Tsunami modeling must factor in 

seismic events, which can original locally or distant, in 

addition to bathymetry, storm, wind and rain conditions 

and especially coastal terrain (Rutherford and Kaye 

2006). The University of Hawai‘i School of Earth Science 

and Technology, Institute of Geophysics also developed 

a model that may be more applicable to tsunamis caused 

by local seismic events (http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/). 

A 1968 study of potential tsunami inundation zones 

identified areas across Moloka‘i susceptible to flooding. 

Since 1812, 8 tsunamis have had significant damaging 

effects on either Moloka‘i or Lāna‘i indicating a chance 

that another damaging tsunami is possible to probable in 

the relatively near future (Fletcher et al. 2002). The lowlying Kalaupapa Pensinula would certainly be at risk for 

serious damage should a tsunami strike the northern side 

of Moloka‘i and the impacts can vary greatly over short 

distances. During a tsunami in 1946 (triggered by 

seismicity in the Aleutian Islands), the run-up height on 

the west side of Kalaupapa Peninsula was recorded at

2 m (6 ft) whereas on the east side it was 16 m (54 ft) 

(Fletcher et al. 2002). In addition to loss of life and 

threats to infrastructure, tsunamis can cause increased 

erosion along the coastline, damage reefs and inundate 

near shore habitats with saltwater (Rutherford and Kaye 

2006). Since the 1960s, widespread development along 

the Hawaiian shoreline ignores the potential danger of 

inundation by tsunami (Richmond et al. 2001). 

Coastal Erosion

Kalaupapa National Historical Park includes 13-14 km 

(8-9 mi) of coastline. Coastal slope determines the 

amount of land exposed to erosion (Richmond et al.

2001). The coastline includes gently sloping sand 

covered lava benches, carbonate beaches, low-lying 

rocky shorelines, steep rocky cliffs of differing heights, 

and stream mouths (figs. 6–9) (Eichenlaub 2001). Locally, 

coral reefs, embayments, lagoons, coastal wetlands, 

streams, and various developments modify these 

shorelines (Richmond et al. 2001). Cliffs front the 

shoreline west of Pūwāhi. The shoreline to the east it is 

low and rocky. Between Kalaupapa and Ka Lae‘ā, a 

fringing reef buffers the rocky coast and between 

Kalaemau (Kae Lae Mau on older maps) and 

Kaupikiawa, the shore is rocky and windblown (Fletcher 

et al. 2002). 

Erosion of the coast may cause beach loss, instability of 

sea cliffs, inundation, damage to shallow coral reefs, and 

increased suspended sediment load. Approximate 

average erosion rates in Hawai‘i are 15-30 cm/yr (0.5-

1 ft/yr) (Richmond et al. 2001). Many factors are 

involved in coastal evolution and susceptibility to 

erosion including tidal range, wave height, coastal slope, 

historic rates of shoreline change, geomorphology, and 

relative sea level change. Tidal range and wave height are 

linked to inundation hazards. Northeast tradewind swell, 

North Pacific swell, Kona storm swell, and southern 

swell are sources of waves that influence the Moloka‘i

coastline (Storlazzi et al. 2002; Storlazzi et al. 2005). Of 

these, the North Pacific swell, generated by strong winter 

storms, generates the highest wave heights between 3 and 

8 m (9 and 25 ft) (Storlazzi et al. 2005). The north coast of 

Moloka‘i receives the full force of these waves, sheltering 

other areas of the island and provides a wave shadow for 

the northern coast of Lāna‘i and western coast of Maui 

(Storlazzi et al. 2002). 

When deep-water ocean swells encounter a shallow area 

such as an island margin or seamount, they rise because 

their crests pile up resulting from wave base 

encountering the rising ocean bottom. In the Hawaiian 

Islands, this effect is exacerbated because the contact 

between deep water and the shallow margins is especially 

abrupt. Surface waves can grow very tall, rapidly and 

over a short distance (City and County of Honolulu

2003). The swell effects vary seasonally. North Pacific 

swell deliver the highest waves annually with moderateto long-wave periods (10-18 seconds). The swells are due 

to the high intensity and relative proximity of sub-polar 

and mid-latitude storms in the north Pacific basin (City 

and County of Honolulu 2003). Sudden high waves and 

seasonal swells are among the most consistent and 

predictable coastal hazards in Hawai‘i (Richmond et al.

2001). 

Among the other factors involved in coastal evolution 

and vulnerability to erosion is coastal slope which is 

linked to inundation and to the rates of shoreline 

advance or retreat. Geomorphology influences the 

relative erodability of a specific section of shoreline. 

Relative sea level changes correspond to global sea level 

fluctuations and local tectonic uplift and subsidence. The 

weight of material added through volcanic eruptions 

(volcanic loading) depresses the lithosphere causing 

relative sea level rise. This is accentuated by cooling of 

the volcanic pile, withdrawal and/or cooling and 

crystallization of hot and buoyant magma which together 

result in thermal subsidence (relative lowering of land). 

At Kalaupapa National Historical Park, a 1998 study 

concerning the impacts of sand mining on dunes in the 

park showed that each island has a localized rate of 

relative sea level rise due to its isostatic response 

(Rutherford and Kaye 2006). On average, the rate of 

relative sea level rise is 3.9 mm/yr (1.5 in/decade) for the 

Island of Hawai‘i and the loading effect lessens with 

distance from the active volcanism. For Moloka‘i, the 

relative rate of sea level rise is less than 0.97 mm/yr (0.9 

in/decade) recorded for Maui (Richmond et al. 2001).

Human activity, particularly through the emission of 

greenhouse gases, is very likely (more than 90% certain) 

contributing to global warming (IPCC 2007) and thus 

accelerating the rate of climate change and global sea 

level rise. Karl et al. (2009) summarize climate change 

impacts for Hawai‘i and other U.S.-affiliated islands. 

Along with increases in air and ocean surface 

temperatures, the number of heavy rain events is very 

likely to increase, particularly during the summer months 

(winter is the normal rainy season). Peak cyclone winds, 

precipitation, and associated storm surges are also 

projected to increase. Sea level rise projections vary 
10 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

widely depending on location and future emissions 

scenarios. Globally, at least 0.18 m to 0.59 m (7 in. to 2 ft) 

of sea level rise is projected by 2100 (Meehl et al. 2007). 

For coastal areas such as Kalaupapa Peninsula, sea level 

rise may cause saltwater incursion into freshwater 

aquifers and coastal inundation (Karl et al. 2009; 

Rutherford and Kaye 2006).

Nearly one-quarter of the beaches throughout Hawai‘i

have been significantly degraded over the last 50 years 

(Richmond et al. 2001). Beach loss has been identified on 

Moloka‘i. The causes of beach loss are generally not well 

understood or quantified. Possible causes include 

reduced sediment supply, major storms, and 

anthropogenic effects from shoreline armoring 

structures and other development (Richmond et al. 2001; 

Rutherford and Kaye 2006). Shoreline structures often 

exacerbate coastal erosion by changing a condition of 

shoreline erosion into one of beach loss (Richmond et al. 

2001). Coastal stream flooding from intense rainfall 

events, causing beach loss or narrowing, are nearly 

annual events throughout Hawai‘i (Richmond et al.

2001). 

Beach areas are limited on Moloka‘i. Small perched 

carbonate beaches and narrow dunes exist on the west 

side of the peninsula between Kaleaupapa and Ka Laea 

and on the east side just south of Lae Hoolehua. White 

carbonate sands exist at Papaloa, Kahili, and Hoolehua. 

Black Sands Beach at Awahua has a large terrestrial 

component to the sand (Fletcher et al. 2002). Most 

Moloka‘i beach sand contains mixtures of volcaniclasts 

and bioclastic carbonate grains derived from corals, 

mollusks, and other carbonate-producing organisms. 

Because typical reef growth within the coastal areas of 

the Hawaiian Islands consists of a thin, 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) 

veneer of coral-algal growth, source material for beach 

sands is relatively limited (Richmond et al. 2001). 

Sediment collection along the southern Moloka‘i coast 

demonstrated that sediment trapping increases over 1000 

times (compared with non-storm periods) during storm 

periods with high rainfall, floods, and high waves 

(Bothner et al. 2006). 

The USGS Coastal and Marine Geology Program 

(http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/index.html) has collected data 

for Moloka‘i including aerial photography, multibeam 

data (available online), dual frequency acoustic data and 

digital video transects of the island (such as Gibbs et al. 

2005), as well as high resolution (4-6 m, 13-20 ft) 

Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne Lidar 

Survey (SHOALS) data (suggested contact at U.S. 

Geological Survey [Santa Cruz, California] is Michael 

Field) (GRI scoping meeting notes 2003). Much of this 

previous data collection is focused on the south side of 

Moloka‘i. Additional work for the north shore would be 

most useful to resource management at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park. Taken together these data 

represent a very powerful and precise baseline for 

documenting and quantifying additional change. A 

complete set of aerial videography of the Hawaiian 

coastal zone, collected from an elevation of 90-150 m 

(300-500 ft) (Richmond et al. 2001) would be useful to 

inventory current conditions. Bush and Young (2009) 

have suggested methodology for monitoring coastal 

features and processes.

Seismicity

Hawai‘i is the most seismically active place in the U.S. 

making earthquake events a significant geologic hazard 

(fig. 10) (Richmond et al. 2001). While not as frequent as 

the seismic events related to active volcanism on other 

Hawaiian islands, earthquakes do occur on Moloka‘i as a 

result of relative hotspot migration away from the island, 

thermal subsidence and crustal flexure (deformation). 

These earthquakes occur locally due to areas of 

structural weakness beneath the island. Throughout 

Hawai‘i over the last 150 years, several strong 

earthquakes (magnitude 6 to 8) caused fatalities, 

extensive damage to roads, buildings and homes, and 

triggered tsunamis. Notable local areas of seismic activity 

occur between Moloka‘i and Lāna‘i, along a fracture 

zone near Moloka‘i (the Moloka‘i seismic zone or 

fracture zone), and off the north coast of Moloka‘i

(Fletcher et al. 2002; Rutherford and Kaye 2006). The 

Moloka‘i seismic zone experienced a roughly magnitude

7 quake in 1871 near Lāna‘i (Borg 2005). 

Seismic shaking can cause ground rupture, localized 

uplift or subsidence, liquefaction, ground settlement, and 

disruption of groundwater flow and surface drainage 

patterns. Even moderate earthquakes can trigger 

landslides, rockfalls, mudflows, or other mass wasting in 

addition to damaging buildings. 

The USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO), 

USGS National Strong-Motion Project, and the NOAA 

Pacific Tsunami Warning Center operate seismographic 

monitoring networks in the state of Hawai`i. Seismic 

monitoring at HVO began in 1912 and data from more 

than 60 remote stations are continuously monitored in 

real time by HVO. This system focuses primarily on the 

Island of Hawai‘i. For other areas, the most 

comprehensive data collection on earthquake epicenter 

locations including attributes such as date, depth and 

magnitude is available from the USGS National 

Earthquake Information Center 

(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/). Braile (2009) also 

suggested methodology for seismic monitoring.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 11

Figure 5. An east-west profile of the deeply notched valleys of the northern (windward) pali on Moloka‘i in the vicinity of Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park. Graphic is by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University) adapted from figure 1 in Holcomb (1985). 

Figure 6. Map showing the shoreline geomorphology at Kalaupapa National Historical Park. Graphic by Trista Thornberry-Ehrlich 

(Colorado State University) after Eichenlaub (2001). Base shaded relief compiled from ESRI Arc Image Service.
12 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 7. Hazard intensity map for Kalaupapa Peninsula. Note the high hazard potential from tsunamis, sea level rise, high waves, 

stream flooding, storms, erosion, and seismicity. The overall hazard assessment is a 5 on a scale of 1 to 7. U.S. Geological Survey graphic 

from Fletcher et al. (2002). 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 13

Figure 8. Photograph of lava bedrock benches (the most common benthic substrate) at Kalaupapa National Historical Park. National Park 

Service photograph by T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park). 

Figure 9. Photograph of beach west of Kalaupapa. Sandy beaches are uncommon on the Kalaupapa peninsula. National Park Service 

photograph by T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park).
14 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 10. Map showing earthquake-hazard zones for the major Hawaiian Islands. Note the location of Kalaupapa National Historical 

Park. Graphic was modified from Klein et al. (2000) by Rutherford and Kaye (2006) and redrafted by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich 

(Colorado State University).
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 15

Geologic Features and Processes

This section describes the most prominent and distinctive geologic features and processes 

in Kalaupapa National Historical Park.

Ancient and Modern Landslides

When volcanic activity of the East Moloka‘i volcano 

ceased some 1.5 million years ago, the mass resembled 

typical Hawaiian shield volcanoes capped by a collapse 

caldera with gently sloping flanks descending to the 

shoreline. In cross section, these volcanoes look like the 

top half of an ellipse split along its major axis composed 

of numerous overlapping basalt flows (see layers in

fig. 12) (Holcomb 1985). At this time, West and East 

Moloka‘i stood 1.6 and 3 km (1 and 1.9 mi) above sea 

level, respectively (Clague and Moore 2002). This normal 

shape was altered when the northern third of the 

volcanic mass collapsed catastrophically and slid into the 

sea some 1.4-1.5 million years ago (fig. 11). The remnants 

of this collapse include the steep sea cliffs (pali) that flank 

the northeast shoreline of Moloka‘i. The average slope 

for the highest portion of the pali is approximately 55 

degrees (Clague and Moore 2002). In certain areas, these 

cliffs rise up to 910 m (3,000 ft) above the Pacific Ocean. 

They are among the tallest in the world (fig. 12). 

The collapse of the northeast Moloka‘i Volcano is now 

referred to as the Wailau slide (Moore and Clague 2002). 

Approximately 2,500 cu. km (600 cu. mi) of island failed 

along a 40-km (25-mi) landslide. The momentum of the 

slide was such that it moved out underwater as far as 190 

km(120 mi), the last 130 km (80 mi) of which was slightly 

uphill. The slide climbed some 275 m (900 ft) up from the 

Hawaiian Deep (the crustal depression caused by 

volcanic loading) (National Park Service 2000; Moore 

and Clague 2002). The effects of this sudden landslide 

were far-reaching. Displacement of so much volcanic 

mass into the ocean generated a 610-m (2,000-ft) tsunami 

that inundated Moloka‘i and Lāna‘i. 

Earlier studies debated the landslide interpretation for 

the formation of Moloka‘i’s pali. Alternate theories 

presented the idea that the cliffs were merely erosional 

features carved by the trade wind driven Pacific Ocean 

based on the presence of intrusions, breccias, and 

ponded lava flows near the present center of East 

Moloka‘i (Holcomb 1985). Recent studies by the U.S. 

Geological Survey confirmed the presence of a major 

submarine landslide off the north coast of Moloka‘i. 

Sidescreen-sonar system (Geological LOng-Range 

Inclined Asdic or GLORIA) surveys covered a 1,400-km 

(870-mi) long reach of the Hawaiian Ridge. Remarkably, 

the survey revealed mass movement deposits along 

roughly one-half of the flanks of the Hawaiian Ridge 

covering more than 98,000 sq. km (38,000 sq. mi) or 

more than five times the subaerial exposure of all the 

major islands (National Park Service 2000; Moore and 

Clague 2002). These surveys show these major landslide 

events are relatively common for the Hawaiian volcanic 

masses throughout geologic history. The average rate is 

one about every 350,000 years, but this can vary broadly

(Moore and Clague 2002). Such massive slope failures 

could occur again. Active shield or postshield volcanism 

(including dikes intruding along rift zones) and high 

precipitation are two components thought to trigger 

giant Hawaiian landslides (Clague and Moore 2002). The 

shields deform in response to gravitational and magmatic 

stresses (Holcomb 1985). The Kalaupapa peninsula was 

built by a volcano younger than the shield volcano as 

detailed in the “Volcanic Features and Processes” section 

(fig. 13) (Moore and Clague 2002). 

Modern slope failures in Hawai‘i are natural 

geomorphological processes continually sculpturing the 

landscape. Slumps and debris avalanches are the most 

common forms of slope failure on the islands today. 

Slumps tend to be slow moving and larger, up to 40 km 

(25 mi) wide and more than 10 km (6 mi) thick. They 

tend to display transverse ridges and steep toes and move 

intermittently. In contrast to the slow slumps, debris 

avalanches quickly move downslope in single pulses. 

They are longer (more than 225 km, 140 mi) and thinner 

at 0.5 to 2 km (0.3-1.25 mi). The catastrophic Wailau 

slide is an extreme example of a debris avalanche. They 

typically have well-defined amphitheatre headlands and 

hummocky terrain in their lower reaches formed by 

smaller landslide blocks (Moore and Clague 2002). 

Understanding these older, weathered features lends 

understanding to features currently developing on the 

Island of Hawai‘i such as the Hilina slump (mentioned in 

relation to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park by 

Thornberry-Ehrlich [2009]). 

The processes of cliff formation tend to be selfsustaining. That is, once a cliff forms, the steep slopes are 

inherently unstable and much more prone to failure than 

gentler grades. Adams et al. (2005) suggest that in 

addition to the wave-driven mechanical abrasion and 

plucking (or quarrying) of rocks exposed to direct wave 

action along the coast, ocean microseisms (ground 

motions generated by wave action in coastal regions)

weaken the sea cliff bedrock by microcracking. The pali 

along Moloka‘i’s north shore continue to form and 

change (fig. 12). The heavily altered rocks of the caldera 

complex that comprise the pali are relatively easily 

eroded and strong wave action is nearly continuous 

along the north coast of Moloka‘i (Beeson 1976; Storlazzi 

et al. 2002). In May 1999, just east of the Pelekunu Valley, 

a major landslide carried enough rock and debris from 

near the top of 760-m (2,500-ft) high cliffs to create 

about six acres of new land jutting out into the Pacific 

Ocean (Rutherford and Kaye 2006).
16 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Volcanic Features and Processes

The island of Moloka‘i contains two large volcanic 

centers, East and West Moloka‘i, as well as a small posterosional shield volcano, Pu‘u‘uao (comprised of two 

source vents: Pu‘u‘ula and Kauhākō Crater) associated 

with the Kalaupapa peninsula (Coombs et al. 1990). East 

Moloka‘i Volcano ceased activity about 1.5 million years 

ago. The pali, resulting from the Wailau slide provide an 

excellent cross sectional view through the layers of basalt 

and ash that compose the East Moloka‘i volcanic 

complex; magnetic stratigraphy also reveals a halved 

caldera complex (Holcomb 1983). Approximately one 

million years later, the Pu‘u‘uao volcano formed the 

Kalaupapa Peninsula at the base of the pali by a series of 

small-scale eruptions and basalt flows around 340,000-

570,000 years ago (Clague et al. 1982). At least six 

different flow fields flank the sides of the volcano. There 

are at least four discrete vents along the axis of the 

peninsula (note depressions on Appendix A and fig. 6) 

(Halliday 2001). A funnel-like pit containing a lake and 

circum-crater terrace, Kauhākō Crater, cap the small 

volcanic shield (fig. 13) (Coombs et al. 1990; Moore et al.

1997). The crater is approximately 0.5 km (0.3 mi) in

diameter with a rim elevation of 135 m (443 ft) above sea 

level (Halliday 2001). The crater reaches at least 200 m 

(660 ft) below sea level at its deepest point making it 

among the deepest lava pits in Hawai‘i (Halliday 2001). It 

is filled with brackish water. The Pu‘u‘ula cone, 1.4 km 

(0.9 mi) southwest of the crater, contains late-stage ash 

deposits from explosive eruption events (Coombs et al.

1990; Clague and Moore 2002). 

Along much of the coastal areas of the Kalaupapa 

Peninsula are 1 to 3 m (3 to 9 ft) thick lava flows. At the 

shoreline, the tops of flows appear as benches or 

pavement. When submerged, these flows create smallscale cliffs at the erosional end of a single flows. 

Slumping forms cliffs of multi-layer lava flows that may 

be exposed or submerged. Many of the benches are 

covered with large (1 to 8 m, 3 to 26 ft diameter) basalt 

boulders. These boulder bench areas create important 

marine habitat including niches for fish (Eichenlaub

2001).

Lava Tubes and Caves

When relatively liquid basaltic magma flows downhill, 

the upper surface tends to cool faster than the underlying 

flow. This cooled upper surface often forms an insulating 

crust over the flowing lava. When the lava supply is 

stopped, the flow sometimes leaves hollow spaces or 

tubes beneath the surface. The HVO library 

(http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/observatory/hvo_history_pubs.h

tml) has more than 250 reports of lava tubes throughout 

the Hawaiian Islands and the Hawai‘i Speleological 

Survey conducts explorations of larger tubes. On 

Kalaupapa Peninsula, caves and cavernous features 

occur in several groupings: within Kauhākō Crater, along 

the eruptive alignment north of the crater, on the 

northeast flank of Pu‘u‘uao in the Kaupikiawa Cave 

System, on the eastern flank of Pu‘u‘uao in seaside 

littoral cliffs, and on the eastern side of the peninsula in 

the littoral cliffs (Halliday 2001). 

Within Kauhākō Crater are several cavernous structures 

including a rockshelter (a deadend lava tube), and the 

complex cavernous structure known as Ka Lua o 

Kahoalii (Kalauokahoalii). This cave opens downward 

from the northeastern part of the crater terrace. From 

the surface, it looks like a 22 m (72 ft) wide, 10 m (33 ft) 

deep pit. The pit-like opening intersects a north-south 

trending lava tube at its base that measures 7 m (23 ft) 

wide and 5 m (16 ft) high. Several portions of this tube 

have collapsed. Bird bones and other animal remains are 

present in the tube (Halliday 2001).

From Kauhākō Crater, an open lava channel extends 

from the north side of the carter about 1 km (0.6 mi) 

down the flank and transforms into a lava tube that fed 

secondary volcanic activity that added an additional 1.3 

km (0.8 mi) to the shoreline. A secondary smaller lava 

tube branches from the primary tube about 1 km (0.6 mi) 

north of the crater rim and trends north-northeast 

almost to the east shoreline of the peninsula. Eight 

collapse skylights and elongate tumuli are present in this 

tube (Clague and Moore 2002). Together these features

and several other cavernous sites comprise the braided 

Kaupikiawa Cave System (Halliday 2001). Several of the 

caves host significant cultural resources. Of note is the 

NPS Burial Cave that contains human remains. Interring 

human remains in caves is not a traditional practice 

(Halliday 2001).

Other notable cave features of Kalaupapa Peninsula 

include Anakahalele (“cave”, “lava tube”). This is among 

the most important caves known on this part of 

Moloka‘i. It was partially walled off by early Hawaiians 

and contains other cultural features (Halliday 2001). 

Other lesser known cavernous features include Lava 

Dome “kid”, “New Crater”, “Shelter Cave”, Two 

Boulder Overhang, Noni Tree Cave, “Sleeping Cave”, 

and “Frank Howarth’s cave” (Halliday 2001). 

There are numerous cave features of geological and 

cultural significance on Kalaupapa Peninsula. The 

Hawaiian Speleological Society has done some mapping 

in the area. A formal inventory would be helpful for 

resource management. At Kalaupapa National Historical 

As of the scoping meeting in 2003, a cave monitoring 

program had not been initiated for the park. Toomey 

(2009) has suggested vital signs for monitoring caves and 

associated landscapes.

Thermal Erosion

As mentioned in the previous section, a 50-100 m

(165-330 ft) wide lava channel extends from Kauhākō

Crater in the center of the Pu‘u‘uao shield. Modeling 

suggests lava volumes of up to 0.2 cu. km (0.05 cu. mi) 

erupted at a rate of 260 cu. m/sec (340 cu. yd/sec) 

(Coombs et al. 1990). This and other Hawaiian channels 

have provided geologists with important analogs (albeit 

much smaller) to lunar sinuous rilles, or channels similar 

in appearance to river valleys possibly formed by thermal 

erosion. Hypothesis for lunar sinuous rille origins 

include: 1) thermal erosion by lava, 2) structural control 

of the lava flows, 3) formation as constructional features, 

4) the result of drainage of a lava lake, or, 5) some 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 17

combination of the above (Coombs and Hawke 1988). 

Thermal erosion refers to the process of downcutting by 

liquid lava. 

Lunar sinuous rilles are among the most recognizable 

(from Earth) small volcanic lunar features. They are also 

obviously difficult to study in the field, which is why 

Hawaiian analogs are so valuable (Coombs and Hawke

1988; Volcano World 2008). They usually flow away 

from small pit structures. Because of the very dry nature 

of the lunar landscape, sinuous rilles probably mark lava 

channels or collapsed lava tubes some of which may have 

melted their way down into older rocks, much like 

erosion by rivers (Volcano World 2008). Like lunar rilles, 

morphologically, the Kalaupapa lava conduit has a deep 

head crater, sinuous channel, and gentle slope (Coombs 

et al. 1990).

Based on the postulated volumes and high velocities of 

lava flow through the Kauhākō Crater channel, flow was 

turbulent at times. Turbulent flow, in which heat is 

mixed throughout the flow, causes extreme heating at 

the base of the flow allowing, given a long enough flow 

duration, the flowing lava to melt and pluck away the 

underlying substrate (Coombs et al. 1990; Pinkerton and 

Norton 1990). Thermal erosion requires a high flow 

velocity to maximize the heat transfer to the contact with 

the underlying rocks. Vertical thermal erosion is always 

greatest nearest the source vent especially where the 

velocity increases due to steepening in slope (Coombs et 

al. 1990; Pinkerton and Norton 1990). Thermal erosion 

(vertical channel downcutting) at Kauhākō Crater 

occurred at a rate of ~10.5 μm/sec (0.0004 in./sec) to 

produce 5-10 m (16-33 ft) of incision (Coombs 1990; 

Coombs et al. 1990).

Vog

There is no active volcanism on Moloka‘i. However, 

Kīlauea on the Island of Hawai‘i is very active and affects 

nearby islands. The volcanic activity emits roughly 1,500 

tons of toxic sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) each day. It is the 

largest stationary source of SO2 in the United States. SO2

is a major component of vog—a local term for volcanic 

haze or smog. Vog forms a visible haze comprised of 

acidic aerosols, unreacted sulfur gases, and volcanic ash 

and other fine particulate matter that forms as volcanic 

and trace species react and become oxidized in the 

atmosphere. 

Whether or not Kīlauean vog affects Moloka‘i depends 

largely on wind conditions. Under the right conditions, 

the vog can reach the island of O‘ahu, some 350 km

(217 mi) northwest of Kīlauea. At greater distances, the 

vog tends to thin out consisting of acidic or neutral 

aerosol (Rutherford and Kaye 2006). In cooperation with 

the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Park Service Air 

Resources Division maintains air quality monitors on 

Kīlauea. Real time data is available at: 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/webcams/parks/havoso2

alert/havoalert.cfm. 

Geological Influences on Biodiversity

The physical component of the ecosystem at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park includes three basic parts: 

geology, hydrology, and meteorology. Monitoring these 

physical components provides important information on 

their influences on biodiversity and ecosystem health. 

Areas within the park of particular natural resource 

interest are designated Special Ecological Areas (SEAs). 

These include the State of Hawaii’s Pu‘uali‘i (Puu Alii)

Natural Area Reserve, Waikolu Valley, and the pali. They 

are so designated because they possess the most intact, 

diverse, unique, and manageable sites.

At Kalaupapa National Historical Park, several geologic 

features directly correlate to biological systems present 

there. At Pu‘uali‘i, one of the best Hawaiian examples of 

‘ohi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha) rainforest is an 

essential habitat for rare and endangered native forest 

birds including the Moloka‘i thrush (Myadestes lanaiensis 

rutha). The Waikolu Valley, cutting back into the highly 

altered rocks of the pali, contains the park's sole 

perennial stream that is vital habitat for native 

diadromous fish and mollusks as well as native gobie fish 

including the ‘o‘opu alamo‘o (Lentipes concolor—a 

candidate for the endangered species list), ‘o‘opu nakea 

(Awaous guamensis) and ‘o‘opu nopili (Sicyopterus 

stimpsoni) (Beeson 1976; National Park Service 2000).

Waikolu Stream also supports a large population of 

relatively uncommon hihiwai (Neritina granosa), a native 

stream snail. The valley, deeply eroded into the pali 

protects several species of federally endangered plants

including Carter's panicgrass (Pancium fauriei var 

carteri), haha (Cyanea procera) and lava melicope 

(Melicope reflexa) (National Park Service 2000).

The precipitous pali separate the peninsula from the rest 

of Moloka‘i, essentially isolating portions of land. Their 

incredible steepness renders them inaccessible to 

invasive feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis). 

Because of their relative isolation and inaccessibility, 

these sheer faces are vital nesting habitat for native and 

endangered birds. Three endangered plant species grow 

on the cliffs: ‘awikiwiki (Canavalia molokaiensis), 

Kamalō Gulch schiedea (Schiedea lydgatei) and makou 

(Peucedanum sandwicense) (National Park Service 2000). 

These plants are the subject of study and monitoring.
18 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the evolution of the steep pali and Kalaupapa Peninsula on the north shore. Graphic is not to scale and by 

Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich after information from Cochran et al. (2002). 

1

2

3

4
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 19

Figure 12. Photographs of the steep pali along the northern shore of Moloka‘i. These are some of the highest sea cliffs on Earth. National Park 

Service photographs by T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park). 
20 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 13. Photograph of the Kauhākō Crater atop the Pu‘u‘uao shield in Kalaupapa National Historical Park. This volcanic center was last 

active approximately 340,000 years ago. National Park Service photograph by T. Scott Williams (Kalaupapa National Historical Park). 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 21

Map Unit Properties

This section identifies characteristics of map units that appear on the Geologic Resources 

Inventory digital geologic map of Kalaupapa National Historical Park. The

accompanying table is highly generalized and for background purposes only. Grounddisturbing activities should not be permitted or denied on the basis of information in this

table. 

Geologic maps facilitate an understanding of Earth, its 

processes, and the geologic history responsible for its 

formation. Hence, the geologic map for Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park provided information for the 

“Geologic Issues,” “Geologic Features and Processes,” 

and “Geologic History” sections of this report. Geologic 

maps are two-dimensional representations of complex 

three-dimensional relationships; their color coding 

illustrates the distribution of rocks and unconsolidated 

deposits. Bold lines that cross or separate the color 

patterns mark structures such as faults and folds. Point 

symbols indicate features such as dipping strata, sample 

localities, mines, wells, and cave openings. 

Incorporation of geologic data into a Geographic 

Information System (GIS) increases the usefulness of 

geologic maps by revealing the spatial relationships 

among geologic features, other natural resources, and 

anthropogenic features. Geologic maps are indicators of 

water resources because they show which rock units are 

potential aquifers and are useful for finding seeps and 

springs. Geologic maps are not soil maps, and do not 

show soil types, but they do show parent material—a key 

factor in soil formation. Furthermore, resource managers 

have used geologic maps to make connections between 

geology and biology; for instance, geologic maps have 

served as tools for locating sensitive, threatened, and 

endangered plant species, which may prefer a particular 

rock unit. 

Although geologic maps do not show where earthquakes 

will occur, the presence of a fault indicates past 

movement and possible future seismic activity. Similarly, 

map units show areas that have been susceptible to 

hazards such as landslides, rockfalls, and volcanic 

eruptions. Geologic maps do not show archaeological or 

cultural resources, but past peoples may have inhabited 

or been influenced by depicted geomorphic features. For 

example, alluvial terraces may have been preferred use 

areas and formerly inhabited alcoves may occur at the 

contact between two rock units.

The geologic units listed in the following table 

correspond to the accompanying digital geologic data. 

Map units are listed in the table from youngest to oldest. 

Please refer to the geologic timescale (figs. 14 and 15) for 

the age associated with each time period. The table 

highlights characteristics of map units such as:

susceptibility to erosion and hazards; the occurrence of 

paleontological resources (fossils), cultural resources, 

mineral resources, and caves or karst; and suitability as 

habitat or for recreational use. Some information on the 

table is conjectural and meant to serve as suggestions for 

further investigation.

The GRI digital geologic maps reproduce essential 

elements of the source maps including the unit 

descriptions, legend, map notes, graphics, and report. 

The following reference is the source for the GRI digital 

geologic data for Kalaupapa National Historical Park: 

Sherrod, D. R., J. M. Sinton, S. E. Watkins, and K. M. 

Brunt. 2007. Geologic Map of the State of Hawai‘i, 

Sheet 4. Island of Moloka‘i (scale 1:100,000). OpenFile Report 2007-1089. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, 

Virginia, USA.

The GRI team implements a geology-GIS data model 

that standardizes map deliverables. This data model 

dictates GIS data structure including data layer 

architecture, feature attribution, and data relationships 

within ESRI ArcGIS software, and increases the overall 

utility of the data. GRI digital geologic map products 

include data in ESRI personal geodatabase and shapefile 

GIS formats, layer files with feature symbology, Federal 

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)-compliant 

metadata, a Windows help file that contains all of the 

ancillary map information and graphics, and an ESRI 

ArcMap map document file that easily displays the map 

and connects the help file directly to the map document.

GRI digital geologic data are included on the attached

CD and are available through the NPS Data Store 

(http://science.nature.nps.gov/nrdata/). Data will be 

available on the Natural Resource Information Portal 

when the portal goes online. As of August 2010, access is 

limited to NPS computers at http://nrinfo/Home.mvc.

Geologic Units of Moloka‘i

On the basis of age dating and stratigraphy, geologists 

divide the geologic units of the island of Moloka‘i into 

two broad categories, the East Moloka‘i Volcanics and 

the West Moloka‘i Volcanics; the Kalaupapa volcanic 

center is much smaller than the two main volcanoes 

(Sherrod et al. 2007). These distinctions correspond to 

the evolution of the island’s structure. The West 

Moloka‘i volcanic suite contains alkalic basalt, tholeiite, 

and hawaiite flows with interlayered cinder and spatter 

cones, and coarser grained intrusive dikes (Sherrod et al.

2007). 

The younger and larger East Moloka‘i volcano covers 

two-thirds of the island. Flows from this volcano are well 

exposed on the pali within Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park. The map units associated with this 
22 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

volcano include pāhoehoe and ‘a‘ā flows of olivine-rich 

basalt with localized cinder and spatter cones, intrusive 

plugs, and dike swarms (Sherrod et al. 2007). Beeson 

(1976) described this pile of volcanic deposits in detail. 

The lower flows are mostly transitional to tholeiitic 

grading upwards to more alkalic, hawaiite, and mugearite 

compositions towards the top (Clague and Beeson 1980). 

Relatively young deposits (Pleistocene age) of this group 

include pāhoehoe flows and ashy soil beds with some 

vent deposits and cinder cones (Sherrod et al. 2007). 

The Kalaupapa Peninsula distinctively juts off the north 

shore of Moloka‘i. Younger volcanic rocks of the 

Kalaupapa volcanic suite comprise the more recent 

addition to the island. The rocks include pāhoehoe flows 

of tholeiitic to alkalic basalt and basinite with cinder 

cones and spatter near the Kauhākō Crater (Sherrod et 

al. 2007). 

Another recent volcanic event formed the islands of 

Mokuho‘oniki and Kanahā off the eastern end of 

Moloka‘i. These islands contain tuff deposits, spatter, 

ash, sparse lava flows, and several basaltic dikes (Walker

1990; Sherrod et al. 2007).

Flanking much of the islands shores and river valleys are 

unconsolidated surficial deposits. These reflect the 

continual processes of erosion and deposition all over 

the island. Oldest among these are poorly consolidated 

sands and gravels deposited as alluvial terraces, valley fill, 

and locally mantling ridges. Calcareous breccia and 

conglomerate contain marine-derived sedimentary 

deposits extending 2 km (0.7 mi) inland. The youngest 

deposits on Moloka‘i include beach deposits, alluvium, 

dune deposits of varying age, and lagoon deposits. 

Manmade fill of concrete and debris forms piers and 

breakwaters along the coastline (Sherrod et al. 2007).
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 23

Map Unit Properties Table: Kalaupapa National Historical Park

Colored rows indicate units mapped within Kalaupapa National Historical Park

Age Unit Name

(Symbol) Features and Geologic Description Erosion Resistance

Suitability for 

Infrastructure Hazards Paleontological Resources Cultural Resources Karst Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance

QUATERNARY (Holocene)

Fill

(Qf)

Beach deposits

(Qbd)

Younger dune deposits

(Qdy)

Lagoon deposits

(Qlg)

Qf consists of manmade fill of concrete and rock debris 

forming piers and breakwaters along the coastline. Qbd

contains surf-reworked, cream-colored calcareous sand 

and gravel forming unconsolidated strand-line deposits 

parallel to the coastline. Unit includes local streamderived volcanic detritus as black sand and minor 

sandstone fragments. Qdy includes unconsolidated 

coral sand forming eolian dunes and sheets up to

15 m (45 ft) thick. Unit typically occurs adjacent to Qbd. 

Qlg contains poorly consolidated to unconsolidated 

mud, silt, and sand present as mudflats in back-beach 

areas and estuaries. Some marine marl or limey beds 

present locally. 

Very low, 

except for Qf

High porosity and 

permeability in addition 

to proximity to flowing 

water renders unit 

unsuitable for waste 

facilities; building 

projects on this unit 

should avoid areas with 

slopes present.

Heavy erosion, 

slumps, slides, 

and mass 

wasting 

possible.

Shoreline areas 

are prograding 

west of 

Kaunakakai 

inundating 

mangrove 

swamps.

Finely broken coral, shells, 

and foraminifera

Qlg contains 

reddish-brown 

mud as a result 

of erosion 

caused by 

overgrazing in 

the past 200 

years

None Sand, silt, gravel, black 

sand, marl

Nearshore, 

lagoon, 

estuarine, and 

mangrove 

swamp habitat.

Subaerial units are 

suitable for light 

recreation, Qlg

should be avoided 

for any impactful 

recreation due to 

fragile nature of 

estuarine habitats.

Qdy contains 

glassy and lithic 

sand reworked 

downwind from 

200-500-year-old 

tephra deposits 

from the 

volcano’s 

southwest rift 

zone.

QUATERNARY 

(Pleistocene

−

Holocene)

Alluvium

(Qa)

Older dune deposits

(Qdo)

Qa contains deposits of silt, sand, and gravel along 

valley bottoms and streams, locally grading upwards 

into unconsolidated talus and colluvium as well as 

QTao. Qdo consists of lithified calcareous sand or 

eolianite in fields inland of the modern coastline. Degree 

of lithification increases with age and some caliche or 

red paleosol caps are present locally. 

Very low to 

low for Qdo

Building projects 

should avoid areas with 

slopes and close 

proximity to coastlines.

Erosion, 

blockfall, 

slumps, and 

slides are 

possible for 

units with 

slopes present.

Qdo contains shells and bird 

bones.

Unit may 

contain early 

Hawaiian 

artifacts and 

relicts of the 

Kalaupapa 

settlement

Karst 

dissolution is 

possible for 

Qdo

cemented by 

calcite

Sand, caliche, 

paleosol, and gravel

Qa provides 

permeable 

substrate for 

valley floor 

vegetation

Unit is suitable for 

most recreation 

unless in flash 

flood prone 

narrow valleys

Qdo contains 

remains with 

radiocarbon 

dates of 4,700 to 

6,750 years 

before present

QUATERNARY

(Pleistocene)

Calcareous breccia and 

conglomerate

(Qcbc)

Unit contains poorly to moderately sorted marinederived sedimentary deposits which extend 2 km

(0.7 mi) inland at elevations as high as 72 m (216 ft). 

Fragments are encased in a sandy lime mud matrix and 

calcitic cement.

Low

The poorly lithified 

nature of this unit may 

render it unstable for 

heavy development.

If undercut, 

unit may pose 

rockfall hazard

Coralline algae, branching 

coral, shell fragments, 

gastropod shells, echinoid 

remains

Unit may 

contain early 

Hawaiian 

artifacts

Karst 

dissolution is 

possible for 

unit 

cemented by 

calcite

Sand, basaltic rock 

clasts, carbonate mud 

rip-up clasts

Unit provides 

perched ledges 

of porous 

substrate for 

vegetation

Avoid undercut 

areas due to risk of 

landslides

Unit records 

marine 

transgression 

event during the 

Pleistocene

QUATERNARY

(Pleistocene)

Kalaupapa Volcanics

(Qppl)

Kalaupapa Volcanics; vent 

deposits

(Qppv)

Tuff of Mokuho‘oniki cone 

(Qmv)

Qppl contains porphyritic pāhoehoe lava flows ranging 

in composition from tholeiitic to alkalic basalt and 

basanite that comprises the broad Kalaupapa Peninsula 

of East Moloka‘i. Qppv consists of a cinder cone, low 

lava cone, and Kauhākō Crater on top. Qmv contains 

palagonitic basaltic ash, spatter, sparse lava flows, and a 

few dikes comprising the islands of Mokuho‘oniki and 

Kanahā off the eastern end of Moloka‘i. 

Moderate

Units are present at the 

base of a great 

windward cliff and 

should be avoided for 

development due to the 

threat of rockfall.

Units can 

weather to 

slippery clays, 

lava tube 

collapse is 

possible for 

flow units

Coralliferous limestone 

fragments entrained in 

bedded ash as blocks.

Potential paleontological 

resources of animals that 

lived in or were transported 

into lava tubes and caves.

Unit may have 

contributed to 

the building of 

the Kalaupapa 

settlement and 

may have 

spiritual 

significance for 

early 

Hawaiians

None

Basalt, volcanic ash, 

olivine phenocrysts, 

coralliferous 

limestone fragments

Lava tubes may 

provide cave 

habitat

Avoid flow areas 

due to potential 

for collapse

Qppl has 

radiometric 

(potassiumargon) age dates 

of 0.57 to 0.34 

million years. 

Qmv is younger 

than 1.3 million 

years and 

contains rocks 

indicative of 

shallow 

eruptions.

QUATERNARY

(Pleistocene)

East Moloka‘i Volcanics

Upper member:

lava flows

(Qemul)

vent deposits

(Qemuv)

domes

(Qemud)

Qemul contains ‘a‘ā flows 6-30 m (18-90 ft) thick with 

rare pāhoehoe flows and ashy soil beds. Unit weathers 

to a medium to light gray. Qemuv consists of cinder and 

spatter layers that form bulky cones. Qemud contains 

lava extrusions covering and obscuring vent sites of 

Qemuv and flowing within craters of vent deposits. 

Moderate

Rough textures and 

unconsolidated nature 

of some volcanic 

deposits make them 

unsuitable for extensive 

development.

Units are prone 

to washing 

downslope and 

can weather to 

slippery clays, 

lava tube 

collapse is 

possible for 

flow units

Potential paleontological 

resources of animals that 

lived in or were transported 

into lava tubes and caves.

Unit may have 

spiritual 

significance for 

early 

Hawaiians

None Cinders, volcanic ash

Units weather 

to contribute to 

fertile, iron rich 

soils

‘a‘ā lavas form 

unstable, 

dangerous 

trailbase

In concert, units 

record the 

localized 

volcanic history 

of the East 

Moloka‘i area
Colored rows indicate geologic units mapped within Kalaupapa National Historical Park

KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 24

Age Unit Name

(Symbol) Features and Geologic Description Erosion Resistance

Suitability for 

Infrastructure Hazards Paleontological Resources Cultural Resources Karst Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance

QUATERNARY 

(Pleistocene

−

Pliocene)

Older alluvium

(QTao)

Unit consists of poorly consolidated to lithified sand 

and gravel. In places, texture is coarse enough to be 

considered conglomeratic with well rounded and 

moderately sorted clasts. Some colluvial lenses present 

locally. Unit is present as terraces, thick valley fill, and 

locally mantling ridges.

Low

Heterogeneous layering 

may result in structural 

weakness making units 

unsuitable for heavy 

development.

Rockfall 

hazard due to 

some ledgeforming layers 

exposed along 

slopes incised 

by modern 

drainages

Pleistocene and Pliocene 

fossil fragments are possible.

Unit may have 

provided tool 

material for 

early 

Hawaiians 

None 

documented.

Sand, gravel, volcanic 

clasts

Units form 

terraced 

benches

Good for most 

uses unless incised 

and undercut by 

local streams.

Unit records 

early weathering 

and deposition 

patterns on 

Moloka‘i

QUATERNARY 

(Pleistocene

−

Pliocene)

East Moloka‘i Volcanics

Lower member:

lava flows

(QTemll)

vent deposits

(QTemlv)

caldera complex

(QTemlcc)

Intrusive rocks

(QTemli)

QTemll contains pāhoehoe and ‘a‘ā flows of aphyric to 

porphyritic olivine basalt. Unit weathers darker gray, 

distinguishable from the overlying Qemu. QTemlv

consists of cinder and localized spatter cones. QTemlcc

contains thick lava flows with many intrusive plugs, 

talus, and fault breccia. Unit is permeated by dike 

swarms. Ponded areas are thickest and secondary 

mineralization is a field characteristic of the caldera 

complex. QTemli consists of steep, near-vertical dikes, 

stocks and plugs within QTemlcc.

Moderately 

low

Heterogeneous layering 

of lava types may result 

in structural weakness 

making the terrane 

unsuitable for heavy 

development.

QTemlc

weathers to 

clay and may 

weaken stacks 

of lava flows 

rendering them 

susceptible to 

slides. Lava 

tubes may 

collapse.

Potential paleontological 

resources of animals that 

lived in or were transported 

into lava tubes and caves.

Filled 

amygdules may 

have provided 

trade and tool 

material for 

early 

Hawaiians

None

Olivine, augite 

phenocrysts, volcanic 

rocks, ash, vesicle 

linings and amygdules 

filled with calcite, 

quartz, chalcedony, 

smectite-group clay 

minerals

Lava tubes may 

provide cave 

habitat

‘a‘ā lavas form 

unstable, 

dangerous 

trailbase

Units record 

volcanic 

evolution of the 

eastern side of 

Moloka‘i

QUATERNARY (Pleistocene

−

Pliocene)

West Moloka‘i Volcanics:

Wai‘ele and other late lava 

(QTwmw)

Wai‘ele and other late lava; 

vent deposits

(QTwmwv)

lava flows

(QTwml)

vent deposits

(QTwmv),

Intrusive rocks

(QTwmi)

QTwmw is an informal unit underlain by red ashy soils 

from 0.2 to 1.2 m (0.6-3.6 ft) thick. Flows range in 

composition from alkalic basalt to hawaiite with some 

tholeittic layers at Ka‘eo. QTwmwv consists of cinder 

and spatter cones. QTwml lack the red ashy soil 

interbeds of QTwmw and contains pāhoehoe and ‘a‘ā

flows with thin beds less than 0.6 m (1.5 ft) thick at 

several localities. QTwmv contains localized vent 

deposits of cinder and spatter cones. QTwmi contains 

coarser-grained intrusive dikes.

Moderate

Heterogeneous nature 

of units could pose 

stability issues on 

slopes, avoid flow areas 

that may contain lava 

tubes for wastewater 

treatment facility 

development.

Flows 

separated by 

ashy layers may 

be prone to 

rockfall and 

sliding on 

slopes

Potential paleontological 

resources of animals that 

lived in or were transported 

into lava tubes and caves.

Early 

Hawaiians 

quarried late 

lava flows of 

QTwmw

lending the 

name Kalau 

ko‘i (the adze 

pit) to the 

features

None Volcanic rocks, ash

Unit weathers 

to reddish, iron 

rich soils

‘a‘ā lavas form 

unstable, 

dangerous 

trailbase, avoid 

flow areas due to 

potential for 

collapse

QTwmw ranges 

in age from 1.80 

to 1.73 million 

years old and 

represent 

postshield-stage 

volcanism.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 25

Geologic History

This section describes the rocks and unconsolidated deposits that appear on the digital 

geologic map of Kalaupapa National Historical Park, the environment in which those units

were deposited, and the timing of geologic events that created the present landscape.

In geologic terms, the rock units in Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park are young. Volcanism created the oldest 

of Moloka‘i’s rocks approximately 2 million years ago—

compared to more than 4.5 billion years of Earth’s 

history (figs. 14 and 15) (Rubin 2005). Even so, the 

geologic setting and evolution of the Pacific basin and 

the Hawaiian Islands are vast and relevant to 

understanding key events in Earth’s history. Knowledge 

of how the islands formed contributes to understanding 

the current landscape and to predicting potential future 

geologic events. 

Pre-Quaternary History of the Pacific Basin

In the late Paleozoic Era, all continental landmasses 

joined to form one large supercontinent, Pangaea. 

During this time, mountain ranges formed by active 

continental collision. A huge water body, the 

Panthallassic Ocean, surrounded Pangaea. This water 

body had persisted in some form since the late 

Proterozoic Eon (about 570 million years ago), when it 

formed after a previous supercontinent, Rodinia, broke 

apart.

The supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart early 

in the Triassic Period. It split into a northern continent, 

Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana. Further 

rifting divided Laurasia into the North American and 

Eurasian continents, whereas Gondwana eventually 

separated into the continents of South America, Africa, 

Australia, and Antarctica (Condie and Sloan 1998). 

Continental rifting opened new oceans, such as the 

Atlantic Ocean basin between the Americas and Europe 

and Africa. The Indian Ocean basin formed between 

Africa, Antarctica, and Australia. Rifting continued 

throughout the Mesozoic. Era The oceanic crust of the 

Panthallassic Ocean basin was also changing and splitting 

during this time.

At approximately 125 million years ago (Early to Middle 

Cretaceous), evidence suggests that a massive increase in 

volcanic activity in the western Pacific Ocean basin 

produced large volcanic plateaus above several large 

mantle plumes. This activity was concurrent with a rapid 

increase in rates of sea-floor spreading. Rates increased 

by 50%–100% and remained high until the Late 

Cretaceous (Condie and Sloan 1998). This event 

correlates with rising sea level, global climate change 

(warming), and several extinction events in the middle 

Cretaceous.

The modern Pacific plate fills most of the North Pacific 

Ocean basin, but this was not always so. The Pacific 

plate, on which the Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic chain is 

located, is relatively young in geologic terms. In the 

Cretaceous Period, several plates existed within the 

basin, likely derived from the partitioning of the 

Panthalassic Ocean upon the breakup of Pangaea.

The Pacific plate started as a small central plate 

surrounded by the Aluk plate to the south, the Farallon 

plate to the east, and the Kula plate to the north (fig. 16) 

(Condie and Sloan 1998; University of California Santa 

Barbara 2006). Separated by mid-ocean ridges, the plates 

surrounding the Pacific plate began moving away from it. 

During the middle Tertiary, the surrounding plates were 

mostly assimilated into the Earth’s crust by subduction. 

Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust, so in a 

collision between the two, the oceanic crust tends to sink 

(subduct) beneath the continental crust. This subduction 

generates heat as the plate sinks into the upper mantle. 

The oceanic crust melts and rises to the surface, often 

forming a volcanic arc above the melting plate and in 

effect recycling the oceanic crust.

The Kula plate plunged beneath the northeast Asian 

subduction zone, possibly coincident with the opening of 

the Sea of Japan. A remnant of this plate remains as an 

inactive area of the Bering Sea. Subduction of the 

Farallon plate beneath North and South America 

resulted in the Sevier-Laramide mountain-building event 

(responsible for uplift of the Rocky Mountains) and the 

eventual formation of the San Andreas fault boundary. 

Remnants of this plate include the Juan de Fuca plate off 

the coast of the Cascade volcanic chain in Oregon and 

Washington, the Cocos plate in the eastern Pacific off the 

coast of Central America, and the Nazca plate, which is 

subducting beneath South America (Condie and Sloan 

1998). During this time, the Pacific plate enlarged by 

seafloor spreading to nearly fill the north Pacific basin. It 

now is moving slowly northward and westward—away 

from the East Pacific Rise spreading center and towards 

the subduction zones bordering the Australian-Indian 

plate, the Philippine plate, the Eurasian plate and the 

Aleutian Islands of the North American plate (fig. 17) 

(University of California Santa Barbara 2006).

Evolution of the Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount Chain

The Pacific plate covers about 20% of the Earth’s crust 

and is the largest tectonic plate on the planet today. 

Throughout the Pacific basin are linear chains of 

volcanic islands and seamounts (submerged volcanoes). 

Many of these chains progress in age from one end to the 

other (fig. 18). The linear trend of the Hawaiian-Emperor 

islands and seamounts records the movement of the 

Pacific plate over a stationary hotspot in the upper 

mantle (fig. 2). Other such spots across the basin are the 

Caroline, Marquesas, Society, Pitcairn, Austral, and 

Easter hotspots (fig. 19) (Condie and Sloan 1998).
26 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Hotspots form in response to rising plumes of material at 

very high temperature from the lower mantle, just above 

the core-mantle interface. These plumes are thought to 

form as a result of localized thermal disturbances in the 

molten core of the Earth. A part of the core transfers heat 

to the overlying mantle, which then rises owing to its 

decreased density. Once a plume reaches the shallow 

depths in the mantle (≈200 km [125 mi] deep), the lower 

pressure causes the material to melt. If this molten 

material (magma) finds a way to the outer crust, it may 

erupt and produce a series of volcanoes that decrease in 

age toward the plume (hotspot) (Condie and Sloan 

1998).

The Hawaiian Islands are part of a volcanic chain that is 

located along the crest of the Hawaiian-Emperor 

seamount chain overlying the Hawaiian hotspot. This 

chain contains more than 80 undersea volcanoes and 

extends more than 5,800 km (3,600 mi) from the Aleutian 

trench (a subduction zone) in the far northwest Pacific, 

southward and eastward to Lō‘ihi, the submarine 

volcano off the coast of the Island of Hawai‘i. The chain 

is divided into two sections, the younger Hawaiian Ridge 

(from the Hawaiian Islands northwest to Kure Atoll) and 

the older Emperor Seamounts. The chain contains 

islands, seamounts, atolls, shallows, banks, and reefs 

along a line trending southeast to northwest across the 

northern Pacific. The two components are divided at a 

distinctive kink in the chain where the trend changes 

from a northerly to a more northwesterly direction. This 

bend corresponds to a change in direction of the Pacific 

tectonic plate movement that took place over a period of 

8 million years, from 50 to 42 million years ago (Sharp 

and Clague 2006)

Building Volcanoes

Each volcanic island evolved through four idealized 

eruptive stages: preshield, shield, postshield, and 

rejuvenated stages (fig. 20) (Clague and Dalrymple 1987). 

These are also referred to as the “youthful stage,” 

“mature stage,” “old stage,” and “rejuvenated stage” 

(Beeson 1976). Each stage corresponds to variations in 

the amount and rate of heat supplied to the lithosphere 

(Moore et al. 1982) as the Pacific tectonic plate drifts 

northwest over the Hawaiian hotspot at a rate of about 

8.5–9.5 cm/year (3.3–3.7 in./year) (Eakins et al. 2003; 

Simkin et al. 2006). Preshield lava, erupted in the earliest 

stage of growth, is typically buried in the core of a large 

volcano. Shield volcanism produces vast amounts of 

tholeiitic basalt, chiefly as lava flows, and is the primary 

volcano growth stage. As the shield stage ends, the 

magma chamber evolves and the lavas become 

fractionated and more alkalic. Late-stage volcanic rocks, 

formed during rejuvenation, include cinder and spatter 

cones, and mixed lava flows over a localized area (Clague 

et al. 1982; Sherrod et al. 2007). On the basis of the rate of 

movement of the Pacific plate and the average spacing of 

volcanic centers, it may be calculated that each volcano 

requires about 600,000 years to grow from the ocean 

floor to the end of the volcanic shield building phase, 

reaching the surface of the ocean midway through this 

period (Moore and Clague 1992).

The massive outpouring of lava and the building of a 

large shield volcano depresses the oceanic crust beneath 

it. Beneath the Island of Hawai‘i, Mauna Loa and its 

adjacent volcanoes have depressed the base of the crust 

about 9 km (6 mi) (Zucca et al. 1982). As each volcanic 

mass ages, the crust which it overlies cools and further 

subsides. When combined with erosion, volcanic 

quiescence and subsidence cause the islands to shrink 

and eventually submerge below the ocean surface 

(Clauge and Dalrymple 1987; Rubin 2005).

Because the northernmost extinct volcanoes are 

descending into the Aleutian trench, it is difficult to 

ascertain when the Hawaiian hotspot activity began. For 

the major Hawaiian Islands, age increases with distance 

from the hotspot (currently beneath Hawai‘i and Lō‘ihi) 

(Cross 1904). The oldest major island, Ni‘ihau, is the 

farthest distance away from Kīlauea, having shield-stage 

lava ages of 4.89±0.11 and 5.2 million years ago (oldest 

known age of 6 million years ago with large analytical 

error) (G. B. Dalrymple unpublished data 1982; Clague 

and Dalrymple 1987; Clague 1996; David Sherrod, 

geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

communication, July 2009). Kaua‘i is slightly younger 

and closer to Kīlauea with shield lava ages of 5.14±0.20 

and 5.77±0.28 million years ago as determined by 

isotopes of potassium and argon (K-Ar) (McDougall 

1979; David Sherrod, geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, 

written communication, July 2009). The end of shieldbuilding volcanism on O‘ahu dates between 2.6 and 3.0 

million years ago (Clauge and Dalrymple 1987; Clague 

1996). West Moloka‘i volcano has a K-Ar age of 

1.90±0.06 million years ago, whereas East Moloka‘i 

volcano has an age of 1.76±0.07 million years ago; 

however, these ages are uncertain due to laboratory 

difficulties (Naughton et al. 1980; Clague and Dalrymple 

1987; David Sherrod, geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, 

written communication, July 2009). The neighboring 

islands of Kaho‘olawe and Lāna‘i have K-Ar shield lava 

ages of 1.25±0.15 million years ago and 1.28±0.04 million 

years ago, respectively (Bonhommet et al. 1977; David

Sherrod, geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

communication, July 2009). The West Maui volcano 

erupted before Haleakalā on Maui, having K-Ar ages of 

2.15 million years ago for shield stage lava versus the 

oldest reported age of 1.12 million years ago for postshield lava on Haleakalā (McDougall 1964; David

Sherrod, geologist, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

communication, July 2009). 

Although some of the Hawaiian Islands were built by a 

single volcano, others are the composite of several. The 

time over which a volcano remains active is long 

(hundreds of thousands to 2 million yr or more), and 

there is significant overlap in volcanic age between 

neighboring islands. For instance, Haleakalā volcano on 

Maui last erupted only about 200 years ago even though 

its distance from the currently active Kīlauea volcano on 

Hawai‘i is about 175 km (110 mi) (Rubin 2005). Three 

volcanoes are considered active: Kīlauea (erupting since 

1983), Mauna Loa (last erupted in 1984), and Lō‘ihi

(erupted in 1996). The active submarine volcano, Lō‘ihi, 

is building layers of basaltic lava and venting 

hydrothermal, mineral-laden water towards the ocean’s 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 27

surface and may in the future become the next Hawaiian 

island (Rubin 2005). Volcanoes considered dormant 

include Hualālai (last erupted in 1801), Haleakalā (last 

erupted in about 1790), and Mauna Kea (last erupted 

about 4,000 years ago) (Rubin 2005). Though extremely 

remote, volcanic activity is still a possibility at Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park. The Kalaupapa Peninsula 

formed only 340,000-570,000 years ago during a renewed 

volcanic phase. 

Volcanoes of Moloka‘i

At one time, the so-called Maui Nui complex (consisting 

of Maui, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, and Kaho‘olawe Islands) was a 

single subaerial landmass comprising six major shield 

volcanoes: West Moloka‘i, East Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, 

Kaho‘olawe, West Maui, and Haleakalā (Stearns 1946;

Holcomb 1985; Price and Elliott-Fisk 2004).The oldest 

volcanic mound on Moloka‘i is the West Moloka‘i 

volcano. Once the primary volcanic building phase 

ended (1.90 million years ago), erosion has reduced it 

into a low-lying mass of rolling hills and gentle ridges 

whose highest point is only about 430 m (1,410 ft) above 

sea level (Rubin 2005; Sherrod et al. 2007). Most of the 

rocks now exposed are from the shield-stage volcanism. 

Some coarser grained dikes uphold northwest-striking 

ridges (Sherrod et al. 2007). 

The younger East Moloka‘i volcano erupted from 

approximately 1.76 to less than 1.35 million years ago 

and now covers two-thirds of the island. It stemmed 

from an east-west oriented fissure zone. Several rift 

zones marked by linear volcanic dikes trend westnorthwest, and east-northeast from the summit area

(Appendix A). Once the magma chamber of this large 

volcano was relatively emptied, the volcano collapsed on 

itself forming a caldera complex as much as 11 km (7 mi) 

in diameter. 

Submarine mass wasting, landslides, and debris flows 

carry material from the shoreline, down the slopes of the 

islands to spread onto the deep sea floor. This process 

often leaves precipitous slopes and cliffs on island 

shorelines. These mass movements have been an 

especially important ongoing influence on the lowering 

of the landscape at Moloka‘i and the development of the 

overall ocean island volcanic complex of all the Hawaiian 

Islands (Keating et al. 2000). The Wailau slide removed 

nearly a third of the island of Moloka‘i as the northern 

flank of the East Moloka‘i volcano slumped and bulged 

and then catastrophically failed and slid into the Pacific 

Ocean more than 150 km (90 mi) offshore (Moore and 

Clague 2002; Field et al. 2008). Rifting and rift zone dikes 

(feeding fissure eruptive vents) on the East Moloka‘i

volcano may have contributed to the triggering of the 

landslide failure (Moore and Clague 2002). Two dike 

swarms mark the locations of rift zones on the west edge 

of the slide, oriented west-northwest, and another swarm 

oriented east-northeast marks the east edge rift zone 

(Clague and Moore 2002).

After the major landslide on Moloka‘i, much younger 

volcanic activity resurged as the small shield vent of 

Kalaupapa (Pu‘u‘uao) experienced a single, monogenetic 

lava eruption during the Pleistocene Epoch. Age dates of 

these lavas range from 0.34 to 0.57 million years ago

(Clague et al. 1982; Sherrod et al. 2007). Other smallscale eruptive vents are located nearby on the sea cliffs, 

offshore as submarine cones, and on the Mokuho‘niki 

and Kanaha islets. These two islets are composed of 

eroded tuff deposits totaling an area of 0.06 sq. km

(0.02 sq. mi) (Walker 1990). 

As on other volcanic islands throughout the Pacific 

Ocean basin, during periods of volcanic quiescence, the 

basalts, tuffs, breccias, cinder cones, and ash deposits are 

exposed to intense weathering and erosion in the 

tropical Hawaiian climate. Landforms produced may 

include amphitheatre valleys, steep-sided stream valleys, 

dissected volcanic plateaus, alternating valley and ridge 

topography, small-scale gullies, isolated plateau 

remnants, talus slope deposits, levee deposits, sea cliffs 

and benches (Ollier 1988). Ocean waves continuously 

pound the shorelines, carrying away sands and gravels 

eroded by the islands’ rivers. Coral reefs fringe certain 

areas of the islands and contribute carbonate sediments 

to the island’s beaches and younger dune deposits 

(Sherrod et al. 2007). At 21,000 years before present, 

during the last major glacial advance of the Pleistocene, 

sea level was ~130 m (430 ft) lower than at present. This 

lowstand created carbonate platforms around many of 

the Hawaiian Islands that now form a carbonate 

substrate for modern coral reefs (Barnhardt et al. 2005).

Significant reef development occurred around Moloka‘i 

beginning between 9,000 and 8,000 years ago as 

postglacial sea-level rise inundated the flanks of the 

islands. Coral reef vertical accretion and sea level 

stabilized about 5,000 to 3,000 years ago. The vertical 

development is now naturally limited by wave action 

(Field et al. 2008). 

Weathering of volcanic units and coral reefs produced 

the bulk of the unconsolidated geologic units on 

Moloka‘i. Older alluvial units and dune deposits have 

been accumulating as terraces, fan deltas, coastal plain 

deposits, and alluvial valley fills since the Pliocene

(Walker 1990; Sherrod et al. 2007). Other young 

sedimentary units include lagoon deposits present in 

mudflats, estuaries, and back-beach areas. These 

sediments collect as beach deposits and younger sand 

dunes wash from higher areas to the shore during 

seasonal runoff events (Sherrod et al. 2007). Modern 

drainages across Moloka‘i collect Holocene-age 

alluvium. 

Human Impacts

Since the first settlers began farming on Moloka‘i,

anthropogenic changes are impacting the geologic 

processes and features of the island. The earliest people 

to use the landscape cleared tracts of land and burned 

vegetation, causing accelerated erosion (Cochran et al. 

2002). Hawaiians built fishponds, which drastically 

modified the coastline and altered sediment transport 

down-slope and along-shore (Cochran et al. 2002). 

Westerners introduced livestock to the islands during the 

late 1700s. Feral animals continue to thrive in less 

accessible areas of eastern Moloka‘i causing 
28 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

deforestation, and increased erosion of the upland soils 

(Cochran et al. 2002). Modern development activities 

such as grading, stream diversion, piers, wharfs, harbor 

breakwaters, and infilling rills is continuing to affect the 

geomorphology of Kalaupapa Peninsula exacerbating 

erosion, increasing sediment load, and disrupting 

sediment transport and deposition patterns (Cochran et 

al. 2002; Curt Storlazzi, geomorphologist, U.S.

Geological Survey, written communication, March

2010). Shoreline structures tend to impede currents that 

would otherwise flush out the nearshore areas of 

suspended sediment (Cochran et al. 2002). The 

development of Kalaupapa is relatively light compared 

with other portions of the island due mostly to its 

isolated location and lack of easy access. 

Figure 14. Geologic timescale. Included are major life history and tectonic events occurring on the North American continent. Red lines 

indicate major unconformities between eras. Isotopic ages shown are in millions of years (Ma). Compass directions in parentheses 

indicate the regional location of individual geologic events. Adapted from the U.S. Geological Survey, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3015/

with additional information from the International Commission on Stratigraphy. http://www.stratigraphy.org/view.php?id=25.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 29 Figure 15. Geologic time scale of events affecting the Hawaiian Islands throughout the Cenozoic Era; adapted from U.S. Geological Survey using information from Clague and Dalrymple (1987), written communication from D. Sherrod (2009), and the GRI digital geologic map for Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Ages of volcanic flows are generally relative and overlap considerably. Absolute ages in millions of years (Ma, or mega-annum).
30 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 16. Generalized arrangement of plates in the Pacific Ocean basin during the middle Cretaceous. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich 

(Colorado State University).

Figure 17. Map of the current tectonic plates. The Hawaiian Islands are circled. Divergent boundaries are where plates are pulling apart. Plates 

come together at convergent boundaries and slide past one another at transform boundaries. Graphic courtesy Robert J. Lillie (Oregon State 

University), modified from Lillie (2005). 
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 31

Figure 18. Evolution of a chain of islands over a stationary hotspot in Earth’s crust. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State 

University).

1

2

3

4
32 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Figure 19. Location of hotspots across the South Pacific. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University) adapted from

figure 2 in Clouard and Bonneville (2001). 

Hawai‘i

Caroline

Samoa Marquesas

Society

Cook-Austral Pitcairn Easter

Louisville

Equator
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 33

Figure 20. Simplified stages of Hawaiian hotspot island volcanism. After volcanism ceases, erosion and subsidence slowly lower the island 

into the sea. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University) after figure 29 in Keating (1992).
34 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Glossary

This glossary contains brief definitions of technical geologic terms used in this report. Not all 

geologic terms used are referenced. For more detailed definitions or to find terms not listed

here please visit: http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/misc/glossarya.html. Definitions are 

based on those in the American Geological Institute Glossary of Geology (fifth edition; 2005).

alkalic. Describes rocks that are enriched in sodium and 

potassium.

alluvium. Stream-deposited sediment.

aquifer. A rock or sedimentary unit that is sufficiently 

porous that it has a capacity to hold water, sufficiently 

permeable to allow water to move through it, and 

currently saturated to some level.

ash (volcanic). Fine material ejected from a volcano (also 

see “tuff”).

basalt. A dark-colored, often low-viscosity, extrusive 

igneous rock.

base flow. Stream flow supported by groundwater; flow 

not attributed to direct runoff from precipitation or 

snow melt.

base level. The lowest level to which a stream can erode 

its channel. The ultimate base level for the land surface 

is sea level, but temporary base levels may exist locally. 

basin (structural). A doubly plunging syncline in which 

rocks dip inward from all sides.

basinite. A very fine-grained basalt.

beach. A gently sloping shoreline covered with sediment, 

commonly formed by the action of waves and tides.

bedrock. A general term for the rock that underlies soil 

or other unconsolidated, surficial material.

block. A pyroclast ejected in a solid state, having a 

diameter greater than 64 mm (2.5 in.).

bomb. A pyroclast ejected while still viscous and shaped 

while in flight. Commonly greater than 64 mm (2.5 in.) 

in diameter and often hollow or vesicular inside.

breccia (volcanic). A coarse-grained, generally unsorted 

volcanic rock consisting of partially welded angular 

fragments of ejected material such as tuff or ash.

calcareous. Describes rock or sediment that contains the 

mineral calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

caldera. A large bowl- or cone-shaped depression at the 

summit of a volcano. Formed by explosion or collapse.

cinder cone. A conical volcanic feature formed by the 

accumulation of cinders and other pyroclasts, 

normally of basaltic or andesitic composition.

clast. An individual grain or rock fragment in a 

sedimentary rock, produced by the physical 

disintegration of a larger rock mass.

clastic. Describes rock or sediment made of fragments of 

pre-existing rocks (clasts).

conglomerate. A coarse-grained, generally unsorted, 

sedimentary rock consisting of cemented, rounded 

clasts larger than 2 mm (0.08 in).

continental crust. Crustal rocks rich in silica and alumina 

that underlie the continents; ranging in thickness from 

35 km (22 mi) to 60 km (37 mi) under mountain ranges.

convergent boundary. A plate boundary where two 

tectonic plates are colliding.

cross section. A graphical interpretation of geology, 

structure, and/or stratigraphy in the third (vertical) 

dimension based on mapped and measured geological 

extents and attitudes depicted in a vertically oriented 

plane.

crust. Earth’s outermost compositional shell, 10 to 40 km 

(6 to 25 mi) thick, consisting predominantly of 

relatively low-density silicate minerals (also see 

“oceanic crust” and “continental crust”).

debris flow. A moving mass of rock fragments, soil, and 

mud, in which more than half the particles of which 

are larger than sand size. 

deformation. A general term for the processes of faulting, 

folding, and shearing of rocks as a result of various 

Earth forces such as compression (pushing together) 

and extension (pulling apart).

dike. A narrow igneous intrusion that cuts across 

bedding planes or other geologic structures.

dip. The angle between a bed or other geologic surface 

and horizontal.

dip-slip fault. A fault with measurable offset where the 

relative movement is parallel to the dip of the fault.

divergent boundary. An active boundary where tectonic 

plates are moving apart (e.g., a spreading ridge or 

continental rift zone).

drainage basin. The total area from which a stream 

system receives or drains precipitation runoff.

driblet. Volcanic spatter.

drift. All rock material (clay, silt, sand, gravel, boulders) 

transported by a glacier and deposited directly by or 

from the ice, or by running water emanating from a 

glacier. Includes unstratified material (till) and 

stratified deposits (outwash plains and fluvial 

deposits).

dripstone. A general term for a mineral deposit formed in 

caves by dripping water.

fault. A break in rock along which relative movement has 

occurred between the two sides.

fracture. Irregular breakage of a mineral. Any break in a 

rock (e.g., crack, joint, fault).

glaze. A fired glassy surface on lava features.

hawaiite. A type of volcanic rock with a potash:soda 

value of less than 1:2, a moderate to high color index, 

and a modal composition that includes essential 

andesine and accessory olivine.

hornito. A small mound of spatter built on the back of a 

lava flow, formed by the gradual accumulation of clots 

of lava ejected through an opening in the roof of an 

underlying lava tube.

hot spot. A volcanic center that is thought to be the 

surface expression of a rising plume of hot mantle 

material.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 35

hydrogeologic. Refers to the geologic influences on 

groundwater and surface water composition, 

movement and distribution.

inflation. Process by which a local area of pahoehoe lava 

swells as a result of injection of lava beneath its surface 

crust.

intrusion. A body of igneous rock that invades (pushes 

into) older rock. The invading rock may be a plastic 

solid or magma.

island arc. A line or arc of volcanic islands formed over 

and parallel to a subduction zone.

isostacy. The condition of equilibrium, comparable to 

floating, of the units of the lithosphere above the 

asthenosphere. Crustal loading (commonly by large ice 

sheets) leads to isostatic depression or downwarping; 

removal of the load leads to isostatic uplift or 

upwarping.

jameo. A large collapse sink formed by collapse of the 

roof of more than one level of a multi-level lava tube 

cave.

landslide. Any process or landform resulting from rapid, 

gravity-driven mass movement.

lapilli. Pyroclastics in the general size range of 2 to 64 mm 

(0.08 to 2.5 in.).

lava. Still-molten or solidified magma that has been 

extruded onto Earth’s surface though a volcano or 

fissure.

lavacicle. A general term applied to nearly anything that 

protrudes into a lava tube.

lava tumulus. A doming or small mound on the crust of a 

lava flow, caused by pressure due to the difference in 

the rate of flow between the cooler crust of lava and 

the more fluid lava below.

lineament. Any relatively straight surface feature that can 

be identified via observation, mapping, or remote 

sensing, often reflects crustal structure.

lithology. The physical description or classification of a 

rock or rock unit based on characters such as its color, 

mineral composition, and grain size.

lithosphere. The relatively rigid outmost shell of Earth’s 

structure, 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 miles) thick, that 

encompasses the crust and uppermost mantle.

littoral. Pertaining to the benthic ocean environment or 

depth zone between high water and low water.

mafic. Describes dark-colored rock, magma, or minerals 

rich in magnesium and iron. Compare to “felsic.”

magma. Molten rock beneath Earth’s surface capable of 

intrusion and extrusion. 

magma reservoir. A chamber in the shallow part of the 

lithosphere from which volcanic materials are derived; 

the magma has ascended from a deeper source.

mantle. The zone of Earth’s interior between the crust 

and core.

mugearite. An extrusive volcanic rock of the alkali basalt 

suite containing oligoclase, alkali feldspar, and mafic 

minerals.

normal fault. A dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall 

moves down relative to the footwall.

oceanic crust. Earth’s crust formed at spreading ridges 

that underlies the ocean basins. Oceanic crust is 6 to 7 

km (3 to 4 miles) thick and generally of basaltic 

composition.

olivine. An olive-green mineral rich in iron, magnesium, 

and manganese that is commonly found in low-silica 

(basaltic) igneous rocks.

outcrop. Any part of a rock mass or formation that is 

exposed or “crops out” at Earth’s surface.

outer trench swell. A subtle ridge on the seafloor near an 

oceanic trench formed where a subducting plate 

begins to flex and fault into the trench.

Pangaea. A theoretical, single supercontinent that 

existed during the Permian and Triassic periods.

pendant. A solutional remnant hanging from the ceiling 

or wall of a cave.

perched aquifer. An aquifer containing unconfined 

groundwater separated from an underlying main body 

of groundwater by an unsaturated zone.

permeability. A measure of the relative ease with which 

fluids move through the pore spaces of rocks or 

sediments.

phenocryst. A coarse (large) crystal in a porphyritic

igneous rock.

phreatic explosion. A volcanic eruption or explosion of 

steam, mud, or other material that is not hot enough to 

glow; it is caused by the heating and consequent 

expansion of groundwater due to an underlying 

igneous heat source.

picrite. Olivine-rich basalt.

plate tectonics. The concept that the lithosphere is 

broken up into a series of rigid plates that move over 

Earth’s surface above a more fluid asthenosphere.

plume. A persistent, pipe-like body of hot material 

moving upward from Earth’s mantle into the crust.

pluton (plutonic). A body of intrusive igneous rock that 

crystallized at some depth beneath Earth’s surface.

porphyry. An igneous rock consisting of abundant coarse 

crystals in a fine-grained matrix.

porphyritic. Describes an igneous rock wherein the rock 

contains conspicuously large crystals in a fine-grained 

groundmass.

pumice. Solidified “frothy” lava. It is highly vesicular and 

has very low density.

pumiceous. Volcanic vesicular texture involving tiny gas 

holes such as in pumice. Finer than scoriaceous.

pyroclast. An individual particle ejected during a volcanic 

eruption.

pyroclastic. Describes clastic rock material formed by 

volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic 

vent; also pertaining to rock texture of explosive 

origin. In the plural, the term is used as a noun.

recharge. Infiltration processes that replenish 

groundwater.

regolith. General term for the layer of rock debris, 

organic matter, and soil that commonly forms the land 

surface and overlies most bedrock.

reverse fault. A contractional high-angle (greater than 

45°

) dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall moves up 

relative to the footwall (also see “thrust fault”).

rift. A region of crust where extension results in 

formation of many related normal faults, often 

associated with volcanic activity.

rift valley. A depression formed by grabens along the 

crest of an oceanic spreading ridge or in a continental 

rift zone.
36 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

rilles. A trench-like or crack-like valley, commonly 

occurring on planetary surfaces subjected to plains 

volcanism; they may be irregular with meandering 

courses (sinuous rilles) or relatively straight (normal 

rilles).

riprap. A layer of large, durable, broken rock fragments 

irregularly thrown together in an attempt to prevent 

erosion by waves or currents and thereby preserve the 

shape of a surface, slope, or underlying structure.

rock. A solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals.

seamount. An elevated portion of the sea floor, 1,000 m 

(3,300 ft)or higher, either flat-topped or peaked.

sediment. An eroded and deposited, unconsolidated 

accumulation of rock and mineral fragments.

sedimentary rock. A consolidated and lithified rock 

consisting of clastic and/or chemical sediment(s). One 

of the three main classes of rocks—igneous, 

metamorphic, and sedimentary.

shield volcano. A volcano in the shape of a flattened 

dome, broad and low, built by flows of very fluid 

basaltic lava. The Hawaiian Mauna Loa volcano is one 

example.

shoreface. The zone between the seaward limit of the 

shore and the more nearly horizontal surface of the 

offshore zone; typically extends seaward to storm 

wave depth or about 10 m (32 ft).

slope. The inclined surface of any geomorphic feature or 

measurement thereof. Synonymous with “gradient.”

slump. A generally large, coherent mass movement with a 

concave-up failure surface and subsequent backward 

rotation relative to the slope.

spatter cone. A low, steep-sided cone of spatter built up 

on a fissure of vent, usually composed of basaltic 

material.

speleothem. Any secondary mineral deposit that forms in 

a cave.

spring. A site where water issues from the surface due to 

the intersection of the water table with the ground 

surface.

squeeze-ups. A small extrusion of viscous lava, from a 

fracture or opening on the solidified surface of a flow, 

caused by pressure. It may be marked by vertical 

grooves.

stream. Any body of water moving under gravity flow in 

a clearly confined channel.

stream terrace. Step-like benches surrounding the 

present floodplain of a stream due to dissection of 

previous flood plain(s), stream bed(s), and/or valley 

floor(s).

strike. The compass direction of the line of intersection 

of an inclined surface with a horizontal plane.

strike-slip fault. A fault with measurable offset where the 

relative movement is parallel to the strike of the fault. 

Said to be “sinistral” (left-lateral) if relative motion of 

the block opposite the observer appears to be to the 

left. “Dextral” (right-lateral) describes relative motion 

to the right.

structural geology. The branch of geology that deals with 

the description, representation, and analysis of 

structures, chiefly on a moderate to small scale. The 

subject is similar to tectonics, but the latter is generally 

used for the broader regional or historical phases.

structure. The attitude and relative positions of the rock 

masses of an area resulting from such processes as 

faulting, folding, and igneous intrusions.

subduction zone. A convergent plate boundary where 

oceanic lithosphere descends beneath a continental or 

oceanic plate and is carried down into the mantle.

subsidence. The gradual sinking or depression of part of 

Earth’s surface.

talus. Rock fragments, usually coarse and angular, lying 

at the base of a cliff or steep slope from which they 

have been derived.

tectonic. Relating to large-scale movement and 

deformation of Earth’s crust.

tephra. A collective term used for all pyroclastic material, 

regardless of size, shape, or origin, ejected during an 

explosive volcanic eruption.

tholeiite. A basalt characterized by the presence of 

orthopyroxene and/or pigeonite in addition to 

clinopyroxene and calcic plagioclase.

thrust fault. A contractional dip-slip fault with a 

shallowly dipping fault surface (less than 45°) where 

the hanging wall moves up and over relative to the 

footwall.

topography. The general morphology of Earth’s surface, 

including relief and locations of natural and 

anthropogenic features.

trace (fault). The exposed intersection of a fault with 

Earth’s surface.

transgression. Landward migration of the sea as a result 

of a relative rise in sea level.

trend. The direction or azimuth of elongation of a linear 

geologic feature.

tuff. Generally fine-grained, igneous rock formed of 

consolidated volcanic ash.

ultramafic. Describes rock composed chiefly of mafic 

(dark-colored, iron and magnesium rich) minerals.

unconfined groundwater. Groundwater that has a water 

table; i.e., water not confined under pressure beneath a 

confining bed.

vent. An opening at Earth’s surface where volcanic 

materials emerge.

vesicle. A void in an igneous rock formed by a gas bubble 

trapped when the lava solidified.

vesicular. Describes a volcanic rock with abundant holes 

that formed from the expansion of gases while the lava 

was still molten.

vitric. Describes pyroclastic material that is 

characteristically glassy.

volcanic. Describes anything related to volcanoes. Can 

refer to igneous rock crystallized at or near Earth’s 

surface (e.g., lava).

volcanic arc. A commonly curved, linear, zone of 

volcanoes above a subduction zone. 

volcaniclastic. Describes clastic volcanic materials 

formed by any process of fragmentation, dispersed by 

any kind of transporting agent, deposited in any 

environment.

volcanogenic. Describes material formed by volcanic 

processes.

water table. The upper surface of the saturated zone; the 

zone of rock in an aquifer saturated with water.

weathering. The physical, chemical, and biological 

processes by which rock is broken down.
KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 37

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U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, USA.

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February 2008.

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Kimberly, and D.B. Stewart (compilers). 2006. This 

dynamic planet—World map of volcanoes, 

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Map I-2800. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 

USA. http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/2800. Accessed 15 

February 2008.
40 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Stearns, H. T. 1946. Geology of the Hawaiian Islands. 

Bulletin 8. Hawai‘i Division of Hydrography, 

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Storlazzi, C. D., M. E. Field, J. D. Dykes, P. L. Jokiel, and 

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and P. L. Jokiel. 2005. A model for wave control on 

coral breakage and species distribution in the 

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USA. http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/

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and L. Norby, editors. Geological Monitoring. 

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USA.

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(National Tsunami Warning Centre), ed. IOC Tsunami 

Co-ordination Unit, M. Yamamoto, and L. Kong. 

Draft version. Paris, France: Intergovernmental 

Oceanographic Commission, Tsunami Warning 

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Accessed 15 February 2008.

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Multimedia Visualization Center. 

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sin_rilles/Overview.html. Accessed 28 February 2008.

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Pages 330–331 in C. A. Wood, and J. Kienle, editors.

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Canada. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Wieczorek, G. F. and J. B. Snyder. 2009. Monitoring 

slope movements. Pages 245-271 in R. Young and L. 

Norby, editors. Geological Monitoring. Geological 

Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, USA.

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structure of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii, from seismic 

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KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 41

Additional References

This section lists additional references, resources, and web sites that may be of use to 

resource managers. Web addresses are current as of May 2010

Geology of National Park Service Areas

National Park Service Geologic Resources Division 

(Lakewood, Colorado). http://nature.nps.gov/geology/

NPS Geologic Resources Inventory. 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/gre_pu

blications.cfm

U.S. Geological Survey Geology of National Parks 

(includes 3D photographs). 

http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/

Harris, A. G., E. Tuttle, and S. D. Tuttle. 2003. Geology of 

National Parks. Sixth Edition. Kendall/Hunt 

Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa, USA.

Kiver, E. P. and D. V. Harris. 1999. Geology of U.S. 

parklands. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New 

York, USA.

Lillie, R. J. 2005. Parks and Plates: The geology of our 

national parks, monuments, and seashores. W.W. 

Norton and Co., New York, New York, USA.

[Geared for interpreters].

NPS Geoscientist-in-the-parks (GIP) internship and 

guest scientist program. 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/gip/index.cfm

Resource Management/Legislation Documents

NPS 2006 Management Policies (Chapter 4; Natural 

Resource Management): 

http://www.nps.gov/policy/mp/policies.html#_Toc157

232681

NPS-75: Natural Resource Inventory and Monitoring 

Guideline: 

http://www.nature.nps.gov/nps75/nps75.pdf.

NPS Natural Resource Management Reference Manual 

#77: http://www.nature.nps.gov/Rm77/

Geologic Monitoring Manual

R. Young and L. Norby, editors. Geological 

Monitoring. Geological Society of America, Boulder, 

Colorado.

[Website under development]. Contact the Geologic 

Resources Division to obtain a copy.

NPS Technical Information Center (Denver, repository 

for technical (TIC) documents): http://etic.nps.gov/

Geological Survey Websites

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (U.S. Geological Survey): 

http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/

U.S. Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov/

Geological Society of America: 

http://www.geosociety.org/

American Geological Institute: http://www.agiweb.org/

Association of American State Geologists: 

http://www.stategeologists.org/

Other Geology/Resource Management Tools

Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources 

(DLNR): http://hawaii.gov/dlnr

Bates, R. L. and J. A. Jackson, editors. American 

Geological Institute dictionary of geological terms (3rd 

Edition). Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, 

New York.

U.S. Geological Survey National Geologic Map Database 

(NGMDB): http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/

U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Names Lexicon 

(GEOLEX; geologic unit nomenclature and summary): 

http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/geolex_home.html

U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information 

System (GNIS; search for place names and geographic 

features, and plot them on topographic maps or aerial 

photos): http://gnis.usgs.gov/

U.S. Geological Survey GeoPDFs (download searchable 

PDFs of any topographic map in the United States): 

http://store.usgs.gov (click on “Map Locator”).

U.S. Geological Survey Publications Warehouse (many 

USGS publications are available online): 

http://pubs.usgs.gov

U.S. Geological Survey, description of physiographic 

provinces: http://tapestry.usgs.gov/Default.html
42 NPS Geologic Resources Division 

Appendix A: Overview of Digital Geologic Data

The following page is an overview of the digital geologic data for Kalaupapa National 

Historical Park. For a poster-size PDF of this overview and complete digital data, please 

see the included CD or visit the Geologic Resources Inventory publications web site:

http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/gre_publications.cfm.

KALA Geologic Resources Inventory Report 45

Appendix B: Scoping Session Participants

The following is a list of participants from the GRI scoping session for Kalaupapa 

National Historical Park held on March 20, 2003. The contact information and email 

addresses in this appendix may be outdated; please contact the Geologic Resources 

Division for current information. 

Name Affiliation Position Phone E-mail

Momi Aiu Science and Technology 

International GIS specialist 808-540-4711 momi@sti-hawaii.com 

Janet Babb Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park Exhibit Specialist 808-985-6014 janet_babb@nps.gov 

Larry Basch

NPS Pacific Island Coral 

Reef Program (University 

of Hawaii, Manoa)

Senior Scientist 808-956-8820 lbasch@hawaii.edu

Rebecca Beavers NPS Geologic Resources 

Division Geologist 303-987-6945 rebecca_beavers@nps.gov

Tim Connors NPS Geologic Resources 

Division Geologist 303-969-2093 tim_connors@nps.gov

Peter Craig National Park of American 

Samoa Biologist 684-633-7082 peter_craig@nps.gov

David Deardorff NPS Pacific Islands 

Network

Network 

Coordinator 808-985-6180 david_deardorff@nps.gov

Eva DiDonato National Park of American 

Samoa Ecologist 684-633-7082 eva_didonato@nps.gov

Charlotte ForbesPerryHawaii Volcanoes 

National Park

Workgroup 

Facilitator 808-985-6180 c_forbes_perry@contractor.nps.gov

Joe Gregson NPS Natural Resources 

Information Division Physical Scientist 970-225-3559 joe_gregson@nps.gov

Bruce Heise NPS Geologic Resources 

Division Geologist 303-969-2017 bruce_heise@nps.gov

Darcy Hu NPS Pacific Island Support 

Office Ecologist 808-985-6092 darcy_hu@nps.gov 

Andrea Kaawaloa Hawaii Volcanoes 

National Park Park Ranger 808-985-8013 andrea_kaawaloa@nps.gov

Darcee Killpack NOAA Pacific Services 

Center

Spatial Technology 

Coordinator 808-532-3202 darcee.killpack@noaa.gov

Dwayne Minton War in the Pacific 

National Historical Park Ecologist 671-472-7240 x345 dwayne_minton@nps.gov

Bruce Richmond USGS Coastal Mapping 

Group Geologist 831-427-4731 brichmond@usgs.gov

John Rooney University of Hawaii Researcher 808-956-3605 jrooney@hawaii.edu

Eric Rutherford NPS Pacific Islands 

Network/USGS Research Facilitator 808-967-8034 erutherford@hvomail.wr.usgs.gov

Chuck Sayon American Memorial Park Site Manager 670-234-7207 chuck_sayon@nps.gov

Dave Sherrod USGS Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory Geologist 808-967-8034 dsherrod@usgs.gov

Gordon Tribble U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologist 808-587-2405 gtribble@usgs.gov

Frank Trusdell USGS Hawaiian Volcano 

Observatory Geologist 808-967-8812 trusdell@usgs.gov
The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and other 

information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated Island 

Communities. 

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