National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Denali National Park and Preserve 

Landcover Mapping Project 

Volume 2: Landcover Classes and Plant Associations 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/DENA/NRTR—2001/002 
ON THE COVER 

View of cloud shrouded peak in Denali National Park and Preserve. 

Photo by EarthSat Corp. and AK Natural Heritage Program.
Denali National Park and Preserve 

Landcover Mapping Project 

Volume 2: Landcover Classes and Plant Associations 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/DENA/NRTR—2001/002 

Keith Boggs 

Ann Garibaldi 

Alaska Natural Heritage Program, Environment and 

Natural Resources Institute, 

University of Alaska Anchorage, 

707 A Street, 

Anchorage, AK 99501 

Jennifer L. Stevens 

Todd Helt 

Earth Satellite Corporation, 

6011 Executive Blvd, Suite 400, 

Rockville, Maryland 20852. 

Jess Grunblatt 

National Park ServiceAlaska Support Office, 

2525 Gambell St, 

Anchorage, AK 99503. 

March 2001 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

Natural Resource Program Center 

Fort Collins, Colorado 
 

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Please cite this publication as: 

Boggs, K., A. Garibaldi, J. L. Stevens, J. Grunblatt, and T. Helt. 2001. Denali National Park and 

Preserve landcover mapping project Volume2: Landcover classes and plant associations. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/DENA/NRTR—2001/002. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado. 

NPS D-388, March 2001 
 

AUTHORS 

Keith Boggsis a vegetation ecologist at the Alaska Natural Heritage Program, Environment and Natural 

Resources Institute, University of Alaska Anchorage, 707 A Street, Anchorage, AK 99501. 

Ann Garibaldi worked as a vegetation ecologist from 1994 to 2000 with the Alaska Natural Heritage 

Program, Environment and Natural Resources Institute, University of Alaska Anchorage, 707 A Street, 

Anchorage, AK 99501. 

Jennifer Stevens is an imagery/geospatial analyst at Earth Satellite Corporation, 6011 Executive Blvd, 

Suite 400, Rockville, Maryland 20852-3801. 

Jess Grunblatt is the Land Cover coordinator at the National Park Service-Alaska Support Office, 2525 

Gambell St, Anchorage, AK. 

Todd Helt worked as an imagery/geospatial analyst from 1996 to 2000 at Earth Satellite Corporation, 

6011 Executive Blvd, Suite 400, Rockville, Maryland 20852-3801.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors wish to thank and acknowledge the National Park Service-Alaska Support Office for 

financial support of this project, and Denali staff for logistic support for data collection in Denali National 

Park and Preserve. We also thank Rob Lipkin (Alaska Natural Heritage Program) for help identifying 

plant species, Susan Klein (Alaska Natural Heritage Program) for reviewing the document, and Wanda 

Seamster (Environment and Natural Resources Institute) for producing several of the graphics. A special 

thanks goes to Denny Grossman and Anthony Curtis (The Nature Conservancy) for their advice and 

support in pursuing this project. Sara Wesser (National Park Service), George Dickison (National Park 

Service), Beth Koltun (National Park Service) and Jim Drake (The Nature Conservancy) all gave valuable 

advice in the initial stages of the project. 
 

ABSTRACT 

Boggs, K., A. Garibaldi, J. L. Stevens, J. Grunblatt, and T. Helt. 2001. Denali National Park and 

Preserve landcover mapping project Volume2: Landcover classes and plant associations. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/DENA/NRTR—2001/002. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado.

As part of the Inventory and Monitoring Program of the National Park Service in Alaska, the Alaska 

Support Office of NPS in collaboration with the Alaska Natural Heritage Program and Earth Satellite 

Corporation, conducted a landcover mapping project for Denali National Park and Preserve. This 

document provides the following information: climate and ecoregions, literature review, methods, 

landcover classes and plant associations. The landcover map was developed at intermediate scales 

(1:63,360 - 1:100,000) using Spot and Landsat Thematic Mapper multi-spectral imagery. A separate 

document (Stevens et al. 2001) details the production of the map. 

The landcover classification system used for mapping is based primarily on vegetation structure (plant 

height) and form (tree, shrub or herbaceous), and to a lesser extent genera (Picea) and species (Picea 

mariana) information. The classification, with modifications, follows The Alaska Vegetation 

Classification (Viereck et al. 1992) system at levels III and IV. Development of the classification was 

based on a pre-fieldwork list of classes using local knowledge and a literature/data review. The 

classification system was field checked during July 1999 using a helicopter to reach sampling polygons. 

A stratified random approach—based on ecoregions, aspect, slope and unsupervised satellite imagery—

was used to select polygons for field sampling both fly-over and ground data polygons. Fly-over 

polygons were used primarily for training the satellite imagery and describing landcover classes (life form

and structure), whereas ground data was used for finer scale descriptions (species, structure and soils) of 

the landcover classes. Data collected for fly-over and ground data included vegetation structure, plant 

species, percent cover, elevation, as well as other site information. The final map classes were based on 

numerous iterations using the field data and image processing results. 

A total of 25 landcover classes were described for Denali. The distribution of landcover types in the 

Denali project area is as follows: 0.8 % area in Dense-Open Spruce Forest, 9.1% area in Open-Woodland

Spruce Forest, 14.2% area in Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce, 1.6% area in Broadleaf Forest, 2.5% area 

in Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest, 4.3% area in Alder Shrub, 1.6% area in Willow Shrub, 0.9% area in 

Closed Low Birch Shrub, 9.5% area in Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous-Willow, 4.6% area in Low ShrubSedge, 0.04% area in Peatland, 1.1% area in Herbaceous/Shrub, 5.8% area in Dwarf Shrub, 1.2% area in 

Dwarf Shrub-Rock, 0.8% area in Dry-Mesic Herbaceous, 0.6% area in Wet Herbaceous, 0.01% area in 

Aquatic Herbaceous, 4.8% area in Sparse Vegetation, 9.8% area in Bare ground, 15.5% area in Snow/Ice, 

6.9% area in Shadow, 0.5% area in Silty Water, 1.0% area in Clear Water, 2.9% area in Burn, and 0.01% 

area in Cloud. 

Plant associations were described using the ground data and a literature review. Plant associations 

provide a hierarchical link between the coarse scale landcover classes and finer scale species information. 

Plant association is the finest level of both the Viereck et al. (1992) and National Vegetation 

Classification System (Grossman et al. 1998) classifications. Plant associations previously described by

Heebner (1982) were copied and placed under the landcover class they occur in. Plant associations not

defined by Heebner (1982) but sampled during the 1999 field season were also described and placed 

under the proper landcover class. A total of 97 plant associations were described; 56 were based on 

Heebner (1982) and 41 on the 1999 field data. 

Keywords: Alaska, Denali National Park and Preserve, classification, landcover class, plant association 
 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Introduction..................................................................................................................................................1 

Literature Review.........................................................................................................................................1 

Description of Project Area and Environment.............................................................................................4 

Ecoregions .....................................................................................................................................4 

Climate ...........................................................................................................................................4 

Methods ....................................................................................................................... ...............................7 

Landcover Classification Development..........................................................................................7 

Sampling Design and ‘Field Verification Area’ Selection .............................................................7 

Field Data Collection ....................................................................................................................10 

Plant Association Classification Development.............................................................................12 

Key to Land Cover Classes........................................................................................................................13 

Landcover Class Descriptions ...................................................................................................................14 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest Landcover Class................................................................................21 

Open-Woodland Spruce Forest Landcover Class.........................................................................22 

Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce Landcover Class ......................................................................23 

Broadleaf Forest Landcover Class................................................................................................25 

Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest Landcover Class........................................................................26 

Alder Shrub Landcover Class.......................................................................................................28 

Willow Shrub Landcover Class....................................................................................................30 

Closed Low Birch Shrub Landcover Class...................................................................................32 

Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous-Willow Landcover Class...............................................................33 

Low Shrub-Sedge Landcover Class..............................................................................................34 

Peatland Landcover Class.............................................................................................................35 

Herbaceous/Shrub Landcover Class .............................................................................................37 

Dwarf Shrub Landcover Class......................................................................................................38 

Dwarf Shrub-Rock Landcover Class ............................................................................................39

 Dry -Mesic Herbaceous Landcover Class......................................................................................40 

Wet Herbaceous Landcover Class ................................................................................................42 

Aquatic Herbaceous Landcover Class ..........................................................................................43

Sparse Vegetation Landcover Class..............................................................................................44 

Bare Ground Landcover Class......................................................................................................45 

Snow/Ice Landcover Class............................................................................................................46 

Shadow Indeterminate Landcover Class.......................................................................................46 

Silty Water Landcover Class ........................................................................................................47 

Clear Water Landcover Class .......................................................................................................47 

Burn Landcover Class...................................................................................................................48 

Cloud Landcover Class.................................................................................................................49 

Plant Associations......................................................................................................................................50 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest Landcover Class................................................................................50 

Picea glauca, Dryas integrifolia, Agropyron violaceum, Oxytropis campestris, 

Bryales..........................................................................................................................50 
 

 

 

 

 

Open-Woodland Spruce Forest Landcover Class.........................................................................50 

Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix species, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Hylocomium 

Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix glauca, Equisetum arvense, Rubus arcticus, 

Picea glauca, Betula glandulosa, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum, 

Picea glauca, Potentilla fruticosa, Salix planifolia, Festuca altaica, Bryales, 

Picea glauca, Salix glauca, Salix reticulata, Arctagrostis latifolia, feathermoss, 

Picea glauca, Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctostaphylos rubra, 

Picea glauca, Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Empetrum nigrum, 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, Rubus 

splendens, Stereocaulon species...................................................................................50 

feathermoss...................................................................................................................51 

feathermoss...................................................................................................................51 

Picea glauca, Betula nana, Salix planifolia, Carex species ............................................51 

Stereocaulon species.....................................................................................................52 

Cladonia rangiferina, Cladonia amaurocrea...............................................................52 

Picea glauca/Salix lanata ................................................................................................53 

Picea glauca/Salix planifolia...........................................................................................53 

Hedysarum alpinum, Hylocomium splendens...............................................................54 

Hylocomium splendens.................................................................................................54 

Picea mariana/Equisetum silvaticum ..............................................................................54 

chamaemorus, feathermoss ..........................................................................................55 

Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce Landcover Class.......................................................................55 

Larix laricina, Picea mariana, Andromeda polifolia, Eriophorum vaginatum, 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Betula nana, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Empetrum nigrum, Sphagnum 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Eriophorum vaginatum, Sphagnum 

Larix laricina ...................................................................................................................56 

Sphagnum species.........................................................................................................56 

Picea glauca/Salix glauca................................................................................................56 

Picea mariana/Betula glandulosa....................................................................................57 

Picea mariana/Carex bigelowii .......................................................................................57 

Picea mariana/Eriophorum vaginatum ...........................................................................58 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Carex bigelowii, Sphagnum species ........................................59 

species...........................................................................................................................59 

species...........................................................................................................................59 

Picea mariana/Ledum species .........................................................................................59 

Picea mariana/Vaccinium uliginosum.............................................................................60 

Broadleaf Forest Landcover Class................................................................................................61 

Betula papyrifera, Alnus crispa, Rosa acicularis, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, 

Populus balsamifera-Alnus crispa, Dryas drummondii, Shepherdia canadensis, 

Populus balsamifera, Larix laricina, Picea glauca, Salix alaxensis, Hedysarum 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Rosa acicularis, Calamagrostis 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix alaxensis, Calamagrostis 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Salix alaxensis, Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, 

Hylocomium splendens.................................................................................................61 

Agropyron violaceum .................................................................................................. 62 

alpinum, Epilobium angustifolium................................................................................62 

lapponica, Equisetum silvaticum, Polytrichium species...............................................62 

inexpansa, Tommenhypnum nitens ...............................................................................63 

Empetrum nigrum, Epilobium angustifolium, Hylocomium splendens ........................63 
 

 

 

 

Populus balsamifera, Salix alaxensis, Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Senecio 

lugens............................................................................................................................64 

Populus balsamifera, Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Shepherdia canadensis, 

Arctostaphylos rubra, Senecio lugens, Hylocomium splendens ...................................64 

Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest Landcover Class........................................................................65 

Picea glauca, Betula papyrifera, Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, Calamagrostis 

lapponica, Carex nesophila, Peltigera aphthosa .........................................................65 

Picea glauca, Populus balsamifera, Vaccinium uliginosum, Ledum palustre, 

Picea mariana, Betula papyrifera, Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium 

Populus balsamifera-Picea glauca, Salix glauca, Juniperus communis, Elymus 

Empetrum nigrum, Pyrola grandiflora, Hylocomium splendens..................................65 

uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum, feathermoss...........................66 

innovatus, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Hylocomium splendens .......................................66 

Alder Shrub Landcover Class.......................................................................................................67 

Alnus crispa .....................................................................................................................67 

Alnus crispa/Calamagrostis canadensis ..........................................................................68 

Alnus crispa/Ericaceous shrub.........................................................................................68 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium 

vitis-idaea, Hylocomium splendens ..............................................................................69 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra, Equisetum arvense, Arctagrostis latifolia, 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, Lycopodium annotinum, Calamagrostis inexpansa, 

Carex bigelowii.............................................................................................................70 

Spiraea beauverdiana, feathermoss..............................................................................70 

Alnus sinuata alliance ......................................................................................................71 

Willow Shrub Landcover Class....................................................................................................71 

Alnus crispa, Salix alaxensis, Calamagrostis inexpansa, Rubus arcticus, 

feathermoss...................................................................................................................71 

Salix alaxensis, Alnus crispa, Salix arbusculoides, Artemisia tilesii...............................72 

Salix alaxensis, Betula nana, Festuca altaica, Salix reticulata, Dryas integrifolia ........72 

Salix alaxensis, Salix barclayi, Shepherdia canadensis, Epilobium angustifolium.........73 

Salix alaxensis, Salix glauca, Rosa acicularis, Petasites hyperboreus, 

Calamagrostis inexpansa .............................................................................................73 

Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Shepherdia canadensis, Festuca altaica, 

Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Sanguisorba officinalis, Petasites hyperboreus, 

Hylocomium splendens.................................................................................................73 

Delphinium glaucum.....................................................................................................74 

Salix alaxensis, Shepherdia canadensis, Dryas octopetala, Arctostaphylos rubra .........74 

Salix barclayi/Calamagrostis canadensis........................................................................75 

Salix barclayi, Equisetum palustre, Carex podocarpa, Hylocomium splendens .............75 

Salix bebbiana/Equisetum arvense ..................................................................................76 

Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Dryas integrifolia, Artemisia frigida, 

Festuca rubra ...............................................................................................................76 

Salix lanata/Calamagrostis canadensis...........................................................................76 

Salix lanata/Equisetum variegatum .................................................................................77 

Salix planifolia.................................................................................................................78 

Salix planifolia/Carex bigelowii ......................................................................................78 

Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix reticulata, Carex podocarpa, 

Hylocomium splendens.................................................................................................79 

Closed Low Birch Shrub Landcover Class...................................................................................80 

Betula nana, Salix barrattiana, Potentilla fruticosa, Festuca rubra, Hylocomium 

splendens ......................................................................................................................80 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous-Willow Landcover Class...............................................................81 

Carex microglochin, Salix reticulata, Juncus castaneus, Hedysarum alpinum, 

Potentilla fruticosa, Sphagnum species........................................................................81 

Chamaedaphne calyculata...............................................................................................81 

Larix laricina, Betula papyrifera, Picea mariana, Ledum palustre, Betula nana, 

Rubus chamaemorus, Eriophorum vaginatum, Oxycoccus microcarpus .....................82 

Salix barrattiana, Betula nana, Dryas integrifolia, Gentiana propinqua, Pleurozium 

Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Dryas integrifolia, 

Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Salix glauca, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctagrostis 

Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Calamagrostis lapponica, Petasites hyperboreus, 

schreberi .......................................................................................................................82 

Saxifraga tricuspidata, Polytrichium commune...........................................................83 

latifolia, feathermoss ....................................................................................................83 

feathermoss...................................................................................................................83 

Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, Salix arctica, Salix reticulata, Ledum 

decumbens, Dryas octopetala, feathermoss..................................................................84 

Vaccinium uliginosum/Low shrub ...................................................................................85 

Low Shrub-Sedge Landcover Class..............................................................................................85 

Betula nana/Carex aquatilis ............................................................................................85 

Betula nana/Eriophorum brachyantherum ......................................................................86 

Betula nana/Eriophorum vaginatum................................................................................86 

Peatland Landcover Class.............................................................................................................87 

Myrica gale ......................................................................................................................87 

Dwarf Shrub Landcover Class......................................................................................................88 

Arctostaphylos alpina ......................................................................................................88 

Cassiope tetragona ..........................................................................................................88 

Dryas octopetala, Cassiope tetragona, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix reticulata, 

Salix arctica, feathermoss, Stereocaulon species.........................................................89 

Dryas octopetala, Salix arctica, Carex microchaeta, Oxytropis nigrescens, 

Dryas octopetala, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix arctica, Carex microchaeta, 

Salix brachycarpa, Dryas octopetala, Salix reticulata, Cassiope tetragona, 

Hylocomium splendens.................................................................................................90 

Hierochloe alpina, Hylocomium splendens..................................................................90 

feathermoss...................................................................................................................91 

Salix glauca, Salix reticulata, Festuca altaica, Dryas octopetala...................................92 

Salix polaris .....................................................................................................................92 

Salix reticulata, Carex membranacea, Eriophorum angustifolium, Dryas 

integrifolia, Sphagnum species.....................................................................................93 

Vaccinium uliginosum/Dwarf shrub ................................................................................93 

Dry-Mesic Herbaceous Landcover Class......................................................................................94 

Calamagrostis canadensis ...............................................................................................94 

Calamagrostis canadensis-Mixed herbaceous.................................................................95 

Carex canescens, Carex rhynchophysa, Agropyron violaceum, Rorippa islandica, 

Sphagnum species.........................................................................................................95 

Epilobium latifolium ........................................................................................................96 

Wet Herbaceous Landcover Class ................................................................................................96 

Betula papyrifera, Salix planifolia, Calamagrostis inexpansa, Carex aquatilis, 

Potentilla palustris .......................................................................................................96 

Carex aquatilis.................................................................................................................97 

Carex lasiocarpa..............................................................................................................97 

Carex rostrata..................................................................................................................98 
 

 

 

 

Eleocharis quinqueflora ..................................................................................................99 

Equisetum fluviatile .........................................................................................................99 

Eriophorum brachyantherum.........................................................................................100 

Eriophorum vaginatum ..................................................................................................101 

Menyanthes trifoliata.....................................................................................................101 

Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................................103 

Glossary ...................................................................................................................................................106 

Tables 

Table 1. Landcover classes used during the 1999 field season.......................................................8 

Table 2. Information used to evaluate number and placement of field verification units

Table 5. Landcover class by acre and percent of total area within the boundaries of Denali, 

...............9 

Table 3. Elevation of landcover classes........................................................................................15 

Figure 4a. Percent cover of the 25 landcover map classes by Ecoregion for Denali....................18 

Figure 4b. Percent cover of the 25 landcover map classes found within each biome...................19 

and also within the park’s boundaries plus a 16 km buffer .......................................................20 

Figures 

Figure 1. The location and administrative boundaries of Denali....................................................2 

Figure 5. Idealized cross-section of landcover classes in relationship to topography within 

Figure 6. Idealized cross-section of a mountain valley in Denali showing various surficial 

Figure 2. Ecoregion map for Denali National Park and Preserve ...................................................5 

Figure 3. Locations of 1999 Field Transects and Sample Sites....................................................10 

Figure 4. Landcover map for Denali............................................................................................16 

Denali ........................................................................................................................................17 

geology deposits and landcover types .....................................................................................114 

Figure 7. Idealized cross-section of a solifluction lobe ..............................................................115 

Figure 8. Idealized cross-section of geomorphic and vegetation succession on a floodplain.....117 

Appendices 

Appendix 1. Descriptions of some of the major landscapes that influence landcover in 

Denali ......................................................................................................................................114 

Appendix 4. A table of the constancy, range in cover, average cover and average height of 

Appendix 5. Hierarchical framework of ecological units to the subsection level for Denali 

Appendix 7. Cross walk of hierarchical levels between the Denali landcover map 

Appendix 2. Ground data collection from ..................................................................................120 

Appendix 3. Fly over data form used for field data collection ...................................................121 

all species that occur in plant associations defined using the 1999 field data .........................122 

National Park and Preserve (Clark 1998)................................................................................142 

Appendix 6. Vascular and nonvascular species list for plants collected during the 1999 

field season .............................................................................................................................150 

classification and the National Vegetation Classification System...........................................156 
 

 

INTRODUCTION 

This user’s guide provides descriptions of the landcover classes and plant associations used to develop a 

landcover map for Denali National Park and Preserve (Denali; Figure 1). Additional user’s guide 

information includes descriptions of the major landscapes and ecoregions, and methods used to develop 

the landcover classes and plant associations. Information pertaining to remote sensing analyses, modeling 

and digital map accuracy assessment are presented in Volume 1 of the Denali National Park and Preserve 

landcover mapping project (Stevens et al. 2001). This work was conducted by Earth Satellite Corporation 

(EARTHSAT) and the Alaska Natural Heritage Program (AKNHP), Environment and Natural Resources 

Institute, University of Alaska Anchorage, in collaboration with the Alaska Support office of the National 

Park Service (NPS), as part of its Inventory and Monitoring Program. 

The Inventory and Monitoring Program of NPS is designed to provide reliable and consistent information 

for assessing the status and trends in the condition of National Park ecosystems. Vegetation mapping is 

conducted under the inventory portion of the program in order to provide basic information readily useful 

for making resource management decisions, and to collect data that can be aggregated on a service-wide 

level for designing monitoring programs. The Denali landcover map can also be used to understand 

habitat and fuels availability, model the occurrence of archaeological sites and sensitive species, for park 

planning, and to provide baseline information about natural resources in the park. 

The decision to use satellite imagery for the project was based on the very remote and vast project area, 

the level of mapping information required by NPS, the spatial, and spectral characteristics of the available 

sensors/data, and the time and budget costs of the project. Denali landcover was mapped at intermediate 

scales (1:63,360 - 1:100,000) with 25 classes, using a classification based primarily on vegetation 

structure (plant height) and form (tree, shrub or herbaceous), and to lesser extent genera (Picea) and 

species (Picea mariana) information. The mapping classification, with modifications, follows The 

Alaska Vegetation Classification (Viereck et al. 1992) system at levels III and IV. 

The usefulness of a landcover map to land managers is increased dramatically when the landcover classes 

are linked to finer scale units that reflect plant species and vegetation structure, such as given in plant 

associations (Grossman et al. 1998). These were developed using the ground data and a literature/data 

review. Plant association is the finest hierarchical level of both the Alaska Vegetation Classification 

(Viereck et al. 1992) and the National Vegetation Classification System (Grossman et al. 1998) 

classification. It is defined as "a plant community type of definite floristic composition, uniform habitat 

conditions, and uniform physiognomy" (Flahault and Schroter 1910). Alliance is the next coarser scale 

within the National Vegetation Classification System and is similar to level IV of the Alaska Vegetation 

Classification. It is defined as “a physiognomically uniform group of plant associations sharing one or 

more dominant or diagnostic species, which as a rule are found in the uppermost stratum of the 

vegetation” (Grossman et al. 1998). We always attempted to define plant associations with the data 

available, but if data was limited then the broader scale Alliance level was described. Both Plant 

associations and alliances were then nested within the coarser scale landcover map classes. A total of 96 

plant associations and one alliance were defined. 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

Vegetation/Landcover Maps 

The only landcover maps that cover all of Denali were developed at a statewide scale. Viereck and Little 

(1972) developed a statewide map of vegetation using eight vegetation classes and one ice and snow 

class. An AVHRR—1-km pixel—map for Alaska was developed by Fleming (1997). The Alaska 

1
 

Figure 1. The location and administrative boundaries of Denali National Park and Preserve. 

2
 

regional profiles, Arctic region (Selkregg 1975) also provides general maps and descriptions of the 

regions people, economics, wildlife, geology and vegetation. 

Several landcover maps exist that cover portions of Denali. Dean and Heebner (1982) developed four 

vegetation maps based on 1974 and 1976 LANDSAT scenes. Heebner (1976) developed a map of 

Caribou habitats. A map of Reindeer habitats was developed for Denali using photo interpretation 

(Hanson 1950). A 1:1200 map of vegetation on Kantishna Hills mining claims was developed by the 

National Park Service (1987). Douglas (1994) used Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometry satellite 

data to predict berry productivity and availability over a broad landscape. 

Plant Association Classifications 

A variety of vegetation classifications—often with associated maps—have been developed that cover all 

or portions of Denali. For Alaska as a whole, the Alaska Vegetation Classification (Viereck et al. 1992)

provides in-depth descriptions of vegetation at multiple scales. However, few vegetation description 

studies have been conducted in Denali. Heebner (1982) developed a plant community classification for 

much of Denali, based on 391 plots. The community descriptions include composition, structure and 

canopy cover. Shelton (1961) described Denali’s vegetation zonation patterns on two mountain slopes. 

The study was primarily descriptive with minimal environmental measurements. Viereck (1966) 

described vegetation communities along the outwash of the Muldrow Glacier. Densmore (1991) 

described the restoration of plant communities in alpine and subalpine communities disturbed by 

construction and in riparian ecosystems and communities following placer mining (Densmore 1994). 

Densmore (1992) also developed an ongoing study to monitor plant communities in the Rock Creek 

watershed, and determine the role of natural change (wildfire, flooding, climatic variation). 

Floristics 

The floras of Alaska and floristic surveys of Denali proved valuable for understanding species distribution 

in Denali. The vascular plant floras of Alaska included Hulten (1968), Viereck and Little (1972), Argus 

(1973) and Welsh (1974). A local flora of Denali National Park (Pratt and Pratt 1993) provided color 

plates of the dominant flora. Numerous other floristic inventories have been conducted over the years in 

Denali. 

Soils 

Two soil maps are available for Denali (Rieger et al. 1979 and Clark 1998). The statewide soil survey

(Rieger et al. 1979) provides coarse level soils information for Alaska but was too coarse to be useful for 

vegetation mapping and stratification purposes. 

Clark (1998) is currently developing a soil/ecosite map for all of Denali. The map scale is 1:63,360 and 

the minimum delineation size is approximately 40 acres. Soil map units are primarily associations of two 

or more soils at the family level. Line symbols will be used to designate riparian areas if these areas are 

considered apriority. A three phase approach is being used to build the soils maps including: (1) selecting 

and premapping representative study sites for each subsection using air photo interpretation, (2) field 

investigation of premapped soil boundaries and data collection, and (3) extrapolating information 

obtained from the study sites to the remainder of the subsection using available tools. 

Field documentation is being collected by transecting representative map unit delineations within the 

study sites. Transects consist of a series of data collection stops to determine the types and composition 

of soils and vegetation within each map unit. Multiple sampling is also used to establish the range of soil 

and site characteristics for each map unit and component. All data is being incorporated into a relational 

database for analysis and to serve as a permanent data record. 

3
 

 

 

Ecoregions 

Two coarse scale ecoregional maps are currently widely used in Alaska: Ecoregions of Alaska by Gallant 

et al. (1995) and Ecoregions and subregions of the United States by Bailey et al. (1994). They have been 

developed for the purposes of implementing ecosystem management, which requires working definitions 

of ecosystems and supporting inventories of the components that comprise ecosystems. Both ecoregional 

maps use similar approaches to defining and describing ecoregions. For Denali, the ecoregional maps are 

only available at the scale, 1:5,000,000. 

Bailey et al.’s (1994) ecoregional hierarchy consists of seven levels of ecological units from the Domain, 

which is the most general level, to the Landtype Phase. A map of the upper four levels (Domain, 

Division, Province and Section), developed using a top-down approach of progressively subdividing the 

land surface into smaller segments, was developed for all of Alaska by Nowacki and Brock (1995). 

Descriptions and other data for the Section level are included in McNab and Avers (1994) and Bailey et 

al. (1994).

Subsection and Landtype Association levels of the hierarchy that are provided in this report are products 

of the Denali Park Soil Survey (Appendix 5; Clark 1998). Subsections are aggregations of Landtype 

Associations based on similarities in surficial geology, geomorphic processes, soil groups, and potential 

vegetation. 

DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA AND ENVIRONMENT 

Denali encompasses much of the central Alaska Range and its elevation ranges from approximately 40 

meters to 6,096 meters. The landcover project area includes 6,029,270 million acres within the 

boundaries of Denali National Park and Preserve, as well as a 16 kilometer wide buffer bordering the park 

that, when the park and buffer are combined, sums to 9,552,573 acres. The ‘Ecoregions’ section provides 

the reader with a general picture of the topography and vegetation within Denali. The ‘Climate’ section 

provides an overview of Denali’s climate. A ‘Landscape’ section is provided in Appendix 1 as a guide to 

the major landscape units that influence vegetation in Denali. It is not, however, meant to be used as a 

landscape classification. 

Ecoregions 

The following ecoregion map (Figure 2) is directly from Clark’s (1998) draft hierarchical framework of 

ecological units at the subsection level for Denali. Subsection descriptions are given in Appendix 5.

Subsections are aggregations of Landtype Associations based on similarities in surficial geology, 

geomorphic processes, soil groups, and potential vegetation. The Subsections map is a link between the 

upper levels of the ecoregions hierarchy (Domain, Division, Province, and Section) provided by Nowacki 

and Brock (1995) with the lower levels (Landtype Association) provided by the detailed soil maps. 

The map was made by reviewing Nowacki and Brock (1995), McNab and Avers (1994) and ECOMAP 

(1993), and by photo interpretation of landforms using 1:60,000 NHAP CIR photography. The map was 

assembled on an USGS-Denali Alaska 1984 satellite image map (1:250,000 scale). The document is 

updated yearly based on field data and a finalized map will be provided at the conclusion of the soils’

project. 

Climate 

The climate of the lowlands north of the Alaska Range is subarctic-continental with short, warm summers 

and long, cold winters. Average annual precipitation may range from 280 millimeters to 400 millimeters, 

and annual snowfall from 95 centimeters to 205 centimeters (Gallant et al. 1995, McNab and Avers 

1994). In winter, average daily minimum temperatures range from –330

C to –260C, and daily maximum

temperatures range from –220

C to –170C. Summer daily temperatures have lows of about 70C and highs 

4
 

Figure 2. Ecoregion map for Denali National Park and Preserve (Clark 1998). 

5
 

of 220

C. The frost-free period is usually between June and August, though they may dip below freezing 

during this time. 

The climate in the mountains of Denali (Alaska Range and Kantishna Hills) is primarily influenced by

subarctic-continental conditions. The southern half of the Alaska Range, however, is transitional between 

maritime and subarctic-continental climates, being warmer and moister in winter and cooler and moister 

in summer than the northern half of the mountain range. Within the mountains, daily winter temperatures 

average about -250

C with daily highs of –30C (Gallant et al. 1995, McNab and Avers 1994). The weather 

stations from this region are from lower elevations. Summer daily low temperatures average 20

C and the 

highs about 180

C. Freezing conditions may occur year around. Mean annual precipitation at the lower 

elevations averages 380 millimeters, and snowfall ranges from 150 centimeters to 305 centimeters. The 

higher mountain peaks are estimated to receive 2,030 millimeters in annual precipitation and 1,015 

centimeters of annual snowfall. 

The climate of the lowlands south of the Alaska Range is affected by both maritime and subarcticcontinental influences. The average annual precipitation ranges from 380 to 680 millimeters, and annual 

snowfall averages from 160 centimeters to 255 centimeters (Gallant et al 1995). Winter temperatures 

range from –150

C to –50C. Summer temperatures vary from 50C to about 10C. The months of May 

through September are typically frost-free. 

6
 

 

METHODS 

LANDCOVER CLASSIFICATION DEVELOPMENT 

Prior to the field season, the landcover classification system used to map Denali was developed from

several sources, and, in general, followed The Alaska Vegetation Classification (Viereck et al. 1992) 

system. First, National Park Service personnel with experience in Denali provided a list of possible 

classes. Next, the list was expanded by reviewing Firepro data and vegetation ecology literature for 

Denali. A total of 52 map classes were used for in the field (Table 1). Following the field season and 

review of existing data, there were 55 target landcover classes that were tested for spectral mappability.

However, based on satellite imagery resolution issues and ecological considerations, this list was refined 

to the final detailed (25) mapping classes. 

The mapped classes were refined during meetings attended by NPS personnel and members of the 

mapping team (EARTHSAT and AKNHP). Several assumptions were made during the refinement of the 

classes. The group agreed that the mapping classes must be based on landcover characteristics that could 

be recognized by satellite imagery; and had to be flexible enough to describe potential new classes 

derived from satellite imagery. The mapping classes were derived from the Alaska Vegetation 

Classification (Viereck et al. 1992) however we did not strictly adhere to this hierarchy. This was 

primarily because the Alaska Vegetation Classification did not necessarily correspond well to the classes 

that would be detected by satellite imagery. In addition, little vegetation information was available from

Denali during development of the Alaska Vegetation Classification. Consequently, classes within the 

Alaska Vegetation Classification hierarchy did not necessarily correlate well with vegetation classes 

existing within Denali. 

After the field season, the landcover classification was further modified by collapsing landcover classes 

and revising mapped classes. These iterations were based on field observations and satellite imagery

interpretation. Throughout the project, from fieldwork to final product, the image analyst, botanists, and 

ecologist personnel remained the same. This ensured a high level of consistency in the landcover map 

and classification development. Flexibility and customization in terms of landcover classes, scale of 

hardcopy draft products, and minimum mapping unit resulted in a more useable suite of products. A 

detailed review of the draft landcover map by NPS and substantial feedback resulted in significant edits to 

the landcover map to produce the final map product. 

SAMPLING DESIGN AND ‘FIELD VERIFICATION AREA’ SELECTION 

Field sampling consisted of selecting 33 areas to record landcover characteristics from both the air and on 

the ground (Table 2, Figure 3). These areas were termed field verification areas (FVAs). Individual 

FVAs represented the range in variability of landcover in its specific area, such as across a mountain 

valley. The 33 FVAs, in combination, were meant to represent the total range in variability of landcover 

across Denali. 

The selection of field verification areas (FVA’s) within Denali was based on a systematic grid followed 

by post-stratification using the following factors: ecoregions, landscapes, aspect, spectral signature, 

overlaps between scene clusters, and avoidance of Firepro sample areas. A 1:125,000 scale SPOT mosaic 

of Denali was used as the base map for the placement of FVA’s. The systematic sampling scheme was 

developed by overlaying a grid over the SPOT image of Denali. The grid was large enough to ensure 

placement of 33 FVA’s across the vegetated portion of Denali, with slight overlap into the bareground 

and glacier landcover classes. An FVA was then placed at the intersection of all grid lines. 

7
 

Table 1. Landcover classes used during the 1999 field season. 

Spruce Low shrub 

Closed White Spruce Closed Low Willow

Closed Black Spruce Closed Low Alder-Willow

Open White Spruce Closed Low Shrub Birch

Open Black Spruce Open Low Alder

Woodland Spruce (Ericaceous) Open Low Alder-Willow

Woodland Spruce (Lichen) Open Low Willow

Woodland Spruce (Sedge) Open Low Mix Shrub-Sedge Tussock

Open Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous

Deciduous forest Open Low Shrub Birch-Willow

Closed Birch

Closed Aspen Dwarf shrub 

Closed Balsam Poplar Dryas Dwarf Shrub

Closed Mixed Deciduous Willow Dwarf Shrub

Open Birch Ericaceous Bearberry/Vaccinium Dwarf Shrub

Open Aspen Ericaceous Cassiope Dwarf Shrub

Open Balsam Poplar

Open Mixed Deciduous Herbaceous 

Woodland Birch Dry/Mesic Grass-Forb

Woodland Balsam Poplar Dry/Mesic Sedge-Forb

Woodland Deciduous Tussock Tundra

Wet Graminoid/Forb

Mixed forest 

Closed Mixed Other 

Open Mixed Lichen

Woodland Mixed Sparse Vegetation

Aquatic

Tall shrub Bare Ground

Closed Tall Alder Snow/Ice

Closed Tall Willow

Closed Tall Alder-Willow

Closed Tall Shrub Birch

Open Tall Alder

Open Tall Willow

Open Tall Shrub Birch

Open Tall Alder-Willow

8
 

 

Table 2. Information used to evaluate number and placement of field verification areas. 

% of total 

excluding **Idealized # New 

*Existing Total area % of Alaska-high of FVA's by FVA's

Ecoregion IMA's (acres) total mountains area used

Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills 2 446,127 7 11 3.3 4

Alaska Range-Teklanika mtns and plateaus 1 121,175 2 3 0.9 2

Alaska Range-Toklat Basin 1 156,227 3 4 1.2 1

Alaska Range-front range 0 98,847 2 2 0.7 2

Alaska Range-high mountains 1 1,960,428 33 -- -- --

Alaska Range-interior mtns and valleys 2 536,039 9 13 4.0 4

Alaska Range-south-central mtns & valleys 9 556,426 9 14 4.1 4

Cook Inlet-braided flood plains and stream 4 55,634 1 1 0.4 1

Cook Inlet-glaciated hills and plains 4 89,819 1 2 0.7 3

Kuskokwim-Minchumina Basin 5 391,264 6 10 2.9 3

Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and flood plains 8 1,092,132 18 27 8.1 4

Kuskokwim-glaciated hills and pitted plains 1 424,958 7 10 3.1 2

Kuskokwim-low mountains and pediments 2 92,142 2 2 0.7 3

*IMA=Intensive mapping units from previous field work (Firepro)

**based on 30 FVA's and not using Alaska Range-high mountains ecoregion

FVA’s that overlaid Firepro locations and contained thorough landcover information were eliminated 

because the Firepro information was considered adequate for spectral training. Ecoregions as defined by

the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (Clark 1998) within Denali were overlaid on the 

SPOT mosaic for coarse scale stratification purposes. Movement of some of the FVA’s was based upon 

having representative examples of FVA’s within the ecoregions (Table 2). 

Additional factors affected the placement of the FVA’s. All aspects (north, south, east, west) on

mountain slopes were included. Both large and small valleys within the Alaska Range were sampled. 

Alaska Native lands (including selected), hunting camps and private in-holdings were avoided. Distinct 

landcover signatures from the raw imagery were sampled. Sampling within scene overlap areas was 

maximized. 

The next step was to determine where to photo interpret polygons within an FVA. Within each FVA one 

transect, or discontinuous transect, was laid out on the imagery mosaic to encompass the FVA’s full 

variation of environmental factors. These environmental variables included landscape types, aspect, slope 

and distinct signatures. In the mountains, each transect spanned an entire valley, from ridge top to ridge 

top. In the remaining regions, transects that encompassed the environmental variability were often too 

long to fully sample. Consequently we made discontinuous transects with different transect sections 

falling in each distinct environment to be sampled.

9
 

Figure 3. Locations of 1999 Field Transects and Sample Sites 

FIELD DATA COLLECTION 

The primary goal of the 1999 fieldwork was to collect the number of samples required to create the 

landcover map product. The intent of this transect-polygon sampling approach was to both collect 

samples that could be used to generate spectral training signatures for use in the automated image 

classification, and also to gain a complete picture of the occurrences of the mapping classes for areas over 

all slope/aspect/landform positions in the FVA. This transect "snapshot" was essential to establishing 

realistic parameters in the environmental and spectral models used to refine the landcover map. 

Another goal during field data collection was to obtain more specific site information that could be used 

to describe plant associations, and to tie this more detailed vegetation information back to the landcover 

mapping classes. To support these objectives, field data were collected at two different levels of detail: 

FVA ‘fly over’ polygons, and ‘ground site’ descriptions. The field season was from July 13,1999 to

August 6, 1999. 

10
 

Fly Over Polygon Data Collection 

The purpose of this level of field data collection was specifically to provide additional training signatures 

for the automated image processing and modeling required to produce the landcover map. Information 

was recorded on a field form (Appendix 3) and included the data required to identify a landcover mapping 

class call for each sampled polygon. This information included information such as air photo number, 

polygon code, latitude and longitude, landcover class name and code, date, surveyors, photos, azimuth, 

slope, aspect, and hydrologic regime. Landcover information included percent of polygon covered by the 

dominant species, total percent cover for life form categories, and species height. Percent cover for life 

form categories included two values: aerial percent cover that always summed to 100%, and species cover 

that typically summed to greater than 100% due to overlapping canopies. Photographs were taken at each 

site. 

Canopy cover was ocularly estimated (Brown 1954) for the dominant species, and defined as the percent 

of the ground in the polygon covered by the gross outline of an individual plant's foliage (canopy), or the 

outline collectively covered by all individuals of a species or life form within the polygon (Daubenmire 

1959). Percent bare ground was also estimated. 

When arriving at the FVA transect area, the image analyst and botanist flew a reconnaissance of the 

transect and landed at one end of the FVA (typically on a high vantage point). From here, the image 

analyst and the botanist surveyed the potential sample sites on 1:12,000 CIR (color infrared) enlargements 

and 1:100,000 satellite image map of the FVA. Polygons were delineated on the CIR photo to ensure that 

they were sufficiently large (~10 acre) and recognizable on both the CIR photo and satellite image. Each 

polygon was sampled by slow fly-by in the helicopter. Approximately 20 polygons were visited at each 

FVA for a total of 330 samples. 

Another level of detail was very general observations annotated on 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 satellite 

image maps during transit to and from FVA transect areas. These observations typically included a 

general vegetation call indicating, for example, "tussock tundra" without providing any indication as to 

the percentages of herbaceous, low shrub, tussocks, hydrologic regime, etc. They also often represented 

broad landscapes rather than particular sites. Photographs were often collected for these sites, and in 

some cases GPS points were recorded. The purpose for collecting the information was primarily for 

editing the map, a qualitative assessment of its accuracy. All data was entered into an Access database 

developed by the National Park Service. 

Ground Data Collection 

The purpose for this level of data collection was primarily to provide the required information for linking 

the landcover classes to the finer hierarchical levels (IV and V) of the Viereck et al. (1992) classification. 

Ground site descriptions were also used to support classification system refinement, provide a more

thorough understanding of the landcover classes, and to improve class descriptions. 

One hundred ninety eight ‘on the ground’ site descriptions were gathered during the field season by 

sampling within FVA polygons or—when the ground crew could not get to the FVA polygon due to 

logistical restrictions—at sites similar to the FVA polygons. One or two ground personnel were let off at 

a FVA and visited as many polygons as time allowed. Within a polygon, selection of sample sites was 

similar to the approach termed "subjective sampling without preconceived bias" as described by MuellerDombois and Ellenberg (1974). Site selection was based on homogeneous vegetation, and sites were not 

chosen with regard to their position in any classification, extant or envisioned, or by applicability to 

specific management considerations. 

The ground person walked through a polygon and recorded vegetation composition, structure, and site 

variables. A vegetation and physical site description form was used to record information (Appendix 2). 

11
 

 

 

Vascular and nonvascular vegetation information within the polygons was collected, and six letter codes 

were used to abbreviate species names. In most cases a full species list was obtained, however, if time 

was insufficient, only the dominant species from each structural layer was recorded. The six-letter code 

for a species combined the first three letters from the genus and specific epithet, and was based on Hulten 

(1968). Canopy cover was ocularly estimated (Brown 1954) for each species and could sum to greater 

than 100%. Dominant plant species not identified in the field were collected and identified in the office. 

Canopy height was estimated for the dominant species. 

Ground cover information was collected for each polygon. The categories included water, bare soil, 

bedrock, litter-duff, wood (>1 centimeters), large rocks (cobbles, boulders >10 centimeters), small rocks 

(gravel, 0.2-10 centimeters) and sand (0.1-2 millimeters). The percentages for the ground cover 

categories typically sum to approximately 100%. The percent of the surface within the polygon that was 

covered by woody debris greater than 15 centimeters in diameter was also recorded. GPS position was 

recorded at each polygon. 

When time allowed, the following site variables were recorded within each polygon: slope, aspect, 

landform, hydrologic regime (dry, mesic, wet, aquatic), biome (subalpine, boreal, bog herb meadow, 

tussock, riparian), depth of soil peat, A, B and C horizons, depth to permafrost, and depth to water. Other 

recorded variables included air photo number, polygon code, landcover class name, landcover class code, 

date, surveyors, photos, latitude and longitude, environmental comments and disturbance comments. A 

photographic record was taken for each site. Vegetation information typically recorded for fly-over 

descriptions was also recorded for each ground description. 

PLANT ASSOCIATION CLASSIFICATION DEVELOPMENT 

Heebner (1982) previously described forest and shrub plant associations for the north half of the Alaska 

Range and further north. The 56 Heebner (1982) plant association descriptions were copied and placed 

under the landcover class they occur in. 

Fortyone plant associations not defined by Heebner (1982) but sampled during the 1999 field season were

described and placed under the proper landcover class. All field data were entered into an Access 

database program. Species and cover data was used to create association tables of the preliminary

dominance-type groupings. A stepwise procedure of successive approximations was then used to classify

the plant associations (Pfister and Arno 1980). A plant association description was prepared for each 

type. The descriptions are based on species lists, canopy cover, structure, and site information. 

Constancy-coverage tables were created for each defined plant association and are given in Appendix 4. 

12
 

KEY TO LANDCOVER CLASSES 

The following vegetated landcover classes are not included in the key: herbaceous/shrub and peatland. 

GROWTH FORM GROUPS 

1. Tree canopy cover is greater than or equal to 10% for needleleaf trees, deciduous trees, or deciduousneedleleaf mix ....................................................................................................................................... 2 

1. Tree canopy cover is less than 10% or absent ......................................................................................... 3 

2. Needleleaf tree cover is greater than or equal to 75% of the total tree cover ..... Needleleaf Forest Types 

2. Needleleaf tree cover is less than 75% of the total tree cover.............Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Types 

3. Shrub cover is greater than or equal to 25% ..........................................................................Shrub Types 

3. Shrub cover is less than 25% ................................................................................................................... 4 

4. Herbaceous cover is greater than or equal to 25%........................................................Herbaceous Types 

4. Herbaceous cover is less than 25%.......................................................................................................... 5 

5. Total vegetation cover is 15-24% .................................................................................Sparse Vegetation 

5. Total vegetation cover is less than 15%................................................................................ Bare Ground 

NEEDLELEAF FOREST TYPES 

1. Tree canopy cover is 45-70%.......................................................................... Dense-Open Spruce Forest 

1. Tree canopy cover is 10-44%................................................................................................................... 2 

2. Average tree height is greater than or equal to 7.5 meters .......................Open-Woodland Spruce Forest 

2. Average tree height is less than 7.5 meters............................................ Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce 

BROADLEAF AND MIXED FOREST TYPES 

1. Greater than or equal to 75% of the total tree cover is deciduous ................................... Broadleaf forest 

1. Deciduous and needleleaf trees each contribute 25-75% of the total tree cover........................................

 ................................................................................................................ Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest 

SHRUB TYPES 

1. Willow greater than 20 centimeters tall contributes 75% or more of the total shrub cover.......................

............................................................................................................................................Willow Shrub 

1. Willow greater than 20 centimeters tall contributes less than 75% of the total shrub cover ................... 2 

2. Alder contributes 75% or more of total shrub cover...............................................................Alder Shrub 

2. Alder contributes less than 75% of total shrub cover .............................................................................. 3 

3. Shrub birch is greater than 75% of total shrub cover and total shrub cover is 75-100%...........................

 .......................................................................................................................... Closed Low Shrub Birch 

3. Shrub birch is less than 75% of total shrub cover.................................................................................... 4 

13
 

4. Willow, shrub birch or ericaceous shrubs—all greater than 20 centimeters tall—together contribute 25-

75% of the total shrub cover and total shrub cover is 25-100%............................................................. 5 

4. Willow, shrub birch or ericaceous shrubs—all greater than 20 centimeters tall—together do not 

contribute 25-75% of the total shrub cover ............................................................................................ 6 

5. Graminoids contribute 25-75% of the total cover; tussock formation is common ....................................

 .............................................................................................................................. ......... Low Shrub-Sedge 

5. Less than 25% sedges present........................................................ Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous-Willow 

6. Shrub height is less than 20 centimeters, and greater than 25% of the site contains rock .........................

 .............................................................................................................................. ......Dwarf Shrub-Rock 

6. Shrub height is less than 20 centimeters, and less than 25% of the site contains rock ......... Dwarf Shrub 

HERBACEOUS TYPES 

1. Vegetation is terrestrial; not submerged, floating, or growing in permanent water................................. 2 

1. Vegetation is submerged, floating, or growing in permanent water ..........................Aquatic Herbaceous 

2. Site is dry to mesic; little to no standing water..................................................... Dry-Mesic Herbaceous 

2. Dominant vegetation is emergent; semi-permanent or standing water is present............Wet Herbaceous 

14
 

LANDCOVER CLASS DESCRIPTIONS 

Full descriptions of each landcover class for the Denali landcover map (Figure 4) are provided below. 

Descriptions include dominant species information, physical site variables and accuracy assessment 

descriptions. All accuracies are based on the 25-class landcover map at a 2-acre mapping unit. Refer to 

Volume 1 (Stevens et al. 2001) for a complete description of the accuracy assessment and methodology. 

Landcover class elevation, percent landcover class per ecoregion and percent cover by landcover class in 

Denali are given in Tables 3, 4a-b and 5, respectively. Figure 5 provides an idealized cross section of 

vegetation within the park. Descriptions of plant associations follow this section. 

Table 3. Elevation (meters) of landcover classes based on field polygon information and also the range in 

elevation from the landcover map superimposed on the digital elevation model. 

Field polygon information Landcover map and elevation model 

Mean Max # of Mean Max # of 

Landcover class (m) Min (m) (m) polygons (m) Min (m) (m) pixels 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest 333 107 730 108 339 46 1,450 9,597

Open-Woodland Spruce Forest 483 80 912 132 384 46 1,681 60,926

Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce 364 166 841 447 383 72 1,681 85,461

Broadleaf Forest 331 93 774 75 378 46 1,401 13,350

Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest 171 91 721 184 326 46 1,687 36,231

Alder Shrub 499 191 1,124 61 631 73 1,711 7,004

Willow Shrub 582 191 1,116 64 671 67 1,544 2,791

Closed Low Birch Shrub 814 439 1,097 44 617 136 1,438 2,950

Low Shrub Birch-Ericac-Willow 756 204 1,068 58 767 91 1,808 26,292

Low Shrub-Sedge 510 168 1,052 163 645 59 1,643 12,888

Peatland 207 74 315 58 250 46 1,008 6,033

Herbaceous / Shrub nd* nd nd nd 832 106 1,461 2,222

Dwarf Shrub 856 158 1,335 42 1,059 104 2,401 5,662

Dwarf Shrub-Rock 793 185 1,335 24 1,173 91 5,490 1,216

Dry-Mesic Herbaceous 762 76 1,206 40 999 74 1,701 1,136

Wet Herbaceous 358 167 824 109 343 61 1,432 21,053

Aquatic Herbaceous 255 255 255 43 254 238 320 814

Sparse Vegetation 577 158 1,142 48 1,253 61 4,527 3,385

Bare Ground 950 274 1,620 80 1,197 46 5,536 4,640

Snow / Ice 1,500 619 2,091 58 1,868 181 6,188 5,440

Shadow / Indeterminate nd nd nd nd 1,410 53 5,916 3,787

Silty Water 272 146 1,149 261 290 46 2,355 39,535

Clear Water 366 164 753 1,304 319 60 1,380 56,615

Burn nd nd nd nd 259 149 1,006 66,812

Cloud nd nd nd nd 962 196 1,759 461

* nd = no data

15
 

Figure 4. Landcover map for Denali. 

16
Figure 5. Idealized cross-section of landcover classes in relationship to topography within Denali. 

17
T able 4a. Percent cover of the 25 landcover m ap classes by E coregion for D enali. 

E coregions 

L andcover classes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest 0.44 2.36 2.01 5.52 0.23 2.07 0.20 0.00 0.40 0.39 

O pen-W oodland Spruce 14.50 24.57 18.35 28.67 7.03 9.25 5.28 0.00 4.23 15.27 

O p e n -W o o d la n d S tu n t S p ru c e 33.51 39.23 41.12 23.07 5.33 11.59 4.51 0.01 3.69 10.57 

Broadleaf Forest 1.17 0.90 2.20 20.83 3.78 1.29 4.38 0.01 0.96 4.62 

M ixed Spruce-Broadleaf 4.80 3.87 5.14 9.17 0.50 0.50 0.44 0.01 0.39 1.84 

Alder Shrub 2.09 0.39 0.08 0.95 5.10 0.41 13.93 0.08 6.38 13.87 

W illow Shrub 1.29 0.76 0.30 0.62 6.98 1.35 3.70 0.03 2.32 4.25 

Closed Low B irch S h ru b 1.06 0.86 0.14 0.04 6.62 5.39 5.35 0.00 2.91 0.39 

Low Shrub Birch-Ericac-W illow 25.23 5.92 1.74 3.18 41.01 18.62 25.32 0.17 22.61 27.74 

L ow Shrub-Sedge 8.87 3.67 4.05 2.73 18.36 40.87 10.80 0.07 7.79 5.94 

Peatland 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

H erbaceo us / Sh ru b 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 

Dwarf Shrub 1.09 0.52 0.00 0.05 1.99 0.31 15.49 2.34 25.26 11.08 

Dwarf Shrub-Rock 0.34 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.01 2.46 1.34 4.72 0.79 

Dry-M esic Herbaceous 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.30 0.09 0.11 0.24 0.08 1.03 0.69 

W et Herbaceous 0.37 1.02 5.41 0.49 0.11 1.23 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.02 

A quatic Herbaceous 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 

Sparse Vegetation 0.63 0.72 0.02 0.06 0.37 2.45 1.74 9.24 7.18 0.39 

Bare Ground 1.07 1.42 0.04 0.03 0.04 2.96 0.75 24.41 4.34 0.12 

S n o w / Ic e 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 46.79 0.07 0.00 

Shadow / Indeterm inate 0.11 0.07 0.05 1.16 0.43 0.14 5.34 15.31 5.42 1.78 

Silty W ater 0.11 1.07 1.50 0.12 0.02 1.04 0.07 0.01 0.21 0.02 

Clear Water 3.02 0.76 7.96 0.27 0.03 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.16 

Burn 0.18 11.74 9.72 2.75 1.84 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 

Cloud 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 

E coregion Legend: 1 Kuskokwim -glaciated hills an d pitted plains2 Kuskokwim -alluvial fan s and floo d plains3 Kuskokwim -M inchum ina Basin4 Kuskokwim -low m ountains and pedim ents5 Alaska Range-Teklanika m ountains and plateaus6 Alaska Ran g e-Toklat Basin

7 Alaska Range-front range

8 Alaska Range-high m ountains

9 Alaska Range-interior mountains and 1 0 A lask a Range-Kantishna Hills11 Cook Inlet-glaciated hills and plains

12 Co ok In let-b raided floo d plains and 

1 3 Alaska Ran g e-south-central m ountai

18
 

Table 4b. Percent cover of the 25 landcover map classes found within each biome (acres of landcover class in 

biome/total acres in biome). The ecoregion (Clark 1998) combinations used for defining the biomes are given 

below. 

Biomes 

Landcover classes 

Kuskokwim 

lowlands* 

Toklat basin and 

plateaus 

Alaska Range, 

Kantishna hills 

Cook Inlet hills and 

plains 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest 2.03 1.27 0.14 0.28

Open-Woodland Spruce 21.40 8.28 3.16 0.51

Open-Woodland Stunt Spruce 37.64 8.86 2.35 0.65

Broadleaf Forest 2.13 2.38 0.99 2.49

Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf 4.56 0.50 0.36 6.59

Alder Shrub 0.72 2.45 3.67 18.15

Willow Shrub 0.78 3.81 1.17 4.81

Closed Low Birch Shrub 0.72 5.93 0.75 0.06

Low Shrub Birch-Ericac-Willow 9.08 28.40 8.99 5.26

Low Shrub-Sedge 4.81 31.04 2.64 2.11

Peatland 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32

Herbaceous / Shrub 0.00 0.00 0.04 9.62

Dwarf Shrub 0.52 1.04 8.09 12.47

Dwarf Shrub-Rock 0.14 0.07 1.89 1.90

Dry-Mesic Herbaceous 0.06 0.10 0.34 4.82

Wet Herbaceous 1.71 0.74 0.02 0.21

Aquatic Herbaceous 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00

Sparse Vegetation 0.53 1.54 7.34 7.29

Bare Ground 1.01 1.69 16.54 9.15

Snow / Ice 0.01 0.00 30.17 2.13

Shadow / Indeterminate 0.12 0.27 11.26 9.64

Silty Water 0.91 0.59 0.05 1.34

Clear Water 2.62 0.06 0.03 0.14

Burn 8.47 0.99 0.01 0.00

Cloud 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04

Biome 

Kuskokwim lowlands = 

Toklat basin and plateaus = 

Alaska Range, Kantishna hills = 

Cook Inlet hills and plains = 

Ecoregions (Clark 1998) used to define the biome 

Kuskokwim-glaciated hills and pitted plains, Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and flood 

plains, Kuskokwim-Minchumina Basin, Kuskokwim-low mountains and 

pediments

Alaska Range-Teklanika mountains and plateaus, Alaska Range-Toklat Basin

Alaska Range-front range, Alaska Range-high mountains, Alaska Range-interior 

mountains and valleys, Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills

Cook Inlet-glaciated hills and plains, Cook Inlet-braided flood plains and stream 

terrace, Alaska Range-south-central mountains and valleys

19
 

Table 5. Landcover class by acre and percent of total area within the boundaries of Denali National Park 

and Preserve, and also within the park's boundaries plus a 16 km buffer. 

Denali Park boundary only Denali plus 16 km buffer 

Acres Percent Acres Percent 

Dense-Open Spruce Forest 50,359 0.8 157,157 1.6

Open-Woodland Spruce Forest 551,428 9.1 931,271 9.7

Open-Woodland Stunted Spruce 853,985 14.2 1,283,661 13.4

Broadleaf Forest 97,063 1.6 253,608 2.7

Mixed Spruce-Broadleaf Forest 149,929 2.5 509,644 5.3

Alder Shrub 260,198 4.3 533,799 5.6

Willow Shrub 95,590 1.6 195,666 2.0

Closed Low Birch Shrub 54,034 0.9 87,201 0.9

Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous-Willow 570,700 9.5 898,322 9.4

Low Shrub-Sedge 277,322 4.6 450,124 4.7

Peatland 2,304 0.0 34,475 0.4

Herbaceous / Shrub 68,872 1.1 132,299 1.4

Dwarf Shrub 346,847 5.8 517,564 5.4

Dwarf Shrub-Rock 73,894 1.2 107,686 1.1

Dry-Mesic Herbaceous 45,684 0.8 95,916 1.0

Wet Herbaceous 38,427 0.6 74,172 0.8

Aquatic Herbaceous 564 0.0 590 0.0

Sparse Vegetation 289,308 4.8 389,989 4.1

Bare Ground 592,298 9.8 710,194 7.4

Snow / Ice 932,790 15.5 1,049,706 11.0

Shadow / Indeterminate 413,260 6.9 657,181 6.9

Silty Water 30,765 0.5 67,957 0.7

Clear Water 60,764 1.0 100,880 1.1

Burn 172,528 2.9 296,214 3.1

Cloud 357 0.0 17,300 0.2

Total 6,029,270 100.0 9,552,573 100.0

20
 

 

DENSE-OPEN SPRUCE FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is between 45% to 70% with needleleaf tree cover greater than or 

equal to 75% of the total tree cover. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical 

levels closed needleleaf forest (IA1) and open needleleaf forest (IA2).

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The dense-open spruce forest class occurs on low elevation 

(107 to 731 meters based on field data; Table 3) floodplains, toeslopes, and valley bottoms primarily

north of the Alaska Range within Denali. It generally occurs as small to medium size patches on welldrained, loamy or sandy soils. These sites have little (5 to 10 degrees) to no slope, and generally occur on 

South and West aspects. Disturbance is typically from alluvial and fire processes. They are commonly

found in the Toklat drainage, west of the Kantishna Hills, and the toeslopes of the Alaska Range in the 

west-central part of the park. Although it occurs in all ecoregions, it is more prevalent in the Kuskokwimalluvial fans and flood plains ecoregion than other ecoregions (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). The denseopen spruce forest class cover 0.8% (50,359 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—Picea glauca or Picea mariana cover ranges from 45% to 70%. Tree height can reach 

greater than 20 meters. Larix laricina, alders (such as Alnus crispa) and willows (such as Salix 

planifolia) occur in canopy breaks along with ericaceous shrubs such as Arctostaphylos rubra, Vaccinium 

vitis-idaea, and V. uliginosum. There frequently is a high graminoid component associated with these 

sites. Mosses are common as well as small amounts of lichen. The dense-open spruce forest class is 

typically interspersed with other spruce types such as the open-woodland spruce forest and openwoodland stunted spruce landcover classes. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the dense open spruce forest class is 87.9%, 

with a user’s accuracy of 69.4%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are due to confusion 

with the open-woodland spruce forest class. All accuracies are based on the 25-class landcover map at a 

2-acre mapping unit prior to the digital integration of the burn mask. 

21
 

 

 

OPEN-WOODLAND SPRUCE FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is 10% to 44% with needleleaf cover greater than or equal to 75% of 

the total tree cover. Needleleaf tree height is greater than or equal to 7.5 meters. The class is comparable 

to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical levels open needleleaf forest (IA2) and needleleaf woodland 

(IA3). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The open-woodland spruce forest class occurs primarily on 

lower elevation (80 to 912 meters based on field data; Table 3) landscapes north of the Alaska Range 

within the park. The dominant landscapes are alluvial fans and outwash-floodplains. Site conditions 

range from strong sunlight and well-drained soils on gentle slopes and terraces to sites with poorly

drained peat and silt soils. The latter is typically dominated by Picea mariana. Most sites have little to 

no slope although a few sites reached a slope of 40 degrees. When sloping sites occur they generally

occupy east aspects. This class occurs in a region of high fire frequency. This landcover class is most 

common on the Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and floodplains ecoregion and is also common in the 

Kuskokwim-Minchumina Basin ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998); in addition it is the most 

common type in the Kuskokwim-low mountains and pediments ecoregion. The open-woodland spruce 

forest landcover class covers 9.1% (551,428 acres) of the park (Table 5). 

Vegetation—The open-woodland spruce forest class is dominated by Picea mariana, however Picea 

glauca also occurs. Average needleleaf cover is 40%, and tree height is typically greater than 7.5 meters. 

Ericaceous shrubs are commonly found in the understory including Ledum decumbens, Vaccinium 

uliginosum, Cassiope tetragona, and Chamaedaphne calyculata. Other shrubs include Betula nana, 

Empetrum nigrum, Alnus species, and Salix species. Mosses and lichens also occur. Some sites contain 

tussocks ranging up to 90% tussock cover, and average tussock cover in sites with high graminoid content 

is 35%. The class is typically interspersed with other spruce classes such as the dense-open spruce forest 

and open-woodland stunted spruce landcover classes.

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the open-woodland spruce forest class is 

82.9%, with a user’s accuracy of 79.3%. Most of the errors of commission are with the open-woodland 

stunted spruce class while most of the errors of omission are with the dense open class. There are also 

significant omission errors with the open-woodland stunted spruce class and the mixed spruce broadleaf 

forest class. 

22
 

OPEN-WOODLAND STUNTED SPRUCE LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is 10% to 44% with needleleaf tree cover greater than or equal to 75% 

of the total tree cover. Needleleaf tree height is less than 7.5 meters. The class is comparable to the 

Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical levels open needleleaf forest (IA2), needleleaf woodland (IA3), open 

dwarf tree scrub (IIA2), and dwarf tree scrub woodland (IIA3). The cutoff for stunted spruce in the 

Denali classification is 7.5 meters whereas the cutoff for dwarf tree scrub is 3 meters in Viereck et al. 

(1992). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The open-woodland stunted spruce class is the most common 

vegetated class in Denali, covering 14.2% (853,985 acres) of its total area (Table 5). The class is 

primarily found on low to mid elevation (166 to 841 meters based on field data; Table 3) sites north of the 

Alaska Range. It occupies sites with poorly drained, cold soils with some peat formation, permafrost is 

common, and with little to no slope. This class occurs in a region of high fire frequency, although the 

sites have likely not recently been burned. It dominates the Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and floodplains 

ecoregion, the Kuskokwim-glaciated hills and pitted plains ecoregion, and the Kuskokwim-Minchumina 

basin ecoregion and is common in the Kuskokwim-low mountains and pediments ecoregion (Tables 4a 

and 4b; Clark 1998). 

Vegetation—The forest canopy of the open-woodland stunted spruce class is dominated by Picea 

mariana although Picea glauca may also occur. Average needleleaf cover is 30% and tree height 

averages 4 meters. These sites commonly have a high percent of ericaceous shrubs and a thick graminoid 

layer in the understory. Tussock formation is common and its cover reaches greater than 90% in some

sites and averages 40% cover. Many sites are dominated by ericaceous shrubs, whereas others are a mix 

of low shrubs (such as Salix species and Betula species) and ericaceous shrubs. Shrub species include 

Ledum decumbens, Vaccinium uliginosum, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Betula nana, Salix species and 

occasionally Alnus species. Larix laricina has been found in trace amounts on many sites, and lichens 

and mosses are common. 

23
 

Open-woodland stunted spruce stands are commonly found adjacent to the open-woodland spruce forest 

and occasionally near the dense-open spruce forest map classes. Periodically, small patches of the drymesic herbaceous class are found within large patches of open-woodland stunted spruce often on 

lacustrine deposits. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the open-woodland stunted spruce class is 

80.1%, with a user’s accuracy of 87.6%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are due to 

confusion with the open–woodland spruce forest class. 

24
 

BROADLEAF FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Betula papyrifera, Populus tremuloides and Populus balsamifera, individually or 

combined, with a canopy cover of 10% to 100%, with needleleaf less than 25% of the total tree cover. 

The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical levels closed broadleaf forest (IB1), open 

broadleaf forest (IB2), and broadleaf woodland (IB3).

Distribution and Site Characteristics—This class occurs at low elevations (93 to 774 meters based on 

field data; Table 3) primarily in the Lake Minchumina Basin, toeslopes of the Kantishna Hills, lower 

slope positions and rolling hills on the south side of the Alaska Range, and in localized patches on 

outwash plains and floodplains throughout the park. The slope ranges from relatively level on

floodplains, to moderate to steep on hillsides. The class is concentrated in the Kuskokwim-low

mountains and pediments ecoregion and the Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b;

Clark 1998). This class does not, however, dominate any one ecoregion. These deciduous forests cover 

1.6% (97,063 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—Forest canopy closure for the broadleaf forest class ranges from 10% to 100%, with an 

average cover of 75%. Betula papyrifera is the most common species dominating sites on both the north 

and south sides of the Alaska Range. Populus tremuloides often occurs as a sub-dominant to Betula 

papyrifera, but also occurs as the dominant deciduous tree species in the northeast portion of the park. 

Populus balsamifera is typically restricted to floodplains occurring as small to mid size patches, but is 

also found in small patches on hillsides throughout the park. From an aerial perspective, understory

shrubs are typically Alnus and Salix species. Small coverage of grasses and sedges also occur. Mosses 

and lichens are present in varying amounts. Adjacent landcover classes include open-woodland spruce 

forests and, occasionally, dense-open spruce forests. Small patches of dry-mesic herbaceous or wet 

herbaceous often grow adjacent to this type on riparian areas. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the broadleaf forest class is 80.3%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 62.1%. Most of the errors of commission are with the mixed spruce-broadleaf forest 

class, while most of the omission errors are with the willow shrub and low shrub birch-ericaceous-willow 

map class.

25
 

 

 

MIXED SPRUCE-BROADLEAF FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is 10% to 100%, with needleleaf and deciduous trees each 

contributing 25% to 75% of the total tree cover. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) 

hierarchical levels closed mixed forest (IC1), open mixed forest (IC2), and mixed woodland (IC3). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The mixed spruce-broadleaf forest class is common on low 

elevation (91 to 721 meters based on field data; Table 3) foothills and floodplains south of the Alaska 

Range, and as scattered patches throughout the forested region—especially adjacent to floodplains—north 

of the Alaska Range. It is a dominant map class—along with low shrub birch ericaceous willow—in the 

Cook inlet-glaciated hills and plains ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). Slopes range from

relatively level on floodplains, to moderate or steep on hillsides, and the soils are generally mesic with no 

peat development. This landcover class comprises 2.5% (149,929 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—The dominant tree species are typically either Picea glauca mixed with Betula papyrifera or

Picea glauca mixed with Populus balsamifera. The white spruce-paper birch mix is generally found on

sideslopes and toeslopes. Populus tremuloides and Picea mariana may also occur, sometimes as a strong 

codominant. Total tree cover ranges from 30% to 75%. When the white spruce-paper birch canopy is 

open, the trees tend to grow in a clumped distribution. Therefore, open patches in the canopy are 

common and allow for other species to take advantage of the available sunlight. Low and tall shrubs, 

such as Salix species, Alnus species, and Vaccinium uliginosum dominate these patches. Mosses or 

lichens also occur in minor amounts. 

The white spruce-balsam poplar mix occurs on disturbed, sandy soils along riparian corridors with little to 

no slope. It is dominated by Picea glauca and Populus balsamifera, although Betula papyrifera is 

frequently, though not always, present. Canopy cover is often patchy and the open patches are typically 

dominated by Alnus species often growing over 3.6 meters tall. 

26
 

The landcover class occurs adjacent to needleleaf and deciduous classes, as well as small patches of tall 

shrub along riparian corridors. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the mixed spruce-broadleaf forest class is 

59.7%, with a user’s accuracy of 88.4%. Most of the errors of commission are with the open-woodland 

spruce forest class and the broadleaf forest class. Most of the error of omission is with the broadleaf 

forest class. The mixed spruce-broadleaf forest class by definition is spectrally mixed. It is very difficult 

to separate from stands of open-spruce forest with a tall shrub understory that typically occur on the north 

side of Denali, or from mixed areas with a high proportion of broadleaf that typically occur on the south 

side of the park. All accuracies are based on the 25-class landcover map at a 2-acre mapping unit prior to 

the digital integration of the burn mask. 

27
 

ALDER SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Total shrub cover is 25% to 100% and 

alder constitutes greater than 75% of the total shrub cover. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. 

(1992) hierarchical levels closed tall alder (IIB1b), and open tall scrub alder (IIB2b). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The alder shrub class dominates most steep slopes at low to mid 

elevations (191 to 1,124 meters based on field data; Table 3) on the south side of the Alaska Range and, 

to a lesser extent, the Kantishna Hills. It also occurs consistently in small patches on new alluvial 

deposits along floodplains. The steep slopes are typically colluvium and glacial drift, and slope values 

range from 0 to over 50% on all aspects. This class dominates the Alaska Range-south-central mountains 

and valleys ecoregion, and also is concentrated in the Alaska Range-interior mountains and valleys 

ecoregion and Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills ecoregion within Denali (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). 

The alder shrub landcover class covers 4.3% (260,198 acres) of the park (Table 5). 

Vegetation—Alnus species or a combination of alder and tall Salix species (>1.5 meters in height) 

dominate the landcover type. Alnus crispa is the most common species, however, Alnus sinuata and 

Alnus tenuifolia dominate some sites. Alder height ranges from less than 1.5 meters at higher elevations 

to 4.5 meters tall downslope. Alder cover or a combination of alder and willow is also variable, ranging 

from 25% to 95%. Sites with a more closed canopy are more common throughout Denali than the open 

sites. Large homogenous patches of open alder, however, do occur and typically grade into the closed 

alder patches. 

Canopy cover of understory vegetation ranges from sparse to dense. Associated understory shrubs 

include Salix species, Echinopanax horridus, Sorbus scopulina, and Spirea beauverdiana. A significant 

herbaceous layer includes Veratrum viride, Epilobium angustifolium, Heracleum lanatum, and small 

amounts of Iris setosa, Petasites species, and Boykinia richardsonii. High graminoid content may be 

present typically dominated by Calamagrostis canadensis. Ferns are also common including Dryopteris 

dilatata. 

28
 

The alder shrub class grows adjacent to broadleaf forest, spruce forest, willow shrub, low shrub and 

dwarf shrub classes. The pure alder sites often blend into sites with willow as a co-dominant species. 

Alder also commonly grades into the spruce classes at times forming extensive areas of high alder cover 

and low spruce cover. Sites dominated by both alder and willow occur as small discontinuous patches in 

narrow steep draws, the wetter depressions of sideslopes, and disturbed riparian corridors. Alder-willow 

dominated sites generally grade into the willow shrub class in the drainages and pure alder sites on the 

steep sideslopes. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the alder shrub class is 93.6%, with a user’s

accuracy of 92.1%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are with the willow shrub class. 

29
 

 

WILLOW SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Total shrub cover is 25% to 100%, and 

willow greater than 20 centimeters tall comprises greater than 75% of the total shrub cover. The class is 

comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical levels closed tall willow (IIB1a), open tall willow 

(IIB2a), closed low willow (IIC1b), and open low scrub (11C2). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The willow shrub class occurs on a variety of sites throughout

the park. Willow shrub dominated by low stature (20 centimeters to 1.5 meters in height) willow is 

common at mid elevations (range of 191 to 1,116 meters based on field data; Table 3) mixed with other 

low shrub classes on flat river drainages and the rolling foothills bordering the north side of the Alaska 

Range. When tall willow (>1.5 meters) dominates the class, it occurs primarily in small patches on new 

alluvial stream/river deposits, alluvial fans, colluvial sideslopes and bordering small mountain streams. 

Both tall and low willows occur on upper slope positions mixed in with or above the alder shrub class in 

the Alaska Range and Kantishna Hills. 

The class does not dominate any ecoregion, but is concentrated in the Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills 

ecoregion and the Alaska Range-south-central mountains and valleys ecoregion of the park (Tables 4a 

and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 1.6% (95,590 acres) of Denali (Table 5). On the landcover map, this class 

is underrepresented on the south side of the Alaska Range due to its partial inclusion in the 

herbaceous/shrub class. 

Vegetation—This class includes all sites dominated by willows greater than 20 centimeters tall. Willow 

cover ranges from 25% to 95%, and its height ranges from 20 centimeters to 4.5 meters. Sites dominated 

by open tall willow and closed low willow are common in the park, whereas closed tall willow is 

uncommon. The dominant overstory species include Salix alaxensis, S. barclayi, S. bebbiana, S. glauca, 

S. lanata, and S. planifolia. Other overstory and understory shrubs include Shepherdia canadensis, 

Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, and Spirea beauverdiana. Tall alder (Alnus species) may also be 

found in isolated locations within the landcover class. Grasses, sedges, and mosses are an important 

30
 

component in some sites and include Heracleum lanatum, Calamagrostis canadensis, C. inexpansa, 

Epilobium angustifolium, Streptopus species and Veratrum viride. 

The willow shrub class is most commonly found next to low shrub classes on gentle toeslopes, fans, 

floodplains and wide valleys. It is found near needleleaf classes in narrow drainages and also in wide 

valleys. The dry-mesic herbaceous class occurs adjacent to the willow shrub class on sideslopes and 

saturated toeslopes. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the willow shrub class is 55.1%, with a user’s

accuracy of 50.0%. Most of the errors of commission are with the broadleaf forest and alder shrub 

classes. Most of the omission error is with alder shrub. 

31
 

 

CLOSED LOW BIRCH SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Greater than 75% of the total shrub 

cover is shrub birch, and total shrub cover is 75% to 100%. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. 

(1992) hierarchical level closed low shrub birch IIC1a.

Distribution and Site Characteristics— The closed low birch shrub landcover class is uncommon 

within Denali and is concentrated in the northeast portion of the park. It typically occurs at mid 

elevations (439 to 1,097 meters based on field data; Table 3) on gentle to moderate slopes within the 

foothills and broad valleys bordering the north side of the Alaska Range and the Kantishna hills. It also 

occurs on floodplains. The class does not dominate any one ecoregion, but is concentrated in the Alaska 

Range-interior mountains and valleys ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 0.9% (54,034 

acres) of the Park (Table 5). The landcover class typically occurs adjacent to various needleleaf forest 

and low shrub classes. 

Vegetation—Betula glandulosa or B. nana dominates this class. Average shrub cover is 75%. Tussocks 

are uncommon, but may be present. Associated species include low willow (Salix species), Vaccinium 

uliginosum, and various graminoid species. Small amounts of Picea glauca, Ledum decumbens, and 

moss also occur. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the closed low shrub birch class is 67.3%, 

with a user’s accuracy of 83.2%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are with the openwoodland stunted spruce class and the low shrub birch-ericaceous-willow class. 

32
 

 

LOW SHRUB BIRCH-ERICACEOUS-WILLOW LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Shrub birch, ericaceous shrubs and low 

willow (20 centimeters to 1.5 meters tall) individually contribute 25% to 75% of the total shrub cover; 

and total shrub cover is 25% to 100%. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical 

levels closed low scrub (IIC1), and open low scrub (IIC2). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The low shrub birch-ericaceous-willow landcover class is an 

ecologically broad class ranging from sites dominated by open willow to Betula nana and ericaceous 

shrubs. The class is a dominant type above the boreal forest region and below alpine on gentle to 

moderate slopes within the foothills and broad valleys bordering the Kantishna hills, the north side of the 

Alaska Range, and within Broad Pass. The elevation ranges from 204 to 1,068 meters based on field data 

(Table 3). It dominates several ecoregions including the Cook Inlet-glaciated hills and plains, Alaska 

Range-front range, Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills and Alaska Range-Teklanika mountains and plateaus 

ecoregions (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 9.5% (570,700 acres) of Denali (Table 5). Because 

this class covers a wide range of site conditions across the park, it is found adjacent to numerous 

landcover classes. However, it is most commonly found elevationaly above needleleaf classes and mixed 

in with other shrub classes.

Vegetation—Species composition and cover often fluctuate within and between sites. The dominant 

species are Betula nana, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Salix barrattiana, S. glauca, S. planifolia, Ledum 

decumbens, Vaccinium uliginosum, and Empetrum nigrum. Herbaceous species include Achillea species, 

Calamagrostis lapponica, Epilobium angustifolium, and Rumex species. Mosses are common on some

sites and lichens are rare. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the low shrub birch ericaceous willow class is 

83.4%, with a user’s accuracy of 75.3%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are with the low 

shrub-sedge class.

33
 

 

LOW SHRUB-SEDGE LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Low (20 centimeters to 1.5 meters tall) 

mixed shrubs and graminoids each contribute 25% to 75% of the total cover, and tussock formation is 

common. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical level open low scrub (IIC2). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The low shrub-sedge class is a common class occurring 

elevationaly above the boreal forest and below alpine (168 to 1,052 meters based on field data; Table 3). 

It occurs on gentle to moderate slopes of foothills and broad valleys bordering the Kantishna hills and the 

north side of the Alaska Range, and also on the hills north of Lake Minchumina. The soils are mesic with 

organic tussocks over top of mineral soil. Small seasonal pools of water often occur between tussocks. 

The class dominates the Alaska Range-Toklat Basin ecoregion and is common in other ecoregions 

including the Alaska Range-Teklanika mountains and plateaus and Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and flood 

plains ecoregions (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 4.6% (277,322 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

The low shrub-sedge class commonly forms a mosaic with the open-woodland stunted spruce and low 

shrub birch-ericaceous-willow landcover classes. 

Vegetation—Low shrubs over a lush sedge/graminoid layer that typically form tussocks characterize this 

class. The dominant species are Salix species, Betula nana, Chamaedaphne calyculata, Ledum 

decumbens, Carex aquatilis, Eriophorum brachyantherum, E. vaginatum and other graminoids. The 

combined shrub cover ranges from 25% to 74%. Picea mariana occurs sporadically, and Sphagnum 

species are a frequent associate along with other mosses. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the low shrub-sedge class is 82.8%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 80.3%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are with open-woodland 

stunted spruce and low shrub birch-ericaceous-willow map classes. 

34
 

PEATLAND LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—The peatland landcover class occurs on peatlands (bogs and fens) south of the Alaska 

Range. The peatlands north of the Alaska Range are not included in this class. The peatland landcover 

class is comprised of a variety of already defined landcover classes that occur on peat deposits including 

open-woodland stunted spruce, willow shrub, dry-mesic herbaceous and wet herbaceous. In addition, the 

Myrica gale plant association occurs in this landcover class. This combination class is defined because it 

is spectrally distinct on the south side of the Alaska Range, and the individual classes could not be 

spectrally separated reliably on peat deposits. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) 

hierarchical levels open needleleaf forest (IA2), needleleaf woodland (IA3), open dwarf tree scrub (IIA2), 

dwarf tree scrub woodland (IIA3), closed tall willow (IIB1a), open tall willow (IIB2a), closed low willow 

(IIC1b), open low scrub (11C2), dry graminoid herbaceous (IIIA1), mesic graminoid herbaceous (IIIA2), 

dry forb herbaceous (IIIB1), mesic forb herbaceous (IIIB2), wet graminoid herbaceous (IIIA3) and wet 

forb herbaceous (IIIB3). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The peatland landcover class is found only in the lowlands (74 

to 315 meters based on field data; Table 3) south of the Alaska Range. Peat deposits (i.e., peatlands, 

muskeg, bogs, fens) are composed of >0.5 meters of accumulated peat in areas of restricted drainage with 

water tables at or close to the peat surface. They occupy former lake basins and other closed depressions, 

alluvium along some valley floors, and are abundant on older glacial drift deposits within the boreal 

forest. The class covers 0.04% (2,304 acres) of Denali (Table 5). Peatlands are generally found adjacent 

to forested areas in Denali.

The gradient of nutrient availability and water sources in peatlands is typically divided into nutrient rich 

(fen) and nutrient poor (bog) peatlands. Fens are wetlands with wet organic soils, dominated by aquatic, 

emergent, and dwarf shrubs, or raised peat dominated by shrubs and trees. Ground water, the primary

water source in a fen, is nutrient rich because of its contact with mineral soils. Waters may be acidic or 

35
 

basic, but typically with a pH above 4.7. Water is lost through evapotranspiration, seepage (infiltration 

through the soil), and surface outflow. 

Bogs are wetlands with organic soils, typically dominated by Sphagnum (peat moss) species, sedges, 

grasses, or reeds. Bogs require depressions (ponds) in level areas where precipitation exceeds 

evapotranspiration. Precipitation is the primary water source in a bog, with little or no ground-water 

flow. Consequently the sites are nutrient-poor and acidic, commonly with a pH less than 4.7. The water 

table is at or close to the surface most of the year. Because of the continuum of site and vegetation 

change within a peatland, it is often difficult to clearly separate a fen from a bog in the field. 

Vegetation—In level areas, peatlands generally exhibit recognizable and consistent vegetation zonation 

patterns that are directly associated with different water depths. The vegetation, on a wet to dry moisture 

gradient, changes from aquatic (pond), to emergent and mesic herbaceous (Calamagrostis canadensis, 

Carex rostrata, C. aquatilis and Eleocharis quinqueflora), to shrub-dominated wetland (Myrica gale and 

Betula nana), to dwarf tree (Picea mariana). Sphagnum species occur in most dominance types. Not all 

the vegetation zones are always expressed, and the zonation may change abruptly, such as from a pond to 

a shrubland. Fens on ground with a slight gradient and with heavy subsurface and surface waterflow 

often develop a patterned ground of vegetated ridges, and vegetated or unvegetated hollows filled with 

water. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the peatland class is 82.3%, with a user’s

accuracy of 80.9%. Most of the errors of commission and omission are with the low shrub sedge class. 

36
 

HERBACEOUS/SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—The herbaceous/shrub landcover class is a mixture of three already defined landcover 

classes: willow shrub, dwarf shrub and dry mesic herbaceous. This combination class was created 

because of extensive over-classification of the low shrub sedge class on the upper slopes on the south side 

of the Alaska Range. The low shrub sedge class at this slope position was actually a combination of the 

willow shrub, dwarf shrub and dry mesic herbaceous classes. We were unable, however, to split the low 

shrub sedge class into its proper components—willow shrub, dwarf shrub and dry mesic herbaceous. The 

low shrub sedge class, consequently, was reclassified to a new class—herbaceous/shrub—at or above 

alder line (generally elevations of 600 m or greater) on the park’s south side. For a complete description 

of the methods used to define this class see Stevens et al. (2001). The class is comparable to the Viereck 

et al. (1992) hierarchical levels closed tall willow (IIB1a), open tall willow (IIB2a), closed low willow 

(IIC1b), open low scrub (11C2), dwarf scrub (IID), dry graminoid herbaceous (IIIA1), mesic graminoid 

herbaceous (IIIA2), dry forb herbaceous (IIIB1) and mesic forb herbaceous (IIIB2). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The herbaceous/shrub class is found on mountain ridges and 

slopes on the south side of the Alaska Range. It occurs both above the alder zone and mixed in with the 

alder class moving down slope. The willow shrub and dry mesic herbaceous classes occur adjacent to 

this class both up and down slope. The dwarf shrub class typically borders the herbaceous/shrub class 

upslope. The sites are typically moist, and occur below 1,500 meters elevation (Table 3). It is a major 

component of the Alaska Range-south-central mountains and valleys ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 

1998), and covers 1.1% (68,872 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—For species and structural information please review the individual landcover classes that 

make up the herbaceous/shrub class: willow shrub, dwarf shrub and dry mesic herbaceous. Note that 

sites dominated by Dryas octopetala are uncommon in the herbaceous/shrub class. Instead, dwarf shrub 

species are mixed, including Empetrum nigrum and Vaccinium uliginosum, and have a strong graminoid 

component. The dry mesic herbaceous component is typically lush and includes Calamagrostis 

canadensis, Athyrium filix-femina, Epilobium angustifolium, Geranium erianthum, Heracleum lanatum 

and Sanguisorba stipulata. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The accuracy of the herbaceous-shrub class was not assessed because the class is a 

combination of other map classes.

37
 

 

DWARF SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Shrub cover is greater than 25%, shrub 

height is less than 20 centimeters, and less than 25% of the site contains rock. The class is comparable to 

the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical level dwarf scrub (IID). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics— The dwarf shrub landcover class dominates alpine areas in the 

Alaska Range and the Kantishna Hills. It is found on unstable to stable surfaces such as gentle to steep 

mountain slopes, high mountain valley floors, and rounded mountain ridges (often exposed bedrock). 

Slopes range from 0 to >50%. The soils are a thin layer of dry to mesic sand, litter or organic matter. Its 

elevation ranges up to 1,335 meters based on field data (Table 3). This class dominates the Alaska 

Range-interior mountains and valleys ecoregion, and is common in the Alaska Range-front range and 

Alaska Range-south–central mountains and valleys ecoregions (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 

5.8% (346,847 acres) of Denali (Table 5). On the landcover map, this class is underrepresented on the 

south side of the Alaska Range due to its partial inclusion in the herbaceous/shrub class. 

The dwarf shrub landcover class often grades into the bare ground, sparse vegetation or dwarf shrubrock landcover classes and, on more stable sites, the alder shrub and willow shrub landcover classes. 

Vegetation— The dwarf shrub class is comprised of vegetation that generally reaches a height of 20 

centimeters or less. Most sites are a blend of dwarf shrubs with some sedge and lichen species often 

interspersed with exposed rock. The dominant dwarf shrubs include Dryas octopetala, D. integrifolia, 

Salix reticulata, S. arctica, S. phlebophylla, Cassiope tetragona, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctostaphylos 

rubra and A. alpina. Forbs include Epilobium angustifolium, Aster species, Heracleum lanatum, 

Veratrum viride, Anemone narcissiflora, and Campanula species. Some sites, however, have a strong 

graminoid presence, or are dominated by Dryas species in the dwarf shrub layer. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the dwarf shrub class is 78.4%, with a user’s

accuracy of 80.2%. Most of the errors of omission are with the low shrub birch-ericaceous-willow and

low shrub sedge map classes. 

38
 

DWARF SHRUB-ROCK LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy cover is less than 10% (or absent). Shrub cover is greater than 25%, shrub 

height is less than 20 centimeters, and rock cover is greater than 25%. The class is comparable to the 

Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical level dwarf scrub (IID). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The physical site characteristics of the dwarf shrub-rock 

landcover class are similar to the dwarf shrub landcover class, however it has a much higher surface rock 

component. It is a minor class of alpine areas in the Alaska Range and the Kantishna Hills, and is found 

on unstable to stable surfaces such as gentle to steep mountain slopes, high mountain valley floors, and 

rounded mountain ridges. In addition, it occurs on sandbars and alluvial fans. The slope ranges up to 

>50%, and the elevation ranges up to 1,335 meters based on field data (Table 3). The soils are a thin 

layer of dry to mesic sand, litter or organic matter. Vegetation typically grows on the thin organic mat. 

This class is common in the Alaska Range-high mountains ecoregion and the Alaska Range-interior 

mountains and valleys ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). It covers 1.2% (73,894 acres) of Denali 

(Table 5). 

The dwarf shrub-rock class often grades into the bare ground, sparse vegetation or dwarf shrub 

landcover classes. On more stable surfaces, it grades into the alder shrub and willow shrub classes. 

Vegetation—This class is dominated by dwarf shrubs, primarily Dryas octopetala and D. integrifolia, 

interspersed with exposed rock. Few additional species are present. Other dwarf shrubs include Salix 

reticulata, S. arctica, S. phlebophylla, Cassiope tetragona, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctostaphylos rubra, 

and A. alpina. Forbs include Epilobium angustifolium, Aster species, Heracleum lanatum, Veratrum 

viride, Anemone narcissiflora, and Campanula species. Fruticose lichen species are common. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the dwarf shrub-rock class is 54.9%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 50.3%. Most of the errors of omission and commission are with the dwarf shrub and 

sparse vegetation classes. The number of dwarf shrub-rock signatures available for the accuracy

assessment is significantly less than preferred.

39
 

 

DRY-MESIC HERBACEOUS LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy is less than 10% (or absent), shrub cover is less than 25%, and herbaceous 

cover is greater than 25%. Vegetation is terrestrial (not submerged, floating, or growing in permanent 

water). Site is dry to mesic with little to no standing water. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. 

(1992) hierarchical levels dry graminoid herbaceous (IIIA1), mesic graminoid herbaceous (IIIA2), dry

forb herbaceous (IIIB1), and mesic forb herbaceous (IIIB2). The photo on the left is from the south side 

of the Alaska Range, and the photo on the right is a moist depression in the northwest region of Denali. 

Distribution and Site Characteristics— The dry-mesic herbaceous class is a minor class that occurs 

throughout the park under a variety of site conditions. It primarily occurs as rich herbaceous meadows on 

mesic sideslopes ranging up to >50% slope and river terraces on the south side of the Alaska Range. The 

class occurs both above the alder zone up to 1,200 meters, and mixed in with alder moving down slope 

(Table 3). On the landcover map, it is underrepresented on the south side of the Alaska Range due to its 

partial inclusion in the herbaceous/shrub class. 

It also occurs as grassy meadows, dominated by Calamagrostis canadensis, found on low elevation 

moist—and periodically wet—depressions within the boreal forest in the northwestern portion of the park. 

These sites are moist, however, standing water may be present in small amounts seasonally. Tussock 

tundra, dominated by Eriophorum species, also forms a portion of this class occurring as small patches on 

gentle to moderate slopes of foothills and broad valleys bordering the Kantishna hills and the north side of

the Alaska Range, and also on hills near Lake Minchumina. Tussock tundra soils are mesic with tussocks 

of organic matter and live vegetation over mineral soil. Small seasonal pools of water are often found 

between the tussocks. The dry-mesic herbaceous class nearly always occurs as small patches within a 

mosaic of other classes. Most landcover classes occur adjacent to the class due to its wide geographic 

distribution and elevation range. It is uncommon in most ecoregions except the Alaska Range-southcentral mountains and valleys ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998), and covers 0.8% (45,684 acres) 

of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—The dry-mesic herbaceous class is a grouping of plant associations that encompasses dry or 

mesic sites as well as lush herbaceous meadows. Herbaceous meadows contain such forbs as Veratrum 

viride, Ligusticum scoticum, Geranium erianthum, Cicuta douglasii, Iris setosa, Athyrium filix-femina, 

Calamagrostis canadensis, Epilobium angustifolium, Heracleum lanatum and Sanguisorba stipulata. 

Total cover often exceeds 90%. Low shrubs may also occur including Spiraea beauverdiana and Salix 

planifolia. 

40
 

The grassy meadows in the boreal forest are dominated by Calamagrostis canadensis with cover values 

up to 95%. Other species present but uncommon are Betula glandulosa, Vaccinium uliginosum, Athyrium 

filix-femina and Myrica gale. 

Sites that are dominated by tussocks have high levels of graminoids, predominantly Eriophorum species, 

and mosses. Surface water, Betula nana, and Rubus chamaemorus also occur. Tussock cover ranges up 

to 90% on sites sampled. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the dry-mesic herbaceous class is 70.0%, with 

a user’s accuracy of 85.6%. Most of the errors of omission and commission are with the low shrub, 

herbaceous shrub and dwarf shrub classes. 

41
 

WET HERBACEOUS LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy is less than 10% (or absent), shrub cover is less than 25%, and herbaceous 

cover is greater than 25%. The dominant vegetation is emergent; semi-permanent or standing water is 

present. The class is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical levels wet graminoid 

herbaceous (IIIA3), and wet forb herbaceous (IIIB3). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The wet herbaceous class occurs in small patches throughout

the park’s boreal forest zone and at higher elevations dominated by low shrubs. The sites have standing 

or semi-permanent water dominated by hydrophilic vegetation. It most frequently occurs on lake edges, 

but also on saturated river terraces, the edge of ponds, sloughs, fens, other patterned ground, and 

occasionally in pools of hillside streams. The sites have little to no slope. Relative to other classes, the 

wet herbaceous class is generally small in size and patchy in distribution throughout Denali. The highest 

elevation, based on field data, is 824 meters (Table 3). It is uncommon in all ecoregions except the 

Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and flood plains ecoregion and the Kuskokwim-Minchumina Basin ecoregion 

(Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998). The class covers 0.6% (38,427 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—Herbaceous composition is highly variable and includes Menyanthes trifoliata, Potentilla 

palustris, Cnidium cnidiifolium, Eriophorum brachyantherum, E. vaginatum, Equisetum fluviatile, Carex 

rostrata, C. aquatilis and C. lasiocarpa. Each species may dominate a site. Low shrubs associated with 

the wet herbaceous class include Betula nana, Salix species, Potentilla fruticosa, Myrica gale, and Spirea 

beauverdiana. Sphagnum species sometimes form a floating mat interspersed with the emergent vascular 

species. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the wet herbaceous class is 68.7%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 89.7%. Errors of omission and commission are relatively small, but scattered with a 

number of different mapping classes (open-woodland stunted spruce, willow shrub, low shrubs and 

water). 

42
 

AQUATIC HERBACEOUS LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Tree canopy is less than 10% (or absent), shrub cover is less than 25%, and herbaceous 

cover is greater than 25%. Vegetation is submerged, floating, or growing in permanent water. The class 

is comparable to the Viereck et al. (1992) hierarchical level freshwater aquatic herbaceous (IIID1). 

Distribution and Site Characteristics—The aquatic herbaceous class occurs in small patches of open 

water throughout the park’s boreal forest zone and at higher elevations dominated by low shrubs. The 

sites are in open water of lakes, ponds, sloughs and fens. It is generally small in size and patchy in 

distribution throughout Denali. The aquatic herbaceous class is uncommon in all ecoregions (Tables 4a 

and 4b; Clark 1998), and covers less than 0.01% (564 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Vegetation—A high cover of water is found in this class. Associated vegetation includes Nymphaea 

tetragona, Nuphar polysepalum, and a few graminoids. Other aquatic species occur but were not sampled 

during the field season. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the aquatic herbaceous class is 100%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 100%. The number of aquatic herbaceous signatures available for the accuracy

assessment is significantly less than preferred. All accuracies are based on the 25-class landcover map at 

a 2-acre mapping unit prior to the digital integration of the burn mask. 

43
 

SPARSE VEGETATION LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—The sparse vegetation landcover class refers to sites with 15% to 24% total vegetation 

cover. 

Distribution and Site Characteristics— The sparse vegetation class is common in alpine areas of the 

Alaska Range. It is generally found on unstable to stable upslope bedrock and unconsolidated rock in the 

mountains and high mountain valley floors. This class also occurs on sandbars, alluvial fans and the 

debris covered surfaces of glaciers. The physical site characteristics are similar to the dwarf shrub-rock 

class however it has a much higher surface rock and mineral soil component. The slope ranges up to 

>50%, and the elevation ranges up to 1,142 meters based on field data, however, the spectral map places 

the maximum elevation at 4,527 meters (Table 3). The soils are a thin layer of dry to mesic sand, litter or 

organic matter. The sparse vegetation typically occurs as patches on the organic matter interspersed with 

exposed rock. This class is common in the Alaska Range-high mountains, Alaska Range-interior 

mountains and valleys, and Alaska Range-south-central mountains and valleys ecoregions (Tables 4a and 

4b; Clark 1998). The sparse vegetation landcover class covers 4.8% (289,308 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

The class frequently occurs next to the bare ground, dwarf shrub-rock and dwarf shrub classes. 

Vegetation—The sparse vegetation class is dominated by dwarf shrubs—primarily Dryas octopetala—

surface rock, and exposed mineral soil. Other dwarf shrubs include Dryas integrifolia, Salix reticulata, S. 

arctica, S. phlebophylla, Cassiope tetragona, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctostaphylos rubra, and A. alpina. 

Forbs include Epilobium angustifolium, Aster species, Heracleum lanatum, Veratrum viride, Anemone 

narcissiflora, and Campanula species. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the sparse vegetation class is 87.6%, with a 

user’s accuracy of 45.7%. Most of the errors of omission and commission are with the bare and dwarf 

shrub-rock map classes. 

44
 

BARE GROUND LANDCOVER CLASS 

Classification—Bare ground represents areas with less than 15% vegetation cover. 

Distribution and Site Characteristics— The bare ground class primarily occurs on steep upslope 

bedrock, unconsolidated rock, mountain peaks, jutting rock outcrops, and talus slopes. It also represents 

exposed alluvial deposits along rivers, especially those with wide outwash plains. In addition, it 

represents the debris-covered surfaces of glaciers, typically increasing in cover toward a glacier’s

terminus. Bare ground is often found adjacent to the sparse vegetation, dwarf shrub-rock and dwarf 

shrub landcover classes. Elevation for the class ranges up to 5,536 meters based on the spectral map 

(Table 3). It dominates the Alaska Range-high mountains ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b; Clark 1998) and 

covers 9.8% (592,298 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the bare ground class is 70.7%, with a user’s

accuracy of 86.5%. Most of the errors of omission and commission are with the sparse vegetation class. 

45
 

SNOW/ICE LANDCOVER CLASS 

The snow/ice class refers to areas covered with snowfields, glaciers or late lying snow. Glacier surfaces 

have less exposed ice as one moves towards the terminus. The elevation ranges up to 6,188 meters based 

on the spectral map (Table 3). The snow/ice class dominates the Alaska Range-high mountains 

ecoregion, and is the most common class in Denali covering 15.5% (932,790 acres) of its total area (Table 

5). 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the snow/ice class is 99.7%, with a user’s

accuracy of 99.5%. Most of the minor errors of omission and commission are with the bare class. 

SHADOW INDETERMINATE LANDCOVER CLASS 

The shadow indeterminate landcover class includes areas of severe terrain shadow where landcover could 

not be reliably identified. This class covers 6.9% (657,887 acres) of Denali. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—Accuracies were not reported for the shadow indeterminate mapping class 

because the class was so heavily edited that the signatures were obsolete. 

46
 

SILTY WATER LANDCOVER CLASS 

Silty water refers to water containing moderate to high levels of glacial silt and debris. The major rivers 

and portions of some lakes—such as Lake Minchumina—are mapped as silty water. The silty water class 

is common in the Cook Inlet-braided flood plains and stream terrace ecoregion. The silty water class 

covers 0.5% (30,765 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the silty water class was 91.8%, with a user’s

accuracy of 97.7%. Most of the minor errors of omission and commission were with the bare class. This 

class covers 6.9% (413,260 acres) of the park. 

CLEAR WATER LANDCOVER CLASS 

Clear water indicates water with little to no sediment or glacial silt. Most lakes and ponds are mapped as 

clear water in the park. The class covers 1.0% (60,764 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Landcover Class Accuracy—The producer’s accuracy for the clear water class is 100%, with a user’s 

accuracy of 98.8%. The minor error of commission is with the silty water class. 

47
 

BURN LANDCOVER CLASS 

Description—The burn landcover class represents large areas that have recently been scarred by

wildfires. The class occurs predominantly in the northwest region of the park on level landscapes and 

rolling hills. The burns were dominated, pre-fire, by the various spruce dominated landcover classes. 

Because limited air and ground information was collected within burn scars, it was not possible to 

accurately map the class. However, many of the more recent or very intense burns (as indicated by the 

scarring on the raw imagery) on the park’s west side were spectrally classified as wet herbaceous. Many

of the older, or less intense burns were spectrally mapped to the willow shrub or low shrub-sedge classes. 

See the description for the plant association Larix laricina, Betula papyrifera, Picea mariana, Ledum 

palustre, B. nana, Rubus chamaemorus, Eriophorum vaginatum, Oxycoccus microcarpos for a 

description of a post-fire community. The burn class is common in the Kuskokwim-alluvial fans and 

floodplains ecoregion (Tables 4a and 4b), and covers 2.9% (172,528 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Burn areas were identified and mapped by establishing thresholds within the NDVI layers created from

the 1994 and 1996 SPOT imagery and from the TM imagery. The thresholds for the upper and lower 

NDVI values for each image block were defined through an interactive review with the satellite imagery

and the associated thematic NDVI layers. Once the range of NDVI values corresponding to burn areas 

(i.e., no or very low 'greenness') were established, a burn mask that was constrained by Park provided fire 

polygon coverage was developed. However, users should take note that in addition to legitimate burn 

areas, some areas of legitimate wet herbaceous (i.e., wet herbaceous that was not burned) as well as some 

areas of water and aquatic herbaceous areas fell into the threshold range of NDVI values and were 

included in the burn mask. To help alleviate the misclassification of legitimate water (both silty and 

clear) and aquatic herbaceous to burn, an additional water and aquatic herbaceous mask was also 

provided. See Volume 1 (Stevens et al. 2001) for a complete desription of the methods used to develop

the burn landcover class. 

Landcover Class Accuracy—Accuracies were not reported for the burn landcover class.

48
 

 

CLOUD LANDCOVER CLASS 

The cloud landcover class designates areas masked by cloud cover on the satellite imagery. Due to the 

lack of spectral data, vegetation classes could not be assigned to these sites. The cloud landcover class 

covers 0.01% (357 acres) of Denali (Table 5). 

Landcover Class Accuracy—Accuracies were not reported for the cloud landcover class because the 

class was so heavily edited that the signatures were obsolete. 

49
 

PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 

Plant association descriptions are provided below and are organized by landcover class. As stated in the 

methods, Heebner (1982) previously described forest and shrub plant associations for the north half of the 

Alaska Range and further north. The 56 Heebner (1982) plant association descriptions were copied and 

placed under the landcover class they occur in. 

The 41 plant associations not defined by Heebner (1982) but sampled during the 1999 field season were 

described and also placed under the proper landcover class. Plant association descriptions include species 

lists, canopy cover, structure, and site information. Constancy-coverage tables were created for each 

plant association defined using the 1999 field data and the tables are given in Appendix 4. 

DENSE-OPEN SPRUCE FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 1 

Picea glauca, Dryas integrifolia, Agropyron violaceum, Oxytropis campestris, Bryales C15 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This closed Picea glauca community has an overstory cover value of 45%. Picea seedlings 

occur, and the age of this type is 44 years. The major species of the shrub layer are Salix brachycarpa 

ssp. niphoclada (10% cover), Potentilla fruticosa (10% cover) and Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover). 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Dryas integrifolia ssp. integrifolia (75% cover), Agropyron 

violaceum (30% cover), Oxytropis campestris ssp. gracilis (25% cover), Gentiana propinqua ssp. 

propinqua (10% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (5% cover), Poa alpina (5% cover) and Solidago 

multiradiata (5% cover). 

The nonvascular layer is composed of Bryales (10% cover), Rhytidium rugosum (5% cover), Distichium 

capillaceum (5% cover), Peltigera horizontalis and Cladonia pyxidata var. pocillum. 

Environmental characteristics—The altitude of this type is 732 meters with zero range. It is found on 

alluvial deposits. This type is similar to C14, but the overstory was more closed and composed of 

younger trees. 

OPEN-WOODLAND SPRUCE FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 12 

Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix species, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Hylocomium splendens, 

Stereocaulon species C10 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This open Picea glauca type is found at an average altitude of 564 meters with an average 

slope of 11% and a north exposure. The range in elevation is 518 to 610 meters, and the range in slope is 

8% to 13%. The overstory of Picea glauca has 20% cover. The shrub cover is made up of Alnus crispa 

(30% cover), Salix species (40% cover) and Betula nana (20% cover). Vaccinium vitis-idaea (35%

cover), Carex species and Gramineae are important to the herbaceous cover. Hylocomium splendens 

(60%) and Stereocaulon species (30% cover) are the most significant to the nonvascular layer. 

50
 

 

Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix glauca, Equisetum arvense, Rubus arcticus, feathermoss C8 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This community has a Picea glauca cover in the overstory of 30% with a mean age of 139.7 

years. The seedlings of this type are solely Picea glauca. Picea mariana is an occasional associate. The 

shrub cover is 5% Alnus crispa. Picea is approximately 15 meters in height, and the Alnus was 3 to 5 

meters in height. Salix glauca, Salix arbusculoides, Rosa acicularis and Viburnum edule also contributed 

to the shrub cover. The herbaceous cover is made up of Equisetum arvense (35%), Rubus arcticus (25%), 

Arctagrostis latifolia var. arundinacea (10%), Calamagrostis lapponica (10%), Cornus canadensis and 

Equisetum scirpoides. The feathermosses, Hylocomium splendens, Aulacomnium palustre, Pleurozium 

schreberi and Rhytidium rugosum dominate the nonvascular layer with a cumulative cover of 80%. 

Peltigera species and Cladonia species also contribute to the nonvascular cover. This type is more

variable in species composition with greater canopy closure than C6. 

Environmental characteristics—The average altitude is 567 meters, and the mean slope is 6% with 

exposures predominantly south/southwest. The range in elevation is 198 to 1,021 meters, and the range in 

slope is 0% to 30%. The substrate of this type is 65% alluvial/colluvial, 30% older moraines. 

Picea glauca, Betula glandulosa, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum, feathermoss C6 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This is an open Picea glauca community (15% to 20% cover); Picea mariana was an 

occasional associate. The mean age of this type is 172 years. Betula glandulosa is the dominant shrub 

with 60% cover. Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum and Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra contribute 

10%, 10% and 5% to the shrub layer respectively. The herbaceous layer is composed of Empetrum 

nigrum (25% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (25% cover), Aster sibiricus and Lycopodium annotinum var. 

pungens. The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (50%), Pleurozium 

schreberi (30%), Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia (5%), Nephroma arcticum (10%), Cladonia 

rangiferina (10%) and Cladonia species

Environmental characteristics—This type is at an average altitude of 562 meters with a 4% slope and a 

south/southwest exposure. The range in elevation is 453-671 meters. The range is slope is 3% to 22%. 

Picea glauca, Betula nana, Salix planifolia, Carex species C11, C7 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This community is an open Picea glauca community. The shrub layer is dominated by

Betula nana (40% cover) and Salix planifolia (60% cover). The herbaceous layer is dominated by Carex 

species. The data for this type was marginal and scanty which influenced the analysis. This type is an 

example of an outlier due to minimal information. 

Environmental characteristics—This community is at an average altitude of 829 meters with a range in 

elevation from 820 to 838 meters. 

51
 

Picea glauca, Potentilla fruticosa, Salix planifolia, Festuca altaica, Bryales, Stereocaulon species 

C14 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of Picea glauca of this plant association has a cover value of 40%. Picea 

glauca seedlings are evident. The shrub layer is composed of Salix glauca, Salix barclayi and Salix 

planifolia ssp. pulchra, all with an average cover of 10%. Betula nana (10% cover), Potentilla fruticosa 

(15% cover) and occasionally Vaccinium uliginosum also occur in the shrub layer. The major species 

found in the herbaceous layer are Salix reticulata (10% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (10% cover), 

Festuca altaica (25% cover), Agropyron violaceum (25% cover), Artemisia tilesii (5% cover), Carex 

scirpoidea (5% cover), Sausserea angustifolia (5% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (5% cover), Poa arctica 

(10% cover) and Senecio lugens (5% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are mosses of 

the Bryales family (30% cover), Stereocaulon species (25% cover), Peltigera canina var. rufescens and 

Cladonia species. This plant association is similar to C13 although the overstory is more closed. 

Environmental characteristics—The average altitude of this type is 776 meters ranging from 732 to 820 

meters. The mean age is 182 years, and the type is found on alluvial deposits. 

Picea glauca, Salix glauca, Salix reticulata, Arctagrostis latifolia, feathermoss, Cladonia 

rangiferina, Cladonia amaurocrea C12 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This plant association has an overstory of Picea glauca with a cover value of 10% to 25%. 

Seedlings of Picea glauca are evident, and the mean age of this type is 120.4 years. The shrub cover is 

composed of Salix alaxensis (10% cover), Salix glauca (10% cover), Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (10%

cover), Betula nana (10% cover), Ledum palustre (15% cover), Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover) and 

Vaccinium uliginosum (10% cover). The herbaceous cover is composed of Salix reticulata (25% cover), 

Arctagrostis latifolia (30% cover), Equisetum arvense (10% cover), Equisetum scirpoides, Empetrum 

nigrum (10% cover), Festuca rubra (5% cover), Lupinus arcticus (10% cover), Sausserea angustifolia 

(5% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (5% cover), Senecio lugens (5% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (5% 

cover), Dryas integrifolia (5% cover) and Cassiope tetragona (5% cover). 

The nonvascular layer contained the feathermosses, Holycomium splendens, Rhytidium rugosum, 

Drepanocladus uncinatus and Aulacomnium acuminatum with a cumulative cover of 15%. Cladonia 

rangiferina, Cladonia amaurocrea, Cladonia pyxidata var. pocillum and Peltigera canina var. rufescens 

were also contributors to the nonvascular layer. 

Environmental characteristics—This type was found at an average altitude of 695 meters with a 9% 

slope and a south exposure. The range in elevation is 236 to 892 meters, and the range in slope is 0% to 

28%. The communities were usually disturbed with drainage gullies contributing to the variability of this 

type. The mean age of this type was 120.4 years, but the range in stand age was 210 years.

52
 

Picea glauca/Salix lanata plant association 

White spruce/Richardson willow plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Picea glauca (15% cover and 7.6 meters tall) is the only tree species recorded in the Picea 

glauca/Salix lanata plant association (Appendix 4). Salix lanata (60% cover) dominates the shrub layer, 

Equisetum arvense (70% cover) dominates the herbaceous layer, and total moss cover is 80%. Additional 

species include Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula glandulosa, Ledum groenlandicum and lichens. 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled for this association is located on a gentle 5-

degree slope at 910 meters elevation in the foothills north of the Alaska Range. 

Picea glauca/Salix planifolia plant association 

White spruce/diamond leaf willow; 1 site 

Vegetation—Picea glauca (30% cover and 9 meters tall) was the only tree species recorded in the Picea 

glauca/Salix planifolia plant association (Appendix 4). The understory is dominated by Salix planifolia 

(65% cover and 1.2 meters in height). Calamagrostis canadensis (70% cover) dominates the herbaceous 

layer, along with moss (20% cover) and Equisetum silvaticum (20% cover). Trace amounts of low shrubs

and forbs are also present. 

Environmental characteristics—The Picea glauca/Salix planifolia plant association is found within the 

boreal forest zone of the park. The site sampled is located on a toeslope at an elevation of 720 meters. 

53
 

Picea glauca, Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctostaphylos rubra, Hedysarum alpinum, 

Hylocomium splendens C13 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory cover value for Picea glauca in this plant association is 25% to 35%. The 

mean age is 175.3 years. The shrub layer is composed of Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (25% cover), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (30% cover), Potentilla fruticosa (10% cover) and Shepherdia canadensis (10%

cover). Salix hastata and Salix barclayi are occasional associates. The herbaceous cover is 

Arctostaphylos rubra (30% cover), Salix reticulata (25% cover), Elymus innovatus (10% cover), 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea (10% cover), Empetrum nigrum (10% cover), Pyrola grandiflora (25% cover) 

Astragalus alpinus (25% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (30% cover), Solidago multiradiata (10% cover), 

Aster sibiricus (10% cover), Dryas integrifolia (5% cover) and Tofieldia coccinea (10% cover). The 

nonvascular layer is dominated by Hylocomium splendens with 75% cover. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 712 meters with an average 

slope of 2% and an average aspect of 230 degrees. The substrate is alluvial and predominantly river bars. 

This plant association has a greater closure of overstory than C12. 

Picea glauca, Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Empetrum nigrum, Hylocomium splendens 

C9 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The community has an overstory of Picea glauca that has a mean cover value of 30%. The 

shrub layer is composed of Salix species (usually Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra), Vaccinium uliginosum, 

Betula nana and Ledum palustre with cover values of 30%, 30%, 20%, and 10% respectively. Rosa 

acicularis, Spiraea beauverdiana are occasionally associates. The herbaceous cover is made up of 

Empetrum nigrum (75%), Polygonum bistorta (30%), Equisetum arvense (25%), Cornus canadensis 

(20%), Festuca altaica (25%), Trisetum spicatum (10%), Poa arctica (10%), Anemone parviflora (5%), 

Petasites frigida (5%), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (10%), Carex bigelowii (5%), and Salix reticulata. The 

nonvascular layer is composed of Hylocomium splendens (75% cover), Stereocaulon species (5% cover), 

Nephroma arcticum (5% cover), Peltigera aphthosa (5% cover), Cladonia species (5% cover) and 

Polytrichium species. The mean age of this type is 124.9 years. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at a mean altitude of 804 meters with an average 

slope of 8% with a south exposure. The range in elevation is 328 to 1,000 meters. 

Picea mariana/Equisetum silvaticum plant association 

Black spruce/horsetail plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Picea mariana (80% cover and an average height of 9.1 meters) is the only tree species 

recorded in this association (Appendix 4). Equisetum silvaticum (80% cover) dominates the understory

with 80% cover and the moss Hylocomium splendens (90% cover) dominates the groundcover.

Environmental characteristics—This association is found within the boreal forest zone of the park. The 

one site sampled is located on a gentle 2-degree slope adjacent to a stream. The soil profile consisted of 

20 centimeters of peat over silt interspersed with small angular stones. The water table was reached at 20 

centimeters. 

54
 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, Rubus chamaemorus, 

feathermoss C5 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—Picea mariana and Larix laricina are codominant in the overstory of this community with a

cumulative cover of 20%. The seedlings are predominantly Picea mariana and the average age is 186 

years. The 65% shrub layer cover is contributed by Ledum palustre ssp. groenlandicum (30%), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (25%), Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (5%), Salix lanata ssp. richardsonii (5%), and 

Betula glandulosa (5%). The herbaceous layer is composed of Rubus chamaemorus, Vaccinium vitisidaea, Empetrum nigrum, Arctagrostis latifolia var. arundinacea, Carex bigelowii, Equisetum arvense, 

Arctostaphylos alpina, Eriophorum vaginatum and Oxycoccus microcarpus. The first three species each 

contribute 10% to the herbaceous cover. The remaining species contribute 5% to the cover value. 

The feathermosses Pleurozium schreberi, Hylocomium splendens and Aulacomnium ssp. contribute 45% 

to the nonvascular cover and Sphagnum species contribute 5%. Cladonia rangiferina (30%), Cladonia 

multiformis, Cladonia species and Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia are also contributing nonvascular 

species. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found in the Tanana lowland at an average altitude of 261 

meters on alluvial/colluvial deposits. The range in elevation is 198 to 317 meters. Sphagnum species

have less cover value, and the Larix seedlings and Alnus crispa are absent as compared to C4. 

OPEN-WOODLAND STUNTED SPRUCE LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 11 

Larix laricina plant association 

Tamarack plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—The overstory of the Larix laricina plant association is dominated by Larix laricina (30%

cover), with Betula papyrifera as a minor subdominant (Appendix 4). Both Larix laricina and Betula 

papyrifera are low in stature reaching 3 meters and 0.9 meters, respectively. Understory species include 

Chamaedaphne calyculata (50% cover), Sphagnum species (50% cover), Equisetum fluviatile (10%

cover) and Betula papyrifera (5% cover). 

55
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled was found on wet organic soils within a large 

wetland complex at low elevation in the northwest portion of the park. 

Larix laricina, Picea mariana, Andromeda polifolia, Eriophorum vaginatum, Sphagnum species C1 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The average overstory of this community is 10 to 15%, predominantly composed of Larix 

laricina. Picea mariana is associated. This is an early successional type of wet areas with an average 

stand age of 74 years. The ground surface is hummocky, being too wet to form tussocks. Andromeda 

polifolia is the dominant shrub with an average cover of 50-75%. Betula nana, Ledum palustre, and 

Chamedaphne calyculata are associated all with an average cover of 10%. Salix fuscescens and 

Vaccinium uliginosum are rare associates. 

The herbaceous layer is dominated by Eriophorum vaginatum or Equisetum fluviatile with an average 

cover of 80%. Other herbs include Drosera rotundifolia, Carex rhynchophysa, Sparganium 

angustifolium, Menyanthes trifoliata, and Potentilla palustris. The nonvascular cover is 80% composed 

solely of Sphagnum species 

Environmental characteristics—This community is found in the Tanana lowland on eolian deposits at 

an average altitude of 217 meters (elevation range is 198 to 236 meters). 

Picea glauca/Salix glauca plant association 

White spruce/grayleaf willow plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—The overstory of the Picea glauca/Salix glauca plant association consists of widely spaced 

Picea glauca (15% cover), and an understory of Salix glauca (60% cover; Appendix 4). Tree height is 6 

meters and the shrubs average 1.5 meters tall. Calamagrostis canadensis (50% cover) dominates the 

herbaceous layer. Other common species include Salix lanata and Alnus crispa. Trace amounts of 

Mertensia paniculata, Zygadenus elegans, Boykinia richardsonii, and Vaccinium uliginosum occur. 

Environmental characteristics—This association is found within the subalpine zone on the north side of 

the Alaska Range and the Kantishna Hills. The one site sampled is located on a 40-degree sideslope. 

Picea mariana/Betula glandulosa plant association 

Black spruce/resin birch; 1 site 

Vegetation—Picea mariana (20% cover) is the only tree species in the association, and Betula 

glandulosa dominates the understory with 40% cover (Appendix 4). Black spruce and resin birch reach 

3.7 meters and 0.9 meters in height, respectfully. Additional species with greater than 10% cover include 

Sphagnum species, Hylocomium splendens, Carex bigelowii, Eriophorum brachyantherum, and 

Vaccinium uliginosum. Carex bigelowii and Eriophorum brachyantherum increase in cover on wet 

microsites, and Ledum decumbens and Vaccinium uliginosum increase on the drier sites. 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs on floodplains within the boreal forest zone of 

the park. The one site sampled occurs on a floodplain with a 2-degree slope and mesic soil. 

56
 

Picea mariana/Carex bigelowii plant association 

Black spruce/Bigelow sedge plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Picea mariana (80% cover and 1.2 meters tall) is the only tree species in the association, 

and the tussocky understory is dominated by Carex bigelowii (60% cover) (Appendix 4). In the low 

shrub strata, both Ledum groenlandicum and Vaccinium uliginosum have a strong presence with 20% and 

30% cover, respectively. In the dwarf shrub strata Vaccinium vitis-idaea has 10% total cover. The moss 

layer has a total cover of 40% and is codominated by Hylocomium splendens and Sphagnum species. 

Trace amounts of forbs occur. 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in the subalpine zone and the higher elevation 

boreal forests of the park. The one site sampled is located on a colluvial slope with a 10-degree slope 

facing northwest. Soil on this site is mesic and tussock formation is common. 

Picea mariana/Eriophorum vaginatum plant association 

Black spruce/tussock cottongrass plant association; 5 sites 

Vegetation—The Picea mariana/Eriophorum vaginatum plant association is dominated by Picea 

mariana—and occasionally Picea glauca—in the overstory with cover reaching 20% and a height 

ranging from 1.5 to 6.0 meters (Appendix 4). Tussocks of Eriophorum vaginatum dominate the 

understory with cover values reaching 80%, and tussock height averaging 20 centimeters. Ledum 

decumbens or L. groenlandicum also has significant cover (50%) in some sites. Additional species 

include Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula glandulosa, Betula nana and Salix bebbiana. Mosses, such as 

Hylocomium splendens and Sphagnum fuscum, exceed 30% cover on some sites. 

57
 

 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is common on level (up to 2 degrees) slopes of 

floodplains, terraces and ice-core hills within the boreal forest predominantly on the north side of the 

Alaska Range. The elevation ranges from 339 to 700 meters. The tussocks average 20 centimeters tall 

and the hollows contain water during wet periods. Soils are mesic and have a layer of peat, averaging 25 

centimeters deep, over a thin layer of mineral soil. Permafrost is reached at a depth of 25 to 50 

centimeters. The one-pH value measures 7.0. 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Betula nana, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium 

vitis-idaea, Carex bigelowii, Sphagnum species C4 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—Picea mariana and Larix laricina are codominant and compose an overstory of 20%. Picea 

are the oldest trees, and the average age of this type is 194 years. Both Larix and Picea seedlings occur. 

The shrub stratum has a cover of 65% composed of Betula nana (25% cover), Salix planifolia ssp.

pulchra (5% cover), Ledum palustre (30% cover) and Vaccinium uliginosum (25% cover). 

Chamaedaphne calyculata, Alnus crispa and Spiraea beauverdiana are occasional associates. Empetrum 

nigrum, Carex bigelowii and Vaccinium vitis-idaea each have 25% cover in the herbaceous stratum.

Equisetum silvaticum and Rubus chamaemorus have 10% cover values. Arctagrostis latifolia var. 

arundinacea and Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. vaginatum are occasional associates. Sphagnum species, 

Pleurozium schreberi, Polytrichum strictum, Nephroma arcticum and Cladonia rangiferina have 75%, 

10%, 10%, 5%, and 10% cover values respectively in the nonvascular layer. 

Environmental characteristics—This type C4 is found in the Tanana lowland at an average altitude of 

309 meters. It most commonly occurs on alluvial/colluvial deposits (46%) but may also occur on 

glacial/fluvial substrates (26%), older moraines (17%), eolian deposits (5%) or lacustrine deposits (5%). 

The average slope is 2% with an exposure of 195 degrees. The slope ranges from 0% to 6%. The 

elevation of plots ranges from 198 to 479 meters, and the mean elevation is 309 meters. 

58
 

 

 

 

Picea mariana – Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Empetrum nigrum, Sphagnum species C2 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This community has an overstory closure of 20% codominated by Picea mariana and Larix 

laricina with an average age of 145 years. The shrub layer, with an average cover of 60%, is composed 

of Ledum palustre, Betula nana, and Vaccinium uliginosum with covers of 30%, 10%, and 20%

respectively. Salix glauca and S. planifolia spp. pulchra occur occasionally. The herbaceous cover is 

75%. Empetrum nigrum (60% cover) is the most abundant herb. Rubus chamaemourus, Oxycoccus 

microcarpus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Carex bigelowii each have 15% cover. Sphagnum species is 

dominant in the nonvascular layer with 70% cover. Cladonia rangiferina (20% cover), Cladonia 

alpestris, Cladonia species, Cetraria species, and Polytrichium strictum also add to the nonvascular layer. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found on a glacial/fluvial or alluvial/colluvial substrate at 

an average altitude of 460 meters in the Tanana lowland (elevation range is 329 to 506 meters). 

Picea mariana, Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Eriophorum vaginatum, Sphagnum species C3 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this community is dominated by Picea mariana with a cover of 20%. 

Larix laricina is occasionally associated and is generally older than the Picea. No Larix seedlings are 

present. The average age of this type is 123 years. Ledum palustre is the dominant shrub with a 30%

cover. Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, and Andromeda polifolia have cover values of 15%, 10% and 

5% respectively. Eriophorum vaginatum forms tussocks 30 centimeters high and has a cover of 70%. 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum, Oxycoccus microcarpus and Rubus chamaemorous are also 

frequent with cover values of 25%, 10%, 10%, and 10% respectively. 

Sphagnum species dominates the nonvascular layer with a cover of 50%. Cladonia rangiferina (20%

cover), Cladonia alpestris (5% cover), Cetraria cucullata, Nephroma arcticum and Pleurozium schreberi 

(5% cover) and Tomenthypnum nitens also compose the nonvascular layer. 

Environmental characteristics—C3 is found at an average altitude of 288 meters in the Tanana lowland 

with plots at altitudes ranging from 198 to 572 meters. In comparison to C2 this type is of younger age, 

contains less Larix, more Eriophorum, no Salix species and is of lower altitude. C3 is found most 

commonly on eolian or lacustrine substrates but also occurs on glacial/fluvial and alluvial/colluvial. 

Picea mariana/Ledum species plant association 

Black spruce/Labrador tea plant association; 7 sites 

Vegetation—This plant association is dominated by Picea mariana with at least 25% cover, and either 

Ledum groenlandicum or Ledum decumbens with 20% cover (Appendix 4). Cover for Ledum species

reaches over 90% in some sites. Picea mariana averages 1.5 to 6 meters in height. Associated species 

include Betula glandulosa, Betula nana, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Chamaedaphne 

calyculata, Rubus chamaemorus, and Eriophorum vaginatum. Small amounts of Larix laricina and 

Betula papyrifera may be present. Moss cover ranges from 60% to 90%, and Sphagnum species 

commonly dominate. 

59
 

Environmental characteristics—This association is a common component of the boreal forest on the 

north side of the Alaska Range within the park. It occurs at mid to low elevations (199 to 554 meters) on 

level low slope (<3 degree slope) landscapes including floodplains, pleistocene outwash deposits, and icecore hills. Permafrost is generally found within 0.5 to 0.8 meters of the soil surface. A significant layer 

of peat occurs on most sites and, occasionally, peat moss is found overlaying the peat. The one pH value 

recorded was 4.9. 

Picea mariana/Vaccinium uliginosum plant association 

Black spruce/Bog blueberry plant association; 2 sites 

Vegetation—Picea mariana (greater than 40% cover and 3 to 5 meters in height) is the only tree species

in the association (Appendix 4). Vaccinium uliginosum (average 30% cover) dominates the shrub layer. 

Other associated species include Ledum decumbens, Alnus crispa, Betula glandulosa, Betula nana, and 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea. Moss (25% to 90% cover) includes Hylocomium splendens, Sphagnum species, 

and Pleurozium species. 

60
 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is a component of the boreal forest north of the 

Alaska Range in Denali. It most frequently occurs on rounded ridgetops and gentle sideslopes (<10 

degree slope) of rolling hills. The soils are mesic and well drained often with a thin layer of organic 

matter (20 centimeters) overlaying mineral soil and bedrock. 

BROADLEAF FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 8 

Betula papyrifera, Alnus crispa, Rosa acicularis, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Hylocomnium splendens 

M10 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This is a closed overstory plant association dominated by Betula papyrifera. The average 

closure of the tree strata is 55%. Betula papyrifera has an average cover value of 40%. Populus 

tremuloides and Picea glauca are occasional associates in a subdominant position with cover values of 

5% each. All three-tree species are regenerating. The major species of the shrub layer are Alnus crispa 

(10% cover) and Rosa acicularis (10% cover). Ribes triste, Spiraea beauverdiana, Salix bebbiana and 

Ledum palustre ssp. groenlandicum are occasional associates. 

The herbaceous species list includes Vaccinium vitis-idaea (25% cover), Cornus canadensis (5% cover), 

Linnaea borealis (5% cover), Calamagrostis inexpansa (5% cover) and Pyrola secunda (2% cover). The 

nonvascular layer is dominated by Hylocomium splendens (20% cover), Peltigera species and Cladonia 

species 

61
 

 

 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at a mean altitude of 291 meters on a 15% slope 

with a south exposure. The range in altitude is 198 to 622 meters and the range in slope is 0% to 33%. 

Plots within this type had a fire 20 years ago. This type is found in the Tanana lowland. 

Populus balsamifera-Alnus crispa, Dryas drummondii, Shepherdia canadensis, Agropyron 

violaceum M3 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this type is 30% Alnus crispa and 10% Populus balsamifera. The 

overstory height is 3 meters. Populus balsamifera regeneration is important to the understory with a 

cover value of 20%. The major species of the shrub layer are Shepherdia canadensis (10% cover) and 

Salix setchelliana (3% cover). The herbaceous cover is composed of Dryas drummondii (75%), 

Agropyron violaceum (5% cover) Oxytropis species (5%cover), Carex aurea and Senecio pauperculus. 

Environmental characteristics—This community is found at an altitude of 232 meters on 

alluvial/colluvial deposits. The ground surface is 30% unvegetated sand. This is a younger successional 

type than M2 which is also found on gravel bars. Alnus crispa is more important to the overstory than in 

M2. Salix alaxensis was important in the understory, and Alnus crispa was absent from M2. The type 

M3 is found at a lower altitude than M2 and is found in the Tanana lowland as opposed to M1 and M2 

which are found in the northern foothills. This type was not aged. 

Populus balsamifera, Larix laricina, Picea glauca, Salix alaxensis, Hedysarum alpinum, Epilobium 

angustifolium M6 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this community is dominated by Populus balsamifera with a cover value 

of 35%. Larix laricina and Picea glauca occur in the subdominant strata both with cover values of 5%. 

Populus balsamifera is the oldest species with an average age of 80 years. The average age of Larix 

laricina is 50 years while Picea glauca is 38 years. Both Picea glauca and Populus balsamifera 

regeneration is evident. Alnus crispa (10% cover) and Salix alaxensis (10% cover) are important to the 

shrub overstory. Major species of the shorter shrub layer are Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover), Rosa 

acicularis (3% cover), Vaccinium uliginosum (3% cover) and Potentilla fruticosa (2% cover). Major 

species of the herbaceous layer are Epilobium angustifolium, Hedysarum alpinum, Aster sibiricus and 

Arctostaphylos rubra, all of 5% cover. The major species of the nonvascular layer is Hylocomium 

splendens with 5% cover. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 457 meters on 

alluvial/colluvial deposits (80% of plots) and glacial/fluvial deposits (20% of plots). The range in 

elevation was 227 to 640 meters. The soil was sandy, and this is a flood plain successional type. 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Rosa acicularis, Calamagrostis lapponica, 

Equisetum silvaticum, Polytrichium species M9 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The closed overstory of this plant association is 5% Picea glauca and 35% Betula 

papyrifera or Populus balsamifera. The regeneration was predominantly deciduous. The shrub cover 

was Alnus crispa (20% cover), Salix alaxensis (5% cover), Salix arbusculoides (5% cover), Salix species 

(10% cover), Rosa acicularis (10% cover), Ribes triste (1% cover) and Viburnum edule (3% cover). 

62
 

 

Spiraea beauverdiana and Ledum palustre ssp. groenlandicum are occasional associates. The herbaceous 

species composition is Calamagrostis lapponica (30% cover), Equisetum silvaticum (20% cover), 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea (5% cover), Cornus canadensis (5% cover) and Epilobium angustifolium (10%

cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are Polytrichium species (50% cover), Cladonia 

species (10% cover), Peltigera species, Aulacomnium species and Hylocomium splendens (10% cover). 

This type has an overstory of Betula papyrifera or Populus balsamifera. The under stories are similar. 

The Betula papyrifera overstory subtype was disturbed by a 1968 fire which left evidence in fire-charred 

Picea glauca and Betula papyrifera. 

Environmental characteristics—The overstory of this subtype was found at a mean altitude of 404 

meters with and elevation range of 198 to 610 meters. The Populus balsamifera overstory subtype was 

found on a 39% slope of south exposure with an altitude of 610 meters. 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Alnus crispa, Salix alaxensis, Calamagrostis inexpansa, 

Tommenhypnum nitens M5 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This plant association is predominantly deciduous, although Picea glauca occurs 

occasionally in the overstory (5% cover). Picea glauca seedlings occur. Populus balsamifera has a cover 

value of 25%. Alnus crispa and Salix alaxensis both have cover values of 40%. The major species of the 

lower shrub layer are Salix arbusculoides (15% cover), Salix barclayi (15% cover) and Salix planifolia 

ssp. pulchra (10% cover). Salix scouleriana and Potentilla fruticosa are occasional associates. The 

herbaceous layer contains Arctostaphylos rubra (15% cover), Cornus canadensis (10% cover), Rubus 

arcticus (15% cover), Calamagrostis inexpansa (15% cover), Anemone richardsonii (5% cover) and 

Parnassia kotzebuei. 

The major species of the nonvascular layer is Tomenthypnum nitens with 25% cover. 

This community is found at a mean altitude of 281 meters on alluvial/colluvial deposits (60% of plots) or 

eolian deposits (40% of plots). 

Environmental characteristics—The range in elevation is 213 to 323 meters. This is also a successional 

flood plain type of older age than M1, M2, M3, and M4. It is exposed to occasional flooding which 

accounts for the relative poor development of the herbaceous and nonvascular layer. This type is found in

the Tanana lowland. 

Populus balsamifera, Picea glauca, Salix alaxensis, Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, Empetrum 

nigrum, Epilobium angustifolium, Hylocomium splendens M8 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this type has a closure of 45% that is predominantly Populus balsamifera. 

Picea glauca occurs in the understory. The seedlings are predominantly Picea glauca. The average age 

of this type is 99 years with the Populus balsamifera being the oldest trees. Salix alaxensis (30% cover) 

and Alnus crispa (30% cover) are important to the understory. The shrub layer also contains Salix 

planifolia ssp. pulchra (30% cover), Salix barclayi (20% cover), Salix glauca (20% cover) and Potentilla 

fruticosa (25% cover). Rosa acicularis, Juniperus communis, Shepherdia canadensis, and Vaccinium 

uliginosum are occasional associates. 

63
 

 

 

 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Empetrum nigrum (50% cover), Aster sibiricus (35%

cover), Dryas integrifolia (35% cover), Epilobium angustifolium (35% cover), Rubus arcticus (25%

cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (25% cover), Carex species (C. podocarpa or C. scirpoidea, 20% cover), 

Hedysarum alpinum (20% cover), Salix arctica (20% cover), Equisetum species (20% cover), Parnassia 

palustris (10% cover) and Festuca rubra (8% cover). Occasional associates are Hierochloe odorata, 

Calamagrostis inexpansa, Linnaea borealis and Arctagrostis latifolia. Major species of the nonvascular 

layer are Hylocomium splendens (60% cover), Sphagnum species (10% cover), Ceratodon purpureus, 

Drepanocladus uncinatus and Aulacomium palustre. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 664 meters with a 12% 

slope at an aspect of 68 degrees. The range in elevation is 485 to 914 meters, and the range in slope is 0% 

to 39%. This is an older successional type than M7 being found on more stable riverbanks. The higher 

cover values and more species in the understory are evidence of this comparison to M7. This type is 

found in the northern foothills. 

Populus balsamifera, Salix alaxensis, Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Senecio lugens M2 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this community is Populus balsamifera with a closure of 25%. The age of 

this community is 62 years and Populus balsamifera regeneration is evident. 

The major species of the shrub layer are Salix species. Salix alaxensis has a cover value of 30%. Salix 

arbusculoides, Salix glauca, and Salix barclayi have cumulative cover of 60%. Shepherdia canadensis 

(15% cover) and Betula nana (5% cover) are common associates. 

The major species in the herbaceous layer are Senecio lugens (60% cover), Solidago multiradiata (15%

cover), Delphinium glaucum (20% cover), Aster sibiricus (30% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (10% cover), 

Pedicularis verticillata (5% cover), Elymus innovatus (5% cover), Festuca altaica (5% cover), Epilobium 

latifolium (5% cover) and Poa glauca (5% cover). The nonvascular layer has a 10% cover value with 

major species being Hylocomium splendens and Stereocaulon species 

Environmental characteristics—The soils of this type are sandy, and 40% of the ground surface is 

unvegetated. The altitude is 649 meters, and the type is found on alluvial deposits. This type is a younger 

gravel bar successional type than M1. There is a higher percentage of unvegetated mineral soil and 

decaying wood in the plots of this type. 

Populus balsamifera, Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Shepherdia canadensis, Arctostaphylos 

rubra, Senecio lugens, Hylocomium splendens M1 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this plant association is Populus balsamifera and has a cover value of 

25%. The shrub layer is made up of Salix alaxensis (10% cover), Salix barrattiana (5% cover), Salix 

barclayi (5% cover), Salix brachycarpa ssp. niphoclada (5% cover), Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (10%

cover), Shepherdia canadensis (25% cover), Betula nana (10% cover), Festuca altaica (25% cover), 

Arctostaphylos rubra (20% cover), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (20% cover), Senecio lugens (20% cover), 

Parnassia palustris (20% cover), Pedicularis verticillata (10% cover), Pyrola secunda (10% cover), 

Empetrum nigrum (10% cover), Salix reticulata (10% cover), Carex scirpoidea (10% cover), Epilobium 

latifolium (5% cover) and Hedysarum alpinum (5% cover). 

64
 

 

 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are the feathermosses (75% cover), Hylocomium splendens 

and Pleurozium schreberi. The lichens Cladonia rangiferina, Cladonia pyxidata, Cladonia chlorophaea, 

Peltigera aphthosa, Peltigera canina var. rufescens, Cetraria ericetorum and Stereocaulon species also 

occur. The average age of this type is 86 years with Populus balsamifera regeneration occurring. 

Environmental characteristics—The communities are found at an altitude of 741 meters on alluvial 

deposits. 

MIXED SPRUCE-BROADLEAF FOREST LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 4 

Picea glauca, Betula papyrifera, Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, Calamagrostis lapponica, 

Carex nesophila, Peltigera aphthosa M11 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The tree strata of this type has a cover value of 20% to 30%. The overstory is dominated by

Picea glauca (10% to 20% cover). Betula papyrifera (20% cover) or Populus balsamifera (1% cover) are 

complimentary associates. The average age of the type is 39 years, and the regeneration is Picea glauca. 

The plant association is similar to M9. The under stories are similar, but the overstories appear to be 

subtypes dominated by Picea glauca. The Picea glauca-Populus balsamifera subtype is found at an 

altitude of 930 meters on a 22% slope and southwest exposure. The Picea glauca-Betula papyrifera 

subtype is found at an altitude of 325 meters and was disturbed by a 1969 fire. The Betula papyrifera and 

Picea glauca are generating in this subtype. 

The major species of the shrub layer are Betula nana (10% cover), Vaccinium uliginosum (10% cover), 

Ledum palustre (5% cover) and Rosa acicularis (5% cover), Spiraea beauverdiana, Salix glauca and 

Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra are occasional associates. The major species of the herbaceous layer are 

Carex nesophila (5% cover) and Calamagrostis lapponica, (5% cover). The Picea -Betula subtype 

contains Epilobium latifolium in the herbaceous layer with 10% cover. The Picea -Populus subtype 

contains Vaccinium vitis-idaea (25% cover), Empetrum nigrum (25% cover) and Poa arctica (20%

cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Peltigera aphthosa (10% cover), Cladonia species (5% 

cover) and Stereocaulon species (5% cover). Polytrichium species (35% cover) is associated with the 

fire-charred subtype whereas Hylocomium splendens (35% cover) is important in the Picea -Populus 

slope subtype. 

Environmental characteristics—The community has a mean altitude of 628 meters with a range from

325 to 930 meters. The average slope is 12% ranging from 1 to 22%. The exposure is south, and the type 

is found on sedimentary bedrock and alluvial/colluvial surficial deposits. 

Picea glauca, Populus balsamifera, Vaccinium uliginosum, Ledum palustre, Empetrum nigrum, 

Pyrola grandiflora, Hylocomium splendens M7 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The average overstory of this type is 15% and is dominated by Picea glauca. Populus 

balsamifera and Larix laricina are associates in the subdominant layer with a 10% cover and 3% cover 

65
 

 

 

respectively. The average age of Picea glauca is 125 years. The average age of Populus balsamifera and 

Larix laricina was 135 years and 50 years respectively. The regeneration is predominantly Picea glauca, 

but young trees of Populus balsamifera and Larix laricina of 1 to 2 meters in height occur. Alnus crispa 

(5% cover), Salix arbusculoides (5% cover), Salix barclayi (5% cover), Ledum palustre (45% cover), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (45% cover), Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover) and Potentilla fruticosa (5% 

cover) are the major species of the shrub layer. Rosa acicularis and Viburnum edule are occasional 

associates. 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Empetrum nigrum (20% cover), Pyrola grandiflora (20%

cover), Cornus canadensis (5% cover), Arctagrostis latifolia (3% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (5% 

cover) and Vaccinium vitis-idaea (5% cover). Mertensia paniculata, Saussurea angustifolia and Rubus 

arcticus are occasional associates. The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens 

(60% cover) and Polytrichium strictum (3% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 410 meters with an average 

slope of 5% with south exposure. The range in elevation is 213 to 930 meters, and the range in slope is 

0% to 32%. It is found predominantly on alluvial/colluvial deposits in the Tanana lowland. It is a flood 

plain successional type of older age than M6. 

Picea mariana, Betula papyrifera, Larix laricina, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Empetrum nigrum, feathermoss M12 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This community has a tree strata closure of 20% to 35%. The overstory is dominated by

Picea mariana (20% average cover). Larix laricina and Betula papyrifera each have 10% cover values in 

the understory. All three species are regenerating. The average age of the Picea mariana is 93 years. 

The average age of the Larix laricina is 31 years. Important species in the shrub stratum are Salix 

arbusculoides (5% cover), Salix barclayi (5% cover), Salix glauca (5% cover), Ledum palustre (25%

cover), Vaccinium uliginosum (25% cover) and Betula nana (5% cover). Spiraea beauverdiana, 

Potentilla fruticosa, Salix bebbiana and Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra are occasional associates. 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Vaccinium vitis-idaea (25% cover), Empetrum nigrum 

(20% cover), and Equisetum sylvaticum (5% cover). Saussurea angustifolia (10% cover), Rubus 

chamaemorus (10% cover), Festuca rubra (5% cover) and Eriophorum vaginatum (or Carex bigelowii) 

are important occasional associates. The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium 

splendens (50% cover), Pleurozium schreberi (5% cover), Sphagnum species (10% cover), Polytrichium 

species, Cladonia rangiferina (10% cover), Cladonia species and Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found in the Tanana lowland at an average altitude of 264 

meters the range in elevation is 198 to 334 meters. The substrate is predominately alluvial/colluvial 

deposits (67% of plots). Eolian (17% of plots), glacial (8% of plots) and lacustrine (8% of plots) deposits 

underlie this type also. 

Populus balsamifera-Picea glauca, Salix glauca, Juniperus communis, Elymus innovatus, 

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Hylocomium splendens M4 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This plant association has an overstory closure of 35% with Populus balsamifera and Picea 

glauca codominant. The mean age of the Populus balsamifera is 96 years. Picea glauca seedlings are 

66
 

evident. The major species of the shrub layer are Salix glauca (10% cover), Salix brachycarpa ssp. 

niphoclada (10% cover), Juniperus communis (10% cover) and Shepherdia canadensis (3% cover). The 

major species of the herbaceous layer are Elymus innovatus (20% cover), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (10%

cover), Calamagrostis inexpansa (10% cover), Oxytropis campestris ssp. gracilis (5% cover) and 

Hedysarum alpinus (5% cover). Geocaulon lividum, Carex cocinna and Pyrola secunda are of scattered 

occurrence. The major nonvascular species are Hylocomium splendens (33% cover), Cladonia species 

(10% cover), Peltigera aphthosa, Cetraria cucullata and Polytrichium species 

Environmental characteristics—This type was found at an average altitude of 275 meters on 

alluvial/colluvial deposits in the Tanana lowland. 

ALDER SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 7 

Alnus crispa plant association 

American green alder plant association; 5 sites 

Vegetation—Alnus crispa dominates the overstory (80% to 100% cover), and the understory is sparse 

with less than 20% vascular plant cover (Appendix 4). The average height of Alnus crispa is 2.7 meters 

and other tall shrubs rarely occur in this plant association. Understory species include Ribes triste, 

Linnaea borealis, Rosa acicularis, Dryopteris dilatata, Athyrium filix-femina and Equisetum sylvaticum. 

Moss cover is less than 10%. The Calamagrostis canadensis and Vaccinium uliginosum/low shrub plant 

associations are typically found mixed with this type and on higher slope positions. 

67
 

 

Environmental characteristics—This is a dominant shrub association within Denali, especially on the 

south side of the Alaska Range. It occurs on mountain sideslopes typically starting on the lower slope 

position and extending up to subalpine or alpine. In forested regions, it occupies avalanche chutes. On 

sampled sites, the slope ranges from 5 to 35% and the elevation ranges up to 900 meters. The soils are 

typically mesic with litter over mineral soil. 

Alnus crispa/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association 

American green alder/Bluejoint plant association; 4 sites 

Vegetation—Alnus crispa (50% to 100% cover and average height of 2.4 meters) dominates the 

overstory (Appendix 4). Calamagrostis canadensis (20% to 75% cover) is the dominant understory

species. Species diversity is low. Other species include Salix lanata, Salix alaxensis, Rosa acicularis and 

Carex bigelowii. Sapling Populus balsamifera occasionally occurs on floodplain sites. Moss cover 

ranges from 0% to 10%. 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs on both mountain side slopes and floodplains 

within the boreal forest and subalpine zone. On sampled sites, the slope was 0% on floodplains and up to

40% on sideslopes. Elevations range up to 900 meters 

Alnus crispa/Ericaceous shrub plant association 

American green alder/Ericaceous shrub plant association; 4 sites 

Vegetation—The Alnus crispa/Ericaceous shrub plant association is comprised of patches of thick Alnus 

crispa interspersed within a matrix of ericaceous shrubs. The Alnus crispa patches typically occupy 30%

to 50% of the matrix and ericaceous shrubs the remainder. Betula glandulosa and Vaccinium uliginosum 

typically dominate the ericaceous patches. Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea and Ledum 

decumbens also occur. Other tall shrubs within the alder patches include Salix lanata and Salix glauca. 

The average height of Alnus crispa is 1.8 meters. Moss cover ranges from 10% to 80%. 

68
 

 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs on mountain sideslopes and river cut 

sideslopes extending from the boreal forest zone up through subalpine and, occasionally, the alpine zone. 

Adjacent types found up slope are typically low or dwarf shrub map classes. On sampled sites, the slope 

ranges from 15% to 30% and the elevation ranges up to over 900 meters. The soils are typically mesic 

with litter over mineral soil. 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Hylocomium 

splendens S6 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—Alnus crispa is dominant in the shrub overstory of this plant association. The height of 

Alnus crispa varies from 1.2 to 2 meters, and the cover varies from 5% to 75%. Salix planifolia ssp.

pulchra and Betula nana both with average heights of 0.9 meters and average cover values of 10% are 

codominant in the second shrub layer. Other associates in the shrub layer are Vaccinium uliginosum and 

Ledum palustre with average cover values of 30% and 10% respectively. Spiraea beauverdiana is an 

occasional associate. 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Empetrum nigrum (25% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

(25% cover), Carex bigelowii (10% cover) and Arctagrostis latifolia var. latifolia (8% cover). Important 

occasional associates are Petasites hyperboreus (10% cover), Polygonum bistorta (8% cover), 

Polemonium acutiflorum (2% cover) and Poa arctica (3% cover). The major species of the nonvascular 

layer are Hylocomium splendens (25% cover), Polytrichium species (3% cover) and Stereocaulon species

(2% cover). 

69
 

 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra, Equisetum arvense, Arctagrostis latifolia, Carex 

bigelowii S3 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—Alnus crispa, 2.5 meters tall, dominates the shrub overstory with 67% cover. Salix 

planifolia ssp. pulchra (10% cover, height 1.2 meters) dominates the shrub understory with frequent 

associates being Alnus crispa (10% cover), Betula nana (5% cover), Viburnum edule (10% cover), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (3% cover) and Spiraea beauverdiana (10% cover). The herbaceous layer 

contains the major species Equisetum arvense (75% cover), Carex bigelowii (25% cover), Arctagrostis 

latifolia (25% cover), Poa arctica (25% cover) and Polemonium acutiflorum (15% cover). Occasional 

associates in the herbaceous layer are Vaccinium vitis-idaea (2% cover), Rubus arcticus (25% cover), 

Equisetum sylvaticum (50% cover) and Petasites hyperboreus (25% cover). 

The nonvascular layer contains the following major species with their associated mean cover values: 

Polytrichium commune (2% cover) and Hylocomium splendens. Occasional associates were Sphagnum 

species (5% cover), Rhytidium rugosum (2% cover) and Rhacomitrium langinosum. 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is found with an average slope of 9% and an 

aspect of 316 degrees. The slope ranges from 0% to 17%. The average altitude is 780 meters ranging 

from 703 to 817 meters. It is a stream valley with wet rocky soil. Rock was hit at an average depth of 15

centimeters. The ground surface is 205 unvegetated covered with humus. 

Alnus crispa, Salix planifolia, Lycopodium annotinum, Calamagrostis inexpansa, Spiraea 

beauverdiana, feathermoss S4 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The overstory of this type is dominated by Alnus crispa (2.5 meters tall, 75% cover). The 

shrub understory is dominated by Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (1.2 meters tall, 60% cover). Important 

associates in the shrub understory are Spiraea beauverdiana (30% cover), Betula nana (5% cover), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (5% cover) and Ledum palustre (1% cover). 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Lycopodium annotinum (20% cover), Calamagrostis 

inexpansa (5% cover), Poa arctica (5% cover), Rubus arcticus (5% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (5% 

cover), Empetrum nigrum (5% cover), Polemonium acutiflorum (10% cover), Petasites hyperboreus (10%

cover), Epilobium angustifolium (10% cover) Artemisia arctica, Linnaea borealis (5% cover) and 

Petasites hyperboreus (3% cover). Important occasional associates are Equisetum species (10% cover), 

Galium boreale (5% cover), Sanguisorba officinalis (8% cover), Cornus canadensis (10% cover) and 

Heracleum lanatum (8% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens 

(35% cover), Drepanocladus uncinatus (8% cover), Polytrichium species (5% cover), Cetraria species 

(5% cover) and Cladonia species (2% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is found at an average altitude of 838 meters 

with an average slope of 16% and an average aspect of 237 degrees. The range in elevation is 762 to 975 

meters, the range in slope is 0% to 39%, and the range in aspect is 86 to 296 degrees. The ground surface 

has an unvegetated humus cover of 25%. This type is found on the lower half of the slope with 25% of 

the plots being found in stream valleys. 

70
 

Alnus sinuata alliance 

Sitka alder alliance; 3 sites 

Vegetation—This type was defined at the alliance hierarchical level—the next coarser scale above plant 

association—because the sampled plots could not be reliably defined into separate plant associations.

Alnus sinuata dominates (20% to 85% cover) the tall shrub layer of the alliance and the understory

species composition is highly variable between sites. Other overstory shrubs include Vaccinium 

uliginosum, Salix alaxensis and Salix lanata. Alnus sinuata averages 1.8 meters in height. A variety of 

herbaceous species occur including Calamagrostis canadensis, Equisetum pratense and Sanguisorba 

stipulata. Moss cover varies from 1 to 60%. 

Environmental characteristics—This alliance is uncommon but widespread throughout the subalpine 

region of the park. Elevations range from 777 to 1,085 meters. It occurs on floodplains and mountain 

sideslopes (ranging from 5% to 22%), and the hydrologic regime ranges from moist to wet with limited 

standing water. 

WILLOW SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 17 

Alnus crispa, Salix alaxensis, Calamagrostis inexpansa, Rubus arcticus, feathermoss S1 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This tall shrub plant association is characterized by the dominance of Salix alaxensis in the 

shrub overstory of height 11 meters. Alnus crispa is dominant in the understory. The oldest age is 54 

years for Salix alaxensis and 42 years for Alnus crispa. The average cover values for Salix alaxensis and 

Alnus crispa were 50% and 60% respectively.

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Calamagrostis inexpansa (50% cover), Arabis lyrata ssp. 

kamchatica (6% cover), Rubus arcticus (35% cover), Artemisia tilesii ssp. elatior (35% cover), Oxyria 

digyna (35% cover), and Galium boreale (25% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are 

Hylocomium splendens (35% cover), Polytrichium juniperum (25% cover), Polytrichium strictum (10%

71
 

 

 

cover), Mnium thomsonii (5% cover), Peltigera polydactyla (8% cover), Peltigera canina var. rufescens 

(8% cover) and Sphagnum species (1% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at 460 meters mean elevation on alluvial deposits. 

There is zero range in elevation. The ground surface is 30% unvegetated covered with humus, and the 

type is located in stream valleys. 

Salix alaxensis, Alnus crispa, Salix arbusculoides, Artemisia tilesii S16 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The dominant species in the shrub overstory of this type is Salix alaxensis which is 4 meters 

tall with a cover value of 35%. Alnus crispa (2 meters tall, 40% cover), Salix arbusculoides (1.5 meters 

tall, 10% cover) and Viburnum edule (5% cover) are the other major shrub species. The major species of 

the herbaceous layer are Artemisia tilesii (30% cover), Epilobium latifolium (8% cover), Epilobium 

angustifolium (8% cover), Calamagrostis lapponica (5% cover), Parnassia kotzebui (3% cover), Salix 

reticulata (2% cover), Aconitum delphinifolium (3% cover), Solidago multiradiata (3% cover), Erigeron 

acris ssp. politus (1% cover), Dryas octopetala (5% cover), Oxytropis maydelliana (3% cover), 

Pedicularis capitata (3% cover) and Poa arctica (3% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer 

is Hylocomium splendens (4% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 579 meters with a 50% 

slope. There is zero range in elevation. It is a creek bank community found on alluvial deposits. The 

ground surface is 30% unvegetated, covered with humus, mineral soil and rock. The aspect is 156 

degrees. 

Salix alaxensis, Betula nana, Festuca altaica, Salix reticulata, Dryas integrifolia S13 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This shrub community has an overstory dominated by Salix alaxensis (height of 2 meters, 

15% cover). The major species of the shrub understory are Salix glauca (height 1.5 meters, 10% cover) 

and Betula nana (height 1 meter, 10% cover). Frequent associates with the shrub layer are Shepherdia 

canadensis (3% cover) and other Salix species. The major species of the herbaceous layer are Festuca 

altaica (10% cover), Salix reticulata (10% cover), Parnassia kotzebui (6% cover), Hedysarum alpinum 

(8% cover), Dryas integrifolia (10% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (10% cover), Pedicularis capitata 

(10% cover) and Solidago multiradiata (10% cover). 

The nonvascular layer is composed of Hylocomium splendens (3% cover), Polytrichium species (2% 

cover), and Stereocaulon species (2% cover). Occasional associates in the nonvascular layer are 

Thamnolia vermicularis, Pleurozium schreberi, Rhytidium rugosum, Cetraria cucullata, Cetraria 

richardsonii, Cetraria islandica, and Distichium species 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 951 meters with an average 

slope of 5%, and an average aspect of 275 degrees. The range in elevation is 762 to 1,082 meters, the 

range in slope is 0% to 22% and the range in aspect is 146 to 356 degrees. The bedrock geology is 67% 

sedimentary/metasedimentary, 22% basalt/gabbroic and 11% volcanic. The surficial geology is 100% 

alluvial deposits. This is a gravel bar community, and the ground surface is 5% to 10% unvegetated. 

72
 

 

 

Salix alaxensis, Salix barclayi, Shepherdia canadensis, Epilobium angustifolium S11 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The shrub overstory is dominated by Salix alaxensis with a height of 2 meters and an 

average cover of 35%. The shrub understory of this type is composed of Salix barclayi (1m tall, 35% 

cover) and Shepherdia canadensis (0.6 meters tall, 35% cover). The major species of the herbaceous 

layer are Epilobium angustifolium (25% cover), Salix reticulata (5% cover), Solidago multiradiata (5% 

cover), Angelica lucida (5% cover), Rubus arcticus (5% cover), Empetrum nigrum (2% cover) and 

Heracleum lanatum (1% cover). Occasional associates were Cornus canadensis (5% cover), Mertensia 

paniculata (2% cover), Dryas octopetala (2% cover), Saxifraga tricuspidata (2% cover), Aster sibiricus 

(5% cover) and Stellaria monantha (2% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Pleurozium schreberi (5% cover) and Peltigera aphthosa 

var. leucoplebia (2% cover). Polytrichium species, Cetraria islandica and Lobaria linita were 

occasionally found in this type also. 

Environmental characteristics—The average altitude was 803 meters, and it is a stream valley type 

found on alluvial deposits. The range in elevation is 701 to 866 meters. The ground surface was 10% 

unvegetated covered with humus. 

Salix alaxensis, Salix glauca, Rosa acicularis, Petasites hyperboreus, Calamagrostis inexpansa S2 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This shrub community has an overstory of 3.2 meters which is Salix alaxensis with an 

average cover value of 5%. The understory is composed of 1.5 meters Salix glauca (60% cover), Salix 

planifolia ssp. pulchra (5% cover) and Rosa acicularis (12% cover). The herbaceous layer is composed 

of Petasites hyperboreus (30% cover), Mertensia paniculata (10% cover), Calamagrostis inexpansa 

(10% cover), Festuca altaica (10% cover), Artemisia tilesii (10% cover), Equisetum arvense (10% cover), 

Carex saxitalis ssp. laxa (2% cover), Carex podocarpa (2% cover) and Heracleum lanatum (5% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (5% cover) and Stereocaulon 

species (1% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—The altitude of this type is 1,030 meters with a 9% slope and a 

northeast exposure. There is zero range in elevation. It is found on volcanic sediments. The ground 

surface is 40% unvegetated covered with humus. 

Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Shepherdia canadensis, Festuca altaica, Hylocomium splendens S12 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The shrub overstory of this community is dominated by Salix alaxensis (4 meters in height, 

10% cover). The shrub understory was also dominated by Salix species averaging 1.2 meters in height 

with an average cover value of 35%. The Salix species are most frequently Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra, 

Salix glauca, and Salix barclayi. Other species of the shrub layer are Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover), 

and occasionally Vaccinium uliginosum (1% cover). The herbaceous cover is composed of Festuca 

altaica (20% cover), Mertensia paniculata (6% cover), Parnassia kotzebui (5% cover), Anemone 

parviflora (5% cover), Artemisia tilesii (5% cover), and Dryas octopetala (5% cover). Important 

occasional associates in the herbaceous layer are Arctostaphylos rubra (10% cover), Aconitum 

delphinifolium (5% cover), Senecio lugens (5% cover), Carex species (5% cover), Aster sibiricus (2% 

cover), Salix arctica (2% cover), Cnidium cnidifolium (1% cover) and Vaccinium vitis-idaea (2% cover). 

73
 

 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (25% cover), Pleurozium schreberi 

(5% cover), Peltigera aphthosa (2% cover) and Polytrichium species (1% cover). Occasional associates 

are Peltigera venosa, Lobaria linita, Thamnolia vermicularis, Stereocaulon species, Dactylina ramulosa, 

Drepanocladus uncinatus, and Dicranum species

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 970 meters, with an average 

slope of 9% and an average aspect of 117 degrees. The range in elevation is 728 to 1,059 meters, the 

range in slope is 0% to 17%, and the range in aspect is 26 to 176 degrees. The bedrock geology in 82% 

of the plots is sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 9% of the plots is schist/gneiss and in 9% of the plots is 

unknown. The surficial geology in 55% of the plots is bedrock, in 27% of the plots is alluvial, in 9% of 

the plots is glacial/fluvial and in 9% of the plots is lacustrine deposits. The ground surface is 10% 

unvegetated and covered with humus or mineral soil. 

Salix alaxensis, Salix planifolia, Sanguisorba officinalis, Petasites hyperboreus, Delphinium 

glaucum S9 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This shrub community has an overstory dominated by 2 meters Salix alaxensis (30% cover) 

while the major species of the understory are Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra var. pulchra (30% cover) and 

Sanquisorba officinalis (10% cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Petasites 

hyperboreus (30% cover), Delphinium glaucum (25% cover), Calamagrostis inexpansa (5% cover), 

Festuca species (8% cover), Mertensia paniculata (8% cover) and Rubus arcticus (5% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type has a ground surface which was 25% unvegetated and 

covered with humus. The bedrock geology is sedimentary, and the surficial geology is alluvial/colluvial 

deposits. It is the lower half of a slope community found at an altitude of 519 meters. There is zero range 

in elevation. This type is found in the Tanana-Kuskokwim lowland section (Talkeetna quadrangle). 

Salix alaxensis, Shepherdia canadensis, Dryas octopetala, Arctostaphylos rubra S15 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The shrub overstory of this type is composed of Salix alaxensis with a height of 2.5 meters 

and 20% cover. The other major species of the shrub layer are Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover), Salix 

glauca (5% cover) and Potentilla fruticosa (2% cover). Species occasionally found in this type are Salix 

arbusculoides (5% cover), Salix barrattiana (2% cover) and Betula nana (10% cover). 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Dryas octopetala (30% cover), Aster sibiricus (10% cover), 

Anemone parviflora (10% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra (30% cover), Salix reticulata (10% cover), 

Festuca altaica (10% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (5% cover), Anemone parviflora (5% cover), and 

Epilobium latifolium (5% cover). Species that occur occasionally in this type were Oxytropis borealis, 

Draba alpina, and Carex sciropoidea. The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium 

splendens (5% cover), Pleurozium schreberi (1% cover), Stereocaulon species (1% cover), and Peltigera 

scabrosa. 

Environmental characteristics—This is a gravel bar community, and the ground surface is 25% 

unvegetated. The type is found at an average altitude of 1,060 meters on alluvial deposits. The range in 

elevation is 1,038 to 1,082 meters. The average slope is 7%, and the range is 0% to 13%. The aspect is 

296 degrees. 

74
 

 

Salix barclayi/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association 

Barclay willow/Bluejoint plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—In the Salix barclayi/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association, Salix barclayi is the only

tall shrub (50% cover; 1.8 meters tall) and Calamagrostis canadensis (80% cover, 1.5 meters tall on 

average) dominates the understory (Appendix 4). Athyrium filix-femina and Equisetum arvense are 

common herbaceous associates. Few other shrub or herbaceous species occur. 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred south of the Alaska Range at 231 

meters elevation, on the drier portions of a broad floodplain that had heavy beaver activity. 

Salix barclayi, Equisetum palustre, Carex podocarpa, Hylocomium splendens S10 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix barclayi (70% cover, 1.8 meters height), 

Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (5% cover, 1 meters height), Salix alaxensis (1% cover, 3 meters height) and 

Sanquisorba officinalis (5% cover). Occasional associates are Vaccinium uliginosum and Potentilla 

fruticosa. The major species of the herbaceous layer are Rubus arcticus (6% cover), Carex podocarpa 

(25% cover), Achillea borealis (10% cover), Equisetum palustre (25% cover), Epilobium angustifolium 

(5% cover) and Arctagrostis latifolia (10% cover). Occasional associates are Sedum rosea (1% cover), 

Petasites hyperboreus (5% cover), Anemone species (5% cover), Polygonum bistorta (5% cover), 

Artemisia arctica (5% cover) and Angelica lucida (5% cover). 

The nonvascular layer was composed of Hylocomium splendens (10% cover), Polytrichium strictum (2% 

cover), and Aulacomium palustre (5% cover). Occasional associates were Sphagnum species, 

Tomenhypnum nitens and Cladonia species 

75
 

 

 

Vegetation—This type is found at an average altitude of 868 meters with a 2% slope and an average 

aspect of 276 degrees. The range in elevations is 735 to 936 meters, the range in slope is 0% to 7% and 

there is zero range in aspect. It is found in the Cook Inlet-Susitna lowland physiographic region. The 

type is found on alluvial deposits in stream valleys. The ground surface is 10% unvegetated with humus 

cover. 

Salix bebbiana/Equisetum arvense plant association 

Bebb willow/Horsetail plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Salix bebbiana dominates (40% cover and 3 meters tall) the overstory and Equisetum 

arvense (90% cover) the understory (Appendix 4). Epilobium angustifolium, Betula nana and seedlings 

of Populus balsamifera are common associates. Few other species occur. 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred on a 20% sideslope above a floodplain. 

Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Dryas integrifolia, Artemisia frigida, Festuca rubra T1 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix alaxensis (1.5 meters tall, 5% cover), Salix 

glauca (1 meter tall, 15% cover), Salix barclayi (0.8 meters tall, 15% cover) and Shepherdia canadensis 

(0.6 meters tall, 10% cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Dryas integrifolia (25%

cover), Artemisia frigida (20% cover), Solidago multiradiata (10% cover), Festuca rubra (10% cover) 

and Poa glauca (3% cover). Species that occur occasionally in this type were Potentilla fruticosa, 

Agropyron violaceum, Minuartia macrocarpa, Pyrola secunda and Parnassia kotzebui. The nonvascular 

layer is composed of Rhacomitrium canescens (5% cover), Polytrichium juniperinum (5% cover), 

Cladonia pyxidata (2% cover), Peltigera aphthosa (2% cover), Cetraria cucullata (2% cover) and 

Cladonia species (2% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 953 meters with a 17% slope and an 

average aspect of 226 degrees. The elevation ranges from 945 to 960 meters, the slope ranges from 6% to 

28%, and the aspect ranges from 116 to 336 degrees. It is found on older glacial moraines. The ground 

surface is 45% unvegetated. Of the unvegetated surface, 35% is rocky glacial debris and 10% is humus. 

Salix lanata/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association 

Richardson willow/Bluejoint plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Salix lanata dominates (90% cover) the overstory and Calamagrostis canadensis (30%

cover) dominates the understory (Appendix 4). Salix lanata averages 1.5 meters tall. Boykinia 

richardsonii and Mertensia paniculata are common herbaceous associates, and Salix planifolia and Salix 

reticulata also occur. 

76
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled was a stringer of vegetation running down a 

mountain sideslope following the course of a depression. This association likely occurs throughout the 

park as small patches within the subalpine zone. The elevation of the sampled site was 1,034 meters. 

Salix lanata/Equisetum variegatum plant association 

Richardson willow/Bluejoint plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Salix lanata (50% cover) dominates the overstory and Equisetum variegatum (90% cover) 

dominates the understory (Appendix 4). Salix lanata averages 0.9 meters tall, and Equisetum variegatum 

less than 0.3 meters. Carex membranacea and Equisetum arvense are common herbaceous associates, 

and Salix alaxensis and Salix glauca also occur in the overstory. 

77
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred on a recently deposited and frequently

flooded portion of a floodplain at low elevations within the boreal forest zone of the park. The Carex 

aquatilis plant association occurs on wetter sites, and Picea glauca invades the drier sites. 

Salix planifolia plant association 

Diamondleaf willow plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Salix planifolia (50% cover and on average 1.5 meters tall) dominates the overstory 

(Appendix 4). A variety of low shrubs occur including Spiraea beauverdiana, Betula nana and 

Empetrum nigrum. Eriophorum brachyantherum (20% cover) is the dominant herbaceous species and 

few other herbaceous species occur. Moss forms a carpet on the ground. Salix planifolia increases on 

drier areas and Eriophorum brachyantherum is more common on wetter-level sites. 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled was found on floodplain at low elevation within

the boreal forest zone of the park. The surface is muck and peat, and gravel occurs at 0.3 meters deep. 

Salix planifolia/Carex bigelowii plant association 

Diamondleaf willow /Carex bigelowii plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Salix planifolia (70% cover) is the only shrub species in the overstory and averages 0.6 

meters in height (Appendix 4). Carex bigelowii (40% cover) is the dominant herbaceous species. Other 

vascular species include Salix reticulata, Cassiope tetragona and Petasites frigidus. Hylocomium 

splendens is the dominant moss. 

78
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred adjacent to a mountain stream on a 10% 

slope. The association within the park likely occurs as small stringers along mountain streams at higher 

elevations. 

Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix reticulata, Carex podocarpa, Hylocomium splendens 

S8 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The dominant species of the shrub overstory in this type is Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra 

(65% cover, 1.5 meters height). Vaccinium uliginosum (25% cover) is the major species of the shrub 

understory. Occasional associates are Potentilla fruticosa (50% cover) and Salix barclayi (10% cover). 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Salix reticulata (25% cover), Carex podocarpa (35%

cover), Equisetum arvense (10% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (10% cover), Poa arctica (10% cover), 

Sedum rosea (5% cover) and Polemonium acutiflorum (5% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (15% cover) and Pleurozium 

schreberi (5% cover). Occasional associates are Stereocaulon species, Cladonia species, Cetraria 

cucullata, Aulacomnium palustre and Drepanocladus uncinatus. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 852 meters and is on the 

lower half of the slope. The range in elevation is 754 to 1,052 meters. The bedrock geology is 60%

sedimentary, 20% volcanic and 20% schist/gneiss. The surficial geology in 40% of the plots is alluvial 

deposits, in 40% of the plots is glacial moraines, and in 20% of the plots is bedrock. Other important 

characteristics of this type are the hummocks and uneven ground which caused differential moisture 

regimes within the plots of this type. The percentage of ground surface unvegetated varied from 0% to 

40%. 

79
 

 

CLOSED LOW BIRCH SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 1 

Betula nana, Salix barrattiana, Potentilla fruticosa, Festuca rubra, Hylocomium splendens S5 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This low shrub community is dominated by 1 meter Betula nana in the shrub overstory

(65% cover). Salix barrattiana (20% cover), Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (10% cover) and Potentilla 

fruticosa (10% cover) are important understory species. The herbaceous layer contains the following 

major species: Festuca rubra (15% cover), Dryas integrifolia ssp. sylvatica (8% cover), Empetrum 

nigrum (5% cover), Saussurea angustifolia (5% cover), Poa arctica (5% cover), Arctostaphylos rubra 

(5% cover), and Senecio lugens (5% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium 

splendens (60% cover), Stereocaulon species (8% cover), Cetraria islandica (6% cover), Peltigera 

aphthosa var. typica (2% cover), Cladonia amaurocrea (2% cover), Dactylina ramulosa (1% cover) and 

Polytrichium juniperum (2% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This low shrub community is a gravel bar community with an average 

vegetated cover value of 90%. The average altitude is 1,038 meters, and the type is found on alluvial 

deposits. There is zero range in elevation. This type is found at higher altitude and appears to be better 

drained than the previous vegetation type (S4). Five percent of the ground surface is unvegetated and 

covered with humus. 

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LOW SHRUB BIRCH-ERICACEOUS-WILLOW LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 9 

Carex microglochin, Salix reticulata, Juncus castaneus, Hedysarum alpinum, Potentilla fruticosa, 

Sphagnum species T14 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix lanata ssp. richardsonii (1 meter height, 5%

cover), Salix barclayi (0.5 meters height, 5% cover), Potentilla fruticosa (0.5 meters height, 10% cover), 

and Vaccinium uliginosum (0.3 meters height, 5% cover) and Sanguisorba officinalis (1% cover). The 

major species of the herbaceous layer are Hedysarum alpinum (25% cover), Dryas integrifolia ssp. 

integrifolia (10% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (5% cover), Carex sciropoidea (10% cover), Carex 

microglochin (10% cover), Carex membranacea (10% cover), Salix reticulata (10% cover), Juncus 

castaneus ssp. castaneus (5% cover), Kobresia simpliciuscula (2% cover), Parnassia kotzebui (5% 

cover), Polygonum viviparum (5% cover), Tofieldia pusilla (5% cover), Saussurea angustifolia (2% 

cover) and Pedicularis verticillata (2% cover). The nonvascular layer is composed of Sphagnum species 

(25% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 610 meters on alluvial deposits. 

There is zero range in elevation. This type is very similar to T13, but there is 3% standing water in this 

type and not in T13. Salix reticulata has less cover value in T14 and Juncus castaneus appears in this 

type. 

Chamaedaphne calyculata plant association 

Leatherleaf plant association; 2 sites 

Vegetation—Chamaedaphne calyculata is the dominant species in this association often with 100% 

cover (Appendix 4). Other species are uncommon , but Ledum palustre and Vaccinium uliginosum may

occur. Sphagnum species may dominate the moss layer in some sites. 

81
 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs as small patches (sometimes microsites) on wet 

sites at the edge of wetlands within the boreal forest zone of the park. 

Larix laricina, Betula papyrifera, Picea mariana, Ledum palustre, Betula nana, Rubus 

chamaemorus, Eriophorum vaginatum, Oxycoccus microcarpus M13 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This plant association has standing charred Larix laricina and Picea mariana. Presently the 

tree stratum has a closure of 5% to 10%. Larix laricina, Picea mariana and Betula papyrifera are 

regenerating in approximately equal proportions. The major species of the shrub layer are Salix species

(5% cover), Betula nana (15% cover), Ledum palustre (25% cover), Chamaedaphne calyculata (10%

cover), Andromeda polifolia (5% cover) and Vaccinium uliginosum (10% cover). The Salix species 

included Salix bebbiana, Salix monticola, and Salix brachycarpa ssp. niphoclada. 

The major species of the herbaceous layer were Oxycoccus microcarpus (15% cover), Rubus 

chamaemorus (20% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (15% cover), Eriophorum vaginatum ssp. vaginatum 

(20% cover), Epilobium angustifolium (5% cover) and Carex rotundata (5% cover). Tofieldia pusilla, 

Calamagrostis lapponica, Spiranthes romanzoffiana, Stellaria calycantha ssp. interior, Cicuta 

mackenzieana, Luzula rufescens and Drosera rotundifolia were occasional associates. The major species

of the nonvascular layer are Polytrichium species (10% cover), Sphagnum species (10% cover),

Marchantia polymorpha (2% cover) and Cladonia species (2% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found in the Tanana lowland at an average altitude of 198 

meters on lacustrine deposits. There is zero range in elevation. All plots which compose this type were 

burned within the previous eight years. 

Salix barrattiana, Betula nana, Dryas integrifolia, Gentiana propinqua, Pleurozium schreberi S14 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The shrub layer is dominated by Salix barrattiana (0.8 meters height, 50% cover). Betula 

nana (25% cover) and occasionally Shepherdia canadensis and Salix brachycarpa ssp. niphoclada (10% 

cover) also contribute to the shrub layer. The major species of the herbaceous layer are Festuca altaica 

(10% cover), Gentiana propinqua (10% cover), Aconitum delphinifolium (5% cover), Dryas integrifolia 

(25% cover), Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (6% cover), Elymus innovatus (5% cover), Astragalus nutzotinensis 

(5% cover), Carex sciropoidea (10% cover), Pedicularis verticillata (8% cover), Pyrola grandiflora (5% 

cover) and Zigadenus elegans (10% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are Pleurozium 

schreberi (25% cover), Dicranum species (5% cover), Stereocaulon species (2% cover), Peltigera canina 

var. rufescens, Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia, Cladonia chlorophaea, Cladonia pyxidata, Cladonia 

cyanipes/bacilliformis, Cladonia coccifera, Cetraria cucullata, Cetraria islandica, Ceratodon purpureus, 

and Drepanocladus uncinatus. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 735 meters, and this type is 

found on alluvial deposits. The range in elevation is 725 to 754 meters. It is a valley association with 

very sandy soils. The depth of sandy penetrable soil was 6 centimeters average. The ground surface is 

20% unvegetated covered with 10% humus and 10% mineral soil. 

82
 

Salix glauca, Shepherdia canadensis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Dryas integrifolia, Saxifraga 

tricuspidata, Polytrichium commune T2 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix glauca (10% cover, 1 meter height), Salix 

monticola (5% cover, 1 meter height), Shepherdia canadensis (5% cover, 1 meter height) and Vaccinium 

uliginosum (5% cover, 8 meter height). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Dryas integrifolia 

(10% cover), Saxifraga tricuspidata (10% cover), Festuca altaica (5% cover), Salix reticulata (5% 

cover), Astragalus alpinus ssp. alpinus (5% cover), Artemisia tilesii (5% cover), Solidago multiradiata 

(5% cover), Poa arctica ssp. arctica (2% cover), Stellaria monatha (1% cover) and Epilobium 

angustifolium (2% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Polytrichium commune (10% cover), Rhytidium rugosum 

(8% cover), Rhacomitrium canescens (6% cover), Cetraria islandica (3% cover), Cetraria cucullata (3% 

cover), Dactylina ramulosa (1% cover), Cladonia species (2% cover) and Pertusaria species (1% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found on older glacial moraines at altitude of 884 meters. 

There is zero range in elevation. The average slope is 22% with an aspect of 156 degrees. The ground 

surface is 35% unvegetated of which 25% is covered with rocky glacial moraines and 10% covered with 

dark soil and humus. 

Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Salix glauca, Vaccinium uliginosum, Arctagrostis latifolia, 

feathermoss T12 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (1.2 meters height, 

25% cover), Salix glauca (1.2 meters height, 10% cover), Betula nana (1 meters height, 35% cover), 

Potentilla fruticosa (0.2 meters height, 5% cover) and Vaccinium uliginosum (0.2 meters height, 10% 

cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Poa arctica ssp. arctica (5% cover), Linnaea 

borealis (2% cover), Mertensia paniculata (3% cover), Arctagrostis latifolia (25% cover), Delphinium 

glaucum (3% cover) and Festuca brachyphylla (5% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Pleurozium schreberi (25% cover), Dicaranum species

(5% cover), Hylocomium splendens (25% cover), Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia (3% cover), 

Polytrichium species (3% cover), Aulacomium palustre (5% cover), Cetraria laevigata, Stereocaulon 

species (2% cover) and Cladonia species. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 984 meters with a 15% slope and an 

average aspect of 176 degrees. The range in elevation is 716 to 1,091 meters, the range in slope is 3% to 

22%, and the range in aspect is zero. The bedrock geology in 50% of the plots is volcanic, in 25% of the 

plots is metasedimentary and in 25% of the plots is schist/gneiss. The surficial geology is bedrock. 

Salix planifolia, Betula nana, Calamagrostis lapponica, Petasites hyperboreus, feathermoss T11 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (30% cover, 1 meter 

height), Betula nana (0.8 meters height, 10% cover) and Spiraea beauverdiana (0.7 meters height, 10% 

cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Calamagrostis lapponica (50% cover), 

Polemonium acutiflorum (5% cover), Rubus arcticus (10% cover), Aconitum delphinifolium (5% cover), 

83
 

Epilobium angustifolium (5% cover) and Petasites hyperboreus (20% cover). Important species that 

occasionally occur in this type are Vaccinium vitis-idaea (15% cover), Empetrum nigrum (15% cover), 

Luzula tundricola (5% cover), Heracleum lanatum (5% cover) and Sanguisorba officinalis (3% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (30% cover), Politrichium species 

(10% cover), Rhytidium rugosum (5% cover), Cetraria species (10% cover), Cladonia species (10% 

cover), Peltigera species (5% cover), Nephroma species (5% cover) and Pleurozium schreberi (5% 

cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 844 meters with a slope of 

8% and an average aspect of 198 degrees. The range in elevation is 732 meters, the range in slope is 1% 

to 33%, and the range in aspect is 166 to 296 degrees. The bedrock geology in 89% of the plots is 

sedimentary/metasedimentary and in 11% of the plots is volcanic. The surficial geology in 56% of the 

plots is bedrock, in 33% of the plots is glacial moraines and in 11% of the plots is alluvial deposits. 

Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula nana, Salix arctica, Salix reticulata, Ledum decumbens, Dryas 

octopetala, feathermoss T10 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Betula nana (0.5 meters height, 25% cover), 

Vaccinium uliginosum (0.3 meters height, 10% cover) and Ledum palustre (0.2 meters height, 10%

cover). Species occasionally occurring with the shrub layer of this type are Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra 

(0.8 meters height, 10% cover) and Salix glauca (0.8 meters height, 10% cover). The major species of the 

herbaceous layer are Empetrum nigrum (10% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (10% cover), Salix arctica 

(10% cover), Salix reticulata (10% cover), Carex microchaeta (5% cover), Festuca altaica (10% cover), 

Dryas octopetala ssp. octopetala (20% cover), Artemisia arctica (10% cover) and Arctostaphylos arctica 

(5% cover). Important species that occur frequently in this type are Diapensia lapponica (5% cover), Poa 

arctica (5% cover), Tofieldia coccinea (3% cover), Arctagrostis latifolia (5% cover), Epilobium 

latifolium (5% cover), Petasites hyperboreus (5% cover) and Polygonum bistorta (5% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (10% cover), Polytrichium 

juniperinum (4% cover), Rhytidium rugosum (4% cover), Pleurozium schreberi (4% cover), 

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum (3% cover), Drepanocladus uncinatus, Cetraria nivalis, Cladonia arbuscula, 

Cladonia rangiferina, Cladonia species Stereocaulon species, Dactylina ramulosa, Thamnolia 

vermicularis, Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia, Nephroma arcticum, Cetraria islandica, Lobaria linita 

and Asahinea chrysantha. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 939 meters with a 10% 

slope and an average aspect of 162 degrees. The range in elevation is 579 to 1,167 meters, the range in 

slope is 0% to 39%, and the range in aspect is 16 to 356 degrees. The bedrock geology in 60% of the 

plots is sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 10% of the plots is volcanic/metavolcanic, in 10% of the plots is 

schist/gneiss, in 6% of the plots is basalt/gabbroic and in 5% of the plots is unknown. The surficial 

geology in 35% of the plots is glacial moraines, in 44% of the plots is bedrock, in 18% of the plots is 

alluvial and in 2% of the plots is unknown. This type is 5% unvegetated weathered rock and mineral soil. 

Frost boils and patterned (pyramidal formation) ground due to solifluction are evident in this type. 

84
 

Vaccinium uliginosum/low shrub plant association 

Bog blueberry/low shrub plant association; 3 sites 

Vegetation—Vaccinium uliginosum (75% to 90% cover) is the dominant species. Other species are 

uncommon although Betula nana, Calamagrostis canadensis and Epilobium angustifolium may be

present (Appendix 4). This plant association is distinct from the Vaccinium uliginosum/dwarf shrub plant

association in both species composition and that its average height exceeds 20 centimeters 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs as small patches in the subalpine and boreal 

forest of the park. It occupies well-drained colluvial slopes, bedrock outcrops and glacial drift. 

LOW SHRUB-SEDGE LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 3 

Betula nana/Carex aquatilis plant association 

Dwarf arctic birch/Water sedge plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation— Betula nana (30% cover) is the dominant shrub, and Carex aquatilis (50% cover) 

dominates the understory (Appendix 4). Other species include Andromeda polifolia, Vaccinium vitisidaea, Larix laricina, Picea mariana and Carex limosa. Sphagnum species (90% cover) dominate the 

bryophyte layer. 

85
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred on a low elevation (273 meters) 

peatland bordering a lake in the northwest corner of the park. The soil was organic and the water at the 

soil surface. 

Betula nana/Eriophorum brachyantherum plant association 

Dwarf arctic birch/ Eriophorum brachyantherum plant association; 3 sites 

Vegetation—Eriophorum brachyantherum (60% to 80% cover) is the dominant species in this type. 

Carex bigelowii (0-30% cover) is commonly a strong codominant in the herbaceous layer. Betula nana or

Betula glandulosa, often in combination with Salix planifolia, Vaccinium uliginosum and Vaccinium vitisidaea, make up the shrub layer. Other species include Empetrum nigrum, Ledum groenlandicum and 

Equisetum sylvaticum. 

Environmental characteristics—Eriophorum brachyantherum and other herbaceous species form

tussocks that typically dominate the sites. The sites are moist on level to moderate (10%) slopes. The 

soils are organic often over permafrost. 

Betula nana/Eriophorum vaginatum plant association 

Dwarf arctic birch/Hare’s tail grass plant association; 4 sites 

Vegetation— Betula nana, often in combination with Vaccinium uliginosum, Empetrum nigrum and 

Ledum decumbens, make up the shrub layer (Appendix 4). Their combined cover ranges from 35% to 

65%. Eriophorum vaginatum (40% to 75% cover) dominates the herbaceous layer and other herbaceous 

species include Carex microchaeta, C. bigelowii and Rubus chamaemorus. 

86
 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in the subalpine and boreal forest zone of the 

park, often forming a mosaic with various spruce forest associations. It occurs at mid elevations (598 to

770 meters) on slopes of less than 10% on outwash terraces and rounded ridges. Eriophorum vaginatum 

and other herbaceous species form tussocks that typically dominate the moist sites. The soils are organic 

often over permafrost. 

PEATLAND LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 1 

Myrica gale plant association 

Sweet gale plant association; 3 sites 

Vegetation—Myrica gale (greater than 50% cover) dominates the shrub layer (Appendix 4). Betula 

nana, Chamaedaphne calyculata, and Ledum groenlandicum are other common shrubs. A variety of 

sedges may form the herbaceous layer including Carex microglochin, C. rotundata and C. williamsii. 

Sphagnum species (60% to 90% cover) dominate the moss layer. 

87
 

Environmental characteristics—This is a wet site typically found in peatlands on the south side of the 

Alaska Range. It occurs as patches within a larger mosaic of dwarf tree, shrub and herbaceous types. 

Water depth ranges from 8 centimeters below to 8 centimeters above the surface of the peat. 

DWARF SHRUB LANDCOVER CLASS, AND DWARF SHRUB-ROCK LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 10 

Arctostaphylos alpina plant association 

Alpine blueberry plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Arctostaphylos alpina (25% cover) codominates this association with Vaccinium 

uliginosum (15%), Cornus canadensis (20%) and Empetrum nigrum (20%, Appendix 4). Few other shrub 

or herbaceous species occur. Lichen cover is 20%. 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in alpine areas and forms small patches within 

a mosaic of other dwarf shrub associations. It commonly occurs on well-drained colluvial slopes. The 

soil of the one site sampled had a 3-centimeter thick organic mat over silt and sand. 

Cassiope tetragona plant association 

Four-angled cassiope plant association; 2 sites 

Vegetation—Cassiope tetragona (30% cover) codominates this association with Arctostaphylos alpina 

(20% cover), Diapensia lapponica and Vaccinium uliginosum (5% cover). Other shrub species include 

Empetrum nigrum and Dryas octopetala (Appendix 4). Herbaceous species include Arnica lessingii, 

Carex bigelowii and Hierochloe alpina. Lichen cover averages 40% and moss cover is less than 10%. 

Hylocomium splendens has 30% cover. 

88
 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in alpine areas and forms small patches within 

a mosaic of other dwarf shrub associations. The soils are well drained and rocky on colluvial and bedrock 

slopes. 

Dryas octopetala, Cassiope tetragona, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix reticulata, Salix arctica, 

feathermoss, Stereocaulon species T8 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major shrub species of this type are Vaccinium uliginosum (0.08 meters height, 15%

cover) and Rhododendron lapponicum (0.05 meters height, 5% cover). Species that occur occasionally in 

the shrub layer are Salix glauca (0.4 meters height, 2% cover), Salix barrattiana (0.1 meters height, 2%

cover), Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (0.4 meters height, 2% cover), Potentilla fruticosa (0.1 meters height, 

1% cover), and Betula nana (0.1 meters height, 2% cover). 

The major species of the herbaceous layer are Cassiope tetragona (25% cover), Salix reticulata (10%

cover), Salix arctica (10% cover), Dryas octopetala ssp. octopetala (25% cover), Carex microchaeta (5% 

cover), Anemone parviflora (5% cover), Festuca altaica (8% cover) and Silene acaulis (2% cover). 

Important species that occur frequently in this type are Arctostaphylos rubra (5% cover), Astragalus 

umbellatus (5% cover), Pedicularis capitata (2% cover), Hierochloe alpina (5% cover), Poa arctica (5% 

cover), Diapensia lapponica (2% cover), Lupinus arcticus (3% cover), Minuartia arctica (2% cover) and 

Polygonum bistorta (2% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (10% cover), Cetraria cucullata 

(3% cover), Stereocaulon species (5% cover), Thamnolia vermicularis (2% cover), Aulacomnium 

turgidum, Polytrichium juniperinum, Distichium capillaceum, Rhytidium rugosum, Aulacomium palustre, 

Lobaria linita, Cetraria islandica, Dactylina ramulosa, Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia, Cornicularia 

divergens, Cetraria nivalis, Sphaerophorus globosus and Cladonia species 

89
 

 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 1,135 meters on a 15% 

slope with an average aspect of 183 degrees. The range in elevation is 823 to 1,341 meters, the range in 

slope is 1% to 33%, and the range in aspect is 026 to 306 degrees. The bedrock geology in 50% of the 

plots is sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 20% of the plots is basalt/gabbroic, in 10% of the plots is 

volcanic, in 10% of the plots is schist/gneiss and in 10% of the plots is unknown. The surficial geology in 

90% of the plots is bedrock and in 10% of the plots is older glacial moraines. The ground surface is 12% 

unvegetated. This type is found at a lower altitude than T4-T7. It is a moister type than T5, T6, and T7. 

Dryas octopetala, Salix arctica, Carex microchaeta, Oxytropis nigrescens, Hylocomium splendens 

T6 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of this herbaceous plant association are Dryas octopetala ssp. octapetala 

(50% cover), Salix arctica (25% cover), Oxytropis nigrescens ssp. bryophila (5% cover), Carex 

microchaeta (10% cover), Senecio lugens (3% cover), Minuartia arctica (2% cover), Anemone parviflora 

(3% cover), Ligusticum mutellinoides ssp. alpinum (3% cover), Castilleja elegans (3% cover), Poa 

arctica (3% cover), Trisetum spicatum (3% cover), Silene acaulis (1% cover), Saxifraga reflexa (2% 

cover) and Campanula lasiocarpa (2% cover). Other species which occur frequently in this type are 

Festuca brachyphylla, Luzula tundricola, Luzula confusa, Diapensia lapponica, Saxifraga flagellaris ssp. 

setigera, Polygonum viviparum, Pedicularis capitata, Artemisia arctica, Polygonum bistorta, Draba 

nivalis, Potentilla uniflora, Antennaria monocephala ssp. monocephala and Senecio residifolius. 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (5% cover), Thamnolia 

vermicularis, Cetraria islandica, Cetraria cucullata, Cetraria nivalis, Peltigera aphthosa, Stereocaulon 

species, Lobaria linita, Rhytidium rugosum, Rhacomitrium canescens, Distichium capillaceum, 

Pertusaria species, Asahinea chrysantha, Alectoria nigricans, Polytrichium juniperinum, Drepanocladus 

uncinatus, Sphaerophorus globosus and Cladonia species. 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 1,285 meters with a 16% slope and 

aspect of 201 degrees. The range in elevation is 1,068 to 1,494 meters, the range in slope is 2% to 41% 

and the range in aspect is 26 to 356 degrees. The bedrock geology in 46% of the plots is basalt/gabbroic, 

in 30% of the plots is sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 12% of the plots is volcanic and in 12% of the 

plots is schist/gneiss. The surficial geology in 81% of the plots is bedrock, in 15% of the plots is older 

glacial moraines and in 4% of the plots is alluvial. This type when compared to T5 has no Vaccinium 

uliginosum and a higher cover of Dryas octopetala and Salix arctica. The species composition is similar, 

but there are species exclusive to either type as Hierochloe alpina (in T5) and Senecio residifolius (in T6). 

T6 is found on steeper slopes with a more southwestern exposure. The ground surface is 36% 

unvegetated weathered rock and mineral soil in T6. This value was 28% in T5. The ground surface of T6 

is terraced as a result of solifluction. 

Dryas octopetala, Vaccinium uliginosum, Salix arctica, Carex microchaeta, Hierochloe alpina, 

Hylocomium splendens T5 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of this plant association are Dryas octopetala (35% cover), Vaccinium 

uliginosum (0.1 meters height, 10% cover), Salix arctica (10% cover), Hierochloe alpina (8% cover), 

Anemone parviflora (8% cover), Senecio lugens (8% cover), Oxytropis nigrescens (8% cover), Carex 

microchaeta (10% cover), Diapensia lapponica (2% cover) and Ligusticum mutellinoides ssp. alpinum 

(5% cover). Other species which occur frequently in this type are Poa arctica (3% cover), Campanula 

lasiocarpa (5% cover), Carex sciropoidea (5% cover), Luzula confusa (5% cover), Arenaria chamissonis 

90
 

(2% cover), Polygonum bistorta (2% cover), Pedicularis capitata (3% cover), Cassiope tetragona (2% 

cover), Gentiana algida (2% cover), Primula tschuktschorum ssp. tschuktschorum (2% cover), Castilleja 

elegans (2% cover), Geum rossii (1% cover), Antennaria friesiana ssp. friesiana and Saxifraga 

eschscholtzii. 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (10% cover), Stereocaulon species

(2% cover), Rhacomitrium canescens (5% cover), Polytrichium juniperinum (4% cover), Rhytidium 

rugosum (3% cover), Dactylina ramulosa (1% cover), Cetraria nivalis (1% cover), Sphaerophorus 

globosus, Cetraria islandica, Peltigera pratexta, Thamnolia vermicularis, Asahinea chrysantha, Cetraria 

cucullata, Alectoria species Parmelia species and Cladonia species 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 1,200 with an 8% slope and an 

aspect of 165 degrees. The range in elevation is 1,073 to 1,311 meters, the range in slope is 0% to 44%, 

and the range in aspect is 026 to 326 degrees. The bedrock geology in 33% of the plots is 

sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 33% of the plots is basalt/gabbroic, in 17% of the plots is volcanic, in 

11% of the plots is schist/gneiss and in 6% of the plots is granitic. The surficial geology in 72% of the 

plots is bedrock, in 22% of the plots is alluvial deposits and in 6% of the plots is older glacial moraines. 

The ground surface is 28% unvegetated weathered rock and mineral soil. 

Salix brachycarpa, Dryas octopetala, Salix reticulata, Cassiope tetragona, feathermoss T4 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The shrub layer if it exists in this type is occasionally composed of the following species: 

Salix glauca (1 meter height, 1% cover), Salix brachycarpa ssp. niphoclada (0.3 meters height, 30%

cover), and Salix barrattiana (0.2 meters height, 5% cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer 

are Salix arctica (10% cover), Salix reticulata (25% cover), Anemone parviflora (5% cover), Festuca 

rubra (10% cover), Dryas octopetala (30% cover), Silene acaulis (3% cover), Poa alpina (6% cover), 

Epilobium latifolium (4% cover), Trisetum spicatum (6% cover) and Saxifraga hieracifolia. Occasional 

associates in the herbaceous layer are Cassiope tetragona (10% cover), Androsace chamaejasme ssp. 

lehmanniana (5% cover), Aster alpinus (3% cover) and Cnidium cnidifolium (5% cover). 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (5% cover), Rhacomitrium 

canescens (5% cover), Aulacomium palustre (5% cover), Distichium capillaceum (3% cover), 

Polytrichium species (2% cover), Peltigera aphthosa var. leucoplebia (2% cover), Cetraria islandica (1% 

cover), Stereocaulon species (2% cover), Thamnolia vermicularis (2% cover) and Dactylina ramulosa. 

Other nonvascular species that occur frequently in this type are Pertusaria species, Peltigera canina var. 

rufescens, Lobaria linita, Cladonia chlorophaea, Rhytidium rugosum and Cetraria cucullata. 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is found at an average altitude of 1,265 meters

with a 28% slope and average aspect of 205 degrees. The range in elevation is 1,052 to 1,654 meters, the 

range in slope is 2% to 50%, and the range in aspect is 056 to 326 degrees. The bedrock geology in 88% 

of the plots is sedimentary/metasedimentary, in 6% of the plots is volcanic and in 6% of the plots is 

granitic. The surficial geology in 76% of the plots is bedrock, in 12% of the plots is glacial moraines and 

in 12% of the plots is alluvial deposits. The ground surface of this type is 35% unvegetated weathered 

rock and mineral soil. 

91
 

Salix glauca, Salix reticulata, Festuca altaica, Dryas octopetala T3 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer of this type are Salix glauca (10% cover, 1 meter 

height). Species that occur occasionally in this type are Salix barrattiana and Potentilla fruticosa. The 

major species of the herbaceous layer are Salix reticulata (25% cover), Dryas octopetala (30% cover), 

Festuca altaica (25% cover), Artemisia arctica (10% cover), Hedysarum alpinum (5% cover), Anemone 

parviflora (8% cover) and Gentiana propinqua (3% cover). Important occasional associates in the 

herbaceous layer are Salix arctica (10% cover), Festuca rubra (10% cover), Senecio lugens (5% cover), 

Solidago multiradiata (5% cover), Epilobium latifolium (5% cover), Polygonum bistorta (5% cover), 

Equisetum scirpoides, Poa arctica (5% cover), Carex species (5% cover), Aster sibiricus (2% cover) and 

Silene acaulis. 

The major species of the nonvascular layer are Hylocomium splendens (10% cover), Peltigera canina var.

rufescens (2% cover), Stereocaulon species (2% cover), Rhytidium rugosum, Tortula mucronifilia, 

Rhacomitrium canescens, and Cetraria cucullata. 

Environmental characteristics—This type occurs at an average altitude of 1,163 meters with 14% slope 

and an aspect of 158 degrees. The range in elevation is 920 to 1,305 meters, the range in slope is 0% to 

37%, and the range in aspect is 026 to 356 degrees. The bedrock geology is 62% 

sedimentary/metasedimentary, 23% basalt/gabbroic, 8% schist/gneiss and 8% volcanic. The surficial 

geology is 38% alluvial/colluvial deposits, 31% glacial moraines and 31% bedrock. The ground surface 

is 5% weathered rock. 

Salix polaris plant association 

Polar willow plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—The association is dominated by Salix Polaris (20% cover), Cassiope tetragona (15% 

cover) and Dryas octopetala (10% cover, Appendix 4). Over 40% moss cover occurs dominated by

Hylocomium splendens. A variety of forbs and graminoids occur in trace amounts including Arnica 

lessingii, Geum rossii, Petasites frigidus and Saxifraga reflexa. 

92
 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in alpine areas and forms small patches within 

a mosaic of other dwarf shrub associations. The one site sampled had soil with a 5-centimeter thick 

organic mat over gravel and sand on a well-drained colluvial slope. 

Salix reticulata, Carex membranacea, Eriophorum angustifolium, Dryas integrifolia, Sphagnum 

species T13 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—The major species of the shrub layer are Salix lanata spp. richardsonii (1.5 meters height, 

5% cover), Salix barclayi (0.6 meters height, 5% cover) and Potentilla fruticosa (0.4 meters height, 5% 

cover). The major species of the herbaceous layer are Salix reticulata (30% cover), Dryas integrifolia 

ssp. integrifolia (25% cover), Carex aquatilis (15% cover), Carex membranacea (15% cover), 

Eriophorum angustifolium ssp. subarcticum (10% cover), Vaccinium vitis-idaea (10% cover), Hedysarum 

alpinum (10% cover), Anemone parviflora (5% cover), Equisetum scirpoides (2% cover), Parnassia 

kotzebui (2% cover) and Tofieldia pusilla (5% cover). The major species of the nonvascular layer are 

Sphagnum species (35% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an altitude of 610 meters on alluvial deposits. 

The soil is sandy. There is zero range in elevation. 

Vaccinium uliginosum/Dwarf shrub plant association 

Bog blueberry/Dwarf shrub plant association; 7 sites 

Vegetation—Vaccinium uliginosum is the dominant species ranging from 30% to 80% and its height is 

typically less than 20 centimeters tall (Appendix 4). Other common dwarf shrub species include Cornus 

suecica, Arctostaphylos rubra, Empetrum nigrum and Betula nana. Herbaceous species are uncommon 

and includes Carex microchaeta and Calamagrostis canadensis. Lichen and moss cover are typically less 

than 20% and 60%, respectively. 

93
 

Environmental characteristics—This is a common association of alpine and subalpine areas that forms 

small patches within a mosaic of other dwarf shrub or low shrub associations. It typically occurs on welldrained colluvial slopes, including moraines. The soil is a thin organic mat over mineral soil. Sorted 

circles are common, and the slope varies from 0% to 20%. 

DRY-MESIC HERBACEOUS LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 4 

Calamagrostis canadensis plant association 

Bluejoint plant association; 8 sites 

Vegetation—Calamagrostis canadensis dominates this association with cover up to 95% sometimes 

forming a monoculture (Appendix 4). Other species are uncommon and include Betula glandulosa, 

Vaccinium uliginosum, Athyrium filix-femina and Myrica gale. 

Environmental characteristics—This is a common association within the park occurring under a wide 

variety of site conditions. In the mountains, it is found on mid-elevation colluvial slopes. It is commonly

bordered upslope by dwarf shrub associations, downslope by either alder or low shrub associations, or 

forms a mosaic with alder associations. In wetlands or stream banks, it is found on drier sites and on old 

beaver dams. In the boreal forest it occupies large oval moist to wet depressions and some burn sites. 

The soils are a thin organic mat of roots over mineral soil. 

94
 

 

Calamagrostis canadensis-Mixed herbaceous plant association 

Bluejoint-Mixed herbaceous plant association; 7 sites 

Vegetation—This association forms lush herbaceous meadows dominated by two or more of the 

following species: Athyrium filix-femina, Calamagrostis canadensis, Epilobium angustifolium, Geranium 

erianthum, Heracleum lanatum and Sanguisorba stipulata (Appendix 4). Total cover often exceeds 90% 

and herbaceous height ranges from 0.3 to 1.0 meters tall. Low shrubs may also occur including Spiraea 

beauverdiana and Salix planifolia. 

Environmental characteristics—This association typically occurs on moist sites in alpine and subalpine 

areas on the south side of the Alaska Range. It is typically found on mid to lower slope colluvial 

deposits, and the soils are a thin organic mat of roots over mineral soil. It is commonly bordered upslope 

by dwarf shrub classes, and downslope by either alder or low shrub types. 

Carex canescens, Carex rhynchophysa, Agropyron violaceum, Rorippa islandica, Sphagnum 

species T9 

(from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This type is a seasonal Carex meadow with a seasonal receding water level. The major 

species are Carex canescens (20% cover), Carex rhynchophysa (20% cover), Agropyron violaceum (10%

cover), Rorippa islandica (10% cover), Ranunculus gmelini (10% cover), Hippuris vulgaris (5% cover), 

Equisetum fluviatile (5% cover) and Sphagnum species (50% cover). 

Environmental characteristics—This type is found at an average altitude of 572 meters. The bedrock is 

sedimentary and the surficial geology is glacial/fluvial. 

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Epilobium latifolium plant association 

River beauty plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—In the one site sampled, Epilobium latifolium (30% cover) was the only species that 

occurred (Appendix 4). 

Environmental characteristics—This association occupies well-drained newly formed sand/gravel bars 

of floodplains and outwash plains. Much of the ground cover is exposed alluvium. 

WET HERBACEOUS LANDCOVER CLASS 

Number of plant associations currently in the landcover class: 9 

Betula papyrifera, Salix planifolia, Calamagrostis inexpansa, Carex aquatilis, Potentilla palustris 

M14 (from Heebner 1982) 

Vegetation—This plant association has an overstory of Betula papyrifera with a 5% cover value. There 

is standing water with 25% cover and senescent Betula papyrifera (5% cover). The shrub layer is 

composed of Salix planifolia ssp. pulchra (10% cover), Salix bebbiana (3% cover), and Salix barclayi 

(5% cover). There is standing dead Salix with a cover value of 5%. The major species of the herbaceous 

layer are Calamagrostis inexpansa (50% cover), Carex aquatilis ssp. aquatilis (10% cover), Hippuris 

vulgaris (5% cover), and Potentilla palustris (5% cover). Glyceria pulchella, Beckmannia erucaeformis, 

Ranunculus pennsylvanicus, Ranunculus confervoides, Rubus arcticus spp. acaulis, Potamogeton 

epihydrus var. ramosus, Utricularia vulgaris ssp. macrorhiza and Utricularia intermedia also occur. 

96
 

 

Environmental characteristics—This is the wettest forest plant association sampled. It is found in the 

Tanana lowland at an altitude of 198 meters on lacustrine deposits. There is zero range in elevation. 

Carex aquatilis plant association 

Water sedge plant association; 5 sites 

Vegetation—Carex aquatilis (60% to 90% cover) is the dominant species in the association (Appendix 

4). Other species are uncommon but may include Potentilla palustris and Vaccinium microcarpos. 

Sphagnum species often form a floating mat interspersed with the emergent Carex aquatilis. 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs in the shallow zones of ponds, the borders of 

large lakes, and the borders of some small streams. The ponds typically occur on floodplains, kettle-kame 

topography and thermokarst throughout Denali. Water depth ranges up to 30 centimeters above the soil 

surface. Elevation ranges from 200 to 583 meters. 

Carex lasiocarpa plant association 

1 site 

Vegetation—Carex lasiocarpa is the dominant species in the association, and other species are 

uncommon but may include Carex rostrata and Eriophorum vaginatum(Appendix 4). 

97
 

Environmental characteristics—This association is found in shallow water on the edge of ponds that 

occur on floodplains and other systems. The one site sampled occurred at 333 meters elevation, and had

20 centimeters of standing water. 

Carex rostrata plant association 

Beaked sedge plant association; 5 sites 

Vegetation—Carex rostrata (60% to 90% cover) is the dominant species in the association, often 

forming monocultures. Other species are rare but may include Potentilla palustris, Carex aquatilis and 

Sphagnum species. 

98
 

Environmental characteristics—This association is uncommon yet wide spread occurring in shallow 

ponds throughout the boreal forest portions of the park. The ponds occur on floodplains, kettle-kame

topography and thermokarst topography. Water depth ranges from 15 centimeters above the soil surface 

to 15 centimeters below. The elevation ranges from 215 to 945 meters. 

Eleocharis quinqueflora plant association 

Spike rush plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Eleocharis quinqueflora (80% cover) dominates this association (Appendix 4). Other 

species are uncommon but may include Carex rotundata (20% cover) and Betula glandulosa (trace 

cover). 

Environmental characteristics—The association is found on low elevation peatlands south of the 

Alaska Range. It occurs as small patches within the peatland mosaic of dwarf tree, shrub and herbaceous 

map classes. The water table was at the soil surface on the one site sampled. 

Equisetum fluviatile plant association 

Water horsetail plant association; 2 sites 

Vegetation—Equisetum fluviatile is the dominant species ranging up to 50% cover (Appendix 4). Other 

species are uncommon but may include Potentilla palustris and Menyanthes trifoliata. Sphagnum species

often occur as floating mats within the Equisetum fluviatile. 

99
 

Environmental characteristics—This plant association is found as small to large patches in wet 

depressions, ponds, sloughs and lakes. The ecosystems include floodplains, kettle-kame and thermokarst 

topography. Water depth above the soil surface commonly exceeds 20 centimeters. 

Eriophorum brachyantherum plant association 

2 sites 

Vegetation—Eriophorum brachyantherum (80% to 90% cover) is the dominant species often forming a 

monoculture (Appendix 4). Other species are uncommon but may include Salix fuscescens (40% cover) 

and floating mats of Sphagnum species (50% cover). 

100
 

Environmental characteristics—This association occurs on the shallow portions of ponds and slow 

moving streams. Water depth above ground level ranges from 6 to 25 centimeters. 

Eriophorum vaginatum plant association 

Hare’s-tail grass plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Eriophorum vaginatum is the dominant species (90% cover) and may form monocultures 

(Appendix 4). Other species are uncommon but may include Carex rotundata and floating mats of moss. 

Environmental characteristics—The association occurs on the shallow portions of ponds. The one site 

sampled was on a floodplain but the association, also, likely occurs as small patches in ponds on kettlekame and thermokarst topography. 

Menyanthes trifoliata plant association 

Buckbean plant association; 1 site 

Vegetation—Menyanthes trifoliata (90% cover) is the dominant species in the association (Appendix 4). 

Other species are uncommon but may include Cicuta mackenzieana, Potentilla palustris and Equisetum 

fluviatile. 

101
 

Environmental characteristics—The one site sampled occurred on a floodplain pond in 20-centimeter 

deep water. It also likely occurs as small to large patches at low elevations on the northern and southern 

edges of the park. 

102
 

 

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Densmore, R. 1991. Restoration of alpine and subalpine plant communities in areas disturbed by

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Densmore, R. 1992. Vegetation monitoring protocol development. Report for Denali National Park and 

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Densmore, R.V. 1994. Succession and regraded placer mine spoil in Alaska, U.S.A., in relation to initial 

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Douglas, D. 1994. Remote sensing to assess vegetation phenology and berry production/availability. In 

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Flahault, C., and C. Schroter. 1910. Rapprt sur la nomenclature phytogeopraphique. Proceedings of the 

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Hamilton, T. D. 1999. Surficial geologic map of Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, Alaska: 

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Hanson, Herbert C. 1950. Vegetation and soil profiles in some solifluction and mound areas in Alaska. 

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Preserve. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska. 243 p. M.S. thesis. 

Hulten, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. 

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Kreig, R. A. and R. D. Reger. 1982. Air-photo analysis and summary of landform soil properties along 

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Publication WO-WSA-5. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C. 

Mueller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John Wiley

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Pfister, R.D. and S.F. Arno. 1980. Classifying forest habitat types based on potential climax vegetation. 

Forest Science. 26(1): 52-70. 

Pratt, V.E. and F.G. Pratt. 1993. Wildflowers of Denali National Park. Alaskakrafts, Inc. Anchorage, 

AK. 166p. 

Rieger, S., D.B. Schoephorster, and C.E. Furbush. 1979. Exploratory soil survey of Alaska: U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 213 p. 

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Shelton, N. 1962. Vegetation differences related to slope and aspect on Cathederal Mountain. M.S. 

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vegetation. 

Viereck, Leslie A. 1966. Plant succession and soil development on gravel outwash of the Muldrow 

Glacier, Alaska. Ecological Monographs. 36(3):181-199. 

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Viereck, L. A.; C.T. Dyrness, A.R. Batten, K.J. Wenzlick. 1992. The Alaska vegetation classification. 

Pacific Northwest Research Station, U. S. Forest Service, Portland, OR. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR286. 

278 p. 

Washburn, A. L. 1956. Classification of patterned ground and review of suggested origins. Geological 

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GLOSSARY 

Most of the ecological terms below are from Hamilton (1999), Gallant et al. (1995), Anderson et al. 

(1998), Viereck et al. (1992) and Gabriel and Talbot (1984).

Albedo—Same as reflectivity. The percentage of incoming radiation that is reflected by a natural surface 

such as a ground, ice, snow, water, clouds, or particulates in the atmosphere. 

Alliance—A physiognomically uniform group of plant associations sharing one or more dominant or 

diagnostic species, which as a rule are found in the uppermost stratum of the vegetation (Grossman et al. 

1998).

Alluvial fans—Erosional-depositional system in which rock and sediment are transported down-valley

and deposited where it emerges from the confines of the valley into a larger valley or plain. They tend to 

be fan-shaped in plan view; a segment of a cone radiating away from a single point source. 

Alluvial—Characterized by the deposition of sediment by a stream or other running water at any point 

along its course. 

Alpine—The zone on mountain tops between permanent snow and the cold limits of trees. 

Annual—Plant species that complete their life-cycle within a single growing season. 

Aquatic—Refers to sites with vegetation that is submerged, floating, or growing in permanent water. 

Bare-ground—Refers to (1) a landcover class with less than 15 percent vegetation cover, or (2) a soil 

surface devoid of vegetation. 

Bedrock—Refers to exposed rock typically at higher elevations and includes all the jagged rocky ridges, 

peaks, cirque headwalls and cirque basins. It has little or no soil development. 

Biennial—Plant species that complete their life-cycle within two growing seasons. 

Boreal—Northern biogeographical region typically referring to subpolar and cold temperate areas. 

Brackish—Tidal water with a salinity of 0.5-30 parts per thousand.

Broad-leaved—Describes a plant with leaves that have well-defined leaf blades and are relatively wide in 

outline (shape) as opposed to needle-like or linear; leaf area is typically greater than 500 square 

millimeters or 1 square inch. 

Bryophyte—Nonvascular, terrestrial green plant, including mosses, hornworts, and liverworts. 

Bunch grass—Multi-stemmed (caespitose) life form of grasses characterized by clumps of erect shoots 

that slowly spread horizontally by tillers, generally creating distinct individual plants spaced across the 

ground; often applied to sedges and other graminoids with similar life forms. 

Caespitose (cespitose)—Describes a low branching pattern from near the base that forms a multistemmed or a bunched appearance. 

106
 

 

 

Canopy cover—The percent of the ground in the polygon covered by the gross outline of an individual 

plant's foliage (canopy), or the outline collectively covered by all individuals of a species or life-form

within the polygon (Daubenmire 1959). 

Classification—Process of assigning individual pixels of an image to categories, generally on the basis of 

spectral reflectance characteristics. 

Cliff—Any high, very steep to perpendicular, or overhanging face of a rock outcrop. 

Cold-deciduous—Describes a plant that sheds its leaves as a strategy to avoid seasonal periods of low 

temperature, often initiated by photoperiod; applied to vegetation adapted to seasonal cold season 

influences (temperate). 

Colluvium—Unconsolidated surface materials that have been transported downslope and deposited on 

the lower slopes. Colluvium is moved by landslides, flow slides, talus rubble, rock-glaciers, solifluction 

and unconsolidated runoff. 

Creeping—Describes the pattern of stems growing at or just beneath the surface of the ground and 

usually producing roots at nodes. 

Crustose lichen—Lichen life form that grows in intimate contact with its substrate, lacks a lower cortex 

and rhizoids (root-like structures), and is impossible to separate from the substrate without destroying the 

thallus; lichen with an unlobed, flattened thallus, growing adnate (joined) to the substrate. 

Cushion plant—A low, woody, plant life form so densely branched that it forms a compact canopy that 

is pad- or bolster-like in appearance; usually with microphyllous foliage; characteristic of alpine and 

tundra plants.

Deciduous—Describes a woody plant that seasonally loses all of its leaves and becomes temporarily

bare-stemmed. 

Digital image processing—computer manipulation of the digital-number values of an image. 

Digital image—an image where the property being measured has been converted from a continuous 

range of analogue values to a range expressed by a finite number of integers, usually recorded as binary

codes from 0 to 255, or as one byte. 

Dominant—An organism, group of organisms, or taxon that by its size, abundance, or coverage exerts 

considerable influence upon an association's biotic (such as structure and function) and abiotic (such as 

shade and relative humidity) conditions. 

Dwarf shrub—Shrub life form growing less than 0.2 meters tall. 

Ecoregions—Landscape units defined based on similar patterns in potential natural communities, soils, 

hydrologic function, landform, topography, lithology, climate, and natural processes such as nutrient 

cycling, productivity, succession, and natural disturbance regimes associated with flooding, wind, or fire. 

Climate, as modified by topography, is the dominant criterion at the scale mapped for Denali. 

Eolian—Wind blown sand and silt deposits. 

107
 

 

Ephemeral forb vegetation—Annual vegetation that, during favorable periods, dominate areas that are 

usually sparsely vegetated or unvegetated for most of the year. 

Epiphyte—Vascular plant that grows by germinating and rooting on other plants or other perched 

structures; sometimes called "air plants." 

Evergreen—Describes a plant that has green leaves all year round.

Field verification area—An area sampled during the field season composed of multiple polygons. 

Floodplain—A fluvial plain formed by non-glacial fed rivers. 

Foliose lichen—Lichen life form that is leafy in appearance and loosely attached to its substrate; lichen 

with a lobed, flattened thallus growing loosely attached to the substrate, the lobes are flattened or inflated 

with distinctly differentiated upper and lower surfaces; umbilicate lichens are included. 

Forb—A broad-leaved herbaceous plant. 

Fresh water—Water with a salinity of less than 0.5 parts per thousand. 

Frost boils—Areas of bare soil that are sufficiently disturbed by frost action to prevent plant 

colonization. On slopes, fine material in unsorted circles moves slowly downslope producing banked or 

"stepped" frost boils (from Gabriel and Talbot. 1984). 

Frost Scar—Exposed bare mineral soil formed by frost action in the soil. 

Fruticose lichen—Lichen life form that is bunched, shrubby or "hairy" in appearance and loosely

attached to its substrate; lichen with the thallus branched, the branches solid, or hollow and round, or 

flattened without distinctly differentiated upper and lower surfaces; squamulose lichens are included. 

Geographic Information System (GIS)—A data-handling and analysis system based on sets of data 

distributed spatially in two dimensions. The data sets may be map oriented, when they comprise 

qualitative attributes of an area recorded as lines, points, and areas often in vector format, or image 

oriented, when the data are quantitative attributes referring to cells in a rectangular grid usually in raster 

format. It is also known as a geobased or geocoded information system. 

Geomorphic process—Refers to the mechanical transport of organic and inorganic material such as mass 

movement, surface erosion, the transport of material (silt) by water, and biogenic soil movement by root 

throw and animals. 

Glacial drift—The material transported by a glacier and then deposited either directly from the ice or 

from the melt water. Numerous types of glacial drift occur including moraines, kettle-kame topography, 

eskers, drumlins, glacial till and outwash. 

Glacial outwash—Fluvial plains formed when glacially fed rivers deposit their sediment in stream

channels and the associated plain. Due to continual channel shifting the sediment is spread across an area 

called an outwash plain. Outwash plains typically have braided rivers consisting of multiple, wide, 

shallow channels characterized by rapid erosion, deposition and channel shifts. 

Glacial till—A surface formed by sediment originating directly from glacial ice and typically has no 

discernible sediment stratification. 

108
 

Global Positioning System (GPS)—The GPS is a worldwide satellite navigation system that is funded 

and supervised by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS satellites transmit specially coded signals. 

These signals are processed by a GPS receiver that computes extremely accurate measurements, including 

3-dimensional position, velocity, and time on a continuous basis. 

Graminoid—Grasses and grass-like plants, including sedges and rushes. 

Grassland—Vegetation dominated by perennial graminoid plants. 

Ground layer—Applies to the herbaceous layer. 

Growth form—The shape or appearance of a plant; it primarily reflects the influence of growing 

conditions. 

Herbaceous—A vascular plant without significant woody tissue above or at the ground; an annual, 

biennial, or perennial plant lacking significant thickening by secondary woody growth, with perennating 

buds borne at or below the ground surface (hemicryophytes, geophytes, helophytes, and therophytes of 

Raunkier). 

Ice wedge polygons—Refers to patterned ground with polygons typically connected in a polygonal 

pattern that is similar to the pattern produced by mud cracks. They are formed by large masses of ice—

called ice wedges—that grow in thermal contraction cracks in permafrost. 

Image—pictorial representation of a scene recorded by a remote sensing system. Although image is a 

general term, it is commonly restricted to representations acquired by non-photographic methods. 

Interpretation—The process in which a person extracts information from an image. 

Infra Red (IR) color photograph—Color photograph in which the red-imaging layer is sensitive to 

photographic IR wavelengths, the green-imaging layer is sensitive to red light, and the blue-imaging layer 

is sensitive to green light. Also known as camouflage detection photographs and false-color photographs. 

Krumholtz—Growth form assumed by tree species at the upper treeline or in the alpine zone; 

characterized by a creeping and multi-stemmed growth pattern due to desiccation and physical damage 

caused by wind and blowing ice crystals near the upper treeline; the same species grows as an erect, 

single-stemmed tree at lower elevation. 

Lacustrine deposits—derived from materials deposited in lake water and exposed when the water level 

is lowered or the land is raised. 

Landsat (formerly ERTS)—The Landsat program, first known as the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellite (ERTS) Program, is a development of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) in association with NOAA, USGS, and Space Imaging. The activities of these combined groups 

led to the concept of dedicated Earth-orbiting satellites, the defining of spectral and spatial requirements 

for their instruments, and the fostering of research to determine the best means of extracting and using 

information from the data. The first satellite, ERTS 1, was launched on July 23, 1972. The second 

satellite was launched on January 22, 1975. Concurrently, the name of the satellites and program was 

changed to emphasize its prime area of interest (land resources). The first two satellites were designated 

as Landsats 1 and 2. Landsat 3 was launched on March 5, 1978. Landsat 4 was launched on July 16, 

109
 

 

1982. Landsat 5 (launched March 1, 1984) is currently in service providing selected data to worldwide 

researchers. 

Lichen—An organism generally recognized as a single plant that consists of a fungus and an alga or 

cyanobacterium living in symbiotic association. 

Life form—The shape or appearance of a plant that mostly reflects inherited or genetic influences. 

Low shrub—Low-growing shrub life form between 0.1 and 1 meter tall. 

Matted—Describes a creeping plant that by reiterative growth has overlapping stems and forms a low, 

dense ground cover. 

Mesic—Sites are moist and tussocks may dominate. Permanent standing water is not present. 

Mixed forest—Describes vegetation in which evergreen and deciduous species each generally contribute 

25-75% to the total canopy cover. 

Montane—Describes the zone in mountainous regions where the influence of altitude (vertical relief) 

results in local climatic regimes that are sufficiently different from those in the adjacent lowlands as to 

cause a complex vertical climate-vegetation-soil zonation; includes vegetation at the base of a mountain 

when it is different from lowland vegetation. 

Mosaic—Composite image or photograph made by piecing together individual images or photographs 

covering adjacent areas. 

Nonvascular plant—A plant without specialized water or fluid conductive tissue (xylem and phloem); 

includes bryophytes, lichens, and algae. 

Patterned ground—Refers to regions with perennially frozen ground that often have their surface 

materials arranged into distinct geometric shapes. The features, collectively known as patterned ground, 

include polygons, nets, circles and stripes. 

Pavement—A relatively flat surface of consolidated material, generally exposed bedrock. 

Perennial—Plant species with a life-cycle that characteristically lasts more than two growing seasons and 

persists for several years. 

Pingo—These are ice-filled conical hills or mounds, 20 to 400 meters in diameter and 10 to 70 meters 

high. 

Pixel—The term for a processed signal of a remotely sensed area of ground. Contraction of picture 

element. 

Plant association—The finest level of both the Viereck et al. (1992) and National Vegetation 

Classification System (Grossman et al. 1998) classifications. It is defined as "a plant community type of

definite floristic composition, uniform habitat conditions, and uniform physiognomy" (Flahault and 

Schroter 1910). 

Pulvinate mosses—Mosses growing in cushion-like mats or clumps. 

110
 

 

Remote sensing—Collection and interpretation of information about an object without being in physical 

contact with the object. 

Resolution—Ability to separate closely spaced objects on an image or photograph. Resolution is 

commonly expressed as the most closely spaced line-pairs per unit distance that can be distinguished. 

Also called spatial resolution. 

Rock glacier—Tongue-shaped or lobate masses of unsorted, angular frost-rived material with interstitial 

ice. They typically originate in cirques or in high, steep-walled recesses. 

Saltwater—Water with a salinity of greater than 30 parts per thousand. 

Satellite—An object in orbit around a celestial body.

Scene—Area on the ground that is covered by an image or photograph. 

Scree—A sheet of coarse rock debris covering a mountain slope without an adjacent cliff. 

Scrub—Vegetation dominated by shrubs, including thickets. 

Seasonal—Showing periodicity related to the seasons; applied to vegetation exhibiting pronounced 

seasonal periodicity marked by conspicuous physiognomic changes. 

Shrub—A perennial woody species that typically has several stems arising from or near the ground. 

Solifluction (or gelifluction)—The flow of soil in association with frozen ground. During the spring and 

summer thaw, water in the active layer cannot penetrate below the permafrost table. Soils are often 

saturated, and the loss of friction and cohesion causes them to behave like viscous fluids. The soil thus 

slowly ‘flows.’ The downslope fronts of the solifluction lobes are marked by near-vertical scarps as high 

as 2 meters. 

Sorted circles—Similar to sorted polygons but circular in outline. 

Sorted polygons—Refers to patterned ground where sorting separates the coarse from the fine soil 

particles, and typically produces a surface feature of fine materials bordered by stones in a variety of 

geometric shapes; polygons, circles, nets and stripes. 

Sorted stripes—Refers to patterned ground that consists of linear alignments of soil, vegetation and 

stones on slopes. Often strips of stone separated by broad zones of finer sediment and vegetation. The 

strips are up to several meters in width and 100 meters in length.

Sparsely vegetated—Describes vegetation with low total plant cover (between 15 and 25%) that is 

scattered; areas with high cover of crustose lichen and no other vegetation are included here. 

Spectral reflectance—Reflectance of electromagnetic energy at specified wavelength intervals. 

Stomata—Pores or openings for gas exchange that are generally concentrated on leaf surfaces. 

Subalpine—Upper mountain vegetation immediately below the cold limits of tree and tall shrub growth. 

111
 

 

Supervised classification—Digital-information extraction technique in which the operator provides 

training-site information that the computer uses to assign pixels to categories. 

Tall shrub—Tall-growing shrub life form greater than 1 meter tall.

Talus—A sloping accumulation of coarse rock fragments at the base of a cliff. 

Temperate—Geographically, the region between the polar and tropical regions; climatically, the region 

is moderate with distinct seasons of alternating long, warm summers and short, cold winters. 

Terraces—Floodplains and outwash plains removed from frequent flooding due to down-cutting of the 

river. 

Texture—Frequency of change and arrangement of tones on an image. 

Thematic Data—Thematic data layers in a data set are layers of information that deal with a particular 

theme. These layers are typically related information that logically go together. Examples of thematic 

data would include a data layer whose contents are roads, railways, and river navigation routes. 

Thematic Mapper (TM)—A cross-track scanner deployed on Landsat that records seven bands of data 

from the visible through the thermal IR regions. 

Thermokarst—Refers to the collapse of the soil surface due to the thawing of ice rich permafrost, 

resulting in ponds and hills. 

TM—Thematic mapper. 

Topographic Map—Map that presents the horizontal and vertical positions of the features represented; 

distinguished from a plainimetric map by the addition of relief in measurable form. 

Topography—Configuration (relief) of the land surface; the graphic delineation or portrayal of that 

configuration in map form, as by contour lines; in oceanography the term is applied to a surface such as 

the sea bottom or a surface of given characteristics within the water mass. 

Training area—A sample of the Earth’s surface with known properties; the statistics of the imaged data 

within the area are used to determine decision boundaries in classification. 

Training site—Area of terrain with known properties or characteristics that is used in supervised 

classification. 

Treeline—A zone where the normal growth of trees is limited; cold temperatures often combined with 

drought form the upper or arctic treeline, and drought combined with hot temperatures form lower or arid 

treeline. 

Tundra—The treeless region north of the Arctic Circle (arctic tundra) or above the treeline of high 

mountains (alpine tundra) and on some sub-Antarctic islands; characterized by very low winter 

temperatures, short cool summers, permafrost below a surface layer subject to summer melt, short 

growing season, and low precipitation. 

Tussock—Graminoid life form consisting of bunch-like tufts, sometimes more than 1 meter or 3 feet tall, 

in which the hard, old, withered leaves are intermingled with the fresh, young, green leaves. 

112
 

Understory—General term that in these descriptions applies to the shrub and herbaceous layers of a 

vegetation type, as well as the tree regeneration layer. We have tried to use "shrub layer" or "herbaceous 

layer" in most cases, but understory is used in some places. "Undergrowth" is the more specific term

used for shrub and herbaceous layers in forests or woodland vegetation types, and has been little used in 

these descriptions. 

Unsupervised classification—Digital information extraction technique in which the computer assigns 

pixels to categories with no instructions from the operator. 

Vascular plant—Plant with water and fluid conductive tissue (xylem and phloem); includes seed plants, 

ferns, and fern allies. 

Wet—Refers to sites where the dominant vegetation is emergent—not submerged or floating—and semipermanent or standing water is present. 

Woody plant—Plant species life form with woody tissue and buds on that woody tissue near or at the 

ground surface or above; plants with limited to extensive thickening by secondary woody growth and 

with perennating buds; includes phanerophytes and chamaephytes of Raunkier. 

Woody—Containing lignified plant tissue. 

Xeromorphic—Describes plants with morphological and physiological characters that tolerate 

persistently low water availability, such as succulence, specialized leaf surfaces for light reflectance or 

water retention, opportunistic leaf growth, leaf-size reduction with increased thickness and sunken 

stomata, revolute margins, or stem and leaf modification to form thorns or spines. 

113
 

 

Appendix 1. Descriptions of some of the major landscapes that influence landcover in Denali 

National Park and Preserve. 

The following are some of the major landscapes that often influence landcover in Denali National Park 

and Preserve. Landscape units are considered in developing the classification system because some units 

strongly affect the distribution and pattern of landcover on a time and space scale pertinent to the products 

being produced. For example, the floodplain landscape strongly influences the type of vegetation and the 

pattern of landcover classes on floodplains, and exist at a spatial scale that can be recognized using 

Landsat imagery. This is not to imply that all landscape units delineated strongly influence or reflect 

vegetation distribution. 

BEDROCK 

Bedrock occurs at higher elevations and includes all the jagged rocky ridges, peaks, cirque headwalls and 

cirque basins in Denali (Figure 6). Bedrock has little or no soil development, and colluvium, alluvial fans 

and glacial drift all occur downslope. Glaciation has shaped and exposed the bedrock. Frost action and 

weathering continue to fracture rock, causing continued rock fall and erosional landforms such as 

altiplanation terraces (mountain terraces), scarps, cliffs, and tors. Most precipitation runs off the surface 

because of shallow soils or a lack of soils, and relatively steep slopes. 

Figure 6. Idealized cross-section of a mountain valley in Denali National Park and Preserve showing 

various surficial geology deposits and landcover types. 

Vegetation on bedrock is generally absent in the higher elevations or is sparse due to the harsh climatic 

conditions, and shallow or no soils. On stable areas the vegetation often forms continuous mats of low 

growing vegetation (lichen, prostrate shrub), and, moving downslope, shrubs and trees occur. 

COLLUVIUM 

Colluvial deposits are unconsolidated surface materials that have been transported downslope and 

deposited on the lower slopes (Figure 6). Colluvium is moved by landslides, flow slides, talus rubble, 

rock-glaciers, solifluction and unconsolidated runoff; solifluction is described below. 

114
 

Solifluction 

Solifluction (or gelifluction) is the flow of soil in association with frozen ground, and is a type of 

colluvium (Ritter 1986; Figure 7). During the spring and summer thaw, water in the active layer cannot 

penetrate below the permafrost table. Soils are often saturated, and the loss of friction and cohesion 

causes them to behave like viscous fluids. The soil thus slowly ‘flows.’ The downslope fronts of the 

solifluction lobes are marked by near-vertical scarps as high as 1.8 meters. This form of mass wasting 

commonly occurs on slopes between 5 and 20%. Steeper slopes tend to drain off excess water. Silty soils 

are the most susceptible to solifluction, whereas gravelly and sandy soils are so permeable and easily

drained that they rarely flow. Solifluction commonly occurs on various colluvial and glacial drift 

deposits. 

Figure 7. Idealized cross-section of a solifluction lobe. 

ALLUVIAL FAN 

 Alluvial fans are common throughout the mountainous ecoregion of Denali. Alluvial fans are an 

erosional-depositional system in which rock and sediment are transported down-valley and deposited 

where it emerges from the confines of a narrow valley into a larger valley or plain. They tend to be fanshaped in plan view; a segment of a cone radiating away from a single point source. The point of 

deposition can shift away from the mountain front to well down the original fan surface if the stream has 

become entrenched. The stream emerges down-fan and deposits its material forming a new fan on top of 

the older deposits. On an alluvial fan, some areas are actively forming whereas other areas are inactive. 

Fan morphology is relatively consistent. The slope of an alluvial fan decreases as you move down fan. 

Near the mountain front, fans are relatively steep although rarely exceeding 10% (Ritter 1986). They

gradually flatten at their lower extremity. The steepest gradients are usually associated with coarsegrained materials. The presence of boulders strewn across fan surfaces suggests periodic slush flow 

activity. 

Vegetation on fans reflects the differences in active versus inactive fan areas, and different vegetation 

successional stages are evident. Disturbance species—such as willows (Salix species) and alder (Alnus 

species)—prefer the active areas, just as they colonize recently deposited floodplain materials. The 

inactive older deposits tend to reflect the vegetation found on stable surfaces adjacent to the fans such as 

on colluvium and glacial drift. 

115
 

 

GLACIAL DRIFT 

This landscape type is somewhat of an agglomeration of different deposits that dominate the valley

bottoms and mountain sideslopes (Figure 6). Glacial drift is defined as material transported by a glacier 

and then deposited either directly from the ice or from the melt water. In Denali, these deposits are 

predominantly of late Pleistocene age. Numerous types of glacial drift occur including moraines, kettlekame topography, eskers, drumlins, glacial till and outwash. Glacial till is the dominant feature and is 

formed by sediment originating directly from glacial ice and typically has no discernible sediment 

stratification. Inactive glacial outwash is included—active outwash is placed in the floodplain landscape 

unit. 

Various processes and other landscape types occur on the glacial drift type. These include thermokarst, 

frost scaring, polygonal ground and pingos. Alluvial fans and colluvial slopes often cover glacial drift, 

and glacial drift is subjected to solifluction—a type of colluvial process. Rivers can also rework glacial 

deposits forming floodplains. 

TERRACES 

Terraces are floodplains and outwash plains that have been horizontally and vertically removed from the 

regular flooding of a river. The ultimate cause of this removal from the river’s influence is down-cutting 

by the river. These surfaces are typically gravel and sandy gravel, capped by floodplain deposits of silt, 

sand, or peat up to 0.9 to 1.8 meters thick. Older surfaces may be also covered by thicker eolian silt, 

peatland, and thaw-lake deposits. 

SAND-SILT DEPOSITS 

Sand and silt deposits occur in a variety of forms within Denali, and a few examples follow. Some silt 

and sand is deposited initially by slow-moving streams within basins partly dammed by end moraines. 

These deposits commonly grade downward into lacustrine deposits and are often dissected by postglacial 

streams. Other sand-silt deposits are formed by loess, and now are poorly stratified sandy silt, organic 

silt, and silty peat. Abundant ice often occurs in the form of lenses, wedges, and interstitial grains. 

Another example is upland silt deposits formed from loess and the layers are subsequently mixed by frost 

action with local organic matter and weathering products (Hamilton, 1999). 

LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS 

Lacustrine deposits occupy the valley bottoms, as do glacial drift and floodplains (Figure 6). This deposit 

is derived from materials deposited in lake water and exposed when the water level is lowered or the land 

is raised. Lacustrine deposits have a high percentage of thermokarst formed lakes. 

FLOODPLAINS 

Floodplains are composed of glacial and non-glacial rivers, sandbars and low terraces that are still 

actively flooded (Figure 8). The soils include both poorly-drained permafrost rich soils, lake silts and 

clays, and well-drained alluvial loams, sands and gravels. 

116
 

 

Figure 8. Idealized cross-section of geomorphic and vegetation succession on a floodplain (adapted from

Krieg and Reger 1982). 

Active glacial outwash plain is included in this section due to its similarity to floodplains—inactive 

glacial outwash is included in the glacial drift description. Glacial outwash forms when glacially fed 

rivers deposit their sediment in stream channels and the associated plain. Due to continual channel 

shifting the sediment is spread across an area called an outwash plain. Outwash plains typically have 

braided rivers consisting of multiple, wide, shallow channels characterized by rapid erosion, deposition 

and channel shifts. Outwash plains are common in Denali. 

Floodplains are formed by non-glacial fed rivers. In Denali, they often rework lacustrine and glacial drift 

deposits. The formation of new land on floodplains is well documented. Along a meandering river—

meandering rivers have one or two main channels—alluvium is deposited on convex curves in the river 

channel. The opposing concave bank is cut, providing sediment for deposition on convex curves 

downstream and creating a series of similar bands of alluvial deposits. The channel thus meanders 

laterally across the floodplain. Vegetation growing on new deposits near the river may be contrasted with 

that on older deposits inland to recognize and measure successional processes. 

ORGANIC DEPOSITS 

Organic deposits (i.e., peatlands, muskeg, bogs, fens) are composed of three to 1.8 meters of accumulated 

peat in areas of restricted drainage with water tables at or close to the peat surface. Organic deposits are 

generally found adjacent to forested areas in Denali. They occupy former lake basins and other closed 

depressions, alluvium along some valley floors, and are abundant on older glacial drift deposits within the 

boreal forest. 

The gradient of nutrient availability and water sources for organic deposits is typically divided into 

nutrient rich (fen) and nutrient poor (bog) peatlands. Fens are wetlands with wet organic soils, dominated 

by aquatic, emergent, and dwarf shrubs, or raised peat dominated by shrubs and trees. Ground water, the 

primary water source in a fen, is nutrient rich because of its contact with mineral soils. Waters may be 

acidic or basic, but typically with a pH above 4.7. Water is lost through evapotranspiration, seepage 

(infiltration through the soil), and surface outflow. 

Bogs are wetlands with organic soils, typically dominated by Sphagnum (peat moss) species, sedges, 

grasses, or reeds. Bogs require depressions (ponds) in level areas where precipitation exceeds 

evapotranspiration. Precipitation is the primary water source in a bog, with little or no ground-water 

flow. Consequently the sites are nutrient-poor and acidic, commonly with a pH less than 4.7. The water 

117
 

 

 

 

table is at or close to the surface most of the year. Because of the continuum of site and vegetation 

change within a peatland, it is often difficult to clearly separate a fen from a bog in the field. 

In level areas, bogs and fens generally exhibit recognizable and consistent vegetation zonation patterns 

that are directly associated with different water depths. The vegetation, on a wet to dry moisture gradient, 

typically changes from aquatic (pond), to emergent, to mesic herbaceous, to carr (shrub-dominated 

wetland), to dwarf tree. Not all the vegetation zones are always expressed, and the zonation may change 

abruptly, such as from a pond to a carr. Fens on ground with a slight gradient and with heavy subsurface 

and surface waterflow often develop a patterned ground of vegetated ridges, and vegetated or unvegetated 

hollows filled with water. 

PINGO 

Pingos are uncommon in Denali. They are ice-filled conical hills or mounds, 20 to 400 meters in 

diameter and 10 to 70 meters high. Closed-system pingos form in nearly level areas when unfrozen 

ground water migrates under hydrostatic pressure to a site where the permafrost is domed up to form a 

mound. An open-system type is generally smaller and forms on sloping ground where water beneath or 

within the permafrost penetrates the permafrost under high hydraulic pressure, which heaves the 

overlying material to form a mound. Radiometric dating indicates that most pingos in Alaska are less 

than 4,000 to 7,000 years old, however, many are less than 1,000 and even 100 years old. 

PATTERNED GROUND 

Patterned ground is found predominantly on the north side of the Alaska Range in Denali. Regions with 

perennially frozen ground often have their surface materials arranged into distinct geometric shapes. The 

features, collectively known as patterned ground, include polygons, nets, circles and stripes (Washburn 

1956). In general, the geometric pattern changes with increasing slope from polygons and circles on level 

ground, to nets and then stripes on steeper surfaces. Whether the geometric shape is formed by sorting or 

not has an effect on the type and size of patterned ground and its vegetation (Ritter 1986). Two types of 

patterned ground are described below: sorted polygons and ice wedge polygons. 

Sorted Polygons 

For sorted polygons, sorting separates the coarse from the fine soil particles, and typically produces a 

surface feature of fine materials bordered by stones in a variety of geometric shapes; polygons, circles, 

nets and stripes. Sorted polygons are bounded by straight segments composed of stones that surround a 

central core of finer material. They range up to 10 meters in diameter. One general theory behind the 

formation of sorted polygons is that soil heaving separates the coarse and fine sediments, and repeated 

freezing and thawing moves the stones upward and outward. The smaller grains with greater cohesion 

contract farther inward and downward during thawing. The process continues until the adjacent polygons 

meet. The coarse materials form circular or polygonal rims with finer materials in the center (Ballard 

1973).

Sorted Circles 

Sorted circles are similar to sorted polygons but circular in outline. Sorted stripes are linear alignments of 

soil, vegetation and stones on slopes. They are strips of stone separated by broad zones of finer sediment 

and vegetation. The strips are up to several meters in width and 100 meters in length. Sorted polygons 

and circles occur on glacial drift, rounded foothills and on mountain slopes. 

Ice Wedge Polygons 

Ice wedge polygons are typically connected in a polygonal pattern that is similar to the pattern produced 

by mud cracks. They are formed by large masses of ice—called ice wedges—that grow in thermal 

118
 

contraction cracks in permafrost. Thermal tension on the ground surface leads to frost fractures only

millimeters wide that penetrate the active layer and permafrost. The ground cracking typically occurs in 

winter when ground temperatures reach their annual minimum. In spring, water from melting snow 

freezes in these cracks and produces a vertical vein of ice. During the summer months the permafrost 

warms and horizontal compression caused by re-expansion of the permafrost results in the upturning of 

permafrost, forming elevated perimeters of the polygon. In winter, renewed thermal tension reopens the 

vertical crack that is presumed to be a zone of weakness. Another sliver of ice is added when the spring 

melt water enters the renewed crack and freezes. Over the centuries, these incremental cracks produce ice 

wedges that may be 2 meters wide at the top. Troughs often form the boundaries between polygons and 

generally indicate ice wedges that are 1 to 2 meters wide at the top. The diameter of ice wedge polygons 

ranges from several to more than 30 meters. 

THERMOKARST 

Thermokarst is found predominantly on the north side of the Alaska Range in Denali. It is the collapse of 

the soil surface due to the thawing of ice rich permafrost. The ground around thermokarst is 

supersaturated—often with ice lenses and layers—because it contains more water in the solid state than 

the ground could possibly hold if the water is in the liquid state. The melting of ground ice is due to 

either vertical soil degradation when the surface thermal properties are altered, or lateral degradation such 

as where lake water laterally erodes its banks, including ground ice. Many of the processes that lead to 

thermokarst are initiated by broad climate changes, but minor events such as fires, clearing of forest 

vegetation, shifting stream channels, and removal of the peat surface will upset the thermal balance and 

produce thermokarst. 

Thermokarst is a common feature in areas with low relief and level land such as in mountain valleys and 

the regions north of the Alaska Range. It occurs on a variety of landscape deposits—sand, lacustrine, 

glacial drift, and floodplain—throughout Denali. 

119
 

 

 

 

Appendix 2. Ground data collection form 

1999 DENALI LANDCOVER MAPPING PROJECT; SITE DESCRIPTION FORM 

Air Photo Number: Polygon code: Landcover class name:

Date: Surveyors: Photos: Roll number: Frame Number:

Lat: Long: W P: Error:+ Elevation:

Slope (0-100 degrees): Aspect (0-360 degrees): Landform:

Hydrologic Regime: Dry Mesic Wet Aquatic Biome: Alpine Subalpine Boreal Bog Herb meadow Tussock Rip

Unvegetated Surface: ___% Water ___% Bare soil ___% Bedrock ___% Litter, duff

___% Wood ( > 1 cm) ___% Large rocks (cobbles, boulders > 10 cm) ___% Small rocks (gravel, 0.2-10 cm)

___% Sand (0.1-2 mm) ___% Other (describe):

 Total cover Soils: 

Air Ground Height (ft)pH

Needleaf Texture

Broaleaf Depth (ft)

Tall shrub (>5 ft) Water table

Low (8 in. to 5 ft) Depth to permafrost

Dwarf (<8 inches)

Forb

Grass

Sedge

Moss

Lichen Berries 

Bareground Would not stop

Water Could stop

Tussocks Should stop

Species % Cover Height (feet) dbh (inches) Comments (bottom branches)

120
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 3. Fly over data form used for field data collection. 

1999 DENAL I LANDCO VER M APPING PRO JECT ; FVA "FLY -O VER " DATA FO RM 

A ir Photo N um ber: Poly g on code: Lat/Long:

Landcover class nam e: Landcover class code:

D ate: Survey ors: A . G aribaldi, J. Stevens

Photos: R oll num ber: Fram e N um ber: A zim uth:

Video:tape #: Footage: D ig photo: ses. # : photo #: azim uth:

Slope (0-100 degrees): A sp ect (0-360 deg rees):

M odifer: R iparian A lpine Subalpine Boreal Tussock B og M eadow

Landform : 

H ydrologic Regim e (circle one): Dry - Mesic - Wet - Aquatic Closed W hite Spruce Closed Low W illow

% Tussocks: Closed Black Spruce Closed Low A lder-W illow

Dom inant Species: % Canopy H eig ht (ft) % Total Cover O pen W hite Spruce Closed Low Shrub Birch

Cover Open Black Spruce Open Low Alder

W o o d lan d Sp ru ce (E ric ) O pen Low A lder-W illow

W oo dlan d Sp ruce (L ichen) Open Low W illow

W oo dlan d Sp ruce (S edge) Open Low M ix Shrub-Sedge Tussock

 Open Low Shrub Birch-Ericaceous

Closed Birch Open Low Shrub Birch-W illow

Closed Aspen 

Closed Balsam Poplar Dryas Dwarf Shrub

Closed Mixed Deciduous W illow Dw arf Shrub

O pen Birch Eric. Bearberry/V accinium Dw . Shrub

O p en A sp en E ric. Cassiope Dwarf Shrub

O pen Balsam Poplar 

O pen Mixed Deciduous Dry/M esic Grass-Forb

W oodland Birch Dry/M esic Sedge-Forb

W oodland Balsam Poplar Tussock Tundra

W oodland Deciduous W e t gram inoid/forb

 

Closed Mixed Lichen

Open Mixed Sparse V egetation

W oodland Mixed Aquatic

 Bare Ground

Closed Tall A lder Snow /Ice

Closed Tall W illow

M oss Closed Tall A lder-W illow

Lichen Closed Tall Shrub Birch

B are ground O pen Tall Alder O pen Tall Shrub Birch

W ater O pen Tall W illow O pen Tall A lder-W illow

T otal co ver: Heig h t (feet) Com m ents:

Tree

Needleaf

Broadleaf

Shrub

Tall (> 5 ft.)

Low (8 inches to 5 ft.)

D w arf (< 8 inches)

Herbaceous

Lichen/M oss Inclusion: Clum ped vs. random distribution (circle one)

Bareground

W ater

121
 

Appendix 4. The following tables list the constancy, range in cover, average cover and average height of all species that 

occur in plant associations that were defined using the 1999 field data. The plant associations are listed in alphabetical 

order. Constancy is the percentage of sample plots on which the species occurs across all plots sampled for the plant 

association. Average cover is calculated based on the sample plots on which the species occurs. For example, if a plant 

occurs on two out of ten sample plots within a plant association, and the cover of that species is 50 percent and 70 

percent on the plots, cover equals 60 percent (i.e., 50+70/2 = 60) and constancy equals 20 percent (i.e., 100 x 2/10 = 20). 

The range in cover is based on the sample plots on which the species occurs. 

Alnus crispa plant association Number of plots = 5 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 100 90 -- 100 97 2.8 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Ribes triste 60 1 -- 20 7 0.2 

Rosa acicularis 40 1 -- 2 1 0.3 

Spiraea beauverdiana 20 1 -- 1 1 0.2 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cornus canadensis 20 1 -- 1 1 0.1 

Dryas octopetala 20 1 -- 1 1 --

Linnaea borealis 40 1 -- 5 3 0.0 

Rubus arcticus 20 1 -- 1 1 0.1 

Rubus idaeus 20 1 -- 1 1 0.2 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 20 15 -- 15 15 0.3 

Forb 

Aconitum delphiniifolium

Artemisia arctica

 20 

40 

1 -- 1 

1 -- 1 

1 

1 

0.3 

--

Aster sibiricus 20 -- --

Boykinia richardsonii 

Equisetum sylvaticum

 20 

40 

5 -- 5 

5 -- 10 

5 

8 

--

0.2 

Lycopodium annotinum 20 1 -- 1 1 --

Mertensia paniculata 

Moss 

20 1 -- 1 1 0.2 

Hylocomium splendens 20 10 -- 10 10 --

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Barren 

40 5 -- 10 8 --

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 80 80 -- 99 90 --

122
 

Alnus crispa/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association Number of plots = 4 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea glauca 50 1 -- 3 2 0.9 

Populus balsamifera

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

75 1 -- 5 2 2.2 

Alnus crispa 100 50 -- 90 75 2.6 

Salix alaxensis 50 20 -- 25 23 2.3 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Potentilla fruticosa 25 1 -- 1 1 0.6 

Ribes triste 25 1 -- 1 1 0.3 

Rosa acicularis 25 2 -- 2 2 --

Salix lanata 25 10 -- 10 10 1.2 

Salix 25 5 -- 5 5 --

Spiraea 25 5 -- 5 5 0.6 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cornus suecica 25 -- --

Linnaea borealis 25 -- --

Graminoid 

Arctagrostis latifolia 25 1 -- 1 1 --

Carex bigelowii 25 1 -- 1 1 --

Calamagrostis canadensis

 Moss 

100 20 -- 75 51 0.8 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 50 5 -- 10 8 --

Ptilium 25 -- --

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 75 70 -- 90 83 --

mineral-surface rock fragments 25 20 -- 20 20 --

123
 

Alnus crispa/Ericaceous shrub plant association Number of plots = 4 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea glauca

Picea mariana

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa

Salix glauca 

Salix lanata 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Alnus crispa

Betula glandulosa

Betula nana 

hybrid Betula

Ledum decumbens

Ribes triste

Salix glauca 

Salix planifolia

Spiraea beauverdiana

Vaccinium uliginosum

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina

Arctostaphylos rubra

Cornus suecica 

Empetrum nigrum

Salix arctica

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 

Carex

Festuca altaica

Festuca 

graminoid group 

Hierochloe alpina 

Poa alpigena

 Forb 

Artemisia arctica

Epilobium angustifolium

Sedum rosea

 Lichen 

lichens

 Moss 

Hylocomium 

Hylocomium splendens

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Polytrichum 

Ptilium 

25 

25 

75 

25 

25 

25 

50 

25 

25 

75 

25 

25 

50 

50 

100 

25 

25 

25 

50 

25 

25 

75 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 

50 

50 

25 

25 

25 

25 

75 

25 

25 

1 -- 1 1 0.6 

1 -- 1 1 3.0 

40 -- 50 47 2.1 

20 -- 20 20 1.8 

5 -- 5 5 1.8 

30 -- 30 30 0.6 

25 -- 50 38 0.9 

5 -- 5 5 0.3 

1 -- 1 1 1.2 

1 -- 10 4 --

2 -- 2 2 --

1 -- 1 1 0.6 

1 -- 1 1 0.8 

1 -- 10 5 0.3 

10 -- 75 50 0.3 

10 -- 10 10 --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

5 -- 10 8 0.0 

1 -- 1 1 0.1 

5 -- 5 5 --

-- 15 5 --

5 -- 5 5 --

20 -- 20 20 --

-- --

10 -- 10 10 --

-- --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

5 -- 5 5 --

-- --

60 -- 60 60 --

30 -- 80 57 --

-- --

-- --

124
 

 

Alnus sinuata alliance Number of plots = 3 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 33 85 -- 85 85 3.7 

Sorbus scopulina 

Alnus sinuata 33 1 -- 1 1 1.8 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Alnus sinuata 67 20 -- 50 35 1.2 

Salix alaxensis 33 20 -- 20 20 1.2 

Salix brachycarpa 33 1 -- 1 1 0.9 

Salix lanata 33 10 -- 10 10 1.2 

Vaccinium uliginosum

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

33 40 -- 40 40 --

Arctostaphylos alpina

Cassiope tetragona

 33 

33 

5 -- 5 

1 -- 1 

5 

1 

--

--

Dryas 67 1 -- 10 5 --

Rubus arcticus 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Salix arctica 33 10 -- 10 10 --

Salix reticulata 67 20 -- 30 25 --

Vaccinium uliginosum

 Graminoid 

33 20 -- 20 20 0.1 

Calamagrostis canadensis 33 35 -- 35 35 0.9 

Carex membranacea 33 5 -- 5 5 --

Carex podocarpa 33 5 -- 5 5 --

Carex scirpoidea 33 -- --

Festuca 33 5 -- 5 5 --

graminoid group 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Forb 

Anemone narcissiflora 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Anemone parviflora 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Artemisia 33 -- --

Aster sibiricus 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Athyrium filix-femina 33 65 -- 65 65 0.9 

Boykinia richardsonii 67 1 -- 5 3 --

Epilobium angustifolium

Epilobium latifolium 

33 

33 

1 -- 1 

--

1 --

--

Equisetum pratense

Gentiana algida

 33 

33 

60 -- 60 

1 -- 1 

60 

1 

--

--

Geum rossii 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Hedysarum alpinum 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Heracleum lanatum 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Lycopodium 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Mertensia paniculata 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Parnassia kotzebuei 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Papaver 33 -- --

Petasites frigidus 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Polygonum bistorta 

Saxifraga hirculus 

33 

33 

1 -- 1 

1 -- 1 

1 

1 

--

--

Saxifraga hieraciifolia 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Sanguisorba stipulata

Streptopus amplexifolius

 33 

33 

5 -- 5 

1 -- 1 

5 

1 

--

--

Valeriana capitata 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Lichen 

Cetraria 33 -- --

lichens 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 67 50 -- 60 55 --

125
 

Arctostaphylos alpina plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina

Cornus canadensis 

100 

100 

25 -- 25 

20 -- 20 

25 

20 

--

--

Empetrum nigrum 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Linnaea borealis 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Vaccinium uliginosum 100 15 -- 15 15 --

Forb 

Lycopodium annotinum

 Lichen 

100 1 -- 1 1 --

Cetraria 100 -- --

Cladina 100 -- --

lichens 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Betula nana/Carex aquatilis plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Larix laricina 100 1 -- 1 1 0.2 

Picea mariana 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 100 30 -- 30 30 0.3 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Andromeda polifolia 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Vaccinium microcarpos 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis 100 50 -- 50 50 --

Carex limosa 100 50 -- 50 50 --

Moss 

Sphagnum 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Water

 water 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Betula nana/Eriophorum brachyantherum plant association Number of plots = 3 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 33 20 -- 20 20 1.5 

Salix brachycarpa 33 2 -- 2 2 1.8 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 33 2 -- 2 2 --

Betula nana 67 15 -- 25 20 0.3 

Ledum groenlandicum 33 3 -- 3 3 --

Salix brachycarpa 33 10 -- 10 10 0.6 

Salix planifolia 67 5 -- 10 8 0.3 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Betula 33 25 -- 25 25 0.2 

Empetrum nigrum 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Ledum decumbens 67 20 -- 25 23 0.2 

Vaccinium uliginosum 67 10 -- 15 13 0.2 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 100 5 -- 10 8 --

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii 67 20 -- 30 25 --

Carex 33 80 -- 80 80 --

Eriophorum brachyantherum 100 -- 70 43 --

Forb 

Epilobium palustre 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Equisetum sylvaticum 33 10 -- 10 10 --

Petasites frigidus 67 1 -- 2 2 --

Lichen 

lichens 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 33 25 -- 25 25 --

126
 

 

 

Betula nana/Eriophorum vaginatum plant association Number of plots = 4 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana 75 1 -- 5 3 1.4 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 25 20 -- 20 20 0.6 

Betula nana 50 10 -- 40 25 0.6 

Ledum decumbens 50 10 -- 35 23 0.2 

Vaccinium uliginosum 75 10 -- 10 10 0.3 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Betula glandulosa 25 40 -- 40 40 0.1 

Empetrum nigrum 100 1 -- 15 8 0.1 

Ledum decumbens 50 5 -- 20 13 --

Rubus chamaemorus 75 1 -- 5 4 --

Vaccinium uliginosum 25 20 -- 20 20 --

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 100 1 -- 10 5 0.1 

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii 25 20 -- 20 20 --

Carex micropoda 25 20 -- 20 20 0.3 

Carex microchaeta 25 1 -- 1 1 --

Eriophorum vaginatum 100 40 -- 75 63 0.3 

Lichen 

Cetraria cuculatta 25 -- --

lichens 75 5 -- 20 10 --

Stereocaulon 25 -- --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 25 30 -- 30 30 --

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 75 25 -- 60 38 --

Polytrichum 25 -- --

Sphagnum 50 -- --

Calamagrostis canadensis plant association Number of plots = 8 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Betula papyrifera 13 1 -- 1 1 1.8 

Larix laricina 13 2 -- 2 2 3.7 

Picea glauca 13 2 -- 2 2 3.0 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus tenuifolia 13 2 -- 2 2 4.6 

Salix arbusculoides 13 20 -- 20 20 1.8 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 25 1 -- 5 3 0.8 

Myrica gale 13 20 -- 20 20 0.6 

Salix planifolia 13 1 -- 1 1 0.9 

Spiraea beauverdiana 13 1 -- 1 1 --

Vaccinium uliginosum 13 10 -- 10 10 --

Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis 13 10 -- 10 10 --

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 50 -- 100 83 1.2 

Carex 25 1 -- 40 20 --

Forb 

Athyrium filix-femina 13 10 -- 10 10 0.9 

Epilobium latifolium 13 5 -- 5 5 0.9 

Potentilla palustris 38 1 -- 10 4 --

Veratrum viride 13 5 -- 5 5 0.3 

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 13 3 -- 3 3 --

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 13 10 -- 10 10 --

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 75 90 -- 100 95 --

Water

 water 13 10 -- 10 10 --

127
 

Calamagrostis canadensis-Mixed herbaceous plant association Number of plots = 7 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus sinuata 14 20 -- 20 20 3.7 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Potentilla fruticosa 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Salix barclayi 14 5 -- 5 5 1.2 

Salix planifolia 14 10 -- 10 10 1.2 

Spiraea beauverdiana

Vaccinium uliginosum

 71 

29 

1 -- 20 

1 -- 5 

5 

3 

0.5 

0.5 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cornus canadensis 14 20 -- 20 20 0.1 

Cornus suecica 14 10 -- 10 10 --

Empetrum nigrum

Rubus arcticus 

14 

14 

1 -- 1 

2 -- 2 

1 

2 

--

--

Rubus chamaemorus 14 1 -- 1 1 0.1 

Salix reticulata 14 10 -- 10 10 --

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 10 -- 80 30 0.8 

Carex podocarpa

Carex 

14 

14 

10 -- 10 

30 -- 30 

10 

30 

--

--

Phleum pratense 29 1 -- 1 1 0.3 

Poa 14 10 -- 10 10 --

Trisetum spicatum 14 3 -- 3 3 --

Forb 

Aconitum delphiniifolium

Achillea millefolium

 43 

14 

1 -- 5 

1 -- 1 

2 

1 

0.5 

--

Aconitum 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Angelica lucida 

Anemone narcissiflora 

43 

43 

2 -- 10 

1 -- 2 

7 

1 

--

0.3 

Anemone parviflora 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Armeria arctica 14 1 -- 1 1 0.2 

Artemisia arctica 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Athyrium filix-femina

Boykinia richardsonii

 57 

14 

1 -- 70 

10 -- 10 

43 

10 

0.6 

--

Dryopteris dilatata

Epilobium angustifolium

 14 

71 

10 -- 10 

3 -- 40 

10 

20 

--

0.7 

Epilobium latifolium

Equisetum arvense 

14 

29 

10 -- 10 

1 -- 10 

10 

5 

--

--

Gentiana algida 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Geranium erianthum 43 5 -- 20 12 0.5 

Gymnocarpium dryopteris 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Heracleum lanatum 14 10 -- 10 10 --

Mertensia paniculata

Mertensia

 14 

14 

1 -- 1 

5 -- 5 

1 

5 

--

--

Petasites frigidus 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Petasites sagittatus

Sanguisorba stipulata

 14 

71 

10 -- 10 

1 -- 15 

10 

8 

--

0.3 

Sedum rosea 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Senecio triangularis

Solidago multiradiata

 43 

14 

1 -- 10 

1 -- 1 

4 

1 

0.8 

--

Streptopus amplexifolius 14 1 -- 1 1 0.3 

Thelypteris phegopteris

Veratrum viride

 14 

14 

80 -- 80 

1 -- 1 

80 

1 

0.2 

0.1 

128
 

 

Carex aquatilis plant association Number of plots = 5 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Chamaedaphne calyculata 20 1 -- 1 1 --

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Vaccinium microcarpos 20 3 -- 3 3 --

Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis 100 60 -- 90 78 0.3 

Carex rostrata 20 20 -- 20 20 0.3 

Forb 

Potentilla palustris 20 30 -- 30 30 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 20 2 -- 2 2 --

Sphagnum girgensohnii 20 90 -- 90 90 --

Sphagnum 20 99 -- 99 99 --

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 20 5 -- 5 5 --

mineral-bare soil 20 90 -- 90 90 --

Water 

water 80 5 -- 95 50 --

Carex lasiocarpa plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Graminoid 

Carex lasiocarpa 100 60 -- 60 60 --

Carex 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Carex rostrata 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Eriophorum vaginatum 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Forb 

Drosera rotundifolia 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Water

 water 100 99 -- 99 99 --

Carex rostrata plant association Number of plots = 5 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis 20 40 -- 40 40 0.6 

Carex rostrata 100 60 -- 90 80 0.5 

Forb 

Potentilla palustris 20 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Sphagnum girgensohnii 20 60 -- 60 60 --

Water

 water 60 20 -- 95 52 --

129
 

 

Cassiope tetragona plant association Number of plots = 2 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea glauca

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina

Betula nana 

Cassiope tetragona

Diapensia lapponica 

Dryas octopetala 

Empetrum nigrum

Ledum decumbens.

Vaccinium uliginosum

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii

Carex micropoda

Hierochloe alpina

 Forb 

Artemisia arctica

Arabis lemmonii

Campanula lasiocarpa

Lupinus 

Lichen 

Cetraria

Cladina rangiferina

 lichens 

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Barren 

mineral-surface rock fragments 

100 

50 

50 

100 

50 

50 

50 

100 

100 

100 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

-- 1 1 0.5 

20 -- 20 20 --

1 -- 1 1 --

30 -- 40 35 0.0 

10 -- 10 10 0.0 

5 -- 5 5 --

5 -- 5 5 --

5 -- 5 5 --

5 -- 10 8 0.0 

3 -- 5 4 0.0 

10 -- 10 10 --

10 -- 10 10 --

2 -- 2 2 --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 0.0 

1 -- 1 1 0.0 

1 -- 1 1 --

20 -- 20 20 --

40 -- 40 40 --

20 -- 20 20 --

30 -- 30 30 --

10 -- 10 10 --

10 -- 10 10 --

Chamaedaphne calyculata plant association Number of plots = 2 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Chamaedaphne calyculata

Ledum decumbens

Vaccinium uliginosum

 Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis

 Moss 

Sphagnum fuscum

 50 

100 

50 

50 

50 

50 

1 -- 1 1 0.3 

70 -- 100 85 0.5 

10 -- 10 10 0.3 

10 -- 10 10 --

10 -- 10 10 --

50 -- 50 50 --

Eleocharis quinqueflora plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa

 Graminoid 

Carex rostrata

Eleocharis quinqueflora

 Water

 water 

100 

100 

100 

100 

1 -- 1 1 --

20 -- 20 20 --

80 -- 80 80 --

5 -- 5 5 --

130
 

 

 

 

Epilobium latifolium plant association Number of plots = 1 

Strata/Species Constancy 

Forb 

Epilobium latifolium 100 

Cover % 

Range Average 

30 -- 30 30 

Average Ht (m) 

0.2 

Equisetum fluviatile plant association Number of plots = 2 

Strata/Species Constancy 

Forb 

Equisetum fluviatile 100 

Menyanthes trifoliata 50 

Potentilla palustris 50 

Moss 

Sphagnum 100 

Water

 water 50 

Cover % 

Range Average 

50 -- 50 50 

30 -- 30 30 

30 -- 30 30 

30 -- 95 63 

50 -- 50 50 

Average Ht (m) 

--

--

--

--

--

Eriophorum brachyantherum plant association Number of plots = 2 

Strata/Species Constancy 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Salix fuscescens 50 

Graminoid 

Eriophorum brachyantherum 100 

Moss 

Sphagnum 50 

Water

 water 100 

Cover % 

Range Average 

40 -- 40 40 

80 -- 90 85 

50 -- 50 50 

10 -- 50 30 

Average Ht (m) 

0.2 

0.3 

--

--

Eriophorum vaginatum plant association Number of plots = 1 

Strata/Species Constancy 

Graminoid 

Carex rostrata 100 

Eriophorum vaginatum 100 

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 100 

Water

 water 100 

Cover % 

Range Average 

20 -- 20 20 

60 -- 60 60 

50 -- 50 50 

50 -- 50 50 

Average Ht (m) 

--

--

--

--

Larix laricina plant association Number of plots = 1 

Strata/Species Constancy 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Betula papyrifera 100 

Larix laricina 100 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Chamaedaphne calyculata 100 

Forb 

Equisetum fluviatile 100 

Moss 

Sphagnum 100 

Cover % 

Range Average 

5 -- 5 5 

30 -- 30 30 

50 -- 50 50 

10 -- 10 10 

50 -- 50 50 

Average Ht (m) 

0.9 

3.0 

0.6 

--

--

131
 

 

Menyanthes trifoliata plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Forb 

Cicuta mackenzieana 100 2 -- 2 2 --

Equisetum fluviatile 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Menyanthes trifoliata 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Potentilla palustris 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Myrica gale plant association Number of plots = 3 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 33 10 -- 10 10 1.2 

Chamaedaphne calyculata 33 5 -- 5 5 0.3 

Ledum groenlandicum 33 3 -- 3 3 --

Myrica gale 100 20 -- 90 53 0.4 

Spiraea beauverdiana 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Graminoid 

Carex aquatilis 67 1 -- 20 10 --

Calamagrostis canadensis 67 1 -- 5 3 --

Carex micropoda 33 50 -- 50 50 --

Carex rostrata 33 10 -- 10 10 --

Carex williamsii 33 40 -- 40 40 --

Eleocharis quinqueflora 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Eriophorum angustifolium 33 10 -- 10 10 --

Forb 

Potentilla palustris 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Sphagnum fuscum 33 60 -- 60 60 --

Sphagnum girgensohnii 67 40 -- 60 50 --

Sphagnum 33 75 -- 75 75 --

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 33 30 -- 30 30 --

Water

 water 33 70 -- 70 70 --

Picea glauca/Salix glauca plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea glauca 100 15 -- 15 15 6.1 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 100 10 -- 10 10 2.4 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Potentilla fruticosa 100 1 -- 1 1 0.3 

Salix glauca 100 60 -- 60 60 1.2 

Salix lanata 100 10 -- 10 10 1.2 

Vaccinium uliginosum 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 50 -- 50 50 0.6 

Forb 

Gentiana propinqua 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Mertensia paniculata 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Parnassia palustris 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Zigadenus elegans 100 1 -- 1 1 --

 unknown-forbs 100 1 -- 1 1 --

132
 

 

Picea glauca/Salix lanata plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Tree Tall (>7.5m) 

Picea glauca

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix alaxensis

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa

Potentilla fruticosa

Salix lanata 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos rubra

Ledum groenlandicum

Vaccinium uliginosum

 Forb 

Equisetum arvense 

Lichen 

lichens 

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

15 -- 15 15 7.6 

1 -- 1 1 1.8 

10 -- 10 10 0.6 

10 -- 10 10 1.2 

60 -- 60 60 --

5 -- 5 5 --

10 -- 10 10 0.2 

20 -- 20 20 0.2 

70 -- 70 70 --

10 -- 10 10 --

80 -- 80 80 --

Picea glauca/Salix planifolia plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Tree Tall (>7.5m) 

Picea glauca

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

hybrid Betula

Ribes triste

Salix lanata 

Salix planifolia

Vaccinium uliginosum

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cornus canadensis 

Rubus arcticus 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis

 Forb 

Aconitum delphiniifolium

Epilobium angustifolium

Equisetum sylvaticum

Mertensia paniculata

 Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Ptilium 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

30 -- 30 30 9.1 

1 -- 1 1 0.6 

1 -- 1 1 0.6 

1 -- 1 1 1.2 

65 -- 65 65 1.2 

1 -- 1 1 0.3 

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

70 -- 70 70 0.9 

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 1 1 --

20 -- 20 20 0.3 

1 -- 1 1 --

-- --

20 -- 20 20 --

-- --

133
 

 

 

Picea mariana/Betula glandulosa plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana 100 20 -- 20 20 3.7 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 100 40 -- 40 40 0.9 

Salix planifolia 100 5 -- 5 5 0.9 

Vaccinium uliginosum 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 100 2 -- 2 2 --

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Eriophorum brachyantherum 100 30 -- 30 30 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Sphagnum 100 50 -- 50 50 --

Picea mariana/Carex bigelowii plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana 100 80 -- 80 80 1.2 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Ledum groenlandicum 100 20 -- 20 20 0.3 

Rubus spectabilis 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Vaccinium uliginosum 100 30 -- 30 30 --

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Empetrum nigrum 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii 100 60 -- 60 60 --

Forb 

Equisetum sylvaticum 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Petasites sagittatus 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Sphagnum 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Picea mariana/Equisetum silvaticum plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Tree Tall (>7.5m) 

Picea mariana 100 80 -- 80 80 9.1 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Spiraea beauverdiana 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cornus canadensis 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Forb 

Equisetum sylvaticum 100 80 -- 80 80 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 100 5 -- 5 5 --

134
 

Picea mariana/Eriophorum vaginatum plant association Number of plots = 5 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea glauca

Picea mariana

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa

Betula nana 

Ledum decumbens

Potentilla fruticosa

Rubus spectabilis

Salix bebbiana

Salix planifolia

Vaccinium uliginosum

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Betula nana 

Empetrum nigrum

Rubus chamaemorus 

Salix reticulata 

Vaccinium uliginosum

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 

Graminoid 

Carex lugens

Eriophorum vaginatum

 Lichen 

Cladina

Cladina rangiferina

lichens

 Moss 

Hylocomium splendens

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Sphagnum fuscum

Sphagnum

 Water

 water 

20 

80 

40 

40 

80 

20 

40 

20 

20 

60 

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

80 

40 

80 

20 

40 

20 

60 

60 

40 

20 

20 

10 -- 10 10 1.5 

15 -- 20 19 3.1 

10 -- 25 18 0.6 

5 -- 40 23 0.5 

5 -- 50 29 0.2 

1 -- 1 1 --

1 -- 5 3 --

20 -- 20 20 0.9 

2 -- 2 2 0.3 

1 -- 10 5 0.3 

5 -- 5 5 --

5 -- 5 5 --

1 -- 1 1 --

5 -- 5 5 --

3 -- 3 3 --

1 -- 5 3 --

1 -- 20 11 --

50 -- 80 63 0.3 

10 -- 10 10 --

5 -- 10 8 --

1 -- 1 1 --

10 -- 20 13 --

10 -- 30 20 --

10 -- 20 15 --

1 -- 1 1 --

2 -- 2 2 --

135
 

Picea mariana/Ledum species plant association Number of plots = 7 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

 Tree Tall (>7.5m) 

Picea mariana 14 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Betula papyrifera 14 

Larix laricina 71 

Picea mariana 100 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 14 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 14 

Betula glandulosa 29 

Betula nana 29 

Chamaedaphne calyculata 43 

Ledum decumbens 43 

Ledum groenlandicum 43 

Rosa acicularis 14 

Rubus spectabilis 71 

Spiraea beauverdiana 14 

Vaccinium uliginosum 71 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Empetrum nigrum 43 

Ledum decumbens 14 

Oxycoccus microcarpos 29 

Rubus chamaemorus 14 

Vaccinium uliginosum 14 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 71 

Graminoid 

Carex lugens 14 

Carex 14 

Eriophorum vaginatum 29 

graminoid group 14 

Forb 

Equisetum sylvaticum 29 

Lichen 

Cladina 29 

Cladonia 14 

Cladina rangiferina 29 

lichens 29 

Moss 

Hylocomium 14 

Hylocomium splendens 43 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 71 

Polytrichum 14 

Sphagnum fuscum 57 

Sphagnum girgensohnii 14 

Sphagnum 57 

Barren 

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 29 

Water 

water 14 

25 -- 25 25 9.1 

5 -- 5 5 3.0 

1 -- 5 3 3.5 

5 -- 40 26 4.1 

10 -- 10 10 1.8 

1 -- 1 1 0.9 

2 -- 5 4 0.3 

10 -- 20 15 0.5 

3 -- 5 4 0.3 

20 -- 40 28 0.3 

40 -- 90 60 0.6 

1 -- 1 1 --

5 -- 10 7 --

1 -- 1 1 0.3 

5 -- 15 9 0.3 

5 -- 50 22 --

20 -- 20 20 0.2 

1 -- 5 3 --

15 -- 15 15 0.1 

10 -- 10 10 0.2 

2 -- 20 8 --

1 -- 1 1 --

10 -- 10 10 --

10 -- 20 15 0.3 

5 -- 5 5 0.2 

1 -- 2 2 --

5 -- 10 8 --

5 -- 5 5 --

5 -- 10 8 --

5 -- 5 5 --

-- --

10 -- 20 17 --

10 -- 90 46 --

-- --

3 -- 20 13 --

80 -- 80 80 --

-- 60 25 --

10 -- 10 10 --

-- --

136
 

Picea mariana/Vaccinium uliginosum plant association Number of plots = 2 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana 100 40 -- 50 45 3.8 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Alnus crispa 100 2 -- 5 4 1.1 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 50 10 -- 10 10 0.9 

Betula nana 50 10 -- 10 10 0.0 

Ledum decumbens 50 15 -- 15 15 0.6 

Vaccinium uliginosum 100 30 -- 30 30 0.3 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina 50 5 -- 5 5 --

Empetrum nigrum 100 1 -- 1 1 0.0 

Rubus spectabilis 50 5 -- 5 5 0.0 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 50 10 -- 10 10 --

Forb 

Geocaulon lividum 50 5 -- 5 5 --

Lichen 

Cetraria 50 -- --

Cladina 50 -- --

lichens 50 5 -- 5 5 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 50 70 -- 70 70 0.0 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 100 20 -- 90 55 0.0 

Pleurozium 50 -- --

Sphagnum 50 5 -- 5 5 0.0 

Salix barclayi/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix barclayi 100 50 -- 50 50 1.8 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Viburnum edule 100 2 -- 2 2 0.6 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis . 100 80 -- 80 80 1.5 

Forb 

Athyrium filix-femina 100 20 -- 20 20 0.9 

Equisetum arvense 100 10 -- 10 10 0.6 

Salix bebbiana/Equisetum arvense plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Populus balsamifera 100 3 -- 3 3 1.8 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix bebbiana 100 40 -- 40 40 3.0 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 100 5 -- 5 5 0.3 

Elaeagnus commutata 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Forb 

Epilobium angustifolium 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Equisetum arvense 100 90 -- 90 90 --

137
 

 

Salix polaris plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cassiope tetragona 100 15 -- 15 15 --

Diapensia lapponica 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Dryas octopetala 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Minuartia macrocarpa 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Salix polaris 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Graminoid 

Arctophila fulva 100 1 -- 1 1 --

graminoid group 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Forb 

Antennaria monocephala 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Arabis lemmonii 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Geum rossii 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Ligusticum mutellinoides 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Lycopodium selago 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Oxytropis deflexa 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Pedicularis capitata 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Petasites frigidus 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Pedicularis kanei 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Polygonum viviparum 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Saxifraga punctata 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Saxifraga reflexa 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Senecio atropurpureus 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Lichen 

Stereocaulon 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Hylocomium 100 40 -- 40 40 --

Barren 

mineral-surface rock fragments 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Salix lanata/Calamagrostis canadensis plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix lanata 100 90 -- 90 90 1.5 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Potentilla fruticosa 100 1 -- 1 1 0.6 

Salix planifolia 100 1 -- 1 1 0.9 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Rubus idaeus 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Salix reticulata 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Forb 

Boykinia richardsonii 100 15 -- 15 15 --

Epilobium angustifolium 100 2 -- 2 2 --

Mertensia paniculata 100 15 -- 15 15 --

Sedum rosea 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 100 1 -- 1 1 --

138
 

 

Salix lanata/Equisetum variegatum plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix alaxensis 100 5 -- 5 5 1.8 

Salix glauca 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Salix lanata 100 50 -- 50 50 0.9 

Graminoid 

Carex membranacea 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Forb 

Equisetum arvense 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Equisetum variegatum 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Barren 

mineral-bare soil 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Salix planifolia plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Tree Stunted (<7.5m) 

Picea mariana 100 1 -- 1 1 1.8 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix planifolia 100 50 -- 50 50 1.5 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 100 10 -- 10 10 --

Rubus spectabilis 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Spiraea beauverdiana 100 10 -- 10 10 0.3 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Empetrum nigrum 100 15 -- 15 15 --

Graminoid 

Eriophorum brachyantherum 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Moss 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 100 90 -- 90 90 --

Sphagnum 100 5 -- 5 5 --

Salix planifolia/Carex bigelowii plant association Number of plots = 1 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Salix planifolia 100 70 -- 70 70 0.6 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Cassiope tetragona 100 20 -- 20 20 --

Graminoid 

Carex bigelowii 100 40 -- 40 40 --

Forb 

Aconitum delphiniifolium 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Petasites frigidus 100 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 100 60 -- 60 60 --

139
 

Vaccinium uliginosum/dwarf shrub plant association Number of plots = 7 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula glandulosa 14 10 -- 10 10 0.2 

Betula nana 57 5 -- 15 10 0.3 

Salix 14 1 -- 1 1 0.9 

Salix planifolia 14 5 -- 5 5 0.3 

Spiraea beauverdiana

Vaccinium uliginosum

 29 

43 

1 -- 2 

30 -- 60 

1 

42 

--

0.2 

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

Arctostaphylos alpina

Arctostaphylos

 29 

14 

2 -- 10 

20 -- 20 

6 

20 

0.1 

--

Arctostaphylos rubra

Cassiope tetragona

 43 

14 

10 -- 10 

20 -- 20 

10 

20 

--

--

Cornus canadensis 43 2 -- 20 9 --

Diapensia lapponica 

Dryas octopetala 

43 

14 

1 -- 10 

10 -- 10 

4 

10 

--

0.1 

Empetrum nigrum 100 1 -- 30 13 0.1 

Ledum decumbens 43 1 -- 20 9 --

Linnaea borealis 29 1 -- 2 1 --

Loiseleuria procumbens 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Minuartia obtusiloba 14 -- --

Rubus chamaemorus 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Salix arctica 29 1 -- 3 2 0.1 

Salix reticulata 14 5 -- 5 5 0.2 

Vaccinium uliginosum 57 50 -- 80 60 0.2 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 43 1 -- 10 4 0.1 

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 29 2 -- 5 4 0.5 

Carex micropoda 14 2 -- 2 2 --

Carex podocarpa

Eriophorum

 14 

14 

10 -- 10 

1 -- 1 

10 

1 

--

0.3 

Festuca altaica 14 10 -- 10 10 --

Hierochloe alpina

 Forb 

14 1 -- 1 1 --

Angelica lucida 

Anemone narcissiflora 

14 

29 

1 -- 1 

1 -- 5 

1 

3 

--

--

Anemone parviflora 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Arnica alpina 14 -- --

Artemisia alaskana 14 5 -- 5 5 --

Artemisia arctica 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Arnica frigida 14 -- --

Artemisia 14 -- --

Castilleja elegans 14 -- --

Cardamine microphylla 14 10 -- 10 10 0.2 

Dryopteris dilatata

Epilobium angustifolium

 14 

14 

1 -- 1 

1 -- 1 

1 

1 

--

--

Ligusticum mutellinoides 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Lycopodium alpinum

Lycopodium annotinum

 14 

29 

1 -- 1 

1 -- 2 

1 

1 

--

--

Lycopodium 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Petasites frigidus 

Pedicularis labradorica

14 

14 

--

1 -- 1 1 

--

--

Polemonium 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Sanguisorba stipulata

Thelypteris phegopteris

 14 

14 

1 -- 1 

5 -- 5 

1 

5 

--

--

Veratrum viride 14 5 -- 5 5 --

Viola 14 1 -- 1 1 --

Lichen 

Cetraria 14 -- --

Cladina rangiferina

 lichens 

14 

43 

5 -- 5 

5 -- 40 

5 

17 

--

--

Masonhalea richardsonii 14 20 -- 20 20 --

Stereocaulon 29 -- 1 --

 Thamnolia 14 -- --

Moss 

Hylocomium

Hylocomium splendens

 14 

14 

15 -- 15 

5 -- 5 

15 

5 

--

--

140
 

 

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 43 30 -- 60 50 --

Pleurozium 29 -- 15 8 --

Polytrichum 

Barren 

14 -- --

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 14 30 -- 30 30 --

mineral-surface rock fragments 

mineral-bare soil 

14 

14 

5 -- 5 

1 -- 1 

5 

1 

--

--

Vaccinium uliginosum/low shrub plant association Number of plots = 3 

Cover % 

Strata/Species Constancy Range Average Average Ht (m) 

Shrub Tall (>1.5m) 

Salix planifolia 33 2 -- 2 2 2.1 

Shrub Low (>0.2m and <1.5m) 

Betula nana 33 15 -- 15 15 0.4 

Salix planifolia 33 5 -- 5 5 --

Spiraea beauverdiana 33 1 -- 1 1 0.7 

Vaccinium uliginosum

Shrub Dwarf (<0.2m) 

67 90 -- 90 90 0.3 

Arctostaphylos rubra 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Cornus canadensis 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Empetrum nigrum 67 2 -- 5 4 --

Vaccinium uliginosum 33 75 -- 75 75 0.2 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea 67 1 -- 10 5 --

Graminoid 

Calamagrostis canadensis 33 20 -- 20 20 0.6 

Forb 

Epilobium angustifolium 33 20 -- 20 20 0.6 

Lichen 

lichens 33 1 -- 1 1 --

Moss 

Hylocomium splendens 33 70 -- 70 70 --

bryophytes-mosses and liverworts 

Barren 

33 -- --

litter-herbaceous, mulch, and woody debris <2.5 cm 33 99 -- 99 99 --

mineral-bare soil 33 1 -- 1 1 --

141
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 5. Hierarchical framework of ecological units to the subsection level for Denali 

National Park and Preserve (Clark 1998). 

100 - Polar Domain 

130 - Subarctic Division 

 131 - Yukon Intermontane Taiga Province 

131B - Kuskokwim Plain Section 

(1) 131B.G1 - Glaciated Hills and Pitted Plains Subsection

(2) 131B.V1 - Alluvial Fans and Flood Plains Subsection

(3) 131B.V2 - Minchumina Basin Subsection

M131C - Kuskokwim Mountains Section 

(4) M131C.M1 - Low Mountains and Pediments Subsection

 135 - Alaska Range Taiga Province 

M135C - Alaska Range Section 

(5) M135C.M1 - Front Range Subsection

(6) M135C.M2 - High Mountains Subsection

(7) M135C.M3 - Interior Mountains and Glaciated Valleys 

Subsection

(8) M135C.M4 - Kantishna Hills Subsection

(9) M135C.M5 - Southcentral Mountains

(10) M135C.M6 - Teklanika Mountains and Plateaus Subsection

(11) M135C.M7 - Toklat Basin Subsection

200 - Humid Temperate Domain 

210 - Warm Continental Division 

 213 - Alaska Mixed Forest Province 

213B - Cook Inlet Lowlands Section 

(12) 213B.G1 - Glaciated Hills and Plains Subsection

(13) 213B.V1 - Braided Flood Plains and Stream Terraces 

Subsection

Section and subsection descriptions for Denali National Park and Preserve 

131B - Kuskokwim Plain Section 

(1) 131B.G1 - Kuskokwim-Glaciated Hills and Pitted Plains Subsection

Location: Interior valleys (northwest) 

Extent: 424957 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology2

: Quaternary glacial deposits 

Landform: Pitted outwash plains, glacial hills, and 

moraines 

Slope: 0 to 60% 

Parent Materials: loess over glacial drift 

Vegetation3: Dwarf shrub and spruce/shrub woodland 

Processes: Acidification, podzolization, hydromorphism, 

and cryoturbation 

Major Soils4

: Typic and Pergelic Haplocryods and Histic 

142
 

 

Pergelic Cryaquepts 

Criteria for Separating: Glacial hills with dendritic 

drainage patterns or distinctive pitted ablation features 

lacking significant drainage outlets. North-central polygon 

may be ice mounded topography (Yedoma) which would 

suggest combining this polygon with unit 3. 

(2) 131B.V1 - Kuskokwim-Alluvial Fans and Flood Plains Subsection

Location: Interior Valleys (west central) 

Extent: 1109803 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology2

: Quaternary glaciofluvial deposits 

Landforms: Alluvial fans, pitted fan terraces, flood plains 

and terraces

Slope: 0 to 20% 

Parent Materials: glaciofluvial deposits and loess 

over glaciofluvial deposits 

Vegetation3: Open and closed spruce forest; minor- Open 

spruce forest/shrub/bog mosaic 

Processes: Fans and flood plains-alkalinization 

and fluvial processes; Fan terraces and stream

terraces-acidification, podzolization,

hydromorphism, and cryoturbation. 

Major Soils4: Fans and flood plains-Typic Cryofluvents, 

Aquic Cryofluvents, and Typic Cryaquents 

Fan terraces and stream terraces-Histic Pergelic 

Cryaquepts, Pergelic Haplocryods, and Typic Cryochrepts. 

Proximal end is well drained and distal end is very poorly 

drained. 

Criteria for Separating: Distinctive alluvial fan 

photo signature with none to moderate pitting. This unit 

has a normal radial drainage net compared to unit (1). At 

lower elevations, this unit grades to a broad alluvial plain 

which serves as a large groundwater discharge area for unit 

(3). 

(3) 131B.V2 - Minchumina Basin Subsection

Location: Interior Valleys (northwest ) 

Extent: 391263 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology2

: Quaternary alluvium with linear eolian features 

Landform: Closed and open basins, ice mounded 

topography (Yedoma) probable in the NE 

delineation. 

Slope: 0 to 10% 

143
 

 

 

 

Parent Materials: loess over medium textured alluvium

and organic materials 

Vegetation3: Open spruce forest/shrub/bog mosaic; closed 

sheath cottongrass woodland 

Processes: Acidification, hydromorphism and 

cryoturbation 

Major Soils4: Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, Typic 

Cryofibrists, Pergelic Cryohemists (IQ6) 

Criteria for Separating: Apparent ground water 

discharge areas with little local relief, pond and lake 

density is high and evidence of ice mounded topography in 

the northeastern polygon 

M131C - Kuskokwim Mountains Section 

(4) M131C.M1 - Kuskokwim-Low Mountains and Pediments 

Subsection

Location: Northwestern Preserve 

Extent: 92142 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology2: Lower Paleozoic (Cambrian through Devonian) 

sedimentary, metasedimentary and metamorphic 

rocks (Ipz) 

Landform: Low mountains including extended toe slopes 

(northcentral polygons) and pediment slopes (northwest 

polygon) 

Slope: 0 to 60% 

Parent Materials: loess, colluvium, and bedrock on 

backslopes through summits. Toeslopes likely consist of 

silty colluvial materials 

Vegetation3

: Spruce and broadleaf forest; Open spruce and 

closed mixed forest mosaic 

Processes: acidification, podzolization, colluviation, 

cryoturbation and frost shatter 

MajorSoils4

: Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts and Typic 

Haplocryods 

Criteria for Separating: distinctive hills, low 

mountains, and pediment footslopes within the 

Kuskokwim Basin 

M135 - Alaska Range Section 

(5) M135.M1 - Alaska Range-Front Range Subsection

Location: Northeastern Park and Preserve 

Extent: 450217 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ?

144
 

 

Geology5

: Pelitic and quartaose schist sequence (PzpCp) 

and Totatlanika schist (MDt). 

Landform: Mountains 

Associated Micro-relief: Altiplanation terrace, nonsorted 

circles, nonsorted stripes 

Slope: 0 to over 90% 

Parent Materials: Colluvium, congeliturbate, and bedrock 

derived from schist; locally mantled with a thin 

loess mantle

Vegetation3: Shrub; Dwarf shrub; Spruce forest/shrub; 

Nonvegetated 

Processes: Colluviation, cryoturbation, and frost shatter on 

mountains and fluvial processes on alluvial fans and 

flood plains 

Major Soils: Dysic Cryochrepts, Typic Cryochrepts; 

Aquic Cryochrepts on mountains; Typic 

Haplocryods and Typic Cryochrepts on fan terraces 

and Typic Cryofluvents, Typic Cryofluvents, and 

Oxyaquic Cryorthents on flood plains 

Criteria for Separating: Vegetated Interior Alaska Range 

mountains below about 1,350 meters elevation. Distinctive 

lithology, primarily schist bedrock, and climate that is 

likely drier than more southerly mountains of the Alaska 

Range. 

(6) M135.M2 - Alaska Range-High Mountains Subsection

Location: Central Park and Preserve 

Extent: 1960423 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: Above about 1,500 meters

Geology2

: Mesozoic and Paleozoic - argillite, shale, 

graywache, conglomerate, and sandstone (KJ, TxC) 

and Tertiary felsic intrusives (Tif) 

Landform: Mountains-backslopes, shoulders and crests; 

Glaciers and icefields 

Slope: 45 to over 150% 

Parent Materials: colluvium and bedrock 

Vegetation3

: Nonvegetated 

Processes: colluviation, cryoturbation, and frost shatter 

Major Soils4: None- mostly miscellaneous land types 

including rock outcrops, talus, and ice 

Criteria for Separating: Nonvegetated mountains 

consisting primarily of rock and ice above about 

1,350 meters elevation. 

145
 

(7) M135.M3 - Alaska Range-Interior Mountains and Glaciated Valleys 

Subsection

Location: Central Park and Preserve 

Extent: 142879 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: &&&

Geology5&6

: Tcv-Cantwell Formation -volcanic rocks 

subunit; Tcs-Cantwell Formation-sedimentary rocks 

subunit; Tkcs-Late Triassic sedimentary rocks; KJfFlysch Sequence; Tn-Nenana Gravels 

Landform: Mountains, glacial till plains and hills, and 

flood plains 

Slope: 0 to 90% 

Parent Materials: Mountains consist of colluvium derived from a 

variety of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Valleys consists 

of alluvium and glacial drift 

Vegetation3

: Flood plains-shrub; Mountains-dwarf shrub and 

barren ground; occasionally spruce forest on lower 

mountain slopes and high flood plains; 

Processes: Mountains-colluviation, cryoturbation, and frost 

shatter; Valleys-fluvial processes, podzolization and 

acidification, cryoturbation and hydromorphism

Major Soils: Mountains-Pergelic Cryoborolls, Pergelic 

Cryochrepts (shallow to very deep). Fan terraces-Typic 

Haplocryods and Typic Histihaplels; Glacial plains and 

Hills-Typic Histihaplels, Ruptic-Histic Aquiturbels, Typic 

Halplocryods 

Criteria for Separating: Vegetated Interior Alaska Range 

mountains below about 1,350 meters elevation. Unit 

generally consists of glaciated valleys and bedrock 

controlled mountains. Parent materials in high mountains 

consist of a wide assemblage of sedimentary, and to a 

lesser extent, volcanic rocks. 

(8) M135.M4 - Alaska Range-Kantishna Hills Subsection

Location: Northcentral Park and Preserve 

Extent: 446125 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: &&&

Geology2

: Lower Paleozoic-metamorphic (schist and 

quartzite) and varied metasedimentary (IPzpC and 

IpC) 

Landform: Mountain slopes- all positions 

Slope: 15 to 60% 

Parent Materials: Loess and colluvium over bedrock 

Vegetation3

: Tall shrub; Herbaceous/shrub; Spruce 

146
 

/shrub woodland 

Processes: Acidification, colluviation, cryoturbation, and 

frost shatter

Major Soils4

: Pergelic Cryaquepts, Typic Cryochrepts and 

Pergelic Cryorthents 

Criteria for Separating: Vegetated mountains with all 

exposures represented and interior climate. Mountains on 

the southern edge of this unit have appearance that is 

somewhat similar to unit 10 and may warrant separating 

and including with that unit. Fieldwork will verify this 

possible separation. 

(9) M135.M5 - Alaska Range-Southcentral Mountains Subsection

Location: Southern Park and Preserve 

Extent: 556425 acres 

Climate: Transitional maritime and subarctic continental 

Elevation: &&&

Geology2

: Lower Paleozoic-metamorphic (schist and 

quartzite) and varied metasedimentary (IPzpC and 

IpC) 

Landform: Mountain footslopes 

Slope: 15 to 60% 

Parent Materials: Loess and volcanic ash over glacial 

drift, colluvium, and bedrock 

Vegetation3

: Dwarf shrub; Tall shrub 

Processes: Acidification, podzolization, colluviation, 

cryoturbation, and frost shatter 

Major Soils4

: Andic Humicryods and Typic Cryaquands 

Criteria for Separating: Vegetated mountain footslopes 

with all exposures represented 

(10) M135.M6 - Alaska Range-Teklanika Mountains and Plateaus 

Subsection

Location: Northeastern Park and Preserve 

Extent: 156227 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: &&&

Geology5: Tn-Nenana Gravels, Tcb-coal bearing rocks and

Quaternary sediments 

Landform: Plateaus, broad mountain toeslopes and flood 

plains 

Slope: 0 to 65% 

Parent Materials: Loess of mixed mineralogy over 

colluvium and residuum derived primarily from the Nenana 

Gravels 

Vegetation3

: Dwarf shrub, shrub, eriophorum tussock and 

147
 

 

 

 

 spruce woodland 

Processes: Cryoturbation, hydromorphism, and fluvial 

processes 

Major Soils: Plateaus and broad mountain toeslopes - Typic 

Histihaplels, Typic Histurbels, and Ruptic-Histic 

Aquiturbels; Flood plains-Typic Cryofluvents, Typic 

Cryorthents and Oxyaquic Cryorthents 

Criteria for Separating: Unique plateau-plateau 

escarpment landform assemblage. 

(11) M135.M7 - Alaska Range-Toklat Basin Subsection

Location: Northeastern Park and Preserve 

Extent: 162962 acres 

Climate: Subarctic continental 

Elevation: ??? meters

Geology2: Quaternary alluvium

Landform: Fan terraces and flood plains 

Slope: 0 to 45% 

Parent Materials: Fan terraces and hills-loess over 

valley fill; flood plains-alluvium

Vegetation3: Open spruce/shrub/bog mosaic; spruce 

woodland shrub 

Processes: Acidification, podzolization, cryoturbation, and 

colluviation

Major Soils4: Fan terraces - Histic Pergelic Cryaquepts, 

and Typic Cryochrepts; flood plains - Typic 

Cryaquents and Typic Cryofluvents 

Criteria for Separating: Large intermontane 

basin 

213B - Cook Inlet Lowlands Section 

(12) 213B.G1 - Cook Inlet-Glacial Hills and Plains Subsection

Location: South-side of Alaska Range along the southern 

and southeastern Park boundary 

Extent: 89818 acres 

Climate: Transitional maritime and subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology: Quaternary glacial deposits 

Landforms: Hills, moraines, and till and outwash plains 

Slope: 0 to 45% 

Parent Materials: loess and volcanic ash over glacial drift; 

organic materials 

Vegetation3

: Closed broadleaf forest; Tall shrub 

Processes: Acidification, podzolization, and adisolization 

Major Soils4: Andic Humicryods, Typic Haplocryands, 

Typic Fulvicryands 

148
 

 

 

 

 

Criteria for Separating: Linear features between 

mountain toeslopes and valley bottoms

(13) 213B.V1 - Cook Inlet-Braided Flood Plains and Stream

 Terraces Subsection

Location: South side of Alaska Range along the southern 

and southeastern Park boundary 

Extent: 55634 acres 

Climate: Transitional maritime and subarctic continental 

Elevation: ???

Geology: Holocene alluvial deposits 

Landforms: Flood plains and terraces 

Slope: 0 to 10% 

Parent Materials: Alluvium

Vegetation3: Closed broadleaf forest; Tall shrub 

Processes: Flood plains - alkalinization and fluvial 

processes; Stream terraces - acidification 

Major Soils4

: Typic Cryofluvents, Aquic Cryofluvents, and 

Typic Cryaquents 

Criteria for Separating: Distinctive valley bottoms and 

braided flood plains 

149
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 6. Vascular and nonvascular species list and codes for plants collected during the 1999 field 

season (Hultén 1968). 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Deciduous Trees 

Populus tremuloides Michx. POTR5 

Betula papyrifera Marsh. BEPA 

Populus balsamifera L. POBA2 

Evergreen Trees 

Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch LALA 

Picea glauca (Moench) Voss PIGL 

Picea mariana (P. Mill.) B.S.P. PIMA 

Shrubs Tall 

Alnus crispa (Ait.) Pursh ALCR6 

Alnus sinuata (Regel) Rydb. ALSI3 

Alnus tenuifolia Nutt. ALTE2 

Salix alaxensis (Anderss.) Coville SAAL 

Salix barclayi Anderss. SABA3 

Salix bebbiana Sarg. SABE2 

Salix glauca L. SAGL 

Sorbus scopulina Greene SOSC2 

Shrubs Low 

Betula glandulosa Michx. BEGL 

Betula nana L. BENA 

Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench CHCA2 

Elaeagnus commutata Bernh. ex Rydb. ELCO 

Betula hybrid BETULX 

Ledum groenlandicum Oeder LEGR 

Myrica gale L. MYGA 

Potentilla fruticosa auct. non L. POFR4 

Ribes triste Pallas RITR 

Rosa acicularis Lindl. ROAC 

Rosa woodsii Lindl. ROWO 

Rubus spectabilis Pursh RUSP 

Salix brachycarpa Nutt. SABR 

Salix exigua Nutt. SAEX 

Salix lanata L. SALA4 

Salix planifolia Pursh SAPL2 

Shepherdia canadensis (L.) Nutt. SHCA 

Spiraea L. SPIRA 

Spiraea beauverdiana auct. non Schneid. SPBE 

Vaccinium uliginosum L. VAUL 

Viburnum edule (Michx.) Raf. VIED 

150 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Shrubs Dwarf 

Andromeda polifolia L. ANPO 

Antennaria friesiana (Trautv.) Ekman ANFR 

Arctostaphylos Adans. ARCTO3 

Arctostaphylos alpina (L.) Spreng. ARAL2 

Arctostaphylos rubra (Rehd. & Wilson) Fern. ARRU 

Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don CATE11 

Cornus L. CORNU 

Cornus canadensis L. COCA13 

Cornus suecica L. COSU4 

Diapensia lapponica L. DILA 

Dryas integrifolia Vahl DRIN4 

Dryas octopetala L. DROC 

Empetrum nigrum L. EMNI 

Ledum decumbens (Ait.) Lodd. ex Steud. LEDE5 

Linnaea borealis L. LIBO3 

Loiseleuria procumbens (L.) Desv. LOPR 

Rhododendron lapponicum (L.) Wahlenb. RHLA2 

Rubus arcticus L. RUAR 

Rubus chamaemorus L. RUCH 

Rubus idaeus L. RUID 

Salix arctica R. Br. ex Richards. SAAR16 

Salix fuscescens Anderss. SAFU 

Salix phlebophylla Anderss. SAPH 

Salix polaris Wahlenb. SAPO 

Salix reticulata L. SARE2 

Vaccinium microcarpos (Turcz. ex Rupr.) Schmalh. VAMI 

Vaccinium oxycoccos L. VAOX 

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. VAVI 

Graminoids 

Agropyron Gaertn. AGROP2 

Arctagrostis latifolia (R. Br.) Griseb. ARLA2 

Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. CACA4 

Carex aquatilis Wahlenb. CAAQ 

Carex bigelowii Torr. ex Schwein. CABI5 

Carex lasiocarpa Ehrh. CALA11 

Carex limosa L. CALI7 

Carex lugens Holm CALU2 

Carex membranacea Hook. CAME4 

Carex microchaeta Holm CAMI4 

Carex micropoda C.A. Mey. CAMI16 

Carex misandra R. Br. CAMI10 

Carex podocarpa R. Br. CAPO 

Carex rostrata Stokes CARO6 

Carex rotundata Wahlenb. CARO7 

Carex scirpoidea Michx. CASC10 

Carex williamsii Britt. CAWI3 

Eleocharis quinqueflora (F.X. Hartmann) Schwarz ELQU2 

151 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Eriophorum L. ERIOP 

Eriophorum angustifolium Honckeny ERAN6 

Eriophorum brachyantherum Trautv. & C.A. Mey. ERBR6 

Eriophorum russeolum Fries ex Hartman ERRU2 

Eriophorum vaginatum L. ERVA4 

Festuca altaica Trin. FEAL 

Festuca rubra L. FERU2 

Hierochloe alpina (Sw. ex Willd.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes HIAL3 

Phleum pratense L. PHPR3 

Poa alpigena (Fries ex Blytt) Lindm. f. POAL 

Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richter TRSP2 

Forbs 

Achillea millefolium L. ACMI2 

Aconitum L. ACONI 

Aconitum delphiniifolium DC. ACDE2 

Anemone narcissiflora L. ANNA 

Anemone parviflora Michx. ANPA 

Angelica lucida L. ANLU 

Antennaria monocephala DC. ANMO9 

Arabis lemmonii S. Wats. ARLE 

Arenaria capillaris Poir. ARCA7 

Armeria arctica (Cham.) Wallr. ARAR12 

Arnica L. ARNIC 

Arnica alpina (L.) Olin ARAL4 

Arnica frigida C.A. Mey. ex Iljin ARFR2 

Artemisia alaskana Rydb. ARAL5 

Artemisia arctica Less. ARAR9 

Artemisia L. ARTEM 

Artemisia tilesii Ledeb. ARTI 

Aster sibiricus L. ASSI 

Astragalus polaris Benth. ASPO 

Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth ATFI 

Boschniakia rossica (Cham. & Schlecht.) Fedtsch. BORO 

Boykinia richardsonii (Hook.) Rothrock BORI2 

Campanula lasiocarpa Cham. CALA7 

Campanula uniflora L. CAUN2 

Cardamine microphylla M.F. Adams CAMI3 

Castilleja elegans Malte CAEL6 

Chrysosplenium wrightii Franch. & Savigny CHWR2 

Cicuta mackenzieana Raup CIMA 

Claytonia L. CLAYT 

Drosera anglica Huds. DRAN 

Drosera rotundifolia L. DRRO 

Dryopteris dilatata auct. non (Hoffmann) Gray DRDI2 

Epilobium angustifolium L. EPAN2 

Epilobium latifolium L. EPLA 

Epilobium palustre L. EPPA 

Equisetum L. EQUIS 

152 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Equisetum arvense L. EQAR 

Equisetum fluviatile L. EQFL 

Equisetum pratense Ehrh. EQPR 

Equisetum sylvaticum L. EQSY 

Equisetum variegatum Schleich. ex F. Weber & D.M.H. Mohr EQVA 

Galium boreale L. GABO2 

Gentiana algida Pallas GEAL2 

Gentiana propinqua Richards. GEPR7 

Gentiana prostrata Haenke GEPR3 

Geocaulon lividum (Richards.) Fern. GELI2 

Geranium erianthum DC. GEER2 

Geum rossii (R. Br.) Ser. GERO2 

Gymnocarpium dryopteris (L.) Newman GYDR 

Hedysarum alpinum L. HEAL 

Heracleum lanatum Michx. HELA4 

Ligusticum L. LIGUS 

Ligusticum mutellinoides ssp. alpinum auct. non (Ledeb.) Thellung LIMUA 

Lupinus L. LUPIN 

Lycopodium L. LYCOP2 

Lycopodium alpinum L. LYAL3 

Lycopodium annotinum L. LYAN2 

Lycopodium complanatum L. LYCO3 

Lycopodium selago L. LYSE99 

Menyanthes trifoliata L. METR3 

Mertensia paniculata (Ait.) G. Don MEPA 

Minuartia arctica (Stev. ex Ser.) Graebn. MIAR3 

Minuartia macrocarpa (Pursh) Ostenf. MIMA4 

Minuartia obtusiloba (Rydb.) House MIOB2 

Pyrola asarifolia Michx. PYAS 

Pyrola secunda L. PYSE 

Oxycoccus microcarpos Turcz. ex Rupr. OXMI3 

Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. OXCA4 

Oxytropis deflexa (Pallas) DC. OXDE2 

Oxytropis nigrescens (Pallas) Fisch. ex DC. OXNI 

Oxytropis viscida Nutt. OXVI2 

Papaver L. PAPAV 

Parnassia L. PARNA 

Parnassia kotzebuei Cham. ex Spreng. PAKO3 

Parnassia palustris L. PAPA8 

Parrya nudicaulis (L.) Boiss. PANU5 

Pedicularis capitata M.F. Adams PECA2 

Pedicularis kanei Dur. PEKA7 

Pedicularis labradorica Wirsing PELA 

Petasites frigidus (L.) Fries PEFR5 

Petasites sagittatus (Banks ex Pursh) Gray PESA5 

Polemonium L. POLEM 

Polygonum bistorta L. POBI5 

Polygonum viviparum L. POVI3 

Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop. POPA14 

153 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Rubus pedatus Sm. RUPE 

Sanguisorba canadensis L. SACA14 

Sanguisorba stipulata Raf. SAST11 

Saussurea angustifolia (Willd.) DC. SAAN3 

Saussurea viscida var. yukonensis (Porsild) Hultén SAVIY 

Saxifraga hieraciifolia Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd. SAHI5 

Saxifraga hirculus L. SAHI3 

Saxifraga oppositifolia L. SAOP 

Saxifraga punctata L. p.p. SAPU6 

Saxifraga reflexa Hook. SARE8 

Saxifraga tricuspidata Rottb. SATR5 

Sedum rosea var. alaskanum (Rose) Berger SEROA 

Senecio atropurpureus (Ledeb.) Fedtsch. SEAT2 

Senecio lugens Richards. SELU 

Senecio triangularis Hook. SETR 

Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq. SIAC 

Solidago multiradiata Ait. SOMU 

Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC. STAM2 

Synthyris borealis Pennell SYBO 

Thalictrum sparsiflorum Turcz. ex Fisch. & C.A. Mey. THSP 

Thelypteris phegopteris (L.) Slosson THPH 

Tofieldia coccinea Richards. TOCO 

Triglochin maritimum L. TRMA4 

Urtica gracilis Ait. URGR3 

Valeriana capitata Pallas ex Link VACA3 

Veratrum viride Ait. VEVI 

Viola L. VIOLA 

Woodsia ilvensis (L.) R. Br. WOIL 

Zigadenus elegans Pursh ZIEL2 

Mosses 

Hylocomium Schimp. in B.S.G. HYLOC2 

Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Schimp. in B.S.G. HYSP70 

Mnium Hedw. MNIUM2 

Pleurozium Mitt. PLEUR10 

Polytrichum commune Hedw. POCO 

Polytrichum Hedw. POLYT5 

Ptilium De Not. PTILI3 

Sphagnum L. SPHAG2 

Sphagnum fuscum (Schimp.) Klinggr. SPFU70 

Sphagnum girgensohnii Russ. SPGI70 

154 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific names 4 letter codes 

Lichen 

Cetraria Ach. CETRA2 

Cetraria cuculatta (Bell.) Ach. CECU99 

Cladina (Nyl.) Nyl. CLADI3 

Cladina rangiferina (L.) Nyl. CLRA60 

Cladonia P. Browne CLADO3 

Masonhalea richardsonii (Hook.) Karnefelt MARI60 

Nephroma Ach. NEPHR3 

Peltigera Willd. PELTI2 

Stellaria longifolia Muhl. ex Willd. STLO 

Stereocaulon Hoffm. STERE2 

Thamnolia Ach. ex Schaerer THAMN3 

155 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 7. Cross walk of hierarchical levels between the Denali National Park and Preserve landcover map classification 

(adapted from Viereck et al. 1992) and the National Vegetation Classification System (Grossman et al. 1998). The Denali 

landcover classes peatland and herbaceous/shrub are not included because they do not correspond to a single physiognomic unit. 

Denali landcover classes 

II III IV 

Needleleaf Closed/Open Dense-open 

forest needleleaf forest spruce 

Needleleaf Open needleleaf Open-woodland 

forest forest/ spruce 

Needleleaf 

woodland 

National Vegetation Classification System landcover classes 

Formation 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

forest 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

forest 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Seasonally flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

needle-leaved evergreen woodland 

Lichen vegetation with a sparse 

tree layer 

Comment 

Denali uses 50-

70% trees; 

NVCS uses 

>25%. Both 

use >75% 

evergreen 

Denali uses 

tree height >7.5 

m, 10-49% 

trees; NVCS 

uses 25-60%. 

Both use >75% 

evergreen 

Alliance* 

Picea glauca forest* 

Picea glauca forest* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Code 

I.A.8.N.d. 

I.A.8.N.e. 

II.A.4.N.c. 

II.A.4.N.d. 

II.A.4.N.c. 

II.A.4.N.c. 

II.A.4.N.d. 

II.A.4.N.d. 

II.A.4.N.e. 

II.A.4.N.f. 

--- VI.B.1.N.c. NVCS uses 

<25% treesoccurring in 

shrubland/ 

nonvascular 

subclasses 

156 
 

 

Needleleaf 

forest/ Dwarf 

tree 

Broadleaf 

forest 

Open needleleaf Stunted spruce 

forest/ 

Needleleaf 

woodland/ Open 

dwarf tree 

scrub/Dwarf tree 

scrub woodland 

Closed Broadleaf 

broadleaf/ Open 

broadleaf/ 

Broadleaf 

woodland 

Needle-leaved evergreen shrubland 

(group) 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Cylindrical-crowned temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Seasonally flooded temperate or 

subpolar needle-leaved evergreen 

woodland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

needle-leaved evergreen woodland 

Saturated mixed needle-leaved 

evergreen - cold-deciduous forest 

Montane or boreal cold-deciduous 

forest 

Montane or boreal cold-deciduous 

forest 

Montane or boreal cold-deciduous 

forest 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous forest 

Cold-deciduous woodland 

Cold-deciduous woodland 

Cold-deciduous woodland 

Picea glauca 

shrubland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea glauca 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea mariana 

woodland* 

Picea mariana -

Larix laricina 

saturated forest 

Betula papyrifera 

forest 

Populus tremuloides 

forest 

Populus balsamifera 

forest* 

Populus balsamifera 

forest* 

Populus tremuloides 

woodland 

Populus balsamifera 

woodland* 

Betula papyrifera 

woodland 

III.A.3. 

II.A.4.N.c. 

II.A.4.N.c. 

II.A.4.N.d. 

II.A.4.N.d. 

II.A.4.N.e. 

II.A.4.N.f. 

I.C.3.N.d. 

I.B.2.N.b. 

I.B.2.N.b. 

I.B.2.N.b. 

I.B.2.N. 

II.B.2.N.a. 

II.B.2.N.a. 

II.B.2.N.a. 

Denali uses 

tree height <7.5 

m, cover 10-

49%; NVCS 

uses 25-60%, 

height 

described as 

Krumholtz 

Denali uses 

>10% trees; 

NVCS uses 

>25% trees; 

both use >75% 

broadleaf 

157 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

---

---

---

Mixed forest Closed mixed 

forest/ Open 

mixed forest/ 

Mixed 

woodland 

Spruce-broadleaf 

Tall Scrub/ 

Low Scrub 

Closed tall 

scrub/ Open tall 

scrub/ Closed 

low scrub/ Open 

low scrub 

Alder 

Tall Scrub/ 

Low Scrub 

Closed tall 

scrub/ Open tall 

scrub/ Closed 

low scrub/ Open 

low scrub 

Willow 

Temporarily flooded cold- Populus balsamifera 

deciduous woodland woodland* 

Mixed needle-leaved evergreen - Picea glauca-Betula 

cold-deciduous forest papyrifera forest* 

Temporarily flooded mixed 

needle-leaved evergreen - colddeciduous forest 

Mixed needle-leaved evergreen -

cold-deciduous woodland 

Mixed needle-leaved evergreen -

cold-deciduous woodland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Intermittently flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Seasonally flooded cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Semipermanently flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Picea glaucaPopulus balsamifera 

forest* 

Picea marianaBetula papyrifera 

woodland* 

Picea glauca-Betula 

papyrifera 

woodland* 

Alnus viridis ssp. 

crispa* 

Alnus viridis ssp. 

sinuata* 

Alnus tenuifolia* 

Alnus viridis ssp. 

crispa* 

Salix lanata ssp. 

richardsonii* 

Salix barclayi* 

Salix barrattiana* 

Salix brachycarpa* 

II.B.2.N.b. 

I.C.3.N.a. 

I.C.3.N.b. 

II.C.3.N.a. 

II.C.3.N.a. 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.c 

III.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.e 

III.B.2.N.f. 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

Denali uses 

>10% trees; 

NVCS uses 

>25% trees; 

both use 25-

75% mix of 

broadleaf & 

evergreen 

Denali uses 

Alder >25%; 

NVCS uses 

Alder >25% 

Denali uses 

Willow >25% 

and >20 cm 

tall; NVCS 

uses Willow 

>25% and >45 

cm tall 

158 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

Intermittently flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Seasonally flooded cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Semipermanently flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Caespitose cold-deciduous dwarfshrubland (possible crosswalk) 

Caespitose needle-leaved or 

microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

Low Scrub Closed low Closed low shrub Subalpine or subpolar coldscrub birch deciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar colddeciduous shrubland 

Low Scrub Closed low Low shrubscrub/ Open low sedge 

scrub 

Temporarily flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Seasonally flooded cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Semipermanently flooded colddeciduous shrubland 

Saturated cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Saturated cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Saturated cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Saturated cold-deciduous 

shrubland 

Caespitose cold-deciduous dwarfshrubland (possible crosswalk) 

Salix alaxensis* 

Salix lanata ssp. 

richardsonii* 

Salix planifolia ssp. 

pulchra 

Salix bebbiana 

Salix glauca 

Betula nana* 

Betula glandulosa* 

Salix lanata ssp. 

richardsonii* 

Salix planifolia ssp. 

pulchra * 

Betula nana* 

Ledum decumbens* 

III.B.2.N.c 

III.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.d 

lll.B.2.N.d 

lll.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.e 

III.B.2.N.f. 

IV.B.2.N.a. 

IV.A.1.N.a. 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.e 

III.B.2.N.f. 

III.B.2.N.g 

III.B.2.N.g 

III.B.2.N.g 

III.B.2.N.g 

IV.B.2.N.a. 

Denali uses 

0.2-1.5 m tall 

and >75% 

shrub; NVCS 

uses >45 cm 

tall and >25% 

shrub 

Denali uses 

0.2-1.5 m tall, 

>25 shrub; 

NVCS uses 

>45 cm tall, 

>25% shrub 

159 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Scrub Closed low Low shrub birchscrub/ Open low ericaceousscrub willow 

Dwarf scrub Dryas dwarf Dwarf shrubscrub/ rock 

Ericaceous 

dwarf scrub/ 

Willow dwarf 

scrub 

Saturated cold-deciduous dwarf- ---

shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Vaccinium 

deciduous shrubland uliginosum* 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Betula glandulosa* 

deciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Ledum 

deciduous shrubland groenlandicum* 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Ledum decumbens* 

deciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Salix planifolia ssp. 

deciduous shrubland pulchra 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Salix barrattiana* 

deciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Salix brachycarpa* 

deciduous shrubland 

Subalpine or subpolar cold- Salix glauca* 

deciduous shrubland 

Intermittently flooded cold- ---

deciduous shrubland 

Temporarily flooded cold- Salix planifolia ssp. 

deciduous shrubland pulchra 

Seasonally flooded cold-deciduous ---

shrubland 

Semipermanently flooded cold- Chamaedaphne 

deciduous shrubland calyculata* 

Saturated cold-deciduous Vaccinium 

shrubland uliginosum* 

Saturated cold-deciduous Myrica gale* 

shrubland 

Caespitose cold-deciduous dwarf- ---

shrubland (possible crosswalk) 

Saturated cold-deciduous dwarf- ---

shrubland (possible crosswalk) 

Creeping or matted needle-leaved Dryas octopetala* 

or microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

Creeping or matted needle-leaved Cassiope tetragona 

or microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

IV.B.2.N.d. 

III.B.2.N.b Denali uses 

0.2-1.5 m tall, 

>25% shrub; 

NVCS uses 

>45 cm tall, 

>25% shrub 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.b 

III.B.2.N.c 

III.B.2.N.d 

III.B.2.N.e 

III.B.2.N.f. 

III.B.2.N.g 

III.B.2.N.g 

IV.B.2.N.a. 

IV.B.2.N.d. 

IV.A.1.N.b. Denali uses 

<20 cm tall, 

>25% shrub 

(bareground 

>25%); NVCS 

uses <45 cm 

tall, >25% 

shrub 

IV.A.1.N.b. 

160 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

Dwarf scrub 

Graminoid 

herb/ Forb 

herb 

Dryas dwarf Dwarf shrub 

scrub/ 

Ericaceous 

dwarf scrub/ 

Willow dwarf 

scrub 

Dry graminoid/ Dry-mesic 

Mesic herbaceous 

graminoid/ Dry 

forb/ Mesic forb 

Creeping or matted cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Mixed evergreen - cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Caespitose cold-deciduous dwarfshrubland 

Caespitose cold-deciduous dwarfshrubland 

Caespitose needle-leaved or 

microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

Caespitose needle-leaved or 

microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

Creeping or matted needle-leaved 

or microphyllous evergreen dwarfshrubland 

Creeping or matted cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Creeping or matted cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Creeping or matted cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Mixed evergreen - cold-deciduous 

dwarf-shrubland 

Lowland lichen vegetation 

Montane/submontane temperate or 

subpolar lichen vegetation 

dominate the nonvascular cover 

Lichen vegetation with a sparse 

dwarf-shrub layer 

Medium-tall sod temperate or 

subpolar grassland 

Short alpine or subalpine dry 

bunchgrass grassland 

Seasonally flooded temperate or 

subpolar grassland 

Semipermanently flooded 

temperate or subpolar grassland 

Vaccinium 

uliginosum* 

Arctostaphylos 

alpina* 

Dryas octopetala* 

Dryas integrifolia* 

Cassiope tetragona* 

Salix rotundifolia=S. 

dodgeana 

Salix reticulata 

Salix polaris* 

Calamagrostis 

canadensis* 

Festuca altaica* 

IV.B.2.b. 

IV.C.2.a. 

IV.B.2.a. 

IV.B.2.a. 

IV.A.1.N.a. 

IV.A.1.N.a. 

IV.A.1.N.b. 

IV.B.2.b. 

IV.B.2.b. 

IV.B.2.b. 

IV.C.2.a. 

VI.B.1.N.a. 

VI.B.1.N.b. 

VI.B.1.N.d. 

V.A.5.N.c 

V.A.5.N.h 

V.A.5.N.k 

V.A.5.N.l. 

Denali uses 

<20 cm tall, 

>25% shrub 

(bareground 

<25%); NVCS 

uses <45 cm 

tall, >25% 

shrub 

Denali and 

NVCS both use 

herbaceous 

>25% cover 

161 
 

 

 

 

 

 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Medium-tall temperate or subpolar 

grassland with a sparse colddeciduous shrub layer 

Short temperate or subpolar 

grassland with a sparse colddeciduous shrub layer 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland with a sparse colddeciduous shrub layer 

Short temperate or subpolar 

lowland grassland with a sparse 

cold-deciduous shrub layer 

Low temperate or subpolar 

perennial forb vegetation 

Temporarily flooded temperate or 

subpolar perennial forb vegetation 

Graminoid Wet graminoid/ Wet Semipermanently flooded 

herb/ Forb Wet forb herbaceous temperate or subpolar grassland 

herb 

Semipermanently flooded 

temperate or subpolar grassland 

Semipermanently flooded 

temperate or subpolar grassland 

Semipermanently flooded 

temperate or subpolar grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Saturated temperate or subpolar 

grassland 

Semipermanently flooded 

temperate perennial forb 

vegetation 

--- V.A.5.N.m 

--- V.A.7.N.g 

--- V.A.7.N.l. 

--- V.A.7.N.p 

--- V.A.8.N.b 

--- V.B.2.N.b 

Epilobium 

latifolium* 

V.B.2.N.d 

Carex aquatilis V.A.5.N.l. Denali and 

NVCS both use 

herbaceous 

>25% cover 

Carex lasiocarpa V.A.5.N.l. 

Carex rostrata V.A.5.N.l. 

Eriophorum 

angustifolium 

V.A.5.N.l. 

Eleocharis 

palustris* 

Eriophorum 

russeolum 

Eriophorum 

vaginatum 

Eriophorum 

brachyantherum 

Carex aquatilis 

V.A.5.N.m. 

V.A.5.N.m. 

V.A.5.N.m. 

V.A.5.N.m. 

V.A.5.N.m. 

Carex lasiocarpa V.A.5.N.m. 

Carex rostrata V.A.5.N.m. 

Menyanthes 

trifoliata 

V.B.2.N.e. 

162 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aquatic herb Freshwater Aquatic 

aquatic herbaceous 

herbaceous 

Sparsely 

vegetated 

Bare ground 

Semipermanently flooded Equisetum fluviatile V.B.2.N.e 

temperate perennial forb 

vegetation 

Saturated temperate perennial forb Menyanthes V.B.2.N.f. 

vegetation trifoliata 

Saturated temperate perennial forb Equisetum fluviatile V.B.2.N.f. 

vegetation 

Permanently flooded temperate or Nuphar polysepalum V.C.2.N.a 

subpolar hydromorphic rooted 

vegetation 

Sparse vegetation (Subclass) --- VII. Denali uses 15-

24% total 

cover; NVCS 

uses 0.1-25% 

Denali uses 

<15% total 

cover; NVCS 

uses 0% 

* Alliance names followed by * indicate the alliance was not defined in NVCS. The name was given by the authors of this report and 

corresponds to the name that most likely will be assigned by NVCS in the future. 

--- means no alliance was defined or could be 

assigned. 

163 
The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and

other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and

affiliated Island Communities. 

NPS D-388, March 2001
National Park Service 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Natural Resource Program Center 

1201 Oakridge Drive, Suite 150 

Fort Collins, CO 80525 

www.nature.nps.gov 

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