rèSeeding Rangelands in

Utah, Nevada

Southern Idaho

and Western Wyoming

,a.^T»E.T OM^««

Agriculture Handbook No. 71

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Forest Service January 1955
CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Where to seed 4

Terrain 5

Soil 5

Vegetation 6

Precipitation and available moisture 6

Lowland sites 7

Mountain sites 9

How to seed 10

Removing competition 10

Burning 11

Burning cautions 13

Accidental burns 15

Mechanical methods 15

Plowing 16

Other mechanical methods 19

Chemicals 24

Season for eliminating competition 25

Planting procedures 26

DriUing 26

Broadcasting ^ 30

Seeding rates 32

Seeding steep slopes 32

When to seed 35

Lowland sites 35

Moimtain sites 37

What to seed 38

Use the best plants adapted to the site 38

Mixtures or single species 39

Species for seeding 40

Grasses 40

Legumes 56

Other broadleaf herbs 58

Shrubs 60

Managing seeded ranges 63

Seeding guide for specific sites 64

Lowlands 64

Sagebrush and rabbitbrush areas 64

Cheatgrass stands 66

Sites with summer-growing annuals 66

Abandoned wheatland and accidentally burned areas 66

Juniper-pinyon stands 66

Salty lands with saltgrass or greasewood 67

Mountain lands 67

Mountain brush 67

Aspen 69

Open subalpine 70

Common and botanical names of species mentioned 71

. ~ I
Seeding Rangelands in Utah, Nevada,

Southern Idaho, and Western Wyoming'

By A. PERKY PLUMMER, A. C. HULL, .TK., GEORGE STEWART, and JOSEPH H. ROBERTSON, conservutionists, Intcriiioimtuin Forest und Raiuje Exijvrinient titation,

Forest Service "

INTRODUCTION

Artificial seeding of immense areas of deteriorated rangeland in the

Intermountain region (Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, and western

Wyoniino-) now oflers a major and direct means of vastly increasing

forage production and controlling erosion. This is possible because

of up-to-date information developed by more than 20 years of experimental planting. In this period nearly 1,000 species and species

variants from all parts of the globe have been tested. Trials with

these have been conducted on the most important problem areas by

many field methods.

It is conservatively estimated that a total area of approximately

20 million acres of deteriorated rangeland in the Intermountain region

should be revegetated, either for forage production or for watershed

protection and soil stabilization. Increased forage production on this

seedable area will help to obtain the lighter use necessary for improving an additional 100 million acres of damaged range Avhich can be

rehabilitated more economically through proper management.

Advantages from successfully seeded ranges are innnediate and

direct to livestock operators. More forage is made available at seasons

when it is most needed, and livestock gains are greater and quicker as

the forage is improved. The increased forage ])roduction on niany

large areas established from 8 to 20 years ago in different jiarts of the

region, has run between 300 and 3,000 pounds of air-dry herbage an

acre. The general average for successful planting has been 900

pounds. Before seeding, only a few of the sites were producing more

than 50 pounds per acre. In terms of the average, if the seeded stands

are utilized 50 percent, 450 pounds of air-dry forage is available. This

is enough so that II/3 to 2 acres will support a cow or 5 sheep for 1

month, where before seeding 10 to 25 acres were necessary to supply

this amount of forage.

' This hanclliook supersedes Fanners' BnUetin 182.3, Reseeding Rangelands of

the Intermountain Region.

''The authors thanli the Soil Conservation Service and the Agricultural Research Service for supplying seed of hard-to-get species for seeding; and these

same agencies, together witii the Bureau of Land Management, Forest Service,

State Agricultural Experiment Stations and Extension Services, and numerous

ranchers who cooperated in making the seedings to supply information for this

handbook.

1
2 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

To illustrate, a mountain area in central Utah invaded by big sagebrush ^ and of little value for grazing was burned and drilled to a

mixture of palatable grasses in 1944 (fig. 1). Between 1945 and 1951

this area annually produced an average of two cow-months grazing

per acre. As another example, a big sagebrush area in southern Idaho

producing 50 pounds of native forage per acre was burned and drilled

to crested wheatgrass in 1943. Two years later it was producing 1.785

pounds (dry weight) of grass per acre, or the equivalent of 11/2 cowmonths' forage. Again, in Ruby Valley, Nev., a large acreage of big

sagebrush range requiring 16 acres per cow-month was seeded to

crested wheatgrass in 1944. Between 1946 and 1951 this area has

produced spring grazing at the rate of 21/2 acres per cow-month.

Although more forage is often needed on all ranges, early spring

and fall forage on our lowland ranges are in greatest clemand in the

Intermountain area. Seeding them to crested wheatgrass makes these

ranges ready for grazing 10 to 20 days earlier than is possible with

cheatgrass or with native perennial grass or brush ranges. It is thus

possible to turn livestock out to graze 2 weeks sooner in the spring

(fig. 2). This ordinarily saves 300 pounds of hay per cow and provides green feed when most needed. It also means lower feeding costs,

less labor, and better gains on livestock. Lambs have been found to

make gains of over 1/2 pound per day on such range through the

spring. Calves will make 1% pounds gain per day per head, and

cows will make II/2 to 3 pounds gain per clay.

Seeding has the added value of reducing and controlling poisonous or undesirable plants such as halogeton, tarweed, low larkspur,

and Barbey (or tall) larkspur. In many instances seeding can build

high grazing capacity range on lands supporting such undesirable

weeds. Near Wells, Nev., poisonous halogeton is unable to gain a foothold in a good stand of seeded crested wheatgrass, although it has

become abundant on all sides in annual cheatgrass and Russianthistle. In areas in Utah, planted grasses have completely suppressed

cluster tarweed. Replacing Russian-tliistle and tumblemustard with

perennial grasses in Idaho decreases these weed hosts of beet leafhopper, which causes immense damage through curly top to beets,

beans, and tomatoes.

Present seeding costs are high, often $5 to $15 per acre, but if seeding will result in an increase of 1 cow-month"s grazing, or 30 to 50

pounds of lamb or beef per acre each year, the amount of money

spent for seeding is usually a^ood investment.

Seeding will pay biggest cüvidends on sites where the plants valuable for grazing have largely been killed and where recovery of

valuable forage plants would be very slow by natural means. "Where

the desired improvement in plant cover can be attained through good

range management practices within a reasonable period of time, seeding is not advisable. On a range where a good forage cover is present

but weakened by overuse, it may require only a year of no grazing in

spring and a period of years of light grazing to bring about substantial

improvement.

"A list of common and botanical names of species mentioned appears on

page 71.
SEEDING RANGELANDS

F-444735, 444994

FIGURE 1.—A, Mountain brush raufie in central Utah burned and seeded in

September 1944. Prior to seeding, this was dense brush which livestock could

not use. B, Stand of mixed grasses produced in 1945 on the same area.

Between 1945 and 1951, this formerly valueless brush site produced the

equivalent of 2 cow-months' forage per acre for use during June, July, and

August.
HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 2.—Cattle srazini; crested wlieatgrass on a lowland area in Utah with

au averaye unmial precipitation uf lUV^ inches. Adjoining cheat^'rass and

Uussian-thistle range is usually not ready to graze for at least 2 weeks after

crested wheatyrass.

In any program of range seeding there is a logical procedure to be

followed. It involves: (1) Choosing the correct places to seed; (2)

using the right methods and equipment; (3) sowing at the best time

of year; (4) using adapted species that will give greatest returns;

ancl (5) managing the seeded range. Each of these steps is described

in separate sections in the following pages. "While this handbook is

¡primarily for seeding ranges in the Intermountain region, it is also

applicable to comparable areas in other parts of the West.

WHERE TO SEED

In deciding where to seed there are some factors which must be carefully considered. The most important of these are terrain (evenness

of the land surface and degree of slope), competing vegetation, soil,

and available moisture. Terrain and competing vegetation ñgure

importantly in the ease and cost of seeding, whereas soil and moisture

are the two factors which affect production most. There are wide

variations between sites suitable for seeding in the Intermountain

region._ They vary from the dry lowlands, where low precipation is

the major limiting factor, to mountains, where precipitation is usually

adequate but terrain and short growing season are the major limiting

factors.
SEEDING RANGELANDS

TERRAIN

Preferred for seeding are level to gently sloping lands where ground

preparation can be done with macliinery at reasonable cost. Except

for watershed protection, it may not be economically feasible to treat

and plant slopes in excess of 30 percent (a 30-foot rise for every 100

feet on the horizontal). Even on grades above 20 ])ercent the cost

is nnich greater tlian on level lands^ because large equij^ment cannot

be used and small machinery or horse-drawn equipment must be resorted to. (iullies, ditches, and steep ravines also hinder use of heavy

equipment and increase costs (fig. 3).

'*.i*

FIGURE 3.—Because of deep gullies and steep slopes, this is not a suitable place

to seed for forage production. However, it is often necessary to plant such

slopes for watershed protection.

SOIL

Deep, fertile soils, well supplied with organic matter, are more

productive than thin soils. Heavy soils with good moisture-holding

capacity require less moisture than gravelly or light sandy soils to

make the same production. Soils with good moisture-holding qualities will frequently give similar or greater yields of seeded grasses

than lighter soils where considerably more precipitation occurs. If

salts are suspected of being excessive, soil samples should be sent to

a soil-testing laboratory to determine suitability of the soil for

seeding.
6 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

VEGETATION

Thick, vigorous stands of sagebrush, cheatgrass, or Russian-thistle

indicate a site that will produce high-yielding stands ot better torage

plants (fig. 4). Greasewood or saltgrass indicate that salt-tolerant

plants, such as tall wheatgrass and Russian wildrye, should be usecl.

Remnants of bluebunch wheatgrass generally show that chested wheatgrass or other drought-enduring species will grow well. Mountain

brush, such as snowberry and serviceberry. indicates that mixtures ot

the less drought-enduring grasses—tall oatgrass. bearded wlieatgrass,

and smooth brome—will succeed. Winterfnt (or whitesage) and

shadscale saltbush are evidence tliat the site may be too dry for successful seeding. ,

Close inspection should be made of lands being considered tor seeding to be certain that desirable native plants are not present in sufficient number to recover merely by eliminating brush or improving

the management. A fair rule of thumb is to seed where there is less

than one''desirable bunchgrass or broadleaf herb to every 10 square

feet or one stem of bluestem wheatgrass or other sod-formmg plant to

every 15 square feet.

FiGUKE 4.—Areas supportin}; heavy sagebrush stands with little undercover of

grasses are excellent ijrospects for seeding. A heavy cover of brush and weeds

is evidence of a productive planting site.

PRECIPITATION AND AVAILABLE MOISTURE

As a general rule, seedings in the Intermountain region can be

successfully made where average annual precipitation is greater than

10 inches. With careful planting in soil having good moisture-holding

qualities, successful stands have been attained wïiere annual precipita-
SEEDING RANGELANDS 7

tion is as low as 8 inches. A few successful stands of crested wheatgrass have been obtained on desert ranges where annual precipitation

is below 8 inches, but here stand establishment is always uncertain.

In some places it is possible to ^et new plantings established readily

by spreading the surplus water ot early sjnàng runoff. Water-spreading is particularly helpful on dry ranges where stand establishment

is normally slow. In Idaho, yields of forage on a high mountain

meadow were increased from Yo to i cow-months per acre by spreading

water following the planting of grasses and alsike clover. In Utah,

spreading of surplus high water and seeding on dry sagebrush benches

increased the grazing capacity from virtually nothing to fi'om 2 to .5

cow-months per acre (fig. 5). Wherever there is opportunity for distributing surplus water on a seeded range, there is ojjportunity for

increasing the available forage and obtaining returns which will

usually greatly exceed the expense.

LOWLAND SITES

Lowland valleys, benches, and adjoining foothills suitable for seeding vary in elevation from 2,500 to 7,000 feet. Tlie average annual

precipitation varies from 8 inches to nearly 17 inches. The major

portion of the lowlands suitable for seeding is in a belt where precipitation varies between 9 and l-i inches. While these lowlands are predominantly used for spring-fall range, some of the higher valleys and

some of the alkaline valley bottoms with a high water table provide

good summer range for cattle, particularly after seeding to improved

forage species. Certain of these lowlands which remain fairly free of

snow are used also as winter range.

Because of the large and level tracts of lowland range, opportunities for seeding are much greater than in the mountains. In total,

there are estimated to be at least 1.5 million acres of lowland range in

the Intermountain region where seeding to improved forage plants

will be worth while.

The major range areas where seeding can be successfully carried out

on lowland range include: (1) Recently abandoned dry farmlands,

(2) big sagebrush and associated brush species. (3) cheatgrass, (4)

Russian-thistle, (5) saltgrassandgreasewood. and (6) juniper-pinyon.

During the past emergency period many thousand acres of the best

sagebrush range were plowed and sown to dryland grain to meet the

demand for wheat. As demand and price decline to where wheat is no

longer profitable, most of these dry farmlands can be converted to

productive range by planting adapted grasses.

Land covered with thrifty big sagebrush is fertile. Where depleted

of valuable perennials, it makes highly desirable range for seeding,

but some expense is required to eliminate the biTish competition (fig.

4). Small and widely spaced bushes, however, usually indicate poor

soil or moisture.

Sagebrush should not be eliminated where it is important forage

for big game. On winter range both black sagebrush and big sagebrush are valuable browse and should not be eradicated.

Black sagebrush, which is normally smaller than big sagebrush,

often predominates on large areas with less than 8 inches annual preci303448°—55 2
HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 5.—Spreading of suipUis high water in the spring months on this rocky

foothill land has added to tlie 10 inches of average annual precipitation and

made possible a high-yielding stand of timothy, smooth brome, and yellow

sweetclover. This procedure also makes it possible to establish seeded stands

quickly.

l)itation. Except on winter ranges, black sagebrush is of little value

for livestock grazing. The better sites supporting it are suitable for

seeding if the terrain permits. In Nevada and central Utah, crested

wheatgrass on adjoining big sagebrush and black sagebrush range

yielded similar amounts of forage. Because the soil under black sagebrush is usually thinner and rockier than under big sagebrush, black

sagebrush is usually more costly to eradicate.

Rabbitbrush is often mixed with big sagebrush, but also may occur

in pure stands. Such sites, in either instance, generally have a potential production equal to that of pure stands of big sagebrush but are

always more expensive to treat. To eliminate rabbitbrush, horsebrush,

and other sprouting shrubs, their roots must be cut deep enough below

the crown to prevent sprouting. Successful plantings have been

established by drilling directly into thin stands of rabbitbrush. However, the brush persists, and usually eliminating it pays, unless it is

valuable for browse.

Some successful seedings have been made on depleted shadscale

saltbush and winterfat types on the better sites. Generally, however,

the hazards in these types are too great to warrant large-scale seedings,

especially where the average annual precipitation is less than 8 inches.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 9

Because these shrubs do not offer as severe competition as does sagebrush, it is possible to drill directly into shadscale and winterfat

without seedbed preparation. One rancher in Millard County, Utah,

obtained excellent stands of crested ^Yheat<ïrass by drilling directly

into shadscale where the average annual precipitation was approximately 9 inches. Good stands have been obtained in other places in

shadscale where average annual precipitation exceeded 10 inches. If

shadscale occurs as a pure stand one should suspect high salinity which

in effect accentuates the aridity of the site. Many seedings of crested

wheatgrass in these relatively dry and often saline types have looked

successful the first 2 to 5 years, then later dwindled away.

Vigorous stands of annual cheatgrass. growing as pure stands

or as an understory in sagebrusli in a year of noiinal or less than

normal precipitation, are indicative of jiroductive sites which can be

successfully seeded. However, where cheatgrass is small and spindly

in years of normal precipitation, only poor stands of perennials can

be grown. As cheatgrass grows in the fall and early spring, it competes with seeded species and must be eradicated for successful seeding.

Lands supporting Russian-thistle within the sagebrush zone are

some of the best for seeding, because they can be seeded without seedbed preparation. Since Russian-thistle makes most of its growtli in

summer after seeded species are well established, it furnishes but slight

competition to seeded grasses. Dry Russian-thistles help protect the

small grass seedlings from wind and sun in sunnner and from winterkilling and frost-heaving in winter. All Russian-thistle areas should

be sown before they are occupied l)y more competitive plants such as

big sagebrush and cheatgrass. The same also applies to areas dominated by other summer-growing annuals, such as the poisonous halogeton, tumbleweed amaranth, and lambsquarters goosefoot.

Saltgrass and greasewood types, having a high water table, can be

converted into more ]iroductive ranges by seeding adapted salt-tolerant

grasses. For successful seeding, the soluble salt content should not

exceed 1 percent, and the ground should be moist to the surface, at

least in spring. If there is a prevalence of sodium carbonate, often

called "black alkali." seeding probably should not be undertaken.

Juniper and pinyon trees occupy large areas of formerly good

forage-producing range. For the most part these areas are suitable

for seeding. The best sites in this type are the swales and benches

with deep soils. The rocky ridgetops and hillsides are usually not

suitable, being sites where the trees have always been dominant and

grass production low.

MOUNTAIN SITES

There are at least 5 million acres of mountain land within the Intermountain region where increased production will make seeding a paying investment. Elevations suitable for seeding vary from 4,500 feet

in the lower mountain brush to over 11,000 in the subalpine zone.

Precipitation varies from 14 inches at low elevations to as much as

50 inches at high elevations. While the mountains usually have more

favorable moisture and more fertile soil than the lowlands, their slop-
10 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ing and roufjher terrain, as well as smaller areas available, make seeding; more costly. Planting can be carried out successfully within the

major mountain range types, including mountain brush, aspen, open

weedy parks in timber, and high subalpine weedy ranges. Ai-tificial

rehabilitation is also necessary on certain watersheds for soil

protection alone.

The extent and depletion of many mountain brush areas, as well as

need for forage on these ranges, make them some of the most important

for seeding. They may be characterized by either short brush or tall

brush. Big sagebrush and mountain snowljerry are the most common

short-brush plants. Gambel oak (or shrubby oak), bigtooth maple,

serviceberry, and true mountain cercocarpus are the most characteristic shrubs of the tall bi'ush, and in places some of these may actually

take the form of small trees. Although highly variable with exposure,

the soils within this zone are usually fertile and will support high

yields of seeded forage plants. Areas to be selected are those where

the herbaceous plants are mostly gone.

Experience has shown that growing conditions in openings in the

ponderosa pine zone are similar to those on mountain brush lands and

the same species may be used.

Short brush areas can be successfully treated and sown by conventional procedures described in the following methods section. Tallbrush types are usually too expensive to seed by these methods, but

fortunately good stands can often be obtained merely b}' broadcasting

the seed before or during leaf fall, particularly in areas where Gambel

oak and bigtooth maple predominate.

Aspen, depleted of herbaceous undercover, also provides some of

the best and easiest range for seeding. Here, too, merely broadcasting

the seed just prior to or during leaf fall gives excellent results. Douglas-fir and spruce timber openings resemble aspen openings and may

be seeded with the same forage plants.

Open subalpine ranges and parklike openings in timber, supporting

only low-value weeds, are excellent seeding sites. Tarweed, knotweed, and sweet sagebrush are examples of low-value weeds now

dominating these areas. Many of these lands are important watersheds where seeding is essential to restore a plant cover.

HOW TO SEED

The first essential for successful planting is a method which eliminates competing plants to permit establishment of seeded species.

As far as possible this method should also furnish a suitable seedbed.

Secondly, a planting procedure must be used which will place the

proper amount of seed in the soil near the optimum depth for good

seedling emergence.

REMOVING COMPETITION

Undesirable plants with growth periods similar to seeded species

rob the sod of moisture, causing poor seedling establishment and low

production. Sagebrush, rabbitbrush, cheatgrass, cluster tarweed,

common dandelion, and mules-ears wyethia are examples of such
SEEDING RANGELANDS H

competing plants. Poor elimination of such competition may completely prevent young seedlings from becoming established. Normally the greater the kill of competing plants the more quickly a

productive stand will be established and the less the chance will be for

reoccupancy by undesirable competitors. On the Snake River Plains,

in southern Idaho, for example, killing 92 percent of the big sagebrush and seeding crested wheatgrass resulted in 1,785 pounds of

air-dry crested wheatgrass per acre 2 years later. In contrast, .53-

percent kill resulted in only 529 pounds of crested wheatgrass per

acre. Again, complete elimination of cluster tarweed in an aspen

opening during early spring and seeding to a mixture of adapted

grasses in Utah, resulted 2 years later in a full stand of grass and production of 3,000 pounds of air-diy forage per acre, whereas 50-percent

elimination resulted in a very poor stand of grass and a production

of less than 90 pounds of forage per acre.

Summer-growing annuals, such as Russian-tliistle, make their

growth after seeded species are fairly well established, and so do not

need to be eliminated. Aspen and tall mountain brush, such as bigtooth maple, depleted of herbaceous understory, are also exceptions.

In these types there is sufficient moisture, beyond what the trees and

brush use, for establishment of seeded forage plants. After establishment, seeded species develop at the expense of the trees and brush,

and eventually the suj^pressed browse and grass make high-yielding

range (fig. 6).

The two general methods of removing plant competition are planned

burning and mechanical procedures.* Use of chemical sprays is now

gaining considerable prominence, and, as more is learned, spraying

probably will be more widely used.

Burning

Planned burning is the most economical and successful procedure

for eradicating the nonsprouting big sagebrush, and can often be

successfully used on juniper. Althougli it kills only a low percentage

of sprouting brush species, it reduces their vigor and helps herbaceous

plants to suppress them. Burning is an effective method for thinning

cheatgrass competition, if clone before the seeds fall in the sunnner.

At this time cheatgrass will burn readily, so that very little live seed

remains.

Where big sagebrush comprises a substantial part of the brush

cover, complete burns can be attained and a good firm seedbed is provided for direct planting. Of course, the total brush cover must be

thick enough or with sufficient undercover to carry fire well. With

establishment of good stands of adapted grasses, followed by proper

grazing, brush may be suppressed, and in this form becomes a valuable component of the cover, adding greatly to the nutritive value of

the total forage, particularly in late summer and fall. Kabbitbrush

and sagebrush, however, sometimes increase despite proper use of the

grass. To minimize this, it is important to burn before these two

brush species mature seed.

* Details on methods of controlling sagebrush are available in U. S. Dept.

Agr. Fanners' Bui. 2072, Sagebrush Control.
12 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

m

FiouKE 6.—Bidadcastini; ,iuwt prior to leaf fall results in good stands of foragu

in oak patches. Smooth brome sown in 1930 has suppressed much of the oak

and opened it up so sheep can sraze through the thickets.

Burning kills a very low percentage of the free sprouting brush

associated with sagebrush, such as rabbitbrush, horsebrush, saskatoon

serviceberiy, mountain snowberry, Gambel oak, true mountain cercocarpns, and connnon chokecherry. Antelope bitterbrush, a valuable browse commonly associated with sagebrush, shows a high percentage of sprouting from the crown in some places, and in others is

totally killed as a result of burning. Mortality of this species varies

with geographical area and growth form, as well as with intensity

of fire and soil moisture. Its survival after burning in Nevada and

southwestern Idaho is practically nil, whereas in southeastern Idaho

and Utah survival may be fairly high. Mortality of bitterbrush

tends to be high among upright forms and low among low-growing

forms having branches which lie along the ground and root at occasional points where they contact the soil. If it is known that burning kills bitterbrush in an area where it provides an inij^ortant amount

of forage, methods that do less damage to this shrub should be used.

Burning of Gambel oak or other tall mountain brush is risky.

Furthermore, the large trunks that may be left are such obstacles

that ground treatment to cover the seecl is impossible, unless heavy

equipment is available to push through them (fig. 7). While good

forage stands will frequently result from merely broadcasting into the

ash following burning, too often the ash litter is washed or blown
SEEDING RANGELAJSTDS 13

FIGURE 7.—Burns in tall mountain brush (here Gambel oak) are not reliable

plates for broadcasting if the ash blows away. For good seedling establishment, heavy equipment is required to push the trunks over and cover the seed.

away, leaving a hard surface on which vei'y few seedlings become

established. With no competing herbaceous cover, the brush becomes

a dense thicket and sometimes a greater problem than before burning.

Usually equally good or better stands of forage would eventually have

followed broadcasting before leaf-fall.

Fire is also one of the most effective and least expensive means of

eliminating juniper and pinyon, particularly where there may be an

understory of cheatgrass to carry ñre. AVhei-e trees are not close

enough together to carry fire, they can be pushed into continuous windrows with a bulldozer. Windrows may be spaced at intervals of 100

to 200 feet apart, and greater if the fire will carry through the interspaces. Setting the trees on fire after they have dried 2 or 3 weeks

builds up a wall of flame which carries across the interspaces. Even

if some trees do not burn, the heat kills them.

Back-pack burners, which throw a flame 25 to 30 feet long, readily

scorch the foliage, killing most of the standing scattered trees

(fig. 8, A). If humidity is low and wind is about right, the fire will

spread rapidly over a large area, even among trees quite widely spaced.

Burning Cautions

Fire on the range is always dangerous. When burning is used as a

method of eliminating competition, it necessarily has to be done in late

summer, when fire-hazard conditions are high and there is a sustained

wind. Therefore, precautions should be taken to keep the fire under

control. Burning should be carefully planned and all fire-warden
14 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-467993. 472698

FIGURE 8.—A, Back-pack flamethrowers which use fuel oil are useful for killing

juniper and piuyon, as well as for starting fires. If the foliage is scorched, the

tree will die. B, Fireline to leeward of fire should be a minimum of 200 feet

wide. Here the 30-foot dozed out line was made wide enougli by backfiring

into junipers on left.
SEEDING RANGELANDS ' 15

officials informed of the burning plans. An experienced crew should

do the burning and a standby crew should be on the alert.

Greater caution is needed when burning mountain rangeland, because

of the hazard to timber and watershed values. Fire should never be

used wliere land is higlily susceptible to wind or water erosion. The

planting of fast-growing grasses in mixture with the slower-growing

but more persistent ones may permit the burning of slopes up to '¿0

percent. Fire is not advised where slopes exceed 30 percent, because

of danger of erosion afterward. Controlling tire on slopes is always

more expensive and dangerous than on level and gently rolling areas in

the lowlands.

Advice of local people who have had direct experience is helpful in

decidinghow to make the firelines. When burninc brush or cheatgrass, a fireline, usually not less than 200 feet wide, sliould be provided

on the leeward side (side toward whicli the wind will carry the fire).

This normally consists of two strips, cleared by bulldozer or power

grader, separated by a 200-foot uncleared strip. This strip is then

burned out in a calm period when there is no likelihood of a brisk

breeze. The outer cleared strip should be 12 to Ifi feet wide, which is

usually twice the width of the dozer blade, and the inner strip, next to

the main area to be burned, 6 to 8 feet wide. On the windward side of

the fire (side from which the fire is started), a 6- to 8-foot cleared strip

is usually adequate. These widths should be doubled in juniper or

brush over 5 feet high (fig. 8, B). Also, if there is above-normal risk

that live sparks may jump across firelines, their widths should be

increased to eliminate the hazard. Dvifï from all lines should be

scraped off clean to the mineral soil. Natviral barriers, such as barren

ridgetops, roads, and wide streams can often be used as part of the

fireline to reduce costs.

Accidental Burns

Many accidental burns are excellent seeding sites. When seeding is

needed, they should be sown the year of burning and before the ground

becomes overgi-own with competing vegetation. Accidental burns in

sagebrush and cheatgrass on lowland ranges can be seeded readily by

drilling. Excellent stands of grass have resulted from broadcasting

on a number of accidental burns in mountain brush, pinyon-juniper,

lodgepole pine, and ponderosa pine, when a heavy mantle of ash is deep

enough to cover the seed ( fig. 9 ).

Mechanical Methods

The choice of mechanical implements to be used for eliminating competition depends on the terrain and vegetation to be dealt with. While

usually more expensive than burning, mechanical methods have a much

wider area of application. Plowing, with such disk-type plows as

heavy offset, wheatland, or the newly developed brushland, is the most

widely used mechanical procedure. But on certain areas railing, pipeharrowing, beating, grubbing, moldboard-plowing, cabling, and bulldozing are highly satisfactory. In some places lighter farm equipment can be used to good advantage. For instance, with annual

weeds, surface cultivation with light disks, duckfoot weeders, and

303448°—55 3
16 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

L« ..,X2aiiKV

FIGURE !>.—Acfidcutiil burns in timber often produce a good forase cover after

broadcast seeding in tlie heavy ash mantle. The seed should be broadcast the

same year as the burn.

spring-tooth liarrows is adequate. Ho\Yever, on most rangeland, more

sturdy equipment than ordinary farm machinery is required.

Where two or more phtnt types occur on a general site, more than one

kind of equipment or methods may be needed to effectively eliminate

the competition.

Plowing

Of meclianical metliods, probably plowing can be employed more

effectively and on a larger area than all other methods. It is feasible

in sagebrush, rabbitbrush, greasewood, low mountain brush, cheatgrass, saltgrass, and annvuil and perennial weed areas which are relatively rock-free and not excessively cut up by gullies. Plowing has

several advantages over burning: The mulch provided by the cut-up

plants usually helps to keep moisture in the soil and makes a better

environment for seedling establishment; a residue is left on the soil

which is helpful in erosion control ; and the mulch helps to build up

fertility although slight nitrogen depletion may result the first year.

The most widely used and available procedure is disk-plowing, with

the heavy offset disk and wheatland type plows ( 1-way disk plows)

(figs. 10 and 11, A). Both should be equipped with 26- or 28-inch

disks for treating rangeland. If properly adjusted, under ordinary
SEEDING RANGELANDS 17

FIGURE 10.—The heavy offset disk is useful for eliiiiiiiiiting a variety of competition. While not (luite so effective in sagelirnsh as tlie wheatlaud plow, it

is easier to oi)erate and more effective on weedy range.

conditions, either should give better than 85 percent kill of the competing plants. Offsets give better kills of herbaceous vegetation, particularly in heavy, tight soils, and wheatlands give somewhat better

kills on level sagebrush areas. The heavy offsets require less adjust-.

ment than the wheatlands and are usually not as expensive to o])erate

because of less breakage; but on loose, soft land they plow deeper than

necessary and consequently require more power.

The new brushland plow, patterned by the Forest Service after an

Australian model stump-jump plow, is the best machine on rough and

uneven land (fig. 11,5). With the brushland, kills of over 90 j^ercent

have been obtained on the same ground where the wheatland and offset

gave kills of less than 75 percent. The brushland can be used on land

too rocky for other types of plows, because the paired disks work on

separate spring levers, which permit each pair to rise independently

over rocks or other obstructions. Cost of repair per acre of rough and

uneven land is nuich less for the brushland plow than foi- the offset or

wheatland.

In some places the ordinary disk plow mounted on wheels does an

excellent job of eliminating competition. With larger plows and sufficient horsepower, comparable acreages can be done as with other

plows.

Moldboard plows can be used to good advantage on limited rockfree areas of vei*y dense cover with tight soils, where disk-type plows

may be inadequate. Because they are slower, and because of the

greater power required for pulling, moldboard plowing is usually

overly expensive.
18 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

^C*^i ^-s^^.

F-425025. 454226

FiGVRE 11.—.A, The wheathiiid is one <]f the best all-around implemeuts for eradicating sagehriish on level land, but some skill is required to keep it in proper

adjustment. B, The brushland plow is the most eilicient machine on uneTen

or somewhat rocky land.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 19

Plowing to a depth of 2 to 4 inches will give siitisfactory kills on

most nonsprouting plants like sagebrush. Sprouting species like rubber rabbitbrush and horsebrush, however, require plowing 5 to 7 inches

deep to cut the root below the crown. This deeper plowing takes more

power and time and will often be doubly exjiensive. Deej) plowing

often turns sterile subsoil to the surface in thin soils. This is often

undesirable, because this soil tends to crust, thereby hindering good

seedling emergence.

Perennials which spread by imderground rootstocks or from the

crown, such as sweet sagebrush, desert saltgrass, or mules-ears wyethia,

should be completely turned over so tlie roots are exposed to the sun.

This requires plowing to a depth of 4 to 6 inches. For control of saltgrass, two plowings at a 1- to '2-year interval are required.

Hitches can be purchased or readily made so that two or three plows,

and sometimes other im]:)lemeuts, can be pulled simultaneously.

Where a tractor has enough power and the land surface permits, it

usually pays to pull more than one plow.

Other Mechanical Methods

Brush-beaters, or rotary cutters, with i-evolving hammers or beaters

(fig. 12, ^4) on a rotating axis, or cutting knives on a vertical shaft,

are particularly useful for eliminating sagebrush from either seeded

or natural grass stands. These machines are most valuable on rocky

lands, but where the rocks do not stick up from the ground more than

3 to 4 inches. Bi'ush-beating retains the native herbaceous ])erennials

and the fine shredded brush is left as a surface mulch. The mulch

conserves moisture and protects the soil against erosion. An important limitation of beaters is that they will not kill low-growing timber

or sprouting brush.

Rail drags of various designs (fig. 12. B) have proved useful and

economical for eliminating large nuiture sagebrush on large expanses

of level or rolling land. The most connuon are heavy rails pulled

by a cable or chain at right angles to the direction of travel. Rails

have the advantage of preserving the herbaceous understory, which is

often desirable. Rails do not effectively cover broadcast seed.

Self-clearing pipe harrows are well adapted for eliminating brittle

sagebrush on rocky and rough ground, but make low kills on willowy

brush or perennial weeds. They give higher brush kills on rocky

than on rock-free areas. f)n range with a shallowly embedded rock

layer and high-projecting surface boulders, they loosen the ground

surface and make a seedbed where practically no other machinery

can be used (fig. 13). Pipe harrows can be readily constructed in

any machine shop. They consist of a series of 4-inch pipes 10 feet

long, with teeth 4 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. Pij^es are attached to a spreader by swivels so the j^ipes can turn and clear themselves of brush. Troughs inserted on the front end of the pipes keçp

them from jumping across one another on sloping ground.

The log harrow can be used in a similar manner. It can be constructed of green logs 6 to 8 inches in diameter and 10 feet long, and

assembled in the same manner as the pipes in the pipe harrow. Drill

steel or similar irons, 1 inch in diameter and 12 inches long, are driven
20 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTM?:NT OF AGRICULTURE

F-469229. 431221

FIGURE 12.—A, "Beateis" with revolving lianmiers or chains on a rotating axis

are excellent for killing mature sagebrush, and are valuable on land too rocky

to treat with disk plows. B, The Supp rail is the most economical and effective of the rails for eradicating mature sagebrush on level areas.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 21

FiüUBE Va.—Self-clearing pipe harrows are useful fur eradicating brittle sagebrush on ranges too uneven and rocky to plow or rail, and for covering broadcast seed. (Photo courtesy of Oregon Extension Service.)

through the logs at staggered intei-vals. Botli pipe and log harrows

can be made up to fit the power available.

Grul)bers and root planes with single or niulti])le duckfeet or blades,

which cut 4 to 8 inches under the surface of the ground (fig. 14, J.),

are particularly effective in killing sprouting britsh such as rabbitbrush and horsebrush. For this reason, they are excellent accessory

equipment to heavy disk plows. They are useful only on relatively

level and rock-free areas.

Road rippers of various designs have been used to open up tight soils

whicli are too hard to plow. However, the high cost of power to pull

road rippers limits their usefulness.

Light offset disks (fig. 14, B), cluckfoot weeders, and spring-tooth

harrows are good for eliminating competition of annual weeds on

small areas where large equipment is cumbersome. When using this

lighter farm equipment, tlie land should be treated when the soil is

moist; otherwise the ground may be too hard for good seedbed

preparation.

On level or moderately sloping land, excellent eradication of juniper

and pinyon trees results from cabling. In tliis method a 150- to

300-foot, lV2-inch cable is pulled in a U-shape behind two large

crawler-type tractors (fig. 15, .4). From 30 to 100 acres per day

can be cabled, depending on the horsepower of the tractors and the

size and density of the trees. Usually tractors with a capability of

70 horsepower or more are needed. Where equipment is available and
22 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-460857, 460833

FIGURE 14.—A, A heavy chu-kfoot grublier is useful for killing sproutinj; brush.

Here two grubbers are to be pulled side by side. Together they eliminate the

brush over a 12-foot swath. B, Small disks pulled by wheel tractors are useful for eliminating competition in small openings where it is difficult to

maneuver large equipment.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 23

FIGURE 15.—A, Cabling is an economical method of eliminating Juniper and

pinyon trees. B, The push bar and catelaw assembly on a dozer blade aids in

pushing the trees out.

303448°--55-
24 HANDBOOK 7 1, V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTt'RE

cabling will effectively kill trees, cabling is usually as economical as

burning and is usually preferred. „f „onrlilv

Young willowy trees not killed by cabling can be chopped out leadily

with an^ax, but cabling n.ay not be worthwhile if arge numbers of

trees are y¿ung and flexible. Cabling is not usually practicable on

iopes grJiter tíian 10 percent. Where trees occ.ir on sidehills oo

steep fm- cabling or safe burning, they can often be pushed out ^^ i h

a dizer Use of a push bar and catclaw assembly helps materially

(fig. 15, B) because trees can be taken out in a single push with a

minimum of topsoil disturbance. 11 u ^ „^

Flooding with surplus higli water will kill either big or black sagebrush (see footnote 4, p. 11 )• Soil saturation for a week or so m two

successive years will usually give a fairly complete kill (fag. o . Where this method can be employed, broadcasting seed prior to tlooclin<r, or as the surface water subsides, will generally result in good

stands of forage. The additional moisture makes it possible tor the

small seedlings of perennial grasses to become established successfully

in annuals, such as cluster tarweed and cheatgrass. Gradually the

seeded perennials crowd out the annuals.

Chemicals

Chemical sprays, chiefly 2,4-D (-i.^-dichloroi^henoxyacetic acid) and

2.-4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid), have been found useful

for killing brush and weeds, to release the existing suppressed forage

plants. The ester base type is regarded as somewhat more deadly, but

amine salt bases have often produced similar kills. IMuch is yet to

be learned relative to concentration and how and when to apply these

chemicals.

Properly applied solutions kill (iO to 90 percent of the big sagebrush.

Present information indicates that for best kill of big sagebrush, solutions containing 1 to 2 pounds per acre of 2,4-D (acid equivalent)

mixed with one-third as much 2.4,5-T should be used between midÄlay and mid-June when the brush is actively growing. In some instances good kills have been obtained with only 2,4-D. It has been

found elsewhere that mixing diesel oil in the ratio of 1 gallon to 5

gallons of water increases the percent kill. When this is done, a small

amount of detergent should be used to get proper mixing of the oil and

water. Enough solution should be used to wet all parts of the brush.

Where brush is thick, as much as ?>0 gallons of water an acre may be

required. Wlien more water is added, the same amount of chemical

is used, but the solution is sprayed on the plants more heavily to

maintain the desired rate.

Many broadleaf annual weeds, including cluster tarweed and knotweed, can be comjiletely killed with as little as one-half to three-fourths

jiound of 2,4-D to an acre. Both the amine salt and ester bases are

effective on such annuals. Spraying should be done when the annual

weeds are young, generally before they have more than four leaves,

and preferably when they are still in the two-leaf stage. Good kills

of common dandelion can be achieved with similar amounts of chemical. High kills of mules-ears wyethia result from application of 2

pounds of ester base 2,4-D per acre during the early blooming period.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 25

The spray can be applied by ground equipment or from an airplane,

with very similar kills. Small areas are most economically treated by

ground procedures (fig. 16) and large areas by airjilane. Specia"]

jjrecaution should be taken so there is no harmfid drift of chemicals

to nearby susceptible timber or field crops. Because of the greater

speed of an airplane, a large spray output per miniite is requii'ed.

Ten gallons of total solution per acre is about the maximum possible

from a plane.

Seeding areas of chemically killed amnials can usually be accomplished in the spring, soon after spraying. Killed wyethia patches are

usually best seeded the fall following si)raying, and often seeding is

unnecessary because recovery of suppressed grasses gives the desired

forage.

FIGURE 16.—Spraying by ground procedures is most satisfactory for eradicating

competition on smaU areas. On large areas airplanes can be used to

advantage.

Season for Eliminating Competition

Eradicating competing plants before they mature seed greatly

reduces the hazard of their reinvasion. This is particularly true for

sagebrush, rabbitbrush, cheatgrass, and cluster tarweed. This general

rule holds despite some known instances in which but few brush

seedlings became established following eradication of sagebrush and

rabbitbrush plowed after seed maturity. Eradication of sagebrush

and rabbitbrush by mechanical means can generally proceed from

spring until mid-September. If annuals such as tarweed and cheatgrass are not eliminated before they mature seed, their competition
26 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

may be more seA^ere thiin previously. Ordinarily the ground is most

easily treated in si)riug while it is still moist.

Herbaceous perennials with rootstocks, such as desert saltgrass and

sweet sagebrush, can most readily be eliminated by plowing m late

summer after the ground has become dry, whereas perennuils witli

deep taproots, like mules-ears wyethia and common dandelion, are

more easily killed in early season. Usually plowing for two successive

seasons is required to kill desert saltgrass.

PLANTING PROCEDURES

To do the best planting job, seeding implements and procedures

must be adapted to local conditions of soil, tojiography, and vegetation. Di-illinc is preferable to broadcasting wherever land svirface

conditions pei'-mit because less seed is needed and because the seed is

more evenly distributed and more adequately and evenly covered.

To obtain good stands seed must be covered. Seeds of most species

suited for range seeding produce the best stands when covered to a

depth of about one-half inch, unless the soil is sandy and tends to clry

rapidly, in which event it pays to ]:)lant slightly deeper. Species with

unusually small seeds, sucli as timothy. Kentucky bluegrass, and

meadow foxtail, should be planted about one-fourth inch. Planting

deeper than 1 inch greatly reduces seedling stands of most species

except those with the largest seeds, such as mountain brome, tall

wheatgrass, and intermediate wheatgrass.

Drilling

Ordinary grain drills (fig. 17, .1) provide an excellent means of

distributing seeds, and depth can be quite satisfactorily regulated.

They can be used with good results wherever the land is not unduly

rough or rocky. They work best on a firm seedbed, but are also satisfactory on a loose seedbed if care is taken to avoid planting too deeply.

Best seedbeds for drilling after plowing or similar treatment often

result from allowing the soil to settle a few weeks.

Use of a cultipacker or a drag will firm loose soil and make for

better stands. Packing, however, increases costs and on rangeland

l^ackers are easily broken. Press wheels on drills will usually serve

the same purpose and their use on loose soils is recommended. Should

they plug with brush, short lengths of heavy drag chains may be

substituted.

To insure against drilling too deeply in loose soil, depth regulators

(fig. 17. B) consisting of a band of metal 1 inch wide can be bolted to

the disk 1 inch from the outside edge. Burned areas, Russian-thistle

stands, and stubble land provide excellent seedbeds for direct drilling

because the ground is firm.

For grazing, spacings of 6 to 8 inches will result in smaller but

more closely spaced plants the first 3 to 5 years than is provided by

plants at wider spacings. This is often needed to quickly overcome

competition from weeds and brush and to provide more soil protection. In dry sites where there is a premium on moisture for plant
SEEDING RANGELANDS 27

FIGURE 17.—.-I. Ordinary grain drills are the best equipnieiit for seeding rangelands where they can be used. H, Depth rings or regulators l)olted to the disks

insure that drills do not plant t<jo deeply on loose seedbeds.
28 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTaRE

survival, row s])acin^s of 10 to 14 inches are best. Even wider spacings

are desirable if hay or seed is to be harvested, because plants will be

taller and seed yields higher. Removal of every other disk assembly

from drills with 6- or 7-inch spacing is desirable if clods, brush, and

trashy material clo«; up the drills. The unused feed cups should be

covered with snug-ntting pieces of tin or pasteboard.

Four general types of disk openers are used for range seeding (fig.

18, ^4). These are the ordinary single, semideep, deep, and doubledisk types of furrow openers. All are interchangeable on recent niodel

drills, and sometimes it pays to have more than one type available.

The siiovel or lister, hoe and shoe types have but limited use for range

plantings.

Drills equipped with semideep disk openers are generally the most

satisfactory for all-around range seeding. They are slightly larger

than the ordinary single disks, have more concavity, and leave a small

furrow. The small furrow helps protect seedlings from frost damage

and also traps snow and rain which is often a great aid in getting good

seedling establishment. Where moisture is not limiting, ordinary

single-disk furrow openers give as good stands as semideep tj'pes.

On dry ranges where moisture is mai'ginal for successful establishment, or where comjietitive annuals such as cheatgi'ass prevail, deepfurrow openers give the best stands and should be used except where

soil conditions allow blowing or sloughing into the furrows and covering the seed too deeply. The deejj-furrow openers penetrate dry

ground and place the seed in the bottom of a 2- to ?>-inch furrow in

a good position to use the deeper moisture (fig. 18, B). Ranchers in

centra] Utah have had successful plantings of crested wheatgrass and

winter rye in dry years with deep-disk openers whereas stands from

other disk openers failed completely. Similar results were secured in

Idaho in cheatgrass after fall germination. The deep-disk opener

kills the young plants in a broad furrow so there is little direct competition with the seedlings of drilled forage plants.

The double-disk opener is primarily for well-packed, nontrashy

seedbeds. It has been successfully used on large range areas, but it is

not as trouble-free as the single-disk types. In rough trashy or cloddy

ground the double disks occasionally pick up sticks and clods which

block the feed outlets, and there is considerably more breakage than

with single-disk types.

Recently drills with heavy disk furrow openei-s have been developed

which are particularly suited to irregular land.

Lister or shovel model drills are specially designed to make furrows

2 to 4 inches deep and are somewhat more effective for seeding in

newly germinated cheatgrass and in hard gi'onnd than the ordinaiy

grain drill with deep-furrow disk o]:)eners. Seeds are left in a widebottom furrow and ]iress wheels follow back of each opener to firm

the soil over the seed. However, this type drill has the handicap of

being limited to rock-free, fairly level land. Also more power is

required to pull it than to pull disk drills.

Seed boxes and tubes are available for mounting on wheatland plows

so seed can be sown directly when plowing out brush. The plowing

must be done in a season suitable for planting, and care must be taken

not to cover the seed too deeply.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 29

/

F-475867. 407788

FIGURE 18.—A, The four disk types of furrow openers right to left are : Double,

ordinary single, semideep, and deep furrow. /?, Deep-furrow openers leave

small furrows 2 to .3 inches deep so that seed is placed nearer to the deeper

moisture.
30 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURK

Most seeds for range planting, particularly those of grasses, are best

sown directly from the grain box. A preliminary drill box setting or

calibration may be obtained by raising the drill wheels off the ground

and rotating them the number of times necessary to cover a calculated

portion of an acre, considering the widtli of tlie drill and the circumference of the wheel. Seed can be caught in pans or sacks and weighed.

A preliminary setting established in this manner will usually require

furtlier adjustment under actual field operation. At a given setting

less seed will usually feed through when the wheels are turned by

hand tlian when the drill is botnicing along in tlie field. To check in

the field, fill the seed cups to a level where they will feed and then

weigh the amount of seed desired into the drill and do an acre or some

portion thereof, repeat and adjust until the desired rate is obtained.

Continue checking throughout the seeding operation because rates may

vary with different batches of seed and with the terrain. Clover,

timothy, and similar seeds may be sown from the smaller seed box,

which can be more easily regulated for these small, heavy seeds. This

attachment is readily obtainable if not already on the drill.

By plugging alternating seed cups in the two boxes, legumes and

grasses can be drilled in alternate rows and better establishment of

legumes usually results. Planting grass and browse in alternate rows

has been found a desirable way to reduce competitive effects of grass

on the browse. As most browse seeds feed only through the main

grain box, it is usually necessary to make separate compartments in

the box so that alternate cups contain the browse seed.

Seeds of different sizes used in mixtures can be sown together from

the main grain box by mixing 8 to 16 pounds of rice hulls to the acre.

Where rice hulls are used a higher setting on the drill is necessary.

Cracked grain can be used to serve the same jiurpose.

Fluted force feeds, with projections or flutes of at least I/2 inch,

are superior to gravity feeds and are much preferred when seeding

grasses. To facilitate cleaning out trash which may clog, the bottom

of the feeds should be equipped with gates.

Although clean, well-filled, heavy seed flows readily, much grass

seed tends to be fluffy or chaffy, so that most drills for seeding rangelands should have agitators. These help to maintain a continuous

flow of light grass seeds into the feeds and prevent pockets from forming above the seed cups.

Broadcasting

Broadcasting provides the only means of seeding rough terrain

where rocks, steep slopes, trees, or other obstacles make drilling impracticable. This method requires one-third to one-half more seed to

compensate for uneven distribution and depth of planting. Broadcasting may be done by hand or mechanically. In the common mechanized broadcasters, seed is thrown out by a cyclone-type disk or by

a blast of air. Broadcasters powered by the tractor power take-oif

or by a small motor can be attached to the tractor frame so that seed

is broadcast ahead of or behind eradication equipment (fig. 19).

Two-wheeled fertilizer spreaders or ordinary grain drills with the
SEEDING RANGELANDS 31

disks and seed tubes removed are also efficient seed broadcasters.

They are partic-ularly good because they i^-ovide more positive and

uniform seed distribution and broadcast the seed close to the ground

surface where wind drift of seed is at a niinimuui.

Wliere hu-ge areas are to be broadcast, an airphiue is rapid and

inexpensive. Its use on rangelands has been limited mainly to as])en,

tall mountain brush, and burned timber where a leaf litter or heavy

ash provides natural covering for the seed. In rough and brushy

terrain it is superior to hand broadcasting from a liorse or on foot

. because areas are sown more uniforniily.

FiouiiE lit.—^^Small motor broadcasters can lie attached to tractor frame so that

seed can be broadcast at the same time brush is eradicated.

Airj)lane broadcasting is as eli'ectixe as other broadcast methods

of scattering seed on large, ¡jreviously prepared seedbeds where the

soil is loose and sloughing will cover the seed. It can also be employed where implements such as the self-clearing pipe harrow are

used afterward to eliminate brush and cover the seed.

Scattering seeds compressed in pellets of soil or other material has

attracted much attention. In none of the many areas where it has

been tried has this [>rocedure been found satisfactory.

Without assurance that seed will be covered, broadcasting is never

recommended. Broadcasting on snow is not successfid because seeds

are not covered with soil.

303448°—55-
32 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Seeding Rates 'o

Adequate seed should be used to ensure stands. For the majority

of species and mixtures with a high standard of «Termination and

purity, drilling at a rate of 4 to 8 pounds per acre, or broadcasting at

8 to 14 pounds, has in practice been satisfactory for Intermountain

rangelands. Double these amounts ai'e justified if there is danger of

invasion by noxious weeds such as halogeton. or on watersheds, where

it is essential to establish a cover quickly. Forage species with .small

seeds, such as timothy, should be sown at the lower rates, and species

witli large seeds, such a momitain brome and intei'mediate wheatgrass,

at the higher rates. Seeds of intermediate size, such as crested wheatgrass and smooth brome, should be sown at intermediate rates.

Where frost and drought may be a major jnoblem in the young

seedling stage, species with small- and intermediate-sized seeds should

be sown at heavier rates because of the likelihood of exce.ssive mortality. Recommended seeding rates for species and mixtures are given

on pages 6-1—71.

Aj)i>ropriate increases in seeding rates should l)e made for low

germination and purity. Germination of seed older than 3 years

should always be checked. For conunei'cial seed used in the Intermountain region germination should usually be at least 85 percent and

purity 90 ])ercent with a live pure seed index (Ijis) above 75. Live pure

seed index is determined by multiplying the geiniination and purity

together and dividing by 100. For exami)le with a j^urity of 90 percent

and a germination of 85 percent, we would have a live pure seed index

of 76.5.

90X85 „^,

^100 ='^-^

Where seed falls below a live ¡lure seed index of 75. enough additional seed should be planted so there are ample good seeds being sown

to meet this standard. Thus when crested wheatgrass seed has a purity

of 50 ]iercent and germination of 90 percent, the rate should be ii'icreased to equal 6 pounds of good seed per acre. In this example the

live pure seed index is 45. Dividing 75 (minimum standard) by

45 and nmltiplying by 6 (the normal seeding rate per acre) we fini

that apjn-oximately IC) pounds of seed per acre is reijuired. This procedure should be used whenever germination or purity is below

standard.

Seeding Steep Slopes

Broadcast methods must largely be used on steep, eroding slopes

where contour terraces or similar structures are made to stop erosion

and floods. The seed is usually broadcast on the loose soil by hand

or hand machines. On hxrge areas an airplane can be used. On

moderate slopes (up to 30 percent) plowing with a heavy offset disk

prior to making the terraces provides a good surface on which to

broadcast seed between terraces (fig. 20).
SEEDING RANGELANDS 33

riGUEE 20.—Here the grDund was treated with a heavy offset disk prior to

making the terraces. Seeds were broadcast into the loose soil immediately

after terracing was completed.

Terraces are often used as temporary measures to prevent erosion

and liold water on the area to allow herbaceous vegetation to become

established. They nuist be spaced closely enough to stop any runoff between them. Distance between terraces may vary from 25 to

100 feet depending on slope and size of terrace. Check dams should

be built at intervals within the terrace to prevent lateral flow of

water in case of occasional terrace breaks.

Heavily built farm tillers or furrowers (ñg. 21, A), which make

small furrows 20 to 30 inches apart and o to 5 inches deep, break up

small gullies and provide an excellent surface on which to broadcast

seed. Slightly larger furrows made at slope intervals of o to 5 feet

with a horse-drawn reversible sidehill ]>low are also effective. Care

should be taken to place all furrows on the contour.

While drills in general are not well adapted for seeding steep sloping land or lands with a rough surface, small 1-horse disk drills can

be equipped with outrider wheels so they will not tip over and can

be effectively used on slopes up to 45 ])erceut (fig. 21, B). Such a

drill can be used to good advantage for planting between terraces.

On sidehills with loose soil, broadcast seeds occasionally are adequately covered by natural soil movement (fig. 22). On slopes too

steep or rough for heavy machines, light offsets or single disks (fig.

23, A) pulled by horses can be used to cover broadcast seed. Where

macliinery cannot be used trampling witli livestock often helps to

cover seed and results in better seedling stands (fig. 23, B) than depending entirely on natural soil movement.
34 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

^•^e*» '

8

F-472373. 363811

FIGURE '1\.—.-1, Tillers or lieavy farm furrowers are good equipment for brealcing up gullies ou sloping lauds. B, A 1-horse drill couverted into a sideliill

drill by the addition of outrider wlieels is useful on slopes not too greatly

cut up with deep gullies.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 35

EiGUEE 22.—Hand broadcasting is the liest method for spot seeding. Men eau

broadcast those areas in need of seeding and skip vegetated areas.

WHEN TO SEED

Seeding should be done at the time that will allow the slowly

developing seedlings to have the longest possible period of good

growing conditions. The larger the seedlings become before droughts,

frost, or other adversities hit them, the better chance they have to

survive. The top 3 to 4 inches of soil shoidd remain reasonably

moist for at least 30 days after seed germination, and preferably 40

to 60 days.

Lovv^LAND SITES

Late fall, early spring, and early fall, in the order stated, have been

found, on the average, to be the most satisfactory times for seeding.

The spring period, from the time snow melts until the onset of sunmier

drought, is the longest and most reliable for seedling establishment

and growth. When good seeds are already in the ground from late

fall planting, the moisture left from winter snow gets the })lants

started with earliest favorable weather, and spring rains stimulate

growth. Also winter cold breaks seed dormancy, so that seedlings

emerge more uniformly and develop faster. Seeds of some native

grasses and of most broadleaf herbs and shrubs must be subjected to

cold, artificially or by being in the ground over winter, to germinate

and emerge well. Another advantage of late fall seeding is that there

is a longer period for seeding and labor and machinery are much more

likely to be available then than at other times of the year.
36 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Wi

F-467996. 472879

FIGURE 23.—A, Single disks are useful for covering broadcast seed iu small

rocky openings among juniper on liillsides where heavy machinery cannot

be used. B, Trampling with livestock helps cover

soil which aids in stand establishment.

the broadcast seed with
SEEDING RANGELANDS 37

Late fall seeding should start after temperatures become low enough

so that seeds will not germinate. Suitable time for planting in late fall

may last as long as 4 to 12 weeks and sometimes even longer. Occasionally there is some mortality in spring when frosts interrupt the

early growing season, but grasses generally withstand such freezes

fairly well. In some years there may be very high mortality of broadleaf herbs and browse.

Early fall seeding is successful in places where early fall rains

result in fall germination and seedling establishment. If rain is

scanty or intermittent, however, the seed may geiniinate and then

die. Seedling stands may occasionally be killed by severe freezes.

Where there is a continuous snow cover during the winter, this danger

ib greatly lessened.

Early spring (late February to mid-April) planting has been successful on many lowland sites, but must be done within a few days

after it is possible to get on the ground in order to take advantage

of the moisture in the soil. In many localities this suitable ])eriocl

is so short that spring seeding is impracticable, except where small

areas need planting. Seedlings from early spring plantings are not

so readily set back or killed by frost or soil crusting as fall plantings,

and early weeds are usually eradicated by spring tillage prior to seeding. These factors often more than make up for the other disad- '

vantages of spring seeding. On wet low-lying lands spring planting

is best because most seeds deteriorate if there is free water around

them.

Legumes are best sown in the spring since their seedlings can

tolerate much less frost than grass seedlings. Fall-seeded legume

seeds will often germinate within one or two warm days, only to have

the small seedlings freeze with the next night of very low temperatures.

However, if seeds have a high percentage of dormancy due to hard

seed coats fall seeding is sometimes better than spring seeding. When

seeding legumes in the fall it is best to use the current yeai-'s seed crop

because these seeds usually have a higher percentage dormancy and

do not germinate so readily in the fall.

MOUNTAIN SITES

In Utah, southeastern Idaho, and western Wyoming, planting may

be done with good chance of success in spring or fall throughout the

mountain brush zone and in openings among aspen and coniferous

timber. Frost damage to seedlings in mountain brush and openings

in the timber zones is usually slight except where snow melts off at

intervals, as on south-facing slopes. Here seedlings will often frostheave out of the ground. These slopes should therefore be seeded

in late fall or early spring.

In southwestern Idaho and in Nevada, fall is the only season presently recommended for seeding mountain rangelands. Lack of rain

during the summer in these areas makes sj^ring planting risky.

Broadcasting seed in depleted aspen and in tall mountain brush

such as Gambel oak, bigtooth maple, and serviceberry just before or

during leaf fall generally provides good stands of grass. Tlie leaves

supply some covering for the seed and help hold winter moisture in
38 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

tlie surfiice soil so that seedlings can become well established before

the shrubs leaf out and begin to provide competition. Trailing livestock through the brush and trees helps work the seed into the mineral

soil and results in somewhat better stands.

Late fall plantings have proved generally most successful over the

region in subalpine areas. At these high elevations it is important

that planting be delayed until the soil is too cold for germination.

If seeds germinate the young seedlings are likely to be killed by

later fall frosts before the ground is insulated by a snow mantle.

Planting after October 1 is usually safe. Early snowfall may make

late fall seeding at high elevations imjjossible in some years.

In central and southern Utah's high subalpine parks and aspen

openings, where there is good summer rainfall, plantings are most

successful between early spring and midsunnner on a seedbed j^repared

the fall before. Intervening snowdrifts, however, often make early

seeding of large areas im])racticab]e.

WHAT TO SEED

"\Aniether seeded ranges will thrive and continue to produce depends

in large measure on what species are jilanted. Species should, of

course, be adapted to the site and easily established. They should

be })alatable, productive, and able to withstand invasion by undesirable

plants; able to maintain themselves and prevent erosion under moderate grazing, particularly on sloping lands. Seed should be available

at a reasonable ])rice. Alore than 4.50 species of grasses, broadleaf

herbs, and woody plants, and hundreds of strains, have so far been

test-planted in the Intermouutain region by the Foi'est Service Branch

of Research on problem types of lowlands and mountains. Of these,

56 have shown that they are well suited for seeding on various kinds of

sites. Their characteristics and adaptation are described briefly

below. Seed of some are not readily available, but within a short

time it is believed that seed of most will be on the market. Seeds of

a sufficient variety are ax'ailable. so that seeding jirograms need not

be delayed.

The Soil Conservation Service nurseries and the Bureau of Plant

Industry, now part of the Agricultural Research Service, have given

excellent assistance in supplying seed of new sjiecies and strains which

were not otherwise available. This aided immensely in determining

the areas of use for the various species. Also, these agencies are

aiding farmers in commercial production of seed from species not now

readily available.

USE THE BEST PLANTS ADAPTED TO THE SITE

Recent research has demonstrated wide differences in adaptation

between geographical strains of a single species, as well as in other

qualities, such as palatability, yield, longevity, seed production, and

resistance to disease and drought. This is particularly true of native

species. The improvement of various species, through selection and

hybridization, is under way by the Agricultural Research Service
SEEDING RANGELANDS 39

and State experiment stations. ISIany su])erior strains are already in

use. This is a continuing study, ^vliere great progress can be ex])eèted

in future years. Where superior strains are on the market, thev are

noted in the following descriptions of species to use.

It is important to use the best adapted species or strains available

for each locality. If native species are used, seed produced from

native stands in the same locality, or an area with a similar climate,

is most reliable. Seed of most native species recommended here can

be easily harvested with ecjuipment which is I'eadily available. Some

seeds may need special cleaning and debearding treatment, so they can

be handled and planted conveniently. Most seed companies have such

equipment, and a gi-eat many farmers have the necessary machinery

to do a good job.^

MIXTURES OR SINGLE SPECIES

On most mountain lands in the Intermountain region, the use of

mixtures of two or more adapted species is advisable. Soil and

moisture conditions often change so markedly within short distances

that there may be great variation in the success and productivity of a

single species within the seeded area. If one species does poorly because of an unfavorable site condition, or is killed by rodents, insects,

disease, or frost, one or more of the others may take its place. Another

advantage of mixtures is that some species develop stands quickly and

can supply forage while others that develop more slowly are becoming

established. Mixtures also produce vegetation with a more varied and

often a higher feed value. ^Mixtures have certain disadvantages ¡is

well. They are often hard to seed evenly, especially through a drill.

Because of differences in palatability, the different species may be more

difficult to manage than single s]>ecies plantings.

On lowlands where terrain and growing conditions are uniform,

pure stands of single species are often preferred. Sjiecies that differ

markedlj' in their season of usefulness or in palatability should be

sown in separate grazing units. Then grazing can be alternated so as

to take advantage of the growth characteristics of each species. As

an illustration, crested wheatgrass usually can be grazed 2 weeks

sooner than tall wheatgrass. On the other hand, tall wheatgrass remains green from 4 to 0 weeks later than crested wheatgrass. When

the two species are sown in separate units, both can be grazed when

they are most nutritious, and the total grazing period is extended

considerably. Plants should be chosen which will best supplement the

native range.

If adapted legumes are available, their use wáth grasses usually

increases total production and improves the nutritive value of the

forage. They also help to build u^) soil nitrogen through the action of

associated nodule bacteria that convert free nitrogen from the air into

available soil nitrogen.

'^ Description of procedures for colleftin^ and cleanins seed is available in

F. S. Dept. Afir. Handb, 24, Procedure for Harvestins and Cleaning Grass and

Legume Seed in the Western Gulf ReKion : and U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 558, Processing Seed of Grasses and Other Plants to Remove Awns and Appendages.
40 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Le<rimie seed should always be inoculated with its specific culture

of nodule-füiming bacteria. Cultures are available from most seed

comjiauies. Directions for use accompany each culture, and are easy

to follow.

SPECIES FOR SEEDING

The adaptation and relative value of the 56 most promisinjr species

for seeding lowland ran^res with annual preci])itation below 8, 8 to 12,

and above 12 inches: salty lowlands; and mountain brush, aspen, and

subalpine zones, are shown in table 1. Further recommendations reoarding species and mixtures are included in the section on pages

("4-71. Detailed information on the adaptability and usefulness of

individual species is found below, under the headings of Grasses,

legumes, Other Broadleaf Herbs, and Shrubs. Within these categories, species are discussed in the order listed in table 1, which is a

grouping in the order of decreasing drought tolerance.

Grasses

Sand (h'opfieefl and hottlehni.sh squirreltail are bunchgrasses, native

to dry sites but also occurring within the better precipitation belts.

Sand dropseed is characteristically found on sandy and gravelly sites

and grows best in openings. Squirreltail is found on a wide range of

sites and in all vegetative zones. It shows good ability to grow nnder

and with shrubs, such as shadscale. greasewood, and rabbitbrush.

Once established, both sand dropseed and bottlebrush squirreltail are

good natural spreaders. Although both may ])roduce good stands,

they are low in yield. Their greatest value for seeding is on dry lowlands with less than 9 inches of precipitation, where higher yielding

species are diflicult to establish or nuiy not be adapted. Seed of squirreltail is seldom connnercially available. Seed of both species can be

collected from native stands, although squirreltail seed is expensive to

harvest and must be debeaixled before seeding.

Iwlian riregraxf (fig. 24) is a drought-enduring, native bunchgi-ass

which has shown promise for seeding in dry and infertile soils, such as

in the juniper-pinyon belt where it is difficult to get anything else to

grow. It grows well on dry sites on mountain brushlands but it is

not shade tolerant. As seeds are slow to germinate, getting initial

stands has been a major difficulty. This can be overcome to a large

extent by bleaching the hard seed coats with sulfuric acid. Thin stands

will spread by seed and thicken quite rapidly. Because of wide variation in adai)tability between the many gef)graphical variations, the

most reliable seed is that from places similar to the site being seeded.

RujiKian xoUdrye (fig. 25, ^4), a hardy bunchgrass introduced from

Asia," is useful for seeding lowlands and dry sites in the mountain

brush zone. It is not shade-tolerant and does best on sunny sites. It

grows Avell on lime-bearing soils, or at least those which are basic in

reaction rather than neutral or acid. It is adapted to both light and

heavy soils, especially those with moderate to high available nitrogen.

Small seedlings are sensitive to frost and drought, and for this reason

° A brief summary on the origin, adaptation and use of introduced grasses is

availalile in U. S. Dept. Agr. Handb. .58, Grasses Introduced into the United

States.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 41

TABLE 1._—Adaptation and recommended w.se ' of Kpecien for ¡needing

in various -precipitation and vegetation zones on lowJand and mountain areas in the Intermountain region

GRASSES

Lowlands Mountain

lands

Species

a)

II

C3P

||

(N *;

^ a,

¿a

<

'S

m

a

'3

o

S

<

o

C

a

t»

Sand dropseed c

V

c

c

B

B

c

c

c

B

A

A

X

B

B

C^

C -1

C '

Bottlebrush squirreltail

Indian ricegrass- _____ C

B

A

A

X

B

B

A

A

B

B

C

X

B

B

B'

A"

B <

C

C

B

A

X

B

B

A

A

C

C

C

X

B

B

B

B

B

A

C

B

B

B

X

A

B

B '

B '

B *

Russian wildrve

Crested wheatgrass (Standard)._

Crested wheatgrass (Fairway)

Bulbous bluegrass

C

'c'

C

B

B

C

C

Bluebuncli wheatgrass . _ _

Beardless wheatgrass

Pubescent wheatgrass _ _

Intermediate wheatgrass

Western wheatgrass _

Beardless wildrye . .

Big bluegrass. . ._. .

Mountain rye

Great Basin wildrve . _. _ 'c'

c

C

c

B

B

A

A

B

B

B

X

A

A

B

A

A

c

C

Tall wheatgrass .

Tall fescue _ . . _ ..

Bulbous barlev .

Blue wildrve.

Bearded wheatgrass.. _ _ . .

Smooth brome (southern strain) C * — B

Smooth brome (northern strain) .. _ . _ A

Slender wheatgrass . r

Mountain brome. c

Meadow brome . .... B

Kentucky bluegrass . X

Tall oatgrass . ... A

Orchardgrass C

Reed canarvgrass B <

Timothy..". . .... B

Meadow foxtail B

Sheep fescue (Sulcata) ... C

Red fescue (sod-forming). C

Subalpine brome. . _ . . . B

Winter rye . _ X X — X

See footnotes at end of table.
42 HANDBOOK 7 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 1.—Adaptation and recommended use ^ of species for seeding

in varioiis preclpitation and vegetation zones on lowland and mountain areas in the Intermouniain region—Continued

LEGUMES

Lowlands Mountain

lands

'ñ ¿

c^

Species 1-2

'" "S

00 ■■^

if

Í-1

£.2 II

1 CO

1.2 S -^

03

eq «¿

(p'ö

> P

25.

<

CO

+^

—

c

'5.^

3

O

c

&

<

u

g

'S.

Alfalfa --_ --- CM B

B

B

B

B

B

X

C

c

B

C

Sicklejjod milkvetcli

Chickpea milkvetcli C

Yellow sweet clover

St,^awbe^^^' clover

Birdsfoot trefoil _ C C

Mountain lupine-- . C B

Alsike clover C^ n«

OTHER BROADLEAF HERBS

Su niniercyijress

Fivehook bassia

Palmer penstemou

Wasatch pcnsteinon..

Showy goldeneye

Common cowparsnip_

Sweetanise

X X

X

X

X

X

X

c

c<

X

X

c

c

X

c

c

SHRUBS

Winterfat - - C

C<

C

c

c

c

c

c

X

X

—

c

c

c

X

c

Fourwing saltbu.sh

Antelope bitterbrush c

X

c

Old man wormwood

Blueberry elder. __ ,_ ._ -..

—

^A—Proved to be procluctive and widely adapted fur seeding throughout the

zone (ir type.

B—Yahialile over much of the zone or type, but value or adaptation either

more restricted or not as well determined as species designated A.

C—Value (ir adaptation more restricted than those species designated B, but

useful in some situations.

X—Recdmmended for special uses or conditions, usually as pure stand.s.

" Applicalile also for seeding openings in the ponderosa pine zone.

'Applicable also for seeding openings in Douglas-fir and spruce timber.

^Adapted only to better than average sites in the zone or type.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 43

FIGURE 24.—Indian ricegrass shows wide variation between geographicStrain on left is twice as productive as next best one and is much

sistent among juniper trees.

F-460802

al strains,

more perstand establishment is often erratic. Planting in furrows aids in

getting good stand establishment. Once started, it is only slightly

less drought-enduring than crested wheatgrass. Generally, on most

lowland sites Russian wildrye is somewhat less jiroductive than

crested wheatgrass, but on alkaline sites it is more productive than

crested wheatgrass. Russian wildrye is well adapted to salty lands.

On moist salty soils it is not nearly so productive as tall wheatgrass,

but on dry soils it develops a more finely branched I'oot system than

tall wheatgrass and withstands more drouglit. It is especially valuable on dry, salt-bearing lands where the water table is out of range of

tall wheatgrass x'oots.

Russian wildrye tends to stay green and palatable throughout the

growing season, and then with appreciable rainfall it makes new

growth quickly, even in the hot summer and early fall when the wheatgrasses tend to remain dormant. It has a tremendous root system

and withstands heavy grazing. It has the excellent attribute of being

a good natural spreader even though it is a poor seed producer.

Russian wildrye usually grows earlier in tlie spring than any other

grass, with the possible exception of bulbous bluegrass. It produces

an abundance of basal leaves and is highly preferred by both deer

and livestock.

Crested wheatgrass is adapted and useful throughout the lowlands

and on the drier sites in openings in the mountain brush zone and up

through the middle of the aspen zone. Two varieties, Fairway and

Stancuird (fig. 25, B), are available, and for many conditions are

regarded as about equally good. Both are vigorous, drought-endurmg bunchgrasses, introduced from Asia. These are now considered as

separate species. Standard being called "desert wheatgrass" {Agropyron desertorum). Fairway is smaller than Standard, with a denser.
44 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 25.—A, Russian wilclrye is one of the most palatable range grasses. It is

adapted at low and intermediate elevations, and is particularly well suited to

dry, salty areas where tall wheatgrass will not grow. B. Crested whealgrass

strains : Standard, left, Fairway, right. Both are well adapted to dry lowland

ranges. The tiner stemmed Fairway is grazed more uniformly and is more

persistent at high elevations.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 45

leafier basal growth, shorter and wider seed heads, and smaller seeds.

Both grow early in the spring, have similar drought-enduring qualities and produce snnilar amounts of forage. Because of its ñner stems

and leaner base. Fairway is grazed more uniformly than Standard and

there is much less tendency toward large ungrazed "wolf" plants.

Fairway often spreads slightly by short rootstocks and, because of this,

makes a greater crown spreacl than Standard. The ability to sproacl

vegetatively probably accounts for the greater persistence of the Fairway type, particularly at high elevations, where seed is frequently not

matured. Fairway will usually maintain stands 1,000 to 1,500 feet

higher than Standard. In the aspen zone Standard tends to die out

within a period of 6 years, whereas, after 16 years. Fairway is still

maintaining good stands. AVliile Fairway tolerates more shade than

Standard, neither form is very productive in the shade of aspen or tall

mountain brush.

Bulbous hluegrasfi, a small introduced bunchgrass with a bulbous

base, is well adapted to ai'eas with a cool, moist spi'ing season. It has

done well on many sites on lowlands and in the mountain brush and

ponderosa pine zones of southwestern Idaho and southern Utah.

Although forage production is very low, it is the earliest grass to green

up in spring and provides very early spring grazing. Total production is so low and growing period so short that it is best used where it

is difficult or impossible to get more productive species started. The

bulbils produced in place of seed are eagerly eaten, particularly by

sheep. It also increases by bulbs at the base. Bulbous bluegrass has

the unique attribute of establishing itself well from broadcast planting,

and so can be successfully seeded on rough, rocky and eroding areas

where seedbed preparation and seed covering are not feasible. Where

well adapted, it can be broadcast into annual vegetation such as

cheatgrass, and it will eventually occupy the site. In southwestern

Idaho it has helped reduce the fire hazard by replacing cheatgrass.

Beardless ancl hluehunch toheatgrasses are two very similar native

bunchgrasses suitable for seeding through the same general area as

crested wheatgrass. Although thej' will grow at higli elevations,

forage production is very low above the aspen zone. They prefer

well-drained soils and are but slightly shade-tolerant. Trials indicate

them to be more productive than crested wheatgrass on poor sites.

Where precipitation is over 10 inches, these grasses have given yields

which are comparal)le to, but which fluctuate less between years than,

yields of crested wheatgi'ass. Considerable variation exists between

strains of these species. Whitmar, a beardless strain, developed by

the Soil Conservation Service at Pullman, Wash., is proving to be

productive and widely adai:)table, and seed is now commercially available. Seeds of bluebunch wheatgrass must be debearded for clriliing.

Because of the low jn-eference sometimes shown by livestock for beardless and bluebunch wheatgrasses in mixtures with other adapted grasses

on lowlands, as well as their inability to stand as heavy a degree of

grazing as other adapted grasses, they are suggested primarilj' for

planting in pure stands which can be grazed separatel}'.

Intermediate and pubescent wheatgrasses (fig. 26, A), two vigorously growing and similar sod-forming grasses from eastern Europe

and Asia, are valuable for range reseedin«^ on the better lowland sites.

Although not too well adapted to shade, they are also two of the high-
46 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

est forage producers tliroiio;hout the mountain brush zone and in aspen

ajid timber openings. Above the aspen zone both hick vigor and

neither produces seed. Tliey ha ve periods of growth similar to crested

wheatgrass but are not so drouglit tolerant. On deep soil with good

moisture-holding qualities, such as a clay loam, they have done well and

are good in pure stands for alternating grazing with crested wheatgrass. They mature seed about 2 to 3 weeks later in the season, stay

green longer, and are more palatable after heading than crested wheatgrass. In the better rainfall zones they have produced well and ¡lersisted in mixture with crested wheatgrass. Their persistence under

close grazing is attributed to their sod-forming habit. On low-fertility lands, they may become sodbound after 4 or 5 years, a condition

attended by greatly reduced production.

Because pui)escent wheatgrass is readily infected with leaf blight in

some sections, causing the foliage to dry and become unpalatable, intermediate wheatgrass is generally more preferred for seeding. However, on granitic and basaltic soils in southeastern Idaho and Nevada,

pubescent wheatgrass is definitely superior. Among seeded grasses in

Nevada, it alone has aggressively invaded a stand of big sagebrush and

cheatgrass from old plantings.

Western ii'heatgraHH (fig. 20, i?), or bhiestem wheatgrass, is a vigorous, native, sod-forming grass, best suited for seeding on heavy soils on

lowland areas. It withstands considerable flooding and silt deposition, and is productive in swales where moisture tends to accumulate.

]f there is considerable heavy soil in an area, western wheatgrass can

be used to advantage in mixtures, even where the average annual

precipitation may be somewhat below 12 inches. It is also well adapted

to areas in the mountain brush, as well as openings in aspen and timber.

It is not highly shade-tolerant, but does maintain itself well in open

brush. After 14 years it was the highest yielder and provided the best

cover in a ponderosa pine opening in southern Utah. Its tough sod

and ability to spread vegetatively make it good for holding the soil.

While it is best adapted for heavy soils, it does grow on lighter soils of

the benchlands. Because of low ]:)rodu(tion. it is not recommended for

such sites.

Western wheatgrass greens u]i and grows 1 to 2 weeks later than

crested wheatgrass in spring. While not quite so palatable as crested

wheatgrass in the spring, it is a preferred fall forage. It has the

disadvantage of having a root system that develops slowly in the seedling stage, and seedling mortality is frequently very high, if dry

periods occur soon after germination. Once established, its vigorous,

spreading root system is extremely com])etitive and restricts invasion

of other species, including sagebrush. On heavier soils, it will invade

good crested wheatgrass stands, and sometiuies will eventually become

dominant.

BeardlefiPi iñldrije. an aggressive sod-former, is native to moist valley

bottoms, especially in Nevada. On mountain lands it has approximately the same range of adaptability as intermediate and pubescent

wheatgrasses. Although generally less valuable than the wheatgrasses, in some places it has shown more tolerance to drought and low

fertility, and after 5 years has been one of the highest producing

grasses in ponderosa pine openings in southern I'tah. It is slow in

establishing initial stands, but, once started, it spreads vigorously by
SEEDING RANGELANDS 47

FIGURE 26.—Sod-forming wheatgrasses : A, Pubescent wheatgrass is well adapted

to lowland ranges where soil is good. It is a superior grass on granitic and

basaltic soils in Idaho and Nevada. B, Western wheatgrass is be.st adapted for

seeding heavy soils. It does particularly well in swales where moisture

accumulates.
48 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

vegetative means. Natural areas indicate that it will be a valuable

grass for seeding moist areas in salt-bearing lowlands. Fall seeding

IS necessary for good seedling emergence. Seed is not commercially

available but can be readily harvested from native stands.

Big bJuegrass^ a thrifty native bunchgrass, recommended for the

better lowland sites, is also a valuable forage within the mountain

brush zone, particularly on south exposures. The exceptionally early

spring growth is relished by all grazing animals, including game.

Young plants are easily pulled out of the ground, so should not be

grazed until well established. Initial stand establishment has often

been disappointing. This is chiefly attributable to the fact that fallseeded plants sprout in very early spring, and while small and fragile

are killed by occasional frosts. This is a problem with several species

of bluegrass.

Mountain rye^ a short-lived, introduced bunchgrass, is useful in the

higher precipitation belts in the lowlands and on open mountain brush

ranges. It develops rapidly, and can be used to good advantage with

the slower developing jieremiials while they are becoming established.

It is not nearly so competitive as winter rye. Wlien allowed to mature seed, it will reseed itself well in disturbed areas. While seed is

not commonly available, it can be readily grown.

Great Basin wildrye^ sometimes called giant wildrye, is a tall, robust,

native bunchgrass. It is native in a wide range of site conditions,

from river bottoms to hillsides. It is probably the highest yielding

grass on moist lowlands and in mountain brush and shade-free openings in aspen sites. It is rather difficult to establish and stands are

slow to reach full production. Young growth is highly palatable.

While older growth is less palatable, on lowland ranges it is especially

vauable as roughage for livestock during the winter and fall periods.

It starts growth early, and can be grazed to best advantage in the

spring period. Fall seeding is required to get good emergence. Although not commercially available, seed can be harvested readily

from native stands.

Tall loheatgrass (fig. 27), a tall, vigorous introduced bunchgrass, is

one of the highest producers on good sites on lowland and mountain

brush areas. It seldom produces seed above the middle of the mountain brush zone and is weak and spindly when growing on shady areas.

Within its range of adaptability, however, its yield of forage is consistently higher than yields of other grasses with the exception of

Great Basin wildrye. It is vigorous in the seedling stage. Growth

starts later in the spring than for crested wheatgrass, but it matures

seed late and remains green late in the summer. Itis not as tolerant of

heavy grazing as most introduced wheatgrasses, and use in the growing stage should not exceed 60 percent. It is not generally as palatable

as many other species, and in mixtures livestock are inclined to leave

it. However, in pure stands it makes exceptionally high grazing

capacity range and in late summer and fall it is frequently preferred

over other grasses because its stems and leaves remain green.

One of the greatest uses of tall wheatgrass in the Intermountain

region is on salt-bearing lowlands. It grows successfully where as

much as 1 percent soluble salts occurs in the soil. It has done well in
SEEDING RANGELANDS 49

, f: .r^ jay -^r.

FIGURE 27.—Tall whoatíírass is a liiirh yieliler on sites bearing soil salts. It is

al.so one of tbe more productive gras.'^es on valley and foothill land where the

annual preciintatiou is greater tlian 12 inclies.

places where the water table rises to within a few inches of the surface,

as well as under conditions where the water table is barely within the

root zone. Its roots have been found to extend as much as 10 feet

below the gi'ound surface in some of the deeper soils. Where water

tables exist above this depth, as they frequently do on saltgrass and

greasewood lands in valley bottoms, roots extend well into them.

Consequently plants continue to grow vigorously after the more shallow-rooted native saltgrass dries up.

Tall fescue^ a selection from introduced meadow fescue, is a rapidly

growing bunchgrass. It is widely used in irrigated and humid pastures and has been found useful on moist salty lands and in shade-free

aspen openings on range areas. It does not endure long periods of

drought. On salty lands where moisture is ample for continuous

growth, it has outproduced tall wheatgrass and can tolerate heavier

grazing under season-long use. This is attributed to its better regrowth qualities. It starts growth very early in the spring and basal

leaves remain green until covered with snow. These qualities also

make it superior to tall wheatgrass early and late in the season.

BvUhous barley (fig. 28), a robust bunchgrass introduced from eastern Europe and growing from a cluster of bulbs, is well suited to mountain brush ranges and aspen openings. Though seed stocks are

stemmy and coar.se, this species produces a large amount of early

spring forage for which livestock and game show a high preference.

Seed shatters unevenly but spreads widely. An unusually high num-
50 HANDBOOK 71, XJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FiGUKE 28.—liiilbous barley, a robust and early grower, is suited to mouutaii)

lirusli openings, where it produces an abundance of early spring forage.

ber of new plants become established, even among other vegetation.

The large seeds prodnce vigorous and rapidly developing plants,

which withstand heavy use. Seed is difficult to harvest and requii'es

debearding for drilling. Basal bulbs are readily eaten by pocket

gophers and squirrels so that stands are often severely thinned.

Bearded wheatgraas and hhie irUdiye are short-lived native bunchgrasses but strong reseeders. They are productive and aggressive

throughout the mountain brush and aspen zones, but are not suited to

high subalpine ranges. Both are shade tolerant. Strains adapted

to the mountains are not commercially available, but they can be readily harvested from native stands. Seeds are bearded and must be

debearded before drilling.

Smooth hrome (fig. 'J!!)), a long-used introduced sod-former, is the

most widely adapted and valuable grass for seeding mountain rangelands and should always be a major component in mixtures. It grows

well in shade or sun, from the better lowland sites and the mountain

brush through the subalpine zone. Dry, south exposures with ])oor

soil are the only places where its adaptability is doubtful. Even here

the southern strains have ranked with the better adapted grasses. It

produces a large volume of forage if the level of available soil nitrogen

is high. Smooth brome has the ability to persist and spread under

severe grazing and competition, a quality possessed by very few species.

It even will suppress some brush species. Scatterecl plants of smooth

brome, once well established, will spread vegetatively to make a full

cover. Its greatest shortcoming is its slow rate of initial stand develop-
SEEDING RANGELANDS 51

FIGURE 29.—Smooth brome Is the most imiiortant grass for seeding muimtain

rangehinds. It is excellent for controlling erosion and grows well from low

to high elevations.

ment. Faster developino; grasses, such as mountain brome, orchardgrass, tall oatgrass, timothy, meadow brome or subalpine brome,

planted with smooth brome, produce forage while it is becoming

established.

The southern strains of smooth brome, sucli as Lincoln, Achenbach,

and Fisher, are more ])rodiictive than northern strains in mountain

brush types, whereas in the subalpine zone the northern strains, such

as Manchar and Canadian, are usually more productive. At middle

elevations in the aspen zone, noithern and southern strains appear

equally good. The southern strains have stronger seedlings, give

better initial stands, and are more vigorous sod-formers than the

northern. So where erosion is a problem it may be wise to use them

or to plant a southern and a northern strain mixed. Manchar has

generally demonstrated better seedling vigor than other northern

strains and compares favorably with southern strains in this respect.

Mountainhrome (fig. 30) and-vZe^úíer íí)Aea;',9'/'o,s'.s, two native bunchgrasses, are adapted to most mountain sites except dry southerly exposures in the mountain brush zone. Both ])roduce an abundance of

seed, have vigorous seedlings, and spread rapidly. When used with

the slower developing grasses, such as smooth brome, they are at first

more prominent, but eventually become secondary, except in spots

where the sod is opened by rodent activity or other disturbance. The
52 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 30.—Mountain brome is one of the best grasses for raw slopes. It is a

fast grower, reseeds itself aggressively, and is useful for seeding under aspen.

liigli forage production they make in the first 4 to 5 years, as well as

the stability they give to disturbed sites, makes them valuable. Tliere

is great variation in growth characteristics in both species. Seed

should come from sources known to be adapted to the planting area,

and it is often wise to harvest seed from native stands having the

characteristics desired. The Primar strain of slender wheatgrass, now

in commercial production, shows high adaj)tability to mountain rangelands.

Meadom and subnJpiiif bivmes are two introduced bunchgrasses

which are well adajited to mountain rangelands. Subalpine brome

finds its best use on subalpine ranges, where it matures seed early but

remains green and succulent throughout the growing season. Meadow

brome is more shade-tolerant and can be used on all mountain lands.

Both produce an abundance of palatable herbage and seed and are

aggressive spreaders. Seed is available in only limited amounts

conunercially but can be readily grown.

Kenfue'ky^ bJuegra-s.s, an introduced sod-former, grows well in a

variety of sites throughout mountain lands, but its production, except

on moist areas, is low. It is primarily useful for seeding camp and

picnic areas or other sites where short foliage and a tough sod are

desired. It is an excellent grass for controlling erosion. Often it is

very slow to develop a stand, but sparse stands gradually thicken

vegetatively. Because of a shallow root system, it dries up quickly in

dry weather. Crmada hhiegrasf; is a similar type grass, but it makes

a more open sod. Once established, it is better for stabilizing raw,

eroding sites. Itis adapted to a similar elevational range as Kentucky

bluegrass but is not as shade-tolerant.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 53

Tall oatgrass (fig. 31, J.) and orcTiardgruss (fig. ;n, B) are introduced bunohgi-asses with similarly wide areas of use in the mountains.

Both are highly useful in mixtures with smooth brome for seeding in

tall mountain brush and aspen. They are highly shade-tolerant, especially orchardgrass, and particularly good in seeding as])en areas.

Plants grow early in the spring and continue to grow throughout the

season. Both are highly palatable. They spread rapidly from seed.

The Tualatin strain of tall oatgrass, a ty])e which holds the seed well

for higher seed production, is a reconunended strain.

Reed canarygvasn (fig. 32, 4), a tall vigorous grass with heavy root

stocks, is probably the most productive species on wet sites from

mountains to lowlands, especially where soil is rich in organic matter.

It spreads rapidly on moist fertile sites and also endures drought, but

makes poor growth on dry or infertile soils. Poor stands often result

from tardy germination and from weak seedlings which are subject

to damage by frost or drying winds. Planting the seed in furrows

aids in getting stands established. Good stands of this grass are

readily obtained on small wet places by pressing pieces of sod into

holes punched in the wet soil with tlie heel or a stick. From these

vegetative ])lantings reed canarygrass will often suppress inferior

plants such as wire I'ush.

Timothy, a bnnchgrass, and weadoio foxtail (fig. 32, B), a mild

sod-former with a bunch habit, are two introduced cultivatetl grasses

which are also valuable for range seeding. Both grow under a wide

range of soil and moisture from mountain tops to valley bottoms, but

are most productive on good soils in moist to wet sites. On such areas

they grow thr-oughout the sunnner season and produce a large volume

of palatable forage. Both are shade-tolerant and well suited to seeding under trees. Their ability to establish full stands quickly makes

them valuable in mixtures with slower growing species. Timothy

seedlings are strong and vigorous, and although meadow foxtail

seedlings are weaker, both plants spread aggressively from seed. The

small seeds need but little covering to germinate and produce new

plants.

Red fescue, a sod-former, and the Sulcata strain of sheep fescue, a

bunchgrass, are two fine-leaved introduced grasses showing ¡xirticular

l)romise on aspen openings and high mountain ranges. Both have

deep roots, make a heavy litter and are good soil builders. A mixture

of the two appears to be most satisfactory. They are only moderately

palatable during the sunnner, but because they maintain a good

amount of green leaves, even after frost, they are preferred grasses in

the fall period.

Winter rye (fig. 33), a hardy, fast-growing cereal, can furnish good

early spring grazing on lowland and mountain brush areas where

precipitation exceeds 8 inches. It is excellent for supplementary

forage while perennial grasses are becoming established and provides

quick green forage for lambing and calving. Young lambs gain over

1/2 pound per day in the early sjoring and feeder cattle gain 2 pounds

per day or more in the spring, as well as in the summer between the

period of soft dough and seed shattering. It is the equivalent of

crested wheatgrass in grazing capacity, and it reaches full production

the spring after seeding. Although it equals perennial grasses in
54 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-475a99. 4608U

FIGURE 31.—Two important grasses for seeding mountain lands. A, Tall oatgi'ass

is widely adapted, is suited either to shade or sunlight, and spreads rapidly

from seed. B, Orchardgrass becomes established quickly in aspen and mountain brush, and withstands extended periods of drought.
SEEDING RANGELANDS

F-460736. 475902

FIGURE 32.—Two grasses for use on mountain rangelands: A, Reed canarygrass

is an exceptionally high yielder on moist and wet areas with high organic

matter in all zones. B, Meadow fo.Ytail, an aggressive seeder on subalpine

lands, is also useful for seeding in moist areas in the lower zone.
56 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE 33.—Winter rye furnishes quick forage and provides temporary pasturage

while perennial grasses are becoming established on other areas. Livestock

make excellent gains on this annual, but the necessity of replanting at Intervals

makes It more costly over a period of years than perennial grasses.

productivity and forage quality, it is more costly in the long run

because some reseeding and disking are necessary at intervals to keep

it productive.

Ground treatment and })lauting methods are the same as for seeding perennial grasses. Drilling at 40 to 45 pounds per acre or broadcasting at 50 to 60 pounds per acre should be done in the fall. With

12 inches or more of annual precipitation, rye will generally reproduce itself for several years. To do this, however, grazing must be

discontinued in late spring, so that heads will develop, or the grazing

must be light enough so that about one-fourth of the seed heads

mature and shatter. Disking the seed into the ground each 3'ear will

usually maintain rye with as little as 9 inches of precipitation. In

most cases rye should not be sown in mixture with perennials, because

with its rapid growth so much moisture is used that the slower-growing

perennials are suppressed.

Legumes

Little success has been had with starting legumes on the dry lowlands in the Intermountain region. Where the average annual precipitation is above 12 inches, and the soil has good moisture-holding

qualities, certain species show some promise for planting with grass.

As previously pointed out, all legumes should be inoctdated with their

specific nodule-forming bacteria.

Alfalfa, an introduced and highly important hay plant, has proved

highly successful on many of the better lowland sites and on mountain
SEEDING RANGELANDS 57

brush areas and shade-free openings in aspen. Because hay strains

of alfalfa have a single taproot, rodents will usually reduce stands.

The pocket gopher has been the major culprit, although kangaroo rats

and mice do considerable damage. Alfalfa is also more subject to

overgrazing than grasses, and is thus rendered more susceptible to

drought ancl winter injury. The Ladak strain has been the most

successful of the popular types. Crown-spreading or creeping alfalfas are apparently more persistent and, once established, are not injured so readily by rodents. Nomad, Ehizoma, and Sevelra are three

strains now on the market. From limited trials they appear well

adapted to the general area where alfalfa grows.

SickJepod and chickpea tnilkfetches are two Siberian legumes

adapted to seeding the better lowland sites and mountain rangelands.

Some difliculty is encountered in getting stands established, but once

established they are both high producers. Sicklepod milkvetch (fig.

34, ^), is not shade-tolerant and does not grow well above the aspen

zone. Chickpea milkvetch is slightly shade-tolerant and more wiclely

adapted, growing well on most mountain rangelands. Because it

propagates vegetatively, as well as by seed, it is not readily killed

by rodents, and it maintains itself well in grass. Seed sources of

these valuable legumes are being developed and soon should be more

generally available.

Yellow sweetclover, an introduced but widely naturalized biennial,

is useful on the better lowland sites, on mountain brush and aspen

lands, and on moist, moderately salty areas. If supplemental water

can be applied once or twice during the growing season, yellow sweetclover can be grown on naturally dry, salt-bearing tracts. The first

2 years the clover is the heavy yielding component in mixtures, but

later it produces less and becomes secondary to grasses. On the more

favorable lowdand sites and in mountain brush and aspen openings,

yellow sweetclover reseeds itself under moderate grazing and builds

up a supply of seed in the soil. Here it becomes an important and

lasting constituent of the forage.

Strawberry clover, an introduced low-growing perennial legume,

spreading vegetatively by runners, is useful in increasing the quantity

and quality of forage on wet, salty lands. It will Avithstand considerable flooding and is recommended only on permanently wet sites.

Birdsfoot trefoil or birdsfoot deervetch is an introduced finestemmed perennial legume widely used in cool humid regions. The

broadleaf upright form has been found adapted in mountain brush

areas and openings in the aspen. It is not vei-y shade-tolerant, but

if seed is allowed to mature this legume is a good natural spreader.

Mountain lupine (fig. 34, B) provides protective cover on badly

eroded sites in the highest mountains. Being very tolerant of shade,

it is also well adapted to aspen. It has remarkably strong seedlings,

which enable it to establish itself readily. It spreads rapidly from

seed and grows and reproduces well in stands of grass. Seed can be

collected from native stands. While it is regarded as somewhat

poisonous to livestock in some areas, in Utah it provides good late

summer forage, ¡particularly where it occurs with other forage plants.

Alsike clover is well suited to high mountain land having aboveaverage moisture, particularly the wetter mountain parks in Idaho.
58 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FIGURE :í4.—Adapted legumes : A, Sicklepod iiiilkvetch is a high producing

species in tlie mountain lirush zone. B, INIountain lupine is good for seeding

in the sulialpiue zone.

Other Broadleaf Herbs

Seed of most broadleaf plants mentioned here must be harvested

from native sources, as there is little or none available commercially.

For the most part they are best suited for special use purposes.

Belvedere stimmercypress and ßvehook basvia, two introduced and

widely dispersed summer annuals, are useful for increasing forage on

many moist, salty areas. Belvedere summercypress (fig. 35) often

reaches a height of 5 feet and makes good hay when cut in the bloom

stage. Fivehook bassia has also been successfully cut for hay but is

difficult to mow and rake because of its spreading habit. It is an
SEEDING RANGELANDS 59

'yqsV'I?^?^

FIGURE 35.—lîelvedere .suuiuiert-ypress is a palatable auuual that provides abundant, hish-pi-dtein forage on sites with salt content too high for most range

forage plants.

aggressive reseeder which .will actually germinate and establish under

brackish water. After the water dries up, fivehook bassia develops

rapidly and makes a luxuriant growth. Seed of summercypress is

now available commercially ; seed of fivehook bassia can be collected

from naturalized wild stands, and is sometimes available from alfalfa

screenings in central Utah.

From early growth to rather late maturity, these two annuals retain

high nutritive values somewhat comparable to those of alfalfa. They

provide palatable, succulent, high-protein forage when the native

grasses are di-y and low in protein. The plants make a good firstyear pasture or hay crop following the plowing up of saltgrass or

greasewood, and thus aid in offsetting high costs of plowing. Because

replowing is usually necessary to eradicate saltgrass, which tends to

become reestablished under these annuals, and also under perennial

grasses, generally the land shoiüd be replowed after 1 or 2 years and

planted to adapted perennials, such as tall wheatgrass and Kussian

wildrye. If alkali is present in only moderate amounts and considerable moisture occurs, tall fescue and yellow sweetclover may also be

used. It may be desirable to retain some areas in these annuals to

provide a protein supplement to the grass in late summer.

Palmer penstemon is a vigorous native plant which grows well on

disturbed and eroding areas throughout the lower mountain brush

zone, as well as in the adjoining juniper-pinyon belt. Although it

is a short-lived perennial, it reseeds itself aggressively and at the

same time provides an environment in which other plants can become

established. Because the basal leaves remain green and succulent
60 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

through much of the winter, it is liked by both deer ¡iiid sheep in this

season. Wmatch pensteinon serves a similar purpose within the

mountain brush and aspen zones.

iShoiri/ fjûhleneye, roirparsnip, and sweetanisf are native perennial

plants which are well adapted for seeding on mountain lands. All

grow well in the sliade. Showy goldeneye (fig. 36) has demonstrated

exceptional promise as a pioneer species on infertile soils from the

mountain brush to the subalpine zone. It is easily established and

spreads rajiidly from seed. Cowparsnip has shown particular usefulness for seeding moist mountain brush and subalpine ranges and

especially beneath aspen. Although this productive broadleaf herb

is sometimes slow to establish, it is a good reseeder. It is most easily

established where there is an overstory such as aspen or a brush mulch

to protect seedlings from frost or rapid drying. Sweetanise is best

suited to the aspen and sulialpine zones. It is a vigorous grower on

raw soils, wliere it produces well and spreads rapidly where seed is

allowed to mature. All three species are excellent game and livestock

forage. Cattle sliow a particular fondness for cowpai'snip and sweetanise.

•'•" 'JdW^:

F-444960

FIGURE 36.—Showy goldeneye is good for planting on raw or eroding sites.

Shrubs

Several shrubs show real promise for revegetating some lowland

and mountain areas where there may be a need for browse and, in

some instances, erosion control. Seed of all shrubs must be harvested

from native stands as it is seldom commercially available.

Win terfat, a native shrub generally not over 2 feet in height, is a

preferred browse for livestock and game. It is well suited for seeding
SEEDING RANGELANDS 61

on lime-bearing soils on south and west exposures throughout the

mountain brush zone as well as on most lowhinds. Stand establishment, particularly on lowlands, is erratic because seed will germinate

with only 1 day of warm temperatures, then freeze with the next cold

night. Such losses are less in the mountain brusli zone, because the

ground is better insulated with snow until later in the spring when

there are but few nights with killing temperatures. Where once

established, it has been noted in Utah to be a natural spreader. While

some seed is available connnercially, most of it must be collected from

native stands. Seeds lose viability rapidly and should be used within

2 years after collection.

Fourtoing saltbush is a palatable and nutritious native shrub suited

particularly to south and west exposure wliere the soil contains lime.

It will grow on fairly salty soils and grows well on lowland ranges and

in the mountain brush zone. Initial establishment has been difficult,

especially where precipitation is less than l'A inches. Hammer milling to remove the wings makes drilling much easier, and permits

placing the seed in much closer contact with the soil. With this shrub

it is particularly important to use seed from areas where the climate is

as severe as that on the area being ])lanted.

Antelope hitterirufth is a highly palatable shrub that is native on the

better lowland sites and throughout the mountain brush and aspen

zones. It is useful for seeding in these areas and can be started from

direct seeding, althougli establishment is erratic. Seedlings are difficult to establish in cheatgrass or similar competition. Therefore,

elimination of competing vegetation is especiallj' important when seeding bitterbrush. For this pur]:)Ose scalping off the surface inch or so

of soil has proved to be an effective procedure where annual weeds such

as cheatgrass are troublesome. Bitterbrush seedlings should be protected from grazing, especially in summer, for at least 2 or 3 years.

Some bitterbrush plantings have been successfully extended into lowlands where the precipitation has been as little as 10 inches. A

low-growing strain, with spreading branches, which roots at points

where they are in contact with the soil is especially useful on bare,

eroding areas. Such lower growing forms survive fire better than tallgrowing types. Tall-growing types are most useful on areas where

browse is needed in the winter. Bitterbrush can grow where there is

considerable shade as well as on exposed sumiy areas.

Oldman xoormioood (fig. 37,4), an introduced woody plant, becomes

established quickly on raw and eroding sites, such as road cuts and

gullies, throughout mountain brush areas and on the moister lowlands.

It is started in the early spring by thrusting a 12- to 18-inch stem cutting into the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches as soon as the ground

thaws. It grows rapidly and is fair browse for livestock and big

game. Once the wormwood stabilizes the soil, herbaceous vegetation

comes in.

Blueherry elder (fig. 37, B) is a tall native shrub adapted for seeding

mountain lands and favorable lowland sites. Establishment is erratic,

but once established it grows rapidly and produces a large volume of

palatable browse. It is slightly shade-tolerant.

All grasses, broadleaf herbs, and shrubs discussed above are listed

for quick reference in the guide section, which summarizes recommended procedures and species for specific sites and conditions.
62 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-444958. 459526

FIGURE 37.—A, Oldmau wormwoud liecomes established readily on roadbanks or

other eroded sites. B. Blueberry elder can be seeded sutcessfuUy on lower

mountain ranges where browse is needed. Once seedlings are establislied,

the shrubs attain full size in 3 to 4 years.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 63

MANAGING SEEDED RANGES

Seeding should be undertaken only ^Yllere grazing can be restricted

long enough to permit plants to become well established. Thereafter

use should be regulated in such a way that a vigorous stand can be

maintained. Disregard for protection at the beginning, or improper

grazing after the stand is established can defeat the purpose of the

work.

In general seeded stands should not be grazed, or if so, only lightly,

until a seed crop has been produced. Usually the grazing obtained

before the first seed crop does not warrant the risk involved. During

the first season, seedlings produce little forage and severe injury is

likely to occur from grazing or trampling. Witli good moisture and

good growth, grazing is often feasible in the second year, but it is a

good plan to defer use until late in the season or until seed heads are

well developed. On dry ranges 2 years of com])lete i)rotection is

usually necessary ; and if the" plants are small and poorly rooted

because of unfavorable growing conditions, a third year of protection

may be necessary.

The requirements for maintaining high production from seeded

stands after they are well established are the same as for native ranges.

These include such fundamental practices as: (1) Stocking the range

within the limits of its grazing capacity; (2) delaying use of the

range in spring until the soil is firm and the volume of herbage will

sustain grazing; (3) using a system of management, such as deferred

and rotation grazing or moderate continuous grazing, which will

permit the plants to maintain their vigor and allow them to mature

some seed for reproduction; and (4) salting and herding to insure

proper distribution of livestock. Provision in grazing plans for these

important features will make possible successful establishment of

seeded plants and their maintenance at a high level of production.

On level areas, it has been found that 30 to 40 ]:)ercent of the herbage produced by crested wheatgrass should be left to maintain vigor

and productivity of the stand. Wliere soil protection is needed on

sloping lands, 40 to 60 percent or more of the herbage should be left.

Presumably these standards also apply to other recommended grasses.

Seedling stands should also be protected from excessive utilization

by rodents and insects. Poisoning may be necessary to control such

pests.

Electric fences offer an economical means for temj^orarily excluding

livestock from newly seeded areas, and for dividing large seeded areas

into management units (fig. 38). If land becomes too dry for electric

fences to be effective, or there is frequent trouble with electric fences

grounding out, a good permanent fence of barb, net wire, or log and

block may be needed. Even though it is occasionally necessary to

protect considerable unseeded range along with the seeded area, the

temporary loss of forage is usually repaid through increased production from the native plants, as well as the seeded stands in following years.

Seeded grasses fit well into various systems of grazing. On lowlands, grasses which make early spi'ing gi-owth may be grazed prior
64 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

F-460852

FiGi'RE HS.—KlPctric fences nre an economical means of keeping livestocls off

newly seeded areas, as well as an effective means for dividing a large seeded

area into management units.

to the time native ranges are ready for grazing. This saves feeding

costs and also avoids too early gi'azing of native ranges and ]>ermits

them to improve. A better possibility for extending green nntritious forage over a longer period of time is to seed in separate range

units several species having different growth habits and grazing them

alternately so as to take advantage of differences in their growth

periods. Species such as crested, tall, and intermediate wheatgi'asses

and Russian wildrye could be used in this manner on lowland rangesWhere adapted, a legume such as alfalfa, sicklei^od or chickpea milk-

^'etch, or yellow sweetclover may be seeded with the grasses. An alternate plan for heterogeneous sites is to use a mixture of two or more

species which are similar in palatability. but differ in gi'owth periods

or site adaptations, and graze moderately so that neither species is

ovenitilized. This is the i)ractice to follow if site characteristics vary

gi'eatly within the area being sown.

SEEDING GUIDE FOR SPECIFIC SITES

Procedures and species for seeding various sites are given below in

condensed form for quick reference. More detailed discussion of

methods and species may be found in earlier sections of this handbook.

LOWLANDS

Sagebrush and Rabbitbrush Areas

Treatment hefore pJavting.—Planned burning is inexpensive and

effective ^rhere sagebrush will carry fire. "With an abundance of
SEEDING RANGELANDS 65

sprouting species such as rabbitbrush or horsebrush, mechanical

methods are more satisfactory. Disk plowing 2 to 3 inches deep is

adequate for sagebrush, but a 4- to 6-incli plowing de])th, sometimes

in opposite directions, is necessary to kill sprouting brush. On level

land without rocks, "grubbers" and root planes also eliminate sprouting brush. Brush "beaters" give good kills if rocks do not stick up

above the surface more than 4 inches. Railing is economical anil

effective on level, rock-free lands where sagebrush is even-aged and

brittle. Self-clearing harrows are most effective for brittle sagebrush on rocky areas.

Planting seaxov.—Late fall seeding is generally best. Early fall

planting in Se]>tember and early October is successful where there

are fall rains. Early spring is best if the soil surface crusts badly

following snowmelt; it also gives better establishment of legumes.

Planting methods.—Drill, if feasible; otherwise, broadcast and

cover by means of a disk harrow, self-clearing pipe harrow, or any

equipment which will produce similar results.

Recommended species or mixtures.—Crested wheatgrass is best for

general use. Antelope bitterbrush, fourwing saltbush, or wintei'fat

are useful where browse is needed. Use species such as Palmer

penstemon or oldman wormwood for vegetating raw or eroding areas

such as road cuts or gullies.

1. With less than 8 inches of jirecipitation—most trials have failed

and seedings are recommended only on a trial basis, using such species

as crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, Indian ricegrass. bottlebrusl 1

squirreltail, sand dropseed, winterfat, and fourwing saltbush. The

latter is best suited to sites with above-average soil moisture.

2. With 8 to 12 inches of precipitation—the above species and

beardless and bluebunch wheatgrasses are adapted. Bulbous bluegi'ass and winter rye are adapted for special uses. Soils with good

moisture-holding qualities often make up for deficiencies in ])reci])itation. With favorable moisture, intermediate, pubescent, and western

wheatgrasses, beardless wildrye, big bluegrass, and antelope bitterbrush are usually adapted.

3. With more than 12 inches of precipitation—several additional

species are adapted. Two successful mixtures, and other species suitable for substitutes or additional components, are listed below.

Seeding rate per acre in mixture

Light soils Heat'!/ soils

Drillled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast

(.pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Crested wheatgrass ' 3 4 2 2

Intermediate or pubescent wheatgrass ' 3 4 2 3

Western wheatgrass 2 3

.\lfalfa (creeping forms or Ladak) or chickpea milkvetch 12 1 2

Totals -7 10 7 10

' Should always be Included.
66 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Substitute or additions, and special use plants

Qenerat use Special use

Indian ricegrass Bulbous bluegrass

Russian wildrye Winter rj'e

Bluebuncli wheatgrass Mountain rye

Beardless wheatgrass Yellow sweetclover

Beardless wildrye Palmers penstemon

Big bluegrass Winterfat

Great Basin wildrye Fourwing saltbush

Tall wheatgrass Antelope bitterbrush

Sioklepod milkvetch Oldnian wormwood (cuttings)

Smooth brome Blueberry elder

Where lowlands are relatively uniform, it may be desirable to seed

single grasses, possibly with an adapted legume, on separate range

units. "Wlteatgrasses and Russian wildrye are suitable for such

seedings.

Cheatgrass Stands

Treatment before planting.—Burning before the seed shatters is

economical and effectixe. Plowing is also effective if done in the

spring before cheatgrass heads. A less effective but practical method

is plowing in the fall after seeds germinate. Offset disks or disk

harrows are sometimes satisfactory treatment on light or loose soil.

Direct drilling with deep-furrow type drills often eliminate enough

cheatgrass for stand establishment.

Season., methods, and afeñea.—The same as for sagebrush areas.

Where seedbed preparation and seed covering are not feasible, bulbous

bluegrass can be broadcast seeded in areas where it is adapted.

Sites With Summer-Growing Annuals

No treatment is needed before planting. Otherwise recommendations are the same as for cheatgrass or sagebrush areas.

Abandoned Wheatland and Accidentally Burned Areas

Eecommended methods and species are similar to those outlined for

sagebrush areas.

Juniper-Pinyon Stands

Treatment before planting.—Burning is effective and economical

where trees or understory will carry fire. Pushing trees into continuous windrows at intervals of 100 to 200 feet and hring is effective in

burning otherwise thin strands. Scorching individual trees with a

flamethrower or burner is successful.

Cabling is effective and economical on slopes up to 10 percent.

Bulldozing, a third method, is useful on sparse stands and steep slopes.

Push-bar and catclaw assembly on the dozer blades reduces soil

disturbance and speeds up the operation.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 67

Small juniper trees in sagebrush can be plowed out along with the

sagebrush, particularly with a brushland plow.

Planting season.—Same as for sagebrush areas.

Flanting method.—Broadcast and cover seed with a single-disk

harrow, self-clearing han-ow, or similar equipment on burned areas.

Broadcast ahead of cabling and bulldozing, and then afterwards in

pits left where the trees were pulled out.

Recommended species mi,rture.—Use species suggested for sagebrush

areas having more than 12 inches of annual precipitation and light

soil. If Indian ricegrass is available, include in the mixture up to

3 pounds per acre.

Salty Lands With Saltgrass or Greasewood

Treatment before planting.—Moldboard plowing in late summer or

fall to a depth of 4 to 6 inches, soil moisture permitting, effectively

reduces saltgrass. Greasewood can be satisfactorily reduced with a

heavy disk-type plow. Complete control of either usually requires

plowing a second time. Belvedere summercypress or fiveliook bassia

can be drilled at 4 pounds per acre, or broadcast at (5 pounds ])er acre,

to provide summer forage for 2 or 3 years before the final plowing and

seeding to perennial grasses.

Planting season.—Early spi'ing planting is usually best on wet lands,

late fall planting is best on dry soils.

Planting methods.—A deep-furrow type drill with furrows spaced

12 to 18 inches apart gives best stands.

FOT wef, mlty lands For dry, saUy lands

with a high water tahle with a low water table

Drilled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast

(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Recommended species mixture:

Tall wheatgrass 4 5 3 4

Tall fescue 3 4

Russian wildrye 5 5

Yellow sweetclover 2 3

Total 9 12 S 9

If water table is more than 5 feet below the surface, use only Russian

wildrye. Strawberry clover is useful on lands wliich remain wet to

moist during the summer.

MOUNTAIN LANDS

Mountain Brush

Treatment before planting.—1. Short brush (level areas and moderate slopes)—Planned burning, plowing, or railing, sometimes in combination, may be applicable here. Burning should not be attempted

where the erosion hazard is high. Bui'uing of slopes up to 30 percent

may be permissible if rapidly growing grasses are used in mixture with

the slower growing but more persistent species.
68 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

•2. Tall brush (Gainbel oak, maple, and serviceberry)—No treatment

Deeded.

.3. Bare slopes with active erosion—Make contour furrows or terraces to stop runoff. Small furrows about ;î() inches apart made with

heavy farm furrowers are adequate for breaking up small gullies and

providing a seedbed. On slopes up to 40 percent, a crawler tractor can

be used. For steeper slopes, horse-drawn eciuipment is necessar}'.

Planfiin/ xcaxau.—1. Short brush and bare slopes recpiiring seedbed

preparation—Late fall, early fall, or early spring in Utah, southeastern

Idaho, and western Wyoming. Fall planting only is advised in northern Nevada and southwestei'u Idaho.

2. Tall brusli—Fall (see planting method).

Planting method.—1. Short brush—Use the same planting procedures as for sagebrush and rabl)itbrush.

2. Tall brush—Broadcast seed ])rior to oi' during leaf fall. Traml)ling by livestock after broadcasting improves the seeded stand.

3. Bare slopes furrowed or terraced—Broadcast on freshly worked

ground and furrows. Trampling by sheej) aids in covering the seed.

Recommended species mixture.—A larger number of species are

adajited to mountain brush conditions than to other zones. Mixtures

for the most imjjoi'tant conditions are given below. If more than

one condition is to be seeded with a single mixtui'e, the number of

species included and the total seeding I'ate should be increased accordingly. "Where seed of a preferi'ed species is not available, some of

the listed substitutes may be used. Others are suggested for special

uses or conditions, such as for browse foi-age, or for stabilizing eroding

sites. Si:)ecies for seeding mountain brush lands may also be used

for seeding ponderosa pine openings.

Brush eradicated—unshaded

deeding rale per acre in mixture

Dry to average siles Above average sites

Drilled Broadcast Drilled' Broadcast

(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Crested wheatgrass (Fairway strain) ' 1 2

Beardless wheatgrass (Whitmar strain) 1 2

Intermediate or pubescent wheatgrass ' 2 3 2 3

Smooth brome (southern strain) i 2 3 2 3

Tall oat grass 1 2 3

Alfalfa (creeping strain or I/adak) 12 1 2

Chickpea niilkvetch 12 1 2

Total 8 14 8 13

Tall britsh—shaded sites

Seeding raie per acTK

in. mixture (pounds)

Smooth brome (southern strain)' 4

Orchardgrass ' 3

Tall oatgrass ' : 4

Mountain brome 4

Total 15

^ These species should always be included, if available.
SEEDINX3 RANGELANDS 69

8ul)sfitute or ndditUms, and s-ixrial iiac pUnttx

Dry to average

unsliaded

sitesAbove average sites—uiisliailed

Tall brush—shaded sites

Oencrnl ii.tr

Indian ricegrass

Russian wildrye

Blnebuiich wheatgrass

Western wheatgrass

Beardless wildrye

Big bluegrass

Mountain rye

Great Basin wildrye

Tall wheatgrass

Sieklepod niilkvetch

Bluebunch wheatgrass

Russian wildrye

"Western wheatgrass

Beardless wildrye

Great Basin wildrye

Tall wheatgrass

Bulbous barley

Blue M-ildrye

Bearded wheatgrass

Slendei' wheatgrass , Meadow brome

Reed canarygrass

(moist sites)

Tim(itby (moist sites)

Meadow foxtail (moist

sites)

Sieklepod niilkvetch

Blue wildrye

Bearded wheatgrass

Slender wheatgrass

Timothy

Meadow foxtail

Showy goldeneye

Common eowiiarsnip

Sweetanise

Spcciiil use

Bulbous bluegrass

Winter rye

Palmer penstenion

Wasatch jienstemon

Showy goldeneye

Winterfat (calcareous

soils)

Fourv^ing saltliusli (calcareous soils)

Antelope liitterlirusb

Oldman Wiuniwood (cuttings)

Blueberry elder

Bulbous bluegrass

Kentucky bluegrass

Yellow sweetciover

Birdsfoot deervetch

Palmer penstemoii

Wasatch penstemon

Showy goldeneye

Winterfat (calcai-eous

soils)

Fourwing saltbush (calcareous soils)

Antelope bitterbrush

OldnuHi woimwood (cuttings)

Blueberry elder

Aspen

For seeding openings in aspen or Douglas-fir and spruce timber,

use procedures suggested for low mountain brush or for open subalpine sites, depending on whether mountain brush or subalpine

weeds predominate. The following procedures apply to seeding

among trees.

Treatment hefore plantiiig.—No treatment needed in aspen stands.

Planting sea-son.—^Broadcast seed among stands of trees, in August

to early October, prior to or during leaf fall.

Plaiitinç/ vretliod.—Airplane broadcasting is best for large areas.

Small areas are best sown by hand.

Recommended species mixtii^re.—Species for seeding among trees

should grow well in the shade. Large sunny openings should be

seeded separately. Mixtures below are satisfactory for a wide range

of conditions. Additional or substitute species can often be used to

good advantage.
70 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Seeding rale per acre in mixture

Large, sunny

openings In shade and

SJnall openRroadcasI Drilled ings. broadcast

(pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Smooth brome (equal parts northern and southern

strain) ' 5 4 7

Mountain brome 2 1 3

Orchardgrass ' 1 Yi 2

Tall oat grass 1 2 1 2

Timothy 1 Vi 1

Meadow foxtail ' 1 H 1

Intermediate wheatgrass 3 2

Chickpea milkvetch or Ladak or creeping alfalfa— 2 1}^

Total 17 11 16

' These species should always be included, if available.

Substitute or additions, (Did special use ijiaiits

Tinthcr openings

Among trees—general ».v

Blue wiUlrye

Bearded wheatgrass

¡blender wheatgrass

Kentucky bluegrass

Mountain lupine

Sliowy goldeneye

Comniou cowparsnip

Sweetaui.se

Special use

Sieklepod milkvetch

Yellow sweetclover

Birdsfoot trefoil

Alsike clover

Wasatch penstemon

Antelope bitterbrusli

Oldmau wormwood

(cuttings)

Blueberry elder

Oeneral u^e

Crested wheatgrass

(Fairway)

Blueliunch wheatgrass

Beardless wheatgrass

Pubescent wheatgrass

Bluestem wheatgrass

Creeping wildrye'

Great Basin wildrye

Tall wheatgrass

Tall fescue

Bulbous barley

Meadow brome

Reed canarygrass

Sheep fescue (Sulcata)

Red fescue (sod-forming)

' Special use—Kentucky liluegrass.

Open Subalpine

Treatment 'before planting.—Eliminate weedy competition.

1. Perennial weeds—Plow to a depth of 4 to (i inches in spring or

smnmer, and let the land lie fallow till late fall or the next spring.

Or common dandelion may be eliminated by spraying with 2. 4-D,

ester base, at the rate of % to 1 pound per acre, and mules-ears wyethia

with 2 pounds per acre, m the early to mid-bloom stage.

2. Anniial weeds—Cultivate the soil surface thoroughly to a depth

of 1 to 2 inches with a duck-foot weeder, spring-tooth harrow, disk

harrow, or similar ini|)lement, in early spring. Any abundance of

perennial weeds requires procediu-es suggested for perennials. Spraying with 34 to 1 pound of 2, 4-D eliminates annual weeds in the 2-leaf

stage.

3. Steep eroding slopes—Make contoiu- terraces or furrows to break

up gullies and stop rtuioff. Small furrows 30 inches apart are adequate for small gullies. On slopes up to 40 percent, a crawler tractor

with dozer can be used. On steeper slopes, horse-drawn equipment

is necessary.
SEEDING RANGELANDS 71

Planting sewion.—Early summer (late May to early July) and late

fall (October and November) are satisfactory in Utah, eastern Idaho,

and southwestern Wyoming. Late fall is best in northern Nevada

and southwestern Idaho. Late fall planting is recommended on all

unprepared seedbeds.

Planting 7riethod.—Drill where possible. Broadcasting ahead of

surface soil treatment is effective where drills cannot be used. Broadcasting following ground treatment is successful oidy where seed is

covered by natural or artificial means. Seeds planted in the fall on

loose, freshly worked soil are often covered by soil sloughing. Trampling by sheep on loose soil on steep slopes helps to cover the seed.

Recommended species mixture.—A shorter growing season reduces

the number of species adapted for high elevations. The following

mixtures are suited over broad areas in sul)alpine or in asj^en and timber openings immediately below.

Seeding raie per acre in mixture

Well-drained soil Moist soil

Drilled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast

(.pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Smooth brome (northern strain) L; 2 3 5 8

Smooth brome (southern strain) 1 2 3

Mountain brome 2 3

Tall oatgrass 1 2

Orchardgrass 12 1 2

Reed canarvgrass 1 2

Timothy i_". - - 1 2

Meadow foxtail 1 12 12

Chickpea milk vetch 2 3 1 2

Mountain lupine 1 2

Alsike clover . 1 2

Total 12 20 11 20

' These species should generally be present in the mixture.

Siihstitute or additional plaiitií

Well-drained soils Moist soils

Slender wheatgra.ss Slender wheatsrass

Meadow brome Meadow brome

Sheep fescue (Snlcata) Kentucky bluesrass

Red fescue (sod-formlng) Sub:ilpine hrouie

Subalpine brome Commou cowparsnip

Showy goldeneye

Common cowparsnip

Sweetanise

COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES OF SPECIES

MENTIONED

Common Niime ßotunical Name

Alfalfa : Medicayo sativa

Amaranth, tumbleweed Amaranthiis graccizans

Aspen, quaking Popnliis trviiiiiloides

Barley, bulbous Hordeum biilhosiim

Bassia, fivehook ("alkali weed," "Piute Bassia lujssopifolia

weed," "ragweed," "smotherweed").

Bitterbrush, antelope Ptirshia tridentata
72 HANDBOOK 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Common Name Botnnicnl Name

Bluegrass, big l'on ampin

Bluegrass, bulbous P. bulbosa

Bluegrass, Canada P. compressa

Bluegrass, Kentucky P. praten»is

Brome, cheatfirass. See Cheatgrass.

Brome, meadow Bromiis erectus

Brome, mountain /.'. nnhintus

Brome, smootb /.*. inermis

Brome, subalpine !< lomci^tclUis

Canar.vgrass, reed Plialaris ariniilinacea

Ceanothus. snowbrush ("snowbrusli") Ceariothns rrJuiiniis

Cercocarims, mountain Ccrcocnrpiis m ontan HS

Cheatgrass ("bronco grass," "cheatgrass Bromus tcctorum

brome." "d(j\vny brome," "down.v

chess," ".iunegrass").

Chokecberry, common Primus i-irr/ininiia

Clover, alsike Trifoliiini hjihrUluvi

Clover, strawtierry T. fruiiifenim

Clover, yellow sweet. See Sweetclover,

yellow.

Cowiiarsnip, common Jleracleinii laiinttim

Dandelion, common - Tnraxueuni offieiiinle

Deerreteh, birdsfoot. See Trefoil, birdsfoot.

Douglas-fir Pseiidotsiifin meiiziesii

Dropseed, sand ftporolioliis erijptaiiclrus

Elder, blueberry Snmtnieiis (jlauca

Fescue, meadow ("tallfescue") I'estuca elatior

Fescue, red (sod-forming) F. rubra

Fescue, reed (includes the Alta strain F.arundinacea

and Kentucky 31 selection ).

Fescue, sheep (includes the Suleata F.ovina

strain).

Foxtail, meadow Alopeciirus pratensis

Geranium, sticky Geraitiinn riseossimiim

Gilia. slenderleaf Gilin linenris

Goldeneye, showy Yifiniera nndtipora

Goosefoot, lambsquarters _ Clieiiopodiinii nlbnm

Greasewood, black. l^nrcobiitiis i-ermiculntns

Halogeton Halof/eton (jlomeratus

Horsebrush Tetrndi/min spp.

Jumper. Utah .hiiiiperus osteosperma

Knotweed, Douglas Pohjçionum doiiplasü

Larkspur, Barbey (one of the numeroiLs ¡icljihiiiiinti tiarbctji

"tall larkspurs").

Larkspur, low (one of the numerous "low 7>. iiirnziesii

larkspurs").

Lupine, mountain Fiipiitiis alpesfris

llahonia, creeping Mahonia rcpeiis

Majile, bigtooth Acer i/rntididentnliim

ililkvetch, chickpea ("clcer milkvetch").. Astrnonliis cicer

llilkvetch, sicklepod A. fnlcatus

Monntain-mahoffany. See Cercocarpus.

Oak, Gambel ("shrubby oak") Qiierciis gambelii

Oatgrass, tall Arrhenntherum elatius

Orchardgrass Dnctylis f/lomeratn

Penstemon, Palmer Penstemoii palmeri

Penstemon, Wasatch P. cyaiithns

Pinyon Pinas ediilis

Pinyon,singleaf P. inonophplhi

Rabbitbrush, rubber Chri/sotlinmniis nnnseosiis

Ricegrass, Indian Oriizopsiji hymenoides

Rush, wire ("wiregTass") Juncns bálticas var. montnnus
SEEDING RANGELANDS 73

Common Name Botanical Na7ne

Russian-thistle, tumbling SaUola kali var. triiiiifolia

Rye, winter Secute cereale

Rye, mountain S. montanum

Sagebrusli, big _ Artemisia tridctitata

Sagebrush, black A. nova

Sagebrush, sweet A. diacolor

Saltbush, fourwing ("boxbrush," "cham- Atriplex cancsccns

isa." "white greasewood").

Saltbush, shadscale A. confcrtifoliu

Saltgrass, desert ( "inland saltgrass") Dixtichlis sfricfa

Serviceberry, saskatnon AmeUnichivr.aliiifolia

Shadscale. See Saltbush, shadscale.

Sneezeweed, orange Heleniinn hoopcsii

Snowberry, mountain Siimi'lioriciiriiiis orcoiiliiliis

Squirreltail, bottlel)rusli ,Sit(i)tioii hijstrix

Summercypress, belvedere Kochiii scoijarin

Sweetanise Osmorhiza occidciitalis

Sweetclover, yellow Mclilotiis officiiialis

Tarweed, cluster Mailia i/loiiicratii

Timothy Phlciiin pratense

Trefoil, birdsfoot ("bii-dsfoot deervetch") Lotus eorniculatiis

Tumblemustard Sisumhriimi altissiiiiiim

Wheatgrass, bearded Agropi/ron Ki(hscrnii<lnni

Wheatgras.?, beardless A. inerme

Wheatgrass, bluebuncb A. spieatiim

Wheatgrass ("western wheatgrass") A. siiiitliii

Wheatgrass, crested (includes the Fair- A.erisiatinn

way strain).

Wheatgrass, desert (includes the Stand- A. desertorum

ard strain of "crested wheatgrass").

Wheatgrass, intermediate A. intermeamm

Wheatgra.ss, pubescent A. trieliopliorum

Wheatgrass, slender A. tracliyeaulinii

Wheatgrass, tall .-1. elonnatum

Wildrye, beardless ("creejiing wildrye")- Eli/miis triticoides

Wildrye, blue Ë. (jlaueiis

Wildrye, Great Basin E. cinerciis

Wildrye, Russian fj. jiinceus

Winterfat, common ("white-sage") Euroiia lannfii

Wormwood, oldman Artemisia aluotanum

Wyethia, mules-ears Wyethiu amitle.ricaulis

U. S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1954

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