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ON THE COVER 

Late autumn, Ocmulgee National Monument’s largest wetland, viewed from atop the Great Temple Mound

Photograph by: Michael Mallin 
Assessment of Water Resources and Watershed 

Conditions in Ocmulgee National Monument, Georgia 

Natural Resource Report NPS/SECN/NRR—2010/276 

JoAnn M. Burkholder, Elle H. Allen, and Carol A. Kinder 

Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology 

North Carolina State University 

620 Hutton Street, Suite 104 

Raleigh, NC 27606 

December 2010 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service 

Natural Resource Program Center

Fort Collins, Colorado 
ii 

The National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Center publishes a range of reports that 

address natural resource topics of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National 

Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and 

environmental constituencies, and the public. 

The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate high-priority, current natural resource 

management information with managerial application. The series targets a general, diverse 

audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management 

applicability. 

All manuscripts in the series receive the appropriate level of peer review to ensure that the 

information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended 

audience, and designed and published in a professional manner. This report received formal peer 

review by subject-matter experts who were not directly involved in the collection, analysis, or reporting 

of the data, and whose background and expertise put them on par technically and scientifically with the 

authors of the information. 

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report do not 

necessarily reflect views and policies of the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the 

Interior. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for use by the U.S. Government. 

This report is available in the Reports and Publications section of the Southeast Coast Inventory 

and Monitoring Network webpage (http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/secn/) and the Natural 

Resource Publications Management website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/NRPM). 

Please cite this publication as: 

Burkholder, J. M., E. H. Allen, and C. A. Kinder. 2010. Assessment of water resources and 

watershed conditions in Ocmulgee National Monument, Georgia. Natural Resource Report 

NPS/SECN/NRR—2010/276. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 363/106238, December 2010 
iii 

Contents 

Page 

Figures........................................................................................................................................... vii

Tables ............................................................................................................................................. ix

Plates .............................................................................................................................................. xi

Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................... xiii

Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... xv

Water Quality ......................................................................................................................... xv

Ecosystem and Community Health ....................................................................................... xv

Groundwater ........................................................................................................................ xvii

Education Outreach ............................................................................................................. xvii

Other Actions ....................................................................................................................... xvii

Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................ xix

Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... xxi

Park Description.............................................................................................................................. 1

Background .............................................................................................................................. 1

Location, Size, and Boundaries .......................................................................................... 1

History of OCMU ............................................................................................................... 2

Creation of OCMU ............................................................................................................. 4

Land Use / Land Cover in the Ocmulgee Watershed .............................................................. 4

Hydrologic Information ........................................................................................................... 7

The OCMU Area................................................................................................................. 7

Surface Waters .................................................................................................................... 7

Wetlands and Ponds .......................................................................................................... 14

Groundwater Resources .................................................................................................... 16
iv 

Biological Resources ............................................................................................................. 16

Microalgae ........................................................................................................................ 16

Wetland and Aquatic Macrophytes ................................................................................... 17

Terrestrial Vegetation ....................................................................................................... 18

Aquatic Macroinvertebrates .............................................................................................. 21

Fish .................................................................................................................................... 21

Amphibians and Reptiles .................................................................................................. 22

Birds .................................................................................................................................. 25

Mammals........................................................................................................................... 25

Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species ...................................................................... 28

Exotic/Invasive Species .................................................................................................... 29

Assessment of OCMU Water and Air Resources .................................................................. 30

Surface Water Quality ....................................................................................................... 30

Drinking Water ................................................................................................................. 39

Groundwater Quality ........................................................................................................ 39

Sources of Pollutants ............................................................................................................. 39

Point Sources .................................................................................................................... 39

Nonpoint Sources .............................................................................................................. 40

Assessment of Biological Resources With Respect To Water and Air Quality .................... 43

Water Quality Standards ................................................................................................... 43

Impaired Surface Water Quality and Habitat .................................................................... 47

Air Quality Standards ....................................................................................................... 48

Air Resources .................................................................................................................... 50

Surface Water Quantity ..................................................................................................... 52

Drinking Water ................................................................................................................. 52
v 

Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 53

Ecosystem Effects ............................................................................................................. 53

Human Health Issues ........................................................................................................ 55

Other Issues of Concern ......................................................................................................... 57

Population Growth ............................................................................................................ 57

Physical Impacts From Activities in OCMU .................................................................... 57

Railroad Maintenance ....................................................................................................... 58

Other Continuous Land Issues and Impacts ...................................................................... 58

Synopsis of Stressors to Ocmulgee National Monument ...................................................... 58

Recommendations to Address Impairments, Potential Impacts, and Undocumented Water 

Bodies ........................................................................................................................................... 61

General Comments ................................................................................................................ 61

Specific Recommendations ................................................................................................... 61

Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 61

Ecosystem and Community Health ................................................................................... 62

Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 63

Education Outreach ........................................................................................................... 63

Other Actions .................................................................................................................... 63

References ..................................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix A. Discharge Data for USGS Gaging Stations near Ocmulgee National Monument .. 71

Appendix B. Limited historic data available (sporadic, in several years during1986 - 1996) 

for water quality conditions at NPS and GA DNR-EPD stations at or near OCMU .................... 75

Appendix C. Water quality standards in Georgia for toxic substances – streams and lakes 

(GA DNR 2008c). ......................................................................................................................... 83

Appendix D. Criteria for classification of surface waters as meeting or not meeting their 

designated use(s) (GA DNR 2008b). ............................................................................................ 87

vii 

Figures 

Page 

Figure 1. Location and map of the Main Unit of OCMU .............................................................. 1

Figure 2. Center: The Ocmulgee River basin; left: land use/ land cover as of 2001 in the 

Ocmulgee River basi); and right: land use-land cover in the Walnut Creek watershed which 

drains into OCMU........................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 3. Location of the upper Ocmulgee watershed (1,915,802 acres or 2,993 square 

miles)............................................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 4. Map showing the Ocmulgee, Oconee, and Altamaha Rivers. ........................................ 8

Figure 5. Map showing general features of the Ocmulgee River floodplain near OCMU. ......... 10

Figure 6. Maps showing floodstage in the Ocmulgee River, Macon (left) prior to 

construction of the Macon Levee and interstate highway I-16, versus (right) the influence of 

the Macon Levee on river flooding. .............................................................................................. 11

Figure 7. Upper panels: USGS daily discharge data at the Ocmulgee River station nearest 

OCMU over the period of record (1893-), and over the past ~15 years. Lower panel: USGS 

gage height over the period of record (1992-). ............................................................................. 12

Figure 8. Relationship between land area (in hectares) and species richness, excluding 

exotic (introduced) species, among 16 parks within the Southeast Coast Network of the 

NPS, including OCMU. ................................................................................................................ 24

Figure 9. Twelve previous water quality sampling stations in OCMU, including 11 NPS 

stations (1986-1996), and 1 GA DNR station (~1 year, Jan. 1999 – Jan or March 2000). .......... 31

Figure 10. Map of the Macon area showing OCMU, the Macon city limits, surface waters, 

wetlands, and historic as well as historic and present water quality sampling stations ................ 33

Figure 11. Metropolitan Atlanta ozone – number of violation days per year ............................. 51

Figure 12. PM2.5 design value, daily standard, showing exceedances at Macon of the old 

standard in all years, and exceedances of the new standard in 2000-2002 ................................... 51

Figure 13. Statewide acid deposition trends (1982-2006; from GA DNR 2007b). .................... 52

ix 

Tables 

Page 

Table 1. Land use in the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek watersheds based on 2001 land 

use/land cover data .......................................................................................................................... 6

Table 2. Changes in land use/land cover (data in acres) in the upper Ocmulgee River basin 

from 1974 through 2005. ................................................................................................................ 7

Table 3. Wetland and aquatic plant flora, excluding ferns listed as occurring in OCMU .......... 19

Table 4. Wetland fern species listed as occurring in OCMU. ..................................................... 21

Table 5. Fish species listed as occurring at OCMU, documented through one or more types 

of evidence as references, vouchers, and observations. ................................................................ 22

Table 6. Herpetofauna of OCMU, documented through one or more types of evidence as 

references, vouchers, and observations ......................................................................................... 23

Table 7. Bird species that have been observed at OCMU ........................................................... 26

Table 8. Mammals listed as occurring at OCMU ........................................................................ 28

Table 9. Surface water quality datasets in the OCMU area from the past ten or more years, 

and present status. ......................................................................................................................... 32

Table 10. Available data for surface water quality in the OCMU area from 1999 to the 

present ........................................................................................................................................... 34

Table 11. Data from the Ocmulgee River Initiative, Inc. for water quality of the Ocmulgee 

River at Spring Street, ~0.4 mile upstream from OCMU ............................................................. 39

Table 12. Mean concentrations of pollutants in precipitation events, depending upon the 

amount of impervious surface area ............................................................................................... 42

Table 13. Estimated contributions of various land use / land cover categories to suspended 

sediment loading ........................................................................................................................... 43

Table 14. Georgia water use classifications and in-stream water quality standards for each 

use ................................................................................................................................................. 45

Table 15. Summary of Georgia state standards for acceptable water quality in waters 

classified as Fishing designated use .............................................................................................. 46

Table 16. Estimated contribution of land use type to sediment loading in Walnut Creek. ......... 48
x 

Table 17. TMDLs for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek, including stream segments 

within and in the vicinity of OCMU ............................................................................................. 48

Table 18. U.S. EPA standards for six “criteria” pollutants as required by the Clean Air Act, 

indicating recent modifications ..................................................................................................... 50

Table 19. U.S. EPA’s Air Quality Index (AQI) criteria. .............................................................. 56

Table 20. U.S. EPA air quality index (AQI) for population centers in the Ocmulgee River 

Basin in 2006. ............................................................................................................................... 57

Table 21. Present-day and potential stressors that are affecting or may affect OCMU ............... 59

Table A-1. USGS discharge data for the Ocmulgee River near OCMU . ................................... 72

Table A-2. USGS discharge data for Walnut Creek ~4.5 miles upstream from OCMU, in 

Jones County, GA from 21 August 1962 through 27 July 1976 ................................................... 74

Table B-1. Available data from U.S. EPA STORET; sampling dates per year ranged from 1-

20). ................................................................................................................................................ 75

Table B-2. Available STORET data (sparse, 1-3 dates each in 1986, 1988, or 1999-2000) 

for metal concentrations in the water and/or sediments at four stations upstream from 

OCMU or on the upper OCMU boundary. ................................................................................... 80
xi 

Plates 

Page 

Plate 1. Present-day view of the Great Temple Mound, OCMU (photo: 

picasaweb.google.com/.../fQXtp2v8x-n06KR7QoL89g, with permission). .................................. 3

Plate 2. Walnut Creek, viewed from the railroad bridge in OCMU. Photo by Michael 

Mallin. ............................................................................................................................................. 9

Plate 3. Left: Walnut Creek near its confluence with the Ocmulgee River, showing signs of 

heavy siltation. Right: the Walnut Creek delta at its confluence with the Ocmulgee River, 

showing extensive silt deposits. Photos by Michael Mallin and JoAnn Burkholder. .................. 13

Plate 4. Left: origin of stream #1. Right: site where stream #2, when flowing, enters OCMU 

from an urban area. Photos by Michael Mallin. ........................................................................... 13

Plate 5. Left: Channel of stream #3 showing signs of heavy siltation. Right: Deeply 

incised channel of stream #3 just outside OCMU. Photos by Michael Mallin. ........................... 14

Plate 6. Examples of wetlands at OCMU: A) Duckweed (Lemna) wetland north of the road 

to Great Temple Mound. (B) The large, recently established wetland east of Great Temple 

Mound. (C) Wetland area north of the railroad tracks. (D) Small sedge wetland between 

Great Temple Mound and Funeral Mound. Photos by Michael Mallin and JoAnn 

Burkholder. ................................................................................................................................... 15

Plate 7. Recently constructed catwalk and bridge over OCMU’s largest wetland, planned to 

enhance environmental education of visitors about the value of wetlands. Photos by 

Michael Mallin. ............................................................................................................................. 16

Plate 8. Wetland vegetation in OCMU in autumn. Photo by Michael Mallin. .......................... 17

Plate 9. Turtles sunning in autumn in an OCMU wetland. Photo by Michael Mallin. .............. 24

Plate 10. Narrowleaf naiad (Najas flexilis), an endangered aquatic species that occurs in 

OCMU. From Sue Scott, with permission (www.arkive.org/.../Najas_flexilis/). ......................... 29

Plate 11. Algal bloom in a backwater area of Walnut Creek, OCMU, November 2007. 

Photo by Michael Mallin. ............................................................................................................. 38

Plate 12. The large Bibb Auto Salvage junkyard in a former wetland along the OCMU 

boundary (see Figure 9). Another company, Sadisco of Macon, is ~2.5 miles upstream from 

the Monument in the Walnut Creek watershed and engages in storage and disposal of 

wrecked vehicles. Photo by Michael Mallin. ............................................................................... 41

Plate 13. Sign posted by the NPS at OCMU to help protect the health of visitors and their 

pets. Photo by Michael Mallin. .................................................................................................... 55

xiii 

Executive Summary 

The purpose of this report was to locate and assess existing information pertaining to the water 

quality in and around Ocmulgee National Monument (OCMU), assess the present and likely 

future water conditions, and make recommendations to fill existing information gaps. Water 

quality and quantity, habitat issues, the potential for invasive species, trends in resource use in 

OCMU, and watershed influences and other stressors were addressed insofar as possible through 

available data and first-hand observations. 

OCMU consists of two small tracts of land (701.5 acres in total) located on the eastern edge of 

the City of Macon in central Georgia. It also lies downstream and down-airshed from the 

“looming shadow” of the greater Atlanta metropolitan area. The monument consists of two 

parcels of land that are separated by about 2.5 miles, including the Main Unit (656.5 acres) and 

the much smaller Lamar Unit (45 acres). Drinking water for the monument is supplied from the 

Macon Water Authority (MWA), and wastewater is disposed of by that entity as well. 

OCMU is a national historic treasure because it is the only known site in the eastern U.S. with a 

continuous history of native North Americans over the last ~12,000 years, including rich 

archeology of the first agrarian civilization in eastern North America. About 130,000 visitors per 

year come to see its historic features including a reconstructed prehistoric ceremonial Native 

American earth lodge, burial mound, other temple mounds, prehistoric trenches, and the site of a 

colonial British trading post. They also come to enjoy OCMU’s greenspace – its hiking trails, 

diversity of bird species, and other of its natural resources. 

The overall assessment of this Report is that the natural and cultural resources of OCMU are 

seriously threatened by upstream and encroaching urbanization, and by the multitude of water 

and air pollutants and other stressors associated with rapid human population growth, land 

development, and natural resource degradation and destruction. The five streams that flow 

through OCMU, including three perennial streams, all show signs of degradation from 

sedimentation, bank erosion, and trash accumulation. The two major streams, segments of the 

Ocmulgee River and its major tributary Walnut Creek, have been designated as impaired waters 

for biota and/or general recreation on the state’s 303(d) list. The causes of impairment have been 

identified as urban nonpoint pollution, in particular, excessive sediment loading and high fecal 

coliform bacterial densities. The Ocmulgee River segment is also impaired for fish consumption 

because of high PCB content. 

The Macon area also has a sad history of repeated destruction and degradation of Native 

American historic features, including sacred burial mounds, because of railroad construction, 

railroad track relocation, and highway construction through OCMU and adjacent mound areas, as 

well as farming and other activities. The ecosystems of OCMU, inherently highly vulnerable to 

edge and fragmentation effects, are threatened by yet another major connector highway that will 

cut between the two OCMU Units and bisect the Ocmulgee Old Fields Traditional Cultural 

Property. The National Parks Conservation Association, a nonprofit national advocacy 

organization dedicated to protecting, restoring, and enhancing national parks, included OCMU in 

2002 on its list of America’s Ten Most Endangered Parks in recognition of the fact that this 

connector road project has the potential to cause irreparable harm to OCMU. The Ocmulgee Old 

Fields Traditional Cultural Property was also listed by the National Trust for Historic
xiv 

Preservation in 2003 on its list of the eleven most endangered historic places in the nation. 

Despite this potential for major impacts, the Georgia Department of Transportation indicated as 

of late 2008 that the plans to build the connector may proceed. The increased traffic is expected 

to increase nonpoint contaminant pollution on water resources and to adversely affect air quality. 

The hydrology of OCMU, especially that of its largest stream, the Ocmulgee River, was 

dramatically altered by construction of the Macon Levee in 1950 and further modifications that 

raised the levee about three feet ca. 20 years later. The levee effectively channelized the river, 

with attendant negative, sustained impacts on water quality and aquatic communities. Hydrologic 

data are not available for most of the Monument’s surface waters, and there are no wells for 

tracking groundwater quality and supplies. The aquatic flora and fauna of OCMU are poorly 

known, other than species lists, and the water quality data for its streams mostly have been and 

continue to be collected an inadequate frequency of only seasonally to once or twice per year. 

Information is lacking, as well, on OCMU wetlands. 

The airshed is in violation of federal ozone and fine particulate standards that threaten the health 

of OCMU staff and frequent visitors, and the high ozone concentrations may be damaging 

terrestrial plant foliage. OCMU also lies in an area that is prone to atmospheric acid deposition, 

and acidification, especially acid spates, likely is adversely affecting its surface waters. 

Diverse exotic/invasive plant and animal species occur in both terrestrial and aquatic/wetland 

habitats of OCMU. Impacts on terrestrial ecosystems have been documented for some of these 

species, such as feral hogs, but effects on the Monument’s aquatic and wetland resources have 

not been assessed. Other stressors to OCMU’s natural and historic resources are related to 

encroaching urbanization, such as illicit dumping of trash and other refuse, erosion/washout of 

hiking trails that receive heavy use, potential adverse impacts from application of herbicides to 

maintain the CSX railroad bed, and spillover crime from the City of Macon. 

Editor’s Note: This assessment is based on the state of Ocmulgee National Monument in 2007. 

However, research on the natural resources of Ocmulgee National Monument is ongoing. 

Background information on the resources present (or thought to be present) within the park has 

been updated to reflect the most current data available, but in many cases we have presented 

information on the state of the park at the time the assessment was conducted.
xv 

Recommendations 

OCMU, downstream and down-airshed from the Atlanta metropolitan area, is vulnerable to 

encroaching and surrounding urbanization. The NPS is ill-equipped to protect its vitally 

important water resources from airshed and watershed pollution and other stressors because the 

stressors, for the most part, are outside of NPS control. In addition, there is inadequate 

information on water quality conditions or aquatic community health. Few data are available on 

aquatic flora and fauna, mostly limited to surveys of species occurrence. The following 

recommendations can be addressed within NPS jurisdiction. These recommendations address 

pressing needs to help restore and protect the seriously degraded water resources of this historic 

national treasure. 

Water Quality 

 A top priority is to conduct a two-year water quality monitoring program in OCMU 

segments of the Ocmulgee River, Walnut Creek, and the small tributaries with biweekly 

or monthly sampling frequency (insofar as possible for the intermittent tributaries) to 

track water quality conditions in the park. Two stations on each stream, including inflow 

and outflow of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek from OCMU, should be sampled 

for, at a minimum, water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, turbidity, 

nutrients (TN, TP, nitrate, ammonium, BOD5), fecal coliform densities, and chlorophyll a 

concentrations. This effort should be repeated at five-year intervals. Additional effort 

also should be expended to include monitoring of storm events because they are known to 

contribute most nonpoint source pollution (for example, from urban runoff). Benchmarks 

for acceptable water quality should consider the information contained in Table 15 for 

streams with designated use for Fishing. 

 Data should be collected at least annually on toxic substance concentrations (PCBs, 

heavy metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals) in sediments and fish or benthic faunal tissues. 

Published benchmarks for acceptable water quality for streams with designated use for 

Fishing should be used to evaluate the information. 

 The origin of the high fecal coliform contamination affecting OCMU surface waters has 

been in contention (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). While urban runoff clearly 

is a factor, the contribution from wildlife has not been assessed. A study should be 

undertaken over an annual cycle to apply state-of-the-art molecular “fingerprinting” 

techniques to assess the origin of fecal coliform contamination. 

 The park should inventory changes in land use/land cover in the watersheds of Walnut 

Creek and the Ocmulgee River upstream from and surrounding the park, including 

traditional categories but also septic tanks in new subdivisions, new highway projects, 

new shopping centers, and other potential sources of water pollution. The data should be 

used to create GIS maps of these sources, which can be upgraded over time to help the 

NPS track pollution and its impacts in park waters. 

Ecosystem and Community Health 

 At least once per year during an appropriate seasonal timeframe, the macroinvertebrate 

communities (benthic fauna, aquatic insects) should be assessed in at least two stations on 
xvi 

the Ocmulgee River, Walnut Creek, and the three smaller streams in OCMU. 

Benchmarks should consider published descriptions of healthy macroinvertebrate 

communities in warmwater streams. The data should be used to track stream ecological 

condition (rated from Excellent to Poor) over time. 

 At least once per year during an appropriate seasonal timeframe, the fish community in 

the park segments of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek should be assessed. The fish 

data should be used to develop an Index of Biotic Integrity and an Index of Well-Being 

for fish population health over time. 

 OCMU’s wetland ecosystems should be mapped and assessed, at least at five-year 

intervals, for indices of diversity, function, and overall health. 

 A sampling program should be developed to establish present conditions and track exotic 

invasive species affecting terrestrial as well as aquatic/wetland sources in OCMU, so that 

OCMU staff can develop active management strategies to optimize control. Assessment 

of exotic invasive species should be repeated at least at three-year intervals to enable 

detection of species that may rapidly invade. 

 An updated biological inventory should be completed for herpetofauna, following the 

protocol outlined in Tuberville et al. (2005). 

 A baseline biological inventory is needed for the composition and abundance of benthic 

microalgal assemblages in OCMU, following protocols in Wetzel and Likens (2001). The 

benthic microalgal (periphyton) data should be used to develop an index of biotic 

integrity (e.g. following Hill et al. 2000) for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek in the 

park area. 

 OCMU lies within a trough of the Atlanta airshed, and within the Macon-Warner RobinsFort Valley combined statistical area. The NPS should assess incidence of foliar injury to 

park plants from ozone pollution, including common wetland bioindicator species such as 

yellow poplar and American elder. More generally, data are needed to assess the extent to 

which air pollution is affecting OCMU, and to forecast how increasing air pollution from 

the greater Atlanta and Macon metropolitan areas will affect its waters and other natural 

resources. Sampling devices should be installed to establish present conditions and track 

air pollutants such as ozone, PM2.5, and mercury. 

 OCMU’s five streams should be the focus of stream restoration projects to assist in their 

recovery from excessive sedimentation, with highest priorities for Walnut Creek and the 

Ocmulgee River. Monument staff should monitor the streams for erosion of the stream 

banks, which is commonly related to upstream urban watershed activities, and for tree 

damage from beavers which can lead to increased bank erosion. Construction of beaver 

dams within the park should not be permitted, since this would increase on-site flooding 

and threaten cultural resources. 
xvii 

Groundwater 

 OCMU’s groundwater resources should be assessed through partnership with the USGS, 

including recharge/discharge areas, movement, and chemical quality. 

Education Outreach 

 OCMU should continue its excellent efforts to strengthen education outreach to teach 

visitors about the importance of greenspaces such as the monument in ecosystem 

sustainability. 

Other Actions 

 The NPS should seek cumulative mitigation (e.g. floodplain restoration) and push for a 

full Environmental Impact Statement of the I-16/I-75 project of GA DOT, which would 

widen I-16 through the monument under an Environmental Assessment. GA DOT is 

required to investigate and carefully consider cumulative impacts, which include past, 

present, and future impacts of this project. Thus, impacts from the original construction 

of I-16 and the associated installation of the Macon Levee should be assessed for their 

impacts on the monument, and these impacts should be mitigated within the framework 

of the present I-16/I-75 improvements project. Restoration of the floodplain would 

reduce flood magnitudes and frequencies. Alternative routing of I-16 that would avoid 

the TCP should be seriously considered as well.

 The NPS should pursue actions to protect remaining undeveloped lands (e.g. increase in 

greenspace setasides) adjacent to OCMU to target a goal of protecting and growing 

buffer areas around the park. 

 Trash coming into OCMU from the City of Macon should be monitored (type, most 

frequent entry locations, weight). Trash collecting devices of the City, if present should 

be rigorously evaluated for their efficacy in keeping trash and other refuse from entering 

OCMU 

xix 

Acknowledgments 

This study was funded by the National Park Service, Southeast Coast Network. In addition to 

the individuals listed as interviewed, I thank Eva DiDonato and Joe DeVivo of the National Park 

Service and Michael Mallin of the University of North Carolina Wilmington for facilitation and 

many helpful review comments. 

We extend special thanks to Guy LaChine, Chief Ranger at OCMU, for his kindness in providing 

helpful counsel and insights. We are also grateful to the following colleagues: At the NPS, Sara 

McCort and Brent Blankley provided GIS shapefiles for OCMU boundaries, hydrology, trails, 

and places; and Allison Hughs provided spatial information for water quality source locations 

such as land application sites, landfills, and surface mining operations. Liz Kramer, director of 

U-GA NARSAL, kindly confirmed that the GA DNR – EPD would be the best source for land 

use information. Meghan Rothenberger used GIS to produce the land use/land cover in the 

Ocmulgee River basin, and assisted in verifying locations of water quality stations. David 

Webster (University of North Carolina Wilmington) provided his survey and analysis of 

mammals in OCMU. Danny Tavakol, Interim City Engineer, City of Macon, sent water quality 

data for Walnut Creek (Jeffersonville Road, three dates from 15 November 2007 to 20 March 

2008) as part of the city’s stormwater monitoring program. Mark Wyzalek, Laboratory and 

Environmental Compliance Manager, Macon Water Authority, sent some monthly water quality 

data for sites near OCMU that were sampled from 2005 through 2008. Brian Rood, professor at 

Mercer University, sent water quality data for the Ocmulgee River (seasonal, 1996-2000). 

Barbara Stitt-Allen, GIS Branch Coordinator – Watershed Protection Branch, GA DNR EPD, 

provided draft NPDES discharge data for the state of Georgia. 

xxi 

Abbreviations 

BOD5 – biochemical oxygen demand (five-day testing duration) 

cfs – cubic feet per second 

cfu – colony-forming units 

CCC – criterion continuous concentration (U.S. EPA) 

CAAE – Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology (of NCSU) 

CMC – criterion maximum concentration (U.S. EPA) 

COD – chemical oxygen demand 

CPU – chloroplatinate units (U.S. EPA) for water color 

DIP – dissolved inorganic phosphorus 

DO – dissolved oxygen 

DOC – dissolved organic carbon 

DON – dissolved organic nitrogen 

DOP – dissolved organic phosphorus 

DP – dissolved organic phosphorus 

GA – Georgia 

GA DNR – Georgia Department of Natural Resources 

GA DOT – Georgia Department of Transportation 

ECHO ICIS – Enforcement and Compliance History Online Integrated Compliance Information 

System (of the U.S. EPA) 

EPD – Environmental Protection Division (of GA DNR) 

GIS – Geographic Information System 

IPCC – United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

OCMU – Ocmulgee National Monument 

m – meter 
xxii 

mgd – million gallons per day 

mg/L – milligrams per liter (= parts per million) 

μg/L – micrograms per liter (= parts per billion) 

monument – Ocmulgee National Monument 

MPN – most probable number 

MS4 – municipal separate storm sewer system 

MWA – Macon Water Authority 

NARSAL – Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory 

N – nitrogen (nutrient; excessive enrichment can degrade water quality) 

NCSU CAAE – North Carolina State University’s Center for Applied Aquatic Ecology 

NH3 – ammonia (gaseous form; can be an air or water pollutant) 

NH4

+

N – ammonium (inorganic form of nitrogen, ionized from ammonia; excessive enrichment 

can degrade water quality) 

NOx – nitrate + nitrite (inorganic forms of nitrogen; excessive enrichment can degrade water 

quality) 

NOy – “catch-all” for all atmospheric reactive oxides of nitrogen 

NPCA – National Parks Conservation Association 

NPDES - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

NPS – National Park Service 

NTU – nephelometric turbidity units 

P - phosphorus (nutrient; excessive enrichment can degrade water quality) 

PCS – Permit Compliance System (of the U.S. EPA) 

PM2.5 – particulate matter, diameter < 2.5 μm (air pollutant) 

PM10 – particulate matter, diameter < 10 μm (air pollutant) 

QA/QC – quality assurance/quality control (refers to standardized procedures for ensuring 

acceptable quality of data) 
xxiii 

SECN – Southeast Coast Network of the National Park Service 

SO2 – sulfur dioxide (air pollutant) 

SRP – soluble reactive phosphate 

STORET – STOrage and RETrieval Environmental Data System (of the U.S. EPA) 

SVOC – semi-volatile organic compounds, also called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (air 

pollutants) 

TCP – Traditional Cultural Property (Ocmulgee Old Fields) 

TMDL – total maximum daily load 

TSS – total suspended solids 

USACE – United States Army Corps of Engineers 

USDA – United States Department of Agriculture 

USDI – United States Department of the Interior 

U.S. EPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency 

USGS – United States Geological Survey 

VOC – volatile organic compound 

WPCP – water pollution control plant 

WQ – water quality 

WRD – Wildlife Resources Division of GA DNR 

WUI – Wildland-Urban Interface 

Park D

Backgro

Location

Ocmulge

(populati

central G

area, and

Main Un

East off I

ceremoni

visitor ce

colonial B

Lamar M

2.5 miles

county ro

per year 

Figure 1.

second, m

2008a). E

Walnut Cr

Descript

ound 

n, Size, and

ee National M

ion 97,255 a

Georgia (Figu

d lies in its “l

nit of OCMU

Interstate 16

ial earth lodg

enter, a buria

British tradin

Mounds and V

s southeast o

oad called C

(Chief Rang

Location and

much smaller 

Extensive wetl

reek, are sho

tion 

d Boundarie

Monument (O

s of 2000 – t

ure 1). OCM

long shadow

U (656.5 acre

6. It has 5.5 m

ge near the v

al mound, ot

ng post. A s

Village Unit

of the Main U

onfederate W

ger G. LaChi

d map of the M

unit, the Lam

lands and the

wn as well as

es 

OCMU, 701

thus, nearly 

MU is also 8

w” of urban s

es, 381 feet a

miles of wal

visitor center

ther temple m

second, muc

; ~45 acres, 

Unit in low-l

Way (DeViv

ine, pers. com

Main Unit of O

mar Unit, is ab

e two major st

s three smalle

1 

1.5 acres), lo

a decade ag

5 miles sout

sprawl and it

above mean 

lking trails, a

r, the Great T

mounds, preh

ch smaller, d

280 feet abo

lying floodp

vo 2006). OC

mm.). 

OCMU, mostly

out two miles

treams of OC

er streams (#1

ocated on the

go; www.cen

th of the grea

ts multitude 

sea level) is

a reconstruc

Temple Mou

historic tren

detached parc

ove mean se

lain, and is a

CMU has an 

y surrounded

s south near t

CMU, the Ocm

1-#3). Map m

e eastern edg

nsus.gov) in 

ater Atlanta 

of associate

s accessible 

cted 1,000-ye

und about 0.

ches, and th

cel, the Lam

a level; Figu

accessible by

estimated ~

d by the City o

the Ocmulgee

mulgee River a

modified from N

ge of Macon 

Bibb County

metropolitan

ed effects. T

from U.S. 8

ear-old 

.5 mile from

e site of a 

mar Unit (or 

ure 2), is abo

y an unnumb

~130,000 visi

of Macon; a 

e River (NPS 

and its tributa

NPS (2008a)

y, 

n

The 

0 

m the 

out 

bered 

itors 

 

ary 

. 
2 

OCMU is under the jurisdiction of the U.S. NPS but, as a U.S. National Monument, which all are 

declared by the President of the United States without Congressional approval, OCMU has 

received less funding and less protection than U.S. national parks. The NPS maintains a visitor 

center, archaeological museum, 6 miles of hiking trails linking historical monuments, a picnic 

area, and several archaeological ruins. The OCMU Superintendent has an office on-site 

(http://www.nps.gov/ocmu/). Land use within OCMU boundaries is predominantly riverine 

emergent wetland, as well as some upland grassy fields and forests (DeVivo 2006). The 

wetlands within and adjacent to OCMU contain one of the largest peat bogs in the Southeast, 

though they are not currently within the park’s boundaries. 

History of OCMU 

Ocmulgee (pronounced oak-mull-ghee) National Monument is a memorial to the early Native 

Americans in the region. The Indian name is from the Hitchiti (oki, water, from the word och

meaning in or down in; mulgis – boiling or bubbling). OCMU is the only known site in the 

eastern U.S., and one of the few units under NPS jurisdiction, with a continuous history of native 

North Americans over the last 10,000 to 12,000 years, including rich archeology of the first 

agrarian civilization in eastern North America (NPS 2005). It preserves ruins, artifacts, and 

historical monuments that were created over at least 12,000 years of human habitation in this 

area. Archeological evidence suggests that the region was inhabited by a sequence of native 

southeastern cultures including Ice Age hunters (Pre-9000 BCE), Woodland Indians (1000 BCE 

- 900), early (900-1150) and late Mississippians (1150 – 1600), and Muscogee (Creek) Indians 

(1690 - 1715). The early Mississippians were an elite society supported by skilled farmers, and 

lived on the OCM site near the Ocmulgee River; they constructed a town of rectangular wooden 

buildings, large pyramidal temple mounds, and at least one burial mound. Originally from the 

central Mississippi Valley, these people were horticulturalists who grew corn, beans, squash, 

tobacco and other plants in small gardens throughout their settlements. 

Mississippians were organized as chiefdoms or ranked societies wherein the elite sector, who 

made up a small percentage of the population, had a higher social standing than the commoners, 

who were responsible for growing food, making crafts, and protecting the chiefdoms. Historical 

and archaeological information shows that ceremonial and burial mounds, like those preserved at 

OCMU, were closely associated with Mississippian chiefs, who were believed to possess 

supernatural powers. Chiefs built their houses and placed temples to their ancestors on mounds, 

conducted rituals from the summit of mounds, and buried their ancestors within mounds. 

Mississippian towns containing one or more of these special structures served as the capitals of 

chiefdoms, and OCMU maintains four mounds built by the Mississippian culture. 

Near the end of the late Mississippian period, Spaniard Hernando de Soto and his army traveled 

through the Southeast in search of riches, and the Mississippian culture that once inhabited 

OCMU and the surrounding area ended as European diseases introduced by early explorers and 

colonists devastated native populations in some areas. The desire for European goods and the 

trade in native slaves and deerskins caused entire social groups to relocate closer to or farther 

from European settlements. The result was the collapse of native chiefdoms as their populations 

were reduced, their authority structures were destroyed, and their people were scattered across 

the region. 
The Earth

construct

structure

1015 CE

admiratio

establishm

part of ou

Creek Ind

managed

had been

large par

landscap

2005). In

fill for M

railroad l

another m

by archeo

degradati

such as p

Plate 1. P

picasawe

h Lodge or c

ted by the Ea

s known from

) but burned

on, the histor

ment of OCM

ur country’s 

dians were f

d to retain titl

n cleared for 

rt of a major 

e with artifa

n 1849 anoth

Main Street in

line across th

mound (Mou

ologists as m

ion of most o

plowing, was

Present-day v

b.google.com

council cham

arly Mississi

m the easter

d in the 12th c

ry of how th

MU undersc

heritage: In

forced to ced

le to 15 acre

Anglican ag

mound (late

acts and “a nu

her mound (th

n East Macon

he mound ar

und C) and “

mound A; Pla

of the archeo

s not altered 

iew of the Gre

m/.../fQXtp2v8

mber at OCM

ippians and 

rn U.S. (NPS

century. Alth

he pre-Colum

cores the nee

n 1802 a fort

de their claim

es around the

griculture. In

er designated

umber of ske

he McDouga

n. In 1871 th

rea and repla

“littered the l

ate 1) remai

ological reso

until the 19

eat Temple M

x-n06KR7Qo

3 

MU, discover

is the larges

S 2005). It w

hough the gr

mbian archeo

ed for this na

t was establi

ms east of the

e mounds un

n 1843 the C

d by archeolo

eletons and h

al Mound) s

he Central of

aced it with a

landscape”. 

ned relativel

ources in the

30s. 

Mound, OCMU

oL89g, with pe

red by arche

t, earliest, an

was built earl

reat mounds

ological reso

ational monu

ished at Ocm

e Ocmulgee

ntil 1826, and

entral of Ge

ogists as Mo

human bone

similarly was

f Georgia Ra

a line farther

The Great T

ly intact. Th

e area, throug

U (photo: 

ermission).

eologists in 1

nd best prese

ly in the last 

 of OCMU i

ources faired

ument to pre

mulgee, and i

 River (NPS

d by 1840 m

eorgia Railro

ound B) and 

es” (Hally 19

s destroyed t

ailroad aban

r north that d

Temple Moun

he course of p

gh these and

1934, was 

erved of suc

millennium

inspire awe a

d prior to 

eserve this ea

in 1805 the 

S 2005). The

most of the si

oad destroyed

littered the 

994, in NPS 

to provide ea

ndoned the fi

destroyed 

nd (designat

progressive 

d other action

h 

m (ca. 

and 

arly 

y 

ite 

d a 

arth 

irst 

ted 

ns 
4 

Creation of OCMU 

Through the persistence of local citizens, the federal Smithsonian Institution began archeological 

investigation of Ocmulgee in 1934, and Congress authorized establishment of OCMU in July of 

that year (NPS 2008a). Although federal funding was not appropriated to accomplish it, the F.D. 

Roosevelt administration’s New Deal Civil Works Administration and Works Progress 

Administration supported the excavation effort. The remains of the Earth Lodge began to be 

exposed in March 1934. By 1936, local fund-raising efforts had secured only ~680 acres of land, 

but just before Christmas that year, reconstruction of the Earth Lodge began and President 

Roosevelt formally established OCMU under the NPS (NPS 2008a). The visitor’s center was 

finally dedicated in November 1951, and OCMU was listed on the National Register of Historic 

Places as a historic unit of the NPS on 15 October 1966. The present monument of 702 acres is 

less than half the size that originally was authorized, as the remaining lands were never acquired. 

The Main Unit (657 acres), adjacent to downtown Macon, contains the Earth lodge, seven temple 

mounds, and the Funeral Mound which has more than 100 burials. As mentioned, the second site 

(45 acres), the Lamar Unit (Lamar Mounds and Village Unit), is ~2.5 miles southeast, separated 

by privately owned lands (NPS 2008a). A spiral ramp that ascends one of the Lamar Mounds is 

the only one known to exist in the U.S. (Obey 2002). 

Land Use / Land Cover in the Ocmulgee Watershed 

The Ocmulgee River watershed, which includes OCMU at its southern end, has an area of 6,180 

square miles. The most extensive urban development in the Ocmulgee watershed is concentrated 

in the upper watershed, followed by the Macon area. 

The NCSU CAAE generated a land use-land cover map for the Ocmulgee River basin, and for 

the Walnut Creek sub-basin, (Figure 2) using the following procedure. The basin and sub-basin 

boundaries (8-digit Hydrologic Unit Code) Geographic Information System (GIS) data layer 

were provided by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and National Land Cover data for 2001 

(most recent dataset available) were downloaded from the USGS Seamless Data Distribution 

System (http://seamless.usgs.gov/). Using the Spatial Analyst extension of ArcGIS9.1, the land 

use classification system was modified to include eight general categories: urban areas, row crop 

agriculture, animal agriculture, forests, grasslands, water, wetland, and barren/ disturbed. Once 

the grid was reclassified, the spatial analyst “tabulate area” function was used to calculate the 

area of each land class within the sub-basin. 

Land use/land cover data for the watersheds of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek still retain 

a major proportion as forest/shrubs (~60%; Table 1). Overall, the total land use in the Ocmulgee 

River watershed is ~10.8% urban, 59.4% forest, 20.4% row crops/pasture /other grasses, and 

~7.9% wetland. The total land use in the Walnut Creek watershed is ~23.3% urban, 62.7% forest, 

21.2% row crops/ pasture/other grasses, and 3.3% wetland. The two watersheds upstream from 

and immediately adjacent to OCMU, however, are mostly urbanized. 

Land use/land cover information available from 1974 - 2005 for the upper Ocmulgee watershed 

(Figure 3) more clearly indicates the influence of the greater Atlanta metropolitan area. Urban 

development (high- and low-intensity) increased by 324% over the ~30-year period, and by 67% 

from 1991-2005. During the past ~15 years, impervious area doubled (increase from 1991-2005, 

103%), total forest cover decreased by 18%, row crops and pasture decreased by 7%, and 

forested wetlands decreased by 6%. Surprisingly, non-forested wetlands increased from 79 acres 
in 1974 t

cover dec

Figure 2.

in the Ocm

cover in th

to 543 acres 

creased by 4

 Center: The

mulgee River 

he Walnut Cre

in 2005 (~5

46% (Table 2

 Ocmulgee R

basin (HUC 0

eek watershe

87% increas

2). 

River basin (fro

03070103) (c

ed which drain

5 

se), while the

om GA DNR 

compiled by th

ns into OCMU

Ma

5 

e beaches-du

2004); left: la

he NCSU CAA

U. 

La

ain Unit 

miles 

unes-mud ca

and use/ land 

AAE); and righ

amar Unit

ategory of lan

cover as of 2

ht: land use-la

nd 

2001 

nd 
Table 1. L

acres, res

Thematic 

Figure 3.

Natural R

(http://nar

Land use in th

spectively; GA

Mapper imag

Location of t

esources Spa

rsal.uga.edu/g

Source 

Open wate

Low-intens

High-inten

High-inten

Clearcut, s

Quarries, s

Forest 

Row crops

Other gras

Woody we

Emergent 

Source 

Open wate

Low-intens

High-inten

High-inten

Clearcut, s

Quarries, s

Forest 

Row crops

Other gras

Woody we

Emergent 

he Ocmulgee

A DNR 2007a

ges; Georgia 

he upper Ocm

ace Analysis 

glut/watershe

er

sity residential 

sity residential

sity comm/ ind

sparse

strip mines, gra

s, pasture

sses (urban, re

etlands

herbaceous w

er

sity residential 

sity residential

sity comm/ ind

sparse

strip mines, gra

s, pasture

sses (urban, re

etlands

herbaceous w

River and W

a, based on 20

National Land

mulgee water

Lab, Universi

d.php?waters

 

 

dust/ transp 

avel pits 

ecreational) 

etlands

 

 

dust/ transp 

avel pits 

ecreational) 

etlands

6 

Walnut Creek w

001 land use/

d Cover Data

rshed (1,915,8

ity of Georgia

shed=46). 

Ocmulgee 

(acres

17,672 (1

 77,944 (6

31,339 (2

 15,149 (

4,835 (0

 4,970 (0

731,014 (59

147,799 (12

 95,970 (7

92,759 (7

4,332 (0

Ocmulgee 

(acres

17,672 (1

 77,944 (6

31,339 (2

 15,149 (

4,835 (0

 4,970 (0

731,014 (59

147,799 (12

 95,970 (7

92,759 (7

4,332 (0

watersheds (1

/land cover da

a). 

802 acres or 

a

River 

s) 

1.4%)

6.3%) 

2.5%) 

1.2%) 

0.4%) 

0.4%) 

9.4%) 

2.6%) 

7.8%) 

7.5%) 

0.4%) 

River 

s) 

1.4%)

6.3%) 

2.5%) 

1.2%) 

0.4%) 

0.4%) 

9.4%) 

2.6%) 

7.8%) 

7.5%) 

0.4%) 

1,230,784 acr

ata (most rec

2,993 square

 Walnut Cree

 (acres)

595 (1.0

 4,428 (7.4

 1,302 (2.2

491 (0.8

 474 (0.8

 406 (0.7

37,309 (62.7

 6,330 (10.7

6,225 (10.5

 1,884 (3.2

 84 (0.1

 Walnut Cree

 (acres)

595 (1.0

 4,428 (7.4

 1,302 (2.2

491 (0.8

 474 (0.8

 406 (0.7

37,309 (62.7

 6,330 (10.7

6,225 (10.5

 1,884 (3.2

 84 (0.1

res and 59,5

cent - Landsat

e miles). From

ek 

%)

4%)

2%)

8%)

8%)

7%)

7%)

7%) 

5%)

2%)

%)

ek 

%)

4%)

2%)

8%)

8%)

7%)

7%)

7%) 

5%)

2%)

%)

28 

t

m the 
7 

Hydrologic Information 

The OCMU Area 

The OCMU area has a humid, subtropical temperature, often reaching the mid-90s (oF) or higher 

in summer and decreasing to the mid-40s during winter, with a mean annual temperature of 

~60o

F (GA DNR 2004). Mean annual precipitation is 45 inches (annual range, 40-52 inches), 

rarely as snowfall (Georgia State Climatology Office 2007). 

Precipitation generally is greatest in February-March and least in October. A dry season extends 

from mid-summer to late fall (GA DNR 2004). 

OCMU is located just below the Ocmulgee River Fall Line, a ~20-mile-wide geological 

boundary separating the hilly terrain and crystalline rock of the Piedmont region from the flat 

terrain and sedimentary rocks of the Coastal Plain. The Fall Line extends from Columbus, GA to 

Augusta, GA and was given its name as a result of the waterfalls and rapids that are the inland 

barriers to navigation on Georgia’s major rivers. The Fall Line can also be recognized by stream 

geomorphology. Streams and rivers above the Fall Line typically have small floodplains, and 

streams and rivers below it typically meander through floodplains or marshes (GA DNR 2004). 

Table 2. Changes in land use/land cover (data in acres) in the upper Ocmulgee River basin from 1974 

through 2005. From the Natural Resources Space Analysis Lab, University of Georgia (available at: 

http://narsal.uga.edu/glut/watershed.php?watershed=46). 

Class 1974 1991 2005 

% Change 

(1974-2005) 

% Change 

(1991-2005) 

Beaches, dunes, mud 24 80 13 – 46% – 84% 

Open water 13,756 29,896 35,486 158% 19% 

Low-intensity urban 76,010 207,333 331,803 336% 60% 

High-intensity urban 21,365 39,547 81,287 280% 106% 

Total urban 97,375 246,880 413,090 324% 67% 

Impervious area ---- 63,284 127,988 ---- 102% 

Clearcut, sparse 73,564 163,501 153,141 108% – 6% 

Quarries, strip mines, rocks 4,046 5,661 6,415 59% 13% 

Deciduous forest 590,356 501,129 366,393 – 38% – 27% 

Evergreen forest 588,083 561,884 493,639 – 16% – 1% 

Mixed forest 18,395 43,158 46,310 152% 7% 

Total forest 1,196,834 1,106,171 906,342 – 24% – 13% 

Row crops and pasture 401,994 305,998 285,895 – 29% – 7% 

Forested wetland 128,131 121,589 114,879 – 10% – 6% 

Non-forested wetland-fresh 79 ---- 543 587% ---- 

Surface Waters 

The Ocmulgee and Oconee Rivers are major tributaries of the Altamaha River system (Figure 4); 

they are located entirely within Georgia, and the Ocmulgee drains approximately 6,071 square 

miles. The headwaters of the Ocmulgee River system consist of three streams – Tussahaw Creek, 

to the Yellow River / South River (same stream; northern portion is the Yellow River), and the 

Alcovy River (Figure 4). These three streams drain the eastern and southeastern Metropolitan 

Atlanta area, and southeast of Atlanta they flow into an impoundment called Lake Jackson. The 

Ocmulgee River begins at the outflow of this impoundment. It flows southward, converges with 
the Little

downstre

the Ocmu

bars, will

Surface w

(GA DNR

through f

to a point

16 by the

boundary

and destr

the NPS 

The natu

Figure 4.

The Ocm

20 miles;

its southe

and a bro

the Maco

4, 5). The

scouring 

OCMU. I

e Ocmulgee R

eam, converg

ulgee has a g

low thickets

water is the p

R 2004). Th

four culverts

t that influen

e federal gov

y, severed th

royed severa

owns ~1 mil

ral hydrolog

Map showing

mulgee River

; watershed a

eastern bord

oader floodp

on levee in 1

e levee chan

and erosion

In addition, 

River at Lum

ges with the 

gently slope,

, steep bank

primary wate

he water that

s, and the ber

nces natural 

vernment in t

he Macon Pla

al archeologi

le of riverfro

gy of OCMU

g the Ocmulg

r forms the s

area 50.2 squ

er (Figure 1

lain, and a s

950 dramati

nnelized the r

n, and increas

about 20 yea

mber City in

Oconee Riv

, flows throu

s, and backw

er source in 

t once flowe

rm surround

wetland com

the 1960s, d

ateau Unit fr

ical sites suc

ont, the mon

U is, at presen

ee, Oconee, 

outhwestern

uare miles), 

, Plate 2). A

eries of oxbo

ically altered

river, increa

sed the sever

ars later the 

8 

n Telfair Cou

ver to form th

ugh a wide fl

water slough

the Piedmon

ed via sheet-f

ding I-16 (Fig

mmunities (b

directly throu

rom the Lam

ch as Adkins

nument is eff

nt, poorly un

and Altamaha

n border of O

its largest tr

An 1827 map

ow lakes tha

d flooding pa

sed its flow 

rity of flood

Macon leve

unty, and, ab

he Altamaha

floodplain, an

hs (GA DNR

nt Province o

flow through

igure 1) pote

below; DeVi

ugh the monu

mar Unit and 

s Mound (Ob

fectively cut 

nderstood (D

a Rivers. 

OCMU, and 

ributary in th

p shows a dif

at no longer 

atterns of the

velocity and

ding along th

ee was raised

bout eight mi

a River. In t

nd meanders

R 2004). 

of the Ocmu

h wetlands i

entially diver

ivo 2006). C

ument’s mil

from the Oc

bey 2002). T

off from it b

DeVivo 2006

Walnut Cree

he monumen

fferent mean

exist (Figur

e Ocmulgee 

d its depth, in

he opposite, e

d three feet a

iles farther 

the OCMU a

s between sa

ulgee River b

s now divert

rts stream fl

Construction 

le-long river 

cmulgee Riv

Thus, althoug

by the highw

6). 

ek (total leng

nt, forms par

ndering patte

re 5). Creati

River (Figu

ncreased 

eastern shore

as mitigation

area, 

and 

basin 

ted 

ows 

of Iver, 

gh 

way. 

gth, 

rt of 

ern 

on of 

ures 

e by 

n for 
construct

that much

Portions 

flooding 

breached

“jumped 

railroad t

Road and

area rema

2004). A

is being c

Old Field

Report). 

Plate 2. W

tion of inters

h (J. DeVivo

of the Ocmu

from Tropic

d in an area th

channel” an

tracks throug

d railroad co

ains a seriou

Another majo

constructed. 

ds Traditiona

Walnut Creek,

state I-16, be

o, pers. comm

ulgee River b

cal Storm Al

hat was once

nd were subs

gh the monu

onstruction a

us concern (G

or highway, t

This four-la

al Cultural P

, viewed from

ecause that h

m.). 

basin, includ

lberto in 199

e a backwate

stantially alte

ument was de

lso altered h

Georgia Dep

the Fall Lin

ane road betw

Property (Ob

m the railroad 

9 

highway rais

ding the Mac

94 (DeVivo 2

er slough, p

ered (DeViv

estroyed (Ch

hydrologic pa

partment of C

e Freeway (e

ween the two

bey 2002; GA

bridge in OCM

sed the proje

con area, we

2006). As a 

portions of th

vo 2006), and

hief Ranger G

atterns. Floo

Community 

extension of

o OCMU Un

A DOT 2008

MU. Photo b

ected 100-ye

ere affected b

result of this

he tributary W

d a pond (ox

G. LaChine,

odplain deve

Affairs 2003

f the Eisenho

nits will bise

8; Figure 6; 

y Michael Ma

ar flood leve

by massive 

s storm, the 

Walnut Cree

xbow) near th

, pers. comm

elopment in t

3, GA DNR 

ower Parkwa

ect the Ocmu

see p. 54 of

allin.

el by 

levee 

ek 

he 

m.). 

this 

ay), 

ulgee 

f this 
Figure 5.

meanderi

include th

~0.18 mile

Map showing

ng channel be

e City of Mac

e below the L

g general feat

elow the Mac

con landfill ac

Lamar Unit. M

tures of the O

con levee, vs. 

ross from the

ap by Ric Tho

10 

Ocmulgee Riv

the channeliz

e Lamar Unit, 

ornton, with p

ver floodplain 

zed river in th

and the Maco

permission fro

near OCMU.

he OCMU are

on WPCP wh

om The Teleg

 Note the 

ea. Other feat

hich discharge

graph. 

tures 

s 
Figure 6.

Macon Le

influence 

of OCMU

route of th

permissio

The USG

#022130

Hydrolog

sea level)

stage hei

gap in th

(previous

past ~15 

Storm Al

variation

feet) (Fig

The USG

in Jones 

(data ava

Walnut C

alteration

two of th

nor water

by garbag

Maps showin

evee and inter

of the Macon

; bright green

he Fall Line F

on. 

GS maintains

00, Macon; 

gic Unit 030

). This site i

ght. Dischar

e early 1900

s 60 days) ar

years, rangi

lberto (1994

n in gage heig

gure 7). 

GS also previ

County near

ailable from 

Creek and th

n and sedime

hem are inter

r quality dat

ge and other

ng floodstage

rstate highwa

n Levee on riv

n area ≡ the a

reeway unde

s a flow stati

latitude 32°5

70103; drain

s also upstre

rge data have

0s; gage heig

re also availa

ng from ~20

) when daily

ght also is al

iously maint

r Gray, GA),

1961-1994; 

e three smal

entation (Pla

rmittent or p

ta are availab

r wastes (Ch

 in the Ocmu

ay I-16 (www.

ver flooding (w

dditional land

r construction

ion in the Oc

50'19", long

nage area 2,2

eam from the

e been recor

ght has been 

able. The da

00 to ~50,00

y discharge w

lso apparent 

tained a flow

, ~4.5 miles 

Appendix 2)

ller streams i

ates 3-5). Th

artly intermi

ble for these 

hief Ranger G

11 

lgee River, M

hollidaydenta

www.macon-b

d that was pro

n is also show

cmulgee Riv

itude 83°37'

240 square m

e Macon lev

rded daily sin

recorded sin

ata show high

0 cfs, excep

was ~100,00

(range ~4.9

w station on W

upstream fro

). 

in OCMU ar

he smaller, un

ittent (Figur

streams. Al

G. LaChine, 

Macon (left) pr

al.com/floodin

bibb.com /Lev

oposed in 193

wn. Maps by 

ver just upstr

'14"; NAD83

miles; datum

ee, with mon

nce February

nce October 

h variation in

pt for the maj

00 cfs (Figur

9 to 29 feet; m

Walnut Cree

om the north

re characteri

nnamed stre

re 1; Plates 4

l three are o

pers. comm

rior to constru

g.htm), versu

vee.html) . LS

35 for the nati

Lindsay Holli

ream from O

3, Bibb Cou

m of gage: 26

nitoring of d

y 1893 excep

1992. Real

n daily disch

jor flood fro

re 7, Append

median valu

ek (NAD27,

hern boundar

ized by seve

eams are of u

4 and 5). Ne

f urban orig

m.). 

uction of the 

us (right) the 

S = the Lamar

ional monume

iday, with 

OCMU (site 

unty, Georgia

69.80 feet ab

discharge and

pt for a ~15-

-time data 

harge over th

om Tropical 

dix 1). High 

ues at ~6 to 1

, site #02213

ry of OCMU

re stream ba

urban origin,

either hydrol

in and affect

r Unit 

ent; 

a, 

bove 

d 

-year 

he 

12 

3050 

U

ank 

, and 

ogic 

ted 
Figure 7. 

the period

http://ga2

height ove

http://ga2

Upper pane

d of record (18

.er.usgs.gov/g

er the period 

.er.usgs.gov/g

ls: USGS dai

893-), and ov

gawater/sitein

of record (199

gawater/sitein

ly discharge d

ver the past ~

nfo.cfm?siten

92-). From: 

nfo.cfm?siten

12 

data at the Oc

15 years. Fro

o=02213000&

o=02213000&

cmulgee Rive

om: 

&code=021. L

&code=021.

er station nea

Lower panel: 

rest OCMU o

 USGS gage

ver 
Plate 3. L

Right: the

Photos by

Plate 4. L

area. Pho

Small str

Walnut C

G. LaChi

parking l

decade ag

G. LaChi

in east M

through O

Left: Walnut C

e Walnut Cree

y Michael Mal

Left: origin of 

otos by Micha

ream #1 flow

Creek. This i

ine, pers. com

lot and road.

go, and cess

ine, pers. com

Macon, goes u

OCMU for a

Creek near its 

ek delta at its 

llin and JoAnn

stream #1. R

ael Mallin.

ws between t

intermittent 

mm.). It is p

 The NPS m

ation of that

mm.). Durin

underground

a short distan

confluence w

confluence w

n Burkholder.

Right: site whe

the visitors c

stream origin

prone to flash

maintained th

t practice has

ng wet period

d, emerges at

nce, leaves O

13 

with the Ocmu

with the Ocmu

.

ere stream #2

center and th

nates as the 

h floods and

he channel of

s promoted m

ds, stream #2

t the edge of

OCMU and f

ulgee River, s

ulgee River, s

2, when flowin

he Earth Lod

outflow of a

d also receive

f stream #2 b

more wetlan

2 originates 

f OCMU pro

flows throug

showing signs

howing exten

ng, enters OC

dge, and is a 

a storm sewe

es runoff fro

by ditching u

nd formation

from a pave

operty (Plate

gh an econom

s of heavy silt

nsive silt depo

CMU from an 

tributary of 

er (Chief Ra

om the OCM

until about a

n (Chief Rang

ed urban culv

e 4), flows 

mically 

tation. 

osits. 

urban 

anger 

MU 

a

ger 

vert 
depressed

Walnut C

and cut a

LaChine,

Plate 5. L

stream #3

Stream #

OCMU p

Ocmulge

by conce

eroded. I

near the c

during pr

Wetland

About 40

undevelo

biggest, o

Refuge, w

ridges to 

oxbow la

OCMU i

not been 

The mon

Hole Pon

Ranger G

(usually l

d part of Ma

Creek. The st

a ~20-foot-de

, pers. comm

Left: Channe

3 just outside 

#3 originates 

periphery (P

ee River dire

erned citizen

It should be n

central area 

rolonged we

ds and Pond

0% of the ex

oped wetland

oldest peat b

which contai

bottomland 

akes, is also 

s along a fra

mapped for 

nument’s wet

nd on the OC

G. LaChine, 

less than a fo

acon, re-ente

tream can ca

eep channel.

m.). 

el of stream #3

OCMU. Pho

in Macon an

late #5), flow

ectly. This st

s (Chief Ran

noted that th

of the Main 

t periods (Ch

ds 

xisting acreag

ds outside of

bogs in the S

ins a great d

hardwoods 

in the genera

agmented gre

vegetation (

tlands are di

CMU proper

pers. comm.

foot deep) an

ers OCMU, a

arry a substa

. Its deposit

3 showing sig

tos by Michae

nd is fed by 

ws through a

tream has be

nger G. LaCh

here also may

Unit of OCM

hief Ranger 

ge of OCMU

f the southea

Southeast (De

diversity of h

and swamp 

al area, abou

eenway corr

(Chief Rang

iverse in size

rty was an op

.). This depr

nd its water i

14 

and becomes

antial sedime

s have create

gns of heavy s

el Mallin.

the city’s st

an inaccessib

en the focus

hine, pers. c

y be an addi

MU, which m

G. LaChine

U is wetlands

astern edge o

eVivo 2006)

habitat types 

forests mixe

ut 6 miles so

ridor for wet

er G. LaChin

e and origin 

pen pit mine 

ression, bisec

s from Waln

s a tributary 

ent load that 

ed a large si

siltation. Righ

torm sewer s

ble area of O

s of major ur

comm.). It is 

itional, very 

may flow un

e, pers. comm

s (Figure 1)

of the monum

). Bond Swa

ranging from

ed with creek

outh of Maco

tland species

ne, pers. com

(Plate 6). F

 in the late 1

cted by the O

nut Creek. T

of wetlands 

has caused 

lt plain (Chi

ht: Deeply inc

system. It flo

OCMU, and 

rban debris c

heavily silte

small interm

nder the railr

m.). 

, and the larg

ment is cons

amp Nationa

m mixed har

ks, beaver sw

on and OCM

s. The OCM

mm.). 

For example,

1800s – early

OCMU road

The largest w

adjacent to 

major erosio

ief Ranger G

cised channe

ows along th

then enters t

cleanup effor

ed and deepl

mittent spring

road tracks 

ge tract of 

idered one o

al Wildlife 

rdwood/pine

wamps and

MU. Thus, 

MU wetlands 

, the small C

y 1900s (Ch

d, is very sha

wetland on th

on 

G. 

l of 

he 

the 

rts 

ly 

g

of the 

e

have 

Clay 

ief 

allow 

he 
monumen

has stand

6, 7). Aft

to/across

visitors (

Plate 6. E

Temple M

area north

Mound. P

nt grounds d

ding water ye

ter completin

 it as part of

Chief Range

Examples of w

Mound. (B) Th

h of the railroa

Photos by Mic

developed sin

ear-round (C

ng an enviro

f a hiking tra

er G. LaChin

wetlands at O

e large, recen

ad tracks. (D)

chael Mallin a

nce the 1994

Chief Ranger

onmental ass

ail (Plate 7). 

ne, pers. com

CMU: A) Duc

ntly establishe

) Small sedge

and JoAnn Bu

15 

4 flood; it pr

r G. LaChine

sessment, the

This large p

mm.). 

ckweed (Lemn

ed wetland ea

e wetland betw

urkholder.

reviously wa

e, pers. comm

e NPS recent

pond/wetland

na) wetland n

ast of Great T

ween Great T

as seasonally

m.) (Frontsp

ntly construct

d area is pop

north of the ro

Temple Moun

Temple Moun

y wet, but no

piece and Pl

ted a boardw

pular with 

oad to Great 

nd. (C) Wetlan

nd and Funera

ow 

lates 

walk 

nd 

al 
Plate 7. R

environme

Groundw

The Ocm

groundw

sediment

2006). 

Located j

underlain

of clay an

typically 

gallons p

routinely

groundw

will cont

Biologic

Prior to c

regularly

channels

broad flo

of specia

mussels t

The prese

species ri

Microalg

There ha

portion o

Recently cons

ental educatio

water Resou

mulgee River

water baseflow

ts; wells typi

just below th

n by the Cret

nd silt that fu

are 40-600 

per minute (L

y high-yieldin

water supplies

inue to incre

cal Resour

channelizatio

y, was more v

, and more o

oodplain and

alized fish sp

that helped s

ent-day river

ichness (Wis

gae 

ve been no p

of the Ocmul

structed catw

on of visitors 

urces 

r in the OCM

w during dry

ically are 11

he Fall line i

taceous Aqu

function as co

feet deep an

Leeth et al. 2

ng wells (mo

s are adequa

ease in this r

rces 

on of the Oc

variable in d

oxbows as ha

d left clay dep

pecies, and o

stabilize the 

r is turbid w

sniewski et a

published stu

lgee River th

walk and bridg

about the val

MU region re

y periods. Th

-300 feet de

in the upperm

uifer system w

onfining bed

nd yield 1-25

2006). System

ore than 100

ate, it is antic

region with i

mulgee Rive

depth, and ha

abitat for var

posits for ma

xbows and s

sediments an

with a high se

al. 2005; see

udies of the m

hat runs alon

16 

e over OCMU

ue of wetland

eceives a sub

he surficial a

eep and yield

most portion

which consi

ds (Clark and

5 gallons per

matic well-s

0 gallons per

cipated that g

increasing po

er by the Ma

ad more woo

rious aquatic

aking bricks

side channel

nd enhanced

ediment load

e below). 

microalgal a

ng the bound

U’s largest we

ds. Photos by

bstantial con

aquifer syste

d 2-25 gallon

n of the Coas

ists of sand a

d Pierce 198

r minute, alth

siting techniq

r minute), an

groundwater

opulation gr

acon levee, t

odfall debris

c fauna. Sed

s. Historic re

ls with river 

d water clari

d, relatively f

assemblages

dary of OCM

etland, planne

y Michael Ma

ntribution of 

em consists o

ns per minut

stal Plain, O

and gravel al

85, GA DNR

hough yield 

ques have re

nd although p

r use for mun

rowth (Tyson

the Ocmulge

s, more slow

diments settle

eports descri

bottom cove

ity via their f

few mussels

 in Walnut C

MU, or OCM

ed to enhance

llin.

water from 

of unconfine

te (Leeth et a

CMU is 

long with lay

R 2004). Wel

can exceed 

esulted in 

present 

nicipal supp

n 1993). 

ee River floo

ly moving si

ed out along

ibe high num

ered with 

filtering acti

s, and low fis

Creek, the 

MU wetlands.

e

ed 

al. 

yers 

lls 

500 

plies 

oded 

ide 

g a 

mbers 

vity. 

sh 

. 
Wetland

This regi

by cypre

are flood

Frontspie

habitat. 

A total o

species, h

minute d

wetland/a

OCMU e

Plate 8. W

At least t

of the Ma

from con

Ocmulge

railroad b

a forested

emergent

other side

d and Aquat

ion of the Oc

ss and gum (

dplain forest 

ece and Plat

f 199 specie

have been lis

uckweed, gi

amphibious.

ecosystem, c

Wetland vege

three major d

acon levee –

nstruction of

ee River (Ro

bed impound

d wetland pl

t and floatin

e of the Ocm

tic Macroph

cmulgee Riv

(GA DNR 2

and, as men

te 6). The sm

s of vascular

sted as prese

iant duckwee

 Wetland an

comprising ~

etation in OCM

disturbances

– have substa

f Interstate Iod and Lack

ded waters o

lant commun

g vegetation

mulgee River

hytes 

ver basin has

004). Both t

ntioned, abou

mall Lamar U

r wetland an

ent at OCMU

ed, and narro

nd aquatic sp

~47.5% of th

MU in autumn

s – construct

antially alter

16 prevented

key 2002). T

on OCMU’s 

nity with rich

n. The Macon

r, has caused

17 

s extensive m

the southwes

ut 40% of the

Unit (Figure

nd aquatic pl

U (Tables 3 a

owleaf naiad

pecies are im

he vascular p

n. Photo by M

ion of Inters

red wetland a

d surface wa

The crossing 

southeastern

h organic so

n levee, para

d more sever

marshes and 

stern and sou

e monument

e 2) consists 

lants, includi

and 4). Fou

d) are aquati

mportant to t

plant species 

Michael Mallin

state I-16 and

and aquatic 

aters from th

of the I-16 r

n border, and

ils to an ope

allel to the L

re flooding o

interior swa

utheastern b

t area is wetl

primarily of

ing 5 ferns a

ur species (bl

c, whereas th

the plant div

(Plate 8). 

n. 

d constructio

vegetation. T

heir natural f

roadbed with

d transforme

en aquatic w

Lamar Unit o

on the easter

amps domina

orders of OC

lands (Figur

f river floodp

and 12 exotic

ladderwort, 

he remainde

versity of the

on/modificat

The bridging

flow toward 

h a pre-exist

ed the area fr

etland with 

of OCMU on

rn shore (Fig

ated 

CMU 

re 1, 

plain 

c

er are 

tions 

g

the 

ting 

rom 

n the 

gure 
18 

6), which has led to increased erosion and tree loss (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). 

The resulting spaces have become overgrown with the exotic tree species Chinese privet, which 

tends to out-compete native, beneficial wetland tree species such as swamp chestnut and river 

birch. 

Terrestrial Vegetation 

Five major terrestrial habitats at OCMU include creek and river edges (which can also be 

wetlands), bottomland forest, upland oak-hickory forest, upland mixed hard-wood-pine forest, 

and regularly maintained road edges and fields. Uplands in the northern area of OCMU are 

covered by subclimax hardwood / mixed hardwood-pine forests with an understory of grass and 

sedge savannas (GA DNR 2004). Much of the Main Unit of OCMU, including the earthen 

works, has been cleared of trees and is maintained mechanically as open grasslands. A total of 

208 terrestrial vascular plants (not considering bryophytes) are listed as present in OCMU (NPS 

2008b). Two species, mimic trillium (Trillium decipiens) and daisy (prairie) fleabane (Erigeron 

strigosus), are species of concern: Mimic trillium has a global ranking of G3 (rare and local 

throughout its range, or in a special habitat, or narrowly endemic) and a state ranking of S3 (rare 

or uncommon in Georgia, on the order of 21-100 occurrences (GA DNR 2008a,b). Daisy 

fleabane (E. strigosus var. calcicola) has a global ranking of G5 (demonstrably secure globally), 

but a state ranking of S1 (critically imperiled in the state because of extreme rarity based upon 5 

or fewer documented occurrences). A third species, glade wildflower (Anemone berlandieri), is 

also included in GA DNR’s list of species of concern, although it is listed as G4 (apparently 

secure globally, and of no immediate conservation concern). 
19 

Table 3. Wetland and aquatic plant flora, excluding ferns (based upon Godfrey and Wooten 1981a,b), 

listed as occurring in OCMU (NPS 2008b). Asterisks (*) ≡ non-native species. 

Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens) Broadleaf carpetgrass (Axonopus compressus) 

Alder (Alnus serrulata) Broadleaf uniola (Chasmanthium latifolium) 

Alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) Broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus, A. virginicus 

American buckwheat vine (redvine) var. virginicus) 

 (Brunnichia ovata) Bullbrier (Smilax rotundifolia) 

American elder (Sambucus canadensis) Bulrush (woolgrass) (Scirpus cyperinus) 

American elm (Ulmus americana) Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) 

American holly (Ilex opaca) Camphor pluchea (Pluchea camphorata) 

American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) Canada clearweed (Pilea pumila) 

American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis) 

American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) Carolina ash (Fraxinus caroliniana) 

American witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana) Carolina bristlemallow (Modiola caroliniana) 

Amphibious sedge (Carex amphibola) Carolina elephantsfoot (Elephantopus carolinianus) 

Aneilima (Asian spiderwort) (Murdannia keisak) Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) 

Angelicatree (Aralia spinosa) Carolina jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens) 

Anglestem primrose-willow (anglestem Carolina ponysfoot (Dichondra carolinensis) 

 waterprimrose) (Ludwigia leptocarpa) Cat greenbrier (Smilax glauca) 

Annual blue grass (walkgrass) (Poa annua) Chapman's bluegrass (Poa chapmaniana) 

Arizona bog violet (Viola affinis) Cherrybark oak (Texas oak) (Quercus pagoda) 

Arrow-wood (blackhaw, possumhaw viburnum) Chervil (hairy-fruit chervil) (Chaerophyllum tainturieri) 

 (Viburnum nudum) Chinese (Japanese) honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica)* 

Arrow-leaf tearthumb (Polygonum sagittatum) Climbing hempvine (Mikania scandens) 

Ashleaf maple (box elder) (Acer negundo) Clustervine (hairy clustervine) (Jacquemontia 

Atamasco lily (Zephyranthes atamasco) tamnifolia) 

Azure bluet (Houstonia caerulea) Cocklebur (rough cocklebur) (Xanthium strumarium) 

Bagpod (Glottidium vesicarium) Common Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense)* 

Barnyard grass (watergrass) (Echinochloa Common cottonwood (Populus deltoides) 

 crus-galli)* Common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)

Beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps) Common (lamp) rush (Juncus effusus) 

Bearded (long-bracted) beggerticks Common trumpetcreeper (Campsis radicans) 

 (Bidens aristosa) Coral greenbrier (Smilax walteri) 

Bedstraw (Galium aparine) Creeping primrose-willow (creeping waterpurslane) 

Bent sedge (broom sedge) (Carex scoparia) (Ludwigia repens) 

Bigroot morning glory (Ipomoea pandurata) Creeping seedboxcylindricfruit (primrose-willow) 

Black gum (sour gum) (Nyssa sylvatica (Ludwigia glandulosa) 

 var. biflora) Cross-vine (trumpet-flower) (Bignonia capreolata, 

Black willow (Salix nigra) or Anisostichus capreolata, A. crucifera) 

Blue mistflower (Conoclinium coelestinum) Curley dock (Rumex crispus)* 

Blue (mad dog) skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) Curltop ladysthumb (Polygonum lapathifolium)

Bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) Dallas (water) grass (Paspalum dilatatum)* 

Bladderwort (swollen bladderwort) (Utricularia Darkgreen sedge (Carex venusta)

 inflata) Desert false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa) 

Bog hemp (small-spike false nettle Devil’s darning needles (Clematis virginiana) 

 (Boehmeria cylindrica) Dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium) 

Branched foldwing (Dicliptera brachiata) Dogtooth violet (Erythronium americanum) 

Brazilian vervain (Verbena brasiliensis) Dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum) 

Brazilian watermilfoil (parrot feather) Dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor) 

 (Myriophyllum aquaticum)* Drooping melonnettle (Guadeloupe cucumber) 

Bristly greenbrier (Smilax tamnoides) (Melothria pendula) 

Broadleaf arrowhead (wapato) (Sagittaria Duckweed (minute duckweed) (Lemna

 latifolia) perpusilla) 
20 

Table 3. (Continued). 

Dwarf St. Johnswort (Hypericum mutilum) Mountain azalea (Rhododendron canescens) 

Early woodbuttercup (Ranunculus abortivus) Mulberry (white mulberry) (Morus alba)* 

Eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia) Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) 

Eastern bluestar (Amsonia tabernaemontana) Narrowleaf naiad (needleleaf waternymph) (Najas filifolia)

Eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) Northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin) 

Eastern swampprivet (Texas forestiera) Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) 

 (Forestiera acuminata) Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens) 

Eastern sweetshrub (Calycanthus floridus) Pecan (Carya illinoensis) 

Fetterbush lyonia (Lyonia lucida) Peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea) 

Fivelobe cucumber (Cayaponia quinqueloba) Pine barren flatsedge (Cyperus retrorsus) 

Fringed sedge (Carex crinita) Pignut hickory (Carya glabra) 

Giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea) Pitted (white) morning glory (Ipomoea lacunosa) 

Giant duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza) Planertree (water elm) (Planera aquatica) 

Giant sedge (Carex gigantea) Poor-joe (rough buttonweed) (Diodia teres) 

Greater bladder sedge (Carex intumescens) Possum-haw (Ilex decidua) 

Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Prickly bog sedge (Carex atlantica) 

Green dragon (Arisaema dracontium) Prickly Florida blackberry (Rubus argutus) 

Green flatsedge (Cyperus virens) Primrose violet (Viola primulifolia) 

Green hawthorn (Crataegus viridis) Pretty verbena (purpletop vervain) (Verbena

Hairy bittercress (Cardamine hirsuta) bonariensis) 

Hairy smartweed (Polygonum hirsutum) Purple false foxglove (Agalinis purpurea) 

Hedgehog woodrush (Luzula echinata) Rattail smutgrass (Sporobolus indicus or 

Herbwilliam (threadleaf mockbishopweed) Sporobolus poiretii) 

 (Ptilimnium capillaceum) Red maple (Acer rubrum) 

Hop sedge (Carex lupulina) Red mulberry (Morus rubra) 

Horsetail (scouringrush) (Equisetum hyemale) Red-root flat sedge (redroot nutgrass) 

India (Indian) heliotrope (turnsole) (Cyperus erythrorhizos) 

 (Heliotropium indicum) Rice cut grass (Leersia oryzoides) 

Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) River birch (Betula nigra) 

Japanese mazus (Mazus pumilus)* Saw greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox) 

Japanese stiltgrass (Nepalese browntop)* Scaldweed (Cuscuta gronovii) 

 (Microstegium vimineum) Shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) 

Jewelweed (Impatiens capensis) Shallow sedge (Carex lurida) 

Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)* Sheep (red) sorrel (Rumex acetosella)* 

Jumpseed (Virginia smartweed) (Polygonum Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) 

 virginianum) Smallflower baby blue eyes (Nemophila aphylla) 

Juniper leaf (Polypremum procumbens) Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) 

Largeseed (southern) forget-me-not) (Myosotis Southern red oak (Quercus falcata)

 macrosperma) St. Andrew’s cross (Hypericum hypericoides) 

Large (spotted) spurge (Chamaesyce maculata) Strawcolored flatsedge (Cyperus strigosus) 

Laurel greenbrier (Smilax laurifolia) Swamp bay (Persea palustris) 

Laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia) Swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii) 

Leathery rush (Juncus coriaceous) Swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) 

Little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium, or Swamp sneezeweed (swamp sunflower)

 Andropogon scoparius) (Helianthus angustifolius) 

Little quakinggrass (Briza minor) Swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora) 

Lizard's tail (Saururus cernuus) Sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) 

Louisiana sedge (Carex louisianica) Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) 

Mexican (red) morningglory (redstar) (Ipomoea Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)

 coccinea) Thinfruit sedge (Carex flaccosperma) 

Moistbank pimpernel (shortstalk lindernia) Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)

 (Lindernia dubia) Vasey grass (Paspalum urvillei)*
21 

Table 3. (Continued). 

Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana) White grass (Leersia virginica) 

Virginia dayflower (Commelina virginica) Whorled marshpennywort (whorled pennyroyal) 

Virginia iris (Iris virginica) (Hydrocotyle verticillata) 

Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica) Willow oak (Quercus phellos) 

Virginia wild rye (Elymus virginicus) Winged elm (Ulmus alata) 

Water oak (Quercus nigra) Wingleaf primrose-willow (Ludwigia decurrens) 

Water primrose (Ludwigia peruviana)* Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) 

Water hickory (Carya aquatica) Yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis) 

Waterpod (Hydrolea quadrivalvis) Yellow thistle (Cirsium horridulum) 

White edge sedge (Carex debilis) 

Table 4. Wetland fern species listed as occurring in OCMU (NPS 2008b). 

Asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina spp. asplenioides) – shaded woods, swamps, stream banks, acid bogs 

Chainfern (Woodwardia areolata) – acidic bogs, wet woods 

Common ladyfern (Athryium filix-femina) - moist to wet forested thickets, along streambanks, in swamps 

Royal fern (Osmunda regalis var. spectabilis) – swampy areas, fens, damp woodlands 

Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) – open swamps, marshes, low woods 

Aquatic Macroinvertebrates 

Information on aquatic macroinvertebrates is lacking for OCMU. In the larger Altamaha River 

basin, which includes the Ocmulgee River basin, 16 mussel species including seven endemic 

species have been reported (Wisniewski et al. 2005). Three endemic species are rare (below), 

whereas the percentage of sites occupied by the four other endemic species, including the 

Georgia elephantear (Elliptio dariensis), the Altamaha slabshell (Elliptio hopetonensis), the 

Altamaha lance (Elliptio shepardiana), and the Altamaha pocketbook (Lampsilis 

dolabraeformis), has increased over the past 40 years (Wisniewski et al. 2005). 

Fish 

Nearly 20 years ago, Evans (1991) reported that the diverse fish fauna of the Ocmulgee River 

basin included 105 species representing 21 different families, with 1 endangered species (the 

Altamaha shiner, Cyprinella xaenura) and 2 rare species (the goldstripe darter, Etheostoma 

parvipinne and the redeye chub, Notropis harperi; GA DNR 2004). However, OCMU has a 

sparse fish fauna – only 31 species of uncertain abundance or health, and none of the rare or 

endangered species (Table 5). GA DNR (2004) reported at least 15 species of exotic fishes in the 

watershed, many of which are well established and detrimental to native fish populations. 

OCMU is disproportionately represented by non-native fish species; about 20% of its 31 species 

are non-native, including the common carp, longear sunfish, shoal bass, white crappie, channel 

catfish, and flathead catfish. Recreational fishing is allowed at OCMU, and largemouth bass and 

carp are common catches (Watson 2005). 
22 

Table 5. Fish species listed as occurring at OCMU, documented through one or more types of evidence 

as references, vouchers, and observations (NPS 2008b). Asterisk (*) ≡ probably present (cited on the 

OCMU species list but not documented in the most current inventory); double asterisk (**) ≡ non-native 

species. 

American eel (Anguilla rostrata) Golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas) 

Banded (diamond or little) sunfish Grass (redfin) pickerel (Esox americanus) 

 (Enneacanthus obesus) Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 

Black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) Longear sunfish (Lepomis megalotis)** 

Black (gray or striped) mullet (Mugil cephalus) Ocmulgee shiner (Cyprinella callisema) 

Blackbanded darter (Percina nigrofasciata) Okefenokee pygmy sunfish 

Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) (Elassoma okefenokee) 

Bluespotted sunfish (Enneacanthus gloriosus) Redbreast sunfish (Lepomis auritus) 

Bowfin (Amia calva) Redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus) 

Brook silverside (Labidesthes sicculus) Shoal bass (Micropterus cataractae)** 

Chain pickerel (Esox niger) Spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius) 

Channel (graceful) catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)** Spotted sucker (Minytrema melanops) 

Coastal shiner (Notropis petersoni) Spotted sunfish (Lepomis punctatus) 

Common (European) carp (Cyprinus carpio)** Taillight shiner (Notropis maculatus) 

Eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) Warmouth (Lepomis gulosus) 

Flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris)** White crappie (Pomoxis annularis)** 

Flier (peacock or round sunfish) (Centrarchus macropterus) 

Amphibians and Reptiles 

OCMU is located along the boundary between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain, and, as a result, 

resident herpetofauna include species characteristic of both physiographic provinces (Tuberville 

et al. 2005). OCMU has 25 species of amphibians (16 frogs and toads, 9 newts and salamanders) 

and 35 species of reptiles (8 lizards, 20 snakes, 7 turtles) (Table 6, Plate 9). In a comparison of 

16 parks that included OCMU, Tuberville et al. (2005) noted that larger parks had higher species 

richness. OCMU is smaller than many of the parks, which would suggest it is a fragile ecosystem 

that is highly vulnerable to edge and fragmentation effects (Figure 8). 
23 

Table 6. Herpetofauna of OCMU, documented through one or more types of evidence as references, 

vouchers, and observations (Tuberville et al. 2005, NPS 2008b). Asterisk (*) ≡ probably present (cited on 

the OCMU species list but not documented in the most current inventory); double asterisk (**) ≡ nonnative species. 

AMPHIBIANS 

Frogs and Toads 

American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) Northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans) 

American toad (Bufo americanus) Ornate chorus frog (Pseudacris ornata) 

Bird-voiced treefrog (Hyla avivoca) Southern chorus frog (Pseudacris nigrita) 

Eastern narrow-mouthed toad (Gastrophryne Southern cricket frog (Acris gryllus) 

 carolinensis) Southern (Florida) leopard frog (Rana spenocephala) 

Fowler’s toad (Bufo fowleri) Southern toad (Bufo terrestris) 

Gray (Cope’s gray) treefrog (Hyla versicolor) Spring peeper (Pseudacris crucifer) 

Green frog (Rana clamitans) Squirrel treefrog (Hyla squirella) 

Green treefrog (Hyla cinerea) 

Newts and Salamanders 

Dusky salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) Southern dusky salamander (Desmognathus 

Dwarf waterdog (Necturus punctatus)* auriculatus) 

Marbled salamander (Ambystoma opacum) Southern two-lined salamander (Eurycea cirrigera) 

Red salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) Three-lined salamander (Eurycea guttolineata) 

Ocmulgee slimy salamander (Plethodon ocmulgee) Two-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma means) 

REPTILES 

Crocodilians and Lizards 

American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Green anole (Anolis carolinensis) 

Broadheaded skink (Eumeces laticeps) Little brown (ground) skink (Scincella lateralis) 

Eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) Six-lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus) 

Five-lined (common) skink (Eumeces fasciatus) Southeastern five-lined skink (Eumeces inexpectatus) 

Snakes 

Brown watersnake (Nerodia taxispilota)** Northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon) 

DeKay’s (Florida) brown snake (Storeria dekayi) Plain-bellied watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster) 

Common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)* Racer (eastern racer) (Coluber constrictor) 

Common kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula) Ring-necked snake (Diadophis punctatus) 

Corn snake (Elaphe guttata) Rough green snake (Opheodrys aestivus)** 

Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus) Smooth earth snake (Virginia valeriae) 

Eastern hog-nosed snake (Heterodon platirhinos) Southern (common) copperhead (Agkistrodon

Eastern ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus) contortrix) 

Eastern rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta) Southern (banded) watersnake (Nerodia fasciata) 

Eastern worm snake (Carphophis amoenus) Timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus) 

Gray rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta spiloides) 

Turtles 

Common (eastern) box turtle (Terrapene carolina) Common (pond) slider (Trachemys scripta) 

Common (eastern) mud turtle (Kinosternon Common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina)

 subrubrum) Eastern painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) 

Common musk turtle (stinkpot) (Sternotherus River cooter (Pseudemys concinna) 

 odoratus) 

 
Figure 8. 

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Plate 9. T

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24 

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25 

Birds 

The NPS (2008b) lists 172 species of birds that have been reported at or near OCMU (Table 7). 

Of these, 19% (33 species) are closely associated with aquatic habitats, including the endangered 

wood stork which forages at OCMU during summer months. Wading birds are abundant (Chief 

Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). Migratory birds use OCMU as a stopover during spring and 

fall migrations, and recreational birding is a popular activity (Watson 2005). Although the area is 

important for birds during all seasons, OCMU does not have an active monitoring program 

(Watson 2005). An Avian Conservation Implementation Plan has been developed for OCMU, 

and was designed to help identify and prioritize bird conservation opportunities (Watson 2005). 

Mammals 

Despite heavy impacts on its natural resources by surrounding urbanization, there is abundant 

wildlife at OCMU, probably because a Greenway connects it to natural areas to the south 

(DeVivo 2006). The first comprehensive survey of terrestrial mammalian fauna of OCMU, 

excluding bats, was completed in 2003 (D. Webster, UNC Wilmington, notes). A total of 44 

species were listed as occurring (32) or probably occurring (12) at OCMU (Table 8), including 8 

species (18%) closely associated with aquatic habitats and 6 exotic species (below). In addition, 

the NPS has evidence that the American black bear occurs in the park (J. DeVivo, pers. comm.). 

All 45 species have broad habitat tolerances and widespread geographic distributions in the 

eastern U.S. (Hall 1981, Choate et al. 1994). Species closely associated with aquatic habitats 

include the American beaver, common muskrat, marsh rabbit, marsh rice rat, northern river otter, 

swamp rabbit, and the large exotic rodent nutria (below). Among these, swamp rabbits generally 

occur above the Fall Line in the Piedmont, whereas marsh rabbits tend to occur below the Fall 

Line in the Coastal Plain (Hall 1981). Both species have been reported from Bibb County 

(Golley 1962). They were not found in the 2003 survey, but both may occur in OCMU. 

Two species of mammals that were once widely distributed in the eastern U.S. (mountain lion, 

Puma concolor; red wolf, Canis rufus) have been reported as extirpated from the OCMU region 

(D. Webster, UNC Wilmington, unpublished notes). The white-tailed deer is the only large 

indigenous mammal presently in OCMU and the surrounding area (GA DNR 2004; DeVivo 

2006). Beavers and other small mammals, including raccoons, opossums, flying squirrels, rabbits 

and numerous species of ground-dwelling rodents are also abundant within OCMU (GA DNR 

2004; DeVivo 2006). 
26 

Table 7. Bird species that have been observed at OCMU (NPS 2008b). Asterisk (*) ≡ species 

documented near OCMU, and OCMU has appropriate habitat; asterisks (**) ≡ non-native species; L ≡

listed (imperiled). 

Species associated with aquatic habitats 

American coot (Fulica americana) Lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) 

American wigeon (Anas americana) Little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) 

Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus motacilla) 

Belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) 

Blue-winged teal (Anas discors) Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata) 

Canada goose (Branta canadensis) Northern waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis) 

Common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 

Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps) 

 auritus) Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) 

Gadwall (Anas strepera) * Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) 

Glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) 

Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) Snowy egret (Egretta thula) 

Great egret (Ardea alba) Solitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria) 

Greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia) 

Green heron (Butorides virescens) White ibis (Eudocimus albus) 

Green-winged teal (Anas crecca)* Wood duck (Aix sponsa) 

Least sandpiper (Calidris minutilla)* Wood stork (Mycteria americana) L

Other species 

Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virsecens) Cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) 

American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) Cape May warbler (Dendroica tigrina) 

American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis) Cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) 

American kestrel (Falco sparverius) Cerulean warbler (Dendroica cerulea) L 

American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) Chestnut-sided warbler (Dendroica pensylvanica) 

American robin (Turdus migratorius) Chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica) 

Bank swallow (Riparia riparia) Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina) 

Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) Chuck-will’s widow (Caprimulgus carolinensis)* 

Barred owl (Strix varia) Common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) 

Bay-breasted warbler (Dendroica castanea) Common ground-dove (Columbina passerina) 

Black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia) Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) 

Black-throated blue warbler (Dendroica Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) 

 caerulescens) Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi) 

Black-throated green warbler (Dendroica virens) Dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis) 

Black vulture (Coragyps atratus) Downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens)

Blackburnian warbler (Dendroica fusca) Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) 

Blackpoll warbler (Dendroica striata) Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) 

Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea) Eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) 

Blue-headed (solitary) vireo (Vireo solitarius) Eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) 

Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) Eastern screech owl (Megascops asio) 

Blue grosbeak (Guiraca caerulea) Eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens) 

Blue-winged warbler (Vermivora pinus) European starling (Sturnus vulgaris)** 

Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) Evening grosbeak (Coccothraustes vespertinus) 

Brown creeper (Certhia americana) Field sparrow (Spizella pusilla) 

Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) Fish crow (Corvus ossifragus) 

Brown-headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla) Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) 

Brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum) Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa) 

Canada warbler (Wilsonia canadensis) Golden-winged warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera)

 L 

Carolina chickadee (Poecile carolinensis) Gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) 

Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) Gray-cheeked thrush (Catharus minimus) 

 
27 

Table 7. (Continued). 

Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus) Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) 

Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) 

Hairy woodpecker (Picoides villosus) Rock dove (Columba livia)** 

Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus) Rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus) 

Hooded warbler (Wilsonia citrina) Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula) 

House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus) Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) 

House sparrow (Passer domesticus)** Rufous-sided (eastern) towhee (Pipilo 

House wren (Troglodytes aedon) erythrophthalmus) 

Indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea) Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus) 

Kentucky warbler (Oporornis formosus) Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) 

Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis) 

Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) 

Magnolia warbler (Dendroica magnolia) Semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) 

Merlin (Falco columbarius) Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) 

Mississippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis) Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) 

Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) Summer tanager (Piranga rubra) 

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) Swainson’s thrush (Catharus ustulatus) 

Northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) Swainson’s warbler (Limnothlypis swainsonii) 

Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) Swamp sparrow (Melospiza georgiana) 

Northern harrier (Circus cyaneus) Tennessee warbler (Vermivora peregrina) 

Northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) Tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor) 

Northern (Baltimore) oriole (Icterus galbula) Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) 

Northern parula (Parula americana) Veery (Catharus fuscescens) 

Northern rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx Whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus vociferus)* 

 serripennis) White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) 

Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata) White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys) 

Orchard oriole (Icterus spurius) White-eyed vireo (Vireo griseus) 

Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) 

Palm warbler (Dendroica palmarum) Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) 

Philadelphia vireo (Vireo philadelphicus) Wilson’s plover (Charadrius wilsonia) L

 

Pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) Winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) 

Pine siskin (Carduelis pinus) Wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) 

Pine warbler (Dendroica pinus) Worm-eating warbler (Helmitheros vermivorus) 

Prairie warbler (Dendroica discolor) Yellow-bellied flycatcher (Empidonax flaviventris) 

Prothonotary warbler (Protonotaria citrea) Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) 

Purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus) Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) 

Purple martin (Progne subis) Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens) 

Red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus) Yellow-rumped warbler (Dendroica coronata) 

Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Yellow-throated vireo (Vireo flavifrons) 

Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Yellow-throated warbler (Dendroica dominica) 

Red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia) 

 erythrocephalus) 
28 

Table 8. Mammals listed as occurring at OCMU (*, probably present; **, exotic introduced species; D. 

Webster, UNCW data for the NPS, and NPS 2008b). 

Species associated with aquatic habitats 

American beaver (Castor canadensis) Muskrat (muskbeaver) (Ondatra zibethicus) 

American mink (Mustela vison)* Northern river otter (Lontra canadensis) 

Marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris)* Nutria (coypu) (Myocastor coypus) ** 

Marsh rice rat (Oryzomys palustris)* Swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus)* 

 

Other species 

American black bear (Ursus americanus) Golden mouse (Ochrotomys nuttalli)* 

Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) 

Bobcat (Lynx rufus) House mouse (Mus musculus) ** 

Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) Least shrew (Cryptotis parva)* 

Common gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata)* 

Cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus) Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor) 

Coyote (Canis latrans) Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)* ** 

Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus) Oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) 

Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) Rafinesque’s (eastern) big-eared bat 

Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) (Corynorhinus rafinesquii) 

Eastern harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) 

 humulis)* Seminole bat (Lasiurus seminolus) 

Eastern mole (topos) (Scalopus aquaticus) Southeastern shrew (Sorex longirostris)* 

Eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus) Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans)* 

Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) Southern short-tailed shrew (Blarina carolinensis) 

Eastern woodrat (Neotoma floridana) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)* 

Evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis) Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) 

Feral cat (Felis catus)** White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 

Feral dog (Canis familiaris)** Woodland (pine) vole (Microtus pinetorum) 

Feral pig (Sus scrofa)** 

Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species 

Two terrestrial plant species, glade windflower (Anemone berlandieri) and cedar glade (Erigeron 

strigosus [var. calcicola]), are listed as protected species in Georgia (GA DNR 2008a). Glade 

windflower, found in granite outcrop ecotones or openings over rocks, is listed as S1S2 (S1 ≡

critically imperiled, rare with 5 or fewer known occurrences; S2 – imperiled, rarity with 6 to 20 

known occurrences). Cedar glade is listed as S1. 

Three wetland species (bent sedge, darkgreen sedge, and fivelobe cucumber) and one aquatic 

species (narrowleaf naiad; Plate 10) inhabiting OCMU are listed by GA DNR (2008b) as species 

of concern: All three species have a G5 (bent sedge – demonstrably secure globally) or G4 

global ranking (darkgreen sedge and fivelobe cucumber – apparently secure globally), but a state 

ranking of S1. Narrowleaf naiad is the species of most concern; its global ranking is G1 

(critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity), its state ranking is S1, and it is also on 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife federal endangered species list (GA DNR2008b). 
Plate 10. 

Sue Scott

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in including

ltamaha arcm

e inflated flo

have declined

ies inhabit O

hat occur at O

al authorities

(R, protected

eseeable futu

r – endanger

also federally

georgiawildli

d bat, is listed

re found at O

scaping or o

nese privet, w

se honeysuck

chinaberry (M

(USDI-NPS 

U have also b

ian parrotfea

29 

dangered aq

ajas_flexilis/)

g the Ocmulg

mussel (Alas

oater (Pygan

d over the pa

OCMU water

OCMU are c

s. GA DNR (

d); Wilson’s 

ure througho

red (E, in dan

y listed as an

ife.dnr.state.

d by GA DN

OCMU, mos

ornamental e

which is loca

kle), which c

Melia azeda

2000, DeViv

been expandi

ather and nui

uatic species

. 

gee River ba

smidonta arc

nodon gibbos

ast 40 years 

rs. 

considered a

(2008b) has 

 plover – thr

out all or par

nger of extin

n endangered

.ga.us/conten

NR (2008b) a

st of which h

fforts. Speci

ated primaril

can also be a

arach), which

vo 2006). T

ing over the 

isance water

s that occurs i

asin, three en

cula), the Al

sa), and the 

(Wisniewsk

as imperiled 

listed the fo

reatened (T, 

rt of its range

nction throug

d species (L

nt/protectedb

as rare. 

have been int

ies that have

ly within the

a wetland sp

h has been c

Tree of heave

past several

r primrose ca

n OCMU. Fro

ndemic speci

ltamaha spin

percentage o

ki et al. 2005)

(rare, threat

ollowing bird

likely to bec

e); and wood

ghout all or p

E; U.S. Fish

birds.asp). O

troduced to 

e been manag

e wetlands (T

pecies (Table

controlled wh

en (Ailanthu

l years (DeV

an be abund

om 

ies of 

ny 

of 

). It 

tened 

d

come 

d

part 

h and 

One 

ged 

Table 

e 2); 

here 

us 

Vivo 

dant 
30 

in the large pond of OCMU’s Main Unit (first author’s observation, November 2007; the latter 

species has been added to the species list for this report). 

The southern pine beetle, Dentroctonus frontalis, considered the most destructive forest insect 

pest in the southeastern U.S. (Clarke 1995), have historically caused heavy damage to OCMU’s 

loblolly pine stands. The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), an invasive species from 

South America introduced to the U.S. in the 1930s (Porter and Savignano 1990), is present in 

OCMU (DeVivo 2006). This aggressive species has largely displaced the two fire ant species 

native to the Southeast, Solenopsis geminata and Solenopsis exloni (Porter and Savignano 1990). 

Six exotic animal species are established at OCMU including the ubiquitous house mouse; 

Norway rat; feral pigs, cats and dogs; and the wetland rodent nutria. Populations of feral-boar 

hybrids have become a threat to both natural and cultural resources through their foraging and 

wallowing activities, especially in the wetlands east of Walnut Creek and in the Lamar Unit (GA 

DNR 2004; D. Webster, UNC Wilmington notes). OCMU has an active trapping and eradication 

program that has removed more than 150 individuals, but OCMU is likely to continue receiving 

individuals from source populations outside its boundaries (DeVivo 2006). Feral cats pose a 

potential threat to populations of migratory songbirds, reptiles, and small mammals (DeVivo 

2006), and feral dogs are also present. In addition, within the past ~decade, coyotes have 

established in OCMU, with as-yet unknown consequences for the ecosystem (Watson 2005, 

DeVivo 2006). 

Because of their association with wetlands, nutria merit special mention. The impacts of these 

large rodents on native plant communities have not been adequately assessed, but they can 

rapidly reduce wetland plant diversity through their foraging activity. 

Assessment of OCMU Water and Air Resources 

OCMU’s drinking water is supplied from the Ocmulgee River by the MWA. OCMU has a 

sewage lift station adjacent to the railroad tracks, and several miles of underground sewage lines, 

built from the 1920s (USDI-NPS 2000, Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). The monument 

was affected for years by sewage spills from the old pipes, but all of the sewage lines finally 

were relined by 2006 (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). 

Surface Water Quality 

Locations for sampling stations near or within OCMU, discussed in this section, were obtained 

from the U.S. EPA STORET. Latitudes and longitudes for these sites were imported from 

Microsoft Excel into ArcMap and converted to GIS point files. 

OCMU does not have a water resources management plan. Available data sources for surface 

water quality in or near the monument are at least a decade old, or sparse and infrequently 

collected (Table 8, Appendix 3). As mentioned, the USGS previously maintained flow/ water 

quality stations on the Ocmulgee River (USGS #02213000) and Walnut Creek (NAD27, site 

#02213050 in Jones County near Gray, GA), ~4.5 miles upstream from the northern boundary of 

OCMU. However, water quality data are only available from the 1960s- mid-1970s. The NPS 

maintained 15 water quality sampling stations in or within ~15 miles of OCMU from 1986 to 

1996, including 11 stations in OCMU (Table 8, Figure 9). 
Figure 9.

1996), an

large junk

Previous 

that pH, f

Georgia w

acceptab

samples t

Fecal col

River sam

1999-200

the other

conducte

 Twelve prev

d 1 GA DNR 

kyard, Bibb Au

data invento

fecal colifor

water quality

le by the U.S

taken in both

liform densit

mples, and tu

00, the GA D

r on Walnut C

ed by the Cou

vious water qu

station (~1 ye

uto Salvage a

ories and ana

rm bacterial 

y criteria at l

S. EPA (chro

h the Ocmul

ties violated

urbidity exce

DNR-EPD sa

Creek (Table

unty in the O

uality samplin

ear, Jan. 199

along the nort

alyses carrie

densities, tur

least once. T

onic criterion

lgee River an

d the standard

eeded 50 NT

ampled two 

es 9 and 10, 

OCMU area 

31 

ng stations in 

9 – Jan or Ma

theastern bord

ed out by the

rbidity, lead

The pH was 

n for freshw

nd Walnut C

d for drinkin

TU in about 

sites in the v

Figure 10). 

(C. Brooks, 

OCMU, inclu

arch 2000; se

der of OCMU

e NPS (2002

d, copper, zin

outside the 

water aquatic

Creek. 

ng water sou

20% of the s

vicinity, one

 Water quali

 Bibb Count

ding 11 NPS 

ee Table 8). T

U, is also show

2) within OC

nc, and chlor

range (6.5-9

c life) in abou

urces in 65% 

samples (NP

e on the Ocm

ity sampling

ty Engineer, 

stations (198

The location o

wn. 

CMU indicate

rine all exce

9) considered

ut 5% of the

of the Ocmu

PS 2002). Fr

mulgee River

g has not bee

 pers. comm

86-

of a 

ed 

eded 

d

e

ulgee 

rom 

r and 

en 

m.). 
32 

Table 9. Surface water quality datasets in the OCMU area (within about 1 mile upstream from the 

monument) from the past ten or more years, and present status. 

Source Data Description Present Status (2007-2008) 

Bibb County Engineering 

(C. Brooks, Engineer IV) 

NPDES stormwater monitoring data Stated that no WQ sampling has been 

conducted in the OCMU area as specified 

(see table legend). The county is a coapplicant with the City of Macon for two 

Phase I MS4 stormwater permits.a 

City of Macon Engineering 

(D. Tavakol, Interim City 

Engineer) 

NPDES stormwater monitoring data Data were provided for Walnut Creek 

(Jacksonville Rd. site) on 3 dates in 2007-

2008 (collected for the City by a consulting 

firm, Analytical Environmental Services, 

Inc.); described as the only data collected 

by the City within the OCMU area as 

specified (see table legend). 

Macon Water Authority 

(M. Wyzalek, Laboratory 

and Environmental 

Compliance Manager) 

EPA ICR and 

Ocmulgee Watershed Study data 

Partial monthly data were provided from 2 

sites within a 10-mile radius of OCMU 

(requested total sampling duration was not 

provided). Other requested data and a 

requested map of the sanitary sewers were 

not made available (but note that a GIS 

layer for Macon sewer lines does not yet 

exist) 

GA DNR-EPD 303(d) list of impaired streams Status available through 2008 (GA DNR 

2008c,d) 

U.S. EPA STORET data b

 

(Upper Ocmulgee watershed, HUC 

03070103) 

Data available for 17 locations in the OCMU 

vicinity (Ocmulgee River and Walnut 

Creek), including 15 NPS sites and 2 GA 

DNR sites; few data from the past ten 

years. 

Mercer University 

(Dr. B. Roodand volunteer 

group, the Ocmulgee River 

Initiative, Inc. [ORI] along 

with a recently initiated ORI 

Stream Watch Program) 

Water quality data 

(Spring Street, Macon) 

Data collected on the Ocmulgee River for 

14 years ongoing, with ~quarterly sampling 

of one site near OCMU. Data summaries 

for turbidity, specific conductance, color, 

inorganic N (ammonium, nitrate, nitrite), 

and phosphate were provided from 1996-

2000. 

a For the MS4 stormwater permits (#GAS000203 and #GAS000204), the detailed facility reports indicate no inspection or 

compliance data. Industrial facilities and developers apply for their own stormwater permits separately from the County, and the 

County does not keep records of these. They are also sporadic/missing on the EPA ECHO ICIS-NPDES search engine 

(incomplete) and the EPA Envirofacts PCS system (the latter is older and outdated). 

b

 The STORET data include 15 NPS sites (sampled from 1986-1996) and 2 GA DNR-EPD sites (sampled from 1999-2000 - one on 

the Ocmulgee River, the other on Walnut Creek) in or near OCMU. Data were also available for 2 other GA DNR-EPD sites (1 on 

the Ocmulgee River and 1 on Walnut Creek), but they were not included in this report because they are distant (> 10 miles 

upstream) from OCMU. It should be noted that the watershed summaries in STORET often contained duplicate data from GA 

DNR, including one entry from GA DNR EPD and a second entry from a newer framework, the Water Quality Exchange 

(GEPD_WQX). The fact that duplication was inconsistent among dates, and that within a date frequently some but not all 

parameters were duplicated, necessitated intensive record-by-record inspection. 
Figure 10

historic as

NPDES s

point sour

sampling 

in the area

bordered 

Broadway

0. Map of the

s well as histo

ite is north of

rces are sligh

sites in close

a include (1) 

by the Ocmu

y, and (4) Arc

 Macon area 

oric and prese

f the area sho

tly downstrea

e proximity wit

Macon Gas L

lgee River), (

her Daniels M

showing OCM

ent water qua

own, whereas 

am (0.18 mile

thin OCMU (s

Light & Water

2) Walker La

Midland (ADM

33 

MU, the Maco

ality sampling 

the MWA an

) from the La

see Figure 9);

r Company (~

kes Dump Sit

M) Inc. (both ~

on city limits, 

stations (note

nd Macon was

mar Unit of O

; some are ob

~0.5 mile west

te (0.75 mile w

~2 miles west 

surface wate

e that Georgi

stewater treat

OCMU). Ther

bscured here.

t of the OCMU

west of OCM

of OCMU). 

Main 

Lamar 

OCM

OCM

ers, wetlands,

a Power Plan

tment plant m

re are 11 NPS

. Superfund s

U boundary 

U), (3) Ash &

Unit 

Unit 

MU 

U 

 and 

nt’s 

major 

S WQ 

sites 

&
34 

Table 10. Available data for surface water quality in the OCMU area from 1999 to the present (sources: 

GA DNR-EPD via STORET, MWA, and City of Macon). Note that U.C. ≡ unacceptable conditions. 

Underline and bold ≡ data in violation of state standard (GA DNR 2008d – see pp. 44-46 of this Report), 

except for fecal coliforms for which the data suggest degraded conditionsa. Blue and bold ≡ can support 

noxious algal blooms (NO3

-

+NO2

-

 – see Mallin 2000), or data exceeded recommended values to protect 

aquatic life (BOD5 - see Mallin 2006). Bold shaded ≡ data exceeded recommended values for 

acceptable water quality (U.S. EPA 2000: for TSS, 25 mg/L maximum, and < 10 mg/L increase from a 

sudden spike; for metals (Al, Cu, Hg, Pb, Ni, Zn), see pp. 46-48 of this Report). Note that U.S. EPA 

(2002) recommends that pH should be maintained within the range 6.5-9; this Report, however, follows 

Georgia regulations (pH > 6.0). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean (range) or 

single value (sv) Median 

Number of 

UCs 

Walnut Creek, OCMU 

GEPD 5011251 (Walnut Creek, NE boundary of OCMU; lat. 32.8461, long. -83.5956 – GA DNR) 

Temperature (oC) Jan 99 - Mar 00 22 18.1 (7.5 - 29.3) 17.1 --- 

Discharge (cfs) Jan 99 - Mar 00 21 143.4 (0.2 - 300) 200 --- 

Stream stage height (ft) Jan 99 - Mar 00 22 1.35 (0.52 - 3.4) 1.26 --- 

Turbidity (NTU) Jan 99 - Jan 00 12 14.4 (3 - 40) 9 --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) Jan 99 - Mar 00 22 116.8 (73 - 150) 120.5 --- 

DO (mg/L) Jan 99 - Mar 00 21 8.6 (6.1 - 11.1) 8.5 --- 

pH Jan 99 - Mar 00 23 7.3 (6.9 - 7.8) 7.3 --- 

NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N (μg/L) Jan 99 - Jan 00 12 202 (40 - 340) 205 11 

NH4

+

N (μg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 56 56 (30 - 130) 40.5 1 

TP (μg/L) Jan 99 - Jan 00 12 29 (20 - 50) 26 --- 

TOC (mg/L) Jan 99 - Jan 00 12 2.0 (1.2 - 4.4) 2 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) Jan 99 - Jan 00 12 2.1 (2 - 3.3) 2 1 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) Jan 99 - Oct 00 16 7,168 (20 - 92,000) 945 10 (10) 

Toxics - Water 16-Sep-99 8-Mar-00 

Antimony 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Arsenic 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Cadmium 0.5 μg/L 0.5 μg/L 

Calcium 11,000 μg/L 7,800 μg/L 

Chromium 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Copper 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Lead 2 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Magnesium 4,200 μg/L 3,300 μg/L 

Mercury 0.1 μg/Lb

 0.1 μg/L* 

Nickel 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Selenium 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Thallium 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Zinc 5 μg/L 6 μg/L 
35 

Table 10. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean (range) or 

single value (sv) Median 

Number of 

UCs 

Upstream from OCMU – Walnut Creek

JVR - Walnut Creek Bridge, Jeffersonville Rd. (0.4 mile upstream; lat. 32.8521, long. - 83.5934 – MWA) 

Temperature (oC) Jun 07 - Aug 08 10 18.6 (9 – 26.5) 19.3 --- 

Turbidity (NTU) Nov 05 - Aug 08 33 18.5 (1.6 - 250) 7.3 --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm) May 07 - Aug 08 12 132.7 (74.7 - 250) 122 --- 

DO (mg/L) May 07 - Aug 08 11 7.9 (5.4 - 10.4) 8.4 --- 

pH Apr 07 - Aug 08 13 7.0 (6.3 - 7.8) 6.9 --- 

Color Nov 05 - Aug 08 33 89.4 (15 - 1,200) 30 --- 

Water Quality (n = 1) 15-Nov-07 11-Jan-08 20 Mar 08 

pH sv 6.94 sv 6.38 sv 7.13 

BOD5 (mg/L) BRL BRL sv 22.8

COD (mg/L) sv 22 sv 20 sv 43 

TP (μg/L) sv 82 sv 112 sv 103

TSS (mg/L) sv 108 sv 87 sv 70

TDS (mg/L) sv 91 sv 91 sv 61 

TKN (μg/L) BRL BRL sv 60 

NOX (μg/L) sv 97 sv 344 sv 171

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) sv 150 sv 7,000 sv 4,500

Total coliforms, 

 Escherichia coli (mpn/100 mL) sv 11,000 sv > 24,196 sv 16,000

Lead (μg/L) sv 3.27 sv 10.7 sv 5.15

Zinc (μg/L) sv 105 sv 104 sv 74

Tetrachloroethane 

 (volatile organic, μg/L) sv 8.8 BRL BRL 

Ocmulgee River near OCMU 

MLK Jr. Blvd. Bridge (adjacent to OCMU; lat. 32.8387, long. - 83.6205 – MWA) 

Temperature (oC) Dec 07 - Aug 08 9 19.4 (11 - 29.5) 17.5 --- 

Turbidity (NTU) Oct 05 - Aug 08 35 12.9 (1.4 - 60) 7.1 --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) May 07 - Aug 08 13 154.8 (23 - 235) 149 --- 

DO (mg/L) May 07 - Aug 08 11 8.4 (6.8 - 10.4) 8.1 --- 

pH Apr 07 - Aug 08 13 7.3 (6.4 - 7.99) 7.3 --- 

Color Oct 05 - Aug 08 34 45.1 (10 - 150) 30 --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) May 05 - Aug 08 39 318 (0 - 10,600) 20 3 (1) 
36 

Table 10. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean (range) or 

single value (sv) Median 

Number of 

UCs 

Upstream from OCMU – Ocmulgee River

GEPD 5010001 (3.2 miles upstream – Ocmulgee River; lat. 32.8697, long. - 83.6542 – GA DNR) 

Temperature (oC) Jan 99 - Dec 00 43 20.4 (5 - 34.5) 20.5 --- 

Discharge (cfs) Jan 99 - Dec 00 45 1,329 (264 - 9,060) 850 --- 

Stream stage height (ft) Jan 99 - Dec 00 45 6.9 (4.97 - 15.75) 6.25 --- 

Turbidity (NTU) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 7.8 (1 - 34) 5.5 --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) Jan 99 - Dec 00 45 127 (81 - 173) 126 --- 

DO (mg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 42 8.8 (6.8 - 12.6) 8.05 --- 

pH Jan 99 - Dec 00 43 7.4 (6.7 - 8.0) 7.4 --- 

NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N (μg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 480 (20 - 840) 460 23 

NH4

+

N (μg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 40 (30 - 130) 30 1 

TKN (μg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 1,055 (180 – 19,000) 270 24 

TP (μg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 28 (20 - 60) 22 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) Jan 99 - Dec 00 24 2 (2 - 2) 2 --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) Jan 99 - Oct 99 16 194 (20 - 700) 65 4 (2) 

Toxics – Water 1-Feb-99 16-Sep-99 8 Mar 00 13-Jun-00 14-Nov-00 

Antimony 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Arsenic 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 3 μg/L 4 μg/L 

Cadmium 0.5 μg/L 0.5 μg/L 0.5 μg/L 0.5 μg/L 0.5 μg/L 

Calcium 6.1 mg/L 12.0 mg/L 7.1 mg/L 10.0 μg/L 11.0 mg/L 

Chromium 6 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 3 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Copper 7 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Lead 6 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Magnesium 2.8 mg/L 2.7 mg/L 2.0 mg/L 2.5 mg/L 2.4 mg/L 

Mercury 0.1 μg/L 0.1 μg/L 0.1 μg/L 0.1 μg/L 0.1 μg/L 

Nickel 3 μg/L 1 μg/L 1 μg/L 2 μg/L 1 μg/L 

Selenium 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 4 μg/L 

Thallium 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 2 μg/L 

Zinc 25 μg/L 3 μg/L 1 μg/L 7 μg/L 15 μg/L 

a Data were not collected with sufficient frequency to enable calculation of geometric means, used for the State standards (see pp. 41-

42 of this Report). Unacceptable water quality (last column of table, 1st number) exceeded the fecal bacteria water quality standard 

values considered for geometric means (> 200 mpn/100 mL in May - Oct; > 1,000 mpn/100 mL during Nov - Apr) and suggest 

degraded conditions. The 2nd number in the “Unacceptable” column, in parentheses, is the number of samples with fecal coliform 

densities > 400 mpn/100 mL, in consideration of the U.S. EPA’s (2003) recommendation for data collected with insufficient frequency 

to determine geometric means by the State’s criteria. 

b

 Detection limit with the method used. 
37 

The City of Macon Engineering section sent data for sampling of Walnut Creek near OCMU on 

three dates in 2007-2008 for limited parameters (Tables 9 and 10). Macon’s Stormwater 

Manage-ment Program was enacted in 1995, and water quality monitoring began in 1996 (D. 

Tavakol, Interim City Engineer, pers. comm.). The City has conducted the sampling in-house 

and sends the samples to a consulting firm for analysis. Renewal of the City’s Stormwater 

Management Plan was rejected by GA DNR in 2004 because of failure to protect stormwater 

runoff from pollution (Duncan 2004), but was later accepted after the City contracted with a 

stormwater consultant. 

The MWA provided a partial dataset for monthly water quality at two sites near OCMU (Figure 

10). Turbidity and color were sampled from 2005-2008, whereas DO, pH and conductivity were 

added to the sampling protocol in 2008. In addition, fecal coliform bacteria were sampled at the 

Ocmulgee River site. Although sparse, the data for both the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek 

near OCMU indicate water quality degradation from excessive fecal coliform densities, 

excessive organic pollution (as BOD5), and nutrient over-enrichment (nitrate + nitrite). 

A one-year ~monthly sampling effort by the GA DNR in Walnut Creek at the northeast 

boundary of OCMU (station #GEPD 5011251) revealed median nitrate concentrations of 205 

μg/L (maximum 340 μg/L), which is excessive when compared to inorganic N levels known to 

promote noxious algal blooms (Mallin 2000). Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) exceeded 

U.S. EPA recommended values to protect aquatic life on 1 of 12 dates. Fecal coliform bacteria 

indicated degradation from sewage and animal wastes; values exceeding 200 mpn/100 mL were 

recorded on 13 of 16 sampling dates, with a median count of 945 mpn/100 mL, and a maximum 

of 92,000 mpn/100 mL. 

At the JVR site 0.4 mile upstream from OCMU, MWA data available for a small set of 

parameters from 2005-2008, not including fecal coliforms, indicated high maximal turbidity (250 

NTU) and color (1,200). Also at the JVR site, the sparse City of Macon dataset – comprising the 

most recent water quality data – was troubling as well: Although samples were collected on only 

3 dates in 2007-2008, violations of the state water quality standards or the U.S. EPA’s 

recommended guidelines to protect aquatic life were reported for most parameters measured 

(BOD5, TSS, TDS, fecal coliform bacteria, total coliform bacteria / Escherichia coli, lead, zinc). 

Moreover, two of the three nutrient variables (TP, NOx) exceeded levels known to promote 

noxious algal blooms on 2 of 3 dates (e.g. see Plate 11). The median TSS concentration (87 

mg/L) indicated extreme degradation from an urban/industrial load of suspended sediments (as 

shown in Plate 3); median and total fecal coliform/E. coli densities (4,500 mpn/100 mL and 

16,000 mpn/100 mL, respectively) indicated degraded conditions for fishing and other human 

recreational contact; and the median zinc and lead concentrations indicated toxic conditions for 

aquatic life. 
Plate 11. 

Mallin.

The Ocm

data (ML

maximal 

suggested

GEPD 50

of 200 m

River Ini

trations o

Walnut C

OCMU w

some oth

Algal bloom i

mulgee River

LK Jr. Blvd. 

fecal colifor

d degraded c

010001) indi

mpn/100 mL 

itiative (~qua

on most sam

Creek and th

waters consid

her paramete

in a backwate

r adjacent to 

Bridge, take

rm concentr

conditions. G

icated exces

on 6 of 16 sa

arterly, 1996

pling dates. 

e Ocmulgee

dering total 

rs, such as in

er area of Wa

OCMU, by 

en ~monthly

rations (318 m

GA DNR dat

sive nitrate c

ampling date

6-2000; Tabl

Thus, collec

 River suppo

and fecal co

norganic N, 

38 

alnut Creek, O

comparison

y or less frequ

mpn/100 mL

ta from a sit

concentratio

es during 19

le 11) indica

ctively the av

ort Byrne’s (

oliforms, and

since that as

OCMU, Novem

n, was less de

quently) from

L and 10,600

te 3.2 miles u

ons and fecal

999. Data fro

ated moderat

vailable surf

(2004) “pote

d degraded c

ssessment w

mber 2007. P

egraded acco

m 2005-2008

0 mpn/100 m

upstream of 

l coliform de

om the nonp

te inorganic 

face water qu

ential red fla

onditions wi

was contribut

Photo by Mich

ording to MW

8. The mean 

mL, respectiv

OCMU (sta

ensities in ex

profit Ocmul

N and P con

uality data fo

ag” status for

ith respect to

ted. 

hael 

WA 

and 

vely) 

ation 

xcess 

lgee 

ncenfor 

r

o 
39 

Table 11. Data from the Ocmulgee River Initiative, Inc. for water quality of the Ocmulgee River at Spring 

Street, ~0.4 mile upstream from OCMU (latitude 32.5043, longitude -83.3740), sampled approximately 

seasonally (courtesy of B. Rood, Mercer University). 

Drinking Water 

Drinking water is supplied to OCMU from the MWA as mentioned (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, 

pers. comm.) and, so, is not at risk from fecal bacteria. 

Groundwater Quality 

Data are not available to assess groundwater quality in OCMU. Water from the Cretaceous 

aquifer system underlying OCMU often is acidic (pH below 7.0) because of substantial carbon 

dioxide, and can be corrosive (Tyson 1993). 

Sources of Pollutants 

Point Sources 

NPDES permit information and any compliance actions were accessed from the U.S. EPA 

Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO) Permit Compliance System, or from the 

modernized ECHO Integrated Compliance Information System (http://www.epa-echo.gov/echo/ 

compliance_report _water.html). Unfortunately, the position locations of the NPDES point 

sources in Bibb County, as downloaded from the U.S. EPA website, contained various errors. 

The GIS coordinates were listed in decimal degrees but, when plotted, were clearly incorrect and 

showed the site locations as given in Emanual County, ~63 miles due-east of Bibb County. 

An updated draft of NPDES permit locations was provided by the GA DNR EPD’s Watershed 

Protection Branch, but some locations still were suspect. For example, the new draft location for 

#GA0024538 (Macon Water Authority sewerage system, Poplar St. site) locates the site slightly 

downstream (0.18 mile) from the Lamar Unit of OCMU, but the longitude data from the U.S. 

EPA ICES website places the site directly across from the Lamar Unit. As another example, 

#GA0002364 (Brosnan Yard of the Southern Railway) is described by the U.S. EPA ICIS 

website as discharging into the Ocmulgee River, whereas the draft site information from GA 

DNR locates the site ~2 miles west of the river. In addition, there were discrepancies depending 

upon how the ICIS NPDES system was searched. A search by Bibb County produced a different 

Date Conductivity Turbidity Color NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N NH4

+N DIP (SRP) 

(μmhos/cm) (NTU) (CPU) (μg/L) (μg/L) (μg/L)

Summer 1996 84 377 ---- 4 0 90

Fall 1996 133 13 5 8 10 50

Winter 1996-7 (bridge) ---- 25 25 23 70 0

Spring 1997 101 13 25 8 40 80

Fall 1997 106 4 35 40 70 20

Winter 1997-8 79 12 60 90 100 10

Spring 1998 19 6 50 54 80 10

Summer 1998 15 1 ---- 22 30 10

------

Summer 2000 165 1 25 120 120 0

Date Conductivity Turbidity Color NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N NH4

+N DIP (SRP) 

(μmhos/cm) (NTU) (CPU) (μg/L) (μg/L) (μg/L)

Summer 1996 84 377 ---- 4 0 90

Fall 1996 133 13 5 8 10 50

Winter 1996-7 (bridge) ---- 25 25 23 70 0

Spring 1997 101 13 25 8 40 80

Fall 1997 106 4 35 40 70 20

Winter 1997-8 79 12 60 90 100 10

Spring 1998 19 6 50 54 80 10

Summer 1998 15 1 ---- 22 30 10

------

Summer 2000 165 1 25 120 120 0
40 

NPDES listing than a search by city (Macon), although many of the NPDES sources actually 

were within both within both city and county limits. 

Based upon state (GA DNR) and federal (U.S. EPA) sources, only one major point source 

discharger holding an active NPDES permit for discharge to surface waters presently exists 

upstream from or adjacent to OCMU: The Georgia Power Plant (#GA0026069) is about 9.5 

miles upstream from the Main Unit of OCMU. Because of the distance, this point source is not 

considered to be a major influence on OCMU. The MWA site mentioned above is slightly 

downstream from the Lamar Unit, as mentioned (Figure 10); a second site (#GA0024546, MWA 

– Rocky Creek) also is downstream (~1.6 miles) and southwest from the Lamar Unit. Thus, the 

water resource degradation at OCMU is mainly being caused by nonpoint sources. It should also 

be mentioned that OCMU has one aboveground storage tank with containment cover. The 

storage tank consists of two compartments, with diesel on one side and unleaded gasoline on the 

other (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). 

Nonpoint Sources 

Urban land cover comprises ~20% of the Ocmulgee River Basin. The City of Macon is the major 

source of non-point source contaminants into the Ocmulgee River, Walnut Creek, and the three 

smaller streams in OCMU. In addition, the uppermost portion of the Ocmulgee River basin 

contains part of the rapidly expanding major Atlanta Metropolitan area, Potential anthropogenic 

sources of contaminants include municipal and industrial wastewater discharges, stormwater 

runoff, agricultural and timbering operations, mining and quarrying activities, recreational use, 

and atmospheric deposition (NPS 2002). For example, auto salvage/junkyards are adjacent to 

OCMU’s Main Unit (Figure 9, Plate 12), and tires from the junkyards have sometimes washed 

into OCMU property, suggesting that dissolved pollutants from these operations are also 

affecting OCMU. Macon’s 11th Street Phase I sanitary landfill is in the floodplain near the 

western shore of the Ocmulgee River opposite the Lamar Unit (Figure 5). This landfill stopped 

accepting wastes in 1982, but likely is contaminating groundwater that provides part of the 

Ocmulgee River flow. Several Superfund sites that may be affecting water resource quality at 

OCMU are also in the Macon area (Figure 10), the closest of which is the Macon Gas Light and 

Water Company across the Ocmulgee River from the Main Unit. 

Impervious surface coverage, which concentrates pollutants and increases stormwater runoff 

pollution (Table 12), is high surrounding OCMU and in the upstream Ocmulgee River and 

Walnut Creek watersheds (Figure 2). The Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek segments 

upstream from and adjacent to monument boundaries are degraded from the City of Macon’s 

urban development (see pp. 30-37 of this Report). OCMU has no direct control over various 

factors that influence its surface water resources. Even stream #1, once much smaller, now 

drains a large part of east Macon and sometimes carries large amounts of trash, pollution, as well 

as occasional raw sewage into OCMU (USDA-NPS 2000; Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. 

comm.). 

The location of OCMU downstream and down-airshed from the greater Atlanta metropolitan 

area, as well as immediately surrounded by the City of Macon, makes it extremely vulnerable to 

water quality degradation from air pollution as well as water pollution (see below). The wide 

range of urban land uses and activities occurring in the watersheds are harmful to OCMU’s water 

resources. These sources also contribute to acid deposition which can contribute to acidification 
and nutri

lies withi

depositio

Plate 12. 

Figure 9).

Creek wa

ient over-enr

in a region th

on (Herlihy e

The large Bi

 Another com

tershed and 

richment of s

hat has been

et al. 1991; b

bb Auto Salv

mpany, Sadisc

engages in s

surface wate

n evaluated a

below). 

age junkyard 

co of Macon, 

storage and d

41 

ers (Baker an

as most at ris

in a former w

is ~2.5 miles 

isposal of wre

nd Christens

sk in the U.S

wetland along

upstream fro

ecked vehicle

sen 1992). Th

S. for continu

g the OCMU 

om the Monum

es. Photo by 

he OCMU a

ued acid 

boundary (se

ment in the W

Michael Malli

area 

ee 

Walnut 

in.
42 

Table 12. Mean concentrations of pollutants in precipitation events, depending upon the amount of 

impervious surface area (imperv. ≡ imperviousness; TCu ≡ total copper; TZn ≡ total zinc). From the ARC 

(1998) in Georgia Department of Community Affairs (2003). 

Event Mean Concentrations (mg/L) 

Land Use 

% 

Impervious BOD TDS COD TSS TP TKN 

NO3

-

N 

+ 

NO2

-

N TCu TZn NH4

+

N 

Forest/open 0.5 8 100 51 216 0.09 0.46 0.25 0 0 0 

Agriculture 0.5 4 678 72 400 0.4 209 0.5 0.04 0.1 0.001 

Large-lot single family 

 (> 2 acre) 

10 10.1 91 58 235 0.19 0.66 0.34 0.01 0.04 0 

Low-density single 

 family (1-2 acres) 

12 11 100 190 280 0.67 0.2 2.85 0.03 0.22 0.004 

Low- to medium- 

 density single family 

 (0.5-1 acre) 

19 15 71 75 279 0.47 1.37 0.69 0.04 0.12 0.004 

Medium-density single 

 family (0.5-1 acre) 

26 10.8 100 83 140 0.47 2.36 0.96 0.05 0.12 0.003 

Townhouse/apartment 48 10.8 51 70 109 0.19 1.24 0.69 0.02 0.14 0.003 

Commercial 85 9.71 100 190 248 0.66 3.2 1.18 0.04 0.28 0.005 

Office/light industrial 70 15 58 77 93 0.66 3.2 1.18 0.04 0.19 0.003 

Heavy industrial 80 9.7 100 61 91 0.24 1.28 0.63 0.04 0.19 0.001 

Average 35.1 10.41 145 93 209 0.36 22.1 0.87 0.03 0.14 0.0024

Considering all of the pollutants – from suspended sediments to nutrients to a wide array of toxic 

substances – that are known to be contained in urban runoff and air pollution, data to evaluate the 

effects on OCMU’s aquatic resources from upstream water quality and atmospheric deposition 

are sparse and have not been collected with adequate frequency to capture loadings from storm 

events or spills. The most easily detected among these pollutants, however, has left clear visible 

signs (Plates 3-5). Excessive sediment loading has been related mostly to urban runoff, 

industrial/mining activities, and agricultural land uses (Table 13). It can make streams shallower 

and wider, and more susceptible to flooding. Stream temperature, dissolved oxygen, flow rate, 

and velocity are affected as well. Benthic flora and fauna can be buried, spawning habitat 

destroyed, and aquatic plants eliminated because of the light reduction imposed by high 

turbidity. The suspended sediments also add nutrients such as adsorbed phosphorus and 

ammonium, as well as toxic substances such as heavy metals and pesticides. 

The overall net effect is depressed biodiversity and loss of beneficial aquatic life (Olsen 1984, 

Hadley and Ongley 1989). The effects of high suspended sediment loading from upstream and 

adjacent urban sources on degradation of stream habitats within OCMU are visibly obvious 

(Plates 3-5) and Walnut Creek, including the OCMU segments, are impaired and only partially 

supporting their designated uses for fish/fishing because of habitat degradation from excessive 

sedimentation and other urban runoff effects (see below). Both Walnut Creek and the Ocmulgee 

River in the vicinity of OCMU are impaired, as well, because of excessive fecal coliforms. Fecal 

coliform loads can be contributed by domestic animals, leaks and overflows of sanitary and 

storm sewers, illicit waste discharges, leaking septic tanks, and wildlife and waterfowl (GA DNR 

2004, 2008c,d). In addition, the Ocmulgee River in the vicinity of the Lamar Unit is impaired 

for excessive polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in fish tissues (below). There is no natural 
43 

source for this group of toxic substances; rather, PCB contamination is of industrial origin (GA 

DNR 2007b). 

Table 13. Estimated contributions of various land use / land cover categories to suspended sediment 

loading (GA DNR 2007a). Note that avg. ≡ average, N.A. ≡ not available, and units for the last column are 

tons/acre/year. 

Assessment of Biological Resources With Respect To Water and Air Quality 

The water use classification for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek near OCMU is fishing. 

The fishing classification, as stated in Georgia’s Rules and Regulations for Water Quality 

Control Chapter 391-3-6-.03(6)(c), is established to protect the “Propagation of Fish, Shellfish, 

Game and Other Aquatic Life; secondary contact recreation in and on the water; or for any other 

use requiring water of a lower quality” (GA DNR 2008e). In addition, the Ocmulgee River 

segment from GA Highway 18 to the Macon Water Intake is classified as Drinking Water (Water 

Quality Control, Chapter 391-3-6(13)). 

Water Quality Standards 

The state of Georgia has ambient water quality standards for common water quality parameters 

including dissolved oxygen (> 5 mg/L daily average), pH (between 6.0 and 8.5), turbidity (50 

NTU for freshwater), pH, and temperature (GA DNR 2008e) (Appendix 4). In addition, water 

quality samples collected within a 30-day period that have a geometric mean fecal coliform 

count exceeding 200 mpn /100 mL during May through October, or exceeding 1,000 cfu/100 mL 

during November through April, are in violation of the bacteria water quality standard for 

drinking water. For streams designated for fishing such as Walnut Creek and most segments of 

the Ocmulgee River, samples that have a geometric mean fecal coliform count exceeding 200 

mpn/100 mL during May through October, or exceeding 1,000 mpn/100 mL during November 

through April, are in violation of the bacteria water quality standard. The state has also 

developed water use classifications, and in-stream water quality standards for each use (e.g. 

Table 14). 

Georgia's Rules and Regulations for Water Quality Control, Chapter 391-3-6-.03(5)(c) state that 

“All waters shall be free from material related to municipal, industrial or other discharges which 

produce turbidity, color, odor or other objectionable conditions which interfere with legitimate 

LAND USE AVG. LAND AVG. AVG.

COVER (%) SEDIMENT SEDIMENT

LOAD (%) LOAD

Open Water 0.7 0.0 0.01

Urban 13.3 14.7 0.27

Roads N.A. 29.9 NA

Bare Rock, Sand and Clay 0.4 0.0 0.00

Quarries, Strip Mines, Gravel Pits 0.4 9.3 7.92

Forest 55.3 3.2 0.03

Pasture/Hay 13.6 10.8 0.09

Row Crops 3.6 20.0 1.33

Grasses, Wetland 11.5 11.4 0.32

LAND USE AVG. LAND AVG. AVG.

COVER (%) SEDIMENT SEDIMENT

LOAD (%) LOAD

Open Water 0.7 0.0 0.01

Urban 13.3 14.7 0.27

Roads N.A. 29.9 NA

Bare Rock, Sand and Clay 0.4 0.0 0.00

Quarries, Strip Mines, Gravel Pits 0.4 9.3 7.92

Forest 55.3 3.2 0.03

Pasture/Hay 13.6 10.8 0.09

Row Crops 3.6 20.0 1.33

Grasses, Wetland 11.5 11.4 0.32
44 

water uses”. Stream segments are placed on the state’s Impaired Waters (303(d)) list based on 

water quality and biota sampling data (Appendix 5). For the water use classification of Fishing, 

the criterion violated is listed as Biota Impacted (Bio(F)), reflecting the fact that studies have 

shown a significant impact of water quality-related habitat degradation on fish (GA DNR 

2008c,d). Potential causes may be urban runoff, (other) nonpoint sources, and/or a municipal 

facility(s) (point sources). For fecal coliforms (microbial pathogens), the standards were 

developed in consideration of general recreational uses, although the state’s general policy is not 

to encourage swimming in any surface waters (GA DNR 2004). A stream is placed on the 

“partial support” list if more than 10% of the samples exceed the fecal coliform criteria and on 

the not support list if more than 25% of the samples exceed the standard. 

Georgia also has an in-stream criterion for PCBs, found in Georgia’s Rules and Regulations for 

Water Quality Control, Chapter 391-3-6, revised in November 2005: Georgia Regulation 391-3- 

6-.03(5)(e)(iv) states that “Instream concentrations of chemical constituents [including PCBs] 

listed by the U.S. EPA as toxic priority pollutants pursuant to Section 307(a)(1) of the Federal 

Clean Water Act (as amended) shall not exceed indicated criteria under annual average or higher 

stream flow conditions” (GA DNR 2007b, 2008e). The state’s in-stream target, 0.00017 μg/L, is 

protective of the GA DNR fish consumption advisory action level of 0.1 mg/kg, and the Federal 

Drug Administration action level of 2.0 mg/kg for fish consumption. 

GA DNR’s management strategies to reduce contamination in impaired streams in urban areas 

include sustained compliance with NPDES permit limits and requirements; adoption of National 

Resource Conservation Service Conservation Practices; application of best-management 

practices that are appropriate to specific agricultural and urban land uses; further development 

and streamlining of mechanisms for identifying, reporting, and correcting illicit connections, 

breaks, and other sanitary sewer or waste containment problems; for fecal coliforms, adoption of 

local ordinances requiring periodic septic system inspection, pumpout, and maintenance; and 

public education (GA DNR 2004, 2008c). 
45 

Table 14. Georgia water use classifications and in-stream water quality standards for each use (GA DNR 

2008d; Georgia’s Rules and Regulations for Water Quality Control, Chapter 391-3-6-.03(6)(a), 391-3-6-

.03(6)(b), and 391-3-6-.03(6)(c)). 

 DISSOLVED OXYGEN TEMPERATURE 

 BACTERIA (fecal coliforms) (except trout streams)a

 pH (except trout streams)a

USE CLASSIFICATION 30-day geom. Maximum Daily Avg. Minimum Std. Maximum Maximum

 meanb

 (mg/L) (mg/L) Units Rise (oF) (oF) 

Drinking Water 1,000 Nov-Apr 4,000 Nov-Apr 5.0 4.0 6.0-8.5 5 90 

requiring treatment 200 May-Oct ---- 

Recreation 200 (frw.) c

 ---- 5.0 4.0 6.0-8.5 5 90 

 100 (coastal) 

Fishing 1,000 Nov-Apr 4,000 Nov-Apr 5.0 4.0 6.0-8.5 5 90 

 200 May-Oct 

 

Coastal Fishing d

 

Wild River No alteration of natural water quality 

Scenic River No alteration of natural water quality 

a

 Standards for Trout Streams for dissolved oxygen are an average of 6.0 mg/L and a minimum of 5.0 mg/L. No temperature alteratio

allowed in Primary Trout Streams, and a temperature change of 2oF is allowed in secondary Trout Streams. 

b

 Fecal coliform densities are in units of number / 100 mL (Geom. ≡ geometric). Geometric means should be “based on at least 4 sam

collected from a given sampling site over a 30-day period at intervals not less than 24 hours”. The geometric mean of a series of N

the Nth root of their product. Example: the geometric mean of 2 and 18 is the square root of 36. Note: U.S. EPA (2003) recommend

consideration of 400 mpn/100 mL as the highest acceptable level of fecal coliforms if samples are taken less frequently. 

c

 Frw. ≡ freshwater. 

d

 Standards are the same as for Fishing with exception of dissolved oxygen, which is site-specific. 

Other recommended guidelines for acceptable water quality in waters designated for use as 

Fishing and general recreation have been published by the U.S. EPA (2000, 2002, 2003) and 

other sources (Table 15). The Clean Water Act requires the U.S. EPA to develop criteria (i.e. 

recommendations) for water that are designed in part to protect aquatic life. The criteria are 

approaches that differ from the U.S. EPA water quality criteria, but these criteria are meant to 

provide useful guidance. 
46 

Table 15. Summary of Georgia state standards for acceptable water quality in waters classified as 

Fishing designated use (GA DNR – excluding temperature); conditions for acceptable water quality 

recommended by other sources; and status of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek in the monument 

within the past decade (U.C. ≡ unacceptable conditions; U.C.C. ≡ unacceptable conditions common).. 

See Table 10, Appendix 3, and text description for more information on available data. 

Parameter GA DNR Other Recommendation(s) or Guideline(s) KEMO NBP 

General Water Quality Parameters 

Dissolved oxygen > 5 daily avg.; > 4 (U.S. EPA 2000) Few dates with 

(mg/L) minimum 4 DO < 5 

 

pH > 6.0, < 8.5 > 6.5, < 9.0 (U.S. EPA 2000) No violations 

 

Fecal Coliforms < 1,000 Nov-Apr; 400 for data collected with insufficient Insufficient data 

(cfu/100 mL) < 200 May-Oct frequency to calculate g.m.s by the collection for 

 (g.m.) State’s criteria (U.S. EPA 2003) g.m.s, but some 

 values > 400 

 indicate degraded

 conditions 

 (max. 51,600) 

Nutrients ---- < 100 μg/L for total phosphorus and for Data indicate 

 inorganic nitrogen nitrate+nitrite, and/or excessive condi- 

 ammonium) to discourage noxious algal tions especially 

 blooms (Mallin 2000) for inorganic N 

Biochemical ---- Less than 3.0 mg/L as the 5-day biochemical Limited data - 

oxygen demand oxygen demand (BOD5) (Mallin et al. 2006) 1 U.C. 

Total suspended ---- < 25 mg/L, and < 10 mg/L increase from a Limited data - 

solids (TSS) sudden spike (U.S. EPA 2000) no U.C.s 

Toxic metals (μg/L) 

Aluminum Equations* CMC 750, CCC 87 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002** Limited data – 

 U.C.C. 

Cadmium " CMC 2, CCC 0.25 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Limited data – 

 U.C.C. 

 In John Ward Cr. 

Chromium III " CMC 570, CCC 74 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Data not available 

Chromium IV " CMC 16, CCC 11 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Data not available 

Copper " CMC 13, CCC 9 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** 1 U.C.C. 

Lead " CMC 65, CCC 2.5 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Several U.C. 

Mercury " CMC 1.4, CCC 0.77 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Data not available 

Nickel " CMC 470, CCC 52 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** Data not available 

Zinc " CMC 120, CCC 87 (U.S. EPA 2000, 2002)** No U.C. 

* Dissolved concentrations; equations have been developed that express the total recoverable concentration depending upon the 

water hardness or pH. 

** Water quality guidelines (reference condition, 25th percentile – also see Byrne 2004). CMC ≡ the criterion maximum 

concentration; CCC ≡ the criterion continuous concentration, within a pH range of 6.5-9. 
47 

In addition to these standards, Phase I NPDES permits regulate stormwater discharges associated 

with specific industrial activities (including construction sites > 1 acre in area) and large and 

medium municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s) that serve populations of 100,000 or 

more. MS4 permits are supposed to prohibit non-stormwater discharges (i.e., illicit discharges) 

from entering into storm sewer systems and require controls or best-management practices to 

reduce pollutant discharges to the “maximum extent practicable” (GA DNR 2004). The intent is 

to reduce exposure of stormwater to pollutants. In the OCMU area, storm sewer Phase I MS4 

permits (SWP storm sewer systems) include #GAS00020 to the City of Macon and #GAS000204 

to Bibb County. A total of 17.5% and 11% of the Ocmulgee River basin and the Walnut Creek 

basin, respectively, is in a MS4 area (GA DNR 2007c). 

Impaired Surface Water Quality and Habitat 

The most recent GA DNR (2008c,d) 303(d) list of impaired streams contains Walnut Creek 

(headwaters down to its confluence with the Ocmulgee River – 20 miles of stream length). This 

stream is not meeting its designated use for recreational fishing [fish habitat degradation – failure 

to support fish communities, Bio(F)] because of suspended sediment loading and high fecal 

coliform densities. The potential cause listed for the degradation is urban runoff. Estimated 

sources of the sediment loads are listed in Table 16); such partitioning among land use types was 

not attempted for sources of fecal coliforms. Overwhelmingly, the major cause (nearly 80%) of 

the impairment is indicated as industrial mining activities. 

Walnut Creek has a TMDL targeting sediment loads and a second TMDL for fecal coliforms 

(GA DNR 2007a,c; http://oaspub.epa.gov/tmdl/enviro.control?p_list_id=GA-R031300020208) 

(Table 17). The Ocmulgee River (segment from Beaverdam Creek to Walnut Creek – 10 miles), 

including the Main Unit of OCMU, is listed as impaired because of fecal coliform bacteria. This 

segment is classified for use as drinking water. In addition, the segment of the Ocmulgee River 

from Walnut Creek to Tobesofkee Creek (11 miles), including the Lamar Unit of OCMU, is 

impaired and only partially supporting its designated uses for fishing (recreational fishing and 

protection of fish life, Bio(F)) because of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination of fish 

tissues (GA DNR 2007b). Fish consumption guidelines have been issued as a result of PCBs in 

flathead catfish (GA DNR 2007d). PCB exposure has been related to an array of adverse health 

effects in fish, birds, and mammals, including toxic effects on the liver, gastrointestinal system, 

blood, skin, endocrine system, immune system, nervous system, and reproductive system, as well 

as developmental effects and malignant tumors (GA DNR 2007b, and references therein; Adams 

et al. 1999, GA DNR 2007b). 
48 

Table 16. Estimated contribution of land use type to sediment loading in Walnut Creek (GA DNR 2007a). 

Table 17. TMDLs for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek, including stream segments within and in the 

vicinity of OCMU (GA DNR 2007a,b,c). 

Stream Present Load Reduction Needed Allowable Avg. Load (TMDL) 

Sediment TMDL (Biota-Impacted, Not Supporting, 2002)

Walnut Creek 6,491.6 tons/year 83.60% 1,067.3 tons/year 

Fecal Coliform TMDL (General Recreation, Partially Supporting, 2007)a

Ocmulgee River 4.55 x 1014 counts/30 days 25% counts/30 days 3.41 x 1014

Walnut Creek 1.47 x 1013 counts/30 days 72% counts/30 days 4.07 x 1012

PCB TMDL (Fish consumption, Partially Supporting, 2007)

Ocmulgee River 0.26 mg/kgb 62% 1.1 x 10-3 kg/dayb

a

 30-day geometric mean for bacterial counts (colony-forming units) 

b Average fathead catfish tissue concentration in 1999. Georgia’s fish consumption guidelines are conservatively triggered at 

concentrations > 0.1 mg/kg (vs. the FDA’s action level of 2.0 mg/kg). Based on the U.S. EPA’s published PCBs 

bioaccumulation factor, the TMDL can be attained at water concentrations < 0.0032 μg PCBs/L. This TMDL is based upon the 

U.S. EPA human health criterion of 0.00017 μg PCBs/L. The PCB TMDL = the annual average flow near Macon (~2,700 cfs) 

times the water quality standard. 

Air Quality Standards 

The federal Clean Air Act has set standards for six “criteria” pollutants (GA DNR 2007e; Table 

18). These standards are fairly straightforward except for the PM2.5 standard: To be in 

compliance with the federal air PM2.5 standard, an area must have an annual arithmetic mean 

concentration of < 15 μg PM2.5 /m3. As an additional requirement (recently altered as of Dec. 

2006), the 98th percentile 24-hour concentration must be < 35 μg PM2.5 /m3 (GA DNR 2007e). 

The regulatory standard is health-based, and concentrations above the standards are considered 

unhealthy for sensitive groups (GA DNR 2007e). Another set of compounds, for which ambient 

air regulatory standards have not been set, is monitored in the Air Toxics Network; sources of 

Source Walnut Creek 

(tons per year)

Open water 0.00 (0.00%) 

Low-intensity residential 115.20 (1.77%)

High-intensity residential 2.52 (0.04%)

High-intensity comm/ indust/ transp 0.34 (0.01%) 

Clearcut, sparse 0.00 (0.00%) 

Quarries, strip mines, rocks 5,145.25 (79.26%) 

Deciduous forest 14.48 (0.22%)

Evergreen forest 4.15 (0.06%) 

Mixed forest 0.52 (0.01%) 

Row crops, pasture 322.46 (4.97%)

Other grasses (urban, recreational) 123.10 (1.90%)

Woody wetland 193.63 (2.98%) 

Non-forested wetland (fresh) ---

Open water

Transitional 24.88 (0.38%) 

Roads 545.06 (8.40%) 

---

Source Walnut Creek 

(tons per year)

Open water 0.00 (0.00%) 

Low-intensity residential 115.20 (1.77%)

High-intensity residential 2.52 (0.04%)

High-intensity comm/ indust/ transp 0.34 (0.01%) 

Clearcut, sparse 0.00 (0.00%) 

Quarries, strip mines, rocks 5,145.25 (79.26%) 

Deciduous forest 14.48 (0.22%)

Evergreen forest 4.15 (0.06%) 

Mixed forest 0.52 (0.01%) 

Row crops, pasture 322.46 (4.97%)

Other grasses (urban, recreational) 123.10 (1.90%)

Woody wetland 193.63 (2.98%) 

Non-forested wetland (fresh) ---

Open water

Transitional 24.88 (0.38%) 

Roads 545.06 (8.40%) 

---
49 

these substances include vehicle emissions, stationary source emissions, and natural sources. 

Data from EPD’s continuous monitors are published on EPD’s web site at 

http://www.georgiaair.org/amp. The data are updated hourly. 

GA DNR monitors air quality at three sites in Macon near OCMU, including Allied Chemical 

(site 130210007; parameters PM2.5, 24-hour FRM and speciation; PM10; ), Georgia Forestry 

Commission (site 130210012; parameters PM2.5, 24-hour FRM; SO2; VOCs, SVOCs, and trace 

metals), and Lake Tobesofkee (site 130110013; parameters ozone, NOy) (GA DNR 2007e). The 

area is in compliance with existing air quality standards for those parameters except for ozone 

and PM2.5. The Macon metropolitan area, including Bibb County, was evaluated for the first 

time in 2005 as a non-attainment area (2006 Georgia Annual Air Quality Report, described in 

GA DNR 2007e). In addition, all of Bibb County is a non-attainment area for PM2.5. 

Ozone is monitored in March through October since that period is when ozone production mostly 

occurs. This pollutant is a serious health concern because it attacks the mammalian respiratory 

system, causing coughs, chest pain, throat irritation, increased susceptibility to respiratory 

infections, and impaired lung functioning. In fact, moderate ozone levels can interfere with 

performance of normal daily activities by people who have asthma or other respiratory diseases. 

Of more concern than acute affects are potential chronic effects of repeated exposure to ozone, 

which can lead to lung inflammation and permanent scarring of lung tissue, loss of lung function, 

and reduced lung elasticity. 

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is produced by various sources including industrial combustion, 

residential combustion, and vehicle exhaust, or when combustion gases are chemically 

transformed into particles (GA DNR 2007e). The state monitors 53 particle species such as gold, 

sulfate, lead, arsenic and silicon. Recent research has indicated that PM2.5 is a human health 

concern because it can penetrate into sensitive areas of the lungs and cause persistent coughs, 

phlegm, wheezing, more serious respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancers, and premature 

death at particle levels well below the existing standards (Schwela 2000, U.S. EPA 2004, GA 

DNR 2007e). Mounting evidence indicates that PM2.5 also enhances delivery of other pollutants 

and allergens deep into lung tissue where the effects are exacerbated. Especially sensitive groups 

include children, the elderly, and people with cardiovascular or lung diseases such as asthma. 

PM2.5 also impair visibility and contribute to haze in the humid conditions that characterize the 

north Georgia climate (U.S. EPA 2004). 
50 

Table 18. U.S. EPA standards for six “criteria” pollutants as required by the Clean Air Act, indicating 

recent modifications (cross-outs; GA DNR 2007b). 

Compound Primary Secondary Units Time Interval 

 Standard Standard 

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) ---- 0.50 ppm 3-hour 

 0.14 ---- ppm 24-hour 

 0.03 ---- ppm annual mean 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Particulate matter (PM2.5) 15.0 same as primary μg/m3 annual arithmetic

 mean (3 years) 

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 

 98th percentile same as primary μg/m3 24-hour 

 65.0 a/35.0 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Particulate matter (PM10) 50.0 b same as primary μg/m3 annual arithmetic 

mean 

 

 150.0 same as primary μg/m3 24-hour 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Carbon monoxide (CO) 2nd maximum 35.0 ---- ppm 1-hour 

 2nd maximum 9.0 ---- ppm 8-hour average 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ozone (O3) 4th maximum 0.085 same as primary ppm 8-hour average 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 0.053 same as primary ppm annual mean 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Lead (Pb) 1.5 same as primary μg/m3 calendar quarter

Air Resources 

OCMU is within a class II airshed under the Clean Air Act (GA DNR 2007e, DeVivo 2006). In 

Class II airsheds, “modest” increases in air pollution are allowed beyond baseline levels for 

particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen and nitrogen oxides (NOx), provided that 

federal ambient air quality standards are not exceeded. Air quality is a concern in OCMU 

because violations of the federal/state ozone standard are already occurring, and considering that 

the Atlanta and Macon metropolitan population centers are projected to con-tinue rapid growth 

(Atlanta Regional Commission 2007). Atlanta and all of Bibb County have been in violation of 

the ozone standard every year since 2005 (GA DNR 2007e; e.g. Figure 11). 
Figure 11

All of Bi

15 μg PM

concentra

quality, i

will cont

2007). 

Figure 12

years, and

Acid dep

Baker an

well (Ab

Georgia (

1. Metropolita

bb County h

M2.5 /m3) eac

ation (< 35 μ

including sm

inue to degr

2. PM2.5 desig

d exceedance

position can a

nd Christense

elson 1987)

(Summer- D

an Atlanta ozo

has been in v

ch year for th

μg PM2.5 /m3

mog, ozone, p

rade with inc

gn value, dail

es of the new

adversely af

en 1992), an

. There are f

Dawsonville,

one – numbe

violation of t

he past five y

3

) during 200

particulates, 

creasing popu

y standard, s

w standard in 2

ffect or kill a

nd can act syn

four acid dep

 and Hiawas

51 

r of violation d

the annual ar

years, and in

00-2002 (Fig

and many o

ulation grow

howing excee

2000-2002 (m

aquatic life a

nergistically

position sites

ssee) and on

days per year

rithmetic me

n violation o

gure 12). It

other contam

wth (Atlanta 

edances at M

modified from 

and harm hum

y with ozone

s in Georgia

e in central e

r (GA DNR 20

ean PM2.5 co

f the 98th pe

t is anticipate

minants (GA D

Regional Co

Macon of the o

GA DNR 200

man health (

e to harm hum

, including t

eastern Geor

007e). 

oncentration 

rcentile 24-h

ed that air 

DNR 2007e

ommission 

old standard i

07e).

(Abelson 19

man health a

three in north

rgia (McDuf

(< 

hour 

), 

n all 

87, 

as 

h

ffie 
County).

increasin

Figure 13

It should

Robert W

plant emi

sector (G

Center fo

substanti

to the air

contribut

been dete

Surface 

The prim

municipa

growth in

in surface

supply re

(DeVivo 

result of 

as plans t

Departm

Drinking

Treated w

urban and

challenge

of toxic s

 The four si

ng trend for a

3. Statewide 

d also be note

W. Scherer P

its ~25.3 mil

Goodell 2006

or Global De

ial sulfur dio

rshed of OCM

ting to the el

ected in surf

Water Quan

mary demand

al and indust

n Atlanta and

e water flow

eservoirs has

2006). The 

increasing d

to construct 

ent of Audit

g Water 

water from th

d industrial 

e potable wa

substances. 

ites monitor 

acid depositi

acid depositio

ed that the la

lant, is just n

llion tons of

6), and it is ra

evelopment)

oxide (SO2, i

MU. Deposi

levated conc

face waters i

ntity 

ds for water s

trial use and 

d surroundin

w (GA DNR 

s the potentia

volume of f

demands for 

large reserv

ts and Accou

he Ocmulge

sources in th

ater treatmen

acid deposit

ion in north 

on trends (19

argest coal-fi

north of Mac

f carbon diox

anked 20th in

. In addition

nvolved in a

ition of airbo

centrations o

in OCMU (D

supply in the

recreation (

ng regions, in

2004). Pres

al to reduce 

flow in the O

freshwater s

oirs upstream

unts 2005). 

e River is th

he Macon ar

nt plant opera

52 

tion weekly,

Georgia (Fig

82-2006; from

fired power p

con in Juliett

xide (CO2) p

n the world f

n to CO2 emi

acid depositi

orne toxic su

f certain hea

DeVivo 2006

e Ocmulgee 

GA DNR 20

ncreasing w

ssure to impo

the amount o

Ocmulgee Ri

supplies by t

m from OCM

he potable w

ea and in the

ators to main

, and the data

gure 13). 

m GA DNR 20

plant in the U

te, GA. The

per year, mor

for CO2 emi

issions, this p

ion), mercury

ubstances fro

avy metals (e

6). 

basin in the 

004). As a re

water use is ex

ound headwa

of water tha

iver would b

the rapidly g

MU for wate

ater source f

e upstream w

ntain drinkin

a show a sig

007b). 

U.S., Georgi

e Scherer coa

re than Braz

issions (2007

power plant 

ry and other t

om various s

e.g. lead, zin

vicinity of O

esult of rapid

xpected to re

ater streams 

at ultimately 

be significant

growing city 

er supply (Ge

for OCMU. 

watershed w

ng water free

gnificant 

ia Power’s 

al-fired pow

zil’s entire po

7 list of the 

also dischar

toxic polluta

sources may

nc) that have

OCMU are 

d population

esult in redu

to create wa

reaches OCM

tly reduced a

of Atlanta, s

eorgia 

 Pollution fr

ill increasing

e from an ar

wer 

ower 

rges 

ants 

y be 

e

n

uction 

ater 

MU 

as a 

such 

rom 

gly 

rray 
53 

Groundwater 

Because of the increased use of groundwater over the past few decades, there is increasing 

concern about declining groundwater levels and whether water is being removed faster than it is 

being recharged (Tyson 1993). Although surface waters mostly are used for potable supplies, 

groundwater resources may become a potential supplemental resource during peak demand 

periods, under drought conditions, and as water demand increases in the Macon-Warner RobinsFort Valley combined statistical area (Georgia Department of Audits and Accounts 2005). The 

extent to which groundwater quality is being contaminated by various urban sources is poorly 

known. 

Ecosystem Effects 

Urban Pollution and Aquatic Food Webs 

The available data, although sparse, are compelling in their clear illustration of degraded surface 

water quality within and near OCMU. During 1998-2003, GA DNR (Wildlife Resources 

Division) studied fish populations in the Ocmulgee River basin, and used an Index of Biotic 

Integrity (IBI) and modified Index of Well-Being (IWB) to identify fish population health as 

Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor, or Very Poor. Walnut Creek was among the 41 stream segments in 

that were evaluated as impaired. Upper Walnut Creek (drainage area at the assessment point, 8.5 

square miles) received a Very Poor ranking by both indices; lower Walnut Creek (drainage area 

at the assessment point, 31.0 miles), including OCMU, received a Poor ranking by both indices 

(GA DNR 2007a). As mentioned, the general cause identified for the impairment is lack of 

viable fish habitat due to stream sedimentation (GA DNR 2007a). Fish are at the apex of the 

stream food webs. Their Poor to Very Poor rankings suggest that urban pollution has caused 

serious degradation and loss of biodiversity for the aquatic flora and fauna of Walnut Creek in 

other trophic levels, as well. The stream and wetland food webs likely are also affected by 

pathogenic microbes whose presence is indicated, to some extent, by high fecal coliform bacteria 

densities, and by toxic substances from urban runoff. 

Air Pollution and OCMU Land Resources 

There is a high potential that terrestrial communities in the monument are being adversely 

affected by air pollutants such as ozone that can cause foliar injury, but data for assessment are 

not available (DeVivo et al. 2005). The Scherer Plant is a major emitter of CO2, mercury, 

particulates, sulfur dioxide, and nitrous oxides (see 

http://www.opc.com/TheEnvironment/FutureImprovements/index.htm). Mercury contamination 

has resulted in fish consumption advisories for some segments of the Ocmulgee River, 

tributaries, and run-of-river impoundments in Bibb County (GA DNR 2007d) (below). By 2013, 

the power plant plans to complete an air quality control system that reportedly will remove more 

than 80% of the mercury, particulates, sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides from emissions (base, 

emissions in 2000). While these estimated reductions would be significant, the remainder still 

would represent a major source of air quality degradation affecting OCMU. Elevated CO2

emissions in the Macon area, from the Scherer Plant and other sources, are contributing to global 

warming which is projected to have long-term, significant adverse impacts on ecosystems in 

central Georgia, as across the globe (Penuelas and Filella 2001, United Nations IPCC 2007).

Invasive/Exotic and Nuisance Species 

Invasive/exotic and nuisance species are a major concern at OCMU. The monument is 1 of 14 
54 

park units included in the NPS Southeast Coast Network’s Exotic Plant Management module 

that is being managed by Cumberland Island National Seashore (DeVivo 2006). Little is known 

about the potential for impacts from exotic/invasive terrestrial animal species, and information is 

lacking as to whether exotic aquatic species threaten OCMU’s surface waters and wetlands. 

Disruptive and invasive plant species include privet (mostly in wetlands), kudzu, Chinaberry 

(which has been controlled to avoid impacts on cultural resources), tree of heaven, and Japanese 

honeysuckle. Among exotic animal species, fire ants are spreading throughout OCMU (USDINPS 2000). They pose a threat to native ant species, potentially degrade cultural resources, and 

adversely affect visitor experiences (DeVivo 2006). Southern pine beetles have caused heavy 

damage to OCMU’s loblolly pine stands (DeVivo 2006). Within the past decade, feral hogs 

caused substantial damage to natural resources in both the Main Unit and the Lamar Unit (USDINPS 2000). OCMU has a trapping/eradication program that has removed more than 150 feral 

hogs (DeVivo 2006; Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). As mentioned, nutria are a concern 

for wetland communities at OCMU, with as-yet-unassessed impacts. 

Nuisance beaver populations have destroyed many trees at OCMU (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, 

pers. comm.). Feral dogs and cats have also are a concern, especially the potential for feral cats 

to affect migratory songbirds and herpetofauna (DeVivo 2006). An additional concern is that 

increased urbanization surrounding OCMU may promote an increase in foxes, coyotes (recently 

established, with unknown impacts), and deer (the latter, potentially leading to poaching). 

Additional Fragmentation and Destruction of OCMU Ecosystems by Major Roads 

Notwithstanding the fact that an interstate highway and a four-lane state highway were built after 

OCMU was created and already transect it, the GA DOT plans to build a major connector 

highway through OCMU wetlands. GA DOT first began plans for the four-lane “Fall Line 

Freeway” in 1985, and views this highway that will connect the cities of Augusta, Macon, and 

Columbia across Georgia as an economic catalyst that will create an easier path for freight 

trucks. Nearly 80% (170 miles) of the Fall Line Freeway was constructed by 2006, including the 

entire route between Columbus and Macon. The planned route will bisect the Ocmulgee Old 

Fields Traditional Cultural Property and further degrade OCMU. The Ocmulgee Old Fields 

Traditional Cultural Property, regarded as sacred by Native Americans (Obey 2002), 

encompasses both OCMU and the Bond Swamp National Wildlife Refuge which is managed by 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

The National Parks Conservation Association, a nonprofit national advocacy organization 

dedicated to protecting, restoring, and enhancing national parks, included OCMU in 2002 on its 

list of America’s Ten Most Endangered Parks in recognition of the fact that this connector road 

project has the potential to cause irreparable harm to OCMU (Obey 2002). The Ocmulgee Old 

Fields Traditional Cultural Property was also listed in 2003 by the National Trust for Historic 

Preservation (2008) among the Eleven Most Endangered Historic Places in the nation, because of 

“poor public policy and road construction”. Despite this potential for major impacts, the Georgia 

Department of Transportation has indicated that the plans to build the connector may proceed 

(GA DOT 2008). The increased traffic is expected to increase nonpoint contaminant pollution on 

water resources and to adversely affect air quality (DeVivo 2006). 
Human H

The high

Walnut C

surface w

protect p

toxic sub

recomme

contamin

OCMU (

catfish (1

meal per 

classified

is concer

monumen

Plate 13. 

Michael M

There is 

health of

as only “

Health Issu

h fecal colifo

Creek), and l

waters for ge

eople who v

bstances such

ends consum

nation, and in

(6 miles dow

1 meal per m

week becau

d PCBs as pr

rn at OCMU

nt because th

Sign posted 

Mallin.

strong poten

f OCMU staf

moderate” f

es 

orm densities

likely in the 

eneral recreat

visit the mon

h as mercury

ming only 1 m

n a segment 

wnstream from

month be cau

use of mercu

robable hum

about prote

he state has 

by the NPS a

ntial for adve

ff and freque

for 166 days 

s in OCMU’

smaller strea

tion. In reco

nument (Plat

y threaten fis

meal per mon

of the Ocmu

m Tobesofk

use of PCBs a

ry contamin

man carcinoge

cting the hea

not posted w

at OCMU to h

erse chronic 

ent visitors. 

in 2006 bec

55 

s larger pere

ams that orig

ognition of th

te 13). In ad

sh consumpt

nth of flathe

ulgee River 

kee Creek), a

and mercury

nation) (GA D

ens (GA DN

alth safety o

warning sign

help protect th

impacts of o

Air quality 

cause of ozon

ennial stream

ginate in Ma

this fact, OC

ddition, toxic

tion; thus, th

ead catfish be

about 13 mi

advisories are

y contaminat

DNR 2007d

NR 2007b an

of recreationa

ns about limi

he health of v

ozone and PM

in the Maco

ne and partic

ms (the Ocmu

acon, jeopard

CMU has pos

c PCBs and a

he present GA

ecause of PC

iles downstre

e in place fo

tion) and lar

d). The U.S. E

nd references

al fishers vis

iting fish con

visitors and th

M2.5 air poll

on/OCMU ar

culates, and 

ulgee River 

dize use of t

sted signs to 

associated o

A DNR advi

CB 

eam from 

or both flathe

rgemouth ba

EPA has 

s therein). Th

siting the 

nsumption. 

eir pets. Pho

lutants on the

rea was evalu

was “unheal

and 

these 

ther 

isory 

ead 

ss (1 

here 

oto by 

e

uated 

lthy 
56 

for sensitive groups” (e.g. children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals) for 4 days 

(Tables 19 and 20). Pollutants involved in acid deposition – SO2, mostly from coal-fired power 

plants such as the Scherer Plant, and nitrogen oxides (NOx, mostly from car exhausts) – form 

fine particulate matter that can be transported long distances across airsheds (Schwela 2000). 

Elevated levels of these fine particles have been linked to increased illness and premature death 

from heart and lung disorders such as asthma and chronic bronchitis. NOx also react with volatile 

organic compounds to form ozone which, as mentioned, causes lung inflammation, asthma, 

emphysema, and increased morbidity/ mortality risks in humans. Acid precipitation causes and 

aggravates many human respiratory diseases, and is estimated to be the third largest cause of 

lung disease in the U.S. (after smoking and indoor radon). 

Table 19. U.S. EPA’s Air Quality Index (AQI) criteria (modified from GA DNR 2007b). 

Maximum Pollutant Concentration 

PM2.5 

(24hr) 

μg/m3

PM10 

(24hr) 

μg/m3

SO2 

(24hr) 

ppm 

O3 

(8hr) 

ppm 

CO 

(8hr) 

ppm 

NO2 

(1 hr) 

ppm 

AQI 

Value 

Descriptor 

(color-coded) EPA Health Advisory 

< 15.4 < 54 < 0.034 < 0.064 < 4.4 None 0-50 GOOD Air quality satisfactory; little or 

no risk from air pollution 

15.5 - 

40.4 

55-

154 

0.035 - 

0.144 

0.065 - 

0.084 

4.5 - 

9.4 None 51 - 100 MODERATE 

Air quality acceptable, but for 

some pollutants there may be 

a moderate health concern for 

a small number of unusually 

sensitive people 

40.5 - 

65.4 

155 - 

254 

0.145 - 

0.224 

0.085 - 

0.104 

9.5 - 

12.4 None 101 - 150 

UNHEALTY 

for Sensitive 

Groups 

Sensitive groups (people with 

lung or heart disease) are at 

greater risk from exposure to 

particulate pollution, ozone 

65.5 - 

150.4 

255 - 

354 

0.225 - 

0.304 

0.105 - 

0.124 

12.5 

- 

15.4 

None 151 - 200 UNHEALTHY 

Everyone may begin to 

sustain health effects; 

members of sensitive groups 

may experience more serious 

health impacts 

150.5 - 

250.4 

355 - 

424 

0.305 - 

0.604 

0.125 - 

0.374 

15.5 

- 

30.4 

0.65 - 

1.24 201 - 300 VERY 

UNHEALTHY 

AQI values trigger a health 

alert; everyone sustain more 

serious health effects. If 

related to high ozone, If 

related to high ozone, 

restricted to morning or late 

evening to minimize exposure 

250.5 - 

500.4 

425 - 

604 

0.605 - 

1.004 None 

30.5 

- 

50.4 

1.25 - 

2.04 301 - 500 HAZARDOUS 

AQI values over 300 trigger 

health warnings of emergency 

conditions; the entire populace 

is more likely to be affected 
57 

Table 20. U.S. EPA air quality index (AQI) for population centers in the Ocmulgee River Basin in 2006 

(pollutants monitored – O3, SO2, CO, NO2, PM10, PM2.5). 

 Number of Days per AQI Category in 20006 

Good 

(0-50) 

Moderate 

(51-100) 

Unhealthy for 

Sensitive 

Groups 

(101-150) 

Unhealthy (151-

200) 

Very Unhealthy 

(201-300) 

Pollutants 

Monitored in 

2006 

Atlanta 119 210 28 8 0 

O3, SO2, CO, 

NO2, PM10, 

PM2.5 

Macon 195 166 4 0 0 O3, PM10, PM2.5

*Values do not add up to 365 because of limited monitoring in cool-weather months. Air quality in this area is likely 

cleaner during these months than during the warmer months. 

Elevated CO2 emissions in the Macon area, from the Scherer Plant and other sources, are 

contributing to global warming which is projected to have long-term, significant repercussions 

for adverse human health impacts in OCMU and the surrounding region (e.g. Cifuentes et al. 

2001, Patz et al. 2005). 

Other Issues of Concern 

Population Growth 

OCMU is under progressive siege from rapidly expanding urbanization. As of 2007, the Macon 

Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated population of 229,846 and the population of the 

Macon-Warner Robins-Fort Valley combined statistical area was 386,534. Although Macon is 

only 

Georgia’s sixth-largest city in population and only its fifth largest metropolitan statistical area, 

Macon’s combined statistical population area is the third largest in the state behind Atlanta and 

Augusta (Georgia Department of Audits and Accounts 2005, Atlanta Regional Commission 

2007). Moreover, the upper Ocmulgee River basin contains part of the expanding Atlanta 

Metropolitan Area, which is adding more than 100,000 new residents per year (e.g. April 2006 – 

April 2007; Atlanta Regional Commission 2007). More than four million people now reside 

there – a population larger than 24 states, according to 2006 U.S. Census estimates. 

Physical Impacts From Activities in OCMU 

OCMU is popular for hikers and other visitors to the Macon area. OCMU’s Ocmulgee Indian 

Celebration alone attracts 14,000 people every September, and OCMU staff also engage in 

various other education outreach activities such as ranger-led walks, exhibits, and the Lantern 

Light Tours in March. The NPS plans to expand the network of trails within the Main Unit of 

OCMU to link to the Ocmulgee Heritage Trail, a Greenway Trail along the OCMU riverfront 

that is being developed by the City of Macon (NPS 2007). The Trail will provide additional 

recreational opportunities for the entire population including disabled people. The NPS also is 

adding signs to the boardwalk area, and other features that will assist in educating visitors about 

the value of wetlands. There is public interest, as well, in the remote Lamar Unit, and the NPS 

hopes to provide additional educational and interpretative opportunities there (NPS 2007). 
58 

Hiking trails in OCMU receive heavy use, which is projected to increase with the creation of the 

Greenway Trail. Heavy rains, especially during summer months, have caused washout and 

erosion in some trail sections that are also a potential safety problem. 

Railroad Maintenance 

The CSX railroad line that passes through OCMU is routinely maintained by spraying herbicides 

to control plant growth on and adjacent to the railroad bed. Effects of these herbicides on OCMU 

flora and fauna have not been assessed (DeVivo 2006). 

Other Continuous Land Issues and Impacts 

OCMU is immediately adjacent to Macon along its north/northwest boundaries, including 

housing projects and other economically depressed areas. Spillover crime from the city is a 

concern. 

The monument sustains frequent illicit dumping and other inputs of trash and other refuse (Chief 

Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). The City of Macon installed a catchment facility, paid for by 

the NPS, but there are concerns as to whether the catchment is effective in reducing the refuse 

entering OCMU because of its large grid mesh size (~12 inches) and because of obvious signs of 

debris spillover into OCMU. 

Robbins Air Force Base is about 14.2 miles south of the Lamar Unit, with associated noise and 

air pollution from incoming/outgoing flights. 

OCMU’s necessary eradication program to control proliferating feral hogs is unpopular with 

some hunters who have aggressively, sometimes threateningly conveyed their disapproval to 

OCMU staff (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). 

Synopsis of Stressors to Ocmulgee National Monument 

The present and potential stressors that are affecting or may affect OCMU are summarized in 

Table 21). Overwhelmingly, the most pressing stress on the natural resources of OCMU is from 

adjacent and upstream urbanization and its multitude of associated impacts – the encroaching 

development pressures associated with Macon, and the voracious, rapidly expanding and 

massive development of the greater Atlanta metropolitan area. The amount of stormwater runoff 

from urban areas has increased dramatically over the past 30 years in these urbanizing areas 

(Georgia Department of Audits and Accounts 2005). 

The increasing demands on water supplies from human population growth may pose a threat to 

surface and groundwater resources in the vicinity of OCMU in the coming decades. At present, 

though, human population growth and urban sprawl with accompanying water and air 

degradation are the major stressors affecting OCMU’s surface waters and other natural 

resources. In a situation that typifies many other parks in the SECN (Byrne 2004), the surface 

waters of OCMU are downstream from 303(d)-listed degraded waters outside NPS jurisdiction. 

Thus, it is not surprising that OCMU’s surface waters also are included in the state’s 303(d) list 

as impaired for supporting fish because of excessive sedimentation (Walnut Creek), and 

impaired for general recreation (John Ward Creek) because of high fecal coliforms (both Walnut 

Creek and the Ocmulgee River, for which at least some data are available; the smaller streams in 

OCMU likely are similarly affected). Sedimentation from development-related land disturbance 
59 

excessive nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, and other toxic contaminants are adversely a 

upstream of OCMU, and surrounding it, is seriously affecting Walnut Creek in OCMU, in terms 

of both water quality and aquatic life. There is high potential that associated pollutants such as

affecting OCMU’s streams as well. Microbial pathogens that may be present, indicated to some 

extent by high fecal coliforms, may be adversely affecting fish and other aquatic life. 

Table 21. Present-day and potential stressors that are affecting or may affect OCMU (ND = no data or 

insufficient data to make judgment; NA = not applicable; NP = no problem; EP = existing problem; PP = 

pending problem). 

Stressor Surface Waters Groundwater Airshed Forest Human Health

Acidification EP ND EP EP EP 

Algal blooms EP NA NA NA ND 

Encroaching urbanization EP ND EP EP EP 

Erosion (including dust) EP ND EP EP EP 

Excessive nutrients* EP ND EP EP NP 

Exotic invasive species EP NA ND EP ND 

Fecal bacteria EP ND NA ND EP 

Habitat disruption EP EP NA EP EP 

Highway construction EP ND EP EP EP* 

Hypoxia EP NA NA NA NP 

Metals contamination EP ND ND ND EP 

Ozone pollution ND NA EP EP EP 

Other toxic substances ND ND EP ND ND 

Sedimentation (including dust) EP ND EP NA EP 

Trash/refuse pollution EP ND NA EP ND 

Water demand PP PP NA ND NA 

* Is adding more air pollution because of car exhausts; also will increase likelihood of collisions with deer. 

There is high potential that surface water quality and aquatic communities are sustaining impacts 

from air pollution including acidification, mercury and other heavy metals, pesticides etc. The 

seasonal or lower frequency of sampling to evaluate water quality is insufficient to detect the 

spikes in these pollutants that are known to occur depending upon weather patterns. Thus, for 

example, available pH data are inadequate to evaluate the extent to which acid spates (sudden 

influxes of highly acidic water at the beginning of storm events) are affecting the aquatic food 

webs (Morris et al. 1989). Air pollution likely is also adversely affecting terrestrial vegetation, 

for example, as foliar damage from high ozone in the OCMU area. In addition, the high ozone 

and PM2.5 levels in the OCMU airshed pose a threat to the health of the staff and frequent 

visitors. 

A diverse group of invasive/exotic and nuisance plant and animal species threatens the natural 

resources of OCMU and is a major concern. In addition to known significant effects of exotic 

species on land resources, increasing urbanization surrounding OCMU may be promoting an 

increase in nuisance native or invasive species such as foxes, coyotes and deer, and associated 

negative effects. It is also likely that various noxious wetland plant species and the wetland 
60 

rodent, nutria are seriously affecting OCMU’s aquatic and resources but, aside from species lists, 

little is known about aquatic impacts from invasive/exotic species. 

The new major highway corridor that is planned for construction through or near OCMU, as well 

as other encroaching development within the existing greenway corridor, are contributing to the 

fragmentation of the monument’s natural resources (USDI-NPS 2000). The looming major 

factor that will exacerbate all of these stresses is the progressive urbanization of theMaconWarner Robins-Fort Valley combined statistical area in the OCMU area, and the rapid, extreme 

population growth of the Atlanta metropolitan area in the upper watershed and airshed. 
61 

Recommendations to Address Impairments, Potential 

Impacts, and Undocumented Water Bodies 

General Comments 

Government-managed lands comprise 29% of the U.S. land area (Gibbons et al. 1997), including 

more than 32 million hectares set aside within the National Park System (Stohlgren et al. 1995). 

Thus, the National Park System is a major factor in the potential for this nation to protect natural 

lands and biodiversity. The parks and their natural resources are supposed to be “protected 

lands” for present and future generations of U.S. citizens, but external encroaching stressors from 

watershed development and habitat fragmentation are seriously threatening these critically 

important refuge areas, including OCMU. OCMU, downstream and down-airshed from the 

Atlanta metropolitan area, is vulnerable to encroaching and surrounding urbanization. The NPS 

is ill-equipped to protect its vitally important water resources from airshed and watershed 

pollution and other stressors because the stressors, for the most part, are outside of NPS control. 

In addition, there is inadequate information on water quality conditions or aquatic community 

health. Few data are available on aquatic flora and fauna, mostly limited to surveys of species 

occurrence. 

Within the past decade, GA DNR has developed several TMDLs for the Ocmulgee River and 

Walnut Creek segments that include OCMU (GA DNR 2007a,b,c). The TMDLs are supposed to 

be “platforms for establishing courses of actions to restore water quality” (GA DNR 2004); 

procedures are to be set in place to track and evaluate implementation of corrective management 

practices and activities. It is imperative that the state of Georgia legislature and environmental 

agency track and ensure the effectiveness of the TMDLs for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut 

Creek. The following additional recommendations can be addressed within NPS jurisdiction. 

Specific Recommendations 

 

Water Quality 

 A top priority is to conduct a two-year water quality monitoring program in OCMU 

segments of the Ocmulgee River, Walnut Creek, and the small tributaries with biweekly 

or monthly sampling frequency (insofar as possible for the intermittent tributaries) to 

track water quality conditions in the park. Two stations on each stream, including inflow 

and outflow of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek from OCMU, should be sampled 

for, at a minimum, water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, turbidity, 

nutrients (TN, TP, nitrate, ammonium, BOD5), fecal coliform densities, and chlorophyll a 

concentrations. This effort should be repeated at five-year intervals. Additional effort 

also should be expended to include monitoring of storm events because they are known to 

contribute most nonpoint source pollution (for example, from urban runoff). Benchmarks 

for acceptable water quality should consider the information contained in Table 15 for 

streams with designated use for Fishing. 

 Data should be collected at least annually on toxic substance concentrations (PCBs, 

heavy metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals) in sediments and fish or benthic faunal tissues. 

Published benchmarks for acceptable water quality for streams with designated use for 

Fishing should be used to evaluate the information. 
62 

 The origin of the high fecal coliform contamination affecting OCMU surface waters has 

been in contention (Chief Ranger G. LaChine, pers. comm.). While urban runoff clearly 

is a factor, the contribution from wildlife has not been assessed. A study should be 

undertaken over an annual cycle to apply state-of-the-art molecular “fingerprinting” 

techniques to assess the origin of fecal coliform contamination. 

 The park should inventory changes in land use/land cover in the watersheds of Walnut 

Creek and the Ocmulgee River upstream from and surrounding the park, including 

traditional categories but also septic tanks in new subdivisions, new highway projects, 

new shopping centers, and other potential sources of water pollution. The data should be 

used to create GIS maps of these sources, which can be upgraded over time to help the 

NPS track pollution and its impacts in park waters. 

Ecosystem and Community Health 

 At least once per year during an appropriate seasonal timeframe, the macroinvertebrate 

communities (benthic fauna, aquatic insects) should be assessed in at least two stations on 

the Ocmulgee River, Walnut Creek, and the three smaller streams in OCMU, following 

the protocol in Barbour et al. (1999). Benchmarks should consider published descriptions 

of healthy macroinvertebrate communities in warmwater streams (e.g. Barbour et al. 

1999, GA 2007). The data should be used to track stream ecological condition (rated 

from Excellent to Poor) over time. 

 At least once per year during an appropriate seasonal timeframe, the fish community in 

the park segments of the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek should be assessed, 

following the protocol outlined in Barbour et al. (1999). The fish data should be used to 

develop an Index of Biotic Integrity and an Index of Well-Being for fish population 

health over time (Barbour et al. 1999). 

 OCMU’s wetland ecosystems should be mapped and assessed, at least at five-year 

intervals, for indices of diversity, function, and overall health. 

 A sampling program should be developed to establish present conditions and track exotic 

invasive species affecting terrestrial as well as aquatic/wetland sources in OCMU, so that 

OCMU staff can develop active management strategies to optimize control. Assessment 

of exotic invasive species should be repeated at least at three-year intervals to enable 

detection of species that may rapidly invade. 

 An updated biological inventory should be completed for herpetofauna, following the 

protocol outlined in Tuberville et al. (2005). 

 A baseline biological inventory is needed for the composition and abundance of benthic 

microalgal assemblages in OCMU, following protocols in Wetzel and Likens (2001). The 

benthic microalgal (periphyton) data should be used to develop an index of biotic 

integrity (e.g. following Hill et al. 2000) for the Ocmulgee River and Walnut Creek in the 

park area. 
63 

 OCMU lies within a trough of the Atlanta airshed, and within the Macon-Warner RobinsFort Valley combined statistical area. The NPS should assess incidence of foliar injury to 

park plants from ozone pollution, including common wetland bioindicator species such as 

yellow poplar and American elder. More generally, data are needed to assess the extent to 

which air pollution is affecting OCMU, and to forecast how increasing air pollution from 

the greater Atlanta and Macon metropolitan areas will affect its waters and other natural 

resources. Sampling devices should be installed to establish present conditions and track 

air pollutants such as ozone, PM2.5, and mercury. 

 OCMU’s five streams should be the focus of stream restoration projects to assist in their 

recovery from excessive sedimentation, with highest priorities for Walnut Creek and the 

Ocmulgee River. Monument staff should monitor the streams for erosion of the stream 

banks, which is commonly related to upstream urban watershed activities, and for tree 

damage from beavers which can lead to increased bank erosion. Construction of beaver 

dams within the park should not be permitted, since this would increase on-site flooding 

and threaten cultural resources. 

Groundwater 

 OCMU’s groundwater resources should be assessed through partnership with the USGS, 

including recharge/discharge areas, movement, and chemical quality. 

Education Outreach 

 OCMU should continue its excellent efforts to strengthen education outreach to teach 

visitors about the importance of greenspaces such as the monument in ecosystem 

sustainability. 

Other Actions 

 The NPS should seek cumulative mitigation (e.g. floodplain restoration) and push for a 

full Environmental Impact Statement of the I-16/I-75 project of GA DOT, which would 

widen I-16 through the monument under an Environmental Assessment. GA DOT is 

required to investigate and carefully consider cumulative impacts, which include past, 

present, and future impacts of this project. Thus, impacts from the original construction 

of I-16 and the associated installation of the Macon Levee should be assessed for their 

impacts on the monument, and these impacts should be mitigated within the framework 

of the present I-16/I-75 improvements project. Restoration of the floodplain would 

reduce flood magnitudes and frequencies. Alternative routing of I-16 that would avoid 

the TCP should be seriously considered as well.

 The NPS should pursue actions to protect remaining undeveloped lands (e.g. increase in 

greenspace setasides) adjacent to OCMU to target a goal of protecting and growing 

buffer areas around the park. 

 Trash coming into OCMU from the City of Macon should be monitored (type, most 

frequent entry locations, weight). Trash collecting devices of the City, if present should 

be rigorously evaluated for their efficacy in keeping trash and other refuse from entering 

OCMU. 

65 

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71 

Appendix A. Discharge Data for USGS Gaging Stations near 

Ocmulgee National Monument 
Table A-1

station in 

longitude 

square m

. USGS disc

the Ocmulge

83°37'14"; NA

iles; datum of

charge data fo

e River just u

AD83, Bibb C

f gage: 269.8 

or the Ocmulg

upstream from

County, Georg

feet above m

72 

gee River nea

m OCMU (site

gia, Hydrolog

mean sea leve

ar OCMU . T

e #02213000, 

ic Unit 03070

el). 

The USGS ma

Macon; latitu

0103; drainag

intains a flow

ude 32°50'19"

e area 2,240 

, 
Table A-1. (Continued). 

73 
Table A-2

GA from 2

square m

. USGS disc

1 August 196

iles, 380.36 fe

harge data fo

2 through 27

eet above sea

or Walnut Cre

7 July 1976 (N

a level; latitud

74 

ek ~4.5 miles

NAD27, hydro

de 32o58'20'',

s upstream fro

ologic unit 03

, longitude -83

om OCMU, in

3070103; drain

3o37'08''). 

 Jones Coun

age area 29

ty, 

.0 
75 

Appendix B. Limited historic data available (sporadic, in 

several years during1986 - 1996) for water quality conditions 

at NPS and GA DNR-EPD stations at or near OCMU 

Table B-1. Available data from U.S. EPA STORET; sampling dates per year ranged from 1-20). Red ≡

data in violation of state standard; green ≡ sufficient to support noxious algal blooms – see review in 

Mallin 2000; purple ≡ data exceeded recommended values to protect aquatic life (U.S. EPA (2000): for 

TSS, 25 mg/L maximum, and < 10 mg/L increase from a sudden spike; for BOD5 3 mg/L or less – Mallin 

et al. 2006). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean(range) 

or 

single value (sv) Median

Number of 

UCs 

At or Near OCMU 

NPS OCMU_DNR_CRK (adjacent to OCMU; latitude 32.8394, longitude -83.6154) 

63 chemical contaminants, 

(pesticides etc.) 10-Aug-95 1 each Non-detectible except for 3: 

 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1 sv 5 μg/L --- --- 

 Limonene 1 sv 67 μg/L --- --- 

 m-xylene, p-xylene 1 sv 5 μg/L --- --- 

NPS OCMU_MWA_ABS (adjacent to OCMU; latitude 32.8429, longitude -83.6076) 

Temperature (oC) Apr 95 - Aug 95 15 18.7 (14 - 28) 18 --- 

DO (mg/L)a

 Apr 95 - Jun 95 16 6.5 (4.6 - 8.9) 6.2 1

pH Apr 95 - Aug 95 17 7.0 (6.6 - 7.4) 7.1 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) Apr 95 - Sep 95 13 2.1 (1 - 7) 2 1

TSS (mg/L) Apr 95 - Sep 95 19 15.8 (0.4 - 69) 14 3

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL)b Apr 95 - Sep 95 18 914 (3 - 10,200) 315 5

NPS OCMU_MWA_DF (in OCMU; latitude 32.8417, longitude -83.6082) 

Temperature (oC) Apr 95 - Aug 95 15 18.8 (14 - 28) 18 --- 

DO (mg/L)a

 Apr 95 - Jun 95 16 5.97 (4.0 - 8.8) 5.9 3

pH Apr 95 - Aug 95 17 6.9 (6.2 - 7.2) 6.9 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) Apr 95 - Sep 95 14 1.3 (0.3 - 4) 1 1

TSS (mg/L) Apr 95 - Sep 95 20 10.5 (0.3 - 54) 5.5 2

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL)b Apr 95 - Sep 95 19 1,351 (3 - 8,050) 124 6 (6)

 
76 

Table B-1. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean(range) 

or 

single value (sv) Median

Number of 

UCs 

NPS OCMU_MWA_DWS (at OCMU; latitude 32.8375, longitude -83.6097) 

Temperature (oC) 20-22 May 94 3 23.2 (22.4 - 23.7) 23.4 --- 

DO (mg/L) 20-22 May 94 3 7.03 (5.2 - 8) 7.9 --- 

pH 20-22 May 94 3 6.5 (6.3 - 6.6) 6.5 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 7 --- 1

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL)b

 20-21 May 94 2 1,105 (600 - 1,610) --- 2 (2) 

NPS OCMU_MWA_PR (at OCMU; latitude 32.8381, longitude -83.6094) 

Temperature (oC) 25-28 Apr 95 4 17.5 (15 - 22) 16.5 --- 

DO (mg/L) 23-28 Apr 95 6 5.77 (3.8 - 7.1) 6.3 2

pH 23-28 Apr 95 5 6.8 (6.6 - 7.1) 6.9 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 27-28 Apr 95 2 2.5 (2 - 3) 2.5 --- 

TSS (mg/L) 23-28 Apr 95 5 10.6 (2 - 23) 3 --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 23-28 Apr 95 5 3,403 (6 - 12,961) 653 2 (3)

NPS OCMU_MWA_S1 (adjacent to OCMU; latitude 32.8424, longitude -83.6079) 

Temperature (oC) 20-22 May 94 3 23.2 (22.3 - 23.7) 23.6 --- 

DO (mg/L) 20-22 May 94 3 8.3 (7.8 - 8.6) 8.6 --- 

pH 20-22 May 94 3 6.6 (6.5 - 6.7) 6.6 --- 

BOD (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 6 --- 1

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL)b 20-21 May 94 2 705 (600 - 810) --- 2 (2)

NPS OCMU_MWA_S2 (at OCMU; latitude 32.8381, longitude -83.6093) 

Temperature (oC) Apr 95 - Aug 95 15 18.6 (14 - 28) 18 --- 

DO (mg/L)a

 Apr 95 - Jun 96 16 5.99 (4.2 - 8.6) 8.6 3

pH Apr 95 - Aug 95 17 6.8 (6.3 - 7.3) 6.9 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) Apr 95 - Sep 95 13 1.5 (0.7 - 5) 1 1

TSS (mg/L) Apr 95 - Jun 96 19 10.4 (2 - 35) 8 2

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) Apr 95 - Jun 96 18 1,531 (1 - 9,500) 84 6 (5)

NPS OCMU_MWA_STO (at OCMU; latitude 32.8353, longitude -83.6078) 

Temperature (oC) 22-May-94 1 sv 20.8 --- --- 

DO (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 6.4 --- --- 

pH 22-May-94 1 sv 6.2 --- --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 2 --- --- 

 
77 

Table B-1. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean(range) 

or 

single value (sv) Median

Number of 

UCs 

NPS OCMU_MWA_SWP (at OCMU; latitude 32.8361, longitude -83.6101) 

Temperature (oC) 20-22 May 94 3 23 (21.9 - 23.6) 23.5 --- 

DO (mg/L) 20-22 May 94 3 6.73 (5.4 - 7.5) 7.3 --- 

pH 20-22 May 94 3 6.5 (6.4 - 6.7) 6.5 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 10 --- 1

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL)b

 20-21 May 94 2 600 (600 - 600) --- 2 (2)

NPS OCMU_MWA_UPS (at OCMU; latitude 32.8387, longitude -83.6091) 

Temperature (oC) 20-22 May 94 3 22.3 (22.1 - 22.6) 22.2 --- 

DO (mg/L) 20-22 May 94 3 8.7 (8.6 - 8.8) 8.7 --- 

pH 20-22 May 94 3 6.7 (6.3 - 6.9) 6.8 --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 22-May-94 1 sv 8 --- 1

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 20-21 May 94 2 172.5 (95 - 250) --- 1(---)

Upstream from OCMU – Ocmulgee River

NPS OCMU_FRUS_1 (5.8 miles upstream; latitude 32.8962, longitude -83.6623) 

Temperature (oC) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 34.3 (32 - 37) 34 --- 

Turbidity (NTU) 14, 20 July 88 2 7.5 (5 - 10) --- --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 114 (105 - 126) 111 --- 

DO (mg/L) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 6.97 (5.4 - 7.9) 7.6 --- 

pH 14, 20 July 88 2 7.65 (7.4 - 7.9) --- --- 

NO2

-

N + NO3

-

N (μg/L) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 86.7 (60 - 130) 70 1

TP (μg/L) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 33.3 (20 - 40) 40 --- 

TOC (mg/L) 14, 20 July 88 2 3.1 (2.3 - 3.9) --- --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 13,14, 20 Jul 88 3 0.8 (0.7 - 1) 0.8 --- 

TSS (mg/L) 14, 20 July 88 2 4.5 (1 - 8) --- --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 13, 14, 20 July 88 3 56.7 (40 - 80) 50 --- 

Metals, chemical elements 14, 26 July 88 (see Table 10) 

 
78 

Table B-1. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean(range) 

or 

single value (sv) Median

Number of 

UCs 

Upstream of OCMU – Walnut Creek

NPS OCMU_WNC_JVR (0.4 mile upstream; latitude 32.8521, longitude - 83.5934) 

Temperature (oC) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 27 (26 - 28) --- --- 

Turbidity (NTU) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 8 (8 - 8) --- --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 127.5 (120 - 135) --- --- 

DO (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 6.5 (6.5 - 6.5) --- --- 

pH 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 7.25 (7.2 - 7.3) --- --- 

NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 240 (220 - 260) --- 2

TP (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 30 (*nd - 30) --- --- 

TOC (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 4.4 (3.2 - 5.5) --- --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 0.65 (0.6 - 0.7) --- --- 

TSS (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 2 (*nd - 2) --- --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 640 (490 - 790) 640 2 (2)

Metals, chemicals detected 16 July, 27 Aug 86 (see Table 9) 

NPS OCMU_WNC_H11 (2.9 miles upstream; latitude 32.8772, longitude -83.6094) 

Temperature (oC) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 28 (26 - 30) --- --- 

Turbidity (NTU) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 4 (3 - 5) --- --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 131.5 (123 - 140) --- --- 

DO (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 6.2 (5.2 - 7.2) --- --- 

pH 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 7.6 (7.6 - 7.6) --- --- 

NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 465 (420 - 510) --- 2

TP (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 35 (30 - 40) --- --- 

TOC (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 4.1 (3.6 - 4.6) --- --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 0.7 (0.4 - 1) --- --- 

TSS (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 3 (*nd - 3) --- --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 273 (110 - 435) --- 1 (1)

NPS OCMU_WNC_H18 (10 miles upstream; latitude 32.9733, longitude -83.6192) 

Temperature (oC) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 26.5 (24.5 - 28.5) --- --- 

Turbidity (NTU) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 4 (*nd - 4) --- --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 111.5 (104 - 119) --- --- 

DO (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 6.1 (5.3 - 6.9) --- --- 

pH 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 7.5 (7.4 - 7.6) --- --- 

NO3

-

N + NO2

-

N (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 275 (170 - 380) --- 2

TP (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 30 (*nd - 30) --- --- 

TOC (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 5.3 (4.9 - 5.6) --- --- 

BOD (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 0.7 (0.6 - 0.8) --- --- 

TSS (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 (*nd) --- --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 1,015 (330 - 1,700) --- 2 (1)
79 

Table B-1. (Continued). 

Parameter Date n 

Mean(range) 

or 

single value (sv) Median

Number of 

UCs 

Downstream of OCMU on Walnut Creek

NPS OCMU_WNC_I16 (0.1 mile downstream; latitude 32.8291, longitude -83.6046) 

Temperature (oC) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 27.5 (27 - 28) --- --- 

Turbidity (NTU) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 36 (16 - 56) --- --- 

Spec. cond. (μmhos/cm, field) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 141 (129 - 153) --- --- 

DO (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 4.7 (4.2 - 5.2) --- 1

pH 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 7.3 (7.2 - 7.4) --- --- 

NO2

-

N + NO3

-

N (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 125 (70 - 180) --- 1

TP (μg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 35 (30 - 40) --- --- 

TOC (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 7.9 (6.9 - 8.9) --- --- 

BOD5 (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 1.15 (1.1 - 1.2) --- --- 

TSS (mg/L) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 2 (2 - 2) --- --- 

Fecal coliforms (mpn/100 mL) 16 July, 27 Aug 86 2 945 (790 - 1,100) --- 2 (2)

a The original value of 0 on one date (1 Jun 95) was reported in STORET as “non-detect”. This sample was omitted from statistical 

analysis because sensor performance was suspect. 

b The sample value in STORET was noted as “*present > QL”, with the upper quantification limit equal to 600. The 600 value was 

used in the statistical analysis as a conservative estimate.
80 

Table B-2. Available STORET data (sparse, 1-3 dates each in 1986, 1988, or 1999-2000) for metal 

concentrations in the water and/or sediments at four stations upstream from OCMU or on the upper 

OCMU boundary. 

Parameter Concentration Parameter Concentration 

Station NPS OCMU_FRUS_1 (Ocmulgee R., 5.8 miles upstream from OCMU; lat. 32.8962, long. -83.6623) 

16 July 1986 – Water (μg/L) 16 July 1986 – Sediment (mg/kg) 

Aluminum 360 μg/L Aluminum --- 

Barium 50 μg/L Barium --- 

Calcium 720 μg/L Calcium --- 

Iron 570 μg/L Iron --- 

Magnesium 3,200 μg/L Magnesium --- 

Manganese 840 μg/L Manganese --- 

Sodium 5,100 μg/L Sodium 2.2 mg/kg 

14 July 1988 – Water 26 July 1988 – Sediment 

Aluminum 800 μg/L Aluminum 17,000 mg/kg 

Barium 21 μg/L Barium 90 mg/kg 

Calcium 7,600 μg/L Calcium 1,100 mg/kg 

Iron 400 μg/L Iron 21,000 mg/kg 

Magnesium 2,400 μg/L Magnesium 2,400 mg/kg 

Manganese 84 μg/L Manganese 1,300 mg/kg 

Nickel 20 μg/L Nickel 7.7 mg/kg 

Potassium 2,600 μg/L Potassium 2,000 mg/kg 

Sodium 9,200 μg/L Sodium 130 mg/kg 

Titanium 31 μg/L Titanium 900 mg/kg 

Zinc 200 μg/L Zinc 54 mg/kg 

Chromium *nd = 10 μg/L Chromium 23 mg/kg 

Cobalt *nd = 10 μg/L Cobalt 7.9 mg/kg 

Copper *nd = 20 μg/L Copper 24 mg/kg 

Lead *nd = 25 μg/L Lead 4.5 mg/kg 

Vanadium *nd = 10 μg/L Vanadium 42 mg/kg 
81 

Table B-2. (Continued). 

Parameter Concentration Parameter Concentration 

Station OCMU_WNC_JVR (Walnut Cr. Bridge, Jeffersonville Rd., 0.4 mile upstream from OCMU on Walnut Cr.; lat. 

32.8521, long. - 83.5934) 

16 July 1986 – Water (μg/L) 16 July 1986 – Sediment (mg/kg) 

Aluminum 360 μg/L Aluminum --- 

Barium 50 μg/L Barium --- 

Calcium 720 μg/L Calcium --- 

Iron 570 μg/L Iron --- 

Magnesium 3,200 μg/L Magnesium --- 

Manganese 840 μg/L Manganese --- 

Sodium 5,100 μg/L Sodium 2.2 mg/kg 

27 July 1986 – Sediment 

TCPH (Trichlorophenol) 0.2 mg/kg Lead 14 mg/kg 

Aluminum 2,740 mg/kg Magnesium 560 mg/kg 

Arsenic 3.1 mg/kg Manganese 1,970 mg/kg 

Barium 160 mg/kg Nickel 3 mg/kg 

Beryllium 1.1 mg/kg Potassium 390 mg/kg 

Calcium 725 mg/kg Sodium 65 mg/kg 

Chromium 6.3 mg/kg Titanium 165 mg/kg 

Cobalt 7.7 mg/kg Vanadium 19 mg/kg 

Copper 7.7 mg/kg Zinc 26 mg/kg 

Iron 8,890 mg/kg 

Appen

subst

dix C. 

ances –

Water q

 stream

uality s

s and la

83 

tandard

kes (GA

s in Ge

 DNR 2

orgia fo

008c). 

r toxic 

 
84 
85 
86 
87 

Appendix D. Criteria for classification of surface waters as 

meeting or not meeting their designated use(s) (GA DNR 

2008b). 
 

88 

 
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other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated 

Island Communities. 

NPS 363/106238, December 2010 
National Park Service 

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