Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian

Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West 

Virginia

By Charlynn J. Sheets and Mark D. Kozar

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey

Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4269

National Water-Quality Assessment Program

 Charleston, West Virginia

 2000
U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bruce Babbitt, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Charles G. Groat, Director 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. 

Government.

For additional information write to:

District Chief

U.S. Geological Survey

11 Dunbar Street

Charleston, WV 25301

Copies of this report can be purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey

Branch of Information Services

Box 25286

Denver, CO 80225-0286

Information regarding the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program is available on the Internet via the 

World Wide Web. You may connect to the NAWQA Home Page using the Universal Resource Locator (URL):

 <http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/nawqa_home.html>
FOREWORD

The mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

is to assess the quantity and quality of the earth resources 

of the Nation and to provide information that will assist 

resource managers and policymakers at Federal, State, 

and local levels in making sound decisions. Assessment 

of water-quality conditions and trends is an important 

part of this overall mission.

One of the greatest challenges faced by waterresources scientists is acquiring reliable information that 

will guide the use and protection of the Nation’s water 

resources. That challenge is being addressed by Federal, 

State, interstate, and local water-resource agencies and 

by many academic institutions. These organizations are 

collecting water-quality data for a host of purposes that 

include: compliance with permits and water-supply standards; development of remediation plans for a specific 

contamination problem; operational decisions on industrial, wastewater, or water-supply facilities; and research 

on factors that affect water quality. An additional need 

for water-quality information is to provide a basis on 

which regional- and national-level policy decisions can 

be based. Wise decisions must be based on sound information. As a society we need to know whether certain 

types of water-quality problems are isolated or ubiquitous, whether there are significant differences in conditions among regions, whether the conditions are 

changing over time, and why these conditions change 

from place to place and over time. The information can 

be used to help determine the efficacy of existing waterquality policies and to help analysts determine the need 

for and likely consequences of new policies.

To address these needs, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds in 1986 for the USGS to begin a pilot program 

in seven project areas to develop and refine the National 

Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. In 1991, 

the USGS began full implementation of the program. 

The NAWQA Program builds upon an existing base of 

water-quality studies of the USGS, as well as those of 

other Federal, State, and local agencies. The objectives 

of the NAWQA Program are to:

•Describe current water-quality conditions for a 

large part of the Nation’s freshwater streams, rivers, and aquifers.

•Describe how water quality is changing over time.

•Improve understanding of the primary natural and 

human factors that affect water-quality conditions.

 This information will help support the development 

and evaluation of management, regulatory, and monitoring decisions by other Federal, State, and local agencies 

to protect, use, and enhance water resources.

 The goals of the NAWQA Program are being 

achieved through investigations of 59 of the Nation’s 

most important river basins and aquifer systems, which 

are referred to as study units. These study units are distributed throughout the Nation and cover a diversity of 

hydrogeologic settings. More than two-thirds of the 

Nation’s freshwater use occurs within the 59 study units 

and more than two-thirds of the people served by public 

water-supply systems live within their boundaries.

 National synthesis of data analysis, based on aggregation of comparable information obtained from the 

study units, is a major component of the program. This 

effort focuses on selected water-quality topics using 

nationally consistent information. Comparative studies 

will explain differences and similarities in observed 

water-quality conditions among study areas and will 

identify changes and trends and their causes. The first 

topics addressed by the national synthesis are pesticides, 

nutrients, volatile organic compounds, and aquatic biology. Discussions on these and other water-quality topics 

will be published in periodic summaries of the quality of 

the Nation’s ground and surface water as the information 

becomes available.

 This report is an element of the comprehensive body 

of information developed as part of the NAWQA Program. The program depends heavily on the advice, cooperation, and information from many Federal, State, 

interstate, Tribal, and local agencies and the public. The 

assistance and suggestions of all are greatly appreciated.

 

 Robert M. Hirsch

 Chief Hydrologist


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Abstract 1

Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, 

Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

By Charlynn J. Sheets and Mark D. Kozar

Abstract

Water samples collected from 30 privately-owned 

and small public-supply wells in the Appalachian 

Plateaus of the Kanawha River Basin were analyzed for a wide range of constituents, including 

bacteria, major ions, nutrients, trace elements, 

radon, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds. Concentrations of most constituents from 

samples analyzed did not exceed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standards.

Constituents that exceeded drinking-water 

standards in at least one sample were total 

coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli), iron, 

manganese, and sulfate. Total coliform bacteria 

were present in samples from five sites, and E. 

coli were present at only one site. USEPA secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) were 

exceeded for three constituents -- sulfate 

exceeded the SMCL of 250 mg/L (milligrams per 

liter) in samples from 2 of 30 wells; iron exceeded 

the SMCL of 300 μg/L (micrograms per liter) in 

samples from 12 of the wells, and manganese 

exceeded the SMCL of 50 μg/L in samples from 

17 of the wells sampled.

None of the samples contained concentrations of nutrients that exceeded the USEPA maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for these 

constituents. The maximum concentration of 

nitrate detected was only 4.1 mg/L, which is 

below the MCL of 10 mg/L. Concentrations of 

nitrate in precipitation and shallow ground water 

are similar, potentially indicating that precipitation may be a source of nitrate in shallow ground 

water in the study area.

Radon concentrations exceeded the recently 

proposed maximum contaminant level of 300 

pCi/L at 50 percent of the sites sampled. The 

median concentration of radon was only 290 pCi/

L. Radon-222 is a naturally occurring, carcinogenic, radioactive decay product of uranium. 

Concentrations, however, did not exceed the alternate maximum contaminant level (AMCL) for 

radon of 4,000 pCi/L in any of the 30 samples.

Arsenic concentrations exceeded the proposed MCL of 5μg/L at 4 of the 30 sites. No samples exceeded the current MCL of 50 μg/L. 

Neither pesticides nor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were prevalent in the study area, 

and the concentrations of the compounds that 

were detected did not exceed any USEPA MCLs. 

Pesticides were detected in only two of the 30 

wells sampled, but four pesticides -- atrazine, carbofuran, DCPA, and deethylatrazine -- were 

detected in one well; molinate was detected in the 

other well. All of the pesticides detected were at 

estimated concentrations of only 0.002 μg/L. Of 

the VOCs detected, trihalomethane compounds 

(THMs), which can result from chlorination of a 

well, were the most common. THMs were 

detected in 13 of the 30 wells sampled. Gasoline 

by-products, such as benzene, toluene, ethylben-
2 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

zene, and xylene (BTEX compounds) were 

detected in 10 of the 30 wells sampled. The maximum concentration of any of the VOCs detected 

in this study, however, was only 1.040 μg/L, for 

the THM dichlorofluoromethane.

Water samples from 25 of the wells were 

analyzed for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to estimate the apparent age of ground water. The analyses indicated that age of water ranged from 10 to 

greater than 57 years, and that the age of ground 

water could be correlated with the topographic 

setting of the wells sampled. Thus the apparent 

age of water in wells on hilltops was youngest 

(median of 13 years) and that of water in wells in 

valleys was oldest (median of 42 years). Water 

from wells on hillsides was intermediate in age 

(median of 29 years). These data can be used to 

define contributing areas to wells, corroborate or 

revise conceptual ground-water flow models, estimate contaminant travel times from spills to other 

sources such as nearby domestic or public supply 

wells, and to manage point and nonpoint source 

activities that may affect critical aquifers.

Introduction

As part of the National Water-Quality Assessment 

(NAWQA) Program, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) investigated ground-water quality in the 

Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province portion 

of the Kanawha River Basin in West Virginia (fig. 1). 

The overall goal of the NAWQA Program is to 

describe the status and trends in the quality of the 

ground- and surface-water resources of the United 

States and to develop an understanding of the natural 

and human factors that affect the quality of these 

resources (Hirsch and others, 1988). The NAWQA 

Program integrates water-quality information from 

local and regional scale studies to address national 

issues. Major components of the ground-water part of 

the program are to assess the quality of ground water 

in major ground-water regions throughout the United 

States and to determine the factors that affect the quality of water in these aquifer systems. This goal is 

achieved primarily by conducting “land-use surveys” 

and “study-unit surveys.” Land-use surveys link the 

quality of shallow ground water to natural and human 

factors that affect the quality of water within the aquifer. Study-unit surveys assess the areal occurrence and 

distribution of water-quality constituents within an 

aquifer. 

The Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province was chosen for investigation due to the lack of 

data in the region, especially with respect to organic 

compounds such as pesticides and volatile organic 

compounds (VOCs). Also, approximately 35.1% of 

rural home owners in the region obtain their water 

from wells completed in fractured bedrock aquifers 

throughout the region (McColloch and Kramer, 1993). 

The 30 wells selected for sampling were chosen randomly, by use of a computer randomization program. 

As a result of field inventories, wells of appropriate 

construction within a two mile radius of points determined by the randomization program were selected. 

Thus, wells selected were not chosen on the basis of 

particular land-use settings. 

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the occurrence and distribution 

of water-quality constituents in ground water within 

the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the Kanawha 

River Basin. Thirty wells were sampled within the 

region for the following constituents: bacteria, major 

ions, trace elements, nutrients, selected radioactive 

elements, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, and 

dissolved organic carbon. Analyses of water-quality 

data were used to determine the prevalence of these 

constituents in ground water. Chlorofluorocarbons 

(CFCs) were collected to determine the ages of ground 

water sampled from wells. Finally, water-quality data 

were evaluated with respect to geochemical processes 

and human activities. 

Description of Study Area

The Kanawha River Basin drains 8,424 mi2 in West 

Virginia and includes 3,809 mi2 drained by the New 

River in Virginia and North Carolina (Eychaner, 

1994). The basin consists of the Appalachian Plateaus, 

Blue Ridge, and Valley and Ridge Physiographic 

Provinces. The area of the study described here is the 

7,262 mi2

 area of the basin that lies within the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province in West Virginia. The Appalachian Plateaus are characterized by 

relatively flat-lying but intensely eroded bedrock, 

which results in a mountainous terrain capped by 

resistant layers of bedrock with a dendritic drainage 

pattern (Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 
Introduction 3

Pennsylvania

Ohio

West

Virginia

Virginia

KY

MD

0

0 10 20 30 MILES

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

80o

82o

38o

Figure 1. Location of the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province within the Kanawha River Basin in 

West Virginia and location of wells sampled during the study.

22

15

12

17 18

10

8

5

24

30

27

26

29

28

25

21

16

19

13

9

4

11

7

14

20

23

6

2 3

1

Winfield

Tornado Charleston

Marmet

Whitesville

Beckley

Gauley

Bridge

5 Sampled well location

EXPLANATION

Pocatalico
4 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

1946). The Appalachian Plateaus portion of the basin 

was selected for study because of the relative lack of 

water-quality data (especially for organic constituents) 

available for characterizing water-quality conditions in 

the region. Also, the Potomac NAWQA conducted 

extensive investigations of ground-water quality in the 

Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province. Priority 

was therefore given to the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the basin.

Land-use data were collected in the early 1970’s 

to characterize land use and land cover in West Virginia. The dominant land use in the study area is 

deciduous forest, which covers 60 percent of the land. 

Mixed forest, which consists of evergreen and deciduous trees, covers 24 percent of the study area. Cropland and pastures cover 10 percent of the study area, 

and urban or residential areas cover almost 2 percent. 

Strip mines, quarries, and gravel pits cover only 1 percent of the study area (U.S. Geological Survey, 1990).

Sampling and Analytical Methods

Ground-water samples were collected in May and 

June, 1997, from 30 wells (fig. 1). The wells selected 

for sampling were relatively new (less than 25 years 

old), of good construction (casings were not deteriorated or corroded), and distant from any known significant sources of contamination. The wells had reported 

yields of at least 5 gallons per minute (gpm), and adequate plumbing, pitless adaptors, and a clean spigot 

for sample collection. The sampling point was located 

as close to the well as possible, prior to any watertreatment systems or softeners, to avoid potential contamination (Lapham and others, 1995). Water levels 

were monitored throughout the purging and sampling 

process. Of the 30 wells sampled, seven are small public-supply wells, and the other 23 are privately owned 

household wells. All of the wells are drilled in fractured bedrock and have short casings. The median 

depth is 119 ft, and the median depth to water is 40 ft. 

All the wells sampled contained a submersible pump; 

were pumped to remove standing water, and then sampled according to USGS NAWQA protocols (Koterba 

and others, 1995). Quality-assurance and quality-control guidelines and protocols (Koterba and others, 

1995) were followed to provide representative and 

accurate water-quality data and to assess sampling and 

analytical variability.

Field measurements of specific conductance, 

pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, oxidation-reduction 

potential, and water temperature were made at the time 

of sampling. Samples for fecal and total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and alkalinity (carbonate and 

bicarbonate) were analyzed on site. All samples for 

bacteria analysis were collected and analyzed according to standard USGS protocols -- mFC agar for fecal 

coliform, mEndo agar for total coliform, and NAMUG agar for Escherichia coli (U. S. Geological Survey, 1997). Samples were analyzed for major ions, 

nutrients, trace elements, radon-222, uranium, pesticides, and VOCs at the USGS National Water-Quality 

Laboratory in Arvada, Colorado. To determine the relative age of ground water in the study area, 25 of the 

30 sites were sampled for chlorofluorocarbons 

(CFCs). CFC analyses were completed by the USGS 

CFC laboratory in Reston, Va. Samples for CFC analysis were collected and analyzed according to standard 

guidelines and protocols (Busenberg and Plummer, 

1998).

In addition to the collection of environmental 

samples, quality-assurance samples were also collected. Blanks were collected three times during sample collection for trace elements, common ions, 

nutrients, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, and 

dissolved organic carbon. Most constituents were not 

detected in the blanks. Trace-element blanks, however, 

had 1 detection of calcium (0.006 mg/L), chromium 

(0.28 μg/L), and zinc (1.8 μg/L). Aluminum was 

detected in all three blanks and was reported at concentrations close to the minimum reporting level. The 

range of aluminum concentrations detected in the 

blanks was 1.8 μg/L - 2.5 μg/L. Common ions had low 

level detections of dissolved solids, silica, and iron (2 

mg/L, 0.017 mg/L, and 3.7 μg/L, respectively). Of the 

six nutrient compounds analyzed, two were detected in 

the blank samples. Ammonia was detected at a concentration of 0.022 mg/L, and nitrate was detected at a 

concentration of 0.054 mg/L.

There were no detections of pesticides in any of 

the blank samples analyzed. Of the 86 VOCs analyzed, three compounds were detected in both blank 

and environmental samples. Chloroform (0.01 μg/L), 

carbon disulfide (0.004 μg/L), and m-p- xylene (0.010 

μg/L) were each detected in one of the three blank 

samples; these concentrations are much less than the 

respective reporting levels of 0.050, 0.080, and 0.064 

μg/L (table 1). Dissolved organic carbon was detected 

in the three blank samples at concentrations similar to 

concentrations in the environmental samples. The 

detections ranged from 0.1 mg/L - 0.2 mg/L.
Geohydrologic Setting 5

Table 1. Volatile organic compounds detected in quality-assurance blank samples 

collected in the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

Volatile organic 

compound Non-detect value Units of measurement

Number of 

detections

Maximum 

concentration

Chloroform 0.050 μg/L 1 E0.010

Carbon-disulfide 0.050 μg/L 1 E0.004

l- and p-xylene 0.050 μg/L 1 E0.010

Quality-control samples were collected to quantify measurement bias and variability associated with 

the data-collection process (Koterba and others, 1995). 

Spikes and replicates were also collected as qualitycontrol samples. A VOC and pesticide spike were collected, as well as two radon replicates. The spike 

recovery concentrations for the VOCs, pesticides, and 

radon replicates were all considered normal. Although 

there were a few low level detections of DOC and aluminum at concentrations near the minimum reporting 

level, the quality-assurance data do not indicate problems with any data except possibly for chloroform, 

which is a common laboratory and environmental contaminant. 

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the residents of West Virginia who allowed the USGS access to their properties 

for the collection of water samples and water-level 

measurements. This study could not have been completed without their cooperation.

Geohydrologic Setting

The streams in the Appalachian Plateaus flow in a 

dendritic drainage pattern and have eroded the flatlying sedimentary rocks into steep, sloping hills and 

narrow valleys and ridges. Ground water flows near 

the surface and moves through a series of fractures 

composed of joints, faults, and bedding planes. This 

section describes the geologic strata, a conceptual 

model of ground-water flow, ground-water age, and 

the depth of circulation.

Geohydrologic Framework

The Appalachian Plateaus consists of rugged, deeply 

incised mountainous terrain with uplifted plateaus 

capped by resistant layers of sandstone with shale 

(Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946; and 

U.S. Geological Survey, 1970). This part of the Plateaus has moderate to high relief (300 to 1,000 ft) 

marked by deep, V-shaped valleys (Berg and others, 

1989). 

The generalized hydrogeologic framework of 

the Kanawha River Basin in West Virginia (fig. 2) is 

based on a stratigraphic succession of Mississippian, 

Pennsylvanian, and Permian age clastic rocks forming 

the predominate outcropping units in West Virginia 

(Schneider and others, 1965, sheet 3). The Pennsylvanian and Permian age units consist of sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone, shale, coal, limestone, and 

dolomite. The thickness of the stratigraphic column 

ranges from 3,000 to 3,800 ft in West Virginia and 

contains more than 68 separate coal seams (Ehlke and 

others, 1982). Structurally, the bedrock is almost horizontal to slightly folded with fractures and joints, and 

has a regional dip to the northwest. The Pennsylvanian 

and Permian clastic rocks are commonly overlain by a 

thin layer of regolith. Mississippian age strata in the 

study area consist primarily of sandstone and shale 

with a few thin limestone layers. The massive Mississippian age limestones of the Greenbrier Group also 

crop out within the study area. 

Ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus 

is affected by geology and weathering processes. 

Topography, lithology, and structural geology control 

the occurrence, movement, storage, and flow of 

ground water and also affect ground-water quality. 

Ground-water flowpaths are short and confined to two 

principal aquifer systems: unconsolidated alluvial 

aquifers, composed of sand, silt, clay, and gravel; and 
6 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

38o

82o

80o

0

0 10 20 30 MILES

10 20 30 KILOMETERS

Base from Cardwell and others, 1968, 

Surficial geology of West Virginia, 1:250,000

Figure 2. Surficial geologic formations in the study area.

Whitesville

Beckley

Gauley

Bridge

Marmet

Winfield

Charleston

Tornado

County boundaries

PERMIAN OR PENNSYLVANIAN PERIOD

PENNSYLVANIAN PERIOD

QUATERNARY PERIOD

Alluvium

Greene, Washington and Waynesburg Formations 

 (Dunkard Group)

Uniontown and Pittsburgh Formations 

 (Monongahela Group)

Casselman and Glenshaw Formations 

 (Conemaugh Group)

Allegheny Formation

Kanawha Formation

New River Formation

Pocahontas Formation

MISSISSIPPIAN PERIOD

Bluestone and Princeton Formations

Hinton Formation

Bluefield Formation

Greenbrier Group

Maccrady Formation

Pocono Group

EXPLANATION
Geohydrologic Setting 7

fractured bedrock aquifers, composed of sedimentary 

rocks (Puente, 1984). The major-ion chemistry, pH, 

and hardness of ground water varies with the mineralogy of the sandstone, shale, coal, limestone and other 

bedrock which constitute the fractured bedrock aquifers of the region. 

Bedrock aquifers generally occur in Pennsylvanian and Permian age sedimentary rocks (fig. 2). 

Upper and Lower Pennsylvanian age formations have 

nearly horizontal layers of sandstone, siltstone, shale, 

limestone, and coal (Puente, 1984). Ground water 

flows primarily through fractures or bedding-plane 

separations. Locally, the regolith (weathered surficial 

material) is thin with low permeability, allowing little 

ground-water storage. Secondary permeability is due 

to joint and stress-release fractures. Intergranular 

porosity has been significantly reduced by calcium 

carbonate or silica cementation (Wyrick and Borchers, 

1981).

Regionally, coal deposits accompany Pennsylvanian to Lower Permian clastic rocks of the Appalachian Plateaus (fig. 2). The Lower Pennsylvanian 

Pocahontas, New River, and Kanawha Formations 

generally contain less pyrite and sulfur than coal-bearing rocks in the Upper Pennsylvanian Allegheny Formation, Conemaugh, and Monongahela Groups and 

Permian Dunkard Group (Watts and others, 1994). The 

boundary between the high and low sulfur coal 

regions, referred to as the “hinge line,” trends northeast to southwest from Tucker County, through 

Charleston to Wayne County, West Virginia and into 

Kentucky (Keystone Coal Industry Manual, 1994). 

Coal from the southern coal fields contains low total 

sulfur (less than 1.5 percent), although the sulfur content of coal can vary significantly within a single mine. 

Most of the wells sampled as part of this study are 

south of the hinge line, in or adjacent to the southern 

coal fields. 

Conceptual Model of Ground-Water Flow

Ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus is not 

fully understood, but two conceptual models have 

been formulated (Wyrick and Borchers, 1981; Harlow 

and LeCain, 1993). The models vary somewhat in 

their representation of ground-water flow in the 

region. According to the first model, ground water in 

the Appalachian Plateaus flows primarily in beddingplane separations beneath valley floors and in nearly 

vertical and horizontal slump fractures along valley 

walls (Wyrick and Borchers, 1981). The fractures are 

formed primarily from the release of overburden 

stress, which results from isostatic rebound. As valleys 

are formed by erosion, the unloading of compressional 

stress, known as “stress relief,” results in upward arching of rocks near the center of the valley, causing 

enlargement of bedding-plane separations that can 

increase secondary permeability. Stress relief also 

causes nearly vertical and horizontal fractures and 

slumping of the valley walls. Ground water, therefore, 

flows primarily near the surface along a network of 

fractures in the valley and hillsides. This theory does 

not fully explore the possibility that ground water can 

flow in lower permeability bedding-plane separations, 

faults, or joints that are present deep beneath the surface in the core of the hillside or mountain. It assumes 

that ground-water flow is primarily a shallow process. 

According to the second model for typical 

sequences of sandstone, siltstone, shale, and coal 

throughout the Appalachian Plateaus, transmissivity 

decreases with increasing depth (Harlow and LeCain, 

1993). Most rocks are permeable (transmissivity 

greater than 0.001 ft2/d) to a depth of approximately 

100 ft. Coal seams, however, can be permeable at 

depths greater than 200 ft. Additionally, ground-water 

flow in coal seams is primarily horizontal because of 

greater hydraulic conductivity in the coal seam, rather 

than vertical connection with adjacent sandstone, siltstone, or shale layers. Potentiometric head measurements indicate that recharge occurs primarily in 

topographically high areas (ridges) and ground water 

flows laterally and downward through shallow fractures in the bedrock. Vertical hydraulic conductivity 

can be negligible, resulting in lateral ground-water 

flow that discharges as springs and seeps in hillsides 

and in valleys. Where vertical and horizontal hydraulic 

conductivity are variable, ground water flows through 

a stair-step pattern alternating among vertical joints, 

faults, fractures, and horizontal bedding-plane separations. Ground water flows from ridges towards valleys, but can also recharge underlying coal seams. 

Because overburden pressure beneath ridges can be 

high, hydraulic conductivity of coal seams and fractured bedrock can be relatively low in these areas. 

Ground-water flow patterns in the Appalachian Plateaus are most likely affected by all the processes discussed in these conceptual ground-water flow models. 

To understand ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus, the distinction between local and 

regional aquifers must also be made. Local aquifers 

can be and commonly are components of larger 
8 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

regional aquifer systems. Ground water can flow in 

deep regional aquifer systems as well as in local shallow aquifers (Heath, 1983). Local fractured-bedrock 

aquifers of less than 0.5 to 5.0 mi2 in area are common 

within the Appalachian Plateaus. Each small valley 

contains a separate disconnected aquifer that discharges ground water to a nearby stream. The ridges 

surrounding the valley define the lateral boundaries 

and the principal recharge area of the local aquifer. 

Depth to saline water (brines) has been used to infer 

the depth of aquifers containing potable fresh ground 

water (Foster, 1980). The depth to saline water ranges 

from a maximum in excess of 1,700 ft near the southwestern part of the study area to a minimum of less 

than 50 ft in the northwestern part of the study area. 

Most regional aquifers are susceptible to contamination by saline water, especially in the northwestern 

part of the study area, so larger regional aquifers are 

not typically used for domestic or public supply. The 

fresh and saline water interface may indicate the 

boundary between regional and sub-regional aquifers. 

Small local aquifers, therefore, provide most of the 

ground water used by rural home owners and businesses. Not all the water in the local aquifers discharges to nearby streams. Some water from these 

small disconnected aquifers is believed to recharge 

deeper and larger sub-regional or regional aquifers. 

Smaller, local disconnected aquifers typically discharge to small headwater streams or to sub-regional 

aquifers, and regional aquifers discharge to larger 

streams or rivers. The conceptual model of groundwater flow in the Appalachian Plateaus in West Virginia is summarized in figure 3. 

The ground-water-age data used to corroborate 

the conceptual model of ground-water flow is based 

on CFC data from 25 wells that range in depth from 46 

to 523 ft. The ground-water-age data are considered 

indicative of the local ground-water flow system, but 

are not applicable to shallow ground water present in 

the unsaturated zone, the regolith, or in sub-regional or 

regional aquifers. Ground water in the unsaturated 

zone and regolith probably is younger, and water in 

Fractures due to arching

Joints Open bedding planes

Joints Joints

Well

Well

Well

Subregional

down valley flow

>57 years

Ground-water flow

Colluvium and alluvium

Coal

Sandstone

Shale

Hilltops

13 Years

Hillsides

29 years

Valleys

42 years

Resultant stress Tensile

fractures

Regolith

Compression Colluvium fractures

Compressional stress

Regional flow, 100’s to 1,000’s of years

Down slope

 flow

Local tributary stream

 Ridge core

flow system

Figure 3. Revised conceptual model of ground-water flow in an Appalachian Plateaus fractured-bedrock 

aquifer including apparent age of ground water (Modified from Wyrick and Borchers, fig. 3.2-1, 1981 and 

Kozar, 1998).
Ground-Water Quality 9

regional aquifers probably is much older than the age 

estimates presented in this report. Further study, however, is needed to determine the age of ground water in 

these systems.

Ground-Water Age and Depth of Circulation

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are relatively stable, synthetic compounds that can be used for determining the 

age of young ground water. Chlorofluorocarbons were 

first manufactured and introduced to the environment 

in 1930, and today are used as refrigerants, aerosol 

propellants, cleaning agents, and solvents (Dunkle and 

others, 1993). The analysis of water samples for chlorofluorocarbons was used to estimate apparent ages of 

ground water, which is based on the time since 

recharge was isolated from the atmosphere. Water in 

fractured bedrock aquifers of the study area exists primarily in thin zones of nearly vertical stress-relief 

fractures, horizontal bedding planes, and coal seams. 

Ground water can flow both vertically and horizontally, commonly in a stair-step pattern. The age of 

water from 25 selected wells ranged from 10 years to 

greater than 57 years, with a median age of 30 years, 

and is much older than previously believed. Statistical 

analyses of available well-construction, CFC, and 

water-quality data show that topographic setting is the 

only factor that correlates with ground-water age 

(Kozar, 1998). Water from hilltop wells was the 

youngest, having a median age of 13 years. Water 

from hillside wells was older, with a median apparent 

age of 29 years. Water from valley wells was oldest, 

having a median apparent age in excess of 42 years 

(Kozar, 1998). 

Estimates of circulation depth were analyzed 

with respect to topographic setting (Kozar, 1998). 

Depth of ground-water circulation was found to be 

greatest in valley wells (median circulation depth of 

317 ft). Hilltop wells had the shallowest depths of 

ground-water circulation (median circulation depth of 

133 ft). Hillside wells had an intermediate depth of 

ground-water circulation (median circulation depth of 

200 ft) (Kozar, 1998). This data can be used to better 

define ground-water contributing areas, confirm or 

revise ground-water flow models, estimate contaminant travel times from spills to nearby water-supply 

wells, and to better manage point- and nonpointsource activities that may affect critical aquifers. 

Ground-Water Quality

The data collected from wells sampled in the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the Kanawha River Basin 

were used to assess the quality of water in aquifers 

within the study area and to assess the effects of land 

use on ground-water quality. These data are statistically summarized in table 2 and are described in the 

following sections of this report.

Bacteria

Ground-water samples were tested for fecal coliform 

bacteria, total coliform bacteria, and Escherichia coli

(E. coli). These microorganisms are indicators of 

potential contamination by feces of warm-blooded 

animals or humans, which can introduce harmful bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens to the ground-water 

system. E. coli is a particular concern because it can 

cause health problems such as fever and diarrhea. 

Fecal coliforms were not detected in samples from any 

of the 30 wells sampled in the study area (table 2). 

Total coliforms were detected in five wells at concentrations of 1, 1, 3, 4, and 420 col/100 mL. The sample 

from one well contained E. coli at a concentration of 1 

col/100 mL (Sheets and Kozar, 1997).

The absence of bacteria in the water from most 

of the wells sampled is probably due to a lack of fecal 

source material near the wells and general good condition of the wells. Most of the wells sampled were 

recently constructed and were generally less than 25 

years old. The casings of the wells sampled were in 

good condition. Currently, state regulations do not 

require domestic wells be grouted, but do require that 

a concrete pad be installed around the casing at the 

surface (West Virginia Bureau for Public Health, 

1984). Proper grouting and sealing of wells at the surface by installation of a concrete pad helps to reduce 

contamination of wells by retarding the transport of 

fecally contaminated soil or other contaminants along 

the annular space between the well and casing. Only 

12 percent of grouted wells had bacteria present. Of 

the ungrouted wells, 31 percent contained indicator 

bacteria. These findings suggest that proper grouting 

and sealing of the wells can reduce bacterial contamination. Of the 30 wells sampled, 57 percent were 

grouted, and 43 percent of the wells were not grouted. 

Bacteria data from the 30 wells sampled show no significant bacteriological problems in ground water 

within the study area.
1

0Ground-WaterQualityintheAppalachianPlateaus,KanawhaRIverBasin,WestVirginia

Table 2. Summary of water-quality data for 30 wells sampled in the study area [μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; mg/L, milligrams per liter; col/100mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; μg/L,micrograms per litethan; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; MCL, maximum contaminant level; SMCL, secondary maximum contaminant level; MCLG, maximum contaminmaximum contaminant level; N/A, not applicable; oC, degrees Celsius; mV, millivolts; E, estimated value; #, only one site had a detection.]

Constituent

Nondetect 

value

Units of 

measurement

Percent of sites with detections Median value Maximum concentration USEPA drinking-w

standards: MCL1, SM

MCLG3 or PMC

Field measurementsSpecific conductance 1.0 μS/cm 100 360 1,090 N/A pH 0.1 pH units 100 7.0 8.9 6.5-8.52 Turbidity 0.01 NTU 100 1.4 500 N/A Water temperature 0.1 oC 100 13.2 14.8 N/A Oxidation reduction potential N/A mV 100 144. 910. N/A Dissolved oxygen 0.1 mg/L 77 0.2 8.3 N/A BacteriaTotal coliform 1 col/100 mL 20 <1 420 03 Escherichia coli 1 col/100 mL 3# <1 1 03 Fecal coliform 1 col/100 mL 0 <1 <1 03 Inorganic constituentsMajor ions and constituentsHardness (CaCO3) 1 mg/L 100 82 560 N/A 

Calcium (Ca) 0.02 mg/L 100 24 190 N/A Magnesium (Mg) 0.004 mg/L 100 5.8 32 N/A Sodium (Na) 0.1 mg/L 100 19 117 N/A Potassium (K) 0.1 mg/L 100 1.4 4.5 N/A Bicarbonate (HCO3) 1 mg/L 100 168 419 N/A 

Carbonate (CO3) 1.0 mg/L 3# <1 18 N/A 
Ground-Water Quality 11

Alkalinity (CaCO3) 1 mg/L 100 138 344 N/A 

Sulfate (SO4) 0.1 mg/L 97 8.6 410 2502 

Chloride (Cl) 0.1 mg/L 100 3.3 95 2502 Bromide (Br) 0.010 mg/L 90 0.03 0.37 N/A Fluoride (F) 0.1 mg/L 77 0.155 1.4 22 Silica (SiO2) 0.10 mg/L 100 12 21 N/A 

Dissolved solids 10 mg/L 100 212 836 5002 

NutrientsNitrite (NO2, as N) 0.010 mg/L 7 <0.010 0.014 11 Nitrate + nitrite (NO3+NO2, as N) 0.050 mg/L 37 0.025 4.09 101 Ammonia (NH4, as N) 0.015 mg/L 73 0.109 0.96 N/A 

Ammonia + organic (N) 0.20 mg/L 33 <0.20 1.00 N/A Phosphorus (P) 0.010 mg/L 53 0.011 0.199 N/A Ortho-Phosphate (P) 0.010 mg/L 50 0.008 0.158 N/A Dissolved organic carbon (C) 0.1 mg/L 93 0.35 1.80 N/A Trace elementsAluminum (Al) 5 μg/L 97 3.1 20 50-2002 

Antimony (Sb) 1 μg/L 0 N/A N/A 61 Arsenic (As) 1 μg/L 37 <1 16 501

54

Barium (Ba) 1 μg/L 100 206 1,230 2,0001 Beryllium (Be) 1 μg/L 0 N/A N/A 41 

Table 2. Summary of water-quality data for 30 wells sampled in the study area —Continued[μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; mg/L, milligrams per liter; col/100mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; μg/L,micrograms per li

than; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; MCL, maximum contaminant level; SMCL, secondary maximum contaminant level; MCLG, maximum contammaximum contaminant level; N/A, not applicable; oC, degrees Celsius; mV, millivolts; E, estimated value; #, only one site had a detection.]

Constituent

Nondetect 

value

Units of 

measurement

Percent of sites with detections Median value Maximum concentration

USEPA drinking-

standards: MCL1, S

MCLG3 or PM
12 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha RIver Basin, West Virginia Cadmium (Cd) 1 μg/L 0 N/A N/A 51 

Chromium (Cr) 1 μg/L 90 2.9 6.7 1001 Cobalt (Co) 1 μg/L 10 <1 8.9 N/A Copper (Cu) 1 μg/L 27 <1 85 1,0002 

Iron (Fe) 3 μg/L 80 145 22,200 3002 

Lead (Pb) 1 μg/L 7 <1 1.2 03 

Manganese (Mn) 1 μg/L 87 98.5 1530 502 

Molybdenum (Mo) 1 μg/L 27 <1 55 N/A Nickel (Ni) 1 μg/L 20 <1 17 1401 

Selenium (Se) 1 μg/L 7 <1 7 501 Silver (Ag) 1 μg/L 0 N/A N/A 1002 Zinc (Zn) 1 μg/L 73 3.2 521 5,0002 Radioactive elements Radon (Rn) 80 pCi/L 80 291 2,490 3004 

Uranium (U) 1 μg/L 10 <1 3.9 N/A PesticidesAtrazine 0.001 μg/L 3# N/A E0.002 31 

Carbofuran 0.003 μg/L 3# N/A E0.002 401 DCPA 0.002 μg/L 3# N/A E0.002 N/A 

Deethylatrazine 0.002 μg/L 3# N/A E0.002 N/A Molinate 0.004 μg/L 3# N/A E0.002 N/A 

Table 2. Summary of water-quality data for 30 wells sampled in the study area 

—Continued

[μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; mg/L, milligrams per liter; col/100mL, colonies per 100 milliliters; μg/L,micrograms per litethan; USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; MCL, maximum contaminant level; SMCL, secondary maximum contaminant level; MCLG, maximum contaminmaximum contaminant level; N/A, not applicable; oC, degrees Celsius; mV, millivolts; E, estimated value; #, only one site had a detection.]

Constituent

Nondetect 

value

Units of 

measurement

Percent of sites with detections Median value Maximum concentration USEPA drinking-w

standards: MCL1, SM

MCLG3 or PMC
Ground-Water Quality 13

Inorganic Constituents

Water samples from the 30 wells were analyzed for 

inorganic constituents including trace elements, major 

ions, nutrients, and radioactive elements. Sulfate 

exceeded the USEPA SMCL of 250 mg/L at two 

wells, and no nutrients were found in the ground water 

at concentrations exceeding maximum contaminant 

levels (MCLs). Of the trace elements, only iron and 

manganese typically exceeded the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant 

level (SMCL) of 50 and 300 μg/L, respectively (table 

2).

Major Ions and Constituents. Moderately 

hard water with a hardness between 61-120 mg/L as 

CaCO3 was present in 43 percent of the wells sampled. 

Soft water (0-60 mg/L) was common in 27 percent of 

sampled wells, hard water (121-180 mg/L) in 17 percent of the wells, and only four wells (13 percent) had 

very hard water (>180 mg/L) with a maximum hardness of 560 mg/L (table 2).

Concentrations of dissolved sulfate exceeded 

the SMCL of 250 mg/L at only 2 (7 percent) of the 30 

wells sampled (fig. 4). The maximum concentration of 

sulfate was 410 mg/L with a median of 8.6 mg/L. Dissolved chloride and fluoride did not exceed USEPA 

drinking-water standards (fig. 4). Dissolved bromide 

does not have a USEPA drinking-water standard. Bromide was detected at 27 of the 30 sites sampled at a 

maximum concentration of only 0.37 mg/L and a 

median of 0.033 mg/L (fig. 4). The composition of 

water from wells sampled in the study area was primarily a calcium or sodium bicarbonate type (fig. 5), 

which may suggest a sodium for calcium cation 

exchange process. 

Nutrients. None of the samples contained concentrations of nutrients that exceeded the USEPA 

MCLs for these constituents. The maximum nitrate 

concentration detected was only 4.1 mg/L as N, which 

is below the MCL of 10 mg/L (fig. 6). Ammonia was 

detected in 73 percent of the sites sampled, and concentrations ranged from 0.031 - 0.960 mg/L as N. 

Phosphorus was detected in 53 percent of the sites 

sampled, and concentrations ranged from 0.010 - 

0.199 mg/L (fig. 6). 

Trace Elements. Of the trace elements analyzed, only iron and manganese exceeded USEPA 

SMCLs. Iron was detected in 80 percent of the sites 

sampled, and 40 percent of sites sampled had concentrations greater than the SMCL of 300 μg/L (fig. 7). 

Manganese was detected at 87 percent of the sites, and 

57 percent of the sites sampled had concentrations 

higher than the SMCL of 50 μg/L (fig. 7). The drinking-water standards established for iron and manganese by the USEPA are to prevent the staining of 

plumbing fixtures, discoloration of water, and to eliminate questionable taste (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996). In West Virginia, concentrations 

of iron and manganese in ground water commonly 

exceeded the USEPA secondary maximum contaminant level (Ferrell, 1986). In this study area, lead was 

detected at only two sites, at concentrations of 1.1 μg/

L and 1.2 μg/L, respectively. The USEPA has a maximum contaminant level goal for lead of 0 μg/L, but an 

action level is set at 15 μg/L (table 2) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998). 

On May 24, 2000, USEPA proposed changing 

the permissible maximum contaminant level of arsenic 

in public drinking-water supplies from 50 μg/L to

5μg/L. Water samples from 4 of the 30 wells in this 

study, or 13 percent, contained more than 5μg/L of 

arsenic. Arsenic concentrations of at least 1 μg/L were 

detected in samples from 11 of the wells (37 percent) 

(table 2). Arsenic in ground water commonly results 

from natural minerals in rock units, which can differ at 

a local scale. The proposed standard reflects the previously unknown potential of arsenic to cause several 

cancers and other diseases. Current information on 

arsenic regulations for public drinking-water supplies 

can be found at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/

arsenic.html/.

Radon. Radon-222, a radioactive gas, is a 

naturally occurring decay product of uranium. Radon 

can destroy lung tissue and cause lung cancer (Otton 

and others, 1993). Radon gas dissolved in water can 

enter homes when water valves are opened, especially 

when showers are in use. Granitic rocks, some volcanic rocks, dark shales, sedimentary rocks that contain 

phosphate, and metamorphic rocks derived from these 

rocks can have high uranium content (Otton and others, 1993). Uranium content, grain size, permeability, 

and the extent of fracturing in the host rock are factors 

that affect the accumulation and movement of radon.

In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) reinstated a proposed maximum 

contaminant level (PMCL) for radon in drinking water 

of 300 picocuries per liter (pCi/L), but an alternate 

maximum contaminant level (AMCL) was also proposed at a level of 4,000 pCi/L (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1999). The drinking-water standard that would apply for a public water system would 
14 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Silica Hardness CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

Bromide

Chloride

Fluoride

Sulfate

Bicarbonate

CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

EXPLANATION

Outliers

90th percentile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

10th percentile

......2

......2

...... Maximum contaminant 

level 1 or secondary 

maximum contaminant 

level 2

Dissolved solids

......2

...... 2

Outliers

[Boxplots are based on 30

samples for each constituent]

Figure 4. Concentrations of major ions, hardness, and dissolved solids in ground water from 

30 wells sampled in the study area.
Ground-Water Quality 15

Figure 5. Diagram showing the composition of ground water in the 

study area.

MAGNESIUM

SULFATE PLUS CHLORIDE

CALCIUM PLUS MAGNESIUM

SULFATE

SODIUM PLUS POTASSIUM

CARBONATE PLUS BICARBONATE

CALCIUM CHLORIDE, FLUORIDE, NO2 NO3

PERCEN

PERCENT

T

PERCENT

depend on whether or not the State or public water system (PWS) develops a radon mitigation program. If a 

PWS serves 10,000 persons and either the State or the 

system has an approved radon mitigation program, 

then the 4,000 pCi/L AMCL would apply, otherwise 

the 300 pCi/L standard would apply. Radon concentrations exceeded the proposed USEPA MCL of 300 pCi/

L for water in 15 of 30 (50 percent) wells sampled in 

the study area. The maximum concentration was 2,500 

pCi/L with a median of 290 pCi/L. At six of the 30 

sites, radon was not detected (Kozar and Sheets, 

1997). None of the samples collected contained concentrations of radon greater than 4,000 pCi/L. 

In the mid-Atlantic region, radon was sampled 

by the NAWQA Program in the Potomac and Lower 

Susquehanna River Basins of Pennsylvania, Maryland, 

Virginia, and West Virginia. Typically, median radon 

concentrations in the Kanawha-New River study area 

are among the lowest in the entire mid-Atlantic region. 

Of 267 samples collected in the mid-Atlantic region, 

80 percent had concentrations greater than the 300 

pCi/L PMCL, and 31 percent had concentrations 

greater than 1,000 pCi/L (Lindsey and Ator, 1996). 

Only 50 percent of the 30 wells sampled as part of the 

Kanawha River Basin contained radon in concentrations greater than 300 pCi/L and, only 20 percent had 

concentrations greater than 1,000 pCi/L.

Organic Compounds

Water samples were also analyzed for organic constituents as part of the assessment of ground-water quality 

within the study area. The samples were analyzed for 

pesticides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and 

dissolved organic carbon (DOC). None of the pesticides or VOCs detected exceeded USEPA drinkingwater standards; however, only 2 of 5 pesticides and 

11 of 16 VOCs detected have an MCL or health advisory level. Also, the effects of co-occurrence of contaminants was not addressed but should be considered 

when evaluating water-quality of an individual well.

Pesticides. Water samples collected from 

each well were analyzed for 47 pesticides (Ward and 

others, 1998). Five of the 47 pesticides were detected 

at two of the 30 sites sampled. Atrazine, carbofuran, 

DCPA, and deethyl atrazine were detected at estimated 
16 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha RIver Basin, West Virginia Nitrite Ammonia Phosphorus CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

Nitrate

Ammonia 

+

Organic

 Orthophosphorus (as P)

......

...... EXPLANATION

Outliers

90th percentile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

and detection limit

10th percentile

...... Maximum contaminant 

level

Outliers

[Boxplots are based on 30 samples

for each constituent]

 Figure 6. Concentrations of nutrients in ground water from 30 wells sampled in the study area. 

concentrations of 0.002 μg/L at one site (table 2). An 

estimated concentration of 0.002 μg/L of molinate was 

detected at the second site. These concentrations are 

much lower than the USEPA MCLs of 3 μg/L for atrazine and 40 μg/L for carbofuran. The infrequent detection of pesticides in water from the 30 wells sampled 

reflects the land use within the study area. From a 

1970 land-use census, only 10 percent of the land in 

the study area was considered cropland and pasture. 

Most of the study area was classified as deciduous and 

evergreen forest (U.S. Geological Survey, 1990), land 

on which pesticide usage is minimal.

Volatile Organic Compounds. Volatile 

organic compounds (VOCs) and dissolved organic 

carbon were collected at each of the 30 sites. Of 86 

VOCs analyzed, 16 compounds were detected at very 

low concentrations (table 3). The complete suite of 

VOCs analyzed for this study is listed in the 1997 

Water Resources Data report for West Virginia (Ward 

and others, 1998). At least one VOC was detected at 

23 of the 30 sites. Many compounds were detected, 

but at concentrations below the reporting limit; thus 

their concentrations are shown as “estimated” in table 

3. The majority of VOCs detected were components of 

two classes, trihalomethanes, and BTEX compounds.

 Trihalomethanes (THMs) are compounds such 

as bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform, 

and dibromochloromethane, which form as by-products of chlorination. THMs were detected in 11 of the 

30 (37 percent) wells sampled. All were detected, 

however, at very low concentrations (table 3). The 

maximum concentration of any THM detected was for 

bromoform at a concentration of only 0.424 μg/L. The 

maximum sum for combined THMs detected in a single well was only 1.36 μg/L, almost 74 times lower 

than the combined THM MCL of 100 μg/L. 

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is considered a 

potential source of carbon for the formation of THMs. 

DOC concentrations measured in this study ranged 

from 0.1 to 1.8 mg/L, with a median of 0.35 mg/L. 

No correlation between dissolved organic carbon and 

the formation of trihalomethanes was seen in data collected for this study. 

The compounds benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, 

xylene (BTEX), and the fuel oxygenate methyl tertbutyl-ether (MTBE) also were commonly detected. 

The BTEX compounds and MTBE are common components of gasoline. The maximum detection among 

these compounds was methyl tert-butyl-ether at an 

estimated concentration of only 0.060 μg/L. BTEX 
Factors Affecting Water Quality 17

Aluminum

Barium

Chromium

Copper

Iron

Manganese

Zinc

TRACE METAL CONCENTRATION, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER

0

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000 EXPLANATION

Figure 7. Concentrations of trace metals in ground water from 30 wells sampled in the 

study area.

......2

......1

......1

......2

......2

......2

......2

...... Maximum contaminant

level1 or secondary maximum contaminant

level2

Outliers

90th percentile

75th percentile

25th percentile

10th percentile

Median

Outliers

[Detection limit is 1μg/L except

for iron which has a detection

limit of 3μg/L. Boxplots are

based on 30 samples for

each constituent.]

compounds and MTBE were detected in 8 (27 percent) 

of the 30 wells sampled. 

Carbon disulfide, present in 12 of the 30 (40 

percent) wells sampled, was the most frequently 

detected VOC in the study area. It is widely used in the 

chemical industry in the manufacturing of flotation 

devices, cellophane, soil disinfectants, herbicides, 

grain fumigants, and as a solvent for fats, resins, phosphorus, sulfur, bromine, iodine, and rubber (Montgomery and Welkom, 1990). But concentrations of 

carbon disulfide were typically low; the maximum 

concentration was only 0.226 μg/L.

The results of VOC analyses of ground water 

from the Kanawha River Basin are compared to a 

recent NAWQA Program study of national VOC data 

collected nationally between 1985-1995. A reporting 

level of 0.2 μg/L was used to maintain consistency 

with national VOC data, although most concentrations 

for this study were quantified as being less than 0.2 

μg/L. Study area results are consistent with the 

national summary information for areas with similarly 

low population densities. In data from 2,542 wells in 

rural environments that were summarized in the 

national study, at least one VOC was detected in 14 

percent of the wells. The Kanawha River Basin has a 

low population density and is considered a rural area. 

At least one VOC was detected at 10 percent of the 

wells sampled, which is comparable to the national 

data. Nationally, sites with two or more VOC detections were detected in 6 percent of the samples. Two or 

more VOCs were detected at only 3 percent of the 

sites sampled in the Kanawha River study area. Only 

1.5 percent of the sites in the national summary 

exceeded drinking-water criteria; none of the samples 

collected in the study area exceeded drinking-water 

criteria (Paul Squillace and others, U.S. Geological 

Survey, written commun. 1999).

Factors Affecting Water Quality

The quality of ground water in the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the study area is affected by a combination of geochemical and anthropogenic factors. 

Geochemical factors, the distribution and amount of 

chemical elements in minerals, ore, rock, soil, and the 

atmosphere, affect water quality in the hydrologic 

cycle as the chemical elements react with ground 

water. The most common geochemical processes 

occur as ground water comes in contact with rocks and 

dissolution of minerals takes place.
18 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha RIver Basin, West Virginia

Table 3. Detections of volatile organic compounds in water samples collected from 30 wells sampled in 

the study area

[μg/L, micrograms per liter; E, estimated value; MCL, Maximum Contaminant Level; HAL, Health Advisory Level; n=number of wells sampled.]

Constituent

 Number of 

sites with 

detections

n=30

Detection limit

(μg/L)

Maximum 

concentration 

detected

(μg/L)

Drinking-water 

criteria

Median 

concentration 

detected in rural 

ground water 

nationwide

n=2542

(μg/L)

1,4 Dichlorobenzene 1 0.050 E0.004 75 MCL 1.3

Benzene 6 0.050 E0.050 5 MCL 0.7

Bromodichloromethane 2 0.100 E0.070 100 MCL 0.5

Bromoform 1 0.200 0.424 100 MCL 0.4

Carbon disulfide 12 0.080 0.226 -- --

Chloroform 7 0.052 0.248 100 MCL 0.5

Chloromethane 3 0.254 E0.060 3 HAL 0.35

Dibromochloromethane 1 0.182 0.142 -- 0.4

Dichlorodifluoromethane 3 0.200 1.04 100 HAL 0.5

m- and p-xylene 1 0.064 E0.030 10,000 MCL 0.65

Methyl iodide 1 0.076 E0.010 -- --

Ortho xylene 1 0.064 E0.010 10,000 MCL 0.65

Methyl tert-butyl-ether 1 0.112 E0.060 -- 0.5

Tetrahydrofuran 1 5.0 E0.4 -- --

Toluene 2 0.050 E0.010 1,000 MCL 0.3

Trichlorofluoromethane 1 0.100 E0.030 2,000 HAL 0.3

These processes include pyrite oxidation, resulting in 

sulfate production; radioactive decay of uranium and 

its daughter products, causing radon in ground waters; 

reduction of iron and manganese oxyhydroxide minerals, and dissolution of carbonate rock within bedrock 

aquifers, creating high concentrations of iron, manganese, and alkalinity in ground water. Anthropogenic 

factors include acid deposition, which results in a 

lower pH and conductivity of ground water on hilltops; use of organic chemicals, fertilizers, manure, and 

pesticides for agriculture, which can introduce fecal 

bacteria, nitrate, ammonia, and pesticide contamination into the ground water; and septic-system effluent 

discharge to ground-water reservoirs, which also may 

result in bacterial contamination of aquifers.

 

Geochemical Factors

Water is sometimes referred to as the universal solvent 

because it has the ability to dissolve almost anything 

that it contacts. The presence of dissolved substances 

in ground water is affected by the chemical composition of precipitation, by biological and chemical reactions occurring in the soil zone, and by the mineral 

composition of the bedrock (Heath, 1983). Because of 

differences in these factors, ground water contains 

varying amounts of dissolved solids. 

Hardness is primarily due to dissolved calcium 

and magnesium ions in ground water that are derived 

from weathering and dissolution of minerals in rock 

such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum (Heath, 

1983). Most ground water in the study area (43 percent 

of the sites sampled) is classified on a water hardness 

scale (table 2) as moderately hard (61-120 mg/L as 
Factors Affecting Water Quality 19

CaCO3). Of the remaining wells sampled, 27 percent 

had soft water (0-60 mg/L), 17 percent had hard water 

(121-180 mg/L), and only 13 percent had very hard 

water (greater than 180 mg/L).

In inland areas, sodium and chloride may be 

derived from brines, seawater trapped in sediments at 

the time of deposition. Dissolved calcium and magnesium can exchange for sodium in aquifers close to 

brines (Heath, 1983). Water with high concentrations 

of sodium and chloride tastes salty, increases the corrosiveness of water, and can affect people with cardiac 

difficulties and hypertension.

Cation and anion concentrations were converted 

to milliequivalents per liter and used to identify water 

types present in the study area. These water types 

include: calcium bicarbonate, calcium sulfate, sodium 

bicarbonate, and magnesium bicarbonate. Water type 

was compared to topographic setting of the well (table 

4). Wells in valleys primarily had a sodium bicarbonate water. Water from wells on hillsides and hilltops 

was primarily a calcium bicarbonate type. The dominance of sodium bicarbonate waters in valley settings 

and calcium bicarbonate water on hillsides and hilltops suggests that cation exchange is occurring 

between calcium from calcium-rich recharge water 

and sodium present at shallow depths in brines 

beneath valleys.

The topographic setting of each well was compared to the calcium/sodium ratio of the water (fig. 8). 

The water in valley wells has a lower calcium/sodium 

ratio (higher sodium content) than water in hilltop and 

hillside wells, possibly indicating cation exchange 

processes are occurring in valley settings. Because of 

their topographic location, valley wells are closer to 

underlying connate brines, allowing for an easier 

exchange of calcium for sodium. As ground water 

infiltrates down hillsides into valleys it has an increasingly longer contact time with the rocks and soils, 

which allows minerals to be dissolved. Water in hillside wells has high calcium concentrations and high 

calcium to sodium ratios. Probably no cation exchange 

between calcium and sodium takes place on hillsides. 

Calcium is most likely being dissolved from the calcium-carbonate cement and minerals in the rocks as 

the ground water travels through the fractures, bedding-plane separations, and joints in the bedrock. Hilltop wells have a higher ratio of calcium to sodium 

(lower sodium content) than valley wells. Like hillside 

wells, there most likely is no cation exchange occurring in hilltop wells.

Precipitation is most likely a minor source of 

dissolved minerals in hilltop wells. The conductivity 

of rain water is usually low, with a median of only 22 

μS/cm (table 5). Although calcium, magnesium, 

sodium, and potassium concentrations in precipitation 

are low, they may, to varying degrees and primarily in 

hilltop settings, affect ground-water quality (National 

Atmospheric Deposition Program, 1999). Median 

concentrations of ammonia and nitrate in precipitation 

are actually higher than those in ground water, indicating that precipitation may be a major source of these 

constituents in shallow recharge. Sulfate concentrations in precipitation, although not as high as those 

found in ground water, are significant enough to consider precipitation as a major source of sulfate in shallow ground water. 

Anthropogenic Factors 

Human activities can affect ground-water quality in an 

area. Nitrate is a common contaminant in ground 

water. Nitrate is a primary form of nitrogen and commonly is derived from human sewage, animal wastes, 

and fertilizers. Rainfall, however, can be a significant 

 

Table 4. Water type with respect to topographic setting for 30 wells sampled in the 

study area 

Topographic 

setting

Calcium 

bicarbonate 

number of sites 

(%)

Calcium sulfate 

number of sites 

(%)

Sodium 

bicarbonate 

number of sites 

(%)

Magnesium 

bicarbonate 

number of sites 

(%)

Hilltop 3 (10) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (3)

Hillside 7 (23) 1 (3) 3 (10) 0 (0)

Valley 5 (17) 1 (3) 9 (30) 0 (0)
20 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha RIver Basin, West Virginia RATIO OF CALCIUM TO SODIUM

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

n=4 n=11 n=15

EXPLANATION

Outliers

90th percentile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

10th percentile

Outliers

Figure 8. Ratio of calcium to sodium in ground water compared to topographic setting for 30 wells 

sampled in the study area.

[n is the number of sites in each 

category; ratios were computed after 

converting concentrations of calcium

and magnesium from milligrams per 

Liter to milliequivalents per Liter]

 Hilltop Hillside Valley

source of nitrate in ground water (Kozar, 1996). The 

median concentration of nitrate in precipitation sampled during the past 10 years by the National Atmospheric Deposition Program Monitoring Station at 

Babcock State Park north of Beckley, West Virginia, is 

about six times greater than median concentrations 

typical of water in wells in hilltop settings and 26 

times greater than median concentrations typical of 

water in wells in hillside and valley settings within the 

study area (table 5).

 Low-level concentrations of nutrients in ground 

water could be due to atmospheric deposition (acid 

rain) of airborne nitrogen compounds emitted by 

industry and automobiles. Once nitrate dissolves into 

the water, it easily passes through soil and can persist 

for decades, accumulating to high concentrations in 

ground water (Nolan and others, 1998). Ingesting 

water with high concentrations of nitrate (greater than 

10 mg/L) is not hazardous to adults, but may be fatal 

to infants by lowering oxygen levels in their blood, a 

condition known as methemoglobinemia, or “blue 

baby” syndrome (Nolan and Ruddy, 1996).

 Of the 47 pesticides analyzed for in water samples from the 30 wells, only five were detected, but at 

concentrations below the analytical method reporting 

level. Atrazine, carbofuran, DCPA, and deethyl atrazine, a degradation by-product of atrazine, were 

detected in one well; molinate was detected in another 

well. Nationwide, as part of NAWQA investigations, 

atrazine was detected more frequently than any other 

pesticide. This widespread detection could be due to 

the slow rate of atrazine transformation in the environment (Kolpin and others, 1998). Since the early 

1970’s, atrazine has been the most extensively used 

herbicide across the country. Carbofuran enters ground 

water from the leaching of soil fumigants used on 

corn, potatoes, alfalfa, rice, sorghum and other crops 

(Wangsness and Gilliom, 1997). Carbofuran can cause 

problems with blood and the nervous system and can 

cause reproductive difficulties (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 1998). Based on a nationwide data 

base of 2,600 ground-water wells sampled, carbofuran 

was detected only 17 times, at concentrations ranging 

from less than 0.003 to 2.8 μg/L (Wangsness and Gilliom, 1997). In the study area, carbofuran was detected 

in only one sample at a concentration of 0.002 μg/L. 

The virtual absence of pesticides detected in the thirty 

wells sampled reflects minimal pesticide use within 

the study area.

VOCs were more commonly detected than pesticides. Most of the VOCs detected were components 

of two classes: trihalomethanes and BTEX compounds 

(benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene). Trihalomethanes form as by-products of disinfection (chlorination). Disinfection of rural domestic wells by 

addition of bleach (sodium hypochlorite) is a common 

practice and may be a potential process for production 

of THMs within the study area. BTEX compounds, as 

well as the fuel additive MTBE (methyl tert-butyl 

ether), are all common components of gasoline.
F

actorsAffectingWaterQuality21

Table 5. Statistical summary of concentrations of selected chemical constituents in 30 wells sampled in the study area anBabcock State Park, West Virginia [μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter]

pH

Specific 

Conductance 

(μS/cm)

Calcium 

(mg/L)

Magnesium 

(mg/L)

Potassium 

(mg/L)

Sodium 

(mg/L)

Ammonia 

(mg/L)

Nitrate

(mg/L)

Hilltop wells - 4 wells

Median 6.9 297. 30. 9.4 0.67 13. 0.026 0.21 Maximum 7.7 445. 46. 18. 2.8 25. 0.050 0.56 Minimum 5.4 31. 1.5 1.5 0.41 2.0 0.015 0.05 

Hillside wells - 11 wells

Median 6.8 369. 32. 7.7 1.40 14. 0.050 0.05 Maximum 7.7 752. 85. 32. 4.5 70. 0.920 4.09 Minimum 5.5 156. 16. 3.7 0.42 2.3 0.015 0.05 

Valley wells - 15 wells

Median 7.0 347. 20. 4.8 1.70 36. 0.14 0.05 Maximum 8.9 1,090. 190. 18. 2.6 117. 0.96 0.22 Minimum 6.3 169. 1.1 0.12 0.12 1.6 0.015 0.05 

Precipitation (1988-1997)

Median 4.4 22. 0.09 0.014 0.021 0.048 0.20 1.28 Maximum 4.5 26. 0.13 0.023 0.047 0.064 0.23 1.44 Minimum 4.3 17. 0.07 0.010 0.014 0.037 0.11 1.07 
22 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

These compounds may be responsible for minor, local 

ground-water contamination. Whether the BTEX compounds are entering ground water in precipitation or as 

a result of spills near the well head is not known. No 

VOCs, including the THM and BTEX compounds, 

were found in concentrations that exceeded USEPA 

drinking-water standards. MTBE and chloroform are 

two VOCs that were frequently detected in a recent 

national aggregation of NAWQA VOC data. (Paul 

Squillace and others, written commun., 1999). MTBE 

was detected at one site within the study area at an 

estimated concentration of 0.60 μg/L. Point sources 

that contribute MTBE to ground water are leaking 

underground gasoline storage tanks and gasoline spills 

on land. MTBE, however, also has been detected in 

precipitation. Once MTBE enters ground water, it is 

more resistant to decay than other gasoline components, such as benzene (Snow and Zogorski, 1995). 

MTBE is not required to be added to gasoline in West 

Virginia; therefore, it is infrequently detected in 

ground water within the study area.

Relation Between Precipitation and Ground 

Water

Nitrogen, although present in rocks in trace amounts, 

may also be derived from atmospheric sources and 

from human activities. Sources of nitrogen include 

production and use of synthetic fertilizers, septic systems, and nitrogenous organic waste from farm animals. The combustion of fossil fuels in gasoline and 

diesel engines releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, chemical processes alter the 

nitrogen oxides into nitrate and nitric acid (Hem, 

1992). These processes can lower the pH in precipitation, which eventually recharges the ground water. 

Water from wells located on hilltops have higher 

nitrate concentrations than ground water from wells in 

hillside and valley settings (fig. 9).

Rainfall analysis can provide an understanding of 

precipitation’s effect on ground-water quality. Chemical data for precipitation samples collected at Babcock 

State Park were used to compare nitrate and other constituents in ground water to rainfall (table 5). Precipitation samples collected weekly at the park from 1988 

to 1997 were analyzed for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, ammonia, nitrate, chloride, sulfate, pH, 

and specific conductance. Precipitation at Babcock 

State Park has lower concentrations of these major 

ions, except for nitrate, than concentrations of these 

ions in ground water in the study area. Nitrate concentration is usually much higher in precipitation than in 

ground water; therefore, nitrate affects ground-water 

quality, especially in hilltop recharge areas (fig. 9). 

The highest concentration of nitrate detected in either 

ground water or precipitation was detected in water 

sampled from a hillside well (fig. 9) completed in the 

karst Greenbrier limestone aquifer. The karst Greenbrier aquifer system is highly susceptible to contamination and is not characteristic of most wells sampled 

in the study area. 

A comparison of chemical data for precipitation 

at Babcock State Park to similar data for ground water 

in various topographic settings in the study area shows 

that median concentrations of most constituents are 

highest in valley settings, and lowest and most similar 

to precipitation in hilltop settings. These data suggest 

that recharge from precipitation takes place primarily 

on hilltops and hillsides, and as ground water travels 

down hillsides through fractures in the bedrock and 

soils towards valleys, minerals are dissolved and concentrations of ions increase in ground water (table 5). 

This finding is supported by apparent median groundwater ages for ground water in hilltop, hillside, and 

valley settings of 13, 29, and 42 years, respectively.

Summary and Conclusions 

The Appalachian Plateaus in the Kanawha River Basin 

of West Virginia were studied by the U.S. Geological 

Survey to determine water-quality characteristics of 

ground water. The Appalachian Plateaus are underlain 

by flat-lying, Pennsylvanian age sedimentary rocks. 

Ground water primarily flows down slopes to the valley through faults, joints, bedding-plane separations, 

and other fractures. 

The results of analysis of samples for chlorofluorocarbons were used to determine the apparent age 

and depth of circulation of potable ground water. Statistical analysis shows that ground-water age and 

depths of ground-water circulation correlate with topographic setting. Hilltop wells had water with a median 

age of 13 years, and had the shallowest depth of circulation (median circulation depth of 133 ft). Water from 

hillside wells had a median age of 29 years and an 

intermediate circulation depth (median = 200 ft). Valley wells had the oldest water, with a median apparent 

age of 42 years and also had the deepest circulation 

depths of the three topographic settings

(median = 317 ft). 
Summary and Conclusions 23

0.01

0.1

1

10

NITRATE, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Precipitation

Hilltops

Hillsides

Valleys

EXPLANATION

Outliers

90th percentile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

10th percentile

Outliers

n=10 n=4 n=11 n=15

 Figure 9. Nitrate concentrations in ground water sampled from 30 wells in 

 hilltop, hillside, and valley settings compared with precipitation data from

 Babcock State Park, West Virginia. 

[n is the number of sites

sampled in each category]

Generally, ground-water quality in the study 

area meets U. S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) and 

secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs). 

Bacteria, sulfate, iron, manganese, and radon concentrations, however, exceed USEPA standards at some 

sites. 

Bacteria were not routinely detected in ground 

water within the study area. Only five of the 30 sites 

sampled tested positive for the presence of total 

coliform bacteria, and only one site tested positive for 

Escherichia coli (E. coli). None of the sites sampled 

tested positive for fecal coliform bacteria. The general 

lack of agriculture in the study area explains the lack 

of bacterial contamination of ground water in the 

study area

Radon is another contaminant commonly found 

in ground water in the study area. Of the 30 sites sampled, 50 percent exceeded the proposed USEPA MCL 

of 300 pCi/L but none exceeded the 4,000 pCi/L proposed alternate maximum contaminant level (AMCL). 

The concentrations of radon are variable in the Appalachian Plateaus because of varying bedrock lithology 

within the region.

Arsenic is also a contaminant found in ground 

water. Of the 30 sites sampled, 4 samples exceeded the 

proposed MCL of 5 μg/L. No samples exceeded the 

current MCL of 50 μg/L.

Manganese concentrations exceeded the USEPA 

SMCL of 50 μg/L in 57 percent of the sites sampled 

and 40 percent of iron concentrations exceeded the 

USEPA SMCL of 300 μg/L. The primary source of 

manganese, iron, and other dissolved constituents in 

ground water from the study area is minerals in the 

bedrock.

Precipitation is potentially a source of nitrate in 

ground water. Recently recharged shallow ground 

water located in hilltop wells has higher concentrations of nitrate than hillside or valley wells and is similar to nitrate concentrations in precipitation. Median 

nitrate concentrations were approximately six times 

higher in precipitation than in shallow ground water.

Pesticides and VOCs can enter ground water as 

a result of anthropogenic activities. Of 47 pesticides 

analyzed from 30 sites, five were detected, all at very 

low concentrations. Of the 30 sites sampled, only two 

had pesticide detections, but 23 (77 percent) had 

detections of at least one VOC. VOC detections were 

at very low concentrations or at estimated concentrations. BTEX and THMs were the most common VOCs 

detected. None of the pesticides or VOCs detected 

exceeded USEPA drinking-water standards, but only 2 

of 5 pesticides and 11 of 16 VOCs detected have an 

MCL or health advisory level.
24 Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus, Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

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