1 1 M \

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1 1 m„„ ^ m/

lia,

The Commercial

and Nursery

Stocks

AGRICULTURE HAND BOOK No. 66

U. S, DEPARTMENT 0 F A G R I G U LT U R E
Acknowledgments

The writers have drawn freely on published and unpublished findings of other staff members whose assistance and cooperation have

done much to make this publication possible. Acknowledgment for

unpublished information furnished on commodities and related subjects is due the following present and former members of the Department: W. R. Barger, dates and dried fruits; C. O. Bratley (deceased),

limes and pineapples ; Fisk Gerhardt, A. L. Kyall, and W. H. English,

pears; E. M. Harvey, lemons; W. T. Pentzer, refrigeration, garlic,

grapes, olives, pears, and peppers; Edwin Smith, refrigeration, apricots, and pears; Morris Lieberman, lima beans, cabbage, celery, and

cucumbers; M. H. Haller, apples, fruit storage, strawberry-plant

storage, and respiration ; Henry A. Jones, onions.

Acknowledgment is also due J. M. Kelley, Fruit Dispatch Co., New

York City, for information on bananas ; and to the following persons

for information on florist and nursery stocks : J. R. Kamp, University

of Illinois; E. C. Voltz, Iowa State College; Conrad B. Link, University of Maryland; Paul R. Krone, Michigan State College; A. M.

S. Pridham, New York (Cornell) Agricultural Experiment Station;

D. R. Rodney, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station;

Carl Demotses, William L. Doyle, and Jack Kervan, New York City ;

S. S. Pennock Co., American Bulb Dealers Association, and A. N.

Pierson Co., New York City; L. C. Chadwick and D. C. Kiplinger,

Ohio State University ; S. S. Pennock, Philadelphia, Pa.
887522

The Commercial

Storage of

Fruits,Vegetable$,

and Florist

and Nursery

Stocks

By R. C. WRIGHT, senior physiologist, DEAN

H. ROSE, iormerly senior physiologist, emd

T. M. WHITEMAN, associate horticulturist,

Biological Sciences Branch, Agricultural

Marketing Service

Agriculture Handbook No. 66

(Supersedes Circular No. 278)

September 1954

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contents

Page

Introduction 1

Factors involved in cold storage 2

Temperature of storage rooms 2

Humidity of storage rooms 3

Sanitation in storage rooms 4

Evolution of heat by commodity. 5

Cold injury and freezing injury._ 11

Ammonia injury 12

Waxing 13

Effect of cold storage on subsequent

behavior of fruits and vegetables _ 13

Sweating 13

Choice of storage conditions 14

Fresh fruits 14

Apples 14

Apricots 18

Avocados 18

Bananas 18

Blackberries 19

Cherries 19

Coconuts 19

Cranberries 19

Dates 20

Dewberries 21

Figs, fresh 21

Grapefruit 21

Grapes 22

Lemons 23

Limes 24

Logan blackberries 25

Mangoes 25

Nectarines 25

Olives, fresh 25

Oranges 25

Papayas 26

Peaches and nectarines 26

Pears 26

Persimmons, Japanese 28

Pineapples 28

Plums, including prunes 29

Pomegranates 29

Quinces 29

Raspberries 29

Strawberries 30

Tangerines 30

Fresh vegetables 33

Artichokes 33

Asparagus 33

Beans 34

Page

Fresh vegetables—Continued

Beets 34

Broccoli (Italian, or sprouting)-- 35

Brussels sprouts 35

Cabbage 35

Carrots 36

Cauliflower 36

Celeriac 37

Celery 37

Corn, sweet ^^

Cucumbers 38

Eggplants 39

Endive, or escarole 39

Garlic, dry 39

Horseradish 40

Kohlrabi 40

Leeks, green 40

Lettuce 40

Melons 40

Mushrooms, cultivated 41

Okra 41

Onions and onion sets 42

Parsnips 43

Peas, green 43

Peppers 43

Potatoes 44

Pumpkins and squashes 46

Radishes 46

Rhubarb 46

Rutabagas 47

Salsify 47

Spinach 47

Squashes 47

Sweetpotatoes 47

Tomatoes 48

Turnips 49

Vegetable seeds 49

Dried fruits and vegetables 49

Frozen fruits and vegetables 50

Nuts 50

Florist and nursery stocks 51

Cut flowers 51

Florist greens 64

Cuttings 65

Bulbs, corms, rhizomes, roots,

and tubers 65

Nursery stock 66

Literature cited 66

For sale by Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Ofiace,

V^ashington 25, D. C. . . . Price 30 cents.

n
The Commercial Storage of Fruits,

Vegetables, and Florist and

Nursery Stocks'

By R. C. WRIGHT, senior r^luisiologist, DEAN H. ROSE,^ formerly senior physiologist, and T. M. WHITEMAN, associate horticulturist, Biological Sciences

Branch, AgriciiUural Marketing Service

Introduction

The purpose of tliis handbook is to present a series of brief summaries of the essential average storage requirements of most of the important fresh fruits, vegetables, and cut flowers, and certain other

horticultural crops that enter the market on a commercial scale. Many

details are necessarily omitted, as the handbook is intended primarily

for general practical reference. The conditions given should not be

considered absolute or final, but rather as the safe limitations under

which the various products can ordinarily be stored. Detailed information on the handling and storage of some of the commodities discussed is available elsewhere in the form of bulletins or textbooks ; for

many of them, only general information exists.

Fresh fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, and other similar commodities

intended for storage should be as free as possible from skin breaks,

bruises, and decay. They should be neither too immature nor overmature, because in either case their storage life may be impaired. The

proper degree of maturity can usually be determined by consulting

the various sections of this handbook or the publications listed in

Literature Cited (p. 66) ; or it can be determined on the basis of previous experience. There is a seasonal variation, however, in the storage quality of certain products, particularly fruits ; hence, care must

be taken not to assume too much from 1 year's experience concerning

the probable behavior of a given commodity grown the next year.

Decay and other deterioration in storage is too broad a subject to be

discussed in detail in this publication ; it is merely discussed generally

in connection with various fruits and vegetables covered. For a discussion of the storage of the lesser known tropical fruits and vegetables not given herein, the reader is referred to Wardlaw's work

[183)^

^This handbook supersedes U. S. Department of Agriculture Circular 278,

The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florists' Stocks.

' Retired.

^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. %%.

1
2 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Factors Involved in Cold Storage

Recommendations for the best conditions for the storage of fresh

fruits, vegetables, and cut flowers are subject to change from time to

time as more definite information is gained in the handhng of these

commodities. The conditions and requirements given are based on

the best commercial practice at the present time and on scientifac

experimentation.

All temperature requirements are given in degrees Fahrenheit and

represent the average air temperatures that should be maintained.

The humidities are relative and are expressed in percentage of saturation; for example, when it is stated that a certain relative humidity

should be 85 percent, this means that the air should be approximately

85 percent saturated with water vapor at the recommended temperature. Allowance has been made for the facts (1) that the temperature

of fruits and vegetables in transit is usually higher than the recommended storage temperature; (2) that, except during winter weather,

ripening or other changes are likely to go on more rapidly during a

given transit period than during the same length of time in cold storage; and (3) that when the commodities arrive at destination, even

if they had been in storage at shipping point, they are likely to be

somewhat more mature than if they had remained in storage the

whole time.

Temperature of Storage Rooms

If the best results are to be obtained in the cold storage of the products discussed herein, it is highly important that the temperature in

storage rooms be held fairly constant. Variations of 2° or 3° F. above

or below the desired temperature are too large in most cases. Variations can usually be prevented if the storage rooms are well insulated throughout and have adequate refrigeration, and if the spread

between the temperature of the refrigerant and that of the room to be

refrigerated is kept small. For example, in a room where 45° is the

desired temperature, using ammonia evaporating at about 26° in the

coils, fluctuations of ±1^^° ^^^^J occur in the air temperature in the

room: whereas at 32°, with ammonia also at 26°, fluctuations in the

room temperature are usually less than ±i/^°. However, the spread

between the temperature of the refrigerant and that of the room is

more important in maintaining humidity than in preventing fluctuations in the room temperature. This point is discussed in more detail

on page 3. Storage rooms should be equipped either Avith'reliable,

accurate thermostats or with manual controls which are given frequent personal attention by someone charged with that duty. Even

when reliable automatic controls are used, they should be checked

periodicallj^

In commercial cold-storage rooms thermometers are usually placed

at a height of about 5 feet for convenience in reading. It is important, however, to take temperatures frequently at the floor and the

ceiling levels and at any other places where they might be expected

to be undesirably high or low, includmg the insides of packages of

the commodity. It would be shortsighted to rely on just one or two

aisle temperatures. In providing recommended temperatures for

given products, consideration should be given to differences between

the temperatures of the air at the position of the thermometer and at
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 3

different places around and in the packages of the stored product, and

also to differences between air and commodity temperatures. Often

the packages are piled too closely together or distribution of refrigeration is inadeq[uate to reach all parts of the piles of the stored commodity, and it IS not unusual under such conditions to have commodities remain for several days or even weeks at temperatures several degrees higher than those indicated by the thermometer. This

condition can be detected by opening the pile and taking commodity

temperatures ; and it can be con*ected by wider spacing of packages

and by the use of portable fans and baffles to direct the air currents

to the centers of the piles. Rooms not equipped with some means of

air circulation may need to be remodeled to provide more uniform

temperatures and faster cooling of the commodities stored in them.

The importance of maintaining fairly constant temperatures in

cold-storage rooms lies in the effect of such control, or the lack of it,

on the keeping quality of stored commodities. Most varieties of

apples keep best and longest if held constantly at 30^ to 32'^ F. ; the

best temperature for Bartlett pears is between 29° and 31°. If the

air temperature where either of these fruits is stored rises 2° or 3°

above the upper limit mentioned, there is danger of increased decay

and undue ripening, the danger being greater the longer the period

during which the temperature is above 32°. For example, 3 or 4 days

at 35° usually would have little or no effect, partly because of a slower

rise in the temperature of the fruit than in that of the air ; but 10 days

at this temperature would probably shorten the life of the fruit by

about a week and possibly result in more decay. On the other hand,

if the temperature goes a degree or two below 29°, there is a chance that

freezing will occur. Celery and cabbage allowed to remain too warm

in storage may show yellowing and decay ; potatoes are likely to begin

to sprout if the temperature is too high and usually become undesirably sweet if it is too low. Other commodities undergo these or

other kinds of deterioration if the temperature variations throughout

long storage periods exceed the limits given for them in this handbook. In addition, there is always the possibility that fluctuations in

temperature will cause condensation of moisture on stored products,

which is undesirable because it favors the growth of mold and the

development of decay.

Control of temperature is usually easier in large rooms than in small

ones if both are filled to capacity. This is because of the "flywheel"

effect produced by the larger mass of material, including both the

commodity and the building material. Refrigeration is thus stored

up, so to speak, and the temperature changes occur more slowly. For

this reason small storage rooms usually require closer attention than

large ones.

Humidity of Storage Rooms

The relative humidity of the air in storage rooms has a direct relation to the keeping quality of the products held in them. If it is too

low, wilting is likely to occur in most fruits, vegetables, cut flowers,

and similar products; if it is too high, it favors the development of

decay, especially in rooms where there is considerable variation in

temperature. The exact control of humidity is rather difficult, and

in the past it was not often attempted in commercial storage warehouses.
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

However, as new plants are clesio^ned and old ones remodeled, more

accurate control is being developed. Of first importance m maintaining adequate relative humidity in the storage-room air, is the proviaing of sufficient coil area so that tlie spread between the temperature

of the coil and the desired commodity temperature is as small as

possible. Conversely, when a low relative humidity is desired, tue

coil area should be restricted and the temperature lowered so that tñe

moisture in the air will be condensed. Valves can be installed to

control the evaporating pressure of the refrigerant ; these are essential to good temperature and humidity control. A quick, temporary

method of lowering the humidity is to introduce heat into the room

by a blower or strip heater; this added heat will necessitate more

refrigeration that will condense more moisture from the air lo build

up the humidity, various commercial devices are used in which water

vapor is introduced in the form of steam or as an atomized water

spray. A humidistat is useful in automatically regulating the relative

humidity. ,

^Yi\en warm products are placed in a cold room, the spread between

commodity temperature and refrigeration temperature is wide at first.

As the spread is reduced, the cooling proceeds more and more slowly

Eventually, if the temperature of the refrigerant is properly adjusted

and there is adequate refrigerated surface, the desired temperature

can be reached without subjecting the commodity to excessive

desiccation.

For most fruits that are stored commercially, a relative humidity

of 85 to 90 percent gives the best results. Exceptions are discussed

at various places in this handbook. For leafy vegetables and root

crops, the relative humidity should be about 90 to 95 percent ; for other

vegetables, except as noted, 85 to 90 percent. If it is necessary to

increase the relative humidity in rooms used for common, or air-cooled,

storage, this can be done by sprinkling the ñoor occasionally. Earth

floors are more desirable in air-cooled storages than floors of concrete

because they are more easily kept damp. An increase in air circidaiion

necessitates an increase in relative humidity if loilting of the stored

commodity is to le avoided, Allen and Pentzer {6) found that

doubling the rate of air movement increased moisture loss by about

one-third and was equivalent to about a 5-percent drop in relative

humidity. The drjâng eiïect of increased rate of air movement is

particularly marked if the humidity of the air is lower than the

moisture content of the commodity.

(See also 7.)

Sanitation in Storage Rooms

Maintenance of sanitarj^ conditions would not be a problem if constant ''good housekeeping" were practiced. Storage rooms vshould at

all times be kept free from decaying fruit or vegetable material. If

the floor and walls become moldy, they should be scrubbed with a

good cleaner—for instance, one containing either sodium hypochlorite

or trisodium phosphate—then immediately rinsed; and the room

should then be aired. Ozone introduced into the room atmosphere

at the rate of 1 to 2 parts per million (p. p. m.) has been reported to

be effective in controlling mold growth on packages and on walls and

also as a deodorant.

(See ^7.)
COMMERCIAL STORAGE

Evolution of Heat by Commodity

In any consideration of the storage of fresh fruits and vegetables,

cut flowers, and similar products, it should be remembered that these

commodities are alive and that they therefore carry on within themselves many of the processes characteristic of all living things. The

most important of these processes is respiration, by which the oxygen

of the air is combined with the carbon of the plant tissues, occurring

chiefly in sugars, to form various decomposition products and eventually carbon dioxide and water. During this process, energy is released

in the form of heat, the amount of which varies with the commodity

and increases as the temperature increases, up to about 100° F. This

heat is always a part of the refrigeration load that must be considered

in handling fruits, vegetables, and cut flowers in cold-storage rooms or

refrigerator cars. The approximate rates of evolution of heat by

various commodities at différent storage temperatures are given in

table 1,

^ Some products have much higher respiration rates than others at

given temperatures. This means that they require considerably more

refrigeration than the more slowly respiring products, to keep them

at a specified temperature.

The storage life of apples (as represented by three varieties with

short, medium, and long storage periods) varies inversely as the rate

of evolution of heat. The same relation of storage life to heat evolution holds true for products like broccoli, lettuce, peas, spinach, and

sweet corn which have a relatively high rate of evolution of heat ; and

for onions, potatoes and storage varieties of grapes which have a low

evolution of heat. ( See table 1. )

In determining the heat to be removed in cooling fruits and vegetables to cold-storage temperatures, the following factors should be

considered : The specific heat of the product ; the rate at which it produces heat by respiration ; and its initial and final temperatures. If the

product could be cooled to the storage temperature instantaneously, the

heat to be removed would be the number of British thermal units

(B. t. u.), obtained by multiplying the specific heat of the product by

the difference between the initial and the final temperature, and this

result by the weight. This is usually called the sensible heat. The cooling process, however, requires time, and during this interval additional heat is produced by the respiration of the stored fruit or vegetable.

When fruits and vegetables cool, the rate at which they produce

heat decreases; therefore, in order to determine the total amount of

heat produced, it is necessary to know the rate of heat introduction at

different temperatures and the length of time the product is in each

temperature range. For example, if the respiration rate (or rate of

heat production) for a given commodity is twice as great at 70° F. as

at 50°, the number of hours this commodity is at each of these temperatures must be known before the total heat produced can be calculated.

Table 2 shows the approximate amounts of sensible heat and of heat

produced by respiration which must be removed from several kinds

of fruit in cooling them from various temperatures to 35° F. These

figures are based on experimental determinations of the rate of respiration at various temperatures ; some of the data are from the tables

given by Magness and his associates {101^ 103)^ and the remainder

from data reported by Haller and coworkers {62). The figures for
6 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 1.—Approximate rates of evolution of heat by certain fresh fruits

and vegetables ivhen stored at the temperatures indicated

Commodity Temperature

Heat evolved per

ton of fruits or

vegetables per

24 hours **

Literature

reference

Apples:

Yellow Transparent.

Jonathan.

Winesap _

Bananas:

Green

Turning..

Ripe

Beans, lima:

Fordhook.

Variety unknown.

Beans, snap:

Stringless flat-podded_

Black Valentine.

Stringless Green Pod.

Beets, topped.

Broccoli (variety unknown).

Cabbage, Globe.

Cantaloups, Turlock.

Carrots, topped

Celery, New York white

See footnotes at end of table, p. 9.

F.

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

32

40

60

54

68

68

68

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

80

32

40

60

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

70

32

40

60

32

40

60

32

40

60

70

B. t. u.

1, 500

2,660

7,880

12,380

700 to 800

820 to 840

2, 610 to 3, 470

300 to 320

590 to 600

2, 270 to 2, 350

3, 300

8,360

9,240

8,360

2,330

4,300

21,990

29, 220

3, 160

6, 100

27, 410

37, 120

5,610

9, 160

32, 090

45, 370

5,500

11,390

44, 130

52, 950

6, 160

10, 600

40, 850

49, 590

2,650

4,060

7,240

7,450

11,000 to 17, 600

33, 800 to 50, 000

47, 340 to 100, 000

1,200

1,670

4,080

6, 120

1,320

1,960

8,500

2, 130

3,470

8,080

1,620

2,420

8,220

14, 150
COMMERCIAL STORAGE

TABLE 1.—Approximate rates of evolution of heat by certain fresh fruits

and vegetables when stored at the temperatures indicated—Continued

Commodity Temperature

Heat evolved per

ton of fruits or

vegetables per

24 hours "

Literature

reference

Cherries:

Sweet _»

Í 31

36

45

/ 32

I 60

r 32

40

] 60

[ 80

32

40

50

r 32

40

I 60

f 32

> 40

L 60

( 32

40

) 50

] 60

70

[ 90

r 32

1 40

] 60

[ 80

f 36

60

[ 80

f 32

43

[ 53

f 32

1 43

[ 53

r 32

> 43

[ 53

( 32

40

J 50

\ 60

70

I 80

f 32

40

[ 60

f 32

50

[ 70

Í 32

50

70

B. t. u.

1,249

1,459

2,811

1, 320 to 1, 760

11,000 to 13,200

6,560

9,390

38, 410

61, 950

600

870

1,800

720

970

1,650

1,690

2,550

10, 460

370 to 950

725 to 1, 300

1, 340 to 2, 130

2, 200 to 3, 980

2, 640 to 5, 720

5, 060 to 6, 840

602

1,170

3,487

8,481

660 to 1, 100

2, 200 to 2, 640

5, 500 to 6, 600

430

1,050

1,690

350

850

1,810

300

740

1,570

480 to 900

620 to 1, 890

1, 610 to 3, 670

2, 310 to 4,950

4, 050 to 5, 570

4, 530 to 5, 490

11, 320

15, 990

45, 980

6,160

22, 000

58, 000

660 to 1, 100

1, 760 to 1, 980

3, 080 to 4,180

} {60)

Sour } {75) _

Corn, sweet (Golden Bantam cross;

not husked)

Cranberries:

Early Black > C)

Howes - ._ _ __ _

Cucumbers, Producer and Wanchula

Grapefruit, Florida _„

C)

>

> {62)

{9S)

Grapes:

Concord «_

Cornichon and Flame Tokay

Sultanina -__

Emperor _» ^

• {')

Ghanez

Lemons, Eureka > {66)

Lettuce _

Mushrooms, cultivated - __ - ('')

Onions, dry, Yellow Globe .

,

See footnotes at end of table, p. 9.

292239^—54 2
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 1.—Approximate rates of erolution of heat by certain jresh jrmts

and vegetables v:hen stored at the temperatures indicated—Continued

Commodity

Oranges, Florida

Peaches

Pears, Bartlett

Peas:

Improved Pilot

Laxtonian

Peppers, sweet

Potatoes, Irish Cobbler

Raspberries

Spinach:

Bloomsdale Savoy

Virginia Savoy

Strawberries

Sweetpotatoes, Nancy Hall:

Not cured

Cured

Tomatoes:

Mature-green

Ripe

See footnotes at end of table, p

Temperature

32

40

50

60

90

32

40

60

80

32

60

32

40

60

80

32

40

60

80

32

40

60

32

40

70

32

36

40

60

32

40

50

60

32

40

50

60

32

40

50

60

70

80

32

40

60

32

40

60

32

40

60

32

40

60

Heat evolved per

ton of fruits or

veo;etables per

24 hours ^

Literature

reference

B. i. u420 to 1

1, 300 to 1

2, 400 to 4

3, 650 to 5

5, 240 to 9

850 to 1

1,440 to 2

7, 260 to 9

17, 930 to 22

660 to

8, 800 to 13

13

39

75

8

16

44

82

2,

4

8>

440 to

1, 100 to 1

2, 200 to 3

3, 850 to 5

4, 400 to 6

6, 750 to 8,

18, 080 to 22

4

7

17

38

4

11

20

36

2, 730 to 3

3, 610 to 6

9, 480 to 13

15, 640 to 20

22, 510 to 30

37, 220 to 46

2

3

, 030

, 560

820

, 170

,420

, 370

,030

, 310

,460

880

,200

, 160

,220

,250

,500

,360

,020

, 510

,920

,720

,700

,470

880

,760

,520

,502

,600

,470

,250

,240

,850

,940

,000

,860

,210

,640

,920

,800

,750

,090

,280

, 160

,440

,440

,350

,300

, 190

,710

,280

580

,070

,230

,020

,260

,640

> {62)

} (101)

(')

} (')

} (65)

} {')
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 9

TABLE 1.—Approximate rates of evolution of heat by certain fresh fruits

and vegetables when stored at the temperatures indicated—Continued

Commodity Temperature

Heat evolved per

ton of fruits or

vegetables per

24 hours "^

Literature

reference

Turnips, topped

0^^

Í 32

40

i 60

B, L u.

1,940

2,150

5,280

} «

«The figures in this column were obtained (1) by assuming that the heat

liberated by respiration is produced by the respiration of a hexose sugar, and (2)

by multiplying the milKgrams of carbon dioxide produced per hour by each kilogram of respiring material by the factor 220.

^ Unpublished report by T. M. Whiteman.

« Unpublished report by Morris Lieberman.

^Unpublished report on the respiration of vegetables by R. C. Wright and

T. M. Whiteman.

« Unpublished report by W. T. Pentzer.

^ Unpublished report by D. H. Rose and M. H. Haller.

Bartlett pears are based on the maximum values given by Magness and

Ballard {101). The figures given in this table have been obtained by

assuming that the heat of respiration is produced by oxidation of a hexose sugar to carbon dioxide and water, and they can be calculated from

the rate of production of carbon dioxide, which has been determined

experimentally. Very few calorimetric measurements of heat production by fruits ancl vegetables have been made; this assumption,

therefore, seems to be the best available basis for calculating heat production at any given temperature. Investigations (56) indicate that

calculations made on this assumption give values that are within 10

percent of those obtained calorimetrically.

The assumption has also been made, although it is believed to be

only approximately correct for fruits and vegetables, that the rate of

temperature drop during cooling is proportional to the difference

between room temperature and fruit temperature. With this assumption as a basis, the temperature and thus the rate of respiration at any

time during the cooling period, as well as the total heat produced

during the whole cooling period, have been calculated.*

As a result of these calculations, it has been found that the heat

produced by the respiration of fruit while it cools is directly proportional to the length of the cooling period. The figures for cooling

periods of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 days are therefore set at 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6,

and 0.8 (to the nearest thousand) of the figure for 10 days. The

specific heat has been calculated by the formula /?=0.008^+0.20, in

which S signifies the specific heat of a substance containing a percent

of water; 0.20 is the value that has been assumed to represent the

specific heat of the solid constituents of the substance in question

{161). . .

The values given in table 2 are only approximate. However, m view

of the results of the investigations mentioned on page 5, it is believed

^The writers wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance given by W. V.

Hukill, Agricultural Engineering Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, in making the calculations and in preparing this statement on the production of heat by fruits and vegetables.
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 2,—Approximate amounts of heai oj respiration o.r}ÁJienú^ heat

to be removed from certain fruits in cooling them from 60 ,70 ^ ^^^^

to 35'' F. in a room at 5^°, when the cooling takes place in 3,4, ^^^^^ ^^

or 10 days

Kind of fruit

Apples:

Winesap.

Grimes Golden...

Peaches:

Elberta

Carman

Pears:

Bartlett

Strawberries:

Chesapeake.

Howard 17_

Oranges:

Florida seedhng '•

Initial

temperature

'F.

80

70

60

80

70

60

80

70

60

80

70

60

70

60

80

70

60

80

70

60

80

70

60

Heat of respiration per ton of fruit during—

3 days 4 days 5 days 6 days 8 days

B.t.u

8,000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

B.t.u.

11,000

9,000

8,000

16, 000

13, 000

11,000

18, 000

13, 000

10, 000

22, 000

17, 000

13, 000

22, 000

17, 000

39, 000

32, 000

26, 000

51, 000

42, 000

34, 000

12, 000

10, 000

9,000

B.t.u.

14, 000

12, 000

10, 000

20, 000

17, 000

13, 000

22, 000

17, 000

12, 000

27, 000

21, 000

16, 000

27, 000

22, 000

49, 000

40, 000

32, 000

64, 000

52, 000

42, 000

15,000

] 3, 000

11,000

B.t.u.

16, 000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

000

B.t.u.

22, 000

19, 000

16, 000

32, 000

26, 000

21, 000

35, 000

26, 000

19, 000

43, 000

34, 000

25, 000

44, 000

35, 000

79, 000

65, 000

51, 000

102, 000

84, 000

68, 000

24, 000

20, 000

17, 000

Sensible

heat

per

10 days ton ^

B.t.u.

27, 000

23, 000

20, 000

40, 000

33, 000

27, 000

44, 000

33, 000

24, 000

54, 000

42, 000

32, 000

54, 000

43, 000

99, 000

81, 000

64, 000

128, 000

104, 000

84, 000

30, 000

26, 000

22, 000

B.t.u.

80, 000

62, 000

44, 000

80, 000

62, 000

44, 000

80, 000

62, 000

44, 000

80, 000

62, 000

44, 000

61, 000

43, 000

83, 000

64, 000

46, 000

83, 000

64, 000

46, 000

81, 000

63, 000

45, 000

^ For any one kind of fruit at a given temperature, these figures are assumed to

be the same for all cooling periods included in the table.

2 The rate of respiration is practically the same for both Florida seedling oranges

and California navel oranges. *

that the two assumptions that have been made lead to fairly accurate

results. The figures are presented to help cold-storage-plant operators

estimate the refrigeration required for cooling the specified fruits

under the various conditions given. As an example of how the figures

can be used, the following calculation may be of interest: A ton of

Bartlett pears cooling from 70° to 35° F. in 10 days in a 32° room

is shown to be capable of producing about 54,000 B. t. u. Its sensible

heat at 70° (35° above its final temperature) is 61,000 B. t. u. The

sum of the two is 115,000 B. t. u. If this is multiplied by the capacity

of the room in tons of fruit, say 600 (the capacity of some of the

commercial cold-storage rooms in the United States) and divided by

288,000 (the number of British thermal units in a ton of refrigeration), the quotient 239 is obtained; this is approximately the nmiiber

of tons of refrigeration required to cool 600 tons of Bartlett pears to

35° in 10 days under the conditions specified. The corresponding figure for Winesap apples is 177, and that for Grimes Golden apples, 200.
COMIMERCIAL STORAGE 11

Cold Injury and Freezing Injury

Certain fruits and vegetables are susceptible to cold injury by temperatures that are not low enough to cause them to freeze. A list of

commodities subject to such injury, together with their critical temperatures and symptoms of injury, is given in table 3.

Experimental observations and experience of commercial operators

have shown a wide variation among commodities in their susceptibility

to freezing injury. Some may be frozen and thawed a number of

times without permanent injury, whereas others are permanently injured by even slight freezing. The freezing point of the commodity

is no indication of the damage to be expected by freezing or chilling.

For example, tomatoes and parsnips both have a freezmg point of

30° F., but parsnips can be frozen and thawed several times without

apparent injury, whereas tomatoes are ruined after one freezing.

Again, mature-green tomatoes will be injured so that they will not

ripen properly if held at 32° to 40° for longer than 3 to 5 days, whereas

parsnips may be held at 30° for many weeks without deterioration

provided they are not permitted to dry out.

The following tabulation gives the relative susceptibility of a number of commodities to actual freezing injury and shows their approximate freezing points. The commodities are arranged somewhat arbitrarily into three groups: (1) Most susceptible; (2) moderately

susceptible; and (3) least^ susceptible. The first group comprises

those that are likely to be injured by 1 light freezing ; the second group,

those that will recover from 1 or 2 light freezings ; and those in the

third group can be lightly frozen several times without serious damage. Commodities must be handled with special care while frozen

because then they are much more susceptible to bruising.

Approximate Commodity and group: freezing points

Most susceptible:

Asparagus 30

Avocados 27

Bananas 30

Beans, snap 30

Berries 30

Cucumbers 31

Eggplant 30

Lemons 28

Limes 29

Peppers, sweet 30

Potatoes, white 29

Squash, summer 29

Sweetpotatoes 29

Tomatoes 30

Moderately susceptible:

Apples 28

Broccoli, sprouting 29

Cabbage, new 31

Celery 30

Cranberries 27

Grapefruit 28

Grapes:

American 28

Vinifera 25

Approximate

freezing point ^

o Jßt

Commodity and group—

Continued

Moderately susceptible—

Continued

Lettuce 31

Onions 30

Oranges 28

Parsley (2)

Peaches 29

Pears 28

Peas 30

Plums 28

Squash, winter 29

Least susceptible:

Beets 27

Brussels sprouts (2)

Cabbage, old and Savoy 31

Carrots 30

Cauliflower 30

Kale 30

Parsnips 30

Rutabagas 30

Salsify 29

Spinach 30

Turnips 31

1 Most of these temperatures are the approximate average freezing points;

individual specimens may freeze at slightly higher or slightly lower temperatures.

2 Freezing point not known.
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

For a further discussion of low-temperature responses, see :\Iiller

{107) andWright {205),

TABLE Z,—Commodities susceptihlp to cold injury when .stored at only

moderately low temperatures

Commoditv

Apples—certain varieties

Avocados

Bananas, green or ripe

Beans (snap)

Cranberries

Cucumbers

Eggplants

Grapefruit

Lemons

Limes

Mangoes

Melons:

Cantaloups

Honey Dew

Casaba

Crenshaw and Persian

Watermelons

Okra

Olives, fresh

Oranges, California

Papa^^as

Peppers, sweet

Pineapples

Potatoes, Chippewa and Sebago

Squash, winter

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes:

Ripe

Mature-green

Approximate lowest safe

temperature

° F.

34 to 36

45

m

45 to 50

34

45

45

45

55 to 58

45

50

(0

40 to 50

40 to 50

40 to 50

36

40

45

35 to 37

45

45

(^)

40

50 to 55

55

50

55

Character of injury when stored

between 32° F. and safe temperature

Internal browning, soggy breakdown.

Internal browning.

Dull color when ripened.

Pitting increasing on removal,

russeting on removal.

Low-temperature breakdown.

Pitting, water-soaked spots, decay.

Pitting or bronzing, increasing

on removal.

Scald, pitting, watery breakdown,

internal browning.

Internal discoloration, pitting.

Pitting.

Internal discoloration.

Pitting, surface decay.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Pitting, objectionable flavor.

Discoloration, water-soaked areas,

pitting, decay.

Internal browning.

Rind disorders.

Breakdown.

Pitting, discoloration near cal}rx.

Dull green when ripened.

Mahogany browning.

Decay.

Decay, pitting, internal discoloration.

Breakdown.

Poor color when ripe; tendency

to decay rapidly.

^ See ( 'untaloups, p. 41, and table 6, p. 31.

' See Pineapples, p. L'S, and table 6, p. 30.

Ammonia Injury

Damage from escaping ammonia sometimes occurs to products in

storage where direct-expansion refrigeration systems are used. Slight

mjury may be indicated by brown to greenish-black discoloration of

the outer tissues of fruits and vegetables; this injury is usually rated

as blemishes. Severe injury may be marked by discoloration and softening of the deeper tissues, which render the products unmarketable.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 13

It was demonstrated that an ammonia concentration of 0,8 percent

caused injury to apples, pears, bananas, peaches, and onions Avithin an

hour {130^ 131)^ and that concentrations that were barely detectable

by odor caused darkening of the skins of pecan nuts {137). It has

recently been reported that sulfur dioxide serves as a satisfactory neutralizing agent for light ammonia damage to commodities that are

tolerant to sulfur dioxide, such as grapes, almonds, and filberts. In

this test 1 x^ercent sulfur dioxide was used for grapes and 5 percent for

the nuts {SIi). This treatment is unsatisfactory for pecans because

the discoloration can only be removed temporarily, and it reappears

when the sulfur dioxide is removed.

The application of waxing preparations to certain perishable products has been practiced commercially for several years. It probably

started with the waxing of citrus fruits and was followed by the waxing of rutabagas. Wax is used commercially on some other products,

such as cucumbers, tomatoes, cantaloups, potatoes, and sweetpotatoes.

(See Sweetpotatoes, p 47.) The materials used are either paraffin or

a vegetable wax and paraffin formulation. Citrus fruits, cucumbers,

parsnips, and rutabagas are definitely benefited by waxing, because

shrinkage due to water loss is restricted. With most other products,

improved appearance seems to be the only advantage. (See S^, 127^

m,177,201^,)

Effect of Cold Storage on Subsequent Behavior of Fruits

and Vegetables

There is a belief that cold storage predisposes fruits and vegetables

to rapid deterioration after removal, but there is no evidence to support this viewpoint except in instances of overrefrigeration of those

products that are sensitive to cold. (See tabulation, p. 11.) At unrefrigerated temperatures the commodity usually ages quickly and

spoilage soon takes place. At refrigerated temperatures these processes are retarded, and the net result is longer life. As some of the

potential life is used up in storage, it is not reasonable to expect the

commodity to keep so long after removal as freshly harvested produce ;

but if the correct temperature and humidity are employed and suitable

storage j)eriods are not exceeded, there will be sufficient time for the

commodity to pass through the normal marketing channel after

removal. Extremely perishable fruits and vegetables have a short

storage life and must be used soon after they are taken from storage.

Sweating

T\Tien fruits or vegetables are removed from a low temperature to a

higher one, there is frequently a condensation of moisture from the

air on the cool surface of the commodity. This is known as SAveating;

and the higher the relative humidity of the outside air, the more

marked it becomes. It should be prevented whenever possible in the

case of onions and the more tender fruits, because it favors the development of decay. This does not mean that when any of these products

sweat after removal from an iced refrigerator car or a refrigerated

room they are sure to decay ; it does mean that they are more likely to
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

decay than if they were dry after being unloaded and remained dry

until consumed. In this connection, dryness means merely the absence

of liquid water on the surface.

Sweating can be prevented to some extent by allowing the fruits or

vegetables to warm up gradually. Usually, if the commodity temperature is raised to only 50° or 55° F., little or no condensation occurs.

Under commercial conditions, however, such precautions are rarely

practical. Ordinarily, the best procedure in very damp weather is to

handle the product carefully and get it into consumption without

undue delay.

Choice of Storage Conditions

Unless otherwise noted the storage conditions recommended herein

are the optimum for newly harvested products. Under certain circumstances it may be necessary to choose conditions that are not optimum

because desired conditions are not available. The storage temperatures given in this handbook are usually as low as is safe or practical,

and if an alternate temperature must be chosen, it should in most instances be higher than that recommended. When a higher temperature is chosen, it should be recognized that the storage life will be proportionately shortened, and frequent inspections should be made to determine the condition of the product. At times it may be necessary to

store different products together; experience has shown that this is

safe except with some products where there is a cross-transfer of odors.

Combinations that should be avoided in storage rooms are apples with

celery, cabbage, potatoes, or onions; celery with onions; and citrus

fruit with any of the stronHy scented vegetables. Odors from apples

and citrus fruits are readil}^ absorbed by dairy products. As a rule,

when apples and potatoes are stored together at about 40"" F. or higher,

the apples acquire an unpleasant earthy taste and odor. If these are

held together at 32°, little or no odor transfer is noticeable, but this

temperature is undesirable for potatoes (see Potatoes, p. 44). Additional undesirable combinations are mentioned in connection with the

various commodities discussed later in this handbook.

Fresh Fruits

By E. C. WRIGHT and DEAX H. ROSE

The recommended temperature, relative humidity, approximate

length of storage period, and average freezing point where applicable,

for the commercial storage of fresh dried, and frozen fruits, and nuts

are given m table 6 (see pp. 30-31). Detailed descriptions of these

requirements are given in the text.

Apples

(Temperature, see text ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

There is a wide variation in the storage quality of different varieties oí apples, i able 4 shows the comparative storage life and susceptibility to specific storage disorders of most of the important

commercial varieties. Storage quality within a variety differs greatly,

depending on such factors as the locality where grown, seasonal

climatic conditions m the locality, cultural and spraying practices of

the grower, maturity when picked, care in handling, length of time
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 15

between picking and storage, and storage practices. As an example

of how varieties vary when grown in different localities, Mclntosh

apples grown in the Middle Atlantic States mature as early fall apples

and are suitable for only 2 to 3 weeks of storage ; when grown in New

England, they mature late and are suitable tor storage as long as 4

to 5 months. In the same locality storage disorders vary with growing conditions during different seasons. The amount of storage scald

varies from year to year. Severe scald has been associated with ample

soil moisture during the growing season {60). When picked in an

early stage of maturity, apples are more subject to scald, whereas those

picked late are more likely to develop breakdoAvn in storage (5^, 103).

The use of a preharvest spray of growth-regulating materials to control dropping has made it possible to delay harvest until later than

formerly, when the tendency was to harvest early to avoid dropping.

If, however, the delay in harvest afforded by this spray extends

beyond optimum maturity, the storage quality of the fruit may be

adversely affected.

TABLE 4.—Normal and maximum storage- jyeriod jor apples of certain

important varieties and their susceptibility to storage disorders

Storage period

Tendency

to storage

scald

Other disorders likely

to occur in storage Variety

Normal

Maximum

Gravenstein

Months

0 to 1

0 to 1

2 to 3

2 to 3

2 to 4

3 to 4

3 to 4

3 to 4

3 to 4

4 to 5

4 to 5

4 to 5

4 to 5

4 to 5

4 to 5

4 to 5

5 to 6

5 to 7

Months

3

3

4

4

4 to 5

5

6

6

6

5 to 6

5 to 6

6

6

6 to 7

6 to 7

8

8

8

Slight

Severe

Slight

...do

Medium

Severe ._

Very shght--

Slight to

medium.

Severe

do

___do

Slight

Medium to

severe.

_-_do

Medium

Slight

Medium

Bitter pit, Jonathan spot.

Soft scald, Jonathan spot.

Soggy breakdown, bitter

pit, shriveling.

Jonathan spot, water core,

soft scald, internal

breakdown.

Brown core, soft scald.

Wealthy - - -

Grimes Golden

Jonathan

Mclntosh. _ _ -

Cortland

Rhode Island Greening.

Golden Delicious

Delicious _ _

Breakdown.

Bitter pit, internal breakdown.

Shriveling, soggy breakdown.

Bitter pit, water core,

Stayman Winesap

York Imperial

Arkansas, Black TwigNorthern Spy

Baldwin

Rome Beauty

Ben Davis. . __

internal breakdown.

Internal breakdown, water

core.

Bitter pit.

Bitter pit, water core.

Bitter pit.

Do.

Bitter pit, brown core, soft

scald, internal breakdown, Jonathan spot.

Yellow Newtown

Winesap

Bitter pit, internal browning (in California).

Water core, shriveling.

292239°
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Water core develops in fruit of some varieties especiallv when ha^^^

vested late. This is reported to be caused by ^^bnormall? l^¿f f^^^^

ing temperatures UD- The disorder usually ^j^^'V^^^^^t.^ar fiom fiím

period lengthens, and if not severe it ^^7 e^i^^-^^y/^^fIf'''^yXi cÔîe extured varieties, such as Winesap and 1 ^How NeAvtown JA atei^^co^^^^

m soft-textured varieties, such as Jonathan, Delicious &ta} man \ me

sap, and Rome Beauty, frequently develops into breakdown, and it this

condition is found, the fruit should be m^^i-ketecl early.

To insure good keeping quality, apples must not oi^lj ^^ ^ou cl an

at the proper stage of maturity but they must be o^refully ^}¡'¡^^^^^^

all operations, including picking, grading, and packing I* i^^^^^^

that apples be cooled as quickly as possib e after ^^f ^ f*;^/* ^^'n^^^P^S

are picked during hot weather, it may be advantageous to allOAA the

cratS to remain ^stacked in the orchard in the ^h^^^e -and stor^^

the next morning while they are coo . If adequate ^^e*i i^ei ation a

air circulation a?e not provided, apples take several weeks to cool and

their storage life is shortened (4¿. 1^8.152). Storage practices can, to a

considerable extent, be coordinated with the haryestiiig, l^andlmg, aM

marketing. Apples that for any reason are likely to have a poor stoiage-life expectancv should be segregated and marketed early {/J).

Apples that have become frozen before removal from the orchard

should be allowed to thaw before being handled, as bruising and freezincr iniury may be increased by handling the fruit while frozen. Moderate freezing does not affect the keeping quality, but if freezing is severe the storage life may be shortened. If apples are stored m hekl

crates, to be packed later when labor becomes more available, packing

and wrapping in oiled paper should not be delayed too long or the

benefit of oiled paper for control of scald will be lost. _

Scald is probablv the most serious disorder of apples m storage.

Packing in shredded, oiled paper (one-half pound per bushel) or using

oiled wraps are the most dependable means of reducing damage from

this disorder. Even these treatments do not give complete control for

susceptible varieties, especially when the apples are picked early or

during seasons that favor susceptibility. Scald is frequently not visible in storage but develops rapidly when the fruit is removed. To determine whether apples are nearing the end of their storage life, it is

advisable to remove a sample to outside room temperature and watch

for the development of scald, particularly with susceptible varieties

(table 4).

The various diseases that develop in apples during storage are

described and discussed in Miscellaneous Publication 168 {US). (See

also 17, 4^,63, 68JS6.)

In most varieties of apples the longest storage life is obtained by

maintaining a temperature of 30° to 32° F. and a relative humidity of

85 to 90 percent. However, unless the temperature can be uniformly

and accurately controlled, a temperature as low as 30° should not be

attempted since this is relatively close to the freezing point of apples

(28.4°) and accidental freezing might occur. Somewhat higher temperatures are recommended for certain varieties because of their susceptibility to storage disorders induced by temperatures as low as 30°

to 32°. Yellow Newtown apples, grown in Pajaro Valley of California, and Mclntosh and Rhode Island Greening apples, grown in New

York and New England, are best stored at 36° to 38° to prevent the

development of internal browning. Grimes Golden apples are gener-
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 17

ally stored at 30° to 32°, but when they are gi^own in some areas they

should be stored at 34° to 36° to avoid soggy breakdown. Jonathan

and Delicious apples are sometimes subject to soft scald at the lower

temperature range. This can be controlled in Jonathans by storage

at 34° to 36°, but at this range Jonathan spot and breakdown are

encouraged.

Tests on Delicious apples in the Northwest have shown that storage

for 8 weeks at 34° previous to lowering the temperature to 30° was effective in controlling soft scald in susceptible stock (5^, 178). The

storage temperature for these special varieties will have to be determmed by experience with similar fruit. Soggy breakdown and soft

scald are more likely to occur when storage has been delayed; and

when these injuries occur, the higher storage temperature and early

disposal of the fruit are advisable. (See 5,17, 20, ]^2, 63, 68, 78, 103,

m, m, 126, m, 136,153,157,) , , ,^, , , , -,

Apples in storage should be inspected frequently so that they may

be removed and sold while still in good condition and with sufficient

shelf life to permit usual marketing. Ripening and deterioration will

be greatly accelerated by the higher temperatures met with after

removal from storage. Investigations have shown that ripening at

40° F. is about twice as fast as at 32° ; at 50°, about twice as fast as at

40° ; and at 70°, about twice as fast as at 50°. (See M, 58, 63, 78, 79,

im, 136,153,157,158.)

With certain varieties of apples, principally the Mclntosh in New

York and New England and the Yellow Newtown in California, for

which it is desirable to use a higher storage temperature (36° to 38° F.)

to prevent the low-temperature disorders discussed, the faster ripening at the higher temperatures can usually be prevented by a controlled atmosphere. This means an atmosphere adjusted to contain

about 10 percent carbon dioxide and 5 percent oxygen instead of the

normal amounts (0.2 to 0.3 percent carbon dioxide and 21.0 percent

oxygen). This practice has proved successful in special instances

but is subject to certain objections, including the great expense of

rendering a storage airtight and the difficulty of maintaining the

proper concentrations in the atmosphere. Such a storage must be

kept closed during the storage period, and it cannot be entered frequently as is customary in this country. (See 23, 27,1^3, 83,122,123,

155,159,)

Another modification of the storage atmosphere is that in which the

room air is circulated through activated coconut-shell carbon to remove volatile emanations from the fruit. This has been adopted by

some commercial storages. Investigations in New York have indicated

a reduction in scald and retardation in ripening by this air-purification

treatment. Studies elsewhere, however, have failed to show this effect

consistently, probably because of differences in the methods of

approach or the use of fruits at different stages of maturity. (See 23,

39,53,153,156,)

Ozone introduced in the storage-room atmosphere at the rate of

1 to 2 p. p. m. has proved effective as a deodorizing agent and in controlling the growth of molds on packages and on walls, but it has not

controlled decay and scald. Concentrations as high as 3.25 p. p. m.

increased decay and impaired flavor. ( See 11^6,15If,)

Early, or summer-maturing, apples in the East are seldom stored

except temporarily, as most of them are perishable and go directly to
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

the fresh-fruit market. On the west coast, however, the ( Travenstein

apple, which matures in July, can be stored as long as 3 months to prolong its season for the fresh-fruit market and for processing. (>?ee

table 4.) {See 8,)

Apricots

(Temperature, 81° to 32° F. ; relative humidity, s"» to 90 percent)

Apricots are seldom stored in commercial quantities, although they

keep well for 1 to 2 weeks at 31° to 32° F. Fruit picked when hrm

enough to ship or store has about the same maturity as that commonly

used for canning and lacks the character and full flavor ot the ripened

fruit.

Avocados

(Temperature, see text; relative humidity, Sr> to 90 percent)

The best general storage temperature for most varieties of avocados

is close to 45^ F., although some of the West Indian varieties are best

held at 55°. Most varieties can be held in storage for about 4 weeks.

Slow ripening occurs at 55°.

When held below 45° F., avocados tend to become discolored internally and fail to soften when removed from storage. At the higher

temperature (55°) anthracnose, a fungus disease of avocados, will

probably be an important factor in the storage of this fruit. At the

lower temperature (45°) decay is not likely to be troublesome even

duringf long: storao;e.

(See97.lUJ82J84.202,)

Bananas

(Temperature : Ripening, 62° to 70° F. ; holding ripe fruit, 56° to 60°. Relative

humidity : Green fruit, 90 to i^H percent : ripe fruit, somewhat reduced but not

below about ^5 i)ercent)

Tlie banana is one of the fruits that must be shipped to market

green, because in tliis i'oudition it can be handled for a longer time

without becoming overripe and without serious injury from bruisinj:

during the marketing process. Furthermore, bananas of the Gros

Michel variety, which make up the great bulk of bananas shipped

into this country, if allowed to ripen on the plant, become mealy, lack

flavor, and are subject to splitting, with subsequent decay.

The bunches of green bananas as they are received from the tropics

are usually liung closely together in special rooms, where they start

to ripen, at 68° to 70° F. for ^24 hours, with a relative humidity of

00 to 95 percent. Steam or water mist may be introduced during the

first 8 or 4 hours. Each day thereafter the temperature is reduced

about 2° until 60^ is reached. The relative humidity is reduced gradually, but it should not go below 85 percent. It takes about T days to

ripen most bananas as they arrive at the market. Prolonged exposure

to high temperatures causes poor color and weak necks, and hastens

decay.

The lowest temperature at which green bananas can safely be held

to delay ripening is about 56° F. ; below this they become chilled and

injury t.o the peel results. Both gi^een and ripe bananas are susceptible

to chilling caused by low but not freezing temperatures. Ripe fruit

is slightly more susceptible to chilling injury than green fruit. Fruit
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 19

chilled in the green stage does not develop a bright-yellow color on

ripening, but instead, a smoky, dull color. Fruit chilled after ripening develops a dull-brown color when later exposed to higher temperatures and is very susceptible to handling marks ; the slightest bruising

causes discoloration.

The best holding temperature for ripe bananas is generally considered to be 60"^ F. or slightly lower. At this temperature, they retain

their good appearance and flavor and remain edible for a week or

10 days, although ordinarily they do not keep firm enough for shipment for more than half that time. Ripe bananas are extremely

perishable, and ripening should be timed so that they need not be

held more than a few days after thev are ready for the market.

(See ^7, 757.)

Blackberries

Short storage only. See Raspberries.

Cherries

(Temperature, 31° to 32^ F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

The approximate limit for the successful commercial cold storage

of fresh sweet cherries at shipping point is probably about 10 days to

2 weeks.^ It is doubtful whether fresh cherries from California and

the Pacific Northwest can be held satisfactorily in cold storage for

more than about a week after arrival at eastern markets. This would

mean about 16 days from harvest. If held longer than the period

indicated, they begin to lose flavor and the bright, attractive appearu.nce characteristic of the fresh fruit. The stems may also dry out

noticeably, especially if the relative humidity is low. Color changes

and decay can be retarded by the use of carbon dioxide gas in transit

(62), In fact, the treatment has proved so beneficial in this respect

that it is now being used commercially for shipments of cherries from

the West and Northwest to eastern markets.

Sweating is particularly troublesome on cherries because of the dull

appearance it produces on fruit displayed for sale soon after removal

from iced cars. If cherries are held too long after removal from

storage, especially if they are wet from sweating, brown rot and gray,

blue, or green mold rots may develop.

Sour cherries are generally unsuitable for storage, except for a few

days at 32° F. to extend the processing period.

For a further discussion of storage diseases of cherries, see Miscellaneous Publication 228 (U^).

Coconuts

(Temperature, 32° to 35° F. ; relative humidity, 80 to 85 percent)

Coconuts are best stored at 32"^ to 35° F. and can be held satisfactorily within that range for 1 to 2 months.

Cranberries

(Temperature, 36° to 40° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

A large part of the cranberry crop is held at the bog eveiy year until

wanted for Thanksgiving and the Christmas holidays. When so held

it is usually kept either in common (air-cooled) storage or in arti-
20 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

ficiaUy refrigerated warehouses. The storage period is usually not

longer than about 3 months, and for this length of tnne the range trom

36° to 40° F. has been found to be the must desirable.

Keeping quality is determined to some extent by maturity and

variety. However, storage life may vury from year to year m íruit

from the same bogs. ^ n n i

Poorlv colored fruit mav be held at 45° to 50° F. for a few weeks,

to permit more rapid colorino; than Avould occur at lower te^inperatures.

Storage for more than about^4 months, in the range from 36 to 40 , is

not satisfactory because of the common occurrence of end rot, a tungiis

disease that can develop at low temperatures ( .:.'^^cS'). Shrinkage ot the

berries as a result of water loss is also a limiting factor. ^ Cranberries for long-time storage are best held ^^m the chaü m the

picking crates as they come from the field. Thus handled, they keep

better than if sorted and cleaned previous to storage.

Cleaned and sorted cranberries can safely be stored at the market m

crates or in prepackaged ventilated consumer units for a short period

of 2 to 3 weeks at 3L>° F., but fruit held for a longer time at that temperature is likelv to develop ^^low-temperature breakdown." Berries

in this condition are rubbei'v when pressed between the fingers; the

flesh is permeated with red pigment from the skin, and some of the

natural luster disappears. Such berries closely resemble those that

have been frozen. Fruit held at 3(;° to 40° is less likely to discolor and

become rubbery Init is more likelv to decay than if held at 32°.

{Seel0,45jo8,)

Dates

(Temperature, see text; relative humidity, see text)

Dates readily absorb moisture and odors from the air. The rate

of absorption is much less at temperatures below 32° F. than at those

above 32°. Deterioration caused by humidity above 75 percent is slow

at storage temperatures below 2S°. The dates of commerce are of

three grades with respect to storage life—dried, cured, and noncured.

The cured and noncured grades are perishable. A temperature as low

as 0° has no deleterious efl'ect upon dates but is actually beneficial to

them. If the moisture content is kept at about 23 percent, dates can be

kept for several months, but if they gain in moisture the}^ will become

perishable and if they lose moisture they become too dry for consumer acceptance.

Dates are of two different types, and fruits of each type can be either

dry, cured, or noncured. The cane-sugar type is usually firm, lightcolored, and comparatively dry, whereas the invert-sugar type is usually softer, darker colored, and inclined to be slightly sticky or sirupy.

Deglet Xoor, the most important variety grown in this country, is

of the hard cane-sugar type. Dates of this variety, cured grade, keep

well until March at 28° to 32° F. and for a year at 24° to 26° or lower,

whereas the noncured grade requires 18° or lower for storage until

March and 0° to 10° for a year. In Deglet Xoor dates that have

become overripe or have been held under unfavorable storage conditions the cane sugar is inverted and the dates become soft, sirupy, and

darker in color. Such dates are commonly graded as '^dark soft.^^ If

they can be dried down somewhat, they can be stored at 28° to 32°

until Christmas without becoming objectionably dark and sirupy,
COJMMERCIAL STORAGE 21

although a temperature of 0^ to 10° will be needed if they are to be

stored until March. ( See 11,76, lU, U5. )

Halawy, Idiadrawy, Zahidi, and Saidy dates are all of the invertsugar type, and the cured grades can be kept until Christmas at 28"^ to

32° F. without forming sugar spots but recjuire a temperature of 18°

or lower if stored until March. Noncured grades of these varieties

require 0° to 10° for even short storage. After Christmas it is well to

shift all dates of the invert-sugar type remaining in storage to ''freezers" at 0° to 10°. (SeeS,7i).

Dewberries

Short storage only. See Easpberries.

Figs, Fresh

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F.; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Fresh figs in storage require a temperature of 31° to 32° F. and a

relative humidity of 85 to 90 percent, but even under these conditions

they cannot be expected to keep satisfactorily for more than about 10

days. Alternaría spotting that may start while figs are on the tree

and continue to develop in storage, especially at near 50°, greatly detracts from the appearance of the fruit.

Grapefruit

(Temperature, see text; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Storage rooms for grapefruit should have a relative humidity of 85

to 90 percent. Lower humidities favor the development of pitting

where cells have been damaged by chilling injury, and higher humidities may increase decay.

For short-time storage, grapefruit can be held satisfactorily at a

temperature of 32° F. For longer periods, the temperature to be used

will depend on the character of the fruit and the troubles most likely

to be encountered, especially stem-end rot.

In sections where stem-end rot caused by Phomopsis, which readily

develops at temperatures of 50° to 55° F., is prevalent, a storage temperature of about 32° is needed; and about a month is as long as this

fruit can be stored. ^Vliere stem-end rot caused by Diplodia—which

grows slowly at 50° to 55°—is prevalent, the limiting factors are

likely to be storage pitting, scald, and watery breakdown, which develop most seriously at temperatures of 40° or lower. For this fruit,

a temperature of 45° to 55° is more satisfactory; and the more rapid

development of undesirable high color and the increase in blue mold

and i^reen mold rots at the higher temperatures have not been found

so objectionable on such fruit as the pitting that results from storage

at lower temperatures.

Sound fruit that is not overmature or likely to suffer from stem-end

rot can usualty be held for 4 to 6 weeks without serious spoilage at

45° to 50° F., and this storage period can sometimes be doubled with

satisfactory results. However, storage for as long as 10 to 12 weeks

should be attempted with great caution because of the loss of quality

or flavor and rapid breakdoAvn after removal from storage {81).

Fruit of low acidity (0.5 percent citric acid) is not considered to be

of good storage quality, and probably for this reason midseason fruit
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

generally keeps better than late-pickecl fruit. Weak or overmature

îruit requires close watching from the time it is removed ±rom tne

tree, regardless of storage conditions. ^^ ., ,^ ^^^-ç^r>..;^

The percentage of stem-end rot m Florida and Texas gi^apetruit

will be greatly reduced if the fruit is properly treated with borax,

sodimn metabbrate, or Dowicide A-hexamine; pulled from the tree

mstead of being clipped (199) ; and precooled before being shipped.

The disbuttoning that may occur during handling and packing is also

effective in reducing loss from stem-end rot. As compared with stemend rot, blue mold and green mold rots are relatively less important

on Florida grapefruit in storage. Stem-end rot is not known to

occur on California and Arizona gi-apefruit. . i ^

The use of diphenyl-treated box liners has proved advantageous m

controlling decav found at the market. ^ / .^x T- T ^

For a description of diseases of grapefruit, see {139). J^or a digest

of literature on grapefruit storage, see Bibliographical Bulletin 13

(See also 18,46.66,160,161,198,199,200.)

Grapes

Vinifera

(Temperature, 30° to 81° F.; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Large quantities of the European, or vinifera, grapes, grown principally in (California, are stored every year. The most important of the

varieties stored are limperor and Ohanez (Almeria). Olivette de

Vendemain, Malaga, Sultanina (Thompson Seedless), Cornichon, and

Alphonse Lavallee (Eibier) are also stored occasionally. Largely because of their high sugar content, all these grapes have freezing points

that are lower than the freezing points of any other important fresh

fruit. Although for most varieties there is no danger of freezing injury at temperatures as low as 28° F. {21), they are usually held at

temperatures of 30° to 31°.

Grapes should be well matured when harvested, since they do not

ripen after harvest as do apples. Picking should not be delayed after

full maturity has been reached. Rapid cooling is essential. Grapes are

sometimes precooled before being stored, but most of the volume goes

directly into storage, where adequate refrigeration and air movement

are essential. Air volumes of 4,000 to 6,000 cubic feet ])er minute

( c. f. m. ) per carload are recommended for the first 24 to 36 hours for

rapid cooling, after which the volume is reduced to prevent wilting ; but

some air movement is needed to insure a uniform temperature. Air

velocities of lOo to 150 c. f. m. in the aisles are not uncommon ; and under these conditions, a relative humidity of about 90 percent is desirable. If the room does not have forced-air circulation, humidities of

85 to 88 percent may suffice.

Most California grapes are stored in display-type, lidded lugs. The

older sawdust pack in chests or lugs is still used to a limited extent.

Only good, sound fruit should be selected for storage. Heavy rains

prior to harvest favor infection by decav organisms; therefore the

best storage quality is obtained in seasons with dry weather before and

during harvest. Fruit injured in harvesting and handling should be

removed during packing. Varieties differ in keeping quality. The

l3est storage varieties, when properly handled, can be held 3 to 6 months
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 23

in Storage at 30° to 31° F. Emperor, Olianez, and Alphonse Lavallee

(Kibier) belong to this group.

Treating grapes with sulfur dioxide has helped to reduce spoilage

m storage. The common practice is to fumigate with concentrations of

about 1 percent of sulfur dioxide before storage and to refumigate with

about 0.2 percent of the gas at intervals of 1 week to 10 days. Under

these conditions fruit has been held fully as long in the display-type

lugs as in the more expensive sawdust packs. When fruit packed in

display lugs cannot be refumigated in storage, 5 grams of sodium bisulfite IS often added to the pads before packing, and this is followed by

the usual prestorage fumigation. Mixing 5 grams of sodium bisulfite

(per lug, chest,^ or keg) with the sawdust used in packing grapes has

also been effective in checking decay. When grapes are shipped with

the intention of storing them, they should be fumigated before shipment, since during picking and packing the grapes may be sufficiently

injured to allow the entrance of mold that will cause decay unless it is

killed by fumigation. In plants used exclusively for grape storage,

the fumigating gas is often introduced into the air system, tlius insuring even distribution.

(See7,^i,ii5,ii7.)

American

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

The eastern, or American, varieties of grapes, the most important of

which is Concord, are not adapted to long storage ; they hold up well

under storage conditions for only 3 or 4 weeks at the most, depending

on the variety. After that, they begin to deteriorate in flavor, and

considerable decay may develop if the temperature is not kept close to

32° F. Catawba grapes keep better than most other eastern varieties

and, if in good condition when stored, can be held for 3 to 8 weeks even

in common storage in the districts where this variety is grown on a

commercial scale. Eastern grapes are not fumigated with sulfur dioxide because of their susceptibility to injury.

Too low humidity is undesirable for grapes, since it causes shriveling, especially of the stems. Stock intended for storage should be handled carefully to prevent cracking of the berries or loosening at the cap

stem, because such injuries allow juice to exude and thus furnish conditions favorable to incipient decay.

Muscadine grapes are shipped only short distances if at all and

are not known to be held in cold storage anywhere in conmiercial

quantities.

(See6,9S.)

Lemons

(Temperature: 55'' to 58° F. during storage at point of origin; 50° to 55° on

arrival at market. Relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Lemons are picked during any month of the year, but the bulk are

picked during the winter months when consumption is relatively light.

Fortunately, fruits picked during this time have the capacity to endure storage and are even improved by it, so that they are better able

to withstand shipping and marketing operations. Most lemons when

harvested are not ready for immediate consumption but need conditioning to develop color, juice content, and flavor. This is customarily

done in air-conditioned, refrigerated warehouses maintained at 55°

292239°—54 4
24 AGRICULTURE HAXDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

to 58° F. with a relative humidity of 85 to 90 percent. Under these

conditions lemons should keep 1 to 4 montli-. Experience has shown

that at temperatures much below 58°, pitting, staining of the membranes separating the segments, and red blotch develop. Temperatures higher than this favor the growth of decay or^'anisnis and

otherwise shorten the storage life. Lemons that are of proper size

and dark-green color when picked have the longest storage lite.

Tree-ripened fruit does not keep well in storage. Lemons from different production areas have different keeping qualities (100),

On arrival at distant markets the fruit is less capable of withstanding decav organisms such as Ijhie mold, oreen mokh and alternaría

rots; and tests (;';) show that there is risk of considerable spoilage if

lemons are stored for more than a few weeks. Only lemons of strong

st(jracre potential should be held at terminal storages for more than

a few da vs. Strong stock mav be held at any convenient temperature

from 32''* to 55° F. for less than 4 weeks, but for longer periods a temperature of 50° to 55° should be used. Freijuent inspections should

be made during storage to determine the condition of the fruit. The

lemons should l)e removed in time to allow 1 to 2 weeks at 70° for

marketing and consumer holding until used.

It is of the utmost importance that lemons be handled carefully

during picking and packing in order to avoid clip[)er cuts, scratches,

and bruises and conseíjuent damage later by green mold rot and blue

mold rot. The fungus that causes the blue mold rot is able to penetrate the uninjured skin of lemons but it is likely to cause more loss

if the skin of the fruit is broken. It can also spread from one fruit

to another in the package and for this reason is frequently referred

to as ''blue contact rot.'' Air conditioning as now used in some of the

lemon storage houses in California furnishes a means of preventing

condensation of moisture on fruit and so decreases the amount of

deca3^

Lemons and other citrus fruits should not be stored in the same

rooms with dairy products because of the readiness with which the latter absorb odors. ( See also i). 14. )

(Seerj.)

Limes

(Temperature, 48° to 50° F.; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Preliminary investigations Avith Tahiti (Persian) limes indicate

that fruit from a well-kept grove may be stored satisfactorily at a

temperature of 48^ to 50^^ F. for 6 to S weeks, provided the relative

humidity is kept above S5 percent or the fruits are wrapped so as to

prevent moisture loss. Prevention of desiccation is very important.

For best quality, the Tahiti lime should be picked while still green

but after the fruit has become ^'fulP' and smooth, having lost the

^dnnpled" appearance around the blossom end.

Key (Mexican, or Dominican) limes can be stored satisfactorilv at

t he temperatures recommended for Tahiti limes. The preferred color

forthis variety on the markets of the United States is yellow.

Temperatures above those recommended permit the development of

stem-eiid rot, which is often a serious factor in the marketing of limes

from Florida and the West Indies. Limes are subject to mtting at

temperatures below 45- F. This condition develops soon after removal

Írom storage. Under aggravated conditions the pits may coalesce,

torming brown blemishes of various sizes.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 25

Logan Blackberries

Short storage only. See Raspberries.

Mangoes

(Temperature, 50° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Mangoes should keep 2 to 3 weeks at 50° F. and at 85 to 90 percent

relative humidity.

Nectarines

See Peaches and Nectarines.

Olives, Fresh

(Temperature, 45° to 50° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

The best storage temperature for fresh olives {118) lies between

45° and 50° F., and the safe storage period is 4 to 6 weeks. At lower

temperatures the flesh of green fresh olives becomes brown, beginning

arouncl the seed and at the stem end. Ripe fresh olives develop more

browning than green ones, showing severe discoloration even at 50°

if stored for more than about a month. Browning in its early stages

can be detected only by cutting the fruit.

Oranges

(Temperature: Florida, 80° to 32° F.; California, 35° to 37°. Relative

humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Most of the commercial varieties of oranges go directly to the freshfruit market during the winter and spring months. The Valencia,

which is a late variety in both Florida and California, is harvestecl

over a relatively long season. Part of it goes to the fresh-fruit

market, but part is stored to extend its marketing season far into the

summer.

The successful storage of oranges demands that the fruit be harvested at the peak of maturity and carefully handled during all operations ; and also that, when transported over long distances to terminal storage, it be precooled and refrigerated in transit. On arrival,

prompt refrigeration at the recommended temperature is important.

The orange does not improve in quality in storage. It is subject

to several kinds of decay and other disorders that may develop in

storage. The most common decay in Florida oranges is stem-end

rot, whereas California fruit is particularly subject to blue mold and

green mold rots {130). Decay is beiiig reduced by the use of a wash

containing Dowicicle A-hexamine {100), Stem-end rot is being controlled to some extent by the use of cliphenyl-impregnated liners.

Recent tests with Florida Valencia oi\anges {70) have shown that

they can be stored successfully with a minimum of stem-end rot for

8 to 12 weeks at a temperature of 30° to 32° F., Avith a relative

humidity of 85 to 90 percent. California oranges, being somewhat

more subject to rind disorders than Florida oranges at low temperatures, are best stored at a range of 35° to 37°. At this range, navel

oranges should keep 5 to 8 weeks and Valencias 6 to 8 weeks. At this

temperature range, however, blue mold and green mold rots and rind

pitting may occur after 8 weeks. ( See 69. )
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Oranges should not be stored with eggs or butter, or m places whe^e

it is possible for the orange odor to penetrate into egg- or Duuerstorage rooms. (See also p. U.) It is desirable that oranges^m btorage be examined often to prevent loss from the development ot pitting

or decay. After such examinations, a decision as to how ^J^^^g J^^^^

fruit can safely be left in storage should take account of the tact tnat

if pitting and decay are found they will increase rapidly aiter tlie

fruit is removed to higher temperatures.

(See 19,100,160.161,198, 200.)

Papayas

(Temperature, 45° F. : relative humidity, Sr> to 90 percent)

Papayas should be picked when mature-green and then brought to

a firm-ripe condition at about So^ F. before storage or shipping.

Stored in a firm-ripe condition at 45% they should keep satisfactorily

for 7 to 21 days with minimum spoilage. They should be kept under

refrigeration until they reach the consumer. Anthracnose is the principal decay. Ethylene-dibromide treatment during ripening is reported to control this disease ( Í-'^O).

(See also /5.A)

Peaches and Nectarines

( Temperature, 31° to 32° F. ; relative luiniidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Peaches are not adapted to cold storage. However, if they are sound

and well-matured but not overripe, they can be held at 31° to 32° F.

for 2 to 4 weeks, depending on the variety, witli little or no bad effect

on the flavor, texture, or appearance of W\^ fruit. Storage for longer

periods is usually harmful to all of these characters. Peaches lose

their flavor and natural bright color, become dry and mealy, or wet

and mushy, and show marked browning of the flesh, especially around

the stone. The loss in flavor is more rapid at 36° and 40^ than at Sa"",

and breakdown develo]xs sooner at 36° and 40° than at either lower or

higher temperatures. Such varieties as Tuskena (Tuscan) can ordinarily be held in storage for S weeks; Salwey, 4 weeks; Elberta and

J. H. Hale, 3 to 4 weeks. Belle and Hiley are less desirable as storage

varieties and cannot be expected to hold up well, even under optimum

conditions, for more than 2 or 3 weeks. Many clingstone varieties are

stored for è> weeks to a month or more before canning.

(SeeJ,5P,öi.)

Nectarines have the same storage requirements as peaches.

Pears

(Temperature 80° to 31° F.: relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Tli^ most desirable temperature for the storage of pears is 30° to

31° F., sometimes 29° (75, UP), with a relative humidity of 90 to 95

percent. Such humidities are maintained in connection with air velocities of 100 to 200 feet per minute. In general, pears undergo the

same postharvest changes as apples, but these changes, particularly in

the Bartlett variety, are more rapid than in apples ; therefore, speed

m handling and quick cooling are even more essential. For the best

results, extra refrigeration capacity with an air temperature as lo^v

as 25° may be required for the initial cooling. Obviously, close atten-
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 27

tien to fruit and air temperatures must be given to prevent freezing.

Pears lose moisture more rapidly than apples, and it is advisable to

hold the humidity to a minimum of 90 percent.

There are noticeable diti'erences in the keeping qualities of pears

from different production areas. Those from relatively cool areas

generally have a shorter life. Pears to be stored after shipment should

be precooled. If picked when too immature, pears are subject to wilting and scald ; core breakdown is commonly found in pears picked too

late in the harvest period.

The best ripening temperature for all pears after storage is about

65° F. {W3). At 75° to 80°, they usually fail to soften. The skin of

pears is sensitive to the fumes from chlorine solutions or sulfur dioxide used in plant sanitation. Thorough ventilation after using these

materials will prevent fruit damage.

For a description of storage diseases, see Miscellaneous Publication

168 {US).

Bartlett Pears

Bartlett pears for storage should not be removed from the tree until

the ground color begins to lighten and the lenticels have corked over.

When this variety begins to show yellow in storage, it is a sign that it

has been stored too long and will fail to ripen or soften on removal.

The frait should be removed while still light green. The maximum

storage period for canning and local fresh markets is about 90 days,

and at terminal markets, 45 to 60 days. As with apples, preharvest

sprays are being used to control early dropping, and if picking is

delayed beyond optimum maturity, storage breakdown may occur.

Fall and Winter Pears

The length of time for which it is safe to store fall and winter pears

depends on the variety and when the fruit is picked, and also on

whether it is shipped before or after storage (table 5). In using the

table, it should be remembered that wide differences in keeping quality

are often found in pears from various producing sections of the

country. If Bosc, Flemish Beauty, and Comice pears are held in cold

storage beyond their season, they do not ripen satisfactorily or they

may not ripen at all (57 ).

The commonest and most serious decays of fall and winter pears in

storage are gray mold rot, caused by the fungus Botrytis^ and blue

mold rot, caused by the fungus Pénicillium. Gray mold rot is able to

spread from decaying to sound, healthy fruit and for that reason is

frequently called "nest rot." Losses from this rot can be reduced by

the use of paper wrappers impregnated with copper (¿c9). In the

Pacific Northwest, blue mold rot, in the form known as pinhole rot, is

sometimes more important on pears, particularly Winter Nelis, than

gray mold rot. Losses from blue mold can be greatly reduced by careful picking and handling, prompt storage at 29° to 31° F. after harvest,

and the use of paper wrappers to prevent direct contact between diseased and sound fruit. .

Some control of decay has been obtained by treating the fruit with

a 0.4- to 0.6-percent solution of sodium chloro-i2-phenylphenate (<?^).

Anjou pears are subject to a scald similar to apple scald that can be
28 AGRICULTURE HAÍCDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE b.—Length of time at 30° to 31° F. jor safe storage of certain

varieties of Jail and winter pears at skipping point and alter shipment

to market {119)

Storage treatment and variety

Length

of

storage

period

End of storage period

Stored immediately after harvest:

Hardv '-

Months

2 to 3

2 to 3

3 to 3^:;

2 to :]

5 to 0

6 to 7

5 to 7

4 to 5

2 to 3

2 to 3

2 to 3

6 to 7

September to November.

Cornice. __ _ November to December.

Bosc _ ______ Do.

Kieffer _ ___ ___ September to November.

Anjou _ _ _ . _ IMarch.

Winter Xehs _ _ _ _ March to May.

Easter Beurré Do.

Stored after 12-day transit period (precooled) :

Anjou__ __ _ _ March.

Hardv September to November.

Cornice _ _ November to December.

Bosc Do.

Winter Nehs March to Mav.

controlled l)y oiled-paper v^^raps: however, oiled vrraps are not efi'ective ao:ainst scald on otlier varieties of pears ( 77 ).

Kieffer pears, if they are sound, firm, and still green when stored

and are held under the conditions reconnnended for other fall and

winter ])ears, can be expected to keep satisfactorily for 2 or o months.

If intended for stora<^e, they and other varieties should be handled

with extreme care durin^: tlie picking and packing process, because

even slightly bruised or rubbed places are very likely to turn black and

seriously damage the sales value of the fruit.^ Investigations (ol) by

the United States Department of Agriculture have shown that, as for

other varieties, a ripening temperature of 60° to 65° F. is essential for

the attainment of maxinunn quality in Kieffer pears for either dessert

or canning.

Persimmons, Japanese

(Temperature, 30° F.; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Persimmons can be kept for about 2 months at 30° F. and a relative

humidity of 85 to 90 percent.

Relative humidity,

Pineapples

(Temperature : Mature-greeu, 50° to 60° F. ; ripe, 40° to 45°.

85 to 90 percent)

Pineapples are not adapted to long storage. Fully ripe fruits can

be held satisfactorily at 40° to 45° F. for 2 to 4 weeks. Mature-green

fruits should not be held at temperatures below 50°, and even at this

^hFf^:T'VT^ .""^ f^'^'f '''^" '"'^^^"^ P'^^'t «f the green color in the

1 oL tl /''^ to develop good flavor in the fleslt after removal to

s ? ínArf*"'Av7^'V'VY"''""' '^^^'«g^ P^i-iod for such fruit at 50° IS 3 to 4 weeks. ^\ hen held at 60°, mature-green fruit ripens slowly,
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 29

but after 2 or 3 weeks losses from decay, chiefly black rot, may be expected. The relative hmnidity for pineapples in storage should range

from about 85 to 90 percent.

{^^^183,186,197.)

Plums, Including Prunes

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F. : relative humidity, Sn to 90 percent)

Plums and prunes (fresh) are not stored extensively and are not

adapted to long cold storage. The storage period, at 31° to 31^*^ F.,

ranges from 3 to 4 weeks, depending on the variety. After that time

the soft-fleshed varieties are likely to become too soft for commercial

handling and may suffer somewhat from breakdown, darkening of the

flesh, and loss of flavor. Kelsey and Wickson varieties are subject to

breakdown which is usually more severe at 40° than at 31° to 32°

{116)' One of the most important commercial shipping and storage varieties is the Italian Prune. At a temperature of 32° F., 2 weeks is about

the maximum cold-storage period for this fruit if a shipping period is

necessary before it goes on the market. After arrival at market, prunes

shipped immediately after harvest can ordinarily be held in cold storage for about 3 weeks. If held longer there is danger that shriveling,

mealiness, and internal browning, as well as abnormal flavor, will develop. Too much confidence should not be placed in the appearance

and condition of the fruit while it is in storage, as more deterioration—

decay, shriveling, and internal browning—may take place in 3 days

after removal from storage than during the wliole storage period.

Fresh prunes shipped out of storage at sliipping point camiot safely

be stored again after arrival at eastern markets. Storage disorders can

be largely prevented by partly ripening the fruit prior to storage or by

holding it at 40° to 45°, since immediate storage at the low temperature

seems to favor breakdown.

{^^^3,1^9,U2,179.)

Pomegranates

(Temperature, 34° to 35° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Pomegranates should keep 2 to 4 months at 34° to 35° F. and at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 percent.

Quinces

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F. ; relative liumidty, So to 90 percent)

The behavior of quinces in storage is about the same as that of early

varieties of apples such as Jonathan and Grimes Golden.

Raspberries

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F. : relative humidity, S5 to 90 percent)

Fresh raspberries, blackberries, Logan blackberries, and dewberries

are not adapted to storage and are usually not stored commercially.

For short periods, 5 to 7 days, most of them can be kept in fair condition by storage at 31° to 32° F. in a relative humidity of about 85 to 90

percent. Young and Boysen dewberries camiot be stored satisfactorily

for more than 2 to 4 days.
30 AGRICULTURE HAJNTDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Strawberries

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F. ; reLative humidity, ^i', to 90 percent)

Fresh strawberries are not stored commercially except for very

short periods ; 10 days is probably the maximum. Even for so short a

time as this, the temperatm^e must be kept below 40° F. to prevent loss

from decay caused by certain low-temperature fun^ri such as ^^ray mold

and PhytopJithonu the fungus that causes leather rot ; 31° to 32° is recommended. After about 10 days, sometimes sooner, the fruit loses its

fresh, bright color, shrivels more or less, and deteriorates m flavor

[201),

Tangerines

(Temperature, 31° to 3s° F. : relative humidity, 00 to 05 percent)

Tangerines are not adapted to long storage. They cannot be expected to keep in good condition for much oyer 4 weeks and are subject

to excessive loss in weight, loss in flavor, and decay.

TABLE 6.—Recommended temperature, relatar humidify^ and approximate length oj storage period for the commercial storage offresh^ dried,

and frozen fruits: nuts: fresh, dried, and frozen vegetables; vegetable

seeds: and the average freezing points of these commodities

Commodity Temperature

Relative

humidity

Approximate length

of storage period

Average

freezing

point 1

Fresh fruits:

Apples

Apricots

Avocados

Bananas

Blackberries.

o p

(})

31 to 32

(')

{')

31 to 32

Cherries \ 31 to 32

Coconuts

Cranberries

Dates

Dewberries

Figs, fresh

Grapefruit

Grapes:

Vinifera

American

Lemons

Limes

32 to 35

36 to 40

{')

31 to 32

31 to 32

30 to 31

31 to 32

{')

48 to 50

Logan blackberries 31 to 32

50

45 to 50

45

31 to 32

Mangoes.

Ohves, fresh

Oranges

Papayas, firm-ripe

Peaches and nectarines.

Pears:

Bartlett

Fall and winter varieties.

Persimmons, Japanese..

Pineapples:

Mature-green

Ripe

30 to 31

30 to 31

30

50 to 60

40 to 45

Percent

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

{')

85 to 90

85 to 90

80 to 85

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

1 to 2 weeks. _

{')

5 to 7 davs 2__

10 to 14 days.

1 to 2 months.

1 to 3 months.

{')

5 to 7 days 2__

10 days

3 to 6 months.

3 to 4 weeks 2.

1 to 4 months.

6 to 8 weeks..

5 to 7 davs -'__

15 to 20 days.

4 to 6 weeks. _

7 to 21 days..

2 to 4 weeks. _

2 months

0 p

28.4

28.1

27 2

28.9

25.5

27 2

-4. 1

2 to 3 weeks.

2 to 4 weeks.

27 1

28.4

24.9

27 5

28.1

29. 3

29.5

29.8

28.5

30. 1

29.4

28. ó

28.3

29.1

29.9

See footnotes at end of table, p. 32.
COAIAIERCIAL STORAGE 31

TABLE 6.—Recommended temperature. relative humidity, and approximate length of storage period for the commercial storage of fresh, dried,

and frozen fruits; nuts; fresh, dried, and frozen vegetables; vegetable

seeds; and the average free zing poinU of these commodities—Continued

Commodity

Fresh fruits—Continued

Plums, including prunes.

Pomegranates

Quinces

Raspberries

Strawberries

Tangerines

Dried fruits

Frozen fruits

Nuts

Fresh vegetables:

Artichokes:

Globe

Jerusalem

Asparagus

Beans:

Green, or snap

Lima:

Shelled

Unshelled_

Beets :

Topped

Bunched

Broccoli (Italian, or

sprouting).

Brussels sprouts

Cabbage :

Early

Late

Carrots:

Topped

Bunched

Cauliflower

Celeriac

Celer}^

Corn, sweet

Cucumbers

Eggplants

Endive, or escarole

Garlic, dr}^

Horseradish

Kohlrabi

Leeks, green

Lettuce

Melons:

Watermelons

Cantaloups (muskmelons) :

Full-slip

Half-slip

Temperature

31 to 32

34 to 35

31 to 32

31 to 32

31 to 32

31 to 38

{')

(')

32

31 to 32

32

45 to 50

32

40

32

40

32

32

32

32

32

32

32

32

32

32

31 to 32

31 to 32

45 to 50

45 to 50

32

32

30 to 32

32

32

32

36 to 40

40 to 45

45 to 50

Relative

humiditv

Percent

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

90 to 95

{')

(')

65 to 75

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 90

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 90

85 to 95

85 to 90

90 to 95

70 to 75

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 90

S5 to 90

85 to 90

Approximate length

of storage period

3 to 4 weeks 2__

2 to 4 months. _

2 to 3 months. _

5 to 7 davs 2___

7 to 10 days 2__

2 to 4 weeks

8 to 12 months.

30 days

2 to 5 months.

3 to 4 weeks _ _

8 to 10 davs_

15 days

4 davs

14 to 20 davs_

10 to 14 days_.

1 to 3 months.

10 to 14 days.

7 to 10 davs- -

3 to 4 weeks.

3 to 6 weeks-_

3 to 4 months.

4 to 5 months.

10 to 14 davs_

2 to 3 weeks

3 to 4 months

2 to 4 months

{')

2 to 3 weeks

10 days...-

2 to 3 weeks

6 to 8 months

10 to 12 months.-.

2 to 4 weeks

1 to 3 months

2 to 3 weeks

.do_

4 to 8 days _ -

1 to 2 weeksAverage

freezing

point ^

See footnotes at end of table, p. 32.

292239° -54-
32 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 6.—Eecommended temperature, relative humidity, and ^PP!'^,^^'

mate length of storage j>eriod for the comviercial storage ojjresh, ^1/

and frozen fruits; kuts; fresh, dried, and frozen vegetahles,vegetaOLe

seeds: and the average freezing points oj these com mod(tus C ontmuea

Commodity Temperature

Fresh vegetables—Con.

Melons—Continued ' F.

Honev Dew 45 to 50

Casaba

Crenshaw and Persian.

Mushrooms, cultivated.

Okra

Onions

Onion sets

Parsnips

Peas, green

Peppers:

Chili, dry

Sweet

Potatoes:

Early-crop

Late-crop

Pumpkins

Radishes:

Spring, bunched

Winter

Rhubarb

Rutabagas

Salsify

Spinach

Squashes:

Summer

Winter

Sweetpotatoes

Tomatoes:

Ripe

Mature-green

Turnips

Vegetable seeds

Dried vegetables

Frozen vegetables

45 to 50

45 to 50

232

50

32

32

32

32

45 to 50

(')

50 to 55

32

32

32

32

32

32

32 to 40

50 to 55

55 to 60

55

50

to 70

32

32 to 50

(')

Relative

humiditv

Percent

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 95

70 to 75

70 to 75

90 to 95

85 to 90

65 to 70

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

70 to 75

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

90 to 95

85 to 95

70 to 75

85 to 90

85 to 90

85 to 90

90 to 95

50 to 65

70

,, Average

Approximate length freezing

of storage period j ^^^^^ ,

2 to 3 weeks- -

3 to 6 weeks. _

1 to 2 weeks.

3 to 5 days2.__

2 weeks

6 to 8 months.

do

2 to 4 months1 to 2 weeks _.

6 to 9 months.

8 to 10 days _

2 to 6 months 2

10 to 14 days2 to 4 months..

2 to 3 weeks _ _.

2 to 4 months..

do

10 to 14 davs_.

do

4 to 6 months.

do

8 to 12 days-.

2 to 6 weeks 2..

4 to 5 months.

1 year

Ö29. 0

10 28. 8

30. 2

30. 1

30. 1

29.5

30.0

30.0

30. 1

28.9

30. 1

_29. 5

28.4

29.5

28.4

30.3

29.0

29.3

28.5

30.4

30.4

30.5

^ These figures, except for summer squash, represent actual commodity temperatures recorded when freezing occurred in tests. They are based on previous pubhcation by Wright {207). The freezing point for summer squash was

obtained from list on p. 11 of this handbook.

2 See text.

3 §0P text and table 4

* Green: Flesh, 30.2^; peel, 29.8^ Ripe: Flesh, 26.0^ peel, 29.4°.

s Eastern sour, 28.0°; eastern sweet, 24.7°; California sweet, 24.2°.

6 Flesh, 28.0°; peel, 27.4°.

7 Winter Nelis, 27.2°; Anjou, 26.9°.

8 Persian (English) walnuts, 20.0°;

peanuts, 13.4°; filberts, 14.1°.

0 Flesh.

10 Rind.

pecans, 19.6°; chestnuts (Italian), 23.8''
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 33

Fresh Vegetables

By R. C. WKIGHT

The recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate length of storage period for the commercial storage of vegetables

are given m table 6 (see pp. 31-32). Detailed descriptions of these requirements are given in the text.

Artichokes

Globe

(Temperature, 32° F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

The true artichoke, a member of the thistle family, is known to the

trade as the globe artichoke. The edible bud, made up of a cone of

short, thick-stemmed leaves, apparently is seldom stored ; but for temporary holding a temperature of about 32° F. is used with a relative

humidity of 90 to 95 percent to prevent wilting or drying. This

product should keep for at least 30 days in storage.

Jerusalem

(Temperature, 31° to 32° F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Jerusalem-artichokes, which are not true artichokes but belong to the

sunflower family, are tubers which, if held in storage at a temperature of 31'' to 32° F. in a relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent, may

be expected to remain in good condition 2 to 5 months. At low

humidities they shrivel badly and are more likely to decay than if

kept in a moist atmosphere. They are sometimes stored in barrels

or in paper-lined bags in which they keep longer with less wilting

and decay than if left in open containers.

Asparagus

(Temperature, o2° F.; relative liumidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Fresh asparagus deteriorates rapidly at temperatures above 32° F.

It is not usually stored except temporarily when the market is overstocked. Experiments have shown, however, that it can be kept successfully for 3 to 4 weeks at a temperature of 32^. At this temperature, growth of the stalks, which takes place at higher temperatures, is practically nil. The original tenderness of fresh asparagus,

which at ordinary room temperatures is lost soon after cutting owing

to the formation of woody tissue, is preserved at the lower temperature. Furthermore, the su^ar content, to which asparagus owes some

of its flavor and which after cutting rapidly diminishes at higher

temperatures, remains practically the same as when the asparagus is

cut, if it is put in storage at 32° immediately after cutting. Therefore, the sooner asparagus is placed in proper storage after harvesting

the better will be its condition when used. The loss of water while

in storage or transit is likely to be great if the stalks are not stood

on wet moss or other moist, absorbent material placed in the bottoms

of the crates. In storage, asparagus bunches are sometimes set in

water in shallow trays or pans. After a long haul to market, asparagus should not be expected to keep in storage for more than 3 to 6

days, although the preservation of quality will depend largely on how
34 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEFT. OF AGRICULTURE

the product was handled before being received for storage, ^-sparagus that has been precooled immediatelv after being packed wm

arrive at the market in better condition than if not so treated. ±ne

principal decays of asparagus in storage are bacterial soit rot ana

gray mold rot.

(See 120.)

Beans

Green, or Snap

(Temperature, 45° to 50° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Snap beans should be stored only for short periods. When held at

40° F. or lower they are subject to definite chilling injury, l^ittmg

develops in 32° storage after 3 to 5 days. After removal trom storage

of 3 to 5 days at 32° to 40°, russeting usually develops m about 1 day

during warm weather. This condition, which is caused by condensation of moisture especially at the centers of the containers, detracts

seriously from salability. Snap beans can be stored at about 45° for

8 to 10 days, but the marketing should be completed m 1 or 2 additional days. To prevent wilting, the humidity should be not lower

than 85 percent; and the hampers or other containers should be so

stacked as to allow abundant air circulation. If the contamers are

packed close together, the temperature may rise somewhat because of

the heat given off by the commodity, and more or less rapid decay may

be expected. If the beans are stored too long, the pods may become

moldy or slimy and stick or "nest" together. The principal kinds of

decay favored by a too high storage temperature or a too long holding

period are watery soft rot, slimy soft rot, rhizopus rot, gray mold rot,

and anthracnose.

Lima

(Temperature, 32° to 40° F. : relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Shelled lima beans are sometimes stored in quart baskets and, if

fresh and sound when stored, can be expected to keep in good salable

condition for about 15 days at 32'^ F. and about 4 days at 40°. If

stored too long, the beans tend to fade to a light color and become

sticky. Unshelled lima beans can be stored at 32° for 14 to 20 days,

and at 40° for 10 to 14 days. Containers should be stacked to allow

air circulation. Storage diseases are similar to those of snap beans.

Beets

(Temperature, 32° F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Late beets stored at 32° F. can be expected to keep 1 to 3 months

under suitable storage conditions. Either cold storage or cool-cellar

storage is suitable, provided the humidity is kept sufficiently high to

prevent wilting. Cellar storages often have a higher average temperature range than is recommended, and under these conditions the

period of successful storage will be comparatively shorter. The temperature in such storage should not go above 45°. Beets are subject to

wilting because of the rapid loss of water and should be kept where

the humidity is sufficiently high to prevent excessive evaporation.

Before going into storage, beets should be topped and well sorted

to remove all diseased specimens and those showing mechanical injury,
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 35

in order to prevent undue shrinkage because of storage decay. Beets

can be stored in ventilated barrels or, better still, in slat crates. Storage in large bulk should be avoided.

Bunched beets can be stored at 32° F. for 10 days to 2 weeks. See

discussion of bunched carrots (p. 36), as the same conditions apply

to bunched beets.

Broccoli (Italian, or Sprouting)

(Temperature, 32° F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Italian, or sprouting, broccoli does not keep Avell in storage and is

usually held for only very short periods. The best storage temperature to retain the maximum salable condition and to preserve the vitamin C content is 32° F. If in good condition and stored with sufficient

ventilation between the packages, broccoli should keep satisfactorily

for a week or 10 days. Longer storage is undesirable because the

leaves are likely to discolor and the buds may drop off.

{See 108. r£8.)

Brussels Sprouts

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Brussels sprouts are stored only occasionally, but when stored they

require the same conditions as broccoli. They should be held in small

containers to prevent yellowing and the development of mold. The

maximum storage period is probably not longer than >] to 4 weeks.

Cabbage

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

A large percentage of the late crop of cabbage is stored and sold

during the winter and early spring, or until the new crop from the

Southern States appears on the market. If stored under proper conditions, the late cabbage should keep for 3 to 4 months. The longest

keeping varieties belong to the Danish Ballhead class. Early-crop

cabbage, especially southern grown, has a limited storage life of 3 to

6 weeks.^ Cabbage is most successfully held in common storage in the

Northern States, where a fairly uniform inside temperature of 32° to

35° F. can be maintained. Many such storage houses are to be found,

principally in New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Cabbage in quantity is not usually held in cold storage because its

value does not justify the expense.

Storehouses should be insulated sufficiently to prevent freezing, for

although slight freezing does no harm, hard freezing is likely to cause

considerable loss. More ventilating capacity than is required for most

other vegetables should be provided to carry away the excessive moisture given off by this product and to obtain the maximum advantage

of the cold night air during mild weather. Cabbage wilts quickly

if held under too dry storage conditions; hence, the humidity should

be high enough to keep the leaves fresh and turgid. Bin storage is

common, the bins usually being 4 to 5 feet wide, 10 to even 20 feet

long, and about 5 feet deep. They are best separated by tight board

''REFRIGERATION RESEARCH FOUNDXVTIOX. CABBAGE. />? C^^jmrnodity Storage

Manual. Refrig. Res. Found., 3 pp. 1951. IProcessed.]
36 AGRICrLTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

partitions and slat floors for ventilation. Tiers of such bins may jj^

built as high as it is convenient to elevate the cabbage, and ampie an

space between the tiers should be. allowed for ventilation, i ne use

of slat shelves, with heads piled 1 or :2 layers deep, is considered tfte

best method, but it is too expensive when large quantities are to oe

'^ Cabioage should be handled carefullv from field to storage. Before

it is stored, the roots and all loose leaves should be trimmed away, and

damaged and misshapen heads should be culled. On being removed

from storage, the heads should be trimmed again to remove loose and

c\ f\ 171 ri ^Pil I PRVPS

The most common decay found in stored cabbage is slimy soft rot.

Carrots

(Temperature, :;2° F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Carrots are stored in fairly lar-e quantities during the winter. The

marketing period for stored carrots extends to late winter or early

spring. They are usually held in common storage m those sections

where the storage temperature can ordinarily be held sufficiently low.

In the larger markets stored carrots must be sold m competition with

fresh stock, which is being shipped practically the year around from

either southern or western producing sections. Carrots are sometimes

held in cold storage, although the prices obtained for them do not

usually justify this kind of treatment.

It is generally considered that very light freezing causes practically

no injury, but carrots should be protected from severe freezino; and

are best stored at a temperature of 32° F. They are subject to wiltmg

or drying out if the humidity is not fairly high ; for this reason, they

are more'easily kept in a well-ventilated cellar or bank storage than

in an aboveground storage. The relative humidity should be maintained at 90 to 95 percent or slightly higher.

Before being placed in storage, carrots should be topped and all

misshapen or injured specimens sorted out. The latter are especially

objectionable, because their presence in a storage lot favors the development of two serious diseases of stored carrots—watery soft rot and

bacterial soft rot. Topped carrots keep best in slat crates or ventilated

barrels, and provision should be made for air circulation between the

containers. Under good conditions they should keep 4 to 5 months.

Bunched carrots may be stored at 32"^ F. for 10 days to 2 weeks, and

the tops will still retain a fresh appearance if they are not crowded.

If cold storage is not available, bunched carrots from distant production sections may be packed in crushed ice and should keep 10 days to

2 weeks. If it is desired to carry over such carrots for only a day or

two, icing may not be necessary. Under these conditions, however,

the crates or containers should be opened and the contents loosened

so as to allow air to circulate through ; otherwise, heating will take

place, and the foliage will soon become yellow or discolored.

Cauliflower

(Temperature, 32^=^ F.; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Cauliflower is not usually kept in cold storage ; however, an oversupply on the market can be stored for a short time to await more
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 37

favorable selling conditions. If in good condition, cauliflower can

frequently be held satisfactorily for 2 to 3 weeks at 32^ F. Successful

storage depends not only on preventing decay but also on retarding

the maturnig of the head, or curd. Overmaturity is marked by a

browning of the otherwise white curd and the development of a ricey

appearance. The leaves also become yellowish and may drop off. It

has been reported (77) that spraying with certain growth regulators

has proved effective in preventing the dropping of the leaves during

storage.

During storage or transportation the crates should be stacked with

the flower heads down to protect the curds from discoloration by dirt

and moisture. When it is desirable to hold cauliflower temporarily

out of cold storage, packing in crushed ice will aid in keeping it fresh.

Freezing causes a grayish-brown discoloration and softening of the

curd, accompanied by a water-soaked condition.

Ceieriac

(Temperature, 32° F.; relative humicllty, 90 to 95 percent)

Ceieriac should be stored under the same conditions as those for

topped carrots and should keep 3 to 4 months.

Celery

(Temperature, 31'' to 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Much of the late celery grown in the Northern States, notably New

York and Michigan, is put in cold storage to supply the market up to

the period in late winter when the competition of ncAv celery from

California and the South renders further holding unprofitable. Considerable celery from the South and West is also put in cold storage

toward the end of the shipping season and held to supply the market

during the summer, or until supplies of early, northern-grown stock

appear on the market. Northern-grown celery is usually stored in

field crates and washed and packed on removal. Southern- and

western-grown stock is mostly washed and packed as it comes from

the field.

Celery is a rather perishable commodity and under unsuitable storage conditions is especially subject to watery soft rot. This disease

originates in the field and is caused by a fungus that is able to develop

to some extent even at temperatures of 34° to 36"* F. For this reason

celery intended for storage should be as free as possible from infection.

If held in rooms where a uniformly low temperature can be maintained, it should keep for 2 to 4 months. It is best stored at a temperature of 31° or 32° with a relative humidity high enough to prevent

wilting (90 to 95 percent), and with sufficient air cii^culation to keep

the temperatures at the top and bottom of the room as nearly equal as

possible. Considerable heat is given off by celery because of active

respiration, and the air at the top of a storage room is likely to be 3°

to 4° warmer than at the bottom unless special precautions are taken

to avoid such a condition. Air circulation can be maintained around

the crates by using dunnage strips between the crates and leaving air

channels between the rows. If wall or ceiling refrigerating coils are

used, fans should be located at positions that will insure adequate air

circulation. If the storage period is long, celeiy will keep better in

small crates than in largfe ones.
38 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Celery should not be piled more than four crates high in storage not

provided with forced-air circulation; otherwise, there is danger oi

overheating, even with stock that is in prime condition. It it is PJ^^^ J

to 8 crates high, as is sometimes done, the room should be watcnea

carefully to see that overheating does not occur.

Some growth takes place in celery wliile in storage, llie centrai

stalks lengthen considerably, obtaining their food at the expense or

the outer stalks and the roots. Blanching of the stalks also takes place

in most varieties that are put into storage. Some celery is trimmea

and washed as it comes from storage, but probably the larger part ib

moved out in the original crates in which it was received.

(Seei7J.) '

Corn, Sweet

( Temperature, 31° to :;2° F. ; relative humidity, So to 90 percent)

Green sweet corn is seldom stored, although there are occasions during the southern shipping season when it may be desirable to put an

excess supply of this commodity temporarily m cold storage. However, storage for more than a few days results in serious deterioration.

The sugar content, which so largely determines quality m this product

and which decreases rapidly at ordinary temperatures, decreases less

rapidly if the corn is cooled quickly and kept at about 32° F. Cooling

is sometimes done by submera ing the corn in tanks of ice water immediately after removal from the^ñeld to reduce the temperature to as near

'">2° as possible. . i . -,

Sweet corn should not be handled in bulk unless copiously iced,

because of its tendency to heat throughout the pile. It should be

packed in baskets or crates, which allow air circulation and more rapid

removal of field heat and heat produced by respiration. During

transit, containers should be kept covered with crushed ice. Ice within

the package would help to keep the corn well refrigerated. This commodity as it usually arrives on the market should not be expected to

keep in marketable condition in cold storage for more than 4 to 8 days.

Cucumbers

(Temperature, 45° to 50° F. ; relative humidity, S3 to 05 percent)

Cucumbei^ are usually held in storage for only short periods and

cannot be expected to keep satisfactorily for much more than 2 to 3

weeks. The most favorable storage temperature range seems to be

between -15° and 50° F., with a relative humidity of 85 to 95 percent.

Wlien cucumbers are held at 45"^ or below for longer periods than

recommended, surface pitting or dark-colored watery areas appear.

These blemishes indicate low-temperature or chilling injury. Such

areas soon become infected, and they decay rapidly on removal of the

cucumbers to warmer temperatures. Slight chilling injury has been

noted at 32° in 2 days, and severe injury within 6 days. If the cucum-

^THOJIPSON, H. C. CELERY STORAGE. [Refrig. Res. Found.] TRRF Fact File

Sheet, 2 pp. October 1947. [Processed.]
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 39

bers are held at 50°, little or no breakdown develops, but they tend to

ripen rather rapidly, the color changing from green to yellow, and

there may be some shriveling and surface pitting {109) J

Cucumbers grown in the semitropics seem to be somewhat less subject to chilling than those grown in the temperate zones {185). Waxing is practiced commercially, usually with a paraffin-carnauba emulsion containing approximately 7 percent solids. This treatment

reduces weight loss and improves appearance.

Eggplants

(Temperature, 45° to 50° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Eggplants cannot be expected to keep satisfactorily in storage for

more than about 10 days.

The optimum storage temperature for eggplants seems to be 50"^ F.

or slightly lower. Slight surface pitting and bronzing, especially near

the stem end, have been noted at 40^ or lower in 4 to 8 days. The pits

sometimes occur in groups that coalesce into larger sunken areas on

longer exposure.® -^

Endive, or Escarole

(Temperature, :52° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Endive, or escarole, is a leafy vegetable and under commercial conditions is not adapted to long storage. Even at 32° F., which is considered to be the best storage temperature, it cannot be expected to keep

satisfactorily for more than 2 or 3 weeks. The storage requirements for

endive are practically the same as for lettuce. Like lettuce it should

keep somewhat longer than the period just mentioned if it is stored

with cracked ice in or around the packages. The relative humidity

in rooms where endive is held should be kept at 90 to 95 percent to prevent wilting.

A certain amount of desirable blanching usually occurs in endive

that is held in storage.

Garlic, Dry

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 70 to 75 percent)

Garlic is best stored under the temperature and humidity conditions

required for onions. If in good condition and well cured when stored,

this product should keep at 32° F. for 6 to 8 months. In California,

where considerable garlic is groAvn, it is frequently put in common storage, where it may be held for 3 to 4 months or sometimes longer if the

building can be kept cool, dry, and well ventilated. Garlic is stored in

loose mesh bags, which are piled 2 layers deep in stacks separated by air

spaces. It is essential that garlic be well cured in the field before going

into storage.

' MORRIS, L. L., and MANN, L. K. STORAGE OF CUCUMBERS. Refrig. Res. Found.

Fact File Sheet, 1 p. December 1948. [Processed.]

® MORRIS, L. L., and MANN, L. K. STORAGE OF EGGPLANT. Refrig. Res. Found.

Fact File Sheet, 1 p. January 1949. [Processed.]

'' Unpublished report by R. C. Wright and T. M. Whiteman.
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Horseradish

(Temperature, 30° to 32° F. : relative humidity, 00 tu r).' percent)

Horseradish should keep satisfactorily for 10 to 12 months at 30^

to 32° F. under the relative humidity and storage conditions recommended for topped carrots. Roots dug when the plant is in active

growing condition do not keep so well as those conditioned by coJd

weather before tliey are dug. Frequent inspection is advisable.

Kohlrabi

(Temperature, 32° F.: relativ(^ luimiaity, 00 to i^') iK^rceut)

Kohlrabi should keep 2 to 4 weeks if stored under the conditions

recommended for topped carrots.

Leeks, Green

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Green leeks are crated and stored under conditions similar to those

suitable for celery. If properly liandled, they should keep satisfactorily for 1 to 3 inonths in storage.

Lettuce

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Lettuce is sometimes put in cold storage when there is a surplus on

the market, or in certain sections when tlie fall crop is threatened by

approaching cold weather. If in good condition when stored, it can

be expected to keep for 2 or 3 weeks. When lettuce is held temporarily

out of cold storage, crushed ice aids greatly in keeping it fresh. Even

when it is held in cold storage, ice tends to keep this product fresh by

preventing drying or wilting. Lettuce is generally packed between

layers of crushed ice in the crates. Ice that has previously been stored

at a very low temperature sometimes causes severe freezing injury to

lettuce if used too soon after removal from storage.

One of the most troublesome diseases of lettuce in transit and storage

is the tyi:)e of tipburn that develops in the interior of the head. This

injury a])pears in tlie held, but in the later stages of the marketing process it is frequently followed by a slimy bacterial decay which may result in serious damage. Frequent inspection of stored lots is desirable.

Melons

Cold storage is used very little for most kinds of melons. Wlien it

is used, the storing is generally done at the terminal markets to avoid

temporary adverse market conciitions.

Watermelons

(Temperature, 36° to 40° F.; relative humidity, a^ to 90 percent)

The ordinary commercial varieties of watermelons cannot usually

be expected to keep in storage for more than 2 or 3 weeks. Experimental lots held at 32° F. did not develop decay so rapidly as at the

recommended temperatures, but the melons tended to become pitted or

dented and to take on an objectionable flavor after 1 week.
COAIMERCIAL STORAGE 41

Cantaloups; Honey Dew, Casaba, Crenshaw, and Persian Melons

(Temperature: Cantaloups, full-slip, 40° to 45° F.; half-slip, 45° to 50°; Honey

Dew, Casaba, Crenshaw, and Persian melons, 45° to 50°. Uehitive humidity,

85 to 90 percent)

Cantaloups (half-slip), Crenshaw melons, and Persian melons,

picked at the shipping-ripe stage (not table-ripe) and shipped under

refrigeration, cannot be expected to keep in cold storage at the

reconmiended temperatures for more than 1 to 2 weeks after arrival

at the market. Cantaloups picked in the full-slip stage keep only

about 4 to 8 days. Honey Dew melons can be kept for 2 to 3 weeks,

and Casaba melons, 3 to 6 weeks. When melons are stored too long

or at too low temperatures, breakdown or decay develops so rapidly

on removal that they soon become worthless. Cantaloups are sometimes shipped with contact ice, but it is doubtful whether this practice is to be recommended for other melons. TJnripe melons are best

stored at the higher temperature given; otherwise, they may fail to

ripen satisfactorily. Symptoms of deterioration are softening, decay,

surface breakdown, and off-flavors.

{StQim,133,195,196.Y^

Mushrooms, Cultivated

(Temperature, 82° F.; rehitive humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Fresh mushrooms do not keep well in storage and are therefore only

stored temporarily for short periods. Deterioration is marked by

brown discoloration of the surfaces and by opening of the veils.

Freshly picked mushrooms will keep in prime condition at 32^ F. for

5 days, at 40° for 2 days, and at SO"" for only 1 day. Allowing a marketing period of 1 day at higher temperatures immediately after

storage, they should be kept at 32° for only 3 to 4 days and at 40° for

up to 2 days. While being transported or displayed for sale, mushrooms should be kept under refrigeration.^^

Okra

(Temperature, 50° F.; relative humidity, 85 to 95 percent)

Okra, if in good condition, can be kept satisfactorily in storage for

a maximum of 2 weeks at a temperature of 50° F. A relative humidity

of 85 to 95 percent is desirable to prevent wilting. At temperatures

below 50° okra is subject to chilling injury, which is manifested by

surface discoloration, pitting, and decay.^- After 3 days at 70° about

5 percent of the pods will be decayed or shriveled; but at 32° nearly

all the pods will be badly chilled as indicated by severe pitting. At

40° okra may keep in salable condition for 7 days. Contact or top

ice has caused water spotting in 3 days at all temperatures. ^- ^'^

"MosEis, L. L., and MANN, L. K. STORAGE OF CANTALOUPES & OTHER MELONS.

Refrig. Res. Found. Fact File Sheet, 1 p. January 1949. [Processed.]

"" Unpublished report by R. C. Wright and T. M. Whiteman.

"^MORRIS, L. L., and MANN, L. K. STORAGE OF-OKRA. Refrig. Res. Found. Fact

File Sheet, 1 p. December 1948. [Processed.]

" Unpublished report by H. B. Johnson.
42 AGRICULTURE H-AA'DBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Onions and Onion Sets

(Temperature, 82° F.: relative humidity, 70 to 75 percent)

Onions are lield in either common or cold storage. In the northern

onion-growino; States, strongly flavored varieties, mostlv ot the globe

tvpe, are generallv held in common or dry storage. The principal

northern onion-prbducinir States have an average winter temperature

sufRciently low so that onions can be successfully held m common

storage there during the winter months. About one-fourth ot the

onion crop of these States, however, is put in cold storage tor consumption late in the ^pring. About the first of March is considered

as late as onions should be held in common storage, because after this

time there is danger of sprouting. The mild, or Bennuda, types, such

as those produced in Washington, southern California, Texas, and

other States where the climate is not suitable for common storao:e, are

usuallv consumed soon after harvest. These onions can be, and limited

quantities are, held in cold storage, but usually for much shorter

periods than the globe varieties because of their poorer keeping qualities. Onions of the Spanish type grown in this country are often

stored and, if wr41-matured, are considered capable of storage until

Januarv or earlv Februarv.

A comparatively low relative humidity (70 to T5 percent) is very

desirable for the succe.-^sful storage of onions. However, humidities

as high as s:> j^ercent with forced-air circulation liave given satisfactory results. At higher humidities, in wliicli many otlier vegetables

keep l^est in storage, onions are disposed to root growth and decay.

The commonest form of the latter is gray mold rot occurring at the

top of the bulb, whence its name ''neck rot'" (iW). The fungus causing it can develop to some extent even at 3i^° F. : hence, onions intended

for storage should be carefully sorted to remove all diseased bulbs. A

uniform temperature of oi^^ is found to be sufficiently low to keep

onions dormant and reasonably free from decay provided they are in

good sound condition and well cured when stored.

Onions are not perceptibly injured by slight freezing if allowed to

thaw out slowly and without rough handling. In cold storage they

are usually held in bags of ^>() or 1Ó0 pounds each, which are best piled

in ]:)airs laid crosswise in stacks f» or 6 sacks high. The stacks should

be set a few inches oft' the floor on 2- b}^ 4-inch strips and the individual

stacks separated by a few inches of space to allow air circulation.

When kept in common storage, onions are generally stored in slat field

crates holding about 1 bushel, rather than in bags. Before being

placed in storage, onions should be well dried, or cured, in the field for

4 to 6 weeks, and all decayed onions or those showing thick, or ''bottle,"

necks should be sorted out.

Recently some large growers have been storing their onions in large

bulk bins B to S feet deep. The onions are mechanically harvested and

elevated into trucks which deliver them to common storages where

they are conveyed into the bins. These bins are constructed so that the

onions are cured by forcing air up through the bottoms. This method

is considered more efficient and economical than curing and storing

in crates.

Onion sets are usually held in common storage. They require nearly

the same conditions as large onions and are best stored'in shallow slatbottom crates or trays not over 4 inches deep and about 5 by 5 feet in
COMIMERCIAL STORAGE 43

some districts or 2 by 3 feet in others. The corner posts of the crates

should project about an inch above tho^ side pieces to prevent the crates

from resting tightly on each other when stacked and to allow air circulation between them. Because of their size, onion sets tend to pack

closely in the crates ; hence it is essential to allow as much air circulation as possible and to maintain a comparatively low^ humidity. If

good stock is provided and is held under proper storage conditions, it

should keep 6 to 8 months.

(SeeiÖ^.)

Parsnips

(Temperature, 32"* F.; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Parsnips have nearly the same storage requirements as topped carrots and should keep for 2 to 4 months. They are not injured by slight

freezing while in storage but should be protected from hard freezing

and should be handled with great care while in a frozen condition.

Parsnips dry out readily in storage; hence, it is essential that the

humidity of the storage place be kept relatively high. Parsnips are

sometimes stored in sand or clean soil to prevent wilting, but they keep

in good condition in barrels or crates if the proper humidit}^ is maintained. Waxing is effective in preventing wilting.

Peas, Green

(Temperature, 32° F.; relative humidity. So to 90 percent)

Storage conditions required for green peas are somewhat different

from those for beans. Green peas tend to lose part of their sugar content, on which much of their flavor depends, unless thej are promptly

cooled to near 32"^ F. soon after picking. They cannot be expected

to keep in salable condition for more than 1 to 2 weeks unless packed

in crushed ice, in which condition the storage period may be extended

perhaps a week. Peas keep better unshelled than shelled.

Peppers

Chili Peppers, Dry

(Temperature, see text ; relative humidity, 65 to 70 percent)

Chili peppers are usually picked when ripe and then dried and

allowed to equalize in moisture content in covered piles. Water is

usually added to the peppers after drying, and as a result they become

less brittle. They are then packed tightly by tamping into sacks holding 200 to 300 pounds or in bales of about 600 pounds, and are generally stored in nonrefrigerated warehouses for 6 to 9 months.

The temperature of the warehouses depends to some extent on their

construction and the way in which they are managed but chiefly on the

outside temperature. In southern California, where a large part of

the commercial crop of Chili peppers is produced, the outside temperature ranges from ÖO'" to 80° F. during the usual storage period.

The moisture content of Chili peppers when stored is usually low

enough (10 to 15 percent) to prevent mold growth; the chief storage

trouble is insect infestation. Manufacturers of Chili-pepper products

hold part of their supply of the raw material in cold storage at 32°

to 35° F., but they prefer to grind the peppers as soon as possible and
44 AGRICI'LTL'RE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Store them in the manufactured form in airtií¿:ht containers, ^^}^^

put in cold storage, the sacks or bales of peppers should be cooled

before final stacking: otherwise, they may -crawr^ Avhile cooling and

the stacks will fall down.

Sweet Peppers

(Temperature, 4r,° to on" F. ; rekitive humidity, sr^ to 90 percent)

Sweet, bell, or bullnose peppers are subject to chilling injury at

temperatures below 45° F. The symptoms of injury are sur:hice

pittincr and discoloration near the'calvx which develop m a few

hours^after removal from storage. After about 5 days of storage at

o2'', peppers usuallv show serious deterioration, marked by pittmg

and decay, after 1 day at ordinary room temperatures. For the maximum storage of 8 to 10 days, a temperature range of 45° to 50° is

recommended. This should allow :^ to 4 days for marketing. ^Yhen

stored at a temperature above 50°, ripening (red color) and development of decay are rapid.

Potatoes

Early-Crop

(Ternperuture, see text : relative luimi(Uty, Sf) to 90 r>ercent)

Early and intermediate potatoes are not often stored. However,

if need arises in the production area (usually southern), this crop

can be kept satisfactorily for several weeks in connnon unrefrigerated

storage in the locality where the potatoes are grown (85). The potatoes should be sorted carefully before storage to remove all that are

decayed, seriously bruised, or cracked. Investigations in Oklahoma

{2!y) indicated that refrigerated storage at 50° F. after a curino; period is best for the early crop. Some evidence has been obtained,

however, that if early potatoes are to be used for chipping, a storage

temperature of 60° to 70° is better than one of 50° (314), The relative humidity should be the same as for the late crop (85 to 90 percent).

If refrigeration is not available, an underground storage cellar or

cave is next best if the temperature can be held below 70"^ and a fairly

moist atmosphere maintained to avoid excessive shrinkage. (See also

05). Early-crop potatoes should always be considered as perishable.

The storage period is never so long as is possible with late-crop

potatoes.

Late-Crop

(Temperature, see text ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

Late potatoes are stored in either cold or common storage, but the

greater part of the stored crop is held in common storage (38), Like

most other vegetables that can be held for relatively long periods in

common storage, potatoes can be kept successfully through the winter

and spring months only where the winter climate is sufficiently cold.

In either cold or common storage a temperature of 40° F. is as low as

table or seed stock need be kept. At temperatures below this, there

IS a tendency for potatoes to become undesirably sweet. However, if

sweetening occurs, 1 to 3 weeks holding at ordinary living-room

temperature restores the natural flavor (^5). Potatoes should always be kept in the dark to prevent greening. At 40° potatoes remain

dormant 5 to 8 months after harvest, depending on the variety. If

It IS desired to keep them longer than this, as is often the case with
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 45

seed stock, the temperature may be lowered to 38°, at which they

should remain dormant indefinitely. A storage temperature as low

as 32° is not only unnecessary but often detrimental.

Investigations have indicated that potatoes stored at 50° to 60° F,

have better texture, color, and flavor when cooked or made into chips

than the same stock stored at lower temperatures {210)^ although the

higher temperatures are not suitable for long-time storage. AVlien

potatoes are stored at these higher temperatures, sprouting occurs

more quickly. A limited amount of sprouting does not injure potatoes for food, but it makes the stock diflicult to market because usually

only dormant potatoes are wanted. If sprouting has started it can

be checked by lowering the storage temperature {213). Commercial

sprout inhibitors are sometimes used to prevent sprouting where the

storage temperatures are too high to prevent it. ^AHien used as directed, these are effective at temperatures even as high as 70° and

apparently do not affect the table quality.

Potatoes that have been kept at 40° F. for a long time are seldom

suitable for processing, such as chip making, french frying, or dehydrating, without first being conditioned to reduce the quantity of

sugar that has accumulated. This is accomplished by holding the

potatoes at 70° to 80° until trial cooking tests show that they have

recovered sufficiently for use. The length of the conditioning period

will depend on the variety and the amount of sugar that has accumulated ; usually this will be 1 to 3 weeks.

Not all varieties of potatoes are suitable for chipping or for french

frying {215).

The relative humidity of a potato-storage house should be 85 to 90

percent, to prevent undue shrinkage through loss of water. In cold

storage, potatoes are generally kept in sacks holding 50 to 100 pounds

net; in common storage they are usually placed in bins holding 150 to

1,000 bushels or more. In Maine and northern New York, where the

average temperature is sufficiently low, the large-bin storage is used

with success, but in the milder climate of States in the latitude of

Pennsylvania potatoes should not be stored in such large units. Potatoes are readily injured by even slight freezing, which takes place at

about 29° F. or slightly below; hence, common-storage buildings

should be sufficiently insulated to i^revent freezing. Insulation also

prevents the condensation of moisture on the walls and ceilings and

the consequent undesirable wetting of stored stock, which favors the

development of decay. Common storages should be provided with

sufficient ventilation to take advantage of the cool night air in mild

weather ; this will aid in removing excess moisture that often accumulates soon after potatoes are stored in the fall, and it will also maintain a lower average temperature. It is desirable to ventilate just

enough during the first 2 weeks of storage to keep the work-alley temperature at 55°. This will result in a potato temperature of about 60°

which will encourage wound healing, or "curing." Ventilators should

never be opened, however, when the outside temperature is higher than

that inside the storage house. In addition to damage to potatoes, condensed moisture caused by improper ventilation or inadequate insulation may also cause serious impairment of the building structure {37).

Potatoes intended for storage should be handled carefully to prevent bruises and cuts; otherwise, they are likely to be damaged by

various forms of decay before the end of the storage period {135^ 148).
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Potatoes from fields infected by late bliíílit are usually not suitable

for storage, as the blight fungus will sjDread in storage even if all

obviously diseased tubers have been sorted out. If the lield infection

occurs late in the season, no evidence may be apparent on the tubers

but extensive rot may develop soon after storage. If infected tubers

can be quickly cooled below 40"^ F., the development of the rot may be

delayed for a short time.

For a complete digest of potato handling, storage, and transportation literature, see Bibliogi^aphical Bulletin 11 (J40).

Pumpkins and Squashes

(Pumpkins and winter s^inasbes: Temperature, ^0° to ~>rj° F. : relative humidity,

70 to Tr» percent. Summer squashes : Temperature, 32° to 40° ; rehitive humidity, 85 to D.j percent)

In general most varieties of pumpkins do not keep in storage so long

as the usual storage varieties of squasli. Such varieties as Connecticut

Field and Cushaw are relatively poor keepers and cannot be expected

to hold in good condition more than 2 to 3 months. Varieties like

Large Cheese and and Table Queen keep 3 to 6 months.

Hard-shell squashes, such as the Hubbards, can be successfully

stored for 6 months or longer.

All stock should be v^Tll matured, carefully handled, and free from

injury or decay when put in storage. The best storage temperature

for pumpkins and winter squashes seems to be 50"^ to 55^ F., with a

relatively low humidity of about 70 to 75 percent. A preliminary

curing at sO'^ to S5° for about 2 weeks is of benefit in ripening immature specimens and in healing mechanical injuries incidental to harvesting. Less rot will occur in storage if stems are removed before

curing.

Summer (yellow crookneck) squashes keep best at a temperature of

about 32^to 40^ F. and a relative humidity of S5 to 95 percent. Under

these conditions, they may show increase in the yellow color, pitting,

and some wilting at the necks after approximatelj^ 2 weeks, but they

are not likely to be seriously damaged by decay (90) .^"^

Radishes

Spring, Bunched

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Bunched spring radishes I'equire the same storage conditions as

bunched carrots.

Winter

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Winter radishes require the same storage conditions as topped carrots and should keep in good condition for 2 to 4 months.

Rhubarb

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Rhubarb stalks, if fresh and in good condition, may be stored for 2

to 3 weeks. The bunches should be packed in crates, which are stacked

'''MORRIS, L. L., and MANN, L. K. STORAGE OF SL^IMER SQUASH. Refrig. Res.

Found. Fact File Sheet, 1 p. December 1948. [Processed.]
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 47

to allow ample air circulation on all sides ; otherwise, there is danger

of heating and mold growth.

Rutabagas

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Kutabagas require the same storage conditions as topped carrots

and should keep satisfactorily under such conditions for 2 to 4 months.

Probably most of the rutabagas that now appear on the market have

been waxed. This treatment improves the appearance and is reported

to prevent wilting and loss of weight.

Salsify

(Temperature, 32° P. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Salsify has the same storage requirements as topped carrots. The

roots are not injured by slight freezing but should be carefully

handled while frozen. Under the conditions specified, they should

keep for 2 to 4 months.

Spinach

(Temperature, 32'^ F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Spinach is usually stored for only short periods. It should keep

fairly well for 10 to 14 days after being cut. If crushed ice is used in

the packages, this period can be extended somewhat.

Squashes

See Pumpkins and Squashes.

Sweetpotatoes

(Temperature, 55° to ßO° F. ; relative humidity, 85 to 90 percent)

The requirements for the successful storage of sweetpotatoes differ

from those recommended for most other vegetable crops. When

freshly dug sweetpotatoes are to be stored for any length of time, they

should be given a preliminary curing treatment at a relatively high

temperature and humidity, to permit the healing of all wounds or

abrasions incidental to harvesting and handling. This helps prevent

tlie entrance of decay organisms.

The curing and storing are done in the same house so that the roots

do not have to be moved after the curing treatment. When commercial lots are handled, the storage house is generally of special construction with sufficient insulation to maintain a uniform temperature and some means of ventilation that will insure the desired

humidity. Provision should be made for heating the building during

the curing process and for holding the proper storage temperature

afterward.

The curing process ordinarily takes about 10 days, during wliich

the house is kept at a temi>erature of 85° F., with a relative humidity

of 90 percent or higher. After the curing period the temperature is

allowed to drop to about 55'', with a humidity of 85 to 90 percent.

Short periods of a few hours at temperatures somewhat lower than

55"" need not cause alarm, but longer periods of low temperature should
48 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

relop at tempera

given {86, 87, 9^, 96,131^192). Noncurecl sweetpotatoes are more susceptible to cold injmy or chilling than cured ones. Xoncured roots

left at a temperature of 50^ or lower for only a few days may be

seriously damaged, principally by pitting. There is a varietal clitference in sensitivitv to low temperatures. The Bip^ Stem Jersey, l^ittJe

Stem Jersey, Orange Little Stem, and Maryland ( iolden are the most

sensitive commercial varieties, followed by Xancy PTall, and the Torto

Rico is most resistant.^^ The general symptoms of cold injury are

increased decay and internal discoloration which may show up betöre

or after cooking. Under the recommended conditions, properly cured

stock should keep satisfactorily for 4 to 6 months. ^ ^ Only well-matured stock that is free from mechanical injury or

decay should be stored. Sweetpotatoes are usually stored m slat crates

of about a bushel capacity or in bushel baskets. Shallow bins are sometimes used. The roots should be handled as little as possible during

storage.

Sweetpotatoes are frequently waxed to improve their market appearance. It is not advisable to wax the roots that are to be stored,

however, as this may increase susceptibility to decay. The wax treatment should be delayed until they are being prepared for the market.

Tomatoes

(Temperature: Ripe, 50° F.; mature-green, r>5° to 70°. Relative humidity, 85 to

90 percent)

Ripe tomatoes are held in storage only temporarily and, except for

short storage (3 to 5 days), should not be stored at temperatures lower

than öO"" F. At 50"^, if not already soft ripe, they may keep in good

condition for 8 to 12 days ; at temperatures lower than this, they sometimes show a tendency to break down.

Except for local use, only tomatoes in the mature-green state are

usually shipped to large markets where they are ripened and repacked

for consumer use. For satisfactory ripening they should be held at

a temperature of 55° F. or above. At 55° they will ripen slowly and remain in good salable condition for 2 to 6 weeks. They may be ripened

rather rapidly at 70° for immediate demand, but a temperature range

of 60° to 65° is preferable and is used most by the industry. At this

range ripening is slower than at 70° or above, but the fruit is firmer

when ripe and usually has less loss from decay. The relative humidity

for storage and ripening should be 85 to 90 percent.

Storage or ripening temperatures lower than those given may

weaken the fruit and therefore encourage decay. Short exposures of

3 to 5 days at 32° to 40° F. may cause little or no injury, but longer exposures may inhibit ripening and increase decay in proportion to the

exposure time.

(See 98.99.13k. H7.185,209,211.)

^ Unpublished data by J. S. Cooley.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 49

Turnips

(Temperature, 32° F. ; relative humidity, 90 to 95 percent)

Turnips require the same storage conditions as topped carrots, except that the rehitive humidity need not be so high. They can be

expected to keep for 4 to 5 months.

Vegetable Seeds

(Temperature, 32° to 50** F. ; relative humidity, 50 to 65 percent)

Successful seed storage requires a comparatively low temperature

and relative humidity to prolong viability. A storage temperature of

32'' F. is most desirable, but 50"^ is satisfactory for practical purposes

provided the relative humidity can be kept at near 50 percent. Under

these conditions most seeds will keep a year, and some kinds much

longer.

A combination of high temperature and high relative humidity will

cause more rapid loss of viability than the same temperature with a

low relative humidity. At the higher relative humidity seeds take up

moisture, and this speeds the changes that finally lead to loss of viability. If it is impractical to maintain the desired low humidity, the

seeds while still sufficiently dry should be sealed in airtight containers.

There is considerable inherent variation in the storage life of different

kinds of vegetable seed.

(See 75, Í7^, 775.)

Dried Fruits and Vegetables

Dried fruits differ from dried vegetables in that dried fruits contain

15 to 25 percent moisture and a high percentage of sugar whereas vegetables contain 8 percent or less moisture and a low sugar content. Preservation of quality in dried fruits depends on a relatively low storage

temperature. This is not so marked with dried vegetables, but these

also deteriorate at high temperatures and undoubtedly retain their

quality longer at low temperatures.

For the preservation of natural color in storage, dried fruits that

are not subject to sugaring may be held at about 26*" F. without humidity control or at 32^ to 40^ with a relative humidity of close to 55

percent. A storage temperature of 32^ is superior to 40° in preventing

browning, in retaining ascorbic acid and carotene, and in retaining

sulfur dioxide when it has been used to retain color. In general, dried

fruits should keep for a year at 32° and for 6 to 8 months at 40°. For

storage of dates, see p. 20.

Dried apples, figs, peaches, and pears stored at 40° F. are subject to

browning after 5 to 8 months of storage. Apples and prunes at 32° can

tolerate a relative humidity as high as 75 to 80 percent, but at 40° mold

develops at this humidity. In most products a humidity above 55 percent at 40° permits mold growth because of the moisture absorbed.

With raisins, low humidity is more important than low temperature.

They usually contain 15 to 20 percent moisture. For long-time storage (more than a year), a lower moisture content helps prevent sugaring. Clingstone i>eaches if dehydrated after scalding keep better

than freestone peaches. At 40° with a moderate humidity, freestones

pick up too much moisture and tend to darken.
50 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Dried or dehydrated vegetables in airtight containers should keep

for about a year at 68° to 70° F. If the containers are not ^lii'tigm

the temperature should be kept at 50° or below to delay deterioration

and also to prevent insect infestation. Under these conditions tne

relative humidity should be kept at about 70 percent to prevent aosorption of moisture (i,^). i • i -p >

Wlien nonventilated packages, such as those used tor clriea iruit

and dates, are removed from cold rooms, sweating occurs mostly on

the outside of the package and the moisture can be prevented irom

penetrating into the fruit by allowing the packages to warm up before they are opened {12).

Frozen Fruits and Vegetables

Frozen fruits can be held at -10° F. for a period of about 6 to 12

months. For a shorter period, up to 6 months, a temperature ot 0°

would probably be satisfactory. . i .

For the freezing of fruits, a temperature of 0° F. or lower is desirable when in small containers and barrels. If freezing takes place

too slowly, the same undesirable conditions nlay develop that are encountered if the fruit is stored at too high a temperature after being

frozen. For best results, frozen fruits should be held m airtight

containers.

The best temperature for freezing vegetables is from -10° to

-5° F. For storage after freezing, -10° to 0° is satisfactory, and

containers may be compactly stacked. If frozen vegetables are to be

kept as long as a year, a temperature of —10° would be preferable

toO°.

(See 22, 30, 35, 82,176,180.)

Nuts

Much of the commercial nut crop, including walnuts of all kinds,

filberts, almonds, Brazil nuts, peanuts, and sometimes pecans, is usually held in ordinary unrefrigerated warehouse storage through the

winter following harvest. The part of the crop (except pecans) that

is to be kept through the next summer should be placed in cold storage early in March. Some kinds of nuts are frequently stored from

one harvest to the next. Pecans become stale and rancid much sooner

than most other kinds of nuts, and it is safer to put them in cold storage at 32° F. soon after harvest. Brazil nuts can usually be kept satisfactorily in warehouse storage during the winter, but any that are

to be held over the summer should be stored at 32° before warm

weather. Brazil nuts especially should be carefully inspected before

being accepted for storage, to make certain that they are well dried,

or cured, and free from decay. Walnuts, filberts, and almonds usually

need not be stored below 10° to 45°. Chestnuts are rarely held in any

way other than in cold storage at 32° to 40°, preferably 32°, with a

relative humidity of about 85 percent.

Shelled and unshelled peanuts can be held at common warehouse

temperature during the winter; but during spring and summer,

shelled peanuts should be kept in cold storage both for protection

against insects and to prevent development of rancidity. Some manufacturers of peanut products find it most satisfactory to shell their

entire year's supply in the fall and store it at about 32° F. If cold
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 51

storage is not available, common storage can be used ; but the peanuts

should be stored m the shell, otherwise they are likely to darken and

become rancid. In common storage, care should be taken to prevent

mfestation by insects. Fumigation is desirable for both shelled and

unshelled peanuts if they are to be held in common storage during

the summer. Freezing damage has been reported in newly harvested

peanuts high in moisture, but there is no evidence of such damage in

well-dried nuts having 6 percent or less moisture.

All varieties of nuts keep better unshelled than shelled, unless the

kernels can be sealed in vacuum, which permits them to be kept even

longer than in the shell. Generally, nut kernels should be stored at

32° F. Cashew nuts usually arrive in this country sealed in cans with

an inert gas. These and other nuts so packed keep longer at 32° to 40°

than at room temperature.

Nuts should not be stored with foods having pronounced odors such

as apples, onions, or potatoes. Pecans are especially susceptible to

ammonia injury which causes severe discoloration of the kernels.

The relative humidity of the storage room should be 65 to 75 percent for most kinds. At higher humidities there is a possibility

of mold growth, and at lower humidities there is undue drvinp;.

(See 16,172, W6,) ^ ^

(See also table 6, p. 31.)

Florist and Nursery Stocks

By T. M. WHITEMAN

The recommended temperature, relative humidity, and approximate length of storage period for cut flowers, florist greens, and cuttings are given in table 7, Further details of storage requirements

are given in the text. Storage and packing recommendations and

related information for rhizomes, tubers, roots, bulbs, corms, and

nursery stocks are given in table 8.

Cut Flowers

In the storage of cut flowers, at least four viewpoints should be considered—that of the grower, the wholesale commission man, the retailer, and the consumer.

Many growers have one or more storage rooms (possibly kept at

about 45° to 50° F.), which they use for holding the cut blooms in good

condition until enough stock has accumulated to warrant shipment.

As a rule, this would not take more than 24 hours. If a grower is interested in longer storage, he should have a separate room kept at a

temperature considered minimum for the particular crop.

The wholesale commission man is interested in turning over the

stock as soon as possible ; this involves holding it for only a few hours

to a few days. He often has two or more refrigerated rooms providing

temperatures of 33° to 35° and of 40° F.

The retailer is interested in moving flowers to his customers as

rapidly as possible. Because of his short-storage viewpoint, he sometimes buys in quantity the quick-moving items used in maintaining

the necessary store displays. However, he should avoid buying so

heavily that his storage facilities are overtaxed, necessitating keeping

at room temperature stock that should be refrigerated, or risking in-
52 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

jury to stored stock by crowding. The retailer usually lias at least one

display refrigerator and, frequently, additional refrigerated space in

conjunction with this; or he may have a separate walk-in refrigerated

box. The temperature controls of these refrigeration units should be

adjusted as often as necessary to take care of the entrance of warm

air during periods of most frequent use. The most desirable temperature to use IS about 40*=^ F.

Consumers, of course, prefer flowers that are freshly cut. Cut

flowers should therefore be kept for the shortest possible storage

periods, to meet this customer requirement.

TABLE 7.—Recommended temperature, relative humiditij, and approximate length oj storage period jor cut floioers, florist greens, and cuttings

Commodity

Temperature ^

Approximate

length of

storage period

Cut flowers: 2

Acacia

Anemone ^

Anthurium ^ ^

Aster (China)

Babysbreath

Bird-of-paradise-flower ^

Bouvardia, sweet

Butterñybush, orange-eye

Calendula (pot marigold)

Calla, common and golden

Camellia ^

Candytuft

Carnation

Chrysanthemum

Clarkia

Columbine

Cornflower

Crocus

Dañ'odil (See NarciSvSus.)

DahHa

Daisy, English

Delphinium:

Hardy larkspur

Annual larkspur

Eucharis ^

Feverfew

Forget-me-not, true

Foxglove, common and common white _

Freesia

:i{

Gaillardia, common perennial.

Gardenia ^

Gerbera

Ginger 3__

Gladiolus _

Godetia 3_

Heath.

Heliconia 3_

See footnotes at end of table, p. 54.

F.

40

45

55

40

40

45

35

40

40

40

40

45

40

33

40

35

40

40

40

33

50

40

40

40

45-50

40

40

40

33

36

40

45

35

40

55

35

50

40

55

3 to 4 days.

1 to 2 davs.

2 to 3 days.

1 week.

1 to 2 davs.

2 to 3 days.

1 week.

4 days.

1 to 2 days.

3 daj^s.

7 days.

3 to 6 days.

3 days.

1 week.

4 da3^s.

2 weeks.

3 da3^s.

1 to 2 days.

3 days.

1 week.

2 days.

3 days.

1 to 2 days.

Do. ^

to 10 days,

days,

to 2 davs.

Do. '

weeks,

week,

days,

to 6 days,

weeks,

to 7 days,

to 4 days.

1 week.

Do.

Do.

3 to 4 days.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 53

TABLE 7.—Recommended temperaturCy relative humidity^ and approximate length of storage period Jor cut flowers^ florist greens, and cuttings—Continued

Commodity

Approximate

length of

storage period

Cat flowers 2-

HyacinthIris, Dutch

-Continued

Laceflower, blue

Larkspur (See Delphinium.)

Lilac, forced

Lily:

Easter

Goldband

Regal

Speciosum rubrum

Lily-of-the-valley

Lupine

Narcissus :

DaffodilPaperwhite

Orchid:^

Cattleya

Cymbidium

Cypripedium

Vanda (Joaquim)^

Peony, Chinese and common:

Tight buds

Loose buds

Phlox, garden

Poinsettia

Primrose, baby

Ranunculus ^

Rose:

Tight buds

Loose buds

Snapdragon, common

Snowdrop

Squill

Statice (sea-lavender).

Stephanotis ^

Stevia

Stock, common

Strawflower

Sweetpea

Sweet-william ^

Tulip

Violet, sweet

Florist greens: ^

Anthurium

Boxwood

Camelha

Cedar (Oregon, or Port Orford, and desert)^

Crotón, branches

o jp

33

36

33

40

40

35

35

35

35

35

40

40

33

36

40

55

55

55

55

35

35

40

60

40

40

40

40

40

40

33

36

35

40

40

40

40

35

40

50

45

33

40

40-45

32

40

32

35-40

2 weeks.

1 week.

Do.

3 days.

4 to 6 days.

weeks.

Do.

Do.

Do.

week,

days.

Do.

2 weeks.

1 week.

2 to 4 days.

2 to 3 days.

Do.

Do.

Do.

6 weeks.

3 to 4 weeks.

1 to 2 days.

2 to 3 days.

1 to 2 days.

2 to 3 days.

4 to 5 days.

2 to 3 days.

3 days.

2 to 4 days.

2 weeks.

1 week.

6 weeks.

3 weeks.

1 week.

3 davs.

Do.

6 weeks.

3 weeks.

1 to 2 days.

3 to 4 days.

1 week.

3 davs.

See footnotes at end of table, p. 54.
54 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 7.—Recommended temperature, relative hnnidity. and approximate length oj storage period for cut flowers, florist greens, and cut'

tings—Continued

Commodity

Temperaturo Í

Florist greens ^—Continued

Dracaena, leaves —

Dracaena sanderiana, cut

Eucalyptus, round- and spi^al-l^a^'í'd . - —

Fern :

Adiantum cuneat}nn [icrightiiY' . .^ - — —

Asparagus (.4. plumosus)' - —

Brake ^ 7

Dagger and woodferns (Eastern, Oregon, and

others). 7

Leather-leaf (Baker)

Staghorn ^

Woodwardia

Galax, brown and green ^ _ _

Groundpine (Lycopodiiun)'^

Holly, branch or wreaths {21^)''

Huckleberry ^

Juniper

Laurel, mountain

Leucothoe, drooping _

Magnolia

Palm:

Arizona (coonties)

Cocos

Palmetto

Philodendron radiatum (dubia)

Podocarpus

Pothos 3

Rhododendron

Salal (lemon leaves) ^

Scotch-broom

Smilax (southern wild) ^

Ti (palm-lily)3

Cuttings: ^

Carnations:

Nonrooted_ _

Rooted

Chr3^santhemums, rooted

° F.

40

40

;î5-40

:;2-40

.S2-40

32

:^0-32

35-40

55

32-40

32

32

32

32

32

35-40

35-40

35-40

45

45

45

45

45

55

40

32

40

40

40

31

31

31-35

Approximate

length of

storage period

5 months.

6 months.

2 to 5 weeks.

^ Where two temperatures are given in braces, the lower temperature is that

recommended for storage at warehouse or wholesale commission house ; the higher,

for shorter holding at the commission house or by the retailer.

2 Approximately 80 percent relative humidity. The storage periods are given

in the interest of satisfactory handling and keeping qualit}^ after removal from

storage.

3 The recommended storage temperatures for these items were taken from

Claypool and coworkers' report (25), but the length of storage period was not.

^ ^ Orchids and anthuriums should have their stems placed individually in small

vials of water.

^ Camellias, gardenias, eucharis, and stephanotis are not placed in water for

handling or storage.

6 Approximately 90 percent relative humidity. At the retail level, most of the

items are held at approximately 40° F., usually only for about a week. Most of

these are stored with the butts in water, except where noted.

^ Usually held in shipping cases.

8 (See 105 and 171).
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 55

Factors Affecting Keeping Quality

In planning the storage of cut flowers, it is important to know what

varieties and species can be expected to keep well under given storage

conditions. The best flowers for storage are normally those that have

developed under optimum growing conditions and that have received

no mechanical or other injury before being cut. Flowers of high

quality are said to be "firm" and to have 'Substance," terms which

probably could be justified on the basis of higher total solid matter,

as contrasted with "soft" blooms that usually develop under conditions of forced growth. Well-grown flowers do not have hard, or excessively woody, stems for the species ; hard stems make water uptake

difficult. In selecting cut flowers for storage, the proper maturity discussed under individual species is of prime importance.

storage Temperature

One of the chief factors influencing the storage life of cut flowers

is temperature. No known treatment is nearly so satisfactory in extending the life of cut flowers as storage at comparatively low temperatures. If the proper temperature is used, inherent high quality

should not diminish appreciably during short storage. The temperatures and approximate length of the storage periods given here are

recommended to insure reasonably long life for flowers after their removal from storage. Cut flowers for which 45^ to 55° F. is recommended, when stored at a much lower temperature, as a rule do not

keep well after removal from storage. Those for which a storage temperature of 33° is recommended naturally mature more rapidly if

stored at any higher temperatures ; if held at 33°, they develop slowly.

Sometimes the changes occurring during storage are not apparent at

the time, but the longer the blooms are stored at 33°, the shorter will be

their life when they are used for decorations. On the other hand, if

short-lived blooms that keep best at 40° are stored at 33°, the effect of

this adverse condition will appear after they are placed at room temperature (70°-75°).

If several types of flowers need to be stored and only one storage

room is available, it is suggested that a temperature range of 40° to

45° F. be used. The tolerance of the particuhir species involved and the

length of time that the blooms are to be stored should always be considered. For a number of items, table 7 gives tlie storage temperature

to cover the maximum holding period at a cold-storage warehouse

or wholesale commission house, and also the storage temperature for

the shorter holding periods at the commission house or retail establishment. Where one temperature is suggested, the range, if any, in

the approximate length of the storage period should take care of any

differences in maturity or in quality of the stock.

Humidity

The effect of humidity on the storage of cut flowers deserves more

consideration than it has had in the past. A relative humidity of 90 to

95 percent is probably too high in that it might promote mold growth,

especially if the blooms are somewhat crowded. At low relative humidity, 70 to 75 percent, the petals of certain types of flowers tend to become

undesirably dry. A relative humidity of 80 percent is therefore recommended. It has been noted that with certain types of blooms, such

as gladiolus, floret development is faster at 36° F. and a high relative

humidity than at the same temperature and a lower humidity.
56 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DKPT. OF A(.RICULTUR^>

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60 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURK

The average freezing points of some foliage or flower parts are

in the following tabulation:

Foliage : Temperature (° F.) i

Amaryllis 31. 0

Aspidistra 24. 9

Caladium, fancy-leaved 30. 6

Carnation 27. 4

Chrysanthemum 29. 6

Columbine 29. 1

Daisy, Shasta 30. 0

Delphinium (hardy larkspur) _ 29. 2

Dracaena 28. 0

Fern:

Asparagus {A. plumosus) 24.

Dagger 23.

Gladiolus 26.

Hemerocallis 30.

Holly (Ilex opaca) 26. 3

Iris:

Dutch 29. 0

German 27. 6

Japanese 28. 7

Lily, Easter 29. 2

Pandanus 30. 4

Rubber, variegated 30. 3

Violet, sweet 27. 4

Vinca major 28. 6

Petals:

Anemone 28. 1

Carnation 28. 4

Chrysanthemum 28. 4

Columbine 31. 1

Daisy, Shasta 2i). 3

Delphinium (hardy larkspur) „ 2(). 6

Petals—Continued Temr.ran>

Gardenia - ---- —

Gladiolus,-- - - -

Heath -

Hemerocallis__ _

Hyacinth -

Iris, Japanese

Lily, Easter

Naxeissus (daffodil)

Orchid {Caiihya)

Peony, common

Poinsettia

Ranuncuhis

Rose, hvbrid tea

Tuhp

\^iolet, sweet

Bulbs, corms, tubers, and similar

products:

Amaryllis

Begoiiia (tuber)

Caladium, fancv-leaved

Calla

Dahha

Gladiolus

( iloxinia

Hyacinth

Lily, Regal

Narcissus:

Daffodil

Paperwhite

Tulip

cfiven

re (° F.) 1

28. 3

28. 7

28. 7

30. 8

28. 7

30. 5

27. 5

30. 1

30.8

29. 0

29. 2

28. 6

30. 0

28. 0

28. 5

30. 8

31. 1

29. 7

27. 5

28.3

26.8

30.5

28. 7

27. 1

26. 1

28.9

25.4

1 IVIany of these figures are based on previous publication by Wright {207).

Air Circulation

In constructing a storage room for cut flowers, one of the most imiwrtant considerations is air circulation. The containers of flowers

should be set on racks and arranged so that air can pass between and

behind them. Forced but gentle air movement shoulcl be provided, but

the blooms should not be in a direct draft.

Effect of Other Products

Certain kinds of cut flowers may be injured if stored in the same

room or even in the same building with apples, pears, and other fruits.

Such injury is usually evidenced by premature withering or rapid

aging of the blooms and is thought to be caused by ethylene gas given

off by the ripening fruit. Roses, carnations, snapdragons, stocks, and

daflodils are among the flowers that are affected in this way by emanations from ripening fruit {02). Since ethylene gas is used at times to

defoliate rose bushes {106) and is known to cause premature dropping

of foliage from cut sprays of holly, it may also affect such florist greens

as mountain-laurel and huckleberry. As a precautionary measure,

therefore, greens should not be stored near the fruits mentioned.

Minute traces of illuminating gas also damage many cut flowers.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 61

Changes in Flower Color During Storage

Many kinds of pigmented flowers fade, become discolored, or develop

an off-color appearance ckiring storage, especially under dark storage

conditions. The effectiveness of artificial light in retarding such color

changes has been demonstrated experimentally {110).

Bunching

Bunching usually precedes storage and is generally done by the

grower. Flowers should be tied firmly but not too tight. As a rule,

the size of the bunch is determined by custom and does not vary much

among markets. Wliether 12 or 25 blooms customarily make a bunch

probably depended originally on the type of flower. Thus, callas and

standard chrysanthemums, because of their size, would be more difficult to handle, pack, and ship without damage if tied 25 in a bunch

rather than 12. Other factors that determine the size of the handling

or sales unit are high cost of certain flowers and their inherent susceptibility to mechanical injury. Orchids, camellias, and gardenias need

special handling and therefore are gerierally marketed in small units.

Some types of flowers may be bunched in miscellaneous sizes, depending on the display quality of the individual flower head or bunch component; such flowers include stevia, babysbreath, statice, and pompon

chrysanthemums. Wrapping the bunches in waxed paper with an

opening at the top prevents tangling of the blooms during the handling

of such species as delphinium, columbine, and lilies-of-the-valley.

Bunches of roses are customarily wrapped in water-repellent paper.

storage in Water

It is the usual commercial practice to store cut flowers with the stems

in water. They should not be crowded in the container because of possible mechanical injury, and decay that might result from such in]ury

or from insufficient ventilation. Spilling Avater on the blooms should be

avoided, since this might result in spotting or discoloration. Most cut

flowers are benefited by a freshening period of 4 to 6 hours in water in

a room temperature of 50^ F. immediately after being cut. They

should be stored at the proper temperature soon after they have been

freshened.

For overnight storage, a crojD that develólas quickly from bud to

open flower (such as daffodils) should be put in a room having a temperature of 40° and in water of about that temperature. If placed at a

higher temperature and in warmer water, flower development may be

too rapid. A special type of package foi* storing certain prepackaged

cut flowers with their stems in water has been used commercially (1).

storage. Not in Water

Experiments have been conducted with roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, and several other flowers in which the blooms were packaged

for long-term storage at a temperature of 31° F. {129). This method

of storing certain cut flowers, which involves placing them in sealed

packages where the relative humidity becomes higher, is sometimes

practiced at the production level to avoid marketing during a period of

oversupply or to hold the blooms for a particular holiday or other

period of increased demand.
62 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Prepackaging

Packing flowers for long-term storage should not be confused with

prepackaging. The term "prepackaging" applies to blooms t '^^J^^^,

packed, often by the grower, for quick movement to t^^ retailer oi

consumer as fresh flowers. Blooms so handled should be o* goo

quality in every respect. They are usually packed m waxed ^^Jf^^^i

boxes or "boats"' with overwraps or windows of a i"=»terial t uough

which the flowers show up to good advantage when on sa e. /'^ePjl^^^^

aged flowers should be adequately refrigerated during the slioit-stoiage and marketing periods.

{^ÇQl,7Ji,89.111.)

Cutting, Storage, and Bunching Details for Certain Flowers

As a rule, the proper cutting stage for the large-flowering types of

chrvsanthemums is just after the green color m the center of the flower

has'disappeared. Xo general rule can be given for pompons, since

several varieties-especially some of those m the anemone groui^-

need more de\'elopment on the plant than the single varieties. Clirysanthemums can be stored at 35° F. for 2 weeks. Longer storage is

possible, though frequently not practical. The demand is likely to be

greater for chrysanthemums currently in season than for stored blooms

that normally were in season several weeks earlier. Chrysanthemiims

are usually tied in bunches of 12, and are not wrapped when placed in

storage. Pompon chrvsanthemums are sold m bunches of various

sizes

Gladiolus should be cut when 3 or 4 of the lower buds are partly

opened. For distant shipment before storage, however, 1 or 2 of the

lowest florets should show color but should be in the tight-bud stage.

Gladiolus can be stored at 35° F. for 1 week. Longer storage is possible, though not always practical. The spikes should always be shipped

and stored in a vertical position {190). These flowers are usually tied

in bunches of 12 and are not wrapped when placed in storage.

I-Caster, speciosum rubrum, regal, and goldband lilies should be cut

for storage when the corolla is about half opened, or just before the

tips begin to reflex. Blooms forced at relatively high temperatures

should be kept at a temperature of about 50° F. for a preliminary

period of about 24 hours before being stored at 35°. These species

can be held in storage at 35° for 2 weeks.

Peonies showing color in the tight-bud stage can be stored at 35°

F. for about 6 weeks; in the loose-bud stage they can be held satisfactorily for 3 to 4 weeks.

Calla blooms should be gathered just before the spathe shows signs

of curling downward. "When the blooms are gathered they shouldbe

pulled, not cut; otherwise, the stems will split at the cut ends and curl

after a few days in storage. The pulling method separates the stem

from the rhizome, leaving no supei'fluous appendage. Moreover, if the

blooms are removed from the plant by cutting, the stub left on the

plant will probably rot and may permit the entrance of disease organisms. Pulling, however, is much easier with potted callas than with

those planted in beds or benches. Freshly cut blooms of common and

golden callas can be stored for 7 days at 40° F. Callas that have been

subjected to hard forcing should be held for about 24 hours at a tem-
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 63

perature of 50° previous to storage at 40°. Callas intended for storage should be tied near the ends of the stems and also tied loosely below

the blooms. They are usually tied and sold in lots of 1 dozen.

Lupine, clarkia, stevia, common stock, candytuft, cornflower, feverfew, common snapdragon, blue laceflower, English daisy, calendula or

pot marigold, violet, and common perennial gaillardia are not usually

held at temperatures lower than 40° F. and cannot be stored with good

results for much more than a 3-day period. Sweet violets are usually

made up in bunches of 100, supported underneath by a few gal ax

leaves. They are wrapped with a light w^axed paper and can be stored

at 40° for 3 days. As a rule, they are not stored in water.

Columbine, babysbreath, delphinium (hardy and annual larkspur),

baby primrose, true forget-me-not, and orange-eye butterflybush or

buddleia, have flowers whose petals shed quickly, almost regardless of

temperature. They cannot be stored at temperatures much lower than

40° F. or for longer than 1 to 2 days without impairing the keeping

quality after removal. A temperature of 50° and a 1- to 2-day holding period is recommended for sweetpeas. Forced buddleia is sold

by the dozen. The others mentioned are bunched in lots of 25 or of

various numbers, depending on their quality. It is not customary to

wrap any of these flowers for storage, but as pi^eviously mentioned,

certain kinds may be wrapped to prevent tangling with adjacent

bunches.

Camellias and gardenias are not customarily stored for long periods.

However, they may be kept in storage in good condition for 3 to 6

days at a temperature of 45° F.

Orchids keep best if cut just as soon as they reach a salable condition (89). They can be held at 55° F. for 2 to 3 days.

Carnations should be cut just after the petals have unfolded. They

can be held at 33° F. for 7 days, or at 40° for 4 days. They are

usually tied 25 to a bunch.

Roses for nearby markets should be cut in the loose-bud stage; if

they are to be shipped to distant markets, they should be cut in as

tight a condition as is permissible for the variety in question. In the

loose-bud stage they can be held at 40° F. for 2 to 3 days; tight buds

can be held 4 to 5 days. If they are stored at much lower temperatures,

their subsequent keeping quality is often impaired (110^ 112). Roses

are frequently tied loosely in bunches of 25 buds and wrapped with

water-repellent paper; this wrapping is sometimes loosened after 1

or 2 days' holding to preserve quality.

Asters and heath can be held at 40° F. for about 1 week; bouvardia,

at 35° for 1 week or at 40° for 4 days. For dahlias, a temperature of

50° is recommended for a period of 2 days. The flowers mentioned in

this paragraph are handled in lots of 1 dozen and are tied but not

wrapped.

Statice, including bigleaf and notchleaf sea-lavender, and strawflower can be held in the fresh state at 35° F. for 6 weeks or at 40°

for about 3 weeks. These flowers are often dried and retain their

original color and shape very well.

Common foxglove and garden phlox are not usually satisfactory

for storage but they can be held for 1 or 2 days at 40° F.

The various forced irises, especially the so-called Dutch irises, can

be held for 1 week at 33° F. (191).
64 AGRICULTURK HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

Poinsettias should be cut when they show sufficient color to be

salable. The cut ends are usually dipped m boiling water to prevent

undue loss of sap before or during the holding period. Cut poinsettias sold durincr the Christmas season usually need not be stored

for the few days between their arrival at the wholesale house and the

day of sale. If it is necessary to hold them for L> or 3 days, a minimum temperature of 60° F. is recommended. An}^ change ot environment from greenhouse conditions increases the apparently inherent

tendency of poinsettias to shed their foliage. ^ ^ e i

P^r lilies-of-the-valley, the proper cutting stage is just after the

terminal bell has lost its deep-green color. It should appear yellowgreen and the lower 3 or 4 bells should be well opened. Cut liliesof-the-valley are kept satisfactorily for 1 week at 35° F. or for 3

days at 40°^. If kept too long, the lower bells often become watery

in^appearance {189), These flowers are usually tied with foliage in

bunches of 25. It is best to wrap them loosely in heavy waxed paper,

leaving the tops and bottoms of the bunches open.

Hyacinths, daffodils, freesias, and squills can usually be held satisfactorily for 2 weeks at 33° F. or for 1 week at 36°. Tulips {193)

and crocus can be held at 33° for 1 week. Paperwhite narcissus and

snowdrops can be held at 40° for 2 to 4 days. If hyacinths, tulips, or

crocus are stored at 33° in boxes even for a few days, they should

be stored in a vertical position with the heads up to prevent any possible curvature of the stem or flower parts.

Spikes, such as snapdragons, should be cut just after the lower 5

or 6 flowers have fully opened. Umbels, such as blue laceflower,

should be cut just after they develop to a salable condition. Flowers

formed in heads should usually be cut after the outermost petals

are fully developed and just before stamens appear in the center of

typical single heads or after the center has become closed with petals

in the double-flowered types. Corymbs, such as candytuft, are usually

best when cut after three-fourths of the lower flowers are opened.

Flowers described as thyrses, or corymbose cymes, such as the lilac,

should be cut when they are about two-thirds developed. Cymose

clusters, such as babysbreath, should be cut after a few of the terminal

flowers have developed.

Experiments have been reported on the use of a plastic coating on

gardenia blooms {llf9). With further tests on different types of

flowers and their foliage, dips or sprays of such materials as water

waxes or plastic solutions may become more commonly used for minimizing wilting during shipment and storage {67).

Florist Greens

The recommended storage temperatures for most of the florist

greens available on the market are listed in table 7. These temperatures are based largely on information obtained from the trade. Practices vary to some extent, depending on the type and size of the business, which m turn determines the desirability of using low temperatures for long-term storage or somewhat higher ones for shorter

periods.

The florist greens that are commercially stored and handled in

cases (usually waxed-paper-lined) are often those that are collected

and packed m the fall for long storage—i to 5 months or even longer;
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 65

these are usually held at about 32'' F. When these greens are removed

from cold storage and placed in the regular market channels, there

is usually no further need to hold them at a temperature below 40"^5

since they ordinarily move to the retailer within a week or so and are

held by him for less than a week. During marketing, the products

that are not left in the shipping cases are either stored loose on racks

in a room with very high relative humidity, or with the butts in water.

The approximate length of storage period is not given for florist

greens because of their extreme variability. It depends on the many

factors involved including the maturity, handling, and transportation of the product, as well as the storage temperature used.

Cuttings

Storage of rooted cuttings of chrysanthemums and carnations has

been reported by growers of these crops (iÖ5, 171), No data were

given for holding nonrooted chrysanthemum cuttings, but 31° to

35° F. was recommended for storing rooted cuttings of this crop.

Nonrooted and rooted carnation cuttings were stored for 5 and 6

months, respectively, at 31°.

Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes, Roots, and Tubers

General Storage

The need for cold storage and the period during which bulbs are

usually stored depend on where the bulbs are grown and for what

purpose. It is therefore not always possible to make hard and fast

rules as to the period in storage. With many bulbs, cold storage

immediately after dio;ging and curing is unnecessary during the usual

period of use or sale, because the)^ normally remain in a dormant condition for a time even at fairly high temperatures and humidities.

When the rest period is nearly over, however, it may be necessary to

store them at a lower temperature to prevent sprouting, and at a relative humidity low enough to prevent rooting but high enough to

retard moisture loss.

Fleshy bulbs, roots, and similar products may be injured by curing

at too high temperatures and too low relative humidities. It is desirable to place these commodities in cold storage in dry or slightly

damp packing material if they are to be held for later planting. Included in this category are items that do not have a rest period and

also those that do not grow well until after a period of low temperature.

For detailed storage conditions for specific bulbs, corms, rhizomes,

roots, and tubers, see table 8.

Special Handling To Induce Early Blooming or To Time a Crop

Storing tulips {13, 57), bulbous iris {56, 168. 169. 170), lilies {162.

163,161^, 165, 166, 167), and narcissus {56, 91) under specific temperature and humidity conditions previous to forcing is being practiced

commercially. For certain species, holding the bulbs for about 1

month at approximately 50° F., early in the season, hastens flowering;

this is known as precooling. Most of the references cited give information on variations in the storage and handling methods necessary to induce early blooming of these bulbs or to time a crop for a
66 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

particular holiday. Freesias (188) apparently do not respond to precooling as an aid to early blooming. For the forcing of paperwñite

narcissus, see (194) ^

Nursery Stock

(See tables.)

Deciduous Fruit Trees and Shrubs

Altliougli many nurserymen hold fruit trees in common storage

under partially controlled conditions, some are now constructing coldstorage rooms to provide a temperature range of 32° to 35° F. As a

rule, this type of stock remains dormant in common storage during

late fall and early winter, at first because of the normal rest period and

later because of a temperature sufficiently low to prevent bud growth.

In order to maintain dormancy in late winter and spring, the temperature should be controlled in the 32° to 35° range. A fairly high

relative humidity, approximately 85 to 90 percent, should be provided. This is usually accomplished in both common and cold storage by covering the roots with moist shingletow or s^Dhagnuin moss

and moistening this occasionally. In cold-storage rooms a humidifier

may also be used, but strong air movement over the stock should be

avoided. It has been reported that ethylene gas from apple fruits in

storage injures nursery stock (32).

Rose Plants

Rose plants are usually stored in the fall for spring planting.

Experiments have been conducted (216) in which rose plants have

been held in nursery boxes packed with shingletow and granulated

peat. These plants were stored for 93 days. The best results were obtained at a temperature of 30° F., with 42 percent moisture in the packing material.

Strawberry Plants

Strawberry plants dug in the late fall or early winter when fully

dormant can be stored at 30° to 32° F. (preferably 30°) for planting

the following spring. Generally better growth is obtained with stored

plants than with plants dug in the spring. Furthermore, digging the

plants in the fall and storing them relieves the peak demand for labor

in the spring; it also permits shipping the plants both earlier and

later than is usually possible with plants dug in the spring.

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COMMERCIAL STORAGE 67

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68 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

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1935. PRODUCTION OF ETHYLENE BY PLANT TISSUE AS INDICATED BY THE

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1952. AMMONIA DAMAGE TO STORED FPXHTS AND NUTS ! SULFUR DIOXIDE AS A

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(35) DiEHL, H. C.

1940. QUICK FREEZING FRUITS [AND] QUICK FREEZING ^-EGETABLES. In The

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1950. ETHYLENE PRODUCED BY DISEASED TISSLTIS INJTJEES CUT FLOWERS.

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(37) EDGAR, A. D.

1938. STUDIES OF POTATO STORAGE HOUSES IN MAINE. U. S. Dept. Agr.

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1947. POTATO STORAGE. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1986, 38 pp.. illus.

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1950. STUDIES OF THE PHYSIOLOGICALLY-ACTIVE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS PRODUCED BY FRUITS. II. THE RATE OF PRODUCTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND OF VOLATILE COMPOUNDS BY KING EDWARD VH

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1950. PRODUCTION OF A TOXIC VOLATILE BY FLOWERING STEMS OF COMMON

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1931. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATLTRE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATERCORE.

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(42) and SMITH, E.

1951. HANDLING APPLES FROM TREE TO TABLE. Ü. S. Dept. AgT. Clr. 659, 43

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1943. MEALINESS AND QUALITY OF DELICIOUS APPLES AS AFFECTED BY GROWING CONDITIONS, MATURITY AND STORAGE TECHNIQUE. Scl. Agr.

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1952. DRYING GLADIOLUS coRMS. Florists* Rcv. Ill (2862) : 33, 34, 45,

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1948. CRANBERRY GROWING IN MASSACHUSETTS. MRSS. Agr. Expt. Sta.

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1932. STORAGE EXPERIMKNTS WITH TEXAS CITRUS FRUIT. Te\'. \^V Expt.

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1942. BANANA KiPEMMi MANUAL. Fruit l)isi)atrh Co., Equipment DeptCir. 14, 20 pp., illus.

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1951. HOW TO REDICE APPLE BKUISINO. Mich. Ajxr. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bui.

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(49) GERHARDT, F.. and ENCtOSH. II.

1945. RIPENING OF THE ITALIAN I'lU NE AS UELATEI) TO MATURITY AND

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(50) ENGLISH, H., and SMITH, E.

1942. RESPIRATION, INTERNAL ATMOSPHERE, AND MOISTURE STUDIES OF

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1941. PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON FALL AND WINTER PEARS IN THE

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1939. THE STORAGE OF SWEET CHERRIES AS INFLUKNCED BY CARBON DIOXIDE

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1951. PURIFYING AIR IN STORAGE ROOMS. K*e and Rcfrl;;. IL'O (()) : IT-LM;,

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[1953.] SOFT SCALD AND ITS CONTROL IN DELICIOUS APPLES. Wa>ll. Statn

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(55) GREEN, W. P., HUKILL, W. V.. and ROSE, D. II.

1941. CALORIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF TIIK HKAT OF RESPIRATION OF FRUITS

AND VEGETABLES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 771, 2J pp.. ilhis.

(56) GRIFFITHS, D.

1936. SPEEDING UP FLOWERING IN THE DAFFODIL AND THI BULH(»U> IRIN.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. :î<;7, Is pp., illus.

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1936. TULIPS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 372, 04 pp., illus.

(58) HAT.T.KR, M. H.

1953. APPLE SCALD AND ITS CONTROL. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers* Bui. l.'.sO.

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1953. HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND MARKKTING (»h PIACHKS.

Ü. S. Dept. Airr. Bibl. Bui. 21, lor, pp., illns.

(60) and HARDING, P. L.

1938. RELATION OF SOIL MOISTURE TO FIRMNESS AND STOKAi^E glALITV «»K

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(61) and HARDING, P. L.

1939. EFFECT OF STORAGE TEMPERATURES ON PEACHES. U. S. I^ept. AuT.

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(62) HARDING, P. L., LLT^, J. M., and ROSE, D. H.

1932. THE RESPIRATIO:? OF SOME FRUITS IN RELATION TO TEMPERATI*RE.

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(63) and LUTZ, J. M.

1941. A COMPARATIVE STT'DY OF STORAGE AT .31!® AND 36° F. OF APPLES <,R(iWN

IN THE POTOMAC RIVER VALLEY. Ü. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 77»î

42 pp., illus.

(64) and MAGNESS, J. R.

1W4. PICKING MATURITY OF APPLES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 711, 23 pp..

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(65) ROSE, D. H., and HARDING, P. L.

1941. STUDIES ON THE RESPIRATION OF STRAWBERRY AND RASPBERRY FRUITS

U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 613,13 pp.. illus.

(66) Ro.sE, D. H., LUTZ, J. M., and HARDING, P. L.

1945. RESPIRATION OF CITRUS FRUITS AFTER HARVKST. JoUr. Agr. ReS.

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70 AGRICULTURE HAXDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(67) HAMNEB, C. L., GARTNER. J. B., and O'ROURKE, F. L.

1948. A XON-TOXIC PLASTIC COATI-\(; TO IMPROVE THE KEEPIX<¡ QUALITY^OF

CUT FOLIAGE. Micli. A.£,T. Expt. Sta. Quart. Bill. .'JO : 268-271,

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(68) HARDING, P. L.

1935. PHYSIOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR OF GRIFFES GOLDEN APPLES IN STORAGE.

Iowa AuT. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 182, pp. :il8-8r,2, illus.

(69) WiANT, J. S., HRISCHKA, H. W., and others.

1952. CONTROL OF DECAY OF FLORIDA ORANGES DURING STORAGE. CitrUS

Indus. :í3 (S) : :V7, 11-12.

(70) WiANT, J. S., RADSPINNER, W. A., and others.

1951. STORAGE TESTS ON FLORn)A ORANGES, iD.-.o. U. S. Bur. Plant Indus.,

Soils, and Agr. Engin., H. T. & S. Off. Rpt. 236, 25 pp.

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(71) HART^fAN, H.

1931. A PRELi:^IINARY REPORT ON ANJOU SCALD AND ITS CONTROL. Greg.

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(72) HARVEY, E. M.

1946. CHANGES IN LEMONS DURING STORAGE AS AFFECTED BY AIR CIRCULATION AND VENTILATION. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 908, 32

pp., illus.

(73) WiANT, J. S., FRIEDMAN, B. A., and others.

1952. TERMINAL MARKET STORAGE TESTS ON CALIFORNIA LEMONS, i9ni.

U. 8. Bur. Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr. Engin., H. T. & S. Off.

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(74) HAI^GE, A., BRYANT, AV., and LAURIE, A.

1947. PREPACKAGING OF CUT FLOWERS. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc. 49:

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(75) HAWKINS, L. xl.

1929. GOVERNING FACTORS IN TRANSPORTATION OF PERISHABLE COMMODITIES.

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(76) HILGEMAN, R. H., and SMITH, J. G.

1938. MATURATION AND STORAGE STUDIES WITH SOFT VARIETIES OF DATES.

Date Growers' Inst. Rpt. 15: 14-17, illus.

(77) HRUSCHKA, H. W., and KAUF^IAN, J.

1949. STORAGE TESTS WITH LONG ISLAND CAULIFLOWER TO INHIBIT LEAF

ABSCISSION BY USING PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS. Amer. SOC

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(78) HUKILL, W. V., and SMITH, E.

1946. COLD STORAGE FOR APPLES AND PEARS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 740,

61 pp., illus.

(79) and WOOTON, L. B.

1947. COORDINATED MANAGEMENT FOR HARVESTING. STORING. AND MARKETING NORTHWEST APPLES. U. S. Dept. AgF. Cir. 759, 32 pp., illus

(80) HUME, E. p.

1938. HUMIDITY STUDIES ON NARCISSUS BULB STORAGE. Amer SoC HOft

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(81) JOHNSON, H. B., BUFORD, W. R., and RYALL, A. L.

1951. STORAGE TESTS ON FLORIDA AND TEXAS GRAPEFRUIT, 1950. U. S BuL

Plant Indus., Soils, and Agr. Engin., H. T. & S. Off. Rpt. 237,

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(82) JosLYN, :M. A., and HOHL, L. A.

1948. THE COMMERCIAL FREEZING OF FRUlT PRODUCTS Galif AZV Exüt

sta. Bul. 703,108 pp., illus.

(83) KiDD, F., and WEST, C.

1950. THE REFRIGERATED GAS STORAGE OF APPLES. [Gt. Brit 1 Food

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(84) KIENHOLZ, J. R., ROBINSON, R. H., and DEGMAN, E S

1949. REDUCTION OF PEAR ROTS IN OREGON B'Y THE USE OF A CHEMICAL

iS,) KlMBR0UG D. ""''"• ^'" ^^^'' ''"• ^"- '"'• ^^^' ' PP- f^^^^^^^^^-'

1944. STORAGE OF IRISH POTATOES IN THE LOWER SOUTH. La. Agr. Expt

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(86) and BELL, M. F.

1942. INTERNAL BREAKDOWN OF SWEET POTATOES DUE TO EXPOSURE TO COLD.

La. AgT. Expt. sta. La. Bui. 354, 9 pp., illus.
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(87) LAURITZEN, J. I.

1931. SOME EFFECTS OF CHILLING TEIMPERATURES ON SWEETPOTATOES. JoUr.

Agr. Res. 42 : 617-627, illus.

(88) and WRIGHT, R. C.

1934. FACTORS AFFECTING GLADIOLUS IN STORAGE. Joiii'. Agi*. Res. 48 :

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(89) LINDNER, R. C.

1947. STUDIES ON PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF VANDA (JOAQUIM) FLOWERS.

Pacific Orchid Soc. Hawaii 6(1): 5-10, illus. (Also in Hawaii

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(90) LORENZ, O. A.

1952. SUMMER SQUASH STORAGE STUDIES. Calif. Agi'. 6(5): 4.

(91) LUMSDEN, D. V.

1939. THE INFLUENCE OF STORAGE TEMPERATURES ON THE FORCING OF KING

ALFRED NARCISSUS BULBS. Amer. Soc. Hoi't. Sei. Proc. (1938)

36: 786-790, illus.

(9/2) WRIGHT, R. C, WHITEMAN, T. M., and BYRNES, J. W.

1940. FRUIT AND FLOWERS INCOMPATIBLE. FlOl'ists' Exch. 95 (2) ! 10,

11, illus.

(93) LUTZ, J. M.

1938. EXACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN GRAPES IN STORAGE.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul, 606, 27 pp., illus.

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1945. CHILLING INJURY" OF CURED AND NONCURED PORTO RICO SWEETPOTATOES. U. S. Dept. Agi\ Cir. 729, 8 pp., illus.

1947. STORAGE OF SOUTHERN-GROWN POTATOES DURING THE SUMMER.

Amer. Potato Jour. 24 : 209-220, illus.

(96) and SIMONS, J. W.

1948. STORAGE OF SWEETPOTATOES. U. S. Dept. AgT. Farmers' Bui. 1442,

50 pp., illus. (Revised.)

(97) LYNCH, S. J., and STAHL, A. H.

1939. STUDIES IN THE COLD STORAGE OF AVOCADOS. Fla. State Hort. Soc.

Proc. 52: 79-81.

(98) McCoLLOCH, L. P.

1953. INJURIES FROM CHILLING AND FREEZING. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1953 : 826-830.

(99) and WORTHINGTON, J. T.

1952. LOW TEMPERATURE AS A FACTOR IN SUSCEPTIBILITY OF MATUREGREEN TOMATOES TO ALTERNARÍA ROT. Phytopathology 42 : 425-

427, illus.

(100) MACRILL, J. R., NIXON, H. W., and HARDING, P. L.

1952. CITRUS FRi'iT. In Regri^erating Data Book—Applications, eh.

21: 21-01 to 21-17, illus. Ed. 4. Amer. Soc. Refrig. Engin.

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(101) MAGNESS, J. R., and P»ALLAKD, W. S.

1926. THE RESPIRATION OF DARTLETT PEARS. Jour. Agr. Res. 32 : 801-832,

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(102) DIEHL, H. C, and ALLEN, F. W.

1929. INVESTIGATIONS ON THE HANDLING OF BARTLETT PEARS FROM PACIFIC

COAST DISTRICTS. U. S. Dcpt. Agr. Tech. Bui. 140, 28 pp., illus.

(103) DIEHL, H. C, HALLER, M. H., and others.

1926. THE RIPENING, STORAGE, AND HANDLING OF APPLES. U. S. Dept.

Agr. Dept. Bui. 1406, 64 pp., illus.

(104) MAGRUDER, R., WESTER, R. E., JONES, H. A., and others.

1941. STORAGE QUALITY OF THE PRINCIPAL AMERICAN VARIETIES OF ONIONS.

U. S. Dept. Agr. (;ir. 618, 48 pp.

(105) MlKKELSEN, J.

1953. CHRYSANTHEMUM CUTTINGS. Ohio Florlsts Assoc. Bul. 281: 6.

(106) MiLBRATH, J. A., HANSEN, E., and HARTMAN, H.

1940. THE REMOVAL OF LEAVES FROM ROSE PLANTS AT TIME OF DIGGING.

Oreg. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 385,11 pp., illus.

(107) MILLER, E. V.

1946. THE SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF CERTAIN TEx\rPERATURES ON STORED FRUITS,

VEGETABLES, AND FTX)WER BULBS. Sci. Monthly 62: 173-176.
72 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 6 6, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(108) MORRIS, L. L.

1947. A STUDY OF BROCCOLI DETERIORATION. Ice aud Kcfrig. 113 (5) :

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( 109 ) and RLATENIUS, H.

1939. LOW TEMPERATURE INJURY TO CERTAIN VEGETABLES AFTER HARVEST.

Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc. (1938) 36: 609-613, illus.

(110) NEFF, M. S.

1939. COLOR AND KEEPING QUALITIES OF CUT FLoWERS. Bot. GaZ. 101:

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1939. PROBLEMS IN THE STORAGE OF CUT CARNATIONS. Plant Physiol. 14:

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1942. EFFECTS OF STORAGE CONDITIONS ON CUT ROSES. Bot. GaZ. 103:

794-805.

(113) OLNEY, A. J.

1926. TEMPERATITRE AND RESPIRATION OF RIPENING BANANAS. Bot. Gaz.

82: 415-416, illus.

(114) OVERHOLSER, E. L.

1925. COLD STORAGE BEHA\T:OR OF AVOCADOS. Calif. Avocado Assoc. Ann.

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(lir)) PENTZER, W. T.

1931. THE COLD STORAGE OF GRAPES. Ice and Refrig. 81: 84.

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1944. RIPENING AND BREAKDOWN OF PLUMS AS INFLUENCED BY STORAGE TEMPERATURE. Amer. Soc Hort. Sei. Proc. 44: 148-156, illus.

(117) and ASBI^Y, C. E.

1935. THE SODIUM BISULPHITE TREATMENT OF GRAPES TO RETARD MOLD

GROWTH. Blue Anchor 12 (5) : 6,26-27.

(118) and AsBunY, C. E.

1937. OBSERVATIONS ON THE COLD STORAGE OF GRAPES AND OTHER FRUITS

DURING THE 1936 SEASON. Ice and Refrig. 93 : 193-194.

(119) MAGNESS, J. R., DIEIIL,' H. C, and HALLER, M. H.

1982. INVESTIGATIONS ON HARVESTING AND HANDLING FALL AND WINTER

PEARS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 290, 30 pp., illus.

(120) PERRY, R. L., HANNA, G. C, and others.

1936. PRECOOLING AND SHIPPING CALIFORNIA ASPARAGUS. Calif Agr Expt

Sta. Bui. 600, 45 pp., illus.

(121) WIANT, J. S., and MACGILLIVRAT, J. H.

1940. MARKET QUALITY AND CONDITION OF CALIFORNIA CANTALOUPS AS

INFLUENCED BY MATURITY, HANDLING, AND PRECOOLING. Ü S

Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 730, 74 pp., illus.

(122) PHILLIPS, W. R.

1946. STORAGE OF APPLES. Canada Dept. Agr. Pub. 776 (Farmers' Bui

132), 35 pp., illus.

(123) PLAGGE, H. H.

1942. CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE OF JONATHAN APPLES AS AFFECTED

BY RESTRICTED VENTILATION. Refrig. Engin. 43: 215-220, illus.

(124) and MANEY, T. J.

1928. SOGGY BREAKDOWN OF APPLES AND ITS CONTROL BY STORAGE TEMPERAMOS. T^r- Iowa Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 115, pp. 63-118, illus.

(125) and MANEY, T. J.

1937. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOGGY BREAKDOWN IN

/ -. o^ ^ . r ^^^^^s. Jour. Agr. Res. 55 : 739-763, illus.

(126) MANEY, T. J., and PICKETT, B. S.

1935. FUNCTIONAL DISEASES OF THE APPLE IN STORAGE. Iowa A^r Expt

Sta. Bul, 329, 79 pp., illus.

(127) PLATENIUS, H.

1939. WAX EMULSIONS FOR VEGETABLES. N. Y. (Cornell) Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. í23, 43 pp., illus.

(128) —-—.JAMISON, F. S., and THOMPSON, H. C.

1934. STUDIES ON COLD STORAGE OF VEOETABLEs. N. T. (Cornell) Agr.

noo^ T> r^ Expt. sta. Bui. 602, 24 pp., illus. li^ornen; Ag

(129) POST, K., and FISCHER, C. W., .JR.

10;12. THE comiERciAi. STORAGE OF CUT FLOWERS. N. Y. Agr. Col. (Cornell) Ext. Bui. 853, 14 pp., illus.
COMMERCIAL STORAGE 73

(130) RAMSEY, G. B.

1930. BLEMISHES AND DISCOLORATIONS OF ^fARKET ONIONS. U. S. Dopt.

Agr. Cir. 135, 4 pp., illus.

(131) and BUTLER, L. F.

1928. INJURY TO ONIONS AND FRUITS CArSED BY EXPOSURE TO AMMONIA.

Jour. Agr. Res. 37: 339-348, illus.

(132) and WIANT, J. S.

1944. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : BEETS, ENDIVE, ESCAROLE, GLOBE ARTICHOKES, LETTUCE, RHUBARB, SPINACH, SWISS

CHARD, AND swEETPOTATOEs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 541,

40 pp., illus.

(133) WIANT, J. S., and LINK, G. K. K.

1938. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : CRUCIFERS AND CUCURBITS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 292, 74 pp., illus.

(134) WIANT, J. S., and MCCOLLOCH, L. P.

1952. MARKET DISEASES OF TOMATOES, PEPPERS, AND EGGPLANTS. U. S.

Dept. Agr. Handb. 28, 54 pp., illus.

(135) WIANT, J. S., and SMITH, M. A.

1949. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : POTATOES. U. S.

Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 98, 60 pp., illus. (Revised.)

(136) RASMUSSEN, E. J.

1937. EFFECT OF DELAY IN STORAGE AND STORAGE TEMPERATURE ON THE

KEEPING QUALITIES OF APPLES. N. H. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui.

67, 55 pp., illus.

(137) ROSE, D. H.

1939. EFFECT OF AMMONIA ON NUTS IN STORAGE. Ice and Refrig. 96 (2) :

147-148.

(138) BRATLEY, C. O., and PENTZER, W. T.

1939'. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : GRAPES AND OTHER

SMALL FRUITS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 340, 27 pp., illus.

(139) BROOKS, C, BRATLEY, C. O., and WINSTON, J. R.

1944. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : CITRUS AND OTHER

SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 498, 57

pp., illus.

(140) and COOK, H.T.

1949. HANDLING, STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION, AND UTILIZATION OF POTATOES.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bibl. Bui. 11,163 pp., illus.

(141) COOK, H. T., and REDIT, W. H.

1951. HARVESTING, HANDLING, AND TRANSPORTATION OF CITRUS FRUITS.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bibl. Bui. 13, 178 pp.

(142) FISHER, D. F., BROOKS, C, and BRATLEY, C. O.

1950. MARKET DISEASES OF FRLTITS AND VEGETABLES : PEACHES, PLUMS,

CHERRIES, AND OTHER STONE FRUITS. U. S. Dept. Agr. MiSC. Pub.

228, 27 pp., illus. (Revised. )

(143) MCCOLLOCH, L. P., and FISHER, D. F.

1951. MARKET DISEASES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ! APPLES, PEARS,

QUINCES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 168, 72 pp., illus.

(Revised.)

(144) RYGG, G. L.

1942. FACTORS AFFECTING SUGAR SPOTTING IN DATES. Date GrOWers' lUSt.

Rpt.l9: 10-12.

(145)

1948. STORAGE HUMIDITY FOR DATES. Date Growers' Inst. Rpt. 25:

34-35, illus.

(146) ScHOMER, H. A., and MCCOLLOCH, L. P.

1948. OZONE IN RELATION TO STORAGE OF APPLES. l\ S. Dept. Agr. Cir.

765, 24 pp., illus.

(147) SCOTT, L. E., and HAWES, J. E.

1948. STORAGE OF VINE-RIPENED TOMATOES. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sei. Proc.

52: 393-398.

(148) SHAPOVALOV, M., and LINK, G. K. K.

1926. CONTROL OF POTATO-TUBER DISEASES. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers*

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(149) SHERWOOD, C. H., and HAMNER, C. L.

1948. LENGTHENING THE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS AND FLORAL GREENS BY THE

USE OF PLASTIC COATINGS. Mich. Agr. Expt. sta. Quart. Bui.

30: 272-276, illus.
74 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 66, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE

(150) SHO.TI, K^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ VAPOK-HEAT AND ETHYLENE-DIBROMIDE-TBEAT^^^^

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1936. A METHOD OF HARVESTING GRAPEFRUIT TO RETARD STEM-END ROT. U. S.

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1941. INVESTIGATIONS ON THE STORAGE OF NUTS. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech.

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1940. THE RIPENING AND REPACKING OF MATURE-GREEN TOMATOES. U. S.

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U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1954