Pipestone National Monument

Geologic Resources Inventory Report

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRSS/GRD/NRR—2017/1512

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science
George Catlin wrote of his journey to Pipestone: “For many miles we had the Coteau in view in the distance before 

us, which looked like a blue cloud settling down in the horizon . . . On the very top of this mound or ridge, we found 

the far-famed quarry or fountain of the Red Pipe, which is truly an anomaly in nature. The principal and most 

striking feature of this place, is a perpendicular wall of close-grained, compact quartz, of twenty-five and thirty feet 

in elevation, running nearly North and South with its face to the West, exhibiting a front of nearly two miles in length, 

when it disappears at both ends by running under the prairie . . . At the base of this wall there is a level prairie, of half 

a mile in width, running parallel to it; in any and all parts of which, the Indians procure the red stone for their pipes, 

by digging through the soil and several slaty layers of the red stone, to the depth of four or five feet. From the very 

numerous marks of ancient and modern diggings or excavations, it would appear that this place has been for many 

centuries resorted to for the red stone; and from the great number of graves and remains of ancient fortifications 

in its vicinity, it would seem, as well as from their actual traditions, that the Indian tribes have long held this place 

in high superstitious estimation; and also that it has been the resort of different tribes, who have made their regular 

pilgrimages here to renew their pipes.” (Quote from the Smithsonian website below, citing Truettner 1979 and Gurney 

and Heyman 2002)

ON THE COVER

George Catlin’s 1836 painting Pipestone Quarry on the Coteau des Prairies. Courtesy of the Smithsonian American Art 

Museum, Renwick Gallery, Smithsonian American Art Museum

Gift of Mrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr.

1985.66.337 http://americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=4319. 

THIS PAGE

Photograph of a modern quarry in Pipestone National Monument. National Park Service photograph available online: 

http://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?id=F7D55D62-155D-4519-3E1DF0A992F7F295
Pipestone National Monument

Geologic Resources Inventory Report

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRSS/GRD/NRR—2017/1512

John P. Graham

Colorado State University Research Associate

National Park Service Geologic Resources Division

Geologic Resources Inventory

PO Box 25287

Denver, CO 80225

September 2017

U.S. Department of the Interior

National Park Service

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

Fort Collins, Colorado
ii

The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science office in Fort Collins, Colorado, publishes a 

range of reports that address natural resource topics. These reports are of interest and applicability to a broad audience 

in the National Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and 

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The Natural Resource Report Series is used to disseminate comprehensive information and analysis about natural 

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policies of the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Mention of trade names or commercial products 

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This report is available from the Geologic Resources Inventory website, and the Natural Resource Publications 

Management website. To receive this report in a format optimized for screen readers, please email irma@nps.gov.

Please cite this publication as:

Graham, J. P. 2017. Pipestone National Monument: Geologic resources inventory report. Natural Resource Report 

NPS/NRSS/GRD/NRR—2017/1512. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 372/140095, September 2017
iii

Contents

Page

Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

Products and Acknowledgments . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

GRI Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Geologic Setting and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Geologic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Sioux Quartzite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Catlinite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Proposed Development at Pipestone National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Geology and Ecosystem Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Geologic Features, Processes, and Resource Management Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Features and Processes (table 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Resource Management Issues (table 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Geologic Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Resource Management Guidance for Geologic Features and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Potential Resource Management Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Geologic History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.6 billion to 1.6 billion years ago (Precambrian): Continental Collisions and River Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The past 2.6 million years (Quaternary Period): The Ice Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Geologic Map Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Geologic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Source Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Conversion of Source Maps to GRI GIS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

GRI GIS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Geologic Map Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Use Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Additional References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Geology of National Park Service Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

NPS Resource Management Guidance and Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Climate Change Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Geological Surveys and Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

US Geological Survey Reference Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendix A: Scoping Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2008 Scoping Meeting Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2016 Conference Call Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Appendix B: Geologic Resource Laws, Regulations, and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
iv

Figures

Figure 1. Location map of Pipestone National Monument in southwestern Minnesota. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Figure 2. Geologic time scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 3. Relief map of a portion of the northern Great Plains showing the Coteau des Prairies, southwestern Minnesota. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 4. Photographs of Winnewissa Falls and Lake Hiawatha, Pipestone National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 5. Photographs of Sioux Quartzite, Pipestone National Monument.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Figure 6. Photographs of ancient sedimentary features found in the Sioux Quartzite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Figure 7. Braided stream system and schematic vertical section of the Sioux Quartzite of southwestern Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Figure 8. Photograph of calumet pipes on display in the Pipestone National Monument visitor center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Figure 9. Photograph of the Three Maidens at sunset, Pipestone National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 10. Photograph of polished and pitted surface of the Sioux Quartzite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 11. Photograph and schematic illustration of Sioux Quartzite quarry at Pipestone National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Figure 12. Aerial imagery of jointed outcrops of Sioux Quartzite and quarries in Pipestone National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Figure 13. Photograph of flood waters inundating the Circle Trail in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 14. Photograph of water in a quarry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 15. Map of Precambrian land masses that sutured together to form Minnesota approximately 2.7 billion to 2.5 billion years ago . . . . 25

Figure 16. Paleogeographic map of North America during the last glacial maximum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 17. Oblique aerial imagery of Pipestone National Monument and vicinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Page

Tables

Page

Table 1. Description of geologic units mapped in Pipestone National Monument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Table 2. Summary of features and processes associated with the geologic map units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table 3. Summary of geologic resource management issues associated with the geologic map units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Table 4. GRI GIS data layers for Pipestone National Monument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
v

Executive Summary

The Geologic Resources Inventory (GRI) provides geologic map data and pertinent geologic 

information to support resource management and science-informed decision making in more than 270 

natural resource parks throughout the National Park System. The GRI is one of 12 inventories funded 

by the National Park Service (NPS) Inventory and Monitoring Program. The Geologic Resources 

Division of the NPS Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate administers the GRI.

This report synthesizes discussions from a scoping meeting held in 2008 and a follow-up conference 

call in 2016 (see Appendix A). Chapters of this report discuss the geologic setting, distinctive geologic 

features and processes within Pipestone National Monument, highlight geologic issues facing resource 

managers, describe the geologic history leading to the present-day landscape, and provide information 

about the previously completed GRI map data. A poster (in pocket) illustrates these data.

Pipestone National Monument was established by 

Congress in 1937 to protect the historic pipestone 

quarries, considered sacred by many American Indians. 

Because of its cultural importance, archeological 

resources, and the Three Maidens petroglyphs, 

Pipestone National Monument was listed in the 

National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The 

monument’s 122 ha (301 ac) includes a north–southtrending ridge of Sioux Quartzite and a grassland 

landscape that includes a restored tallgrass prairie. Thin 

layers of soft red catlinite, or pipestone, are interbedded 

with the very hard, fractured Sioux Quartzite. 

Lacking quartz, catlinite can be easily carved into 

pipes and other objects. From 1,000 BCE to 700 CE, 

prehistoric inhabitants of the Great Plains traded 

pipestone to people living as far away as what is 

now Ohio, Kansas, and central North Dakota. The 

Yankton Sioux eventually controlled the quarries, 

and in 1858 The Treaty With The Yankton Sioux gave 

them unrestricted access to the pipestone. Forced 

onto a reservation 240 km (150 mi) to the west, the 

Yankton Sioux sold their claim in 1928 to the federal 

government. When Pipestone National Monument 

was established, quarrying rights were restored to the 

Indians.

The 2008 Final General Management Plan for Pipestone 

National Monument emphasizes the setting, site history, 

and spiritual significance of the national monument as 

a source of pipestone. The plan recommends eventually 

relocating the visitor center, other buildings, and 

the entry road, and restoring the landscape so that it 

appears as it did in prehistoric times.

Geologic features and processes in Pipestone National 

Monument include the following:

● Catlinite. Pipestone National Monument preserves 

the only recognized location of catlinite, the 

metamorphosed mudstone prized by American 

Indians for carving calumet pipes, the elbowshaped and disk-shaped types of pipe commonly 

used in ceremonies and rituals.

● Fluvial (river) features and processes. Alluvium has 

accumulated in Pipestone Creek and its floodplain. 

Winnewissa Falls, a fluvial geomorphic feature 

characteristic of a change in stream gradient, 

cascades over the cliff of Sioux Quartzite. 

● Eolian (wind) features and processes. Glacial 

erosion produced fine particles of clay and silt that 

were transported by wind throughout the region. 

This windblown silt is called loess.

● Glacial features and processes. Till, a heterogeneous 

mixture of clay, silt, sand, and gravel deposited 

during the Pleistocene ice ages, forms the oldest 

unconsolidated unit in the monument. Glaciers 

transported boulders from an unknown northern 

source into southwestern Minnesota. These 

boulders remained on the landscape after the 

glaciers melted and are known as glacial erratics. 

Examples of glacial erratics include the Three 

Maidens, a group of boulders near the entrance to 

the monument. Glacial gouging produced features 

such as chatter marks, striations, and potholes in 

the Sioux Quartzite.

● Petroglyphs (prehistoric rock carvings). As many 

as 79 petroglyphs depicting various forms such as 

people, animals, and bird tracks were on 35 slabs of 
vi

rock surrounding the Three Maidens. When some 

of the petroglyphs were defaced in the late 19th 

century, they were removed from the monument. 

Seventeen of the original petroglyphs have been 

returned to the monument and are on display in the 

Visitor Center. 

● Catlinite quarries. Quarrying catlinite has been a 

venerable tradition among American Indians for 

thousands of years, and it continues today in 56 

intermittently active quarries in Pipestone National 

Monument.

● Sedimentary features in Sioux Quartzite. Fluvial 

features such as trough cross-bedding, ripple 

marks, and mudcracks in the Sioux Quartzite 

preserve a record of a river system that flowed 

through the area more than 1.6 billion years old.

● Reduction spots on Sioux Quartzite. White spots 

within pink or purple quartzite represent areas 

where iron and manganese were chemically 

reduced and removed by groundwater. This process 

may involve microbial growth and organic matter 

decay, evidence of a changing Earth atmosphere. 

● Joints/Fractures. Near-vertical joints and fractures 

of an unknown origin occur in the Sioux Quartzite 

in sets that trend N20W and N45E. 

The primary geologic resource management issues for 

the park include the following:

● Rockfall. Potential rockfall along the trails and in 

the quarries from fractured Sioux Quartzite is a 

safety issue. Rubble piles also pose a potential safety 

hazard for quarry workers.

● Flooding. Quarries often fill with water during 

spring flooding, which may also inundate roads, 

buildings, and other infrastructure. Bridges on 

Pipestone Creek impede flood waters, causing 

bridge railings to be destroyed. Water in the 

quarries may become contaminated, and when 

dry, contaminants in the dust may negatively 

impact quarry workers’ health. The preferred 

alternative in the Final General Management 

Plan includes relocating the visitor center and 

residences out of the 100-year floodplain. Climate 

change models predict an increase in precipitation 

and temperature. Increased precipitation will 

exacerbate flooding issues.

The sedimentary features in the Sioux Quartzite capture 

a 1.7 billion–to–1.6 billion year old landscape, before 

the evolution of land plants and animals, consisting 

of braided streams dominated by sand and pebbles. 

Typical of braided stream environments, most of the 

finer-grained clay and silt particles were transported 

out of the system, so that the vertical accumulations 

of catlinite, with its unique composition, are rare. 

These mudstone deposits may have accumulated in 

abandoned channels or as a result of overbank flooding. 

When the quartz sand grains were buried and subjected 

to increasingly high pressures and temperatures, silica 

(quartz) cemented the sand grains into quartzite. The 

clay lithified into a fine-grained sedimentary rock 

known as argillite, which became known as catlinite, or 

pipestone. 

From about 2.6 million to 11,000 years ago, continental 

glaciers flowed into Minnesota from the north, scouring 

the landscape and covering it with kilometer-thick 

(one kilometer is equivalent to 0.6 miles) sheets of ice. 

During the most recent glacial episode, the ice sheet 

split into two lobes, forming a highland known as 

the Coteau des Prairies in southwestern Minnesota. 

Located on the Coteau des Prairies, Pipestone National 

Monument supports a thin layer of till deposits that may 

be among the oldest in North America.
vii

Products and Acknowledgments

The NPS Geologic Resources Division partners with the Colorado State University Department of 

Geosciences to produce GRI products. Geologists from the Minnesota Geological Survey reviewed 

GRI content.

GRI Products

The GRI team undertakes three tasks for each park in 

the Inventory and Monitoring program: (1) conduct a 

scoping meeting and provide a summary document, 

(2) provide digital geologic map data in a geographic

information system (GIS) format, and (3) provide a GRI

report (this document). These products are designed

and written for nongeoscientists.

Scoping meetings bring together park staff and geologic 

experts to review and assess available geologic maps, 

develop a geologic mapping plan, and discuss geologic 

features, processes, and resource management issues 

that should be addressed in the GRI report. Following 

the scoping meeting, the GRI map team converts the 

geologic maps identified in the mapping plan to GIS 

data in accordance with the GRI data model. After the 

map is completed, the GRI report team uses these data, 

as well as the scoping summary and additional research, 

to prepare the GRI report. The GRI team conducts no 

new field work in association with their products.

The compilation and use of natural resource 

information by park managers is called for in the 1998 

National Parks Omnibus Management Act (§ 204), 2006 

National Park Service Management Policies, and the 

Natural Resources Inventory and Monitoring Guideline 

(NPS-75). The “Additional References” chapter and 

Appendix B provide links to these and other resource 

management documents and information.

Additional information regarding the GRI, including 

contact information, is available at http://go.nps.gov/gri. 

The current status and projected completion dates of 

products are available at http://go.nps.gov/gri_status.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to: Josh Brinkman, Pipestone National 

Monument, for his overview of Pipestone National 

Monument and Mark Jirsa, Minnesota Geological 

Survey, for his geological overview of Pipestone 

National Monument during the scoping workshop. 

Seth Hendriks, Pipestone National Monument, and 

Mark Jirsa provided some of the photographs used 

in this report.

Review

Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division)

Mark Jirsa (Minnesota Geological Survey)

Seth Hendriks (NPS Pipestone National Monument)

Editing

Michael Barthelmes (NPS Geologic Resources 

Division)

Report Formatting and Distribution

Michael Barthelmes (NPS Geologic Resources 

Division)

Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division)

Source Maps

Morey (1983). National Park Service, Midwest Regional 

Office.

Hokanson et al. (1976). Soil Conservation Service.

GRI GIS Data Production

Dan Gilbert (Colorado State University)

Jim Chappell (Colorado State University)

GRI Map Poster Design

Kari Lanphier (Colorado State University)

Georgia Hybels (Colorado State University)

GRI Map Poster Review

Michael Barthelmes (NPS Geologic Resources 

Division)

Georgia Hybels (Colorado State University)

Rebecca Port (NPS Geologic Resources Division)

Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division)
viii

Figure 1. Location map of Pipestone National Monument in southwestern Minnesota. Imagery from Landsat/

Copernicus, © Google. Annotations by Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division).
Geologic Setting and Significance

This chapter describes the regional geologic setting of the monument and summarizes connections 

among geologic resources, other park resources, and park stories.

1

Geologic Setting

Located north of the city of Pipestone in southwestern 

Minnesota, the 122 ha (301 ac) of Pipestone National 

Monument protects the pipestone quarries that 

are sacred sites to American Indians (fig. 1). The 

monument’s purpose is threefold: (1) administer and 

protect the quarries, reserving quarrying rights for 

American Indians of all tribes, (2) preserve, protect, 

and interpret cultural and natural resources associated 

with Pipestone National Monument, and (3) provide 

for enjoyment and benefit of all people (National Park 

Service 2008). The pipestone quarried by American 

Indians consists of the mineral catlinite, which is unique 

to Pipestone National Monument.

A north–south-trending ridge of Precambrian (fig. 2) 

Sioux Quartzite (geologic map unit PCsq) extends along 

the eastern edge of the monument, forming a 7.5–10 m 

(25–30 ft) high, west-facing escarpment (Morey 1981; 

Morey 1983; Morey and Setterholm 1987). The ridge 

extends for 5 km (3 mi) north of the monument and 

consists primarily of hard, vitreous, maroon to gray 

quartzite interbedded with thin layers of red catlinite, 

the altered clay that American Indians found easy to 

carve. The quartzite and catlinite beds dip (tilt) 3°–13° 

to the east. Well-developed joints also characterize 

Sioux Quartzite exposures. The joints trend northwest–

southeast, east–west, and northeast–southwest (Morey 

1983). The GRI GIS data include the locations from 

which geologic orientations, such as strike (compass 

direction) and dip of strata, were measured.

Any younger rock units that had overlain the Sioux 

Quartzite prior to approximately 2.6 million years 

ago were scraped off the landscape when continental 

glaciers flowed across Minnesota during the Pleistocene 

ice ages (Southwick 2002). During the ice ages, 

continental glaciers advanced several times into the 

region, depositing unconsolidated mixtures of clay, 

silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. These heterogeneous 

deposits are known as till (Qgt). In general, till in the 

monument is less than 3 m (10 ft) thick (Morey 1981). 

The glaciers also ground sediment into fine-grained, silt 

particles that were spread across the region by wind. 

Windblown silt is referred to as loess (Ql). Today, till and 

loess blanket most of the bedrock in the monument and 

provide the parent material for the soils supporting the 

restored tallgrass prairie (table 1). 

During the most recent glacial episode, from about 

75,000 to 10,000 years ago, an ice sheet estimated to be 

1.6 km (1 mi) thick split into two lobes near the current 

northeastern border of South Dakota (Graham 2009). 

One lobe carved the present-day Minnesota River 

valley, and the other formed the James River valley. 

The non-glaciated land between the lobes, upon which 

Pipestone National Monument is located, formed a 

north-pointing triangular wedge approximately 320 

km (200 mi) long and 160 km (100 mi) wide known as 

the Coteau des Prairies (French for ‘highland of the 

prairies’) (fig. 3). Because the Coteau des Prairies was 

not glaciated, the plateau contains tills from previous 

glaciations that are older than the glacial material 

deposited in the Minnesota River and James River 

valleys (Patterson 1995). Tills on the Coteau range 

between 800,000 and 500,000 years old, making them 

some of the oldest glacial deposits in North America 

(Jirsa et al. 2015; Bierman et al. 1999).

Elevations in the monument range from 300 m (980 ft) 

to 500 m (1,640 ft) above sea level. The relatively flat 

to rolling topography contains depressions and poorly 

drained soils. Pipestone Creek, Winnewissa Falls, and 

Lake Hiawatha represent the major hydrologic and 

fluvial geomorphic features in the monument (fig. 4; 

Jones et al. 2016). Entering the monument from the 

east, Pipestone Creek cascades over the Sioux Quartzite 

bluff, forming Winnewissa Falls. Winnewissa Falls 

is a feature known as a knickpoint, a part of a river 

or channel where there is a sharp change in channel 

slope, characteristic of all waterfalls. Knickpoints 

reflect different conditions and processes on the 

stream or river, and in Pipestone National Monument, 

Winnewissa Falls reflects the transition from 

erosion-resistant quartzite to relatively easily eroded 

unconsolidated alluvium and till. 

From Winnewissa Falls, Pipestone Creek flows into 

Lake Hiawatha (fig. 4). In the spring of 1934, the 

Civilian Conservation Corps constructed a small dam 
2

Figure 2. Geologic time scale. The divisions of the geologic time scale are organized stratigraphically, with the oldest 

divisions at the bottom and the youngest at the top. Time periods representing strata mapped in the Pipestone 

National Monument area are in green and at opposite ends of the time scale. GRI map abbreviations for each time 

division are in parentheses. Compass directions in parentheses indicate the regional locations of events. Boundary ages 

are millions of years ago (MYA). Pd. = “Period.” Paleoproterozoic orogenies include Mazatzal (1,650 million–1,600 

million years ago), Yavapai (1,710 million–1,680 million years ago), Trans-Hudson (2,000 million–1,800 million years 

ago), and Algoman (1,700 million–2,500 million years ago). 1,000 million years equals 1 billion years. National Park 

Service graphic using dates from the International Commission on Stratigraphy (http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/

ics-chart-timescale; accessed 7 May 2015).
3

(one of the park’s historic structures) of Sioux Quartzite 

in order to increase the lake’s size (Seth Hendriks, 

resource manager, Pipestone National Monument, 

written communication, 7 September 2016). 

Pipestone Creek ultimately drains into the Lower Big 

Sioux River (Jones et al. 2016). The underlying Sioux 

Quartzite inhibits infiltration of rainfall and snowmelt 

and promotes surface flow during intense precipitation 

events. As a result, abundant rainfall or rapidly melting 

snowpack may cause flooding.

Sioux Quartzite

Deposited 1.76 billion–1.60 billion years ago (fig. 2), the 

Precambrian Sioux Quartzite (PCsq) forms the bedrock 

in the monument and surrounding region (table 

1). The quartzite also represents part of a uniquely 

quartz-rich rock type exposed discontinuously across 

much of central North America from Newfoundland, 

southwestward to central Wisconsin, southern 

Minnesota, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, southern 

California, and adjacent parts of Mexico (Jones et 

Period 

(Epoch)

Age in MYA

Formation

(map symbol) Description

Cenozoic Era deposits (Ice age-present day)

Quaternary

(Holocene)

0.012-present

Alluvium

(Qa)

Derived from Lamoure (silty clay loam) and La Prairie (loam) soils, which were deposited in 

the floodplain of Pipestone Creek. Covered by prairie vegetation.

Quaternary

(Holocene)

0.012-present

Calcareous sand 

and gravel

(Qcsg)

Derived from the silty clay loam and calcareous sand and gravel of Athelwold (At), 

Estelline (EsA) and Trosky (Ts) soils, which formed on the lower part of stream terraces and 

on glacial outwash plains (Hokanson et al. 1976). Mapped along the eastern border of 

the monument. Covered by prairie vegetation.

Quaternary

(Pleistocene-Holocene)

2.6-0.01

Loess

(Ql)

Derived from Ihlen Series silty clay loam soils found on 0–2% slopes (IhA) and 2–6% 

slopes (IhB) and silty clay loam Whitewood (Wh) soil formed on poorly drained 0–2% 

slopes. Mapped in the central portion of the monument. Covered by prairie vegetation. 

Loess is windblown silt and is common in areas that have been, or were close to, 

glaciated areas. Those areas were typically lacked substantial vegetation to hold silt in 

place.

Quaternary

(Pleistocene)

2.6-0.12

Glacial Till

(Qgt)

Derived from the silty clay loam of Brookings (BrA), Hidewood (Hd), Kranzburg (KrB), 

and Vienna (VbB2) soils that developed over calcareous till on side slopes of less than 

3% adjacent to drainageways (BrA, Hd), on uplands (Hd, KrB), and on steeper slopes of 

3–6% (VbB2). The till contains scattered pebbles and cobbles of basalt and quartzite. 

Glacial processes transported the basalt fragments into the area. The Sioux Quartzite 

provided the quartzite fragments. Generally less than 3 m (10 ft) thick. Mapped primarily 

along the western border of the monument. Covered by prairie vegetation.

Precambrian (Paleoproterozoic Era) bedrock

Statherian

1,800-1,600

Sioux Quartzite

(PCsq)

Quartzite. Hard, vitreous, red to pink, medium- to coarse-grained quartz sandstone. 

Sedimentary features characteristic of braided stream environments. Thin layers of wellindurated mudstone, siltstone, and fine-grained sandstone represent less than 5% of the 

formation. 

Catlinite (Pipestone). Deep red mudstone consisting predominately of clay minerals 

pyrophyllite, muscovite, and diaspore. Contains little to no quartz and lesser amounts of 

hematite (red iron ore).

Age: approximately 1,760–1,600 million years old.

Unconsolidated Pleistocene and Holocene units were mapped based on soils described in the Soil Survey of Pipestone County, Minnesota (Hokanson 

et al. 1976). Soil names, but not their descriptions, are mentioned in pipe_geology.pdf (in GRI GIS data); refer to Hokanson et al. (1976) for soils 

information. MYA: millions of years ago. Colors in "Period" column are standard colors approved by the US Geological Survey to indicate different 

time periods on geologic maps. Colors in "Formation" column correspond to the GRI poster (in pocket).

Table 1. Description of geologic units mapped in Pipestone National Monument.
4

al. 2009; Jirsa et al. 2015). Scattered exposures of the 

Sioux Quartzite portion of this extensive unit occur 

from New Ulm, Minnesota, to just west of Sioux 

Falls, South Dakota, and adjoining areas of Iowa and 

Nebraska. However, the Sioux Quartzite continues in 

the subsurface beneath younger strata as far west as the 

Black Hills (Jirsa et al. 2015). The quartz-rich unit is 

also thick. In southwestern Minnesota, the formation is 

estimated to be 1.3–1.7 km (4,300–5,600 ft) thick (Jirsa 

et al. 2015). According to Jirsa et al. (2015, p. 6), this 

exceptional unit is a “signature unit” that represents 

“a unique time period in the crustal, atmospheric, and 

biogenic evolution of our planet.”

The Sioux Quartzite and similar formations represent 

a remarkable accumulation of quartz sand and the 

significant absence of any other mineral. Quartzites, 

in general, represent end products of erosion and 

weathering processes, which include chemical alteration 

and mechanical abrasion. Over millions of years, 

weathering processes and erosion of an ancient, largely 

granitic crust removed softer minerals, leaving behind 

highly durable quartz sand (Jirsa et al. 2015). 

During the Paleoproterozoic (fig. 2), when rivers 

flowing across southwestern Minnesota deposited 

the sand that would become the Sioux Quartzite, 

Earth’s atmosphere was transitioning from largely 

anoxic (containing little oxygen) to oxygenated. This 

transition may have been aided by the development 

of early photosynthetic organisms. At this time, the 

ancient crust, known as Laurentia, was located near 

the Tropics, and abundant rainfall, combined perhaps 

with early biogenic growth (microbial mats and crusts), 

altered non-quartz minerals to clay (Jirsa et al. 2015). 

Abundant quartz sand accumulated in the watersheds 

Figure 3. Relief map of a portion of the northern Great Plains showing the Coteau des Prairies, southwestern 

Minnesota. The most recent continental glacier split into two lobes and flowed around the borders of the Coteau des 

Prairies. The location of Pipestone National Monument is indicated with a yellow star. Relief map by Tom Patterson 

(National Park Service), available at http://www.shadedrelief.com/physical/index.html (accessed 1 June 2017).
5

Figure 4. Photographs of Winnewissa Falls and Lake Hiawatha, Pipestone National Monument. (top) Winnewissa Falls. 

Pipestone Creek flows over fractured Sioux Quartzite. National Park Service photograph by Jeff Rosenthal. (bottom) 

Lake Hiawatha. Water from the lake flows over a small dam composed of Sioux Quartzite that was constructed by the 

Civilian Conservation Corps in 1934. National Park Service photograph by Nathan King, available at https://www.nps.

gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?id=FA92D98B-155D-4519-3E52BDFDA9CEDA12 (accessed 3 August 2016).
6

of streams, while clay and other fine-grained sediment 

washed away. Some of the clay, however, was deposited 

as thin layers of mud that eventually cemented to form 

pipestone (including catlinite). The lack of rooted 

vegetation in the Paleoproterozic contributed to high 

rates of run-off during storm events.

All continents formed by repeated collisions of Earth’s 

crustal plates, and Laurentia was no exception. The 

Sioux Quartzite records a long period of relative 

crustal stability between two such collisional events 

known as the Yavapai (~1.7 billion–1.68 billion years 

ago) and the Mazatzal (~1.65 billion–1.60 billion 

years ago) Orogenies (mountain-building episodes). 

During quiescence between the two orogenies, 

the crust subsided and quartz sand was deposited, 

generating the extraordinary thickness of the Sioux 

Quartzite. Following deposition, deformation during 

the Mazatzal Orogeny folded the layers of sand 

or sandstone into broad basins. Hot groundwater 

produced by the deformation may have contributed to 

the transformation of the sandstone into quartzite (Jirsa 

et al. 2015). 

Mineralogy

The formation consists of predominantly quartzite, but 

also includes minor amounts of quartz-rich siltstone, 

clayey siltstone, silty mudstone, and catlinite (Morey 

1983). The finer grained rock units are easily eroded 

and rarely form outcrops. Quartzite, however, is highly 

resistant to weathering and erosion and crops out 

throughout the monument (fig. 5). 

The mineral composition of the quartzite is relatively 

simple. In general, the quartzite consists of 90–95% 

Figure 5. Photographs of Sioux Quartzite, Pipestone National Monument. (A). Steps carved into the Sioux Quartzite 

leading up to the top of the bluff on the Circle Trail. Photograph courtesy of Mark Jirsa (Minnesota Geological Survey). 

(B). Old Stone Face, Circle Trail, Pipestone National Monument. This cliff of Sioux Quartzite is known as “Old Stone 

Face,” “Leaping Rock,” and “The Oracle,” depending on the visitor’s perspective. NPS photograph by Seth Hendriks, 

Pipestone National Monument.).
7

quartz grains and 5–10% cement (Morey 1983). The 

grains are well-sorted, medium to fine sand-size, with 

edges rounded by quartz cement. Overgrowths of 

quartz cement are common in sedimentary rocks, and 

the abraded quartz overgrowths in the Sioux Quartzite 

indicate several cycles of deposition and erosion (Morey 

1983). The quartzite also contains trace amounts of 

other minerals, such as magnetite, hematite, rutile, 

zircon, and tourmaline. 

Quartzite is a dense, hard rock consisting primarily 

of quartz sand grains cemented together with silica 

(quartz). Quartzite differs from sandstone by breaking 

across the original sand grains, whereas sandstone 

typically breaks along the boundaries of the sand grains. 

Quartzite can be classified as either metamorphic 

or sedimentary (orthoquartzite), depending on the 

presence of metamorphic minerals. Proterozoic 

quartzites found in Wisconsin and elsewhere contain 

these minerals and are considered to be metamorphic 

rocks. The Sioux Quartzite in southwestern Minnesota 

contains minerals associated with burial (diagenetic 

minerals) and locally some minerals that may indicate 

low grade metamorphism, although these minerals are 

primarily found in South Dakota. Because metamorphic 

minerals have not been identified, the Sioux Quartzite 

in Pipestone National Monument is considered to be a 

sedimentary rock (Jirsa et al. 2015).

Temperature fluctuations in circulating groundwater 

may be responsible for the silica that cemented the 

sand grains together. Quartz dissolves in warm or hot 

water and precipitates out of solution when water cools. 

Burial and subsequent compaction of Sioux Quartzite 

sand would have produced heat, which would have 

dissolved the silica at the contact points between sand 

grains (a process known as pressure solution). Warm, 

silica-rich groundwater rising from more deeply buried 

layers would cement the cooler upper layers of sand. 

However, the source of a sufficient silica supply to 

cement such a large volume of sand remains to be found 

(Southwick et al. 1986; Jirsa et al. 2015). A thermal event 

related to the Mazatzal Orogeny may have driven warm, 

silica-rich groundwater through the sand, but this 

hypothesis also remains to be supported.

Examination of the framework quartz grains and 

their overgrowths indicates that the quartz cement 

formed early in the history of the Sioux Quartzite. 

Strain shadows and deformation lamellae that cross 

boundaries between quartz grains record a period of 

stress following cementation. A sericite-quartz-hematite 

matrix then replaced some of the strained quartz grains 

and overgrowth cement (Morey 1983).

The quartzite in the catlinite quarries in Pipestone 

National Monument is similar to this general 

description of the Sioux Quartzite, but some of the 

quartzite beds are finer grained, less well sorted, 

and contain as much as 39% matrix material (Morey 

1983). Quartz overgrowth cement and evidence of 

subsequent stress is missing from some areas containing 

abundant matrix material, suggesting that the matrix 

material inhibited the development of quartz cement 

and acted as a lubricant taking up the strain when the 

rocks were stressed. The matrix material in the finegrained quartzite, coupled with the lack of quartz 

cement and stress indicators, suggests that prior to 

any metamorphism, the matrix material was clay 

deposited contemporaneously with the quartz grains. 

Recrystallization of the original clay deposit occurred 

later in the history of the rock (Morey 1983).

Sedimentary Features in the Sioux Quartzite

The quartzite in the monument contains sedimentary 

features that represent a fluvial environment of 

deposition (Morey 1982; Jirsa et al. 2015). These 

features, summarized in the following section, include 

channels, cross-beds, ripple marks, and mud cracks (fig. 

6). The most common features in the Sioux Quartzite 

of Pipestone National Monument and Blue Mounds 

State Park, approximately 35 km (22 mi) south of 

Pipestone National Monument, are channels containing 

festoon-like trough cross-bedding, swooping crossbeds that result from ripples cutting back and forth 

into each other (Morey 1983; Jirsa et al. 2015). The 

concave basal surface of the channels indicates that the 

channel scoured into the underlying strata. Relief on the 

channels ranges from several inches to several feet with 

widths of less than 0.3 m (1 ft) to more than 1.5 m (5 ft) 

(Morey 1983). Some channels, however, are as much as 

1.5 (5 ft) deep and 9 m (30 ft) wide.

In general, each channel begins with structureless beds 

characterized by granule-size quartz grains or mud 

chips dispersed in a finer grained ground mass. Strata 

overlying the structureless beds contain trough crossbedding ranging from 5 cm (2 in) to 15 cm (6 in) thick, 

although some cross-beds are as much as 1.5 m (5 ft) 

thick (Morey 1983). The grain size in each group of 
8

Figure 6. Photographs of ancient sedimentary features found in the Sioux Quartzite. (A) Ripple marks (quarter for 

scale). The asymmetry of the ripples, with each crest separating a gradual slope and steeper limb, suggests that they 

were formed by a river current flowing from right to left in the photo, as steeper limbs form downstream. (B) Troughshaped cross-beds (see fig. 7) also suggest deposition in a laterally migrating channel. Photographs courtesy of Mark 

Jirsa (Minnesota Geological Survey).
9

cross-beds within any given channel decreases upward 

and laterally, forming a broadly fining-upward sequence 

of strata.

The channels generally occur in sets where younger 

channels overstep and truncate older channels. As a 

result, individual beds and groups of bed form a broadly 

lenticular geometry.

Within individual channel deposits, fine-grained beds 

of mudstone, including some catlinite, occur as thin, 

nearly planar beds or laminae of limited lateral extend. 

Distribution of the fine-grained beds records the final 

infilling of a channel or deposition resulting from 

overbank flooding.

The major catlinite beds occur as discontinuous layers 

between much larger quartzitic lenses and form discrete 

layers as much as 1 m (3 ft) thick. The beds may be 

traced for fairly long distances or they may appear 

as lenses only several tens of feet long (Morey 1983). 

Many of the catlinite beds grade laterally from claystone 

to silty claystone to clayey siltstone and ultimately to 

argillaceous quartzite (quartzite containing clay). Upper 

surfaces of the catlinite beds are characterized by sets of 

planar cross-beds, asymmetrical and symmetrical ripple 

marks, and mud cracks (fig. 6) (Morey 1983).

Paleocurrent directions measured from the axial 

plane of festoon cross-bedding, which parallels the 

paleocurrent flow, indicate a predominant southward 

to south-southeastward paleocurrent direction (Morey 

1983). Other current direction indicators, such as planar 

cross-beds and asymmetrical ripple marks, have diverse 

orientations. 

No Proterozoic fossils have been discovered in the 

Sioux Quartzite at Pipestone National Monument 

(Hunt et al. 2008). However, according to Jirsa et 

al. (2015), there may be indirect evidence of life in 

the quartzites. Irregular round white areas visible in 

outcrops may result from reduction and dissolution of 

iron from the sand (probably before it was cemented 

into quartzite) by the presence of bacterial fragments 

(Hofmann 1991; cited by Jirsa et al. 2015). Organic 

debris, such as microbial crusts or mats, could have 

been eroded and incorporated into the sediment of 

the river system. Alternatively, microbial colonies may 

have developed within the sandy stream system during 

suitable environment conditions. Thus, although there 

appear to be no fossils in the Sioux Quartzite, the white 

spots are similarly indicative of early life forms (Jirsa et 

al. 2015). 

Paleoenvironmental Implications

The extensive trough cross-bedding, the lenticular 

nature of the strata, and the general lack of silt- and 

clay-size material record deposition by fluvial processes 

associated with a braided-stream system (fig. 7). As 

the name implies, braided-stream systems consist of 

branching and coalescing channels filled with sand 

and silt during high stream flow and fewer interlacing 

channels during low flow. 

The Sioux Quartzite in Pipestone National Monument 

includes four major types of deposits found in modern 

braided-stream systems: channel-floor lag deposits, 

in-channel deposits, nearly filled channel deposits, and 

vertical accretion deposits (Allen 1965; Morey 1983; 

Mial 1992). Channel-floor lag deposits are found in 

the lower parts of many channels. Sand-size detritus 

that flowed through the system as bed-load material 

fills most channels and is responsible for the trough 

cross-bedding. Finer grained sediment was deposited 

in shallow water at the edges of channels, in channels 

nearly filled with sediments, or in interchannel areas 

that received deposits during floods. 

Catlinite beds in the Sioux Quartzite reflect vertical 

accretion deposits. Vertical accretion deposits are not 

common in braided stream environments for several 

reasons (Morey 1983; Morey and Setterholm 1987; 

Scott et al. 2006; Jirsa et al. 2015). First, finer grained 

material such as silt and clay typically gets transported 

through the system without significant accumulation. 

Secondly, vertical accretion deposits form only during 

major floods when the river spills from its channel. 

Lastly, fine-grained vertical accretion deposits tend 

to be easily eroded by the relatively rapidly migrating 

channels in a braided stream system.

Catlinite in Pipestone National Monument, therefore, 

reflects the uncommon accumulation of fine grained 

material in a braided river system dominated by coarse 

grained detritus and fast-flowing currents. For example, 

catlinite is not present in the Sioux Quartzite in Blue 

Mounds State Park, although both areas represent 

similar braided stream environments (Jirsa et al. 2015). 
10

Post-Depositional Weathering and Alteration

The Sioux Quartzite also offers a remarkable glimpse 

into the interaction between groundwater flow 

and sediment deposition during the Proterozoic of 

southwestern Minnesota. The consistent color pattern 

in the Sioux Quartzite (fig. 6) may reflect groundwater 

flow rates that were influenced by deposition within the 

braided stream system (Jirsa et al. 2015). Thin coatings 

of hematite (red iron mineral) and perhaps manganese 

(purplish element) have been found on individual sand 

grains, suggesting that the grains were colored during 

and just after deposition of the sand and prior to silica 

cementation. The presence of hematite, an iron oxide, 

also suggests that the coloration was associated with the 

oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere.

Lighter colors and thinner coatings are associated with 

sand grains, while thicker coatings and darker colors 

Figure 7. Braided stream system and schematic vertical section of the Sioux Quartzite of southwestern Minnesota. 

Features in a typical vertical, braided stream sequence consist of trough cross-bedded sandstone deposited in active 

channels, ripple-marked sandstone as current decreases, and claystone deposited when channels are abandoned and 

fine particles settle out of the ponds and overbank puddles. In the Sioux Quartzite, trough cross-bedded units are 

typically pale colors of purple and pink. Less abundant and generally thinner planar cross-bedded units tend to be 

much darker colored red and purple. Modified from Jirsa et al. (2015, figures 3 and 4). Photograph of modern braided 

stream system available online from Alaska ShoreZone imagery: https://toolkit.climate.gov/case-studies/shorezone-toolcoastal-resilience.
11

characterize clay layers. According to Jirsa et al. (2015), 

the color variation may involve the contrast between 

aquifers, groundwater reservoirs, and aquitards, units 

that retard groundwater flow. The coarse-grained, 

trough cross-bedded channel sands would have 

been more permeable than the finer-grained clay 

layers, allowing groundwater to circulate through the 

sediment, depositing thinner coatings. On the other 

hand, finer-grained clay layers would have prevented 

rapid groundwater flow, resulting in more residence 

time and consequently, thicker layers and more 

coloration. In addition, if the clay layers were exposed 

at the surface, desiccation may have occurred during 

dry periods, leading to oxidation of iron and manganese 

and a darker coloration (Jirsa et al. 2015).

The Sioux Quartzite in Pipestone National Monument 

has also been altered by near-surface weathering 

processes, especially by circulating groundwater. 

Circulating groundwater selectively dissolved hematite 

along near-vertical joint faces, resulting in light-colored 

zones that contrast with the typically pink or red 

quartzite. These zones are generally less than 5 cm (2 

in) wide, but some are as much as 46 cm (18 in) wide 

(Morey 1983).

Circulating groundwater may also be responsible for 

the yellowish-gray to white weathered zone that occurs 

within 0.6–0.9 m (2–3 ft) of the contact between the 

bedrock and overlying till (Morey 1983). This zone 

lacks hematite, contains less sericite and quartz than 

does fresh bedrock, and may have a larger grain size 

and be better sorted than the adjacent unweathered 

bedrock, implying that circulating groundwater 

dissolved hematite, matrix material, and smaller detrital 

framework grains.

Figure 8. Photograph of calumet pipes on display in the Pipestone National Monument visitor center. Photograph 

courtesy of Mark Jirsa (Minnesota Geological Survey).
12

Poorly cemented to almost friable zones of quartzose 

sandstone that occur parallel to bedding in the 

subsurface reflect similar characteristics as the bleached 

rock associated with joint faces and the till-bedrock 

contact (Morey 1983). Typically, an outer rim of 

bleached rock similar to the light-colored quartzite 

found along joint faces transitions into a weathered 

zone similar to the till-bedrock interface. This 

weathered zone passes abruptly into a zone where 

all of the original mineral constituents, other than 

large framework grains, have been removed. These 

weathered zones indicate groundwater activity at the 

bedrock surface and within open fractures, such as joint 

sets and bedding planes. However, the timing of the 

groundwater activity is not known. According to Morey 

(1983, table 2), weathering and dissolution could have 

occurred at any time before the onset of Pleistocene 

glaciation, approximately 2 million years ago. 

Catlinite

Layers of catlinite in Pipestone National Monument 

contrast markedly with the quartzite. The deep red to 

pale orange claystone beds lack appreciable quantities 

of quartz and appear massive except for a few shaly 

parting planes parallel to the bedding (Morey 1983). In 

1981, G. B. Morey of the Minnesota Geological Survey 

noted that catlinite was commonly called “pipestone” 

because it was used by American Indians to make their 

ceremonial pipes (Morey 1981). The terms “catlinite” 

and “pipestone” became interchangeable. However, 

pioneering research by Gundersen (1982, 1984, 1987, 

1988, 1991, and 1993) documented that red pipestones 

from different areas, although appearing similar, were 

mineralogically distinct. 

Mineralogical studies of pipestones throughout North 

America have determined that true catlinite comes 

from one source: the quarries at Pipestone National 

Monument. Definitive mineralogical data support 

Pipestone National Monument as the type locality 

of catlinite, which means that pipestone from any 

other location is compared to catlinite found at the 

monument to determine if it is true catlinite (Scott et al. 

2006; Boszhardt and Gundersen 2014; Wisseman et al. 

2011, 2012). The monument’s quarries preserve at least 

five, north–south-trending exposures of catlinite layers 

that extend for approximately 1.2 km (0.75 mi) (see GRI 

poster in pocket).

Catlinite consists predominantly of very fine grained 

sericite (a mica similar to muscovite), kaolinite, 

diaspore, and lesser amounts of pyrite and hematite, 

the iron-rich mineral that provides catlinite’s red color 

(Berg 1938; Gundersen 1982; Morey 1983). Catlinite 

contains little to no quartz (Morey 1981; Boszhardt and 

Gundersen 2014; Wisseman et al. 2011, 2012; National 

Park Service 2015a). Pyrophyllite, which can be etched 

with a fingernail, occurs locally as small white specks or 

as lenses as much as 10 cm (4 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) 

thick (Morey 1983). The lack of quartz and occurrence 

of soft clay minerals makes catlinite ideal for carving 

into pipes and figures using simple hand tools. 

Catlinite clay minerals provide significant information 

about post-depositional alteration. The original 

composition of the clay is not known, but the 

ubiquitous presence of sericite implies recrystallization 

of a potassium-rich clay (Morey 1983). Sericite is a 

common alteration mineral of potassium feldspar, 

especially in areas subjected to hydrothermal alteration. 

Kaolinite, diaspore, and pyrophyllite also offer evidence 

of post-depositional recrystallization. Kaolinite and 

diaspore in deeply buried parts of the Sioux Quartzite 

terrain document diagenetic processes involving 

potassium feldspar dissolution prior to recrystallization 

(Morey 1983). Pyrophyllite may form by a metamorphic 

reaction involving sericite, quartz, and water, with 

concurrent release of some potassium, or it may form 

by a metamorphic reaction involving kaolinite and/

or diaspore, without the release or consumption of 

potassium. In either case, the presence of pyrophyllite 

implies that the rocks that are now exposed in 

Pipestone National Monument were once deeply buried 

(Berg 1938; Morey 1983).

Rapid burial helped preserve the Midcontinent 

pipestone deposits, including the catlinite in the 

monument. After deposition, hydrothermal fluids 

ranging from ~50°–120° C (122°–248° F) and increased 

burial produced low-to-medium temperature 

metamorphic conditions, which altered the pipestone 

(Wisseman et al. 2012). The fluids, which likely 

originated from a mountain building event in either 

the late Precambrian or during the Paleozoic Era, 

contained potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg+), and 

metals such as lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). These minerals 

reacted with the fine-grained deposits to form common 

minerals such as potassium feldspar, illite, mixedlayered illite/smectite, and muscovite (Wisseman et 
13

al. 2012). Morey (1983) noted that recrystallization 

of the original clay could have occurred at any time 

prior to Pleistocene glaciation. Wisseman et al. (2012) 

suggested an orogeny “such as” the Alleghany Orogeny 

(mountain-building episode about 300 million years 

ago) to the east could be responsible. The mountain 

building event that altered the Sioux Quartzite is the 

much older (~1.6 billion years ago) Mazatzal Orogeny. 

Alteration minerals in the Sioux and similar quartzites 

in the midcontinent yield ages suggesting hydrothermal 

alteration 1.4 billion years ago during a continent-scale 

igneous event (Medaris et al. 2003; M. Jirsa, geologist, 

Minnesota Geological Survey, written communication, 

17 March 2017). In addition, the distinctive catlinite 

mineral assemblage indicates that Pipestone National 

Monument deposits were exposed to a highertemperature alteration than pipestone found in Ohio, 

Wisconsin, Illinois, or Missouri (Wisseman et al. 2012). 

Catlinite and Culture

Prior to detailed analysis of pipestone mineralogy, most 

archeological specimens were identified as catlinite 

(Emerson and Hughes 2001). However, documenting 

the unique mineralogy of catlinite has revised 

archeologists’ understanding of aboriginal use of 

catlinite and long-distance trading routes. For example, 

mineralogical studies of Adena/Hopewell pipes in the 

Great Lakes and Upper Midwest region determined 

that the pipes were carved from catlinite rather than 

Ohio pipestone, implying that southwestern Minnesota 

catlinite was traded as early as 500 BCE (Boszhardt and 

Gundersen 2014). 

Historical and archeological evidence also suggests that 

the catlinite quarries of southwestern Minnesota were 

not continuously used. Quarrying occurred during 

the Middle Woodland period (200 BCE–500 CE), was 

abandoned during the Mississippian culture (800–

1600 CE), and then revitalized after about 1,300 CE 

(Emerson and Hughes 2001; Wisseman et al. 2011). In 

addition, Hopewell period (ca. 1–400 CE) catlinite pipes 

found in Ohio’s Tremper Mound and in Wisconsin, but 

not Illinois, reveal a direct west-to-east route from the 

southwestern Minnesota quarries in Pipestone National 

Monument through Wisconsin to Ohio from about 50 

BCE to 79 CE (Emerson et al. 2005).

Quarrying increased in the 1600s and the Yankton 

Sioux eventually took control of the quarries. Painter 

George Catlin visited the region in 1836. In addition to 

his paintings, Catlin collected samples of the claystone 

and gave them to mineralogist C. J. Jackson to analyze. 

Jackson determined that the claystone had a unique 

composition, and believing it only occurred where 

Catlin found it, Jackson named the claystone “catlinite” 

in Catlin’s honor (Morey and Setterholm 1987). More 

than 100 years later, Jackson’s premise was supported 

by laboratory analysis. For more information about 

Catlin and his artwork, visit http://americanart.si.edu/

collections/search/artist/?id=782 (accessed 20 April 

2016). 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow mentioned the “great 

Red Pipe-stone Quarry” in his Song of Hiawatha, and, 

in 1838, explorers Nicollett and Fremont carved their 

names in a quartzite layer above Winnewissa Falls (M, 

Jirsa, geologist, Minnesota Geological Survey, written 

communication, 15 March 2017). Their initials are still 

visible today.

American Indians carved catlinite into calumet pipes, 

the elbow-shaped and disk-shaped types of pipe 

commonly used in ceremonies and rituals (fig. 8). 

Calumets became known as peace pipes because they 

were used in treaty ceremonies.

Between 1840 and 1858, commercial interests began 

to move into the area and conflicts arose between 

these interests and the Yankton Sioux, who were being 

pressured to move to a reservation in south-central 

South Dakota. In 1889, a bill was passed that gave the 

Yankton authority to retain 260 ha (650 ac) at Pipestone. 

The federal government took control of the quarry 

in 1928, and in 1937, President Roosevelt established 

Pipestone National Monument (Josh Brinkman, 

Pipestone National Monument, biological technician, 

personal communication, 19 August 2008). As an 

indication of the cultural significance of pipestone to 

the identity of Minnesota, a slab of pipestone inscribed 

with “MINNESOTA” was donated to the Washington 

Monument to represent the state (Jacob 2005). The 

stone is installed on the 220-foot level and is one of 

193 commemorative stones installed in the monument 

(Jacob 2005).

American Indians continue the three-thousand-yearold tradition of quarrying and carving pipestone. 

Currently, the monument has 56 intermittently active 

quarries. Throughout the summer, local American 

Indians carve pipestone in the Upper Midwest Indian 

Cultural Center, located inside the visitor center.
14

Proposed Development at Pipestone National 

Monument

The preferred alternative in the Final General 

Management Plan for Pipestone National Monument 

emphasizes the setting, site history, and spiritual 

significance of the national monument (National Park 

Service 2008). The preferred alternative supports the 

following changes to the monument:

● Removing the existing visitor center and parking lot 

from among the quarries,

● Removing the entry road and restoring the natural 

contours of the land,

● Removing 0.8 ha (2 ac) of buildings and 

impermeable surfaces from the floodplain. 

These changes will allow visitors to observe the site as 

it appeared in prehistoric times and to sense the site’s 

significance to American Indians. 

The alterations to the landscape will also improve 

water flow through the monument and reduce the 

damage from flooding on park infrastructure. Currently, 

the visitor center and residences are in the 100-year 

floodplain. Bridges on Pipestone Creek impede 

floodwaters, destroying bridge railings (NPS 2016a). 

Snow melt, rain, and an elevated groundwater level 

result in frequent flooding of the quarries in the spring. 

Groundwater is pumped from the quarries, but the 

water may be contaminated and when the quarries 

dry, contaminants in the dust may sicken quarry 

workers. Climate change models predict an increase in 

precipitation, which will exacerbate flooding issues.

Further information addressing the management 

history, cultural resources, and external threats to 

the monument is available from Managing the Sacred 

and the Secular: an Administrative History of Pipestone 

National Monument by Hal Rothman and Daniel 

Holder (1992) (https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/

online_books/pipe/adhi.htm, accessed 26 July 2016).

Geology and Ecosystem Development

Pipestone National Monument landscape illustrates the 

notable connection between geology and ecosystem 

development. The monument’s distinct geologic and 

hydrologic features combine to provide an unusual 

array of habitats supporting a diverse assortment 

of over 500 prairie plant species, 26 fish species, 45 

macroinvertebrate species, 9 reptiles and amphibians, 

25 mammal species, 56 families of insects, and about 

100 bird species (NPS 2016b). 

The north–south trending Sioux Quartzite outcrop 

that bisects the monument features a narrow Bur Oak 

(Quercus macrocarpa) Woodland community and the 

Northern Tallgrass Quartzite Outcrop community. The 

Bur Oak Woodland community covers 1.9% of the 

monument and occupies the rocky and moist soils on 

the downslope side of the bluff. The Northern Tallgrass 

Quartzite Outcrop vegetation grows on the rocky slope 

above the Bur Oak Woodland community and includes 

5.4% of the monument (Diamond et al. 2014). 

Areas of unbroken sod support the Sioux Quartzite 

prairie, consisting of rare habitats, federally listed 

threatened and endangered species, and globally 

rare remnant plant communities. Ten vegetation 

types, dominated by tallgrass prairie communities, 

have been mapped in the monument (Diamond et al. 

2014). Central Mesic Tallgrass Prairie cover 57.3% 

and Restored Tallgrass Prairies grow on 24.4% of 

the landscape. A small floodplain forest and riparian 

shrubland habitats occur adjacent to Pipestone Creek 

(Diamond et al. 2014).

The extensive plant community at Pipestone National 

Monument has been described as “quite unique and 

species-rich” (Diamond et al. 2014, p. 46), and the 

Nature Conservancy has declared the 8 ha (20 ac) of 

Sioux Quartzite prairie type as “endangered throughout 

its range” (NPS 2016b).
15

Geologic Features, Processes, and Resource Management Issues

These geologic features and processes are significant to the monument’s landscape and history. Some 

geologic features, processes, or human activities may require management for human safety, protection 

of infrastructure, and preservation of natural and cultural resources. The NPS Geologic Resources 

Division provides technical and policy assistance for these issues.

During the 2008 scoping meeting (see Graham 2009) 

and 2016 conference call, participants (see Appendix 

A) identified the following features, processes, and 

resource management issues. Each is discussed in tables 

2 and 3 in the context of relevant geologic map units.

Features and Processes (table 2)

● Fluvial features

● Eolian features

● Glacial features

● Petroglyphs

● Catlinite 

● Pipestone quarries

● Ancient sedimentary features

● Joints and fractures

● Quartzite with reduction spots

Resource Management Issues (table 3)

● Flooding

● Rockfall and quarry use 

Geologic Resource Management

The Geologic Resources Division provides technical 

and policy support for geologic resource management 

issues surrounding geologic heritage, active processes 

and hazards, and energy and minerals management. 

Contact the division (http://go.nps.gov/geology) for 

assistance with resource inventories, assessments 

and monitoring; impact mitigation, restoration, and 

adaptation; hazards risk management; law, policy, and 

guidance; resource management planning; data and 

information management; and outreach and youth 

programs (Geoscientists-in-the-Parks and Mosaics in 

Science).

Resource managers may find Geological Monitoring 

(Young and Norby 2009; http://go.nps.gov/

geomonitoring) useful for addressing geologic resource 

management issues. The manual provides guidance for 

monitoring vital signs—measurable parameters of the 

overall condition of natural resources. Each chapter 

covers a different geologic resource and includes 

detailed recommendations for resource managers, 

suggested methods of monitoring, and case studies.

Resource Management Guidance for Geologic 

Features and Processes 

In general, the southwestern Minnesota landscape 

captures a distinctive Precambrian braided stream 

system, a topography sculpted by Pleistocene glaciers, 

and a Holocene drainage system that developed 

during the Quaternary Period. Additional information 

regarding the processes associated with the geologic 

features in Pipestone National Monument may be found 

in the following references. 

Eolian Resources

Eolian processes refer to wind-blown erosion, 

transportation, and deposition of sediments (Lancaster 

2009). Features created by eolian processes include 

depositional landforms and deposits such as dunes, 

loess, sand sheets, as well as erosional forms such 

as desert pavement, yardangs, and ventifacts. In the 

Pipestone National Monument area, loess is the 

primary feature associated with eolian processes. The 

NPS Geologic Resources Division Aeolian Resource 

Monitoring website, http://go.nps.gov/monitor_

aeolian (accessed 24 April 2017), provides additional 

information.

Fluvial Geomorphology

In the Geological Monitoring chapter about fluvial 

geomorphology, Lord et al. (2009) described methods 

for inventorying and monitoring geomorphologyrelated vital signs, including: (1) watershed landscape 

(vegetation, land use, surficial geology, slopes, and 

hydrology), (2) hydrology (frequency, magnitude, and 

duration of stream flow rates), (3) sediment transport 

(rates, modes, sources, and types of sediment), (4) 

channel cross section, (5) channel planform, and (6) 

channel longitudinal profile. These methods may be 

utilized on any size of river or stream, from large rivers 

such as the Mississippi to creeks as small as Pipestone 

Creek.
16

Site numbers are from the Geology Trail brochure available in the Pipestone National Monument visitor center. The brochure provides a self-guided 

tour to geological features along Circle Trail. Colors correspond to the poster (in pocket)

Map Unit

(symbol) Features and Processes

Alluvium

(Qa)

Fluvial Features

The sediment in Pipestone Creek continues to be transported and temporarily deposited in the 

channel, while seasonal flooding deposits finer grained silt and clay in the floodplain (Site 2). Streams 

constantly adjust their gradient by eroding upstream and this headward erosion has resulted in 

Winnewissa Falls, a fluvial geomorphic feature known as a knickpoint (fig. 4).

Calcareous sand and 

gravel

(Qcsg)

Soil Features

Silty clay loam underlain by calcareous sand and gravel (Athelwold, Estelline, and Trosky soil series). 

Deposited over water-laid or wind-blown material. Refer to Pipestone County Soil Survey (Hokanson et 

al. 1976) for additional information regarding properties of the soils from which this unit was derived 

(see table 1).

Loess

(Ql)

Eolian Features

Windblown silt derived from glacial erosion of sediment and bedrock. 

Till

(Qgt)

Glacial Features

Till: Deposits of heterogeneous, unsorted clay, silt, sand, and gravel. May be among the oldest till 

in North America.Glacial erratics: Granite boulders, such as the Three Maidens, from an unknown 

northern origin that were left on the surface when the glaciers melted (fig. 9; Site 4).

Petroglyphs

Prehistoric rock carvings depict various images such as people, animals, and bird tracks. In 1888 or 

1889, 79 petroglyphs on 35 slabs of rock around the Three Maidens were removed in order to preserve 

them from further vandalism. Some have been returned to the monument, and 17 are now on display 

in the Visitor Center (National Park Service 2015b).

Sioux Quartzite

(PCsq)

Catlinite

Pipestone National Monument preserves the only recognized location of catlinite (fig. 8).

Glacial Features

As glaciers receded, the rock exposures were sculpted by dusty winds that are common along 

glacial margins and pronounced at this time of no vegetation cover. The wind polished, pitted, and 

faceted the rock surfaces (fig. 10; Site 8; M. Jirsa, geologist, Minnesota Geological Survey, written 

communication, 16 March 2017) 

Pipestone Quarries

Source of catlinite for pipestone carvings (fig. 11).

See also https://www.nps.gov/pipe/learn/historyculture/quarrying.htm.

Ancient Sedimentary Features

Horizontal bedding layers (Site 6). Trough cross-bedding formed when new layers of sand were 

deposited on older, lithified layers (fig. 6; Sites1, 2, 11, 13). Ripple marks formed from current flow 

(fig. 6; Site 7). Trough cross-bedding and ripple marks suggest that these 1.7 billion year old streams 

flowed, in general, from west to east/southeast. Mudcracks formed when standing water evaporated 

and the mud dried (desiccation) (fig. 6; Sites 9, 10).

Reduction Spots

White spots appear as circular and irregularly shaped patches within pink or purple quartzite. The 

spots typically cross-cut lines of bedding or layering and are inferred to be areas where iron and 

manganese were chemically reduced and removed by groundwater. This process may involve organic 

matter, which, upon decay, uses oxygen from the iron minerals, producing free iron that is more easily 

removed by groundwater. Microbial growth blossomed during this time period, supporting this organic 

decay scenario and providing evidence for a changing Earth atmosphere (Jirsa et al. 2015).

Joints/Fractures

Near-vertical joints occur in sets that trend N20W and N45E (fig. 12). Near-horizontal joints are present 

in cliff faces and quarries. The joints control the orientation of the quarries as it is easier to remove 

rock along pre-existing joints than break solid rock. The joints and fractures cannot be tied to specific 

crustal events. They may be associated with compression caused by the Mazatzal Orogeny, or they may 

represent more recent uplift and erosion of overlying crustal material that allowed the Sioux Quartzite 

to expand and crack. Some joints may represent uplift of the bedrock surface following the melting of 

thick glacial ice. Or, the fractures may be a product of all three crustal events. Locally, the joints serve 

as conduits for groundwater. Local surface drainage patterns may be influenced by fractured rock 

because fractured rock is more easily eroded than rocks that are not fractured.

Table 2. Summary of features and processes associated with the geologic map units.
17

Figure 9. Photograph of the Three Maidens at sunset, Pipestone National Monument. Composed of granite rather than 

quartzite, the boulders are glacial erratics left on the landscape when the Pleistocene glaciers melted. The individual 

“maidens” may have originally been part of one large boulder. National Park Service courtesy of Seth Hendriks.

Map Unit

(symbol) Potential Geologic Issues

Alluvium

(Qa)

Flooding

Flash flooding often occurs following abundant rainfall, quick snowmelt on frozen ground, or a 

combination of rainfall on already saturated ground (fig. 13). The indurated Sioux Quartzite inhibits 

infiltration of precipitation, so sheets of water drain across the monument from east-to-west, often 

filling quarries (fig. 14). Flood water may overtop the escarpment south of Winnewissa Falls, causing 

damage to trails and the bridge at Winnewissa Falls (NPS 2008). Flooding has filled Lake Hiawatha with 

sediment so that less than 0.6 m (2 ft) of water storage is left in the lake. Flooding dislodges aquatic 

macroinvertebrates (periphyton), reducing stream productivity. Chemical pollutants from upstream 

threatens the health of floodplain biota, and flood debris detracts from the monument’s aesthetics. 

Loess

(Ql)

These units occupy relatively flat topography, with slopes generally less than 2%, and they are covered 

by prairie grass. Slope movement occurs on even these gentle slopes, but movement occurs over a 

scale of thousands of years. Thus, erosion and slope movements are not severe

Sioux Quartzite

(PCsq)

Rockfall and Quarry

UseRockfall along the trails and in the quarries from fractured Sioux Quartzite pose a potential 

resource management issue. Moisture enters the thinner layers in the quartzite, and physical and 

chemical weathering erodes these layers faster than the thick, overlying strata (Site 14). Frost-heave 

along vertical and shallowly-dipping (bedding parallel) joints may dislodge blocks. Undercut cliffs may 

collapse. Rubble piles also pose a potential safety hazard for quarry workers (fig. 11).

All quarrying activity requires a permit as outlined:

https://www.nps.gov/pipe/learn/management/quarry-permits.htm. 

Table 3. Summary of geologic resource management issues associated with the geologic map units.

Site numbers are from the Geology Trail brochure available in the Pipestone National Monument visitor center. The brochure provides a self-guided 

tour to geological features along Circle Trail. Colors correspond to the poster (in pocket)
18

Glacial Deposits and Erosional Features

The massive continental ice sheets that flowed from the 

Arctic into Minnesota during the Pleistocene Epoch 

(2 million to approximately 20,000 years ago) scoured 

and reshaped the landscape. In general, glacial deposits 

and features include those created or carved by glaciers, 

those deposited by rivers flowing beneath or out of 

glaciers (“glaciofluvial”), or deposited in lakes near 

glaciers (“glaciolacustrine”). In Pipestone National 

Monument, glacial deposits of till and glacial erratics, 

such as the Three Maidens, form the primary record of 

glacial advances into the area. 

Slope Movements

Slope movements are the downslope transfer of soil, 

regolith, and/or rock under the influence of gravity. In 

Pipestone National Monument, slope movements are 

concentrated in the catlinite quarries. In other NPS 

units, soil creep, rockfalls, debris flows, and avalanches 

are common types of slope movements. These 

processes and the resultant deposits are also known as 

“mass wasting” and commonly grouped as “landslides.” 

Slope movements occur on time scales ranging from 

seconds to years.

Potential Resource Management Actions

The Geologic Resources Division provides technical 

and policy support for geologic resource management 

issues surrounding geologic heritage, active processes 

and hazards, and energy and minerals management. 

Contact the division (http://go.nps.gov/geology) for 

assistance with resource inventories, assessments 

and monitoring; impact mitigation, restoration, and 

adaptation; hazards risk management; law, policy, and 

guidance; resource management planning; data and 

information management; and outreach and youth 

Figure 10. Photograph of polished and pitted surface of the Sioux Quartzite. Wind-blown sand polished and pitted this 

outcrop. Such features are called “ventifacts.” Photograph courtesy of Mark Jirsa (Minnesota Geological Survey).
19

programs (Geoscientists-in-the-Parks and Mosaics in 

Science).

Resource managers may find Geological Monitoring 

(Young and Norby 2009; http://go.nps.gov/

geomonitoring) useful for addressing geologic resource 

management issues. The manual provides guidance for 

monitoring vital signs—measurable parameters of the 

overall condition of natural resources. Each chapter 

Figure 11. Photograph and schematic illustration of Sioux Quartzite quarry at Pipestone National Monument. 

Catlinite, or pipestone, forms reddish layers between the fractured slabs of quartzite. The schematic illustrates 

quarrying operations. Potential rockfall in the quarries poses a safety hazard in the monument. National Park Service 

photograph. Schematic redrafted by Trista Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University) after NPS graphic available 

from https://www.nps.gov/pipe/learn/historyculture/images/quarrydrawing556x200_2.jpg (accessed 29 July 2016).
20

covers a different geologic resource and includes 

detailed recommendations for resource managers, 

suggested methods of monitoring, and case studies.

The Geoscientists-in-the-Park and Mosaics in Science 

programs are internship programs to place scientists 

(typically undergraduate students) in parks to complete 

geoscience-related projects that may address resource 

management issues. Projects at Pipestone National 

Monument have included (as of March 2016):

● Inventory and monitoring (2011)

● Research (2009)

● Interpretation and education (2002).

Projects are listed on the GIP website: http://go.nps.gov/

gip (accessed 19 April 2016). Products created by the 

program participants may be available on that website 

or by contacting the Geologic Resources Division. 

Flooding

Part of the preferred alternative in the park’s General 

Management Plan includes removal of the visitor 

center and parking lot from near Pipestone Creek 

(National Park Service 2008). These alterations to 

the landscape will improve water flow through the 

monument and reduce the damage that flooding has 

on park infrastructure. As documented in the General 

Management Plan, park managers should consult 

NPS planning documents including Director’s Orders 

77–1 (Wetland Protection) and 77–2 (Floodplain 

Management), associated Executive Orders, NPS 

Management Policies (2006), as well as the other 

laws, regulations, and policies listed in Appendix B 

and available at https://www.nps.gov/applications/

npspolicy/index.cfm (accessed 29 March 2016). 

If the park management desires quantitative 

information regarding rates of change and channel 

morphology of Pipestone Creek, repeat photography 

Figure 12. Aerial imagery of jointed outcrops of Sioux Quartzite and quarries in Pipestone National Monument. Note 

the similar orientation of the quarries to the joints. Quarries were excavated to take advantage of the joints as it is 

easier to remove rock along existing fractures (joints) than attempt to break through solid rock. The exposures and 

quarries in the image are located about 260 meters (285 yards) southeast of the visitor center. Google Earth imagery 

© 2017 Google. Annotations by Jason Kenworthy (NPS Geologic Resources Division) using information from Mark Jirsa 

(geologist, Minnesota Geological Survey, written communication, 17 March 2017).
21

could be performed at designated photo points 

to monitor changes. Refer to http://go.nps.gov/

grd_photogrammetry for information about using 

photogrammetry for resource management.

Quarries may also flood during or after significant 

precipitation and when groundwater levels are high (fig. 

13). Park staff may utilize pumps to remove water and 

provide access to the quarries.

Flooding will likely be more of an issue as climate 

continues to change. According to Monahan and 

Fisichelli (2014), current climate conditions at Pipestone 

National Monument have already started to shift 

beyond the 1901–2012 historical range of temperature 

and precipitation variability. Not only will average 

temperature and precipitation conditions change but 

also particular extreme climate events such as intense 

storms, flooding, and drought are projected to increase 

(Monahan and Fisichelli 2014). Extreme climate events 

may cause shifts in the conditions of Pipestone Creek, 

the quarries, and other park resources that may affect 

visitor experience.

Extreme rainfall events and flooding caused by regional 

climate in the Midwest and Great Plains are expected 

to increase erosion, cause water quality to decline, and 

negatively impact transportation, agriculture, human 

health, and infrastructure (Pryor et al. 2014). Frequent 

extreme events in an already highly variable climate 

system will especially stress communities that are 

already vulnerable to weather and climate extremes 

(Shafer et al. 2014). The NPS Climate Change Response 

Program (https://www.nps.gov/orgs/ccrp/index.htm) 

provides additional information regarding climate 

change, its effects on park resources, and adaptation 

procedures for park managers.

Rockfall and Quarry Use

Hard, fractured rock such as the Sioux Quartzite 

naturally breaks into large blocks. Quarriers utilize this 

characteristic to facilitate removal of the quartizite. 

These processes are natural elements of landscape 

change, but they become hazards when visitors hike 

near the base of cliffs or in quarries. Areas with visible 

cracks, loose material, or overhangs become particularly 

hazardous. Alerting visitors and quarriers to the hazards 

Figure 13. Photograph of flood waters inundating the Circle Trail in 2010. Alterations to the landscape proposed in the 

Final General Management Plan (National Park Service 2008) should alleviate the impact of flooding on monument 

infrastructure. National Park Service photograph available online: http://www.nps.gov/pipe/learn/photosmultimedia/

index.htm (accessed 26 August 2015).
22

associated with rockfall near the base of cliffs or quarry 

highwalls is a first step toward reducing the risk. Such 

information could be presented via the park website, 

brochures, signage, and/or verbal communication from 

park staff.

If funding permits, resource managers could consider 

obtaining quantitative information to assess the 

frequency and magnitude of rockfall (and other slope 

movements) in high visitation areas. A photomonitoring 

program is one possible technique to obtain these 

data. The Geoscientist-in-the-Parks program (http://

go.nps.gov/gip; accessed 14 March 2016) is an option to 

support such a project. The NPS Geologic Resources 

Division Photogrammetry website (http://go.nps.gov/

grd_photogrammetry) provides examples of how 

photographic techniques support structural analysis of 

rockfall areas.

The following references provide additional 

background information, suggested vital signs, and 

resources for assessing and documenting slope 

movements:

● In the Geological Monitoring chapter about 

slope movements, Wieczorek and Snyder (2009) 

described five vital signs for understanding 

and monitoring slope movements: (1) types of 

landslide, (2) landslide causes and triggers, (3) 

geologic materials in landslides, (4) measurement 

of landslide movement, and (5) assessment of 

landslide hazards and risks.

● US Geologic Survey publication The landslide 

handbook—A guide to understanding landslides

(Highland and Bobrowsky 2008).

● US Geological Survey landslides website (http://

landslides.usgs.gov/).

Figure 14. Photograph of water in a quarry. Seasonal flooding may inundate the quarries at Pipestone National 

Monument. Water entering the quarries may be contaminated. Once the water is pumped out of the quarries and the 

quarries dry out, the dust may contain those contaminants. National Park Service photograph by Jeff Rosenthal.
23

● NPS Geologic Resources Division Geohazards 

website (http://go.nps.gov/geohazards).

● NPS Geologic Resources Division Slope 

Movement Monitoring website (http://go.nps.gov/

monitor_slopes). 

The high walls and rubble piles in the quarries are 

particularly susceptible to rock fall. Because the catlinite 

beds slope downward into the cliff, more overburden 

must be removed as quarrying continues and wall 

height increases, thus amplifying the risk of rockfall. 

Quarrying operations must follow guidelines outlined 

in the permit and those guidelines include basic safety 

information. More information may be obtained from 

the park’s quarry permit and quarrying websites and by 

contacting the park for up-to-date regulations.

If any of the quarries are considered abandoned, they 

should be documented as part of the NPS Abandoned 

Mineral Lands (AML) database. Currently there are 

no AML features documented in Pipestone National 

Monument. Burghardt et al. (2014) and http://go.nps.

gov/grd_aml contain information about AML in the 

National Park System, as well as a comprehensive 

inventory of sites, features, and mediation needs. 

The quarries at Pipestone National Monument have 

additional management considerations because they are 

also cultural resources.

25

Geologic History

This chapter describes the chronology of geologic events that formed the present landscape.

2.6 billion to 1.6 billion years ago 

(Precambrian): Continental Collisions and 

River Systems.

Much of the bedrock in southwestern Minnesota, 

including the exposures in Pipestone National 

Monument, consists of Precambrian rocks more than 

one billion years old. Because a veneer of glacial drift 

covers the bedrock throughout most of Minnesota, 

bedrock is generally defined through remote sensing 

techniques such as magnetic and gravity surveys, the 

few surface exposures, and archived water well data 

and drill core data collected during exploration for 

uranium, oil, and metallic mineral resources (Mark 

Jirsa, Minnesota Geological Survey, geologist, personal 

communication, 19 August 2008). 

Figure 15. Map of Precambrian land masses that sutured together to form Minnesota approximately 2.7 billion to 2.5 

billion years ago. In southwestern Minnesota, the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone (GLTZ) marks the contact between the 

Wawa Subprovince and the Minnesota River Valley Subprovince. The Minnesota River Valley contains four distinct 

regions separated by faults and shear zones. From north to south, these are the Benson Block (BB), the Montevideo 

Block (MVB), the Morton Block (MB), and the Jeffers Block (JB). The Appleton Geophysical Lineament (AGL) and Yellow 

Medicine Shear Zone (YMSZ) separate the blocks. Yellow star indicates location of Pipestone National Monument. Map 

compiled by Patrick J. Mangou from US Geological Survey and Minnesota Geological Survey sources, available at

http://usgeologymorphology.com/MN-archean-p2.html (accessed 20 February 2017).
26

About 2.7 billion to 2.5 billion years ago during the 

Algoman Orogeny (the Kenoran Orogeny in Canada), 

a series of plate tectonic events accreted extensive 

segments of the crust, including offshore sediments, 

volcanic island arcs, and micro continents, onto the 

proto-North American continent. In southwestern 

Minnesota, the northeast–southwest trending Wawa 

Subprovince accreted to the Superior Province and the 

Minnesota River Valley Subprovince accreted to the 

Wawa Subprovince. The Great Lakes Tectonic Zone 

separates the two subprovinces (fig. 15). 

The Minnesota River Valley Subprovince contains 

four distinct regions. From north to south, these are 

the Benson Block, the Montevideo Block, the Morton 

Block, and the Jeffers Block. The blocks are bordered by 

lineaments, which are linear features on Earth’s surface, 

such as a fault. The Appleton Geophysical Lineament 

marks the border between the Benson and Montevideo 

blocks, and the Yellow Medicine Shear Zone separates 

the Montevideo Block from the Morton Block (fig. 

15). Rocks in the Minnesota River Valley Subprovince 

include 3.5 billion year old metamorphic gneisses that 

were intruded by 2.5 billion year old granites. 

Approximately 1.85 billion years ago, the Penokean 

Orogeny deformed both the Wawa and Minnesota 

River Valley subprovinces. About 1.0 billion years ago, 

the Mid-Continent Rift cut through both subprovinces. 

A similar continental rift is active today along the East 

African Rift system. The Mid-Continent Rift, however, 

did not fully split apart the continent, and to most 

geologists, the Mid-Continent Rift became known as an 

example of a “failed” rift system.

Approximately 1.76 billion to 1.60 billion years ago, 

a series of depositional basins developed on a barren 

continent (terrestrial plants and animals would not 

evolve for hundreds of millions of years) and received 

sediments that would eventually become the Sioux 

Quartzite. Similar to many other mid-continent 

Paleoproterozoic quartzites, the well-sorted Sioux 

Quartzite consists of about 90% quartz. Sedimentary 

features such as current-formed ripple marks, 

mudcracks resulting from desiccation, and trough 

cross-bedding (fig. 6) indicate that Paleoproterozoic 

streams flowed to the south, depositing sands and 

gravels in a braided stream environment. Without 

stabilizing vegetation to help check erosion, many bars 

or islands developed in the shifting channels in order 

to accommodate the massive sediment supply (Morey 

1981; Morey and Setterholm 1987). 

Periodic flooding deposited the fine-grained clay 

and silt that became Pipestone National Monument 

catlinite. The dynamic, turbulent, high energy flow 

of braided streams typically keeps these finer grained 

sediments suspended in the water column and 

transports the material out of the system. However, 

rapid burial preserved the isolated lenses of overbank 

and floodplain deposits in the Pipestone National Park 

area. 

The past 2.6 million years (Quaternary 

Period): The Ice Ages

During the early and middle Pleistocene (about 2.6 

million years ago to 500,000 years ago), continental 

glaciers flowed across Minnesota as far south as 

Figure 16. Paleogeographic map of North America during 

the last glacial maximum. Continental ice sheets advanced 

from the northern latitudes, and alpine glaciers formed in 

the mountains. During the maximum extent of the recent 

glaciation, about 15,000 to 12,000 years ago the ice sheet 

divided into two lobes that flowed around present-day 

Pipestone National Monument (green star), forming the 

Coteau des Prairies. The yellow lines denote the equator, 

30°N, and 60°N latitude. Basemap is from "North American 

Key Time Slices" © 2013 Colorado Plateau Geosystems, Inc; 

used under license. Refer to http://deeptimemaps.com/ for 

additional information.
27

Missouri, and upon melting, left thick deposits of 

glacial debris (till) (Mickelson and Colgan 2004; Roy et 

al. 2004; Bettis III et al. 2010). The Wisconsin Glacial 

Episode, which ended about 11,000 years ago, records 

the most recent advance of continental glaciers into 

Minnesota (fig. 16). 

About 14,000–12,000 years ago, the Des Moines Lobe 

of the Laurentide Ice Sheet advanced into southwestern 

Minnesota, covering older glacial drift deposited 

approximately 575,000 years before present (Mark 

Jirsa, personal communication, 19 August 2008). The 

Des Moines Lobe split into two lobes, which flowed to 

either side of the triangle-shaped Coteau des Prairies 

(fig. 3). Tills on the Coteau, therefore, are older than 

tills left by the Des Moines Lobe, and may be some of 

the oldest till deposits in North America (Graham 2009; 

Mark Jirsa, Minnesota Geological Survey, geologist, 

personal communication, 19 August 2008).

Glaciers left their mark on the bedrock and landscape 

of Minnesota. As the glaciers flowed over the Sioux 

Quartzite, pieces of bedrock were picked up and 

transported in the ice, sculpting the north–south ridge 

of quartzite that now bisects the monument (fig. 17). 

Erosional features, such as scour marks, striations, 

chatter marks, and wind-polished surfaces (ventifacts 

and pits) (fig. 10), document the battering and gouging 

effects that the rocks encased in ice at the base of the 

glacier had on the bedrock. The glaciers transformed 

previously deposited till into smooth rolling hills and 

plains. Glacial erratics, such as The Three Maidens, 

were left behind when the ice melted (fig. 9). 

The glaciers ground sediment and rock into very fine 

particles that were picked up by the wind and spread 

across Minnesota. These eolian deposits of windblown 

silt (loess) blanket the till deposits in Pipestone National 

Monument.

Since the glaciers melted, extensive drainage systems 

have developed in Minnesota. Pipestone Creek flows 

through Pipestone National Monument and is a 

tributary of the Big Sioux River, which in turn flows into 

the Gulf of Mexico via the Missouri and Mississippi 

rivers. River deposited sediment (alluvium) mark the 

present, as well as abandoned, drainage systems. 

Figure 17. Oblique aerial imagery of Pipestone National Monument and vicinity. The north–south-trending Sioux 

Quartzite ridge formed by glacial processes is easily visible. Google Earth map. Imagery © Landsat/Copernicus.

29

Geologic Map Data

A geologic map in GIS format is the principal deliverable of the GRI program. GRI GIS data produced 

for the park follows the source maps listed here and includes components described in this chapter. A 

poster (in pocket) displays the data over imagery of the monument and surrounding area. Complete 

GIS data are available at the GRI publications website: http://go.nps.gov/gripubs.

Geologic Maps

Geologic maps facilitate an understanding of an area’s 

geologic framework and the evolution of its present 

landscape. Using designated colors and symbols, 

these maps portray the spatial distribution and 

temporal relationships of rocks and unconsolidated 

deposits. Geologic maps can be divided into two 

primary types: surficial and bedrock. Surficial 

geologic maps typically encompass deposits that are 

unconsolidated and formed during the past 2.6 million 

years (the Quaternary Period). Surficial map units 

are differentiated by geologic process or depositional 

environment. Bedrock geologic maps encompass 

older, typically more consolidated sedimentary, 

metamorphic, and/or igneous rocks. Bedrock map units 

are differentiated based on age and/or rock type. 

Source Maps

The GRI team digitizes paper maps and converts digital 

data to conform to the GRI GIS data model. The GRI 

GIS data set includes essential elements of the source 

maps such as map unit descriptions, a correlation 

chart of units, a map legend, map notes, cross sections, 

figures, and references. The following source maps were 

used in creating the digital geologic map for Pipestone 

National Monument: 

● Morey, G. B. 1983. Evaluation of catlinite 

resources, Pipestone National Monument, 

Minnesota. Research/Resources Management 

Report MWR-4. National Park Service, Midwest 

Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

● National Park Service, Midwest Region Field Area.

1997. Pipestone County Soil Survey (scale 1:6,000).

Unpublished. National Park Service, Midwest 

Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

This digital data set was derived from the Pipestone

County Soil Survey by the Soil Conservation Service

(Hokanson et al. 1976). 

Conversion of Source Maps to GRI GIS Data

The Morey (1983) data were not in a geospatially 

referenced format. The GRI team derived the GRI GIS 

data from figures in the report and georeferenced them 

using geographic points with accurately georeferenced 

US Geological Survey base maps in ArcGIS. The Morey 

(1983) map only showed the extent of Sioux Quartzite 

(PCsq). The outcrop layer, derived from another figure 

in Morey (1983), does not overlap all exposures visible 

in aerial imagery (e.g., Google Earth). A future mapping 

project could be to document all exposures and 

quarries on the ground. A Geoscientist-in-the-Parks 

or Mosaics In Science intern could assist this project, 

which could be part of “inventories 2.0.” Contact NPS 

Geologic Resources Division for additional information.

To approximate the extent of Quaternary deposits, the 

GRI team derived geologic units from source materials 

of soils on the county soil survey map. Additional 

information regarding the derived units, as well as the 

original figures from Morey (1983), are compiled in the 

GRI GIS data (pipe_geology.pdf).

GRI GIS Data

The GRI team implements a GIS data model that 

standardizes map deliverables. The data model is 

available at http://go.nps.gov/gridatamodel. This data 

model dictates GIS data structure, including layer 

architecture, feature attribution, and relationships 

within ESRI ArcGIS software. The GRI team digitized 

the data for the park using data model version 2.1. 

The GRI Geologic Maps website, http://go.nps.gov/

geomaps, provides more information about GRI map 

products.

GRI GIS data are available through the NPS Integrated 

Resource Management Applications (IRMA) portal 

(https://irma.nps.gov/App/Portal/Home ). Enter “GRI” 

as the search text and select a park from the unit list.
30

The following components are part of the GRI GIS data 

set:

● A GIS readme file (pipe_gis_readme.pdf) 

that describes the GRI data formats, naming 

conventions, extraction instructions, use 

constraints, and contact information.

● Data in ESRI geodatabase GIS format;

● Layer files with feature symbology (table 4);

● Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC)–

compliant metadata;

● An ancillary map information document (pipe_

geology.pdf) that contains information captured 

from source maps such as map unit descriptions, 

geologic unit correlation tables, legends, crosssections, and figures; and

● An ESRI map document (pipe_geology.mxd) that 

displays GRI GIS data

Geologic Map Poster

A poster of the GRI GIS data draped over aerial 

imagery of the park and surrounding area is included 

with this report (in pocket). Not all GIS feature classes 

are included on the poster (table 4). Geographic 

information and selected park features have been added 

to the posters. Contact GRI for assistance locating these 

data.

Use Constraints

Graphic and written information provided in this 

report is not a substitute for site-specific investigations. 

Ground-disturbing activities should neither be 

permitted nor denied based upon the information 

provided here. Please contact GRI with any questions.

Minor inaccuracies may exist regarding the locations 

of geologic features relative to other geologic or 

geographic features on the poster. Based on the source 

map scale (1:6,000) and US National Map Accuracy 

Standards, geologic features represented in the geologic 

map data are horizontally within 3 m (10 ft) of their true 

locations. Refer to the “Conversion of Source Maps” 

section for additional information about relationship of 

GRI GIS data to bedrock exposures in the park.

Data Layer On Poster?

Geologic Cross Section Lines No

Geologic Attitude Observation Localities (strike and dip, paleocurrent direction, axial trace of bedding 

surface, strike of ripple marks) No

Mine Point Features (drill holes for “lithic logs” in pipe_geology.pdf) No

Generalized Bedding Trends No

Topographic Lineaments No

Mine Area Feature Boundaries (quarries) Yes

Mine Area Features (quarries) Yes

Linear Geologic Units (catlinite beds) Yes

Outcrop Boundaries (Sioux Quartzite) Yes

Outcrops (Sioux Quartzite) Yes

Derived Geologic Unit Boundaries (derived from soil survey) Yes

Derived Geologic Units (derived from soil survey) Yes

Table 4. GRI GIS data layers for Pipestone National Monument.
31

Literature Cited

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obtaining them.

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Berg, E. L. 1938. Notes on catlinite and the Sioux Quartzite. American Mineralogist 23:258–268.

Bettis III, E. A., S. Tassier-Surine, and D. J. Quade. 2010. Quaternary geology of the Iowa City area. Pages 143–161 in T. Marshall and 

C. L. Fields, editors. The geology of Klein and Conklin quarries, Johnson County, Iowa. Guidebook 87. Geological Society of 

Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.

Bierman, P. R., K. A. Marsella, C. Patterson, P. T. Davis, and M. Caffee. 1999. Mid-Pleistocene cosmogenic minimum-age limits 

for pre-Wisconsinan glacial surfaces in southwestern Minnesota and southern Baffin Island: a multiple nuclide approach. 

Geomorphology 27: 25–39.

Boszhardt, R. F., and J. N. Gundersen. 2014. X-ray powder diffraction analysis of Early and Middle Woodland red pipes from 

Wisconsin. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 28(1):33–48.

Burghardt, J. E., E. S. Norby, and H. S. Pranger, II. 2014. Abandoned mineral lands in the National Park System: comprehensive 

inventory and assessment. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/GRD/NRTR—2014/906. National Park Service, Fort 

Collins, Colorado. http://go.nps.gov/aml_publications (accessed 24 August 2015).

Diamond, D. D., L. F. Elliott, M. D. DeBacker, K. M. James, D. L. Pursell, and A. Struckhoff. 2014. Vegetation mapping and 

classification of Pipestone National Monument, Minnesota: Project report. Natural Resource Report NPS/PIPE/NRR—

2014/802. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2209418 (accessed 26 

July 2016).

Emerson, T. E., and R. E. Hughes. 2001. De-mything the Cahokia catlinite trade. Plains Anthropologist 46(175):149–161.

Emerson, T. E., R. E. Hughes, K. B. Farnsworth, S. U. Wisseman, and M. R. Hynes. 2005. Tremper Mound, Hopewell catlinite and 

PIMA technology. Midcontinent Journal of Archaeology 30(2):189–216.

Graham, J. 2009. Geologic Resources Inventory Scoping Summary: Pipestone National Monument, Minnesota. National Park 

Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. http://go.nps.gov/gripubs (accessed 25 August 2015).

Gundersen, J. N. 1982. Triclinic pyrophyllites of Kansas and Minnesota pipestones. Geological Society of America Abstracts with 

Programs 14 (3):112.

Gundersen, J. N. 1984. Provenance analysis of plains pipestone argillites. Geological Society of America. Abstracts with Programs 

16(6):526.

Gundersen, J. N. 1987. Wisconsin pipestone: a preliminary mineralogical examination. The Wisconsin Archeologist 68:1–21.

Gundersen, J. N. 1988. Pipestones of the St. Helena Phase. Pages 79–97 in D. Blakeslee, editor. St. Helena Archaeology: New Data, 

Fresh Interpretations. J & L Reprint Company, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Gundersen, J. N. 1991. The mineralogical characterization of catlinite from its sole provenance. National Park Service, Midwest 

Region, Lincoln, Nebraska. Research/Resource Management Report MWR 17.

Gundersen, J. N. 1993. Catlinite and the spread of the Calumet Ceremony. American Antiquity 58:56–62.

Gurney, G. and T. T. Heyman, editors. 2002. George Catlin and his Indian Gallery. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, 

DC and W. W. Norton and Company, New York, New York.

Highland, L. M., and P. Bobrowsky. 2008. The landslide handbook–a guide to understanding landslides. US Geological Survey 

Circular 1325. https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1325/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

Hofmann, B.A. 1991. Mineralogy and petrology of reduction spheroids in red beds: Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 44, p. 107-124.
32

Hokanson, H. L., F. D. Lorenzen, J. J. Murray, and R. O. Paulson. 1976. Soil survey of Pipestone County, Minnesota. Soil 

Conservation Service (National Cooperative Soil Survey), St. Paul, Minnesota. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_

MANUSCRIPTS/minnesota/MN117/0/Pipestone_MN.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).

Hunt, R., J. P. Kenworthy, and V. L. Santucci. 2008. Paleontological resource inventory and monitoring—Heartland Network. 

Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRPC/NRTR—2008/132. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Jacob, J. M. 2005. The Washington Monument: a technical history and catalog of the commemorative stones. National Park Service, 

Northeast Region Design, Construction, and Facility Management Directorate, Architectural Preservation Division. https://www.

nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/wamo/stones.pdf (accessed 28 August 2017).

Jirsa, M., C. Jennings, A. Watson, and N. Meyer. 2015. Geology of Blue Mounds State Park. Minnesota Department of Natural 

Resources Contract #93015. Minnesota Geological Survey, Minneapolis, Minnesota. ftp://ftp.gisdata.mn.gov/pub/gdrs/data/pub/

us_mn_state_dnr/geos_blue_mounds_state_park/metadata/BMgeology.pdf (accessed 30 July 2016).

Jones, J. V., III, J. N. Connelly, K. E. Karlstrom, M. L. Williams, and M. F. Doe. 2009. Age, provenance, and tectonic setting of 

Paleoproterozoic quartzite successions in the southwestern United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin 121:247–264.

Jones, D. S., R. Cook, J. Sovell, C. Herron, J. Benner, K. Decker, S. Sherman, A. Beavers, J. Beebee, and D. Weinzimmer. 2016. 

Pipestone National Monument natural resource condition assessment. Natural Resource Report NPS/PIPE/NRR—2016/1106. 

National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2226138 (accessed 3 August 

2016).

Lancaster, N. 2009. Aeolian features and processes. Pages 1–25 in R. Young and L. Norby, editors. Geological monitoring. 

Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. http://go.nps.gov/geomonitoring (accessed 24 April 2017).

Lord, M. L., D. Germanoski, and N. E. Allmendinger. 2009. Fluvial geomorphology: Monitoring stream systems in response to a 

changing environment. Pages 69–103 in R. Young and L. Norby, editors. Geological monitoring. Geological Society of America, 

Boulder, Colorado. http://go.nps.gov/geomonitoring (accessed 28 March 2017).

Medaris, L.G., Jr., B. S. Singer, R. H. Dott, Jr., A. Naymark, C. M. Johnson, and R. C. Schott. 2003. Late Paleoproterozoic climate, 

tectonics, and metamorphism in the southern Lake Superior region and proto-North America: Evidence from Baraboo interval 

quartzites. Journal of Geology 111:243–257.

Miall, A. D. 1992. Alluvial deposits. Pages 119–142 in R. G. Walker and N. P. James, editors. Facies models: response to sea level 

change. Geological Association of Canada, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.

Mickelson, D. M., and P. M. Colgan. 2004. The southern Laurentide Ice Sheet. Pages 1–17 in A. R. Gillespie, S. C. Porter, and B. F. 

Atwater, editors. The Quaternary Period in the United States. Developments in Quaternary Science 1. Elsevier, New York, New 

York.

Monihan, W. B. and N. A. Fisichelli. 2014. Recent climate change exposure of Pipestone National Monument. Climate Change 

Resource Brief. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2214016

(accessed 19 April 2016).

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2015).

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Management Report MWR–4. National Park Service, Midwest Regional Office, Omaha, Nebraska.

Morey, G. B., and D. R. Setterholm, 1987, Pipestone National Monument: the Sioux Quartzite–an Early Proterozoic braided stream 

deposit, southwestern Minnesota. Centennial Field Guide–North-Central Section. Geological Society of America, Boulder, 

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Investigations 32. Minnesota Geological Survey, St. Paul, Minnestoa.

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completedoc.pdf (accessed 26 August 2015). 
33

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learn/historyculture/three-maidens.htm (accessed 27 August 2015).

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Cenozoic deposits of the north-central United States. Geological Society of America Bulletin 116:30–41.

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35

Additional References

This section lists additional references, resources, and websites that may be of use to resource managers. 

Web addresses are valid as of February 2017. Refer to Appendix B for laws, regulations, and policies 

that apply to NPS geologic resources.

Geology of National Park Service Areas

● NPS Geologic Resources Division—Energy 

and Minerals, Active Processes and Hazards, and 

Geologic Heritage: http://go.nps.gov/geology/

● NPS Geologic Resources Inventory:

http://go.nps.gov/gri

● NPS Geoscientist-In-the-Parks (GIP) internship 

and guest scientist program: http://go.nps.gov/gip

● NPS Views program (geology-themed modules are 

available for Geologic Time, Paleontology, Glaciers,

Caves and Karst, Coastal Geology, Volcanoes, and a 

variety of geologic parks): http://go.nps.gov/views

NPS Resource Management Guidance and 

Documents

● 1998 National Parks Omnibus Management Act: 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-105publ391/

pdf/PLAW-105publ391.pdf

● Geologic monitoring manual:

http://go.nps.gov/geomonitoring

● Management Policies 2006 (Chapter 4: Natural 

resource management):

http://www.nps.gov/policy/mp/policies.html

● NPS-75: Natural resource inventory and 

monitoring guideline:

http://www.nature.nps.gov/nps75/nps75.pdf

● NPS Natural resource management reference 

manual #77: http://www.nature.nps.gov/Rm77/

● NPS Technical Information Center (TIC) (Denver, 

Colorado; repository for technical documents): 

http://www.nps.gov/dsc/technicalinfocenter.htm

http://etic.nps.gov/

Climate Change Resources

● NPS Climate Change Response Program Resources: 

http://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/

resources.htm

● US Global Change Research Program:

http://globalchange.gov/home

● Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change:

http://www.ipcc.ch/

Geological Surveys and Societies

● Minnesota Geological Survey:

http://www.mngs.umn.edu/

● US Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov/

● USGS Publications: http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/

● Geological Society of America:

http://www.geosociety.org/

● American Geophysical Union: http://sites.agu.org/

● American Geosciences Institute:

http://www.americangeosciences.org/

● Association of American State Geologists:

http://www.stategeologists.org/

US Geological Survey Reference Tools

● Geologic glossary (simplified definitions):

http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/misc/glossarya.

html

● Geologic names lexicon (Geolex; geologic unit 

nomenclature and summary):

http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Geolex/geolex_home.html

● Geographic names information system (GNIS; 

official listing of place names and geographic 

features): http://gnis.usgs.gov/

● GeoPDFs (download searchable PDFs of any 

topographic map in the United States):

http://store.usgs.gov (click on “Map Locator”)

● National geologic map database (NGMDB):

http://ngmdb.usgs.gov/

● Publications warehouse (many publications 

available online): http://pubs.er.usgs.gov

37

Appendix A: Scoping Participants

The following people attended the GRI scoping meeting for Pipestone National Monument, held on 19 

August 2008, or the follow-up report writing conference call, held on 21 June 2016. Discussions during 

these meetings supplied a foundation for this GRI report. The scoping summary document is available 

on the GRI publications website: http://go.nps.gov/gripubs.

2008 Scoping Meeting Participants

Name Affiliation Position

Brinkman, Josh NPS Pipestone National Monument Biological technician

Connors, Tim NPS Geological Resources Division Geologist

Graham, John Colorado State University Geologist

Jirsa, Mark Minnesota Geological Survey Geologist

Lundstrom, Scott US Geological Survey Geologist

Norby, Lisa NPS Geological Resources Division Geologist

Swanson, Landon NPS Pipestone National Monument Biological technician

2016 Conference Call Participants

Name Affiliation Position

Connors, Tim NPS Geological Resources Division Geologist

Graham, John Colorado State University Geologist, GRI report writer

Hendriks, Seth NPS Pipestone National Monument Biological Science Technician

Jirsa, Mark Minnesota Geological Survey Geologist

Kenworthy, Jason NPS Geologic Resources Division Geologist, GRI reports coordinator

Livermont, Glen NPS Pipestone National Monument Superintendent

39

Appendix B: Geologic Resource Laws, Regulations, and Policies

The NPS Geologic Resources Division developed this table to summarize laws, regulations, and policies 

that specifically apply to National Park Service minerals and geologic resources. The table does not 

include laws of general application (e.g., Endangered Species Act, Clean Water Act, Wilderness Act, 

National Environmental Policy Act, or National Historic Preservation Act). The table does include the 

NPS Organic Act when it serves as the main authority for protection of a particular resource or when 

other, more specific laws are not available. Information is current as of May 2015. Contact the NPS 

Geologic Resources Division for detailed guidance.

Resource Resource-specific Laws Resource-specific Regulations 2006 Management Policies Rocks and Minerals

NPS Organic Act, 16 USC. § 1 et seq. 

directs the NPS to conserve all resources 

in parks (which includes rock and mineral 

resources) unless otherwise authorized by 

law.

Exception: 16 USC. § 445c (c) – 

Pipestone National Monument 

enabling statute. Authorizes American 

Indian collection of catlinite (red pipestone).

36 C.F.R. § 2.1 prohibits possessing, 

destroying, disturbing mineral resources...

in park units.

Exception: 36 C.F.R. § 7.91 allows limited 

gold panning in Whiskeytown. 

Exception: 36 C.F.R. § 13.35 allows some 

surface collection of rocks and minerals 

in some Alaska parks (not Klondike 

Gold Rush, Sitka, Denali, Glacier Bay, 

and Katmai) by non-disturbing methods 

(e.g., no pickaxes), which can be stopped 

by superintendent if collection causes 

significant adverse effects on park 

resources and visitor enjoyment.

Section 4.8.2 requires NPS to protect 

geologic features from adverse effects of 

human activity.

Park Use of Sand and Gravel

Materials Act of 1947, 30 USC § 601

does not authorize the NPS to dispose of 

mineral materials outside of park units.

Exception: 16 USC §90c 1(b) the nonwilderness portion of Lake Chelan National 

Recreation Area, where sand, rock and 

gravel may be made available for sale to 

the residents of Stehekin for local use as 

long as such sale and disposal does not 

have significant adverse effects on the 

administration of the National Recreation 

Area. 

None applicable. Section 9.1.3.3 clarifies that only the 

NPS or its agent can extract park-owned 

common variety minerals (e.g., sand and 

gravel), and:

-only for park administrative uses;

-after compliance with NEPA and other

federal, state, and local laws, and a finding

of non-impairment;

-after finding the use is park’s most

reasonable alternative based on

environment and economics;

-parks should use existing pits and create

new pits only in accordance with park-wide

borrow management plan;

-spoil areas must comply with Part 6

standards;

and-NPS must evaluate use of external

quarries.

Any deviation from this policy requires a 

written waiver from the Secretary, Assistant 

Secretary, or Director.
40

Resource Resource-specific Laws Resource-specific Regulations 2006 Management Policies Upland and Fluvial Processes

Rivers and Harbors Appropriation 

Act of 1899, 33 USC § 403 prohibits the 

construction of any obstruction on the 

waters of the United States not authorized 

by congress or approved by the USACE.

Clean Water Act 33 USC § 1342 requires 

a permit from the USACE prior to any 

discharge of dredged or fill material 

into navigable waters (waters of the US 

[including streams]).

Executive Order 11988 requires federal 

agencies to avoid adverse impacts to 

floodplains. (see also D.O. 77-2) 

Executive Order 11990 requires plans for 

potentially affected wetlands (including 

riparian wetlands). (see also D.O. 77-1)

None applicable. Section 4.1 requires NPS to manage 

natural resources to preserve fundamental 

physical and biological processes, as well 

as individual species, features, and plant 

and animal communities; maintain all 

components and processes of naturally 

evolving park ecosystems.

Section 4.1.5 directs the NPS to reestablish natural functions and processes 

in human-disturbed components of natural 

systems in parks, unless directed otherwise 

by Congress.

Section 4.4.2.4 directs the NPS to allow 

natural recovery of landscapes disturbed by 

natural phenomena, unless manipulation of 

the landscape is necessary to protect park 

development or human safety.

Section 4.6.4 directs the NPS to (1) 

manage for the preservation of floodplain 

values; [and] (2) minimize potentially 

hazardous conditions associated with 

flooding.

Section 4.6.6 directs the NPS to manage 

watersheds as complete hydrologic systems 

and minimize human-caused disturbance 

to the natural upland processes that deliver 

water, sediment, and woody debris to 

streams.

Section 4.8.1 directs the NPS to allow 

natural geologic processes to proceed 

unimpeded. Geologic processes...include...

erosion and sedimentation...processes.

Section 4.8.2 directs the NPS to protect 

geologic features from the unacceptable 

impacts of human activity while allowing 

natural processes to continue.
41

Resource Resource-specific Laws Resource-specific Regulations 2006 Management Policies Soils

Soil and Water Resources Conservation 

Act, 16 USC §§ 2011–2009 provides for 

the collection and analysis of soil and 

related resource data and the appraisal of 

the status, condition, and trends for these 

resources.

Farmland Protection Policy Act, 7 USC 

§ 4201 et. seq. requires NPS to identify 

and take into account the adverse effects 

of Federal programs on the preservation 

of farmland; consider alternative actions, 

and assure that such Federal programs 

are compatible with State, unit of local 

government, and private programs and 

policies to protect farmland. NPS actions 

are subject to the FPPA if they may 

irreversibly convert farmland (directly 

or indirectly) to nonagricultural use and 

are completed by a Federal agency or 

with assistance from a Federal agency. 

Applicable projects require coordination 

with the Department of Agriculture’s 

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(NRCS).

7 CFR Parts 610 and 611 are the US 

Department of Agriculture regulations 

for the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. Part 610 governs the NRCS 

technical assistance program, soil erosion 

predictions, and the conservation of private 

grazing land. Part 611 governs soil surveys 

and cartographic operations. The NRCS 

works with the NPS through cooperative 

arrangements.

Section 4.8.2.4 requires NPS to

-prevent unnatural erosion, removal, and 

contamination;

-conduct soil surveys;

-minimize unavoidable excavation; 

and-develop/follow written prescriptions 

(instructions).

The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and 

other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated 

Island Communities.

NPS 372/140095, September 2017
EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICATM

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science 

1201 Oak Ridge Drive, Suite 150 

Fort Collins, Colorado 80525

www.nature.nps.gov

National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior
This map was produced by Kari Lanphier and Georgia Hybels 

(Colorado State University) in August 2017. It is an overview of 

compiled geologic data prepared as part of the NPS Geologic 

Resources Inventory. This map is not a substitute for site-specific 

investigations.

The source maps used in creation of the digital geologic data are:

Morey, G.B. 1983. Evaluation of catlinite resources, Pipestone National 

Monument,Minnesota. Research/Resources Management Report 

MWR-4. National Park Service, Midwest Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

National Park Service, Midwest Region Field Area. 1997. Pipestone 

County Soil Survey (scale 1:6,000). Unpublished. National Park Service, 

Midwest Region, Omaha, Nebraska.

This digital data set was derived from the Pipestone County Soil Survey 

by the Soil Conservation Service (Hokanson et al. 1976).

All Geologic Resources Inventory geologic map data and publications 

are available at https://go.nps.gov/gripubs.