NASA/TM—2009-215294

Halophytes, Algae, and Bacteria Food and

Fuel Feedstocks

R. C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

D.M. Bushnell

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia

May 2009
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NASA/TM—2009-215294

Halophytes, Algae, and Bacteria Food and

Fuel Feedstocks

R. C. Hendricks

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

D.M. Bushnell

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

May 2009
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Available electronically at http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov
Halophytes, Algae, and Bacteria Food and Fuel Feedstocks

R.C. Hendricks

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135

D.M. Bushnell

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Langley Research Center

Hampton, Virginia 23681

Summary

The constant demand for increased energy, freshwater, and food stresses our ability to meet these

demands within reasonable cost and impact on climate change while sustaining quality of life. This

environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and water, while provoked by anthropogenic

monetary and power struggles, can also be resolved through an anthropogenic paradigm shift in how we

produce and use energy, water, and food. With world population (6.6 billion) projected to increase

40 percent in 40 to 60 yr, proper development of saline agriculture and aquaculture is required, as

43 percent of the Earth’s landmass is arid or semi-arid and 97 percent of the Earth’s water is seawater.

Using diverse arid areas with a total size equivalent to the Sahara desert, 8.6x10 8 hectare, it is shown that

(1) Developing biomass to its theoretical limits with 230 W/m2 daily solar incident radiation could

produce 6 kQ/yr (1 quad (Q) = 10 15 Btu), or 13 times the world energy consumption (World Q) in 2004 of

approximately 446.4 Q.

(2) State-of-the-art CO2-force-fed algae systems with 10 percent useful product (2g/m2 per day) could

produce 24 percent of the World Q (year 2004). In theory, these ponds or ponds co-located with flue gas

desulphurization (FGD) CO2 recovery system power plants could produce well over 10 times that, or over

2.4 times World Q (2004).

(3) Low-maintenance, low-capital-cost halophyte agriculture could produce 7.1 Q/yr seed-oil

petroleum equivalent (assuming no processing losses).

(4) Converting half of the halophyte cellulosic biomass to an oil could produce an additional

90.5 Q/yr petroleum equivalent (no processing losses).

(5) Biomass oils having nutritional values are best suited as food feedstocks, and the cellulosic

material as both fuel and food feedstocks.

(6) It is important to return proper residue proportions to the soil to help maintain soil carbon and

fertility. A goal would be terra preta soils while mitigating risks associated with biomass containment.

Entire community life cycle saline agriculture and aquaculture is being developed. Such communities

could free up freshwater and arable land for food with an abundance of energy, favorably impacting the

environmental Triangle of Conflicts (energy, food, and water) and reducing harmful emissions including

particulates.

The consequences of inaction in controlling the Triangle of Conflicts with attendant emissions

peaking and levels are shown to have graphic similarities to those found in the Permian and dinosaur

periods—each of which led to mass extinction. We are now dealing with existential issues.

NASA/TM—2009-215294
Introduction

Humanity is locked into an environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and water

(ref. 1) that is in dire need of resolution. Almost daily there is news about ever-increasing demands,

starving people, threatened freshwater resources, climate change, and catastrophic storms all in various

states of crisis. What is happening? What is driving all these problems?

Anthropogenic global climatic changes are being driven by energy demands, depletion of freshwater

resources as well as atmospheric, soil, freshwater, and seawater pollution. There is increasing

desertification. Also, sea levels are rising faster than anticipated and oceans are warming, which are

threatening the release of methane (20 times worse than CO2 as a greenhouse gas) that is currently stranded

in hydrate form both in the ocean and permafrost regions (ref. 2). Current CO 2 levels and rate of increase

mimic those for the Permian and dinosaur periods of mass extinction. Humanity must respond to such an

existential matter because the consequences of inaction can be devastating, as noted in the appendix.

We are a planet in transition:

(1) Our world population of 6.6 billion (B) (2007) is projected to increase 40 percent to over 9 B in 2050.

(2) Feeding these people with conventional agriculture will require a 40-percent increase in Earth’s

arable land or equivalent productivity increases.

(3) Developing countries are seeing major market growth, demanding unprecedented increases in

energy, water, and food.

(4) Aviation petroleum-based fuel consumption alone is anticipated to grow 4 percent per yr and in

5 yr will require 116 B gal/yr to meet that demand (approx. 95B gal/yr, 2007).

(5) The world energy consumption (World Q) is projected to grow to 600 quad (Q).

The question humanity is asking or needs to be asking is, “is their a way, or ways, to provide for our

food and energy needs, while conserving freshwater, and still have a positive benefit on global climate?”

While it will require a paradigm shift in the way we use and invest in our natural resources, the short

answer is, “Yes!”

Biomass 1

 is one of the Earth’s most abundant natural resources that directly addresses humanity’s concerns

over global resources for energy, food, and freshwater—the Triangle of Conflicts—and climatic changes.

Biomass and its processing involves multiple stages from planting to harvesting with competitive

demands between the freshwater and agricultural resources used as food and those used for fuel. Some

processed biomass is more suitable for human and animal foods and others for fuels such as biodiesel or

alcohols. Nontoxic seed oils, for example, are more suitable as food, and the post-processing residuals as

either animal foods or fuel feedstocks. Processed seed-oil residuals are often the more valuable of the

products. Biomass not suitable for either human or animal food because of toxicity, high cellulose, or simply

bad taste, are more suitable for fuels assuming toxicity and environmental issues are resolved. In either case,

any unresolved issues regarding their toxicity and/or environmental harm—or that from products released

either during their processing into fuel or combustion of the fuel—degrades economic value.

Adding to this competition are the stresses of climate change and demands upon our arable land areas

that supply our food. These lands are at risk or are affected by salinity, which is caused by shallow or

rising water tables, underground pumping, and other factors such as pollution by nondegradable materials.

Considering that approximately 43 percent of the Earth’s landmass is arid or semi-arid and 97 percent of

the Earth’s water is seawater, these vast natural resources should be properly utilized.

1

The term “biomass” is not restricted to mean plant matter converted to biofuels; rather, herein we will refer to biomass as the

biological material produced from environmental carbon (e.g., CO2), water, and nutrients via photosynthesis; that is, inorganic

carbon is converted to organic carbon. Examples include sugarcane, soybeans, Salicornia, algae, and bacteria, where the

primary product is juice, seed oils, or cellular oils; the secondary product, process residuals, can be cost-effective food or fuel

sources; and the resultant cellulosic waste can be a fuel source or soil conditioner. Other biomass sources such as Jatropha

(toxic) are nonfood sources, and the seed oils and cellulosic matter could be modified and be processed to fuel sources.

NASA/TM—2009-215294
In light of this, we seek alternatives in plants that thrive in brackish and saltwater with the ability to

survive in arid lands. The development and application of these plants (halophytes) become the primary

focus. Herein we introduce some not-so-familiar halophytes and present a few of their benefits, cite a few

research projects (including some on the alternatives algae and bacteria), and then set theoretical limits on

biomass production followed by projections in terms of world energy demands. It is realized that the

introduction of new biomass agriculture and aquaculture methods will entail control and containment risks

(ref. 3). Based on diverse arid lands with a total size equivalent to the Sahara desert (8.6x108 ha, or

2.1x109 acres),2 these projections show that halophyte agriculture3

 and algae systems can provide for

World Q.

It is also recognized there are costs required for a paradigm shift in the way mankind uses and invests

in natural resources, and of course production does not come without cost. There are a multitude of cost

metrics (ref. 5), however; thus the primary focus of this report will be biomass production, as it is

considered bad form to emphasize cost over our planet’s sick bed.

Halophytes

Halophytes are saltwater-tolerant plants. Among these many plants, three potential biomass

candidates—an annual, a perennial, and a grass, respectively—include

(1) Salicornia bigelovii (fig. 1), a leafless annual salt-marsh plant with green jointed, succulent stems

that is indigenous to the U.S. Southwest (ref. 6) and is cultivated along the Arabian Sea coasts of Pakistan

and India on the margin of salt lakes and Sri Lanka (Celon) (ref. 7) and other parts of the world. Similar

2 1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acre, 1 ha = 10 000 m2, and 1 km2 = 100 ha.

3Many other saltwater-tolerant plant projects are supported through the International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ref. 4).

NASA/TM—2009-215294
TABLE I.—PERCENTAGE ACID CONTENT OF SEED OILS

[Taken from ref. 7a.]

Fatty acids Salicornia bigelovii Safflower Soybeana,b

Commercial Refined

C16:0 palmitic 7.52±0.24 6.70±0.25 11 11.76

(7.00 to 8.50) (6.03 to 7.81)

C18:0 stearic 1.45±0.07 2.50±0.10 4.1 4.64

(1.24 to 1.69) (2.05 to 3.00)

C18:1 oleic 13.42±0.56 12.30±0.70 22 24.98

(12.33 to 16.83) (9.50 to 15.70)

C18:2 linoleic (06 75.50±2.04 78.00±3.50 54 55.41

(74.66 to 79.49) (73.60 to 80.04)

C18:3 linolenic Ȧ

3

1.98±0.09 7.5 3.8

(1.50 to 2.30)

aReference 14, http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/soybean-composition.html, soybean commercial products.

bReference 15, http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0103-90162005000300014&script=sci_arttext,

soybean refined oil.

varieties have been developed and are grown by Hodges (ref. 8), Glenn (ref. 6), and Yensen (refs. 9 to 11)

(see also refs. 1, 12, and 13). Hodges (Seawater Foundation, ref. 13) has several hundred hectares under

development. The “fatty” acid (nutritional) values of three oils are addressed in table I, which shows, for

example, Salicornia oil comparable to safflower oil, which is known to benefit cardiovascular health.

However, large field trials with subsequent processing for Salicornia oils are currently lacking.

(2) Seashore mallow, Kosteletzkya virginica (KV), a perennial among the many saltwater-tolerant

plants that grow in the wilds of coastal marshlands or inland brackish lakes (fig. 2). With the rise of sea

levels due to glacial melt imperiling seashores, halophytes and saltwater algae are being looked upon as

major sources of food and fuel feedstocks (ref. 1).

Schill (ref. 18) reports that a 2.5-acre developing test plot of seashore mallow produced 13 bu/acre of

seed in a very dry season (fig. 3). The oil content of seashore mallow is also similar to that of soybeans

(about 18 percent) with a fatty acid composition more like cottonseed. Seliskar and Gallagher (ref. 16)

have presented a one-page summary of this work. The concept is to establish a carefree crop: enter the

field once to plant or apply fertilizer and/or pre-emergent and once to harvest.

(3) Distichlis spicata, a halophyte grass (fig. 4). Halophyte grasses are being planted in response to

saline-affected lands. In the year 2000, Australia had an estimated 5.7 million saline-affected hectares

with potential to reach 17 million ha (170 000 km2) by 2050 (ref. 20).

NASA/TM—2009-215294
NASA/TM—2009-215294
Distichlis spicata is most suited to the high temperatures and high-radiation regimes during the warm

summer months of southern Australia (M.R. Sargeant, 2008, Department of Agricultural Sciences, La

Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia, private communication (see also ref. 21)). This species

not only has the ability to grow and spread in saline waterlogged soils, but also produces valuable green

feed in moist saline discharge soils during the summer period. Such forage has real value for mixedfarming biomass systems.

Arid-area halophytes are being studied as potential sources of biofuels that do not compete with

agricultural resources devoted to food production (ref. 22; Amram Eshel (http://www.tau.ac.il/~amram/)

and Yoav Waisel (waisel@post.tau.ac.il), 2007, Tel Aviv University, Israel, communications on Israeli

halophytes; and Moshe Silberbush, 2007, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, personal communication).

In the deserts of the world, areas that are not currently under cultivation could become productive using

saline or reclaimed water. Even the so-called second-generation plants—castor beans and Jathropha—will

not grow well under arid conditions, yet over 50 t/ha/yr dry biomass has been achieved under desert

conditions and reclaimed water irrigation. Until efficient methods for cellulose degradation are available,

these could be used for earning Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) credits (ref. 23) by afforestation

projects in developing countries and proper management of soil carbon and remediation practices

(ref. 24). The low investment costs for halophyte production could mean that they would be ideal

economically and agriculturally.

Algae Research

Realizing the availability of seawater and arid land, that “there is only 0.03 percent CO 2 in our

(lower) atmosphere and on this thin thread hangs our very existence” (ref. 25), and that increasing that

concentration also increases biomass productivity, we begin to force feed biomass to produce both food

and fuel.

Mituya et al. (ref. 26) reported on a combustor gas generator pilot plant. The algae beds were CO 2-

force-fed, covered-trough systems, citing 3.5 g/m2-day average biomass growth. In 1952, Arthur D. Little

(ref. 27) reported on pilot plants and economics of biomass culture of algae systems where the algae were

force fed bottled CO2 mixed with air.

Force feeding usually requires co-location with a CO2 source (e.g., a power plant, large-capacity CO2

tanks, or pipelines). Further, whether open- or covered-pond or forced-fed systems, some algae are hardy,

some are delicate, and some are better suited for food or specialized products. Delicate algae are not very

tolerant to variations in their nutrient and CO2 supply or their environment (e.g., temperature, salinity,

density, mechanical stress, pH, etc.). Their yields and product quality can drop dramatically and are often

wiped out by predators or other algal species. However, there are others that are hardy and can withstand

these variations without much loss in yield and are more suitable for fuel production or that will permit

more contaminates and less restraints in terms of food production.

Current algae issues are very nicely covered by Ben-Amotz (ref. 28, unpublished), who considered an

operational algae plant and investigated processes and methods to reduce associated costs. Agreements

between producers, processors, and marketers are plentiful; for example, Inventurechem.com has a

collaboration with Seambiotic Ltd. and the Israel Electric Corp. AlgaTech in Israel (ref. 29) and Earthrise

Nutritionals LLC in Calipatria, California, U.S.A. (ref. 30), are commercial food suppliers with a large

industry in Indonesia supplying food supplements to Japan.

A nonfood algae production analysis presented at the San Francisco Algal Summit (ref. 28,

unpublished) shows a 50:1 cost reduction using CO 2 stackgas from FGD4-Power Station, Ashkelon, Israel

(431 mt/hr CO2, or 10 344 mt/day CO2), with average mid-large station at 4000 mt/hr CO2 ; algae raceway

ponds were co-located with the power plant. In round numbers, 2 kg biomass requires 1 kg water and 3 kg

CO2 plus maybe up to 1 kg nitrogen (N) nutrient fertilizers (questionable). For complete capture and

stoichiometric conversion, a natural-gas-fired powerplant producing 4000 mt/hr CO2 has the potential to

4Flue gas desulfurization.

NASA/TM—2009-215294
produce 2660 mt/hr biomass while consuming 1330 mt/hr water; this is equivalent to 16 000 mt biomass

produced, using 7980 mt water and about 8000 mt N nutrients each day, assuming 6 hr/day of production

and the 18 hr of excess CO2 produced would require sequestration. Here, the need for higher cost

phosphorous (P) is reduced, and the use of seawater would provide up to 80 percent of the essential

nutrients.

The VertiGro system (ref. 31) and those of Rodolfi et al. (ref. 32) essentially turn a flat-surface

greenhouse into a greenhouse with a series of vertical surfaces for biomass production. Flat or verticalsurface greenhouse systems are similar to the more common uniformly spaced horizontal or vertical

tubular bioreactors where specialized biomass such as algae are used for food supplements or additives.

One still requires ample sunlight, nutrients, contaminant control, and CO 2 as discussed by Dimitrov

(ref. 33) for a similar scaleable modular photobioreactor system. Nevertheless, overcoming the light

saturation effects (LSE) are to some extent aided by vertical greenhouse systems (ref. 34). (See also other

algae sources; e.g., http://www.algalbiomass.org/ and http://www.nationalalgaeassociation.com/.)

Bacteria Research

Cyanobacteria are some of the oldest bacterial forms known and are found in almost any habitat on

Earth. The chloroplast, which enables plants and algae food production, facilitates an endosymbiotic

relation between cyanobacteria living within plant or algae cells. The bacterial genomes are thus easier to

modify than algae and higher plants. They can fix both nitrogen and carbon with energy obtained through

photosynthesis (refs. 35 to 37).

Bacteria are prolific and reproduce rapidly. With proper conditioning in terms of nutrients, CO 2, and

so forth, they can be harvested daily. Their maturation cycle corresponds to the solar day; however, night

and cloud cover need to be properly addressed. Natural or modified bacteria can be used to absorb solar

energy at different wavelengths, and some can tolerate extremes in temperature such as those found in the

hot springs at Yellowstone National Park. Bacterial biomass have significant potential to achieve the

100 g/m2-day theoretical biomass limits set by Weismann (ref. 38) and discussed in the next section. The

yield is quite significant, yet very challenging in terms of daily harvesting operations, scale-up to larger

facilities, and biomass containment risks (ref. 39).

Theoretical Biomass Limits

The question now becomes, “just how much energy do plants collect from the Sun, and at what

efficiency do they convert inorganic carbon to organic carbon?”

Plants produce carbohydrates through the metabolic process of photosynthesis, in which radiant

energy is used to convert inorganic carbon into organic carbon (ref. 40):

CO2 + H2O + nutrients + radiant energy (hv) --* Cm(H2O) n + O2 + (H2O)x + ATP

or

CO2 + H2O + NH3 + Photons --+ Biomass(CNxHyOz) + O2

where ATP is the nucleotide adenosinetriphosphate and assuming plants take in required nutrients (e.g.,

NO3 and NH3 ).

Plant photosynthesis occurs primarily in the visible spectrum (400 to 700 nm, with a dip near 600 nm

(green)), which is about 45 percent of the incident solar spectrum called photosynthetically active

radiation (PAR) (ref. 41). The average energy of a mole of PAR photons is 217 kJ.

Plants require 8 to 12 photons to fix one molecule of CO2 ; one mole of fixed-CO2-equivalent

chemical biomass energy is 475 kJ. The theoretical photosynthetic efficiency (1) in terms of PAR is

NASA/TM—2009-215294
22 percent or (2) in terms of total solar spectra, the photosynthetic efficiency is 22% x 45% = 10%, with

biomass production at 100 g/m2-day dry biomass (refs. 28 (unpublished) and 38).

Sugarcane is among the best solar energy-to-biomass converters with a photosynthetic efficiency of

2 percent producing up to 24 g/m2-day biomass compared with temperate-zone agriculture at 1/4 to

1 percent. Current halophyte efficiencies and production are similar to soybeans, and algae open-pond

systems is 3.1 percent total solar at 20 g/m2-day dry biomass (see Table II).

TABLE II.—THEORETICAL AND CURRENT PRACTICE BIOMASS PRODUCTION

AND CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES

Conversion efficiency a Yielda

Theoretical PAR, 22 percent

Total solar, 10 percent

100 g-dry-biomass/m2-day

Current practice

Agricultural crops Best: 2 percent total solar

Normal: 0.3 percent

Halophytes Similar to soybeans (see below)

Algae (high solar zone) 3.1 percent total solar 20 g-dry-biomas/m2-day

Biomass food and fuel

feedstocksb

Palm oil productionc 1187 gal/ha-yr = 3.25 gal/ha-dayd

Soybean oil productione 150 gal/ha-yr = 0.4 gal/ha-day

Algae oil productionf4900 gal/ha-yr = 13.4 gal/ha-day

Brazil ethanol 1604 gal/ha-yr = 4.4 gal-ethanol/ha-day

aUseful conversion factors: m2

/ha = 104 , 106 Btu = 293.1 kWhr, 1 kcal/day = 0.0484 W, Q =

1015 Btu, and Heat Content: biodiesel = 1.26× 10 5 (Btu/gal) and ethanol = 0.84× 105

 (Btu/gal). bOther seed oils. For oilseeds statistics, see reference 42:

a. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2005/05-11/table4.pdf

b. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2005/05-11/table9.pdf

c. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2005/05-11/table10.pdf

d. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2005/05-11/table15.pdf

e. http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2005/05-11/table19.pdf

For tables of oilseed yields for variety of plants, see reference 43:

http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_yield.html.

For some fuel characteristics, see reference 44: http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/fueltable.pdf.

c

4 ton/ha-yr (0.89 to 0.92 gm/cm3 , 3.44 kg/gal). See reference 42 (above), reference 45

http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad2/highlights/2004/08/maypalm/index.htm, and reference 46

http://www.chempro.in/palmoilproperties.htm.

dNot all available for biodiesel; for example, extract beta-carotene.

e See reference 47: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel and reference 48

http://www.fapri.missouri.edu/outreach/publications/2006/biofuelconversions.pdf.

f23 percent conversion 20g/m2-day biomass (ref. 28, unpublished).

Halophyte Agriculture and Algae Systems

Irrigating large tracts of desert land with saltwater can have one unintended anthropomorphic effect:

namely, turning adjacent desert into farmland. The evaporating water from these planted tracts will

change the local weather pattern, resulting in condensation, and change dry climates to wetter climates.

This is the exact reverse of what is happening in large tracts of land next to the Sahara desert, where the

desert soaks up the moisture and expands into the adjacent farmlands. Such an event has been a critical

issue in Beijing for the last few decades. Because of rampant deforestation, the Gobi desert has been

creeping towards Beijing for the last few decades, and persons returning after several decades have noted

it is now much drier and sandier than it used to be. Putting large amounts of water into the desert for the

water to vaporize can potentially make places like Beijing a little wetter and promote vegetation growth,

which will in turn put more water in the atmosphere. Ultimately, it has the possibility of halting or

outright reversing the desert expansion.

NASA/TM—2009-215294
Fuel Versus Food: Adversary Feedstocks

The major issue is choosing between producing food or oil because there is a limited amount of arable

land. That is why saline agriculture—an undeveloped source of both food and fuel—is so interesting.

Saline agriculture, when combined with aquaculture, as accomplished in the Manzanar Project (ref. 49),

Seawater Farms Eritrea, and Mexico Project (see refs. 12 and 13), provides food, fuel feedstocks, habitat,

and redistribution of freshwater resources. Seawater irrigation requires a lot of water, around 4 ft/yr for

each acre.

Yet seawater irrigation also provides about 80 percent of the nutrients needed for plant growth and

requires only additions of phosphorous, iron, and nitrogen, suggesting the need for genetically modified

nitrogen-fixing halophytes (ref. 50). Soybeans and alfalfa are good arable-crop (glycophyte) nitrogenfixing food and fuel feedstocks; if those same characteristics can be developed in halophytes and

combined with aquaculture, as in tilapia farming, we are on the road to both food and feedstocks for oil

independence. However it is important to combine these efforts with meteorology and global climate

modeling to ensure that redistribution of seawater to arid and semi-arid regions (terra forming) provides a

favorable climate balance and avoids adverse and unintentional consequences, such as anthropogenic

global warming (ref. 50).

The point is that through research in diverse plant development and processing, engineered to produce

higher yields and more efficient use of these oils, 5 biofuel feedstocks could provide a larger and larger

portion of the transportation fuel demand. For food production, for example, Bushnell (ref. 50) cites cases

of genomic-derived halophyte tomatoes, eggplant, rice, wheat, and rapeseed, which appear to be quite

successful. Also, irrigation agriculture is diverse, and has produced a large portion of fruits, nuts, and

vegetables and also contributing to forage, fiber, industrial (paper, rubber, resins, solvents, and others),

medicine, and ornamental products (ref. 51). When it is combined with aquaculture, such as fish or shrimp

farming, there are benefits to both in terms of long-term sustained production (refs. 17, 52, and 53).

Fuel-Food Feedstock and Freshwater Possibilities

Consider the possibilities of producing food and fuel feedstocks while conserving freshwater: 6 Since

43 to 44 percent of the Earth landmass is arid or semi-arid, there is the potential for developing a

multiplicity of seawater-irrigated regions to produce halophyte crops and combine them with aquaculture.

Now suppose that the size of these diverse, multiple regions is that of the Sahara desert (ref. 56),

8.6x108 ha, and these diverse regions produce 100 bbl/ha-yr of bio-oil (bbl is barrel): The total equivalent

energy produced would be 421.4 Q, or 94 percent of the 2004 World Q (ref. 55).

Developing biomass to its theoretical limits with total solar incident radiation at 230 W/m 2 daily on

various arid areas with a total size of the Sahara desert (8.6× 10 8 ha, 13.6 percent of world arid or semiarid lands) could produce 5.92 kQ/yr, or 13 times the World Q (2004).'

For this same arid (desert) area, current state-of-the-art, CO2-force-fed open-pond algae systems with

10 percent usefuel biomass (2 g/m2-day) product can produce 106 Q/yr of petroleum equivalent, which is

24 percent of the World Q (2004). This production volume is also equivalent to 37 percent of the world

liquid fuel consumption (2004), two-thirds (approx. 24 percent) of which is considered to be

5For cost effectiveness, the nontoxic byproducts (e.g., nutrients used as ruminant animal food) can be significantly more

important than the seed oils.

6Earth land size 148.9x 106 km2 (148.9x108 ha), 29.2 percent of its surface (ref. 54). The size of the Sahara desert is 8.6x106 km2

(8.6x 108 ha), envelopes nearly all of Northern Africa, and is about the same size as the total U.S. landmass (9.2 x106 km2 , or

9.2x 108

 ha). A barrel (bbl) of oil equivalent to a barrel of bio-oil, corrected for energy content to No. 2 diesel, is

5.4x106 Btu/bbl x 0.91 (bio-oil to oil equivalent conversion) = 4.9x 106 Btu/bbl of bio-oil. If bio-oil production were

100 bbl/ha-yr, then total energy produced would be (8.6 x 100 x 4.9)x1014 = 42.14x1016 Btu = 421.4x1015 Btu = 421.4 Q.

World energy consumption (ref. 55) (year 2004) = 446.4 Q. United States energy consumption = 98 to 99 Q. Note 1 bbl = 42 gal.

'Average high-incident solar radiation is 230 W/m2 daily. At 10 percent maximum photosynthetic conversion, this becomes

0.552 kWhr daily and 6.88x109 Btu/ha-yr or 6.88x10–6 Q/ha-yr. Thus, 8.6x108 diverse assorted hectares could produce

5.92 kQ/yr or 13 times the World Q (2004).

NASA/TM—2009-215294
transportation fueling (ref. 57). In 2004, the world transportation industry used 20 to 25 percent of the

World Q (ref. 58), in good agreement with the (approx. 24 percent) cited prior (assumes no processing

losses). In laboratory and pilot experiments, CO2-force-fed algae ponds produce 10 times that much

biomass (20 g/m2-day), or 2.4 times the World Q (2004); whether, laboratory, pilot, or scale-up, each

requires co-location with sustainable sources of CO2, water, nutrients, and sunlight.

Again using this same arid area, low-maintenance and low-capital-cost halophyte agriculture could

produce 7.1 Q/yr of seed-oil petroleum equivalent. Converting half of the cellulosic biomass to an oil

would produce an additional 90.5 Q/yr petroleum equivalent (assumes no processing losses). The oils

having nutritional value are best suited as food, and the cellulosic material as both fuel and food

feedstocks. 5

It is important to return a proper proportion of the processing residuals to the soil to help maintain soil

carbon (see terra preta soils, ref. 24), as long as any potential pathogens are monitored and controlled.

Halophyte agriculture is low maintenance and a low-capital investment. Entire community halophyte

agriculture/aquaculture, as proposed for example by Hodges et al. (ref. 8) (fig. 5) 8 could free up

freshwater supply and arable lands for food production while reducing ocean rise ingress onto arable land.

Freeing up freshwater with its abundance of energy and food dramatically impacts the Triangle of

Conflicts—energy, water, and food—which are the resources that spawn conflicts (even fighting) among

people and nations.

Supposing that the production, logistics, and political issues could be overcome, the total energy from

such arid land sources scattered over the Earth would be sufficient to meet the world’s energy demands

(refs. 60 and 61). As such, if humanity chose, and if we became committed, it could be accomplished.

8An enhanced picture of saline agriculture/energy production. Currently the majority of the world’s energy production comes

from a few countries. However, the move to energy production from halophytes, algae, bacteria, and solar photovoltaic, solar

thermal, drilled geothermal, and wind has the potential to distribute energy production more evenly over diverse areas

throughout the world. It could also play a big role in the Green Revolution that is currently occurring in Africa and other parts

of the world. Imagine the impacts on communities within Africa alone; if they had the potential to produce and export energy

for the world. This would provide many regions with the means to feed themselves and raise their standard of living. It also

provides future investment for the Middle-East countries, as well as the Americas and others, that currently produce a lot of

our petroleum-based energy—providing them with a future income stream when the current reserves of fossil fuels diminish

and eventually run out. These countries have large tracts of desert and arid lands with access to plentiful saline water (both

groundwater and ocean water). Another aspect is that there are other benefits such as environmental (e.g., effects of sea level

rise), which are delineated for example by Sargeant (ref. 59) and Hodges (ref. 8). Also re-vegetating areas would provide new

habitat for wildlife. There would be so many spinoffs, including social and environmental ones that would also be brought

along if we were to move in the direction of saline energy production (ref. 8 and M.R. Sargeant, 2008, Department of

Agricultural Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC 3086, Australia, private communication.).

NASA/TM—2009-215294 10
Conclusions

The stresses of climate change and the demands upon arable land areas that supply our food and

freshwater resources are incompatible with our demands for transportation fueling. These lands are at risk

or affected by salinity, which is caused by shallow or rising water tables, underground pumping, and other

factors such as pollution by nondegradable materials.

1. Humanity is locked into an environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and water

provoked by anthropogenic global climatic changes and is questioning if there is a resolution. While it

will require a paradigm shift in the way we use and invest in our natural resources, the short answer is,

Yes!

2. The world population, 6.6 billion (B) is projected to increase 40 percent in 40 to 60 years and will

demand energy, freshwater, and food. Within the next 5 years, aviation fueling alone will increase from

an estimated 95 B gal/yr (2007) to 116 B gal/yr while world energy consumption (World Q, 1 quad (Q) =

1015 Btu) demand grows to 600 Q. With such increases in energy, food, and freshwater demands, how are

we to meet them?

3. These demands can be met by properly using the Earth’s vast resources for saline agriculture and

aquaculture; 43 percent of the Earth’s landmass is arid or semi-arid, and 97 percent of the Earth’s water is

seawater. To illustrate the use of saline agriculture, an arid area comprising diverse, multiple regions

totaling the size of the Sahara desert, 8.6x10 8 ha, is used:

a. Developing biomass to its theoretical limits with average solar incidence at 230 W/m 2 daily could

produce 5.92 kQ/yr, or 13 times World Q (year 2004).

b. State-of-the-art algae systems with 10 percent useful product (2 g/m2-day) could produce

106 Q/yr petroleum equivalent, which is 24 percent of the World Q. This production volume is also

equivalent to 37 percent of the world liquid fuel consumption (2004), two-thirds of which is considered to

be transportation fueling. In 2004, the world transportation industry used 20 to 25 percent of the World Q

(assuming no processing losses).

In theory, both algae ponds force fed with CO2 from tanks and those co-located with power plants

(e.g., coal fired ) equipped with flue gas desulphurization (FGD) CO2-recovery systems can each produce

over 10 times that much (>20 g/m2-day), or nearly 2.4 times the World Q (2004).

c. Low maintenance, low-capital-cost halophyte agriculture could produce 7.1 Q/yr seed-oil

petroleum equivalent. Converting half of the cellulosic biomass to an oil would produce an additional

90.5 Q/yr petroleum equivalent (assuming no processing losses).

d. The oil nutritional values are best suited as food and the cellulosic material as fuel and food

feedstocks. The potential for any residuals to be animal or fish feedstocks depend on their nutrient value

and toxicity.

e. It is important to return proper proportions of residue to the soil to help maintain soil carbon and

fertility with pathogen control; a goal would be terra preta soils with very low biomass containment risk.

4. Entire community saline agriculture and aquaculture as being developed presently could free up

freshwater and arable lands for food with an abundance of energy, which drastically impacts the

environmental Triangle of Conflicts (energy, water, and food), which are the resources that spawn

conflicts (even fighting) among people and nations.

5. Emissions peaking and levels have graphic similarities to those found in the Permian and dinosaur

periods—each of which led to mass extinction. We are now dealing with existential issues, and the

consequences of inaction in controlling the environmental Triangle of Conflicts can be severe.

NASA/TM—2009-215294 11

Appendix—Consequences of Inaction

(Elements of Mass Extinction)

Humanity is locked into an environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and freshwater

(ref. 1) that is crying out for resolution, and we must deal with its associated problems (including harmful

emissions CO2, NOx, ultrafines, etc.). Almost daily we hear about ever-increasing energy costs, desertification,

starving people, threatened freshwater resources, climate change, uncontrolled emissions, and catastrophic

storms all in various states of crisis. What is happening? What is driving all these problems?

As of 2008, and in the near future, it appears that the power-generation and transportation industries

will be heavily dependent on hydrocarbon-based fuels, with transportation based heavily on petroleum

fueling. These industries, while the keys to economic strength, have engendered a multiplicity of

problems centered on the environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and water that

requires resolution for survival of humanity. Industrial and transportation combustion cycle heat engines

generate CO2, particulates (ultrafines), and of course heat. Ultrafines present serious pulmonary (ref. 62)

and vascular (ref. 63) human health hazards and are likely to also affect living matter in general. One

action being taken to reduce the production of ultrafines is through the use of dimethylether (DME) as a

fuel or fuel-blend (ref. 64) since DME fueling diminishes both NOx and ultrafines (particulates).

Excessive anthropogenic CO2 and the rate at which CO2 is being generated has been implemented in

climate change models and found to be largely responsible for current climate changes and those yet to be

felt. The introduction and blending of biomass industrial and transportation fueling will reduce both the

level and the rate of CO2 release yet still support combustion cycle heat engines.

We now want to investigate the consequences of inaction in decreasing our reliance on conventional

hydrocarbon-based fueling.

Recent uncontrolled anthropogenic CO2 levels and peaking rates are shown to be similar to those

found in the Permian and dinosaur periods each of which led to mass extinction. The latter were natural

events, and the former stem from abuses within the environmental Triangle of Conflicts. We are now

dealing with existential issues.

While theories and popular notions abound as to how dinosaurs vanished 65 million years ago (Mya),

their pursuit incubated searches that have enabled construction of an increasingly refined timeline of the

Earth spanning over 400 000 yr. The two largest Earth mass extinctions are dated to the Paleozic era (Old

life) beginning 530 Mya and ending with mass extinction 250 Mya (Permian period), followed by

Mesozioc era (Middle life) ending with mass extinction 65 Mya (when the dinosaurs became extinct),

followed by Cenozoic era (New life) to present day and the potential of an impending anthropogenicengendered mass extinction.

To explain such an event as mass extinction, the Alvarez group (see ref. 65) and most of the scientific

community settled upon asteroid/meteorite/comet impact displacing large amounts of debris into the

atmosphere obliterating incident solar radiation, plunging the planet into darkness and a near lifeless, cold

prolonged winter. Still, a few others pursued an unpopular, often belittled, position that changes in

thermochemical balances of the Earth’s oceans and atmosphere trigger such events. Similar theories are

applied to the great extinction at the end of the Permian period, where 90 percent of the life on Earth is

believed to have vanished.

Resolving these polarized positions has required timeline refinements, massive amounts of geological

data, and a significant boost from computational modeling. The emerging timeline shows many extinction

events with a general increase in diversification of species (ref. 65).

To construct the timeline, isotope techniques applied to core and rock samples provided initial metrics

to characterize the climate at specific times. The photosynthesis-based meter relied on the 12C: 13C ratio,

providing evidence exploited by both groups. The isotope 12C is the isotope of choice of plant

photosynthesis, leaving 13C in the atmospheric CO2 reservoir; some marine species, such as shell-forming

clams, use either isotope, and rapid decay of isotope 14C dates events to 80 000 yr. The geothermal-based

meter relies on the 16O:

18O ratio, noting that less 18

O is taken up in mineral trappings during warmer

periods. Chromatographic techniques have refined and sharpened the Earth’s climatic timeline.

NASA/TM—2009-215294 13
Geological data reveal changes in the Earth’s magnum spilling out over large regions forming basalts,

such as the Siberian Traps (see ref. 65) with massive CO2 release. Other data show changes in ocean

thermal- and salt-concentration-driven currents with changes in the thermocline (and halocline) and

oxygen stratification, leading to deep-water anoxia that supports sulfur-loving bacteria; these changes are

also affected by the Earth’s plates and orbit and of course, the Sun.

Life forms are held in a delicate balanced coupling between incident solar flux involving van Alan

belts, ozone and atmospheric layer shields, magnum, the core, and the Earth’s oceans, which constitute

nearly 71 percent (ref. 66) of its surface, providing heat, mass, and chemical exchange. Data show that

changes in Earth’s ocean currents, shift of plates, and volcanic and basalt formations altered this delicate

balance. It is to these changes caused by global warming—with ocean O 2 loss due to CO2 acidification

and anoxic oceans spawning H2S and CH4 releases coupled with massive basalt and volcanic CO 2 release

(Siberian Traps)—that we attribute the 90 percent extinction rate of the Permian period 250 Mya and the

dinosaurs 65 Mya with an estimated 60 percent extinction rate.

As such, it is to these data (including that of the Permian period) and past extinction events that we

draw the parallels with current natural and anthropogenic effects on our planet and our own existence (see

table III). The key factors seem to be BOTH the level (now nearing 400 ppm) and the rate of change of

CO2 in the atmosphere.

TABLE III.—EFFECTS OF CO2

 ON EARTH DURING PERMIAN PERIOD COMPARED WITH CURRENT TRENDS

Permian period, approximately 60 million years ago Current

(CO2 from Permian Siberian volcanoes) (Human activities generate over 100 times that CO2)

Fossil data indicates CO2

 warming. GREATLY accelerating and amplifying warming. Balanced cooling

effects from volcanic debris and SO 2

.

Fossil methane released. 22 times worse than CO 2

 for warming, coming from tundra and

oceans (immense amounts sequestered).

Fossil CO2 released. Fossil CO2 release and release from anthropogenic activities.

Warming oceans and increased ocean acidification reduces Global ocean warming and increased ocean acidification reduce CO2

algae growth and promotes O 2 decline and anoxia. uptake, resulting in O2 decline and anoxia (e.g., Black Sea bottom).

Ice melting due to albedo changes and warming. Faster ice melting, resulting in albedo changes.

Atmospheric water (assumed) leads to increased Water evaporates and is THE warming gas, leading to increased

atmospheric temperatures. atmospheric temperatures (some 12 to 14 °C by 2100).

At these temperatures, ALL the ice melts (beyond 2100): oceans rise

80 m, destroying homes of 2.5 billion people and engendering plate

movements and volcanic activities.

Ocean circulators stop. Temperature and saline differences drive ocean circulators, which

largely disappear; circulation slows, changes directions, or stops.

Oceans go anoxic, promoting anoxic bacteria that love Happening NOW, losing a chunk of ocean equal in size to state of

sulfur and produce H2S. Texas each year to anoxic conditions. Anoxic bacteria produce H2S;

warmth causes sporadic release of CH4 hydrates.

CH4 and H2S releases destroy ozone layer and make CH4 and H2S releases destroy ozone layer and make atmosphere toxic.

atmosphere toxic. Estimated 90 percent extinction. Acid rain destroys plant, animal, and human life as now known.

Potential 95 percent species extinction.

IF all of the methane and CO2 are released from the oceans, then we

become VENUS: Harsh climate of Venus is a result of greenhouse

effect from volcanic activity with CO 2 release.

Volcanic CO2 and SO2

Estimates place volcanic CO2 release at 130 to 180 B (billion) kg/yr (ref. 67), but anthropogenic CO 2

emissions are on the order of 150 times larger. Other estimates place volcanism at 500 B kg/yr, which

when combined with natural biomass cycles, places the atmospheric CO 2 reservoir near 2.2× 10 15 kg. Our

current land use and fossil fuel consumption produce a net of 17.6× 10 12 kg/yr that has progressively

increased that CO2 reservoir estimate to 2.69× 10 15 kg (refs. 68 to 70).

The 1970 to 1977 time-averaged subaerial volcanic SO2 emissions flux is 13 B kg/yr (13× 10 12 g/yr);

4 B kg from eruptions and 9 B kg from passive degassing (ref. 71). Total natural sulfur release is about

24 B kg/yr with anthropogenic contribution at 79 B kg/yr mostly in the Northern Hemisphere (ref. 71).

NASA/TM—2009-215294 14
Warming Problems

The consequences of present-day warming climatic changes and rapid rise of CO 2 as occurred in the

Permian extinction affect human health and result in an increase in tropical diseases (e.g., malaria), the

loss of birds with an increase of insects, storm mortality, sea-level rises, starvation, a decline in grain

production and increase in tropical fruit and starches among many others, and serious rapid population

growth with threats of warfare (nuclear) and outright colonization. Over 2000 years ago the Sahara was

the breadbasket of the Roman Empire; now it is a desert as a result of climate change. Based on informed

predictions, it becomes imperative that CO2 plateau at 450 ppm for survival as we know it (ref. 65), but

most likely will level off near 800 ppm with massive destruction before humanity will do anything about

it. Battisti (ref. 72 and cited pp. 194 to 199 in ref. 65) thinks it will be worse and peak at 1100 ppm, and

he provides a ghostly description of the new world. In addition, Battisti feels that climate models based on

the Eocene epoch (warming period beginning 60 Mya and ending 33 Mya with no ice left at the poles, see

extinction map, ref. 73) are inadequate to apply to this century—the extent of extinction of living species

cannot be surmised. Ward adds his own three scenarios (pp. 200 to 204, ref. 65), which parallel the

scenarios of Battisti and those of Hansen (2005, 2006, and fig. 6).

Hanson’s model (refs. 74 and 75) shows “business as usual” (upper locus, fig. 6), which according

to Ward (ref. 65) and Battisti (ref. 72) leads to mass extinction. Hansen’s alternative scenario leads to

NASA/TM—2009-215294 15
benign-warming at less than 1 °C (lower locus, fig. 6). Hendricks (ref. 2), considering methane fuels and

methane release from methane hydrates, also warns if that climate thermal changes follow Hansen’s

upper locus in figure 6, it is questionable if humanity or other living matter can survive, as none can

convert methane gas to oxygen. Planetary life is headed for extinction; meanwhile we continue to argue

legality of our planet’s fragile state even to the Supreme Court (ref. 76). The Battisti et al. Supreme Court

Brief also cites the detrimental effects of unabated greenhouse gas release (primarily CO2, CH4, N2O, and

fluorocarbons) and notes that time is critical in acting upon their reduction.

Climate Control

Seawater and CO2 levels are rising as occurred in the Permian and other periods, but this time it is

due to anthropogenic effects. Engineering approaches to anthropogenically control the climate have been

suggested to reverse these risings.

Crutzen (ref. 77) proposed to alter Earth albedo by burning S2 or H2S in the stratosphere that converts

to SO2 sub-micrometer sulfate particles. As our planetary ecological system is in such a delicate balance,

these types of climate control measures appear too dangerous to implement.

There are too many unknowns, given that small changes can have large irreversible effects on that

balance. This is also acknowledged by Crutzen who states that albedo enhancement should only be used

when proven advantageous and when humanity commits, with all diligence, to support the reduction of

greenhouse gases; he is not optimistic the support will be there, however, noting that global military

expenditures, for example, are approaching US$ 1000 billion (nearly half by the United Sates alone).

The Seawater Foundation approach to climate control is the use of arid and marginal lands and

seawater rivers, in a complete life cycle, producing food-fuel feedstocks while conserving freshwater—an

approach not considered by Crutzen. The approach is also anthropogenic but offers an effective

countermeasure to the Permian scenario of general warming with rapid CO2 rise and impending mass

extinction. It also affords an enhancement in biodiversity in contrast to recent trends toward specialized

food sources, which virtually eliminate biodiversity.

A continuation of discussions and a summary of climate change problems is provided by

Meinshausen et al. (ref. 78).

NASA/TM—2009-215294 16
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NASA/TM—2009-215294 21
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4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

Halophytes, Algae, and Bacteria Food and Fuel Feedstocks

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6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER

Hendricks, R., C.; Bushnell, D., M.

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13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

14. ABSTRACT

The constant, increasing demand for energy, freshwater, and food stresses our ability to meet these demands within reasonable cost and

impact on climate while sustaining quality of life. This environmental Triangle of Conflicts between energy, food, and water--while

provoked by anthropogenic monetary and power struggles--can be resolved through an anthropogenic paradigm shift in how we produce and

use energy, water, and food. With world population (6.6 billion) projected to increase 40 percent in 40 to 60 yr, proper development of

saline agriculture and aquaculture is required, as 43 percent of the Earth’s landmass is arid or semi-arid and 97 percent of the Earth’s water

is seawater. In light of this, we seek fuel alternatives in plants that thrive in brackish and saltwater with the ability to survive in arid lands.

The development and application of these plants (halophytes) become the primary focus. Herein we introduce some not-so-familiar

halophytes and present a few of their benefits, cite a few research projects (including some on the alternatives algae and bacteria), and then

set theoretical limits on biomass production followed by projections in terms of world energy demands. Based on diverse arid lands with a

total size equivalent to the Sahara Desert (8.6 ́108 ha, or 2.1 ́109 acres), these projections show that halophyte agriculture and algae systems

can provide for the projected world energy demand.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Biofuels; Halophytes; Algae; Renewable fuels; Alternate fuels; Aviation; Emissions

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