December 2004

United States Department of the Interior • Bureau of Land Management

Hazardous Waste 

Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414 Production services provided by:

BLM National Science and Technology Center

Branch of Publishing Services

Kathy Rohling, editing; Janine Koselak, layout and design

Technical Note 414

BLM/ST/ST-04/001+1703

This document is available on the National Science and Technology Center website at

www.blm.gov/nstc
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

By:

Pamela S. Innis

Environmental Engineer

National Science and Technology Center

Denver, Colorado

Hazardous Waste 

Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

December 2004

United States Department of the Interior • Bureau of Land Management
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414 Suggested citation:

Innis, Pamela S. 2004. Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics, Technical Note 414. Bureau of Land

Management, Denver, Colorado. BLM/ST/ST-04/001+1703. 35 pages.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Abstract

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible for addressing releases of

hazardous substances on public lands under their jurisdiction. This technical note

provides technical guidance to those responsible for overseeing or conducting

environmental sampling activities; provides information and references to assist field

personnel in implementing technically consistent and responsive analytical sampling

programs at hazardous waste sites; introduces the concepts and issues related to

analytical sampling at hazardous waste sites; and provides a quick reference to

websites and documents that can assist field personnel in implementing a site

characterization plan.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Table of Contents

Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i

Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

Existing Site Information -----------------------------------------------------------------------3

Historical Research -------------------------------------------------------------------------3

Environmental Information ---------------------------------------------------------------3

Data Quality Objectives-------------------------------------------------------------------------5

Work Plan Development------------------------------------------------------------------------7

Field Sampling Plan ------------------------------------------------------------------------7

Quality Assurance Plan --------------------------------------------------------------------9

Sample Design ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------15

Sampling Considerations and Techniques -------------------------------------------------19

Soil -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19

Sediment------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19

Surface Water ------------------------------------------------------------------------------24

Groundwater-------------------------------------------------------------------------------24

Air --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25

Drums or Containerized Waste---------------------------------------------------------25

Waste Piles ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------26

Sludges and Slurries ----------------------------------------------------------------------26

Biota -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26

Soil Gas Surveys---------------------------------------------------------------------------27

Analytical Methods-----------------------------------------------------------------------------29

Sample Preservation----------------------------------------------------------------------29

Holding Times------------------------------------------------------------------------------30

Work Plan Implementation -------------------------------------------------------------------31

Additional Information and Technical Support -------------------------------------------33

The Bureau of Land Management-----------------------------------------------------33

The Environmental Protection Agency------------------------------------------------34

References ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35

Figures and Tables

Figure 1—Work Plan Checklist---------------------------------------------------------8

Figure 2—Chain-of-Custody Form ---------------------------------------------------13

Table 1—Method-Specific Requirements ------------------------------------------10

Table 2—Field Sampling and Collection Techniques----------------------------20

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Introduction

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers

over 260 million acres of public lands. As part of its

stewardship of these public lands, BLM is responsible

for managing abandoned mine sites; illegal trespass/

dump sites; abandoned facilities that used, stored,

or disposed of hazardous substances; retired military areas; oil and gas production sites; and other

potential hazardous waste sites. With this responsibility comes the necessity of characterizing the

type of contaminants released at these sites.

Sampling at hazardous waste sites is generally

conducted to:

• Determine the immediate hazards to responders and

the public

• Determine the short- and long-term risks to

human and ecological receptors

• Determine if there is a need for an immediate

(emergency) action or if an action is needed at all

• Determine the type of contaminants that have

been introduced into the environment and the

area that has been impacted by the release of

the hazardous substance(s)

• Determine the Federal and State rules, regulations, and specific standards that will drive the

need for cleaning up the site

• Determine the appropriate cleanup 

alternatives to mitigate current or potential

threats

The field investigation that is selected for a site

depends on the current level of knowledge about

the site and the purpose of the sampling activities.

Factors to consider when determining the methods

for collecting and analyzing data are based on

the quality of the data required. This document

will not cover hazard categorization and field

analytical methods. It should be recognized,

however, that field analytical methods, such as

the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer widely used

within BLM for detection of elemental metals,

are invaluable in supplementing laboratory

analytical data during hazardous waste site

characterization. This technical note will introduce

the concepts and issues related to analytical

sampling at hazardous waste sites and provide a

quick reference to websites and documents that

can assist field personnel in implementing a site

characterization plan.

Further information concerning field analytical methods may be found in Field Analytical and Site

Characterization Technologies—Summary of Applications, EPA-542-R-97-001, November 1997.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Existing Site Information

To adequately prepare for a field sampling effort, a

review of existing site information is necessary. Site

information can be obtained through sources such

as past or present operators, government agencies,

public citizens, databases, and libraries. The more

informed the project team is prior to developing

the sampling scheme, the more relevant the work

plan will be.

Historical Research

The primary purpose of historical research is to

complete a comprehensive review of available

information concerning the site and to document

evidence of the use, handling, and disposition of

chemical products or waste materials, which may

have caused a potentially adverse impact to the

soil, surface water, or groundwater in the vicinity.

Specifically, the intended result is to develop

sufficient information from which a professional

opinion can be made regarding the potential for a

release of a hazardous substance into the environment and to identify areas requiring further

investigation. Sources of historical data can include:

• Aerial photographs

• Preliminary assessments

• Phase I and II environmental site assessments

• Fire district records

• National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) documentation, such as environmental assessments

(EAs) and environmental impact statements (EISs)

• Newspaper articles

• Claim, permit, and lease information

• Historical U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) papers

• Maps

• State water resource or environmental agencies

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation, and Liability Information

System (CERCLIS) State list (http://www.

epa.gov/superfund/sites/cursites)

Environmental

Information

Significant information may be available regarding

the geologic, hydrologic, biotic, and atmospheric

conditions at or expected at the site. A search of

the specific State environmental or water

resources website may reveal databases that are

available for the region in question. Some useful

websites include:

• Stream gauging station data (http://

waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis)

• Regional climate information

(http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/index.html)

• Soil survey manuscripts

(http://soils.usda.gov/survey)

• Well log records (State Water Resource

Department websites)

• Local and regional geology

(http://www.usgs.gov)

• Earth Resources Observation System (EROS)

Data Center (http://edc.usgs.gov)

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) (http://www.noaa.gov)
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

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A field visit to the site is valuable in determining the

sampling required. Information to obtain during

the field survey should include the following:

• General site layout

• Property boundaries

• Site access requirements and restrictions

• General site conditions concerning surface water,

soils, and air

• Potential receptors and contaminant migration

pathways

• Visible sources of potential contamination

• Stressed vegetation

• Potential sources of offsite contamination
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Data Quality Objectives

The Data Quality Objective (DQO) process is a planning approach that is used to prepare for sampling

activities. The DQO process establishes specific

objectives for an environmental study or sampling

program and focuses data collection and analysis

to meet those objectives. Appropriate use of the

DQO process achieves two major objectives: it

ensures that the type, quantity, and quality of data

collected are appropriate for the decision at hand,

and it eliminates the collection of unnecessary,

redundant, and overly precise data.

The DQO process should be implemented early in

the developmental stages of any project that

requires data collection. It can apply to any size

project, but the depth and detail of the process will

vary depending upon the complexity of the project.

Key stakeholders should be involved with the DQO

process. Stakeholders may include the project lead,

contractors, State and Federal regulators, potentially

responsible party (PRP) representatives, technical

advisors, and managers.

The initial step in the DQO process is to define the

questions, which should reveal the conditions and

issues that must be resolved during the investigation

(EPA 1994). Examples of this include:

• Is this a release as defined by section 101(22) of

the Comprehensive Environmental Response,

Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)?

• Does the contaminant concentration exceed the

State water quality criteria?

• Do the concentrations of metals exceed the

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

(RCRA) hazardous waste criteria?

• Does the contaminant concentration exceed

site background levels?

From these questions, the scope of the project

can be defined and broken down into specific

components that will define data collection

constraints and methods. The components are

basic and include:

• The physical boundaries of the site

• The source(s) of contamination

• The potential contaminants

• The characteristics of the contaminant (e.g.,

persistency, mobility, toxicity)

• The potential impacted media (e.g., air, surface

water, groundwater, soil),

• Federal and State standards applicable to the site

• The impacts of the physical environmental

system (e.g., geology, hydrology)

• The time frame in which the study will happen

• The potential receptors (targets)

It is necessary to define these components in

order to proceed with the investigation. The

stakeholders must agree on the definitions in

order to eliminate unnecessary sampling and

analysis, thereby reducing any reiterations during

work plan development.

In addition to the decisions listed previously,

other elements determined during the DQO
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

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process include the required detection level for

the contaminants of concern and the probability

and relevance of false positive and false negative

errors in the analytical results.

A false positive error occurs when the hypothesis

for a site is rejected when in fact it is true. For

example, if a decision maker presumes that

contaminant concentrations at a specified level

indicate that there is no risk, a false positive

error would occur when the decision maker

determines, based on the sampling results, that

there is still a risk remaining at the site when in

fact there is not.

A false negative error would occur when the decision maker determines, based on the sampling

results, that there is no risk when in fact there is a

risk remaining.

Specifying limits on the probability of committing

false positive and false negative errors reflect the

decision maker’s tolerable limits for making an

incorrect decision. This will help determine the

analytical methods to be applied in the work plan

and the applicability of the various field screening

methods. Stakeholders must also agree on the

optimum number and location of samples.

For further information on the DQO process, the following EPA guidance is recommended: EPA Guidance for the

Data Quality Objectives Process, EPA QA/G-4. EPA/600/R-96/055. September 1994.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Work Plan Development

Sampling and Analysis Work Plans document the

decisions made during the DQO process. These

plans must be developed before field activities are

conducted. The two main components of a

Sampling and Analysis Work Plan are the Field

Sampling Plan (FSP) and the Quality Assurance

Plan (QAP). The work plan may not specifically

differentiate between the two, but it is important

to recognize the significance of each and ensure

that the elements described in the following two

sections are included within the document. A

checklist showing the key components is included

as Figure 1.

Field Sampling Plan

The Field Sampling Plan is the portion of the work

plan that describes how field personnel will actually

perform the work. Specific elements of an 

FSP include:

Site description. As an introduction, a brief

description of the site should be provided. Any

relevant site history and pertinent site conditions

that may affect the sampling should be discussed.

Location, number, and type of samples.

A summary of the results of the DQO process

should be provided in this section to give the

rationale for the prescribed effort. An area map

showing the site location and a refined map

showing sample location detail should be

included. If field screen methods are going to

be used, detail should be included. Further

information is provided in the Sample Design

section of this technical note.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Figure 1. Work Plan Checklist

Work Plan Checklist

1. Field Sampling Plan

a. Site Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

b. Location, Number, and Type of Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

c. Sample Collection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

d. Equipment Decontamination Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

e. Record Keeping and Documentation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

f. Laboratory Quality Assurance Plan (as an attachment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Quality Assurance Plan

a. Technical Procedures for Sampling and Conducting Field Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

b. Quality Control Samples

i. Field Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ii. Laboratory Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

c. Corrective Action Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

d. Chain-of-Custody Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

e. Instrument Calibration Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

f. Internal/External Inspection Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

g. Personnel Qualifications/Training Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

h. Records/Logbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

i. Analytical Reports/Data Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

j. Data Verification/Validation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Sample collection methods. A detailed

description of the equipment, techniques, and

procedures for collecting, labeling, preserving,

packaging, and shipping samples should be 

provided. A field sampling summary table should

be included for quick reference. The table should

specify the number of samples per parameter per

matrix, the preservatives, appropriate sample

containers, and sample volumes. Table 1 provides

an example of a method summary table.

Equipment decontamination procedures. An

important part of any sampling effort is ensuring

that field sampling equipment is properly cleaned

and prepared. Failure to properly decontaminate

equipment can introduce error into analyses through

cross-contamination of samples. Laboratories can

supply bottles and limited sampling equipment

that are certified clean by the lab. This is a preferred

option as the decontamination takes place in a

controlled environment and it reduces the amount

of investigation-derived waste.

The use of disposable or dedicated sampling

equipment is also another consideration. In the

event that field decontamination is necessary, a

prescribed procedure for each type of sampling

equipment should be provided. A typical procedure

for hand-held sampling equipment is to remove gross

contamination by rinsing with distilled water. A

solution of anionic powdered detergent (e.g., Alconox)

in distilled water is used to wash the equipment

clean. If necessary, the use of brushes may be

implemented to assist in removal of the material. The

detergent wash is then followed by triple rinsing

with distilled water. The final rinse is conducted with

laboratory prepared deionized water. Clean equipment

is then allowed to air dry and is placed in plastic

bags for protection from further contamination.

Record keeping and documentation

procedures. A discussion of the appropriate

documentation for the project should be provided or referenced. The process for documenting

changes to the approved sampling plan due to

unforeseen field conditions should be detailed.

Chain-of-custody and logbook documentation is

further discussed in the next section.

Laboratory quality assurance plan. A copy

of the analytical laboratory’s internal quality

assurance plan should be attached as an appendix

to the FSP.

Quality 

Assurance Plan

The Quality Assurance Plan is the portion of the

work plan that ensures sampling activities are

performed with a high degree of confidence such

that the resulting data will be representative of

conditions found in the field. Specific elements

of a QAP include:

Technical procedures for sampling and

conducting field work. A complete description

of the method-specific requirements for the

samples should be provided. This should include

sample bottle specifications, sample preservation

requirements, sample shipping requirements, and

holding times. Sample container labeling

requirements should be identified. Container

labels typically include the project name, date,

and time of collection, specific analysis, preservative information, a unique sample identification

number, and the sample initials or name.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Table 1. Method Specific Requirements Method Specific Requirements Analyte Bottle Number of Holding Method Group Required Bottles Preservative Time Laboratory WATER 624 VOCs 40 ml amber vials 3 ascorbic acid, HCL 14 days XYZ Analytical 625 SVOCs 1 liter amber glass 2 sodium sulfite, HCl 7 days XYZ Analytical 608 PCBs and Pest 1 liter amber glass 2 sodium thiosulfate 7 days XYZ Analytical 200.7/200.9 Metals 500 ml poly or glass 1 nitric acid 6 months XYZ Analytical 245.1 Mercury 500 ml poly or glass 1 nitric acid 28 days XYZ Analytical 200.8 Select Metals for SW 500 ml poly or glass 1 nitric acid 6 months XYZ Analytical

SM3500 CRD Hexavalent

Chromium 500 ml poly or glass 1 none 24 hours XYZ Analytical

300.0 Chloride 500 ml poly or glass 1 none 28 days XYZ Analytical300.0 Sulfate 500 ml poly or glass 1 none 28 days XYZ Analytical

SM 4500S Sulfide 500 ml poly or glass 1 NaOH + zinc acetate 7 days XYZ Analytical

353.2 Nitrate/Nitrite 500 ml poly or glass 1 none 48 hours XYZ Analytical354.1 Nitrite 500 ml poly or glass 1 none 48 hours XYZ Analytical

SM9221B Fecal Coliform 100 ml bacti 1 sodium thiosulfate 6 hours XYZ Analytical

405.1 BOD 5 day 1 liter HDPE 1 none 48 hours XYZ Analytical

4500 NH3 Ammonia 500 ml poly or glass 1 sulfuric acid 28 days XYZ Analytical

SEDIMENT

8260B VOCs 16 oz glass 1 none 14 days XYZ Analytical8270B SVOCs 16 oz glass 1 none 14 days XYZ Analytical

8081A Pest 16 oz glass 1 none 14 days XYZ Analytical

8082 PCBs 16 oz glass 1 none 14 days XYZ Analytical

6010A Metals 16 oz glass 1 none 6 months XYZ Analytical7471A Mercury 16 oz glass 1 none 6 months XYZ Analytical

Carb 435 Asbestos 4 oz glass 1 none none XYZ Analytical
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Quality Control Samples. Quality control samples ensure that the sampling methods produce

representative samples of environmental media;

confirm that laboratory analyses are reliable; verify

that the quality of reported results is suitable to

support decisions based on the environmental

monitoring data; and provide a means to measure

and document the uncertainty in analytical data.

Specific quality control samples are discussed below.

Field Samples. A number of field quality control samples should be taken during waste site

characterization. The stakeholders should agree

to the specific quantity of quality control samples

prior to the start of field activities.

• Duplicate samples are intended to identify variability in the analytical results associated with

field and laboratory methods and the inherent

heterogeneity of the media. Samples are taken at

the same location employing the same collection

methods.

• Split samples are used to identify variability

between sampling handling methods or between

laboratories. The sample material is homogenized

in the field and placed into two separate sample

containers for submittal to two separate labs.

• Rinse blanks or equipment field blanks analyses

are used to assess the efficiency of equipment

decontamination procedures in preventing crosscontamination between samples. The rinse blank

will be analyzed for the same parameters as the

investigative samples.

• Trip blanks provided by the laboratory will

accompany the volatile organic samples collected

each day in the field. The bottles should be

sealed by the lab and are to remain closed until

they reach the laboratory again. Trip blanks will

be analyzed for volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) employing the same method used for

the investigative sample and to help determine

if contamination of the samples occurred

enroute to the lab.

• Temperature blanks are containers of water

that are shipped along with the samples

enroute to the laboratory. The laboratory will

measure the temperature of the blank upon

receipt. This is used to verify that samples are

maintained at less than 4  ̊C, which is necessary

with many methods.

Laboratory Samples. The laboratory should

include an internal quality assurance program.

Laboratory reagent blanks (commonly called

method blanks) are used to assess contamination during all stages of sample preparation

and analysis. A laboratory fortified sample matrix

(commonly called a matrix spike) should be

used to evaluate the effect of the sample

matrix on the recovery of the compound(s)

of interest. One sample per batch should be

split in the laboratory and analyzed in duplicate to provide an estimate of analytical

precision. Duplicate analyses also are useful in

assessing potential sample heterogeneity and

matrix effects. An alternative to a sample

duplicate is a matrix spike duplicate.

Corrective action plans. A discussion should

be included within the QAP concerning corrective

actions that will occur if a failure in the sampling/

analysis process occurs. It should also identify

who is responsible for implementing the corrective

action. For example, if a senior reviewer determines in the review of field notes that a junior

geologist incorrectly identified a soil horizon,
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

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additional training may be recommended and its

completion should be documented in the site

and personnel files.

Chain-of-custody procedures. The term

“chain-of-custody” refers to the standard way of

tracing the possession and handling of samples

as they progress from the field to the analytical

laboratory. It provides a record of when the samples were taken and through whose hands those

samples passed along the way. A description of

the procedures and requirements for sample custody, starting with sample collection through

acceptance at the laboratory, should be provided.

This should include methods for verifying sample

container integrity, such as use of custody seals

and chain-of-custody forms. The laboratory will

supply chain-of-custody forms. Figure 2 provides

a blank chain-of-custody form for reference.

Instrument calibration procedures. The

QAP should identify the equipment used for performing data collection in the field. A description

of or reference to the recommended calibration

procedures and frequency of calibration for each

field instrument should be provided. Methods for

recordation of calibration for each instrument

should be specified.

Internal/external inspection reports.

Projects that require “critical” supplies should

have acceptance criteria for the materials. A

short description of the acceptance criteria for

supplies and consumables from both internal and

external sources should be provided. These critical items may include laboratory bottles, deionized

water, reagents, calibration gases, and disposable

equipment. The criteria could include provisions for

certificates of cleanliness, testing, and purity.

Acceptance would be based on the condition of the

samples when received.

Personnel qualifications/training records.

Any special training requirements or certifications

required for personnel performing the specified

tasks should be noted.

Records/logbooks. Each project should have a

field logbook to accurately and completely document all field activities. Since field records are the

basis for later written reports, language should be

objective, factual, and free of personal feelings or

other terminology that might prove inappropriate.

Once completed, the field logbook becomes part of

the project file. Information/observations to document within the field logbook include pertinent site

descriptions, weather conditions, field data (e.g.,

pH, DO), including field equipment identification

and calibration information, sample numbers and

locations, sample descriptive information and relevant comments (e.g., odor, color, texture), client

and supervisor instructions, visitor names and affiliations, and photo logs.

Analytical reports/data packages. A brief

description of the data management procedures

should be included or referenced. This includes data

generated as part of the project, as well as data

received from other sources.
Figure 2. Chain-of-Custody Form

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

LABORATORY NAME CHAIN OF CUSTODY

LABORATORY ADDRESS

Report to:

Name: Address:

Company:

E-mail: Telephone:

Copy of report to:

Name: Address:

Company:

E-mail: Telephone:

Invoice to:

Name: Address:

Company:

E-mail: Telephone:

Project Information Analyses Requested

Quote #:

Project/PO#:

Shipping Co.:

Tracking #:

Reporting State for compliance testing:

Sample Identification Date/Time Matrix

Matrix: SW (Surface Water) – GW (Groundwater) – DW (Drinking Water) – SL (Sludge) – OL (Oil) – Other (Specify)

Remarks

Relinquished by: Date/Time Received by: Date/Time Number of Containers
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Data verification/validation procedures. A

description of the data verification/validation

procedures should be provided. Criteria should

be included for acceptance, rejection, or qualification of data based on elements including:

• Chain-of-custody records

• Laboratory quality assurance

• Compliance with sample handling, preservation,

and analytical procedures

For further information on quality assurance, the following EPA guidance documents are recommended:

Quality Assurance/Quality Control Guidance for Removal Activities, Sampling QA/QC Plan and Data Validation

Procedures. Interim Final. EPA/540/G-90/004. April 1990.

Guidance for Quality Assurance Project Plans, (QA/G-5), EPA/240/R-02/009. U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency. Washington D.C., December 2002.

A BLM Instruction Bulletin is available that provides technical guidance for characterizing abandoned mine sites:

Information Bulletin No. RS-99-108 (07/14/99), Site Characterization for Abandoned Mine/Mill Sites can be found

at: http://www.blm.gov/nhp/efoia/narsc/1999/IB/RSIB1999-108.pdf.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

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Technical Note 414

Sample Design

The design of the sampling plan is based on information gained during the development of the data

quality objectives and on site-specific conditions. By

carefully determining the sampling strategy, variability

within the site can be determined and the data

will be representative of actual site conditions. The

location and frequency of sampling should be

provided in detail within the sampling plan.

There are several sampling approaches that may

be implemented at a site. The intent behind the

selection of one sampling approach over another is

to ensure that the sample reflects the characteristics

of the population or media being sampled.

Biased/authoritative sampling involves the

selection of locations based on knowledge of

contaminant distribution and properties (such as

homogeneity). Sample locations and quantities are

based on the experience of the investigator. Rationale

for sample selection must be well documented

and defensible, particularly if the intent is to provide data in support of regulatory compliance.

Biased sampling is often done if a population has

obvious localized areas of high contamination to

determine the “worst case” concentration of a contaminant(s). It is also used for screening purposes

to determine if a release from a site has occurred.

It must be understood that authoritative sampling

will not accurately estimate the variance within

the population or the extent of contamination and

generally will not be acceptable to the regulatory

community to demonstrate compliance.

Composite sampling consists of taking multiple

samples over a temporal or spatial range, physically combining equal portions (or aliquots), and

drawing one or more subsamples for analysis. It

can provide improved precision in the sampling

effort, while reducing the required number of

samples. Composite samples are taken primarily

when an average concentration is sought and

there is no need to detect peak concentrations.

Composite samples are most valuable in large

study areas with sampling grids that cover areas

from 100 to 500 feet per side. It must be understood, however, that the integrity of volatile organic

compounds (VOCs) will likely be compromised

during the mixing of the sample. Composite

samples for VOCs are generally not recommended

for soil matrices.

Grab samples are samples taken from a particular location at a distinct point in time. They

are valuable when a biased sample location is

selected, particularly when determining “hot

spots” or background.

Unbiased/random sampling is based on

mathematical and statistical theories. Random

sampling is typically applied to waste sites with

unknown or variable concentrations.

For further information on composite sampling, a detailed discussion is provided in the Standard Guide for

Composite Sampling and Field Subsampling for Environmental Waste Management Activities (ASTM 6051-96).
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

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The sample locations are determined through the

development of a sample unit grid for the site.

The area of each unit within the grid is based on

the area of the site and the quantity of samples

determined within the DQO process.

There are three basic patterns for selection of

random sampling locations: simple, stratified,

and systematic.

Simple—In simple

random sampling,

all potential sample

locations in a waste

unit are identified

and given a number.

A suitable number

of sample locations

are selected through the use of a random

number generator. Each unit in the population is

selected with equal probability. The investigator

should make an estimate in the potential variability of the population. A more heterogeneous

unit would likely require more sampling locations.

Stratified—

Environmental media

or populations may

be separated temporally or spatially and

have properties that

are different from an

adjacent portion. In

stratified sampling, areas of non-uniform

properties or concentrations are identified and

segregated. For example, a waste site may be

stratified based on particle size or color. Simple

random samples are collected from each stratum.

The number of samples per stratum can be based

on factors such as size of the strata, accessibility to

the strata, or apparent variability within the strata.

Systematic—In systematic sampling, the

first sampling point is

randomly selected and

all subsequent sample

locations are at fixed

intervals from that

point. This method is

often preferred as it is easy to implement in the

field and contamination patterns are more readily

identified. To improve on the randomness of the

sampling design, the sample location within the

individual grid unit can be varied.

Background samples are samples collected at or

near the waste site in areas not influenced by site

contamination. It demonstrates the ambient concentrations of a substance from both naturally

occurring and anthropogenic non-site sources.

Background samples are collected from each media

of concern: soil, sediment, surface water, groundwater, and air. The sample locations should have

the same basic characteristics as the medium at

the site. The number of background samples is site

specific and dependent on the media sampled, the

type of contaminant, and the availability of background sample locations. The number of samples

should, however, be sufficient enough to reduce or
For further information, several references are available through EPA that will assist in the development of the

sampling plan for the site. Other references on environmental sampling can be requested from the BLM Library.

Subsurface Characterization and Monitoring Techniques: Desk Reference Guide, Volumes 1 and 2.

EPA/625/R-93/003 a, b. May 1993.

Abandoned Mine Site Characterization and Cleanup Handbook. EPA530-C-01-001. March 2001.

Site Characterization for Subsurface Remediation. EPA/625/4-91/026. November 1991.

RCRA Waste Sampling Draft Technical Guidance – Planning, Implementation and Assessment. EPA530-D-02-002,

August 2002.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

17

Technical Note 414

eliminate the potential determination that concentrations of a constituent at the site are higher than

background when in they in fact fall within the

range. It should be understood that a difference in

the concentration of background samples and

site samples should not, in itself, trigger a cleanup

action at the site. It indicates that further

evaluation of the data must be completed.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

19

Technical Note 414

The proper selection of a sampling methodology

must be done to ensure that the samples will be

representative of the site. The methods are matrix

dependent. In some situations, there may be several

options to consider. For others, the analyte or site

conditions may dictate a specific sampling method.

A list of sample collection methods is provided in

Table 2, Field Sampling and Collection Techniques.

One issue to consider when sampling for a variety

of analytes is the composition of the equipment

used in the sampling. Equipment composed of the

same material as the analyte that is being sampled

for may influence the data. Consideration should

be given to using glass, Teflon, or stainless steel

sampling equipment when analyzing for trace

organic compounds, and to using Teflon, plastic, or

glass equipment when sampling for trace metals.

Soil

The selection of soil sampling equipment is based

on site-specific conditions and the nature of the

contaminant of concern. For example, the sensitive

nature of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

requires special consideration. Equipment that

disrupts the sample material may cause a release

of volatiles into the ambient air. The optimum

sample collection device will allow field personnel

to collect minimally disturbed samples and will

enable them to provide an accurate field description

or log of the lithology.

Another consideration in the sampling of soils is

the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the media.

Many contaminants, particularly organics and

radionuclides, bond differently to different soil

types or particle sizes. In a heterogeneous sample

area, there may be considerable variability in

contaminant concentrations. Additionally, in media

with large disparity in the size fraction, the tendency

may be to collect the smaller fraction. This may

introduce error in the overall concentration of the

media. These situations should be well documented

and considered in the analysis of the data.

Sediment

Sediment sampling in surface water offers

many challenging aspects. Suspended particles are

carried in surface water until turbulent intensity

no longer exceeds particle fall velocity. If a contaminated media is introduced, intermixed layers

of native material and waste material will characterize the stream bottom. These layers may or

may not be consistently located. During times of

variable flow, the areas of ebbing flow may

change and solids may be resuspended.

One must evaluate the capability of sampling

equipment to extract a representative sample from

a saturated environment. Capturing the finer

material, when collecting a sample, is difficult in

that it may be carried away with outflowing

water from the sampler.

Sampling Considerations

and Techniques
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

20

Table 2. Field Sampling and Collection Techniques Technique Analyte Media Comments Drilling Methods Hollow Stem Auger 1–11 + - + - - - - - High 100’ Not applicable to consolidated formations. Soil sample is a disturbed sample. Difficult drilling in saturated soils or soils with cobbles. Mud Rotary 1–11 + - + - - - - - High 1000’ Potential loss of drilling fluids in fractured or unconsolidated formations. Not recommended for drilling in contaminated zones due to IDW generation. Air Rotary 2, 4–11 + - + - - - - - Med >1000’ Cuttings may present a contamination/health hazard. Hydrocarbons used during drilling may contaminate samples. Sonic 1–11 + - + - - - - - Low < 500’ Method may be more expensive than others. Continuous core useful in lithologic description. Cable Tool 2, 4–11 + - + - - - - - High < 5000’ Minimum size casing is 4 inches. VOC samples may be compromised. Hard tooling compromises lithologic description.

Diamond Drilling 2, 4–11 + - + - - - Med > 1000’ Primarily used in consolidated formations. Solid core useful 

in detection of fracture zones and lithologic changes.

Drive Methods and Other MethodsCone Penetrometer 1–11 - - - - + + - - Low < 100’ Not applicable in consolidated formations.Direct Push Sampler 1–11 - - - - + + - - Low < 100’ Not applicable in consolidated formations.Backhoe 1–14 + + + - - - - + High 25’ Personnel cannot enter pits deeper than 3 feet without 

shoring and confined space training. Exposure to and spread of contamination increased. Prior knowledge of subsurface conditions useful.

Liquid/Water Collection MethodsBladder Pump 1–12 - - - + + - + + Med 100’ + Bladder may break. Large volumes of compressed gas 

required for deep or prolonged sampling.

Inertia Pump 1–11 - - - + + - + - Med < 100’ Difficult to operate in larger/deeper wells. Manually 

intensive operation.

Bailer 1–12 - - - + + - + + High 200’ Difficult for deeper wells. Volatiles may be lost. Limited in 

volume collected at one time. Depth specific samples difficult to obtain.

Soil

Sludge

Sediment

Surface 

Water

Ground 

Water

Soil Gas/ 

Air

Drums/ 

Containers

Biota

IDW 

Volume

Depth
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

21

Technical Note 414

Table 2. Field Sampling and Collection Techniques (continued)

Technique Analyte Media CommentsSubmersible Pump 1–11 - - - + + - + - Med < 100’ Chemistry altered at high pumping rates. Flow rate cannot 

be controlled.

Peristaltic Pump 1–12 - - - + + - + + Med 25’ Low pumping rates make purging wells difficult. Volatiles

may be lost.

Gear-driven Pump 1–11 - - - + + - + - Med < 100’ Constant flow rate (not variable). High suspended solids 

cause gear wear.

Gas-Driven Dedicated pump for wells.Displacement Pump 1–11 - - - + + - + - Med < 100’Diffusive BagSampler 1, 3 - - - + + - - - Low 200’COLIWASA 1–11 - + - + - - + - Low - Typically used for containerized waste. Difficulty in 

sampling highly viscous liquids.

Weighted-Bottle Can collect depth specific samples. Compatibility of liquid Sampler 1–11 - - - + + - + - Low 100’ with sampler construction material must be verified.Kemerer/Van Dorn Difficult to operate at depth. Cross-contamination may Depth Specific occur as sampler is lowered to desired depth. Activating Sampler 1–11 - - - + + - + + Low 200’ mechanism prone to malfunction and damage.Pneumatic Depth Large volume sample requirements difficult to acquire.Specific Samplers 1–11 - - - + + - - - Low 200’ Suspended solids may cause problems with seal.Bacon Bomb May aerate sample, compromising VOCs. Brass constructionSampler 1–11 - - - + + - + - Low 100’ incompatible with some liquids.Stratified Sample Typically used for containerized waste. Plastic construction Thief 1–11 - + - - - - + - Low - material may not be compatible with some substances.Depth Integrating Typically used to obtain a discharge-weighted sample Sampler 1–11 along the stream cross sectionHand-Held MethodsScoop/Spoons/ VOCs may be compromisedShovels 1–14 + + + - - - - + Low Near SurfaceHand Auger 1–14 + + + - - - - + Med < 10’ VOCs may be compromised. Lithology identification difficult.Drive Tubes 1–14 + + + - - - - + Low < 15’ Sample may be lost in wet conditions. Sample collection 

difficult in large gravels and cobbles.

Soil

Sludge

Sediment

Surface 

Water

Ground 

Water

Soil Gas/ 

Air

Drums/ 

Containers

Biota

IDW 

Volume

Depth
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

22

Table 2. Field Sampling and Collection Techniques (continued)

Soil

Sludge

Sediment

Surface 

Water

Ground 

Water

Soil Gas/ 

Air

Drums/ 

Containers

Biota

IDW 

Volume

Depth

Technical Note 414

Technique Analyte Media CommentsEncore Sampler 1–6 + + + - - - - - Low Surface Used for subcoring samples for collection of VOCs and SVOCs.Bottle/Bucket Grab 1–14 + + + + - - + + Low SurfaceSamplesGrain Sampler 1–11 + - - - - - + - Low 5’ Useful for sampling granular or powdered material.Gas/Air Collection MethodsSoil Gas Probe 1, 3 + - - - - + - - Low 100’ Results dependent on soil matrix conditions. Probes may 

clog but can be cleared with wire.

Mylar/Teflon/ 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low - Moisture may affect results. Pumps used in combination.Tedlar Bag Bag selection based on resistance to adsorption and 

permeation of contaminant of concern.

Canister 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low - Moisture may affect results.Passive Soil Gas 1, 3 + - - - - + - - Low 25’ Vertical profile use is limited. Concentrations area Sampler barometrically dependent and averaged over time.Constant Flow 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low - Type of pump is dependent on physical properties of the Sampler contaminant, the collection medium, and the flow rates Vacuum Pump 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low - required for the specified method.SamplerPassive Air Sampler 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low -Particulate Samplers 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low - Used for collection of samples for dispersed liquids and Cassettes and PM10 (mists and fogs) and solids (dust, fumes, smoke).Impingers/Bubblers 1–9 - - - - - + - - Low -Biota Sampling MethodsElectrofishing 1–11, - - - - - - - + Low Useful in areas with uneven bottoms. Downstream 

15 collection may be necessary.

Snorkeling/Angling 1–11, 15 - - - - - - - + LowNets 1–12, - - - - - - - + Low Nets can become clogged. Towing speeds should be low 

14, 15 when using nets to avoid diversion effects.

Dredge/Grab Sampler 2, + + - - - - + High Descent of tool may disturb fines. Possible loss of material 

4–14 when pulling sample. Jaws may become lodged open.

Modified from Naval Facilities Engineering Command and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Field Sampling and Analysis Technologies Matrix and Reference Guide (Appendix D), First Edition.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

23

Technical Note 414

LEGEND

+ Applicable technology

- Not an applicable technology

Analytes/Biota Type

1. Non-halogenated volatile organics

2. Non-halogenated semi-volatile organics

3. Halogenated volatile organics

4. Halogenated semi-volatile organics

5. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons

6. Pesticides/herbicides

7. Metals

8. Radionuclides

9. Other inorganics (asbestos, cyanide, fluorine)

10. Explosives

11. Total Petroleum hydrocarbons

12. Plankton

13. Bacteria and other periphyton

14. Benthos

15. Fish

Depth Limitations

The limitations sited are maximum depth in ideal conditions.

Site-specific conditions may reduce the efficiency of the method.

Table 2. Field Sampling and Collection Techniques (continued)
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

24

Surface Water

Surface water environments encountered on BLM

land can generally be put into three groupings:

rivers, streams, and creeks; lakes and ponds; and

surface impoundments and lagoons. The type of

sample collection technique must be adapted to

the specific conditions of the water body.

Conditions to consider include flow, depth, turbulence, and vertical stratification due to temperature gradients. In rivers, streams, and creeks,

samples should be collected immediately downstream of turbulent areas or downstream of any

marked physical change in the channel to ensure

representativeness (EPA 1996). Care should be

taken to minimize the disturbance of sediment

when taking samples. Sampling of lakes, ponds,

impoundments, and lagoons is dependent on the

size of the basin as well as the number of tributaries. Vertical composites along a cross-section

of larger water bodies should provide adequate

coverage of the area. In small water bodies, one

composite sample may be considered sufficient.

Vertical composites should not, however, be taken

for VOCs. For this analysis, separate grab samples

should be taken.

The USGS National Field Manual for the

Collection of Water-Quality Data is a thorough

document that covers both surface water and

groundwater sampling. It is targeted “specifically

toward field personnel in order to (1) establish

and communicate scientifically sound methods

and procedures, (2) provide methods that minimize data bias and, when properly applied, result

in data that are reproducible within acceptable

limits of variability, (3) encourage consistent use of

field methods for the purpose of producing nationally comparable data, and (4) provide citable documentation for USGS water-quality data-collection protocols. It informs field personnel of the major steps

needed to prepare for water-quality data-collection activities, select surface-water sampling sites,

make reconnaissance visits to ground-water sampling sites and select wells that will meet scientific

objectives, and set up electronic and paper files.”

The manual can be found at: http://water.usgs.gov/

owq/FieldManual.

Groundwater

When sampling groundwater, prior knowledge of

the well conditions and construction is necessary.

This includes identification of the lithology of the

area. Information can be gained by reviewing

drilling logs and previous sampling records.

Variations in well construction and lithology will

help determine the amount of water that must be

purged from the well. The purpose of well purging

is to remove stagnant water in the wellbore and

adjacent sand pack in order to get a sample that is

representative of the surrounding formation.

Selection of the well sampling device will depend on

many factors, such as depth of the well, diameter of

the well, and yield of the formation. In some

instances, it may be appropriate to implement

depth-specific sampling. If the contaminant of

interest is a VOC, care must be taken in selecting a

method to assure that aeration/degassing of the

water does not occur.

Further information on sediment and surface water sampling can be found in Chapter A8 of the USGS National

Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data at: http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter8/index.html.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

25

Technical Note 414

Air

Air monitoring is done at a hazardous waste site for

two purposes: to monitor the potential exposure to

onsite workers, and to monitor the potential exposure to surrounding populations. The significant

difference in monitoring the two is that potential

exposure at the workplace occurs for approximately

8 hours, 5 days a week, whereas potential exposure

to surrounding populations is continuous throughout the week. The monitoring program must reflect

this difference.

Air monitoring methodologies can be divided into

several categories. In general, monitoring is done at

either a fixed station or via personal air monitors.

Fixed or stationary station monitors are often located at the boundaries of a waste site to measure

the potential migration of a contaminant off the

site. This method is often implemented continuously

during cleanup activities. Personal air monitors are

used primarily for workers during the time they are

in the contaminated area.

Air monitoring can be further subdivided into

active or passive methods. Active methods employ

the use of pumps or vacuum devices, whereby the

air sample is mechanically entrained within a specified media or contained in a bag or canister that

will be submitted for analysis. The sorbent media

used is specific to the contaminant of interest. A

flow meter or valve is used to ensure that air is

collected at a constant rate over a specified period

of time. Passive methods either require air movement across the device or simple diffusion or permeation of a compound to equilibrium with the

surrounding conditions.

Drums or

Containerized

Waste

Health and safety is paramount when sampling

drums or containerized waste and should be

performed by experienced hazardous waste

technicians. Old, deformed, or bulging containers

indicate a potentially unstable situation.

Attempts should not be made to sample drums

and containers until the internal pressure is at

equilibrium with the atmospheric pressure. The

conditions of a drum may also dictate overpacking

prior to sampling. Air monitoring should occur

during sampling of drummed or containerized

waste.

In situations where numerous containers are

present, verifiable information may be used to

reduce the number of containers that are sampled. If such information is not available, each

container should have a discrete sample.

Sampling of containerized solids is done via a

grab sample or a composite sample, depending

on the size of the container and the sampling

objective.

When sampling containerized liquids, the potential for layering exists. The use of sampling

devices that take this potential into account is

recommended. The stratified sample thief or

Composite Liquid Waste Sampler (COLIWASA)

are designed to address layering of liquids.

Depending on the objective of the sampling

event, a composite of the liquid may be

desired or a discrete sample of each layer may

be preferred.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

26

Waste Piles

Waste piles are frequently encountered on

abandoned mine lands and processing facilities.

When determining the sampling protocol to be

employed for waste piles, several factors must be

considered.

Initially, the volume of the waste pile should be

determined. State or Federal regulations may

require a certain number of samples per unit

volume. Unless significant background information is available regarding the processing used

at the site, waste piles should be considered

heterogeneous. Exposure to the elements may

also cause variability within a waste pile. The

sampling strategy should take into account

vertical and lateral changes.

Several sampling methods may need to be

implemented to adequately characterize waste

piles. As with soils, site-specific or contaminantspecific conditions may dictate the selected

methodology.

Sludges and Slurries

Sludges and slurries are a mixture of solids and

liquids. Generally, sludge consists of more solids

or a more viscous liquid such as crude oil. When

sampling sludges and slurries, it is necessary to

ascertain whether the material is layered. This is

particularly true of surface impoundments. Larger

surface impoundments may require grab samples

at several locations and depths, whereas drums

and small pits may call for only one sample.

When sampling sludges and slurries, the nature of

the material will dictate the type of sampling

equipment. The more solid materials can be sampled

with soil or sediment sampling equipment, while

liquid samplers may be more appropriate for some

slurries. It is prudent to consider disposable equipment when sampling the more viscous sludges.

Biota

Indigenous species can be used as an indicator of

the biological effects of pollutants more accurately

than predictions from chemical analyses. The

effects of contaminants can occur directly or

through bioaccumulation. For instance, examining

the biodiversity of a river or stream can provide

insight into the overall health of that environment.

The larvae of mayflies, caddisflies, stoneflies, and

true flies have been used to identify point sources

of environmental hazards in streams and other

wetlands. It is important to clearly define the

objective of biota sampling in the DQO process.

Biological data are highly variable. Information

gained from biota sampling is more valuable if

there is a direct correlation, both spatially and

chronologically, to sampling of other media.

Sample locations should be as near as possible to

soil, sediment, or surface water sample locations.

The analysis of the information from the sampling

will require a multidisciplined individual or team of

individuals.

Artificial substrates may be considered for sampling

periphyton and benthos in aquatic environments.

These substrates may result in a more representa-
For current information on emerging technologies, consult the Field Analytical Technologies Encyclopedia (FATE)

website, developed jointly by EPA and the Army Corp of Engineers, which provides up-to-date information about

characterization technologies. This can be found at http://FATE.CLU-IN.ORG.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

27

Technical Note 414

tive sampling as variation induced through direct

sampling are lowered and the method is relatively

straightforward.

When taking plant samples, the entire plant should

be collected if size and conditions allow. If this is

not possible, field personnel should emphasize collection of complete leaves, reproductive structures,

and stem sections. Sample size, preservation, and

storage criteria depend on the material sampled,

the environment of origin, and the requested

analysis.

The recordation of field observations during the

collection of biota is important. Field personnel

should note any variation in conditions that exist in

the potentially contaminated area compared to the

surrounding area. Theses variations include the existence of plants that appear stressed, reduced or

eliminated species populations, or any other conditions that could be considered abnormal.

Soil Gas Surveys

Soil gas surveys are used for detection of VOCs in

the area between the surface and groundwater

known as the vadose zone. They are used to help

delineate the boundaries of a contaminant plume

both in the groundwater and vadose zone and

are useful in finding potential sources.

As with ambient air monitoring, soil gas monitoring methods employ the use of active methods

and passive methods. The use of pumps or vacuum devices is applied when pipe probes or gas

piezometers are installed. The sample is then

collected in a contaminant- specific media, a

bag, or a canister. Passive methods utilize simple

diffusion or permeation of a compound into a

sorbent material until equilibrium with the

surrounding conditions is achieved.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

29

Technical Note 414

Analytical Methods

The selection of the analytical method for the

waste stream or media depends on several factors.

Many of these factors will be determined in the

Data Quality Objective (DQO) process. Available

information regarding the site and the known or

potential contaminants will help guide the method

selection.

In considering contaminants that have more than

one analytical method, it is valuable to examine

the method detection limits (MDL). The Code of

Federal Regulations (40 CFR Part 136) provides the

definition of MDL as "the minimum concentration

of a substance that can be measured and reported

with 99 percent confidence that the analyte concentration is greater than zero and is determined

from analysis of a sample in a given matrix containing the analyte." Some methods may not achieve

the level required by regulatory levels or 

necessary for risk analysis. There are situations

where enforceable water quality limits are below

the MDL. Early communication with the regulatory

community is advisable in these instances.

Communication with the selected laboratory is also

important. The methods implemented at laboratories

vary. If lower detection limits are required for

certain analytes, the use of several labs may be

necessary.

The nature of the material being sampled may

also dictate the analytical method to be used.

Methods that apply specifically to drinking water

standards may not directly apply to the water

being sampled at the site. When sampling to

determine if a waste is regulated as a Resource

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) toxicity

characteristic waste, the method to be implemented is the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching

Procedure or TCLP.

Sample

Preservation

Sample preservation is done to minimize any

changes, either physical or chemical, that may

occur between sample collection and laboratory

analysis. Without preservation, sample concentrations may not be representative of the actual

conditions at the site.

The EPA publication SW-846, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods, is the Office

of Solid Waste's official compendium of analytical and sampling methods that have been evaluated and approved

for use in complying with the RCRA regulations. SW-846 functions primarily as a guidance document setting forth

acceptable, although not required, methods for the regulated and regulatory communities to use in responding to

RCRA-related sampling and analysis requirements. Online access to the test methods is available through the EPA

at http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/test/main.htm.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

30

The appropriate method of preservation is

dependent on the physical characteristics of the

sample, the concentration of the analytes in the

sample, and the analytical method. You should

consult with the laboratory concerning the

addition of chemical preservatives. Many laboratories will supply preservatives for the specific

sample. The preservatives may be premeasured

and placed in the sample containers or a separate preservative may be supplied for addition to

the sample bottle.

Holding Times

Sample concentrations can degrade over time. To

minimize this, the specific analytical methods have

designated holding times. Samples that are analyzed outside of their specified holding times are

considered qualified and can only be used to

demonstrate whether a concentration exceeds a

regulatory threshold, such as water quality criteria

or hazardous waste designation levels. They cannot

be used to demonstrate compliance.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

31

Technical Note 414

Work Plan

Implementation

Once the work plan is developed, additional support activities are necessary prior to actual sampling plan implementation. These activities include:

• Ensuring site access

• Procurement of subcontracts (e.g., drilling contractor, analytical laboratory)

• Coordinating shipment of sample containers and

chain-of-custody forms from the laboratory

• Procurement of field equipment (personal protective equipment or PPE, sampling equipment)

• Calibration of field monitoring equipment

Prior to performing any field sampling, a site

Health and Safety Plan (HASP) must be developed. The HASP shall comply with the Office of

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards

for hazardous waste site operations (40 CFR

§1920.120) and shall specifically address the following: health and safety policies, key personnel

health and safety responsibilities, employee

responsibilities, PPE, standard work practices,

medical monitoring, exposure monitoring,

health and safety program documentation, and

the personnel training program.

As the information about the current conditions

of the site may be limited, flexibility in the field

may be required. It should be expected that the

number and location of samples specified in the

work plan might need to be modified based on

changes in the field. Documentation of all field

changes should be completed.

A recommended reference for use in the field is Description and Sampling of Contaminated Soils: A Field Pocket

Guide (EPA/625/12-91/002, November 1991). The guide provides procedures and site characterization information

that is valuable when performing reconnaissance or a detailed investigation of a site.

Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

33

Technical Note 414

Additional Information

and Technical Support

As stated earlier, the purpose of this technical note

is to introduce the concepts and issues related to

sampling at hazardous waste sites and to provide a

quick reference to websites and documents that can

assist field personnel in implementing a site characterization plan. Several recommendations are listed

to assist field personnel in developing the skills

necessary to oversee or perform hazardous waste

sampling.

The Bureau of Land

Management

The BLM’s National Science and Technology

Center (NSTC) provides senior technical services

and support to BLM offices in the following areas:

• Evaluation and cleanup of hazardous 

substance releases

• Cost recovery/cost avoidance associated with the

cleanup/restoration and resource injury resulting

from releases of hazardous substances

• Air and water quality issues related to the public

lands

• Compliance with environmental laws and 

regulations

NSTC personnel can assist in the development

and implementation of a site-specific work plan,

provide contracting assistance, or provide technical oversight for field activities. Call NSTC at 

303-236-2772 or visit the website at

www.blm.gov/nstc for more information.

The BLM’s National Training Center (NTC) provides training related to hazardous waste sites

and abandoned mine site investigation. Further

training is suggested for those personnel new to

the field of environmental investigations. Some

of the courses include:

• Characterization of Abandoned Mine Lands

(1703-14)

• Environmental Site Assessment (1703-13)

• Hazardous Materials Management—The Basics

(1703-00)

• Law Enforcement in Environmental Compliance

and Pollution Prevention (1703-10)

Call NTC at 602-926-5500 or visit the website at

www.ntc.blm.gov.
Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

Technical Note 414

34

The Environmental

Protection Agency

The EPA’s National Service Center for

Environmental Publications (NSCEP) maintains and

distributes EPA publications in hardcopy, CD

ROM, and other multimedia formats. Each month,

NSCEP produces a list of new titles available

from the Center. There are a number of ways to

get this information or to order publications.

• Internet: Access at http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom.

• Phone: Call 1-800-490-9198 or 

(513) 489-8190. You can speak to an operator

Monday through Friday, 7:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m.,

EST. You can leave an order 24 hours a day.

• Fax: Send your order 24/7 to 513-489-8695

• Mail:

U.S. EPA/NSCEP

P.O. Box 42419

Cincinnati, Ohio 45242-0419

There is an electronic list server for people who

want to keep current with new EPA publications.

To receive the new titles listing by e-mail, access

the link provided or send an e-mail with a subject

line of “Subscribe to nscepnew@one.net.”

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Hazardous Waste Site Sampling Basics

35

Technical Note 414

References

Keith, Lawrence H. 1996. Principles of

Environmental Sampling, Second Edition.

American Chemical Society. Washington, DC.

Naval Facilities Engineering Command and the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. Field

Sampling and Analysis Technologies Matrix and

Reference Guide, First Edition.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Guidance

for Quality Assurance Project Plans, [QA/G-5].

EPA/240/R-02/009. Washington, DC.

Environmental Protection Agency. 2002b. RCRA

Waste Sampling Draft Technical Guidance—

Planning, Implementation and Assessment.

EPA530-D-02-002.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1998.

Requirements for Quality Assurance Project Plans

[QA/R-5]. Washington, DC.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1996.

Engineering Support Branch, Standard

Operating Procedures and Quality Assurance

Manual. Region IV, Environmental Services

Division.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1994.

Guidance for the Data Quality Objectives

Process [QA/G-4]. EPA/600/R-96/055.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Quality

Assurance/Quality Control Guidance for

Removal Activities: Sampling QA/QC Plan and

Data Validation Procedures. Interim Final.

EPA/540/G-90/004.

Weiner, Scott. 1992. Field Sampling Procedures

Manual. New Jersey Department of

Environmental Protection and Energy.

The mention of company names, trade names, or commercial

products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation

for use by the Federal Government.