Investigating Fire Ecology

in Ponderosa Pine Forests

2004/First Edition

A Field Guide for 

Sixth Grade Teachers

This project was made possible by

generous contributions of:
Publishing Information

This curriculum guide was created with funding from the NPS Fire Program and Challenge Cost

Share Programs. Funding for implementation was provided by the NPS Parks As Classrooms 

program.

Allrights are not reserved. Materials in this guide may be reproduced by teachers for 

classroom use i.e., student handouts, transparencies, etc. Allrights are reserved for all 

other uses.

The listing of a resource in this curriculum does not presume its endorsement by the National Park

Service.

This guide may be obtained by participating in a teacher workshop or by visiting the Bandelier

website at www.nps.gov/band.

Teachers are encouraged to offer their feedback by filling out the enclosed evaluation form or contacting the VTF or WPS directly.

Printed on recycled paper using soy-based inks.
i

PREFA CE

W hen the more than 18,000 residents of Los Alamos, New Mexico awoke 

on May 6, 2000, they were unaware that within the next ninety-six hours

their sleepy, relaxed mountainside community would be forever changed.

A small wildland fire approximately five miles southwest of town was rapidly growing.

The fire was named for the peak of its origin, Cerro Grande. As residents uneasily

watched the column of smoke rising from the thickly forested backdrop to town, over

the next days firefighters battled the blaze with mixed success.

On the morning of Wednesday, May 10th, representatives of a wide range of

government agencies, including New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson, visited

Los Alamos to assess the fire. When the officials headed out of town around noon,

the fire seemed under control. As I was escorting Governor Johnson

to his helicopter, our ears were filled with the cries of cell phones and a sudden, exponential increase in radio traffic. Something had gone terribly wrong. Whipped into new

life by penetrating winds from the southwest, the Cerro Grande Fire exploded in Los

Alamos Canyon, just two miles south of town.

In a few minutes, fueled by tinder dry forests and wind gusts to 75 mph, plumes of

smoke rose thousands of feet into the sky. The fire erupted into a two-mile- wide

crown-fire that marched determinedly toward the town. Within the next four hours, the

citizens of Los Alamos, except for police and fire personnel, were evacuated. Twelve

hours later, residents of White Rock, eight miles to the southeast, were told to evacuate.

Crown fires are like tsunamis with two hundred feet waves. There s nothing you can

do to stop them. ❧ Bill Armstrong, United States Forest Service (USFS)

Indeed, nothing could stop the wall of flame from sweeping through the northern parts

of Los Alamos. By the next morning, the Cerro Grande Fire had grown from 4,300

acres to over 20,000 acres. In less than 24 hours it consumed over 230 structures,

many the homes of 429 families. In some neighborhoods, the complete infrastructure

melted and nothing remained except for smoldering piles of ash and rubble, lonely

stone chimneys, and the skeletons of cars. By Saturday, May 14th, the flame front

worked its way well past the town, but the fire had doubled in size to over 40,000

acres. In its wake were barren soils and hundreds of thousands charred, blackened

telephone-pole sticks that were once the ponderosa pines of the Santa Fe National

Forest. 

That morning, some of the families from the highly-impacted neighborhoods were

bused through the town to view what remained of their homes. Counselors were available to address the grief, despair and loss. The next day, White Rock residents were

permitted to return to their community. Over the next seven days, the rest of the community was permitted to return to their homes. It was two weeks before the town held

some resemblance of normalcy when the Los Alamos Public Schools re-opened. 

Throughout the repopulation of the town, one question was asked repeatedly: 
How can I help? More than a few people wanted to get involved in the rehabilitation

effort on the mountain. Although untrained personnel are not permitted to enter an

active fire perimeter, the overwhelming desire for citizens to volunteer in the burned

area brought representatives from the various agencies around the community to form

a Multi-Agency Volunteer Task Force (MAVTF). 

As a Los Alamos Police Officer, I held various assignments during this time: airport

security, dignitary protection, environmental damage and safety assessment and organizing the re-population. None of my duties prepared me for my next task: M AVTF

asked me to become the Incident Commander for all volunteer efforts.

I got an inkling of what I was in for as the Incident Commander of MAVTF over the

Memorial Day weekend. A few dozen citizens some of them now without homes

threw away their holiday and showed up to volunteer to fill sandbags for the mitigation

of flooding when the annual monsoon rains arrived early. One week later, the first

Saturday in June, almost 500 volunteers showed up to do watershed stabilization

work within the burned area. 

An unanticipated synergy developed between a contagion of good will and the challenge to the rehabilitate the community. It was a classic example of if people thought

good things, then good things could happen. Fire fighting professionals from a multitude of agencies on local, state, and federal levels displayed an unprecedented creativity and constructivism to organize, operationally and logistically, such a mass

undertaking. It is no easy task to handle 500 volunteers in a day! Tools, meals, transportation, and safety were just a fraction of the planning process. Volunteers arrived

from not only the local area, but from as far away as Tennessee. Regardless of their

origin, every single person contributed to a sense of caring, love and compassion for

the community of Los Alamos and the landscape of the Jemez Mountains. By the end

of the summer these Saturday morning work parties produced in excess of 13,000

hours of labor on tasks such as raking, seeding and mulching the perimeters of the

town in hopes of mitigating any further damage from the nearing monsoon rains. 

It was my great fortune to remain Incident Commander for the volunteer projects

throughout the summer and early fall of 2000. I was eventually placed

on detached service to the United States Forest Service and transferred to the

Bitterroot Fires in the Montana rehabilitation project before retiring from the

Los Alamos Police Department in January 2001.

By mid-summer, the overwhelming success of MAVTF was no surprise. From the

community groundswell, a host of dedicated and sincere people joined the team. 

John Hogan, a United States Geological Survey biologist assigned to the Jemez

Mountains, was in on the volunteer effort from the start. Through the initial stages of

the fire, John worked fighting spots fires and assisting where needed.

At the start of the second week, he called me to ask where he could be of better use.

I had known John for almost fifteen years and knew from the moment he became

engaged that his knowledge and expertise of fire ecology would be of huge benefit to

the community.

ii
i

John recognized that rehabilitation would continue for years and that the most solid

response to wildfire would be community-based. He freely gave his enthusiasm and

relentless energy to the continuation of the volunteer efforts. Without his contributions,

the volunteer rehabilitation effort would not have taken on such a broad outlook.

Craig Martin, a naturalist and author of seventeen books, is the other key founder of

the VTF. Although the two had never met, John knew of Craig s devotion to the ecology and recreational potential of the Jemez Mountains and realized MAVTF might benefit from Craig s input. Involved in the weekend projects as a volunteer and writing on

fire issues for the local newspaper, Craig ignored several messages on his answering

machine from a John Hogan. John s persistent attempts paid off. The community and

mountain are extremely glad he did. Craig s leadership, intensity, and demeanor have

been a cornerstone for the VTF s success.

Laura Patterson also had a serendipitous invitation to this adventure. Laura is an elementary school teacher, and, like me, a martial artist. While working out one evening I

asked her if she was free the following day to attend a MAVTF meeting regarding

Cerro Grande Fire rehabilitation. Laura jumped at the offer. Always searching for ways

to actively engage her students in learning, she was searching for a way to involve

her 6th graders in post-fire activities. Laura was leading with her heart: 30% of the

student body of her school lost their homes to the Cerro Grande Fire. Laura and fellow teacher and innovator Gerry Washburn made it part of their classroom routine to

take students on the mountain to rebuild the Quemazon Nature Trail. Both physically

reconstructing the trail and rejuvenating it were educational experiences. Through

Laura s and Gerry s commitment and love of teaching, their students accomplished a

feat few 6th grade classes can take credit for. As a team, Laura, Craig, and John promoted and developed the curriculum project that drove this publication.

When I think back on those first few meetings of the Multi-Agency Volunteer Task

Force, one conversation stands out. John Hogan and I agreed that there

was only one rule that attendees had to abide by: Make sure you leave your ego

hanging at the door before entering, because we have a lot of work to do and we

don t have time to waste. Each of us involved in this evolving endeavor has tried to

keep our focus on future generations and how we might help them to be a little more

knowledgeable about fire ecology. This entire experience has been more rewarding

than we could possibly appreciate or comprehend. We only encourage each of our

readers to take a risk, and when you think you have an opportunity to help, please do

not hesitate, but act. 

❧ Al Toth, Retired LAPD, former Incident Commander for the MAVTF 
iv

TH E VOLUNTEER TASK FORCE

The Volunteer Task Force (VTF) is a community-based group focused on environmental education and ecological restoration. Formed as a multi-agency

coordinating committee to handle the outpouring of volunteers in the wake of the

Cerro Grande fire in Los Alamos, New Mexico, VTF evolved into a non-profit corporation that continues to provide educational and community service opportunities to students and adults in Los Alamos and throughout northern New Mexico. VTF mixes

service learning with ecological monitoring to provide students the opportunity to generate real data that can be used as a management tool. Utilizing the Cerro Grande

burned area as a natural laboratory, VTF supervises student projects on post-fire

recovery in the areas of ground cover regeneration, planted seedling mortality, geomorphic changes to stream channels, and other monitoring. VTF specializes in handson projects that illustrate the importance of fire in ponderosa pine ecosystems, and

that deal with issues of forest health and ecological stewardship in the Southwest. By

combining science and service, VTF generates student ownership in the surrounding

landscape.

A month after the Cerro Grande fire, teachers from Mountain Elementary School in

Los Alamos where 30 percent of the students lost their homes in the blaze joined

the VTF in developing a trail rebuilding project for sixth grade students. With the support of the National Park Service, VTF and Mountain School staff and students began

the reconstruction of the Quemazon Nature Trail in September 2000. The program

included presentations, activities, and outdoor classroom experiences to provide students with an overall understanding of the past and future of the forest along the trail.

In 2001 and 2002, the program expanded into all the schools in Los Alamos and to

schools throughout northern New Mexico. Continuing support from the National Park

Service, the United States Geological Survey, and local businesses has brought this

program to more than 4,000 students.

VTF continues to design and implement ecological and recreational restoration projects in northern New Mexico. In the group s first three years, it amassed more than

44,000 hours of volunteer time from regional communities.
v

The National Park Service cares for special places saved by the 

American people so that all may experience our heritage.

Experience Your America

O n August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed

the act creating the National Park Service, a new federal

bureau in the Department of the Interior responsible for

protecting the 40 national parks and monuments then in existence and those yet to be established.

This Organic Act of 1916 states that the Service thus established shall promote and regulate the use of Federal areas

known as national parks, monuments and reservations ...by

such means and measures as conform to the fundamental

purpose of the said parks, monuments and reservations, which purpose is to conserve the

scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for

the enjoyment of future generations. 

The National Park Service still strives to meet these

original goals, while filling many other roles as well:

guardian of our diverse cultural and recreational

resources; environmental advocate; world leader in

the parks and preservation community; and pioneer in

the drive to protect America s open space. 

The National Park System of the United States

comprises over 380 areas covering more than 

83 million acres in 49 states, the District of Columbia,

American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, Saipan, and the

Virgin Islands. Although not all parks are as well known as the Grand Canyon and Yellowstone,

all are areas of such national significance that they have been included in the National Park

Service ancient pueblos, battlefields, birthplaces, memorials, recreation areas, and

countless other wonders. 

The future of the National Park System lies in

understanding and protecting its meanings, values,

and resources. Each part of the system represents the

United States and a part of our heritage. Preservation

of individual sites and the entire system will ensure the

essence of quality remains in our lives and the lives of

all future generations.

TH E NATIONAL PARK SE RVICE

Bandelier National Monument

Petroglyph National Monument

Pecos National Historic Park

Investigating 

Fire Ecology

Table of Contents

Teacher Preparation.......................................................................13-46

❅ Introduction........................................................................................13-17

❅ Field TripLogistics.............................................................................18-31

❅ Attachments (to be photocopied for students)...................................33-46

Pre-Visit Activities.........................................................................49-124

1. Fire History of Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems.......................................49-71

3. Why Do Forests Burn? Exploring the Fire Triangle.............................73-82

4. Wildfire and Native Plants: Using a Key to Identify Trees...................83-96

5. Measuring the Earth from the Ground Up.........................................97-103 

6. Preparing for the Field Trip: Field Journals and Photo Collages.....105-110

❅Journal Sheets (to be photocopied for students).................111-124

On-Site Activities........................................................................127-141

6. Comparison of Thinned and Unthinned Forests: Plot Study............127-132 

7. Wildfire and Native Plants: Sketching or Photographing Plants......133-137

8. Observations in Burned and Unburned Forests..............................139-141

Post-Visit Activities.....................................................................145-176

9. What Does It All Mean? Analysis of Plot Data.................................145-150

10. Using Observations to Express Feelings: Writing and Photo Collage...151 

11. Wildfire and Native Plants: Creating a Field Guide.........................155-159 

12. Developing a Forest Management Plan: Managing the Impact of Wildfire

on Communities and Ecosystems...................................................161-170

13. Be Prepared: Creating a Defensible Space.....................................171-176

Investigating

Fire Ecology

Teacher Preparation

Introduction........................................................................................13-17

✹ Investigating Fire Ecology: An Overview....................................................13

✹ Suggested lesson sequence......................................................................14

✹ National and State Educational Standards............................................15-17

Field TripLogistics.............................................................................18-27

✹ Planning a Time and Selecting a Location............................................18-19

✹ Fire Box Contents.......................................................................................20

✹ Field TripLogistics.................................................................................20-22

✹ Grouping Students......................................................................................23

✹ What Each StudentNeeds.........................................................................23

✹ What Each TeacherNeeds.........................................................................23

✹ Ideas for Stewardship Projects for Students...............................................24

✹ Limiting Liability/Risk Management.......................................................25-27

Bibliography.......................................................................................28-30

Acknowledgements.................................................................................31

Attachments: Items for Photocopying...............................................34-46

✹ Letter to Parents........................................................................................34

✹ Guidelines for Students..............................................................................35

✹ Driving and Site Maps for the Field Locations.......................................36-41

✹ Risk Management Planning.......................................................................42

✹ Proposal for Field Trip................................................................................43

✹ Consent and Release Form for Interview, Photographing,

Videotaping and/or Website Use Evaluation Form....................................44

✹ Program Evaluation Form.....................................................................45-46

TEACHER PREPA R ATION

INTRODUCTION TO

INVESTIGATING FIRE ECOLOGY

Investigating Fire Ecology: An Overview

I

nvestigating Fire Ecology is a curriculum designed to provide students with

interactive opportunities to construct a basic understanding of the sciences

associated with wildfire ecology. The disciplines of forestry, biology, and geology are

introduced to students using an interactive, hands-on, field-based investigation

process. The guide is primarily written for 6th grade but is easily adaptable to accommodate grades 5 through 8. 

Activities are divided into three sections: prepatory classroom lessons, an educational

and work focused field trip, and post-trip analysis, review and instruction. All activities

have been field tested and reflect facts and approaches utilized by professionals in

each of the respective fields. 

The lessons center on ecological recovery from fire and related topics that encourage

students to collect and analyze their own data. Throughout the guide students are

offered opportunities to examine multiple perspectives of post-fire ecology and to gain

an understanding of the complexity of the issues, as appropriate for their developmental level.

The lessons present topics to students in a manner that integrates critical

thinking processes such as problem definition, forming hypothesis, collecting and

organizing data and information, synthesizing, performing analysis,

formulating alternative solutions, identifying optimal courses of action,

and drawing conclusions.

Students are encouraged throughout to practice interpersonal and communication

skills, including oral and written communication, group cooperation, leadership, and

citizenship skills. The activities are designed to sharpen basic classroom and field

skills such as observation, data collection, and data analysis. Lessons incorporate the

use of technology in the form of computers, software, and mapping using Global

Positioning Systems (GPS). 

Delivery is accomplished via a combination of lecture, discussion, field trips, cooperative learning, and independent work in an environment that encourages creative

expression. Each lesson begins with an essential question that challenges students to

broaden their thinking and sharpen their research skills. All topics are relevant to the

students daily lives and reflect real-world experiences. 

The program is interdisciplinary and combines math, science, social studies, art,

geography, language arts, and computers. All lessons are carefully aligned

with the National Science Standards and New Mexico Science Standards.

A variety of performance assessment techniques are included, such as pre- and postactivity sheets that emphasize open ended questions, data analysis, and journal

entries. Student outcomes are tied to goals and objectives. Expectations are clearly

expressed at the onset of each lesson to provide for a more direct and objective ability to perform assessment.

13

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Lessons can be implemented sequentially or individually depending on teacher preference and the attributes, interests, and characteristics of your community and school.

The study of fire ecology will challenge students,facilitate developmental skills, and

impart specific scientific knowledge that prepares students for more advanced course

work. It encourages active learning and is an exciting way

to investigate these issues that exist within every community.

SUGGESTED LESSON SEQUENCE

Pre-Visit: Time needed: 4 hrs

✮ Activity #1: FIRE HISTO RY O F PONDEROSA PINE ECOSYSTEMS

Students read a fire history newspaper and complete worksheets to

understand the fire regime in ponderosa pine forests.

✮ Activity #2: W H Y DO FORESTS BURN? EXPLORING THE FIRE TRIANGLE

Students learn how forest density, slope and weather conditions affect

the nature of wildland fire.

✮ Activity #3: W ILDFIRE & NATIVE PLANTS:IDENTIFICATION O F TREES,SHRUBS

AND UNDERSTO RY PLANTS

Students identify common trees, shrubs and understory plantsin

a ponderosa pine forest using dichotomous keys and drawings.

✮ Activity #4: M EASURING THE EA RT H F R O M THE G ROUND UP

Students use GPS units to map specific locations in preparation 

for the field trip.

✮ Activity #5: PREPARING F O R THE FIELD TRIP:FIELD JOURNALS AND PH O TO COLLAGES

Students prepare a field journal and learn about photography in preparation for the field trip.

On-Site: Time needed: 6 hours

✮ FIELD JOURNAL:Students complete their field journal by recording data from their plot

study, identifying plant species, and recording observations in burned

and unburned areas. 

✮ O PTIONAL FIELD TRIP EXTENSION:Teachers may select a site stewardship project

in an area affected by a wildfire. 

Post-Visit: Time needed: 6 hours

✮ Activity #1: W H AT DOES IT ALL M EAN? ANALYSIS O F PLOT DATA

Students analyze the data collected during their field trip.

✮ Activity #2: W ILDFIRE A N D NATIVE PLANTS: CR E ATING A FIELD G UIDE

✮ Activity #3: USING O BSERVATIONS TO EXPRESS FEELINGS: WRITING A N D PH O TO COLLAGE

Students reflect on the effects of wildfire and on their

field trip observations.

✮ Activity #4: SHOULD W E THIN ALL THE PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS?

A FOREST M ANAGEMENT PLAN

Students develop a forest management plan for maintaining healthy

ponderosa pine forests.

✮ Activity #5: Be Prepared: DEFENSIBLE SPA C E

Students create a defensible space plan for their home.

14TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

NATIONAL A N D STATE EDUCATION STA N D A R D S

This curriculum is designed to replace one of your ecology units. To make it

relevant, it is important for you to link it with the national science standards, national

art standards, New Mexico content standards & benchmarks, and/or New Mexico

visual art standards & benchmarks. 

The skills listed below identify those skills that students will gain while participating in

the activities found in this guide:

Mathematics

 Understand meaning and use of random samples

 Use estimation with measurement

 Solve problems by collecting, organizing, and analyzing data

 Look for a pattern in data

 Classify and measure angles

 Understand the processes of basic mathematical operations

 Solve problems with ratios and proportions

 Generate and solve word problems using real data

 Use and evaluate problem-solving strategies

 Collect, organize and analyze data

 Compare quantities in table, graph, and pictorial form

 Use calculators to solve and check problems 

Science

 Use tools to collect data, to measure, and to manipulate objects

 Investigate and solve problems about the movement of living things

 Make predictions, and observations, and draw conclusions

 Use a variety of strategies to solve problems 

 Develop predictions based on prior knowledge 

 Explore personal risks and costs to society in dealing 

with environmental hazards 

 Understand that some events in nature have a repetitive pattern

 Determine the requirements for living things to survive

 Identify the appearance of diversification of life forms

 Present results of investigations in several ways (individual and group

presentation, logbooks) and using various forms (graphs, charts, reports)

 Use sensory observations to describe the physical properties of objects

 Observe changes in animals, plants, and the environment

Communication 

 Respond to reading through writing, speaking, and art

 Prepare, organize and make oral presentations

 Stay on topic when speaking

 Use appropriate grammar when speaking

 Use voice, body language, notes and visual aids to correctly engage

the audience when speaking 15

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

 Use basic three-part format in organizing presentation

 Maintain listening skills

 Use peer review to revise and edit

 W ork cooperatively in groups,state opinions, and discuss reactions

Social Studies

 Explain obligations and responsibilities of citizenship

 Explain roles of citizens in political decision-making.

16TEACHER PREPA R ATION

National Science Standards

Grades 5-8

National Art Standards Grades 5-8 

Content Standard A:

Science as Inquiry

 Abilities to do scientific inquiry

 Understandings about scientific inquiry

Content Standard 1:

Understanding and applying media, 

techniques, and processes a.b.

Content Standard C: Life Science

 Regulation and behavior

 Populations and ecosystems

 Diversity and adaptations of organisms

Content Standard 2:

Using knowledge of structures 

and functions a.b.c.

Content Standard E:

Science and Technology

 Abilities of technological design

 Understandings about science and 

technology

Content Standard 3:

Choosing and evaluating a range of 

subject matter, symbols, and ideas a.b.

Content Standard F: Science in Personal and

Social Perspectives 

 Populations, resources, and environments

 Natural hazards

 Risks and benefits

 Science and technology in society

Content Standard G: History and Nature of

Science 

 Science as a human endeavor

 Nature of science

 History of science

Content Standard 1:

Learn and develop the

essential skills and technical demands unique to

dance, music,

theater/drama, 

and visual art. 

Benchmarks A1, B1

Content Standard 2:

Use dance, music,

theatre/drama, 

and visual arts to

express ideas 

Benchmarks A1, A2,

B1, B2

Content Standard 3:

Integrate understanding of visual and performing arts by seeking connections and

parallels among art

disciplines as well as

other content areas.

Benchmarks A1, B1

Content Standard 4:

Demonstrate an

understanding of 

the dynamics of the

creative process.

Benchmarks A1, 

B3, B4 

New Mexico Visual Art Standards and Benchmarks Grades 5-8
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

17

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

New Mexico Science Content Standards, Benchmarks,

and Performance Standards, 6th Grade

STRAND I: Scientific Thinking and Practice 

STA N D A R D : Underst I and the processes of scientific investigations and use inquiry and scientific ways of

observing, experimenting, predicting, and validating to think critically.

BENCHMARK : Use scientific methods to develop questions, design and conduct experiments I using

appropriate technologies, analyze and evaluate results, make predictions, and communicate findings.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

1. Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop qualitative and quantitative statements about

the relationships between variables being investigated. 

2. Examine the reasonableness of data supporting a proposed scientific explanation.

3. Justify predictions and conclusions based on data.

BENCHMARK II: Understand the processes of scientific investigation and how scientific inquiry resultsin

scientific knowledge.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

1. Understand that scientific knowledge is continually reviewed, critiqued, and revised as new data

become available. 

2. Understand that scientific investigations use common processes that include the collection of relevant data and observations, accurate measurements, the identification and control of variables, and

logical reasoning to formulate hypotheses and explanations. 

3. Understand that not all investigations result in defensible scientific explanations.

BENCHMARK III: Use mathematical ideas, tools, and techniques to understand scientific knowledge.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

1. Evaluate the usefulness and relevance of data to an investigation.

2. Use probabilities, patterns, and relationships to explain data and observations. 

STRAND II: Content of Science

STA N D A R D II(LIFE SCIENCE): Understand the properties, structures, and processes of living things and

the interdependence of living things and their environments.

BENCHMARK : Explain the diverse structures and functions of living things and the complex relationships I

between living things and their environments.

Performance Standards:

1. Understand how organisms interact with their physical environments to meet their needs (i.e., food,

water, air) and how the water cycle is essential to most living systems.

2. Describe how weather and geologic events (e.g., volcanoes, earthquakes) affect the function of living systems. 

3. Describe how organisms have adapted to various environmental conditions.

BENCHMARK II: Understand how traits are passed from one generation to the next and 

how species evolve.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

1. Describe how species have responded to changing environmental conditions over time

(e.g., extinction, adaptation).

STRAND III: Science and Society

STA N D A R D : Underst I and how scientific discoveries, inventions, practices, and knowledge influence, and

are influenced by, individuals and societies.

BENCHMARK : Explain how scientific discoveries and inventions have changed individuals I

and societies. 

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

1. Examine the role of scientific knowledge in decisions (e.g., space exploration, what to eat, preventive medicine and medical treatment).

2. Describe the technologies responsible for revolutionizing information processing and communications (e.g., computers, cellular phones, Internet).
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

FIELD TRIP LOGISTICS

for

Investigating Fire Ecology

Planning a Time and Selecting a Location

When:The field trip outlined in this guide may be taken year-round, but fall and late

spring are the best times for avoiding snow. Rain is most prevalent during the

summer monsoon season, usually in July and August.

Where:Teachers need to select a location for the field trip. Any ponderosa

pine forest will work if you can identify the burned vs. unburned

areas or treated vs. untreated areas. We recommend one of the

following locations:

Ponderosa Campground, Bandelier National Monument

This campground may be used for day use or overnight field trips. Located on State

Route 4, this group campground has two group sites that can accommodate up to 50

people each. Reservations are required for overnight use and may be made by calling

(505) 672-3861 ext. 534 between 9 am and 4 pm (Monday-Friday). 

Rendija Canyon, Los Alamos

This day-use area is located on the Santa Fe National Forest at the trailhead for the

Pajarito Trail. No bathroom facilities, water, or camping are available. The trailhead

has a parking area suitable for buses. If more than 70 students will participate in the

field day at this site, contact the USDA Forest Service Espaæola Ranger District office

at (505) 753-7331 for a permit to use the site.

East Fork of Jemez River Trailhead, Santa Fe National Forest 

This day-use area has primitive bathroom facilities and parking for buses. No water is

available at the site. If more than 70 students will participate in the field day at this

site, contact the USDA Forest Service Jemez Ranger District office at (505) 829-3535

for a permit to use the site.

W eather:The chart on the next page lists average climate expectations. Weather is

subject to change quickly and can vary dramatically for different locations

throughout the Jemez Mountains, especially at the higher elevations. 

18TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Seasonal events:Consult the chart below to assess which months may be best for a

class to visit the Jemez Mountains. 

Guided or self-guided trips: This guide may be used by teachers as a self-contained

lesson sequence. A Fire Box containing the necessary

equipment to complete the lesson sequence is available (see next page). 

April Turkey vultures and birds of prey migrate through

the Jemez. Early-season wildflower displays of

Rocky Mountain clematis, Easter daisy, and

pasqueflower.

May Elk calves are born in the Valles Caldera.

June W ildflowers in the mountains reach their peak with

mountain parsley, Indian paintbrush, Calypso

orchids, New Mexico penstemon and dozens of

other species in bloom.

July Summer thunderstorms bring green

to the mountains.

August Dances at Jemez Pueblo

September Bull elk bugle in the Valles Caldera. Chenopods in

the burned areas turn brilliant red.

October Aspens turn golden as the days grow shorter

19

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

Maximum Temperature Minimum Temperature Mean Precipitation

January 39.6 18.5 0.89

February 43.4 21.8 0.73

March 49.7 26.8 1.06

April 58.8 33.9 0.98

May 67.9 42.7 1.23

June 78.1 51.9 1.38

July 80.6 55.6 3.01

August 77.8 53.9 3.72

September 72.4 48 1.79

October 61.7 37.7 1.52

November 48.8 26.8 0.94

December 40.8 19.8 0.95

CLIMATE AVERAGES FOR LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Reservations: Teachers who would like more assistance in presenting the field components of this guide can contact the Volunteer Task Force in Los Alamos 

to make reservations for a field day. Please allow at least 6 hours at the site 

for the field day. VTF instructors can accommodate up to 70 students per day.

Reservations should be made at least one month in advance. There is no 

charge for the field day. Make reservations by contacting the VTF at

info@volunteertaskforce.org. .

Fire Box Contents

Fire boxes are available for check out at the Bandelier visitor center or through the

Volunteer Task Force (VTF). Make a reservation by calling the Bandelier Visitor

Center (505-672-3861 #517) or by emailing the VTF at info@volunteertaskforce.org.

The fire boxes contain the following items:

 4 GPS receivers

 4 100-meter measuring tapes

 6 50-meter measuring tapes

 4 rolls of surveyor stape

 Wooden stakes

 Pin flags

 15 blue Nerf balls

 Yellow surveyor tape for arm bands for fire tag

 Samples of ponderosa pine, limber pine, juniper, piæon pine, Douglas fir

 4 three-foot ropes or plastic circles

 First-aid kit

 Field guides for plants and animals

20TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Field Trip Logistics

The success of any field trip requires careful attention and detailed planning. The following tips

will help ensure that your field trip will be a rewarding experience for all.

1. Pre-visit the field site. Check for any potential problems (see safety hazards). 

2. Arrange for bus transportation and funding well in advance. 

3. Inform your school secretary and principal of your trip well in advance.

4. Involve all staff in the planning of trips. Give plenty of notice to the classrooms that students

will miss the day of the trip. (i.e., computers, band and orchestra, music, art, library).

5. Handicapped students may require special arrangements, for both transportation and field

activities. Make necessary contacts to ensure these students will benefit from the experience. 

6. Prepare a short handout for parents and volunteers that describes the details and objectives

of the field trip.

7. If some students remain in school on trip day, make sure there is a plan for where they are

to be and who will be responsible.

8. Create a master permission slip form indicating the destination, purpose of the field trip, type

of transportation, and approximate time of return. Use the bottom of the page as a detachable permission slip so that parents can give their consent and still keep the information.

Leave a space for parents to indicate whether their child is likely to suffer from allergies on

this trip. Leave another spot for parents to declare whether they ll be joining you. Attach the

What Students Need form or the letter explaining the trip to the permission slip. Distribute

the permission slips about a week before the trip. You should never take a student on a field

trip without a parent s signed consent. 

9. Discuss Guidelines for Field Trips and What Students Need with students one week in

advance. Have both students and parents sign this form along with the permission slip.

10. Set up a datatable or spreadsheet with information about your students and their

parents/guardians with contact information. Information should include student and parent

name, address, emergency contact information and any important medical information. This

student information should accompany you on all field trips.

11. Have students wear name tags. Color-code them for group identification.

12. Have precise directions to the field site available for the bus driver and all other participants.

13. Check the weather forecast a day or two ahead of time. Do not hesitate to cancel on the day

of the trip if the weather is questionable. 

14. Leave your cell phone number with the school secretary on the day 

of the trip. 21

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

15. Each teacher should be in charge of their own students.

16. Assign specific responsibilities for parents and volunteers. Remind participants

that field trips are very task-intensive and not a time for them to be talking to each

other. Tactfully let them know that they are role models, and enforce that. 

17. Extend an invitation to other interested community members (school board members, journalists, former students).

18. When students are walking, there should always be one adult in front, one in the

middle, and one at the end of the line.

19. Teachers should be accountable for all their students at all times.

20. Each teacher should carry a complete, transportable first aid kit. One teacher

should have an Epi Pen (epinephrine) and be trained in how to use it.

21. Pack extra water, clothes, and sunscreen. 

22. During the trip, students should get the teacher s permission to go to the bathroom

and never go alone. 

23. W rite thank you notes to the parents and volunteers who helped you. 

You may want to acknowledge their help in a school newsletter.

24. For later use, maintain a file with information on your field trip s highlights, observations and evaluations, and things for which you could have 

better prepared. 

22TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Grouping Students

There are many ways to group students.Ifleft up to the students, they will naturally

want to team up with their friends. In some cases this works but be aware of potential

behavior problems. Consider the following when grouping students:

 Academic needs

 Reading levels

 Learning styles

 Math skills

 Problem solving skills

 Work habits

 Organizational skills

 Behavioral skills

 Content or subject matter 

Create groups that have students skilled in different areas. Include in each group one

student who is good at math, a good reader, and one who has good interpersonal

skills.

The field activities in this guide are best done in groups of four. Divide students into

groups before the field trip. Assign each group a color. Make name tags for each student

that include the color code. Name tags can be strips of masking tape.

What Each Student Needs

 Rain gear Clipboard with field journal and 2 pencils

 Warm layered clothing Colored pencils

 Gloves and hat Permission slip

 Sunscreen and sunglasses Inhalers (if needed) 

 Hearty snack or lunch Sturdy hiking shoes

 Water

What Each Teacher Needs

 Rain gear Pencil sharpeners and extra pencils

 Warm, layered clothing Cell phone

 Gloves and hat Garbage sack

 Sunscreen and sunglasses Sturdy hiking shoes

 Hearty snack or lunch First-aid kit

 Water Class list

 Permission slips

What Each Parent Helper Needs

 Rain gear Sturdy hiking shoes

 Warm, layered clothing Hearty snack or lunch

 Gloves and hat Copy of lesson plan

 Sunscreen and sunglasses Water

 Class list 

Optional

 Small backpack Camera 

 Binoculars

23

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

24TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Before You Head Out to the Field

Recruit parent volunteers: one adult for each group of four students is ideal. Make

certain adults understand that they will be expected to help supervise 

students on the field trip. They should lend a hand, but permit the students

to do the work. 

Have students make legible name tags and color code the name tags for 

each group.

At the Field Site

The three activities of the field day are best done as a rotation through three

stations. Allow at least 1.5 hours per station. In your schedule for the day, include time

to walk to the site, for rotation between activities, for a snack,

and for lunch. A comfortable schedule is:

 Arrive at site

 Unload buses and safety briefing: 15 minutes

 Walk to first station: 10 minutes

 First activity: 1.5 hours

 Snack break and rotation to next activity: 15 minutes

 Second activity: 1.5 hours

 Lunch and rotation to next activity: 30 minutes

 Third activity: 1.5 hours

 Return to trailhead and load buses: 15 minutes

If necessary, the length of time at each activity can be reduced to 1 hour 15

minutes.

Ideas for Stewardship Projects for Students

A visit to a burned area offers students the opportunity to participate in service learning projects that teach about the importance of environmental stewardship and provide a valuable service to communities affected by wildfire. Teachers should contact

local land managers or the Volunteer Task Force for assistance in planning stewardship projects.

Some ideas are:

 Plant seedlings in burned areas

 Make seed balls and scatter them in burned areas

 Do trail repair

 Monitor post-fire recovery of burned areas

 Slash removal in fuel reduction projects

 Make a video on burned area safety
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Limiting Teacher Liability

Student participation in field trips can significantly compliment the existing

educational program. While field trips have a very positive educational value when

properly organized, care must also be taken to ensure that the trips are planned and

conducted in a manner that ensures the protection and safety of students. All field

trips introduce some risk. The objective is to manage that foreseeable risk by reducing or eliminating it. The most effective way to manage risk is to plan preventative

steps that will minimize the possibility of an accident, and reduce both individual and

district liability. Essentially, such steps include effective planning, prudent selection of

activities, and careful supervision of those activities.

Although typically protected, a teacher, like everyone else, is vulnerable to damaging

lawsuits. Often teachers pose legal questions that center around the topic of liability.

The obligation or responsibility of teachers is determined through a combination of

legislation, regulation, common law and school board policy or by-laws. Should it be

found that a teacher did not properly fulfill their obligations, and that failure contributed

specifically to the injury of a student, common sense dictates an increase in possible

liability will arise. Most school districts have an insurance policy to protect teachers

against the financial implication of such liability suites, and they will act on behalf and

represent the teacher if they believe the teacher was acting within the bounds of his /

her employment, and took prudent steps. The courts typically rule based upon a

determination of whether the responsible individuals exercised the proper degree of

caution and judgment. While this may appear daunting, it s not that difficult.

To avoid lawsuits, a teacher should assess all the possible risks associated with the

activity and complete a risk management plan (sample attached) 1 This 

is a simple, documented approach to identifying the risks, and developing an

approach to mitigate or eliminate them. Is the educational benefit of the trip worth the

risks? Usually, but highly hazardous areas or exposure to undue risk should be avoided when picking locations and activities. A review of the specific district policies and

associated requirements and safety guidelines may also help to answer that question.

The teacher responsible for planning, coordinating and implementing a field trip

should complete a risk management plan, which includes an educational and safety

assessment, for the principal s approval. You should have assistance personnel, and

all of them, including parents should be trained in procedures and safety prior to the

outing. Once the principal has approved a field trip the teacher should ensure that

parents provide an informed written consent for their child to attend. The information

to be provided should include a written, detailed itinerary including your educational

assessment, the safety assessment, your expectations of students and parents, and

supervision. Teachers should have student lists, phone contacts for school and parents, student medical information, first aid kits, and cell phones on each field trip.

(See Planning Successful Field Trips for detailed planning tips). 1 Note: This article is intended to be a helpful guide to planning field trips. Any inference that this constitutes specific legal advice

is inappropriate; educators and administration are encouraged to secure specific, professional legal advice relative to issues /

concerns / or the policies of their particular district and state. 

25

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

If an accident occurs on the field trip, the teacher in charge must assess the situation,

and if injuries have occurred, attend to the immediate medical concerns. Parents

should be informed as soon as possible and a written accident report should be filled

out within forty-eight (48) hours of the incident or as soon as possible upon return to

the school. The principal should be notified at the earliest opportunity. Ensure that at

least one supervisor is qualified in emergency first aid and CPR (cardiopulmonary

resuscitation). Be aware of the location of the nearest accessible medical facility.

All participating students should use the transportation that has been arranged for the

field trip unless other arrangements have been made between the parent and the

teacher organizing the field trip. The principal should be informed in writing of any

alternate arrangement for transporting students.

Students should never be left unattended. It is one of the surest ways for teachers to

be found liable for student injuries. 

It is the duty of the teacher to select field trip activities that can reasonably be conducted in a safe manner. All known hazardous conditions must be recognized. 

Teachers and administrators cannot guarantee that injuries or accidents will not result

from activities on field trips. They can only assume the responsibility of using good

judgment and react sensibly in situations of potential danger. It is important that all

teachers and principals become thoroughly familiar with the policies and procedures

necessary in taking field trips to help protect themselves and their students.

Preparation for a field trip is very important and should be a cooperative undertaking

between teacher and students. Careful preparation prior to the trip will help ensure a

safe and enjoyable educational experience. 

26TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

Risk Management Planning

(This description explains how to complete the risk management form on page 42.)

Describe the proposed activity: (In order to determine risk, you must have a detailed

idea of all the components of your program and the demands on students)

List the goals and anticipated outcomes: (Ultimately, you need to determine that the

benefits and outcomes of the activity outweigh the potential risks the activity presents)

Who is responsible for instructing the students about the activity, safety, risks involved

and risk management plans? (Risk management is an active process and must be

communicated and shared with all participants. This plan only has value to the extent

that it is brought to life through communication and diligence.)

What risk does this activity present? 

Physical (i.e. physical injury to participants,staff and partners)

Emotional/psychological (i.e. stress, emotional trauma, fear)

Environmental (i.e. risks caused by environmental conditions such as falling

trees, lightning, toxic chemicals, asbestos not risks to the environment)

Institutional (risks to the institution such as the school or agency. i.e. negative

press, litigation )

What steps must be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk(s) and who is the responsible person to see that the risks have been minimized: (This active process must be

clear to all)

Steps: Person Responsible: 

What risks exist that cannot be eliminated? ( and do these risks outweigh the benefits of the activity? If so, then the activity should not be held) 

What steps specific to this activity are planned to be implemented in the event a risk

becomes an emergency? (Don t forget to assign these specific steps to specific people)

(Source: The Service-Learning Initiative of Southwest Colorado) 

27

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

EDUCATION A N D REFERENCE M ATERIALS

Foxx and Hoard. Flowering Plants of the Southwestern Woodlands.1995

National Audubon Society, Richard Spellenberg. National Audubon

Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region,

National Audubon Society Field Guide. 2001

Pyne, Stephen J. & Cronon, William. Fire in America: A Cultural History

of Wildland and Rural Fire.1997

Pyne, Stephen J. & Cronon, William. World Fire: The Culture of Fire on

Earth.1997

Pyne, Stephen J. Fire: A Brief History

Pyne, Stephen J.,Andrews, P.L., & Laven, R.D. Introduction to Wildland

Fire.1996

Thybony, Scott. Wildfire. 2002 

Arrowood, Janet. Living With Wildfires: Prevention, Preparation, and

Recovery.2003.

Bryan, Nichol. Los Alamos Wildfires. 2003

Elmore & Janish. Shrubs and Trees of the Southwest Uplands.

Dunmire, William & Tierney, Gail. W ild Plants and Native Peoples of the

Four Corners.

Dunmire, William & Tierney, Gail. W ild Plants of the Pueblo Province.

1995. 

Gilmer, Maureen. The Wildfire Survival Guide: Defensive Landscaping to

Protect Your Family and Home Before, During and After a Wildfire. 1995.

28TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

W ILDLAND FIRE RESOURCES O N-LINE

National Interagency Fire Center

http://www.nifc.gov

Bureau of Land Management 

http://www.blm.gov

Discovery Channel School 

http://discoveryschool.com

Fire Information Now Database United States Fire Administration/FEMA

http://www.usfa.fema.gov/find 

Fire Management Today

http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/planning/firenote.htm

FireNet (International Fire Information Network)

http://online.anu.edu.au/Forestry/fire/firenet.htm 

FireSafe

http://firesafe.org

FireWise

http://www.firewise.org

Index to Wildland Fire WWW catalog

http://www.blm.gov/narsc/wildfire/wwwindex.html

NASA Earth Observatory Global Fire Monitoring

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/GlobalFire/fire.html

National Park Service 

http://www.nps.gov

National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) 

http://www.nwcg.gov

Smokey Bear s Official Homepage

http://www.smokeybear.com.

29

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Southwest Area Wildland Fire Operations 

http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/fire/

The Nature Conservancy National Fire Management Program

http://www.tncfire.org

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

http://ww.fws.gov

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information System 

http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis

USGS Wildland Fire Research 

http://www.usgs.gov/themes/Wildfire/fire.html

30TEACHER PREPA R ATION
TEACHER PREPA R ATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This guide was written and field-tested by area teachers, naturalists, scientists,

and members of the Volunteer Task Force. 

Authors:

Laura Patterson, Mountain Elementary School teacher, Los Alamos, NM

Craig Martin, naturalist and writer,Volunteer Task Force, Los Alamos, NM

John Hogan, United States Geologic Survey ecologist, Volunteer Task Force,

Los Alamos, NM

Teralene Foxx, fire ecologist and artist, Los Alamos, NM

Al Toth, retired police officer, teacher, Corpus Christi, TX

Special Thanks to:

Unit design:

Zina Jundi, Adverti-Zing, Santa Fe, NM 

Project coordinator:

Lynne Dominy, Bandelier National Monument, NM

Artwork (drawn and copyrighted by):

Teralene Foxx and Dorothy Hoard

Edi Klingner, for providing the idea for the plant guide

Stephanie Spanier, art teacher at Mountain Elementary, for field testing the photo lesson.

Funding for the development of the defensible space lesson was provided by 

Los Alamos County through the Davey Resource Group.

Funding for the development of this guide was provided by the National Park Service.

Funding for the implementation of this curriculum was provided by Parks as

Classrooms (through the NPS).

31

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
i
33

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T

ATTACHMENTS:ITEMS FOR PH O TOCOPYING

 Letter to Parents......................................................................................................34

 Field Trip Guidelines for Students...........................................................................35

 Driving and Site Maps for Field Locations..........................................................36-41

 Risk Management Planning....................................................................................42

 Proposal for Field Trip ApprovalForm....................................................................43

 Consent and Release Form for Interview, Photographing,

Videotaping or WebsiteUse....................................................................................44

 Program Evaluation Form...................................................................................45-46
34ATTA C H M E N T

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Volunteer Task Force

3100 Arizona Avenue

Los Alamos, NM 87544

(505) 662-1612

E-mail: info@volunteertaskforce.org

Dear Parents:

Your child will be participating in a field trip with the Volunteer Task Force. Students

will be participating in three activities that may include planting seedlings in the area

burned by the Cerro Grande Fire, studying forest density and forest health, examining

a stream profile, or distributing seed balls. 

Students will be instructed on safe handling and use of tools, proper planting techniques, and the importance of community service. We will also discuss issues of forest

health, fire ecology, and making better forests in the future.

In addition to signed permission slips, each student should bring the following 

required items: 

 Long-sleeve shirts

 Long pants

 Sturdy shoes 

 Work gloves 

 Hat 

 Sunscreen 

 Rain gear 

 Inhalers and other medicines, as appropriate 

 Water (at least a quart)

 Snack 

If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact your child s teacher or the

Volunteer Task Force.

Sincerely,

Craig Martin

Project Manager
35

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T

Field Trip Guidelines For Students

1. Be aware of the situation around you and your classmates; develop the habit of

identifying hazards and then avoiding them. Examples: low branches, leaning trees.

loose branches, loose stones, ledges and stump holes. 

2. Pay attention to adults; follow instructions 

3. Be prepared 

a. Have required materials 

b. Carry adequate water

c. Bring lunch/snacks 

d. Wear appropriate footwear and clothing 

4. Be responsible 

a. Carry trash back to school; dispose of properly 

b. Act appropriately 

c. Handle equipment with care 

d. Return all equipment and unused materials supplied to you 

in good condition 

Agreement: 

I fully understand and accept all rules and requirements governing conduct during the

field trip. I understand that a violation or failure to meet these behavior standards will

result in my removal from the trip. Any removal from a field trip for violation of safety

rules will result in my not participating in future field trips.

____________________________________________________________________

Student Signature Date Parent Signature 
DRIVING A N D SITE M APS FOR THE FIELD LO C ATIONS

Ponderosa Campground at Bandelier National Monument

From Santa Fe, drive north on US Highway 84/285 about 15 miles to Pojoaque.

Follow the exit signs for New Mexico Highway 502 and Los Alamos. Once on NM

502, continue 15 miles west to the interchange with New Mexico Highway 4. Bear

right to get onto NM 4, following the arrows pointing toward White Rock and Bandelier

National Monument. Continue on NM 4 through White Rock about 10 miles to the

entrance to Bandelier National Monument. Continue straight on NM 4 past the

entrance. In about 7 miles, Ponderosa Campground is on the left. Turn left into the

parking area.

From downtown Los Alamos, drive west on Trinity Drive to the Los Alamos Medical

Center. Turn left onto Diamond Drive, crossing the high bridge over Los Alamos

Canyon. Just past the bridge, bear right onto New Mexico Highway 501. At a t-intersection in 4 miles, turn left onto New Mexico Highway 4. In 0.2 miles, turn right into

Ponderosa Campground.

36ATTA C H M E N T

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS
Ponderosa Campground Site Description

Sample plots are shown on the map below. Plots may be established in the general

areas identified on the map but you must make sure that one of each is located in the

thinned and unthinned areas.The thinned area (which has fewer trees) is located near

the picnic shelters at Group Campsite A. Park either in the trailhead parking or in the

parking circle for the group site. The unthinned area is across the gravel entrance

road near the weather station. Look for the corner near the southwest corner of the

fence surrounding the weather station.

37

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Rendija Canyon, Santa Fe National Forest

From Santa Fe, drive north on US Highway 84/285 about 15 miles to Pojoaque.

Follow the exit signs for New Mexico Highway 502 and Los Alamos. Once on NM

502, continue 15 miles west to the interchange with New Mexico Highway 4. Continue

straight on NM 502 toward Los Alamos. Stay on NM 502 as it becomes Trinity Drive in

downtown Los Alamos. After about one mile on Trinity, turn right onto Diamond Drive

at the Los Alamos Medical Center. Continue on Diamond Drive past the Los Alamos

High School, around a bend, and past the golf course. Just past the golf course,

swing around a traffic circle in the left hand lane. Scribe three-quarters of the circle to

head uphill on San Ildefonso Road. In 0.4 miles, make a sharp left turn to stay on San

Ildefonso Road. The road now drops steeply downhill. As the road begins to climb

again, the pavement ends. Turn left at the end of the pavement and park in the dirt lot

at the Pajarito Trailhead.

From downtown Los Alamos, drive west on Trinity Drive to the Los Alamos Medical

Center. Turn right onto Diamond Drive at the Los Alamos Medical Center. Continue on

Diamond Drive past the Los Alamos High School, around a bend, and past the golf

course. Just past the golf course, swing around a traffic circle in the left hand lane.

Scribe three-quarters of the circle to head uphill on San Ildefonso Road. In 0.4 miles,

make a sharp left turn to stay on San Ildefonso Road. The road now drops steeply

downhill. As the road begins to climb again, the pavement ends. Turn left at the end of

the pavement and park in the dirt lot at the Pajarito Trailhead.

38ATTA C H M E N T
Site Description

From the trailhead for the Pajarito Trail, walk on the trail as it descends toward the

bottom of Rendija Canyon on several switchbacks. Immediately before the trail crosses the arroyo in the canyon bottom, an unthinned stand of trees on flat ground lies to

the right. Across the arroyo (west of the trail) is a large area that has been thinned

and treated with prescribed fire.

39

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T
INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

East Fork Site, Santa Fe National Forest

From Santa Fe, drive north on US Highway 84/285 about 15 miles to Pojoaque.

Follow the exit signs for New Mexico Highway 502 and Los Alamos. Once on NM

502, continue 15 miles west to the interchange with New Mexico Highway 4. Continue

straight on NM 502 toward Los Alamos. Stay on NM 502 as it becomes Trinity Drive in

downtown Los Alamos. After about one mile on Trinity, turn left onto Diamond Drive,

crossing the high bridge over Los Alamos Canyon. Just past the bridge, bear right

onto New Mexico Highway 501. At a t-intersection in 4 miles, turn right onto New

Mexico Highway 4. Climb a steep hill. Continue 25 miles from the intersection with

NM 501 to the East Fork Trailhead on the right.

From downtown Los Alamos, drive west on Trinity Drive to the Los Alamos Medical

Center. Turn left onto Diamond Drive, crossing the high bridge over Los Alamos

Canyon. Just past the bridge, bear right onto New Mexico Highway 501. At a t-intersection in 4 miles, turn right onto New Mexico Highway 4. Climb a steep hill. Continue

25 miles from the intersection with NM 501 to the East Fork Trailhead on the right.

40ATTA C H M E N T
ATTA C H M E N T

Site Description

From the parking area, the unthinned site is through the fence at the start of the East

Fork Trail at the east side of the parking loop. Walk through the hiker s gate and continue uphill on the trail for a few yards. Unthinned forest on flat ground is to the right. 

To reach the thinned site, use caution crossing the highway to reach the East Fork

Trail #137 on the west side of the highway. Pass through a hiker s gate and enter a

thinned stand of ponderosa pine. The stand to the right of the trail makes a good area

for a plot.

41

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES
ATTA C H M E N T

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Risk Management Planning

Describe the proposed activity:

List the goals and anticipated outcomes:

Who is responsible for instructing the students about the activity, safety, risks involved

and risk management plans?

What risk does this activity present? 

Physical

Emotional/psychological

Environmental

Institutional

What steps must be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk(s) and who is the responsible person to see that the risks have been minimized: 

Steps:

Person Responsible: 

What risks exist that cannot be eliminated?

What steps specific to this activity are planned to be implemented in the event a risk

becomes an emergency?

(Source: The Service-Learning Initiative of Southwest Colorado) 

42
43

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T

Proposal for Field Trip Approval 

School: _______________________________ Proposal Date:_ _______________________

Principal: ___________________________________________________________________

Teacher

Organizer(s): ________________________________________________________________

Destination: _________________________________________________________________

Field trip date(s): _____________________________________________________________

Departure and return times:_____________________________________________________

Field trip description: (brief) 

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Grade Level: ________________________________________________________________

Number of students:___________________________________________________________

Number of teachers: __________________________________________________________

Number of chaperones: ________________________________________________________

Mode of transportation: ________________________________________________________

Financial costs and arrangements: _______________________________________________

Alternate educational plans for students not attending the field trip: 

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Principal s Signature for Approval

Notes:

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
44ATTA C H M E N T

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

CONSENT AND RELEASE FORM FOR INTERVIEW,PH O TOGRAPHING,

VIDEOTAPING A N D/O R W EBSITE US E

I consent to interview(s), photography, videotaping and its/their release, publication, exhibition, or

reproduction to be used for public relations, news articles or telecasts, education, research, inclusion

on the Volunteer Task Force Website, fund raising, or any other purpose by the VTF and/or its affiliates.

I release the VTF, their board members, and each and all persons involved from any liability connected

with the taking, recording, or publication of said interviews, photographs, slides, computer images,

videotapes, or sound recordings. 

I waive all rights I may have to any claims for payment or royalties in connection with any exhibition,

televising, or other publication of these materials, regardless of the purpose or sponsoring of such

exhibiting, broadcasting, or other publication irrespective of whether a fee for admission or film rentalis

charged. I also waive any right to inspect or approve any photo, video, or film taken by the VTF or the

person or entity designated by it. I release and discharge the VTF from any liability by virtue of any

blurring, distortion, alteration, optical illusion, or use in composite form whether intentional or otherwise,

that may occur or be produced in the taking of the pictures, or in any processing toward the completion

of the finished product. All negatives and positives, whether prints, video, film, or sound recording are

the property of the VTF or the person or entity designated by it, solely and completely.

I declare that if I am under the age of eighteen (18) years old I have acquired the written consent of my

parent or guardian. I understand that the terms herein are contractual and not a mere recital, that this

instrument is legally binding, and that I have voluntarily signed this document.

I have fully informed myself of this consent, waiver of liability, and release before signing it. 

Student s Name (please print) ___________________________________ Date__________________

Student s Address _______________________________ Phone ______________________________

Signature of Student __________________________________________________________________

If student is under 18, the parent or legal guardian, if any, must sign.

Parent/Guardian Name (please print) _____________________________ Phone__________________

Signature of Parent/Guardian ____________________________________ Date__________________

W itness Signature____________________________________________________________________

W itness Name (please print)____________________________________________________________

List anticipated uses, i.e. brochure, display board, website, etc. 

Return signed form to: The Volunteer Task Force, 465 Grand Canyon Dr. Los Alamos, NM 87544
45

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ATTA C H M E N T

PROGRAM EVA L U ATION FORM

The Volunteer Task Force and National Park Service wish to provide you and your

students with the best program possible. The few minutes it will take to complete this

evaluation will provide invaluable information for the education staff. Thank you for

your time and thoughtful response. 

Please fill out the following information:

Teacher Name _________________________________________________________

E-mail Address ________________________________________________________

School Name__________________________________________________________

School Address ________________________________________________________

School Phone (include area code) _________________________________________

Home Phone __________________________________________________________

Grade Level___________________________________________________________

Number of Students_____________________________________________________

Location where activity took place _________________________________________

Date of Visit ___________________________________________________________

1. How would you rate the overall quality of the educational program your students

participated in today? 

❏ Excellent

❏ Good

❏ Fair

❏ Poor 

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

2. How would you rate the educational content presented in the program? 

❏ Excellent

❏ Good

❏ Fair

❏ Poor

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
46ATTA C H M E N T

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

3.How would you rate the presenter s instructional skills?

❏ Excellent

❏ Good

❏ Fair

❏ Poor

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

4. Did you receive the proper pre- and post-visit materials (if applicable)?

❏ Yes

❏ No 

❏ Not applicable

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

5.Which lessons were the most effective? 

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

6. Was the program appropriate for the maturity level of your students? 

❏ Excellent

❏ Good

❏ Fair

❏ Poor

❏ Unable to judge

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

7. Would you recommend this program to other teachers? 

❏ Yes

❏ No

❏ Undecided 

Comments____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

8. What could the VTF or NPS do to improve your education program? ___________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
Pre-Field Trip Lessons

1. Fire History of Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems...............................49-71

❅ Student newspaper.............................................................55-62

❅ Student vocabulary.............................................................63-71

2. Why Do Forests Burn? Exploring Fire Behavior.........................73-82

3. Wildfire and Native Plants: Using a Key to Identify Trees..........83-96

4. Measuring the Earth from the Ground Up.................................97-103

5. Preparing for the Field Trip: Field Journals 

and Photo Collages.................................................................105-124

Investigating Fire Ecology
i
49

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

FIRE HISTO RY OF PONDEROSA PINE ECOSYSTEMS

FOCUS QUESTIONS:

Why do foresters and ecologists think many ponderosa pine forests are unhealthy?

What role does fire play in the ponderosa pine ecosystem?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON: This lesson provides students with the basic knowledge

and vocabulary they need to begin their study of fire ecology in ponderosa pine

forests. Students can use a variety of source materials to learn about how forests, and

the fires that burn through them, have changed over the last century.Studentswill

read background material in a fire ecology newspaper, and can watch a presentation

about fire from the internet. An evaluation will allow teachers determine if students

have the background knowledge to continue with the lesson sequence.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWANCE: Class Time: 2 hours

LOCATION: Classroom

SUBJECT AREAS: Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Identify the basic components of the ponderosa pine ecosystem

 Understand how current forestsdiffer from forests of 100 years ago

 Learn the importance of fire to the balance within the ecosystem

V O C A B U L A RY

 Crown fire

 Cambium

 Fire behavior

 Tree rings

 Surface fire

 Fire suppression

M ATERIALS

 Field journals

 Pencils

 Flip chart paper/blackboard

 Pre- and Post evaluation activity sheets

 Investigating Fire Ecology newspaper
50LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

PROCEDURES

Pre- and Post-evaluation

Distribute the pre- and post-evaluation activity sheets. Remind students that this is not

a graded test, but rather a measure of success for the lesson. Each student will

retake the test at the end of the lesson.

1. As a class, have students brainstorm a list of what makes a healthy forest

and what makes an unhealthy forest. 

2. Divide students in groups of three or four, assigning each group the following questions:

a. When wildfire strikes, why do some trees live and others die?

b. What happened in the late 1800 s that contributed to crowded 

forest conditions?

c. How has the local ponderosa pine forest ecosystem changed over the 

past century?

d. What differences do you think you will observe in a thinned plot 

and an unthinned plot?

3. Hand-out copies of the enclosed newspaper and vocabulary lists to each student.

Have each student read the newspaper and answer their question as a group.

4. Resume whole class discussion. Have each group do a presentation on their

answers to their question.

5. Invite a local ecologist to the classroom to discuss ponderosa pine fire ecology or

view the presentation on fire ecology at: www.volunteertaskforce.org/lessons
51

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

STUDENT SHEET

Name________________________________________________________________

Fire History of Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems

Assessment Questions

1. What information can be determined about tree growth from analyzing

tree rings? 

2. The only part of a tree that is actually alive is a very thin layer directly under the

bark called the _____________________.

3. During good growing conditions, annual growth tree rings will be

_______________.

4. In years of less favorable growing conditions, annual growth tree rings will be

____________________.

5. Ponderosa pine forests have evolved over thousands of years. What are some of

the adaptations this tree has developed which have helped its survival rate? 

6. Before European settlement, widespread fires occurred every 2-15 years. If you

were an early explorer how would you describe the condition of the forests in the

early 1800 s?

7. What is fire suppression and how has it contributed to the fuel buildup on the forest

floor?
52STUDENT SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

8. Today s forests are often characterized by dense dog-hair thickets of young pine.

Explain what this term means.

9. The three things that affect fire behavior are:

1._____________

2._____________

3._____________

10. Many ponderosa pine forests today have become dense, unhealthy thickets of

young trees and needle litter mats. What triggered this change in the forest structure? When did this happen? How has this change contributed to destructive forest fires? 

11. New Mexico has the second highest incidence of lightning strikes. What state is

the highest?

12. What are some ways we can restore the ponderosa pine forests of the region to a

more natural state? 
53

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

TEACHER MASTER

FIRE HISTO RY O F PONDEROSA PINE ECOSYSTEMS

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

1. What information can be determined about tree growth from analyzing tree rings? 

Tree rings can tell how old a tree is and the story of its growth. Widely spaced rings

indicate favorable climate conditions when the tree grew much in a year. Closely

packed rings indicate drought conditions or increased competition with other vegetation.

2. The only part of a tree that is actually alive is a very thin layer directly under the

bark called the cambium.

3. During good growing conditions, annual growth tree rings will be wide apart.

4. In years of less favorable growing conditions, annual growth tree rings will be close

together.

5. Ponderosa pine forests have evolved over thousands of years. What are some of

the adaptations this tree has developed which have helped its survival rate? 

Thick bark protects the cambium from low intensity fires.

Lower branches of ponderosa pine are shed to prevent small fires from reaching the

needles. This is called self-pruning.

6. Before European settlement, widespread fires occurred every 2-15 years in this

area. If you were an early explorer how would you describe the condition of the

forests in the early 1800 s?

Forests were open and park-like. Ponderosa pines were widely spaced at a density of

between 50 and 150 trees per acre. The ground was covered with tall grasses and

many species of wildflowers.

7. What is fire suppression and how has it contributed to the fuel buildup on the forest

floor?

Fire suppression is the attempt to extinguish all fires as quickly as possible before

they have a chance to spread. Because downed and dead trees, needles and leaves,

and other forest litter was not periodically burned, the elimination of fire from ecosystems has resulted in a huge increase in the fuel available to fires on the forest floor.
54TEACHER MASTER

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

8. Today s forests are often characterized by dense dog-hair thickets of young pine.

Explain what this term means.

Dog hair thickets are stands of small-diameter pines with densities of hundreds or

even thousands of trees per acre. 

9. The three things that affect fire behavior are:

1. fuel

2. weather

3. topography

10. Many ponderosa pine forests today have become dense, unhealthy thickets of

young trees and needle litter mats. What triggered this change in the forest structure? When did this happen? How has this change contributed to destructive forest fires? 

Fire suppression played a role in the fuel buildup. Also, grazing patterns in the late

19th and early 20th centuries contributed through large numbers of grazing livestock

eating the grassy fuels that once carried low-intensity wildfires through the forest.

Livestock grazing patterns changed around 1880 and fire suppression became a factor in about 1910.

11. New Mexico has the second highest incidence of lightning strikes. What state is

the highest?

Florida

12. What are some ways we can restore the ponderosa pine forests of the region to a

more natural state? 

Forests can be mechanically thinned. Once the forest is in a condition that reduces

the threat of crown fire, prescribed fires can be introduced.
Fire Ecology 

In Ponderosa Pine Forests of the Jemez Mountains

verydifferent ponderosa pine forests than that

found in the Southwest today. Photos show

these forests as extensive grasslands dotted

with small clusters of ponderosa pines. In

some scenes the grasses are two or even

three-feet high; the orange-barked trees reach

200 feet into the sky. These forests had an

open forest structure with individual trees or

small clumps of trees spaced widely apart. The

forest held between 50 and 150 trees per acre.

Today the forests have far many more trees.

Fire s Place in 

Ponderosa Pine Forests

Hills covered with ponderosa pine forest

are the reason many of us choose to live

in the mountains of the Southwest. For

millennia, these forests have been maintained by frequent, low-intensity surface

fires. But many of the forests that we love

are unhealthy, overgrown, and ripe for

a devastating crown fire. Between 1996

and 2003, 40,704 wildfires burned

3,152,770 acres of forest in New Mexico

and Arizona, enough burned forest to

cover the entire state of Connecticut.

By living through the Cerro Grande fire,

tsi aftermath, and the long process of

recovery of the forest ecosystem, those of

us who live in Los Alamos have a vast

pool of knowledge that should be shared

with other fire-affected communities

around the West. Hundreds of towns 

and cities within ponderosa pine forests

experience the same pre-fire conditions

that existed here and, unfortunately, some

of these communities will experience wildfire.

Everyone who lives in or near ponderosa

pine forests needs to know the role that

fire plays in the ecosystem. Studying fire

ecology will help you understand how

ponderosa pine forests are managed and

why it is important to maintain healthy

forests. It will give you the knowledge that

when used properly, prescribed fire is an

essential management tool to keep

forests in good condition. 

Understanding fire ecology can help you

make your home so that it can be defended against a wildfire. To live in ponderosa

pine forests, we must accept fire as part

of our environment and manage our lands

and build our homes accordingly.

W ritten by the Volunteer Task Force

What s Inside q

Ponderosa Pine Basics ............................2

Factors of Fire Behavior ..........................3

Is This Forest Healthy? ............................4

Why are the Trees Dead? ........................4

Plant Identification & Succession ............5

Using GPS................................................5

Crown Fires Strike the Nation ..................6

Forest Recovery after a Crown Fire ........7

Creating Defensible Space.......................8

Craig Martin

Cerro Grande. Rodeo-Chediski. Missionary

Ridge. Aspen. Since May 2000 raging wildfires have burned through immense

expanses of forests in New Mexico,

Arizona, and Colorado. Along with dozens

of smaller fires, these well-known examples burned mostly through ponderosa

pine forest. Each burned as a crown fire,

which is a devastating wave of flame that

can reach 200-feet or more in height.

The ponderosa pine ecosystem-a unique

collection of plants and animals centered

on this stately pine species-is widespread

throughout western North America, and

particularly in the Southwest. Fire has

always been a part of the ponderosa pine

ecosystem, but the fires of the first years

of the 21st century were radically different

then fires of the past. Small, low-intensity

fires that stayed low to the ground have

been replaced by huge crown fires.

The forest itself is very much changed.

Historic photographs from the late 1800s show

Fire climbs from the forest floor into the tree

canopy creating a raging crown fire.

Forests of the late 1800 s(left) were much

more open and grassy than the densely crowded forests found in many places today (right).

Fire in the Pines

We came to a glorious forest of lofty

pines, through which we have traveled

ten miles. The country was beautifully

undulating; and although we usually

associate the idea of barrenness with

pine regions that was not so in this

sense: every foot being covered with

finest grass and beautifully grassy

glades extending in every direction The

forest was perfectly open and unencumbered with brush wood so that traveling

was excellent. 

Edward Beale, Railroad surveyor 

Describing the forest when he passed

through Arizona in 1858 

55
Ponderosa Pine Basics

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is the

most common and widespread pine in

North America. It grows from the dry

mountains of central Mexico north to the

Rocky Mountains of Canada, and from

Nebraska to the Pacific Ocean. The

largest ponderosa forests are found in

northern New Mexico and along the

Mogollon Rim in central Arizona. In the

Southwest, ponderosa pines grow from

about 6,000 

8,500 feet in

elevation. As

the climate

warmed at the

end of the last

ice age, ponderosa forests

developed in

the southwest

about 8,000 to

9,000 years

ago. The ponderosa grows 

in dry climates

and is found in locations

that receive as little as 7

inches of rain per year.

The variety of ponderosa pine

in the Southwest usually has

needles in bundles of 3. The

needles are 4-8 inches long,

the longest of any conifer (cone-bearing tree) in

the region. On young trees, the bark is grey or

black. Once a ponderosa pine reaches about

75 years old, the bark turns orange and cracks

into ovals that look like

giant lizard scales. When

warmed in the sunlight,

the orange bark smells

likevanilla! The cones are

round and heavy,withall

the scales tipped with a

sharp point. The seeds in

the cones are an important food source for all seed-eating animals in

the forest, particularly squirrels. Depending on

local conditions, a ponderosa pine can grow to

be 150 feet tall and up to 4 feet in diameter. The

tree can live 400 to 500 years. 

Ponderosa pine is a fire-adapted species.

These trees have bark up to 4 inches thick to

protect the tender growing tissue beneath.

Ponderosas have long needles that help protect

the growing branch tips against heat from a fire.

As they grow tall, these trees lose their lower

branches in a process called self-pruning. This

increases the chance of a tree to survive a surfacefirebytaking away the fuel a fire could burn

so that the flames can t reach into the crown of

thetree. The root system is deep under the

ground, offering the roots protection from fire.

Ponderosa Pine Fire Ecology

Fire is a keystone ecological process in

ponderosa pine forests of the Southwest.

Fire was a major factor in shaping the

appearance and characteristics of these

forests. Fire also serves to maintain the

forests and keep them functioning as a

healthy ecosystem.

Ecologists can

learn much

about the history of an individual tree or

an entire forest by studying tree rings.

As a tree grows, it adds rings of cells to

the outside of the trunk. Each year, a light

ring of spring cells is added before a darker ring of fall cells. By counting either the

light or dark rings, anyone can estimate

the age of a tree.

A low intensity surface fire that burns

mostly grasses can damage a ponderosa

pine without killing the tree. During a small

fire, flames can wrap around the base of a

tree trunk, eat away the bark, and damage

the cambium, the growing layer of cells of

the tree. Just like with an injury to human

skin, scar tissue forms over the wound.

That section of the tree trunk may never

grow again. The shape of the tree at the

base changes from a circle to a C. The

result is called a cat-face scar. In the tree

rings, the scar tissue remains as a dark

line that interrupts the normal pattern.

By studying tree rings and fire scars, ecologists have found that prior to 1890, ponderosa pine forests had the highest fire

frequency of all forest types found in the

Jemez Mountains. Frequent, low-intensity

surface fires burned through the grassy

understory of these forests about every 7-

10 years. These fires, mostly caused by

lightning, kept the forest open by thinning

out some of the seedlings. These fires

also recycled important nutrients. Tree

rings tell a similar story in other parts of

the Southwest such as along the Mogollon

Rim in Arizona, near Flagstaff, and in the

pine forests of southern Colorado.

Then around 1890, throughout the

Southwest the fires just stopped. This was

due to the combined effects of overgrazing by livestock, fire suppression, logging,

and the highly variable southwestern climate. Grazing animals, especially sheep,

ate the grass that once carried small fires

through the forest. 

Starting around 1910, an effort was made to

put out all fires that started in the forest.

Lumber companies took many of the old

ponderosa pines from the forests, allowing

more seedlings to sprout in the sunlight.

Also, periods with large amounts of rain and

snow allowed more trees to grow. Without

the low-intensity surfaces fires, forests

became much denser. Some of our ponderosa pine forests now have several thousand trees per acre! These stands are

called dog-hair thickets.

Dense stands of ponderosa pines are very

different places than the wide open forests

of one hundred years ago. Because the tree

canopy - the upper layers of branches on

the trees - is so dense, little sunlight reaches the forest floor. Few grasses or wildflowers can grow in deep shade. Also, many

pine needles fall from the trees each year.

In the past, fire periodically cleaned up the

layer of needles and released nutrients into

the soil. Without fire, needles can accumulate to depths over one foot. This makes it

difficult for seeds to germinate and disrupts

some nutrient cycles in the forest. The result

is a forest with very few types of plants

growing there. Species diversity is low in a

dog-hair thicket.

Trees such as Douglas fir grow well in the

shade. Inside some dense stands of pines,

Douglas firs grow as small and mid-sized

trees. During a small fire, young Douglas

firs can provide a path for fire to carry from

surface fuels into the crowns of ponderosa

pines. Plants that allow fire to move into the

crowns of the tallest trees are called ladder

fuels.

Dense stands of trees, a thick pile of needles on the forest floor, an accumulation of

logs and branches from dead trees, and ladder fuels are the recipe for destructive

crown fires. When a hot fire reaches toward

the needles of ponderosa pines, the heat

releases flammable chemicals from the needles. Trees can literally explode, and the

sudden increase in heat and flame pushes

the wildfire into nearby trees. Crown fires

are carried rapidly through ponderosa pine

forests.

The important role that fire plays in the ponderosa pine ecosystem is not unique, but

ecosystems dominated by other species of

conifer respond to fire in different ways. In

some ecosystems, such as high elevation

forests in the Southwest, crown fires are the

natural way they burn. Small, patchy crown

fires may burn sections of this forest every

150 to 200 years. Each forest type should

be managed according to the specific role

fire plays there.

Distribution of ponderosa pines 

in the West

56
Factors of Fire Behavior

The Fire Triangle and Forests

Fire is a simple chemical reaction that

requires three components: heat, oxygen,

and fuel. Remove any of the components

and you no longer have fire. Each component supports the others in the fire triangle. This is true for something as small as

a burning candle or as large as a raging

wildfire.

Heat in a Wildfire: Why Fires Start

When enough heat is applied to fuel with

oxygen present, fire can start. Before

people came to ponderosa pine forests,

the heat that started wildfires came mainly from lightning. The number of lightning

strikes in the Southwest, particularly in

the Jemez Mountains, is higher than in

any other part of the United States except

southern Florida.

When people arrived in the ponderosa

pine forest, they used fire on the landscapes. As a result, even more fires

occurred in the forest. Campfires sometimes burned into the forest, and sometimes people lit fires to chase game animals out of the forest so that it was easier

to hunt. Later, fires were lit to improve

grass conditions for grazing cattle or

sheep. Today, unintentional sources of

wildfire include sparks from vehicles and

trash burning.

The temperature of the air and the ground

can affect how easy it is to start a fire.

High summer temperatures increase the

chance of a wildfire start.

Fuel for Thought: What in the Forest 

Can Burn?

Many parts of the forest can serve as fuel

for a fire. Forest fuels include logs, dried

grasses, pine needles, and if the fire has

enough heat, the crowns of living trees.

Fuels are divided into two groups that are

based on the way they burn during a fire.

Light fuels ignite fast because they are

surrounded by oxygen in the air. They

have a small diameter,soittakes less

heat to start them burning. Examples of

light fuels are dried grasses, dead leaves,

dead pine needles, brush, and small

trees. Fires in light fuels spread faster

and burn cooler than fires in heavy fuels.

Heavy fuels require more heat to ignite.

However,after they start burning, heavy

fuels gives off much heat and burn longer

than light fuels. This is due to the fact that

heavy fuels burn more slowly than light

fuels. The outside layers take longer to

burn off before oxygen can reach the

inner material. Examples of heavy fuels

are logs, stumps, tree branches, deep

duff or decayed leaves, and other organic

materials. 

Oxygen on the Wind 

Oxygen is always present in the forest,

but certain conditions can add more oxygen to a fire. The harder the wind blows,

the faster a fire spreads. Wind not only

provides oxygen for the fire, but it also

blows the heat and flames toward

unburned fuel. As the unburned fuel

becomes preheated, it ignites quickly and

helps to spread the fire farther. Wind

extends fire rapidly into unburned areas.

As the wind carries embers over long distances, new fires may ignite. 

Other Considerations

In the forest, the supply of the three components can determine the severity of a

wildfire. A dense forest offers more fuel; a

windy day provides a constant supply of

oxygen. How fuels ignite, flames develop,

and fire spreads is called fire behavior.

Fire behavior is determined by three

major factors:

n The amount and type of fuels present

n The existing weather conditions

n The elevation and slope of the area 

(topography)

Fuel composition, including moisture

level, chemical makeup, and density,

determines its degree of flammability.

Moisture level is most important. Live

trees usually contain a great deal of moisture while dead logs contain very little.

The moisture content and distribution of

these fuels define how quickly a fire can

spread and how intense or hot a fire may

become. High moisture content will slow

the burning process since heat from the

fire must first eliminate moisture. In addition to moisture, a fuel’s chemical makeup

determines how readily it will bum. Some

plants, such as ponderosa pines, have

high concentrations of volatile compounds

in their needles. Once exposed to flame,

these compounds, called terpenes, can

burst into flame with explosive force.

Finally, density of fuel beds influence its

flammability. If fuel particles are close

together, they will bum readily. But, if fuel

particles are so close that air cannot circulate easily, the fuel will not burn freely.

W eather conditions such as wind, temperature, and humidity contribute to fire

behavior. Wind, a most important factor,

brings a fresh supply of oxygen to the fire

as well as pushes the fire toward new fuel

sources. 

Temperature of fuels is determined by the

surrounding air temperature since fuels

initiallyattain their heat from the sun. As

fire burns, high heat from nearby fires

preheats fuels around the perimeter of

the fire, sometimes to the point that they

burst into flames without being touched by

advancing flames.

Humidity, the amount of water vapor in

the air,affects the moisture level of a fuel.

At low humidity levels, fuels become dry,

catch fire more easily, and burn more

quickly than when humidity levels are

high.

The shape of the land, which is called its

topography, plays a critical role in how a

wildfire burns. On flat land, fires usually

burn more slowly than on slopes. This is

because on slopes, heat rises from trees

burning at the base of the mountain and

preheats the trees that grow above. This

transmits heat quickly to overhanging

branches and other elevated fuels. At the

same time, radiant heat is transferred

from the fire to other objects on the

ground. Convection plays a critical role in

spreading fires rapidly upslope. A steep

slope draws fire upward by convection,

and fire spreads rapidly as convective

heat preheats fuels upslope. In contrast,

fire travels slowly on flat terrain because

ground-level fuels are only preheated by

radiant heat.

Newspaper written by: Craig Martin

Designed by: Lynne Dominy 57
i

Is This Forest Healthy?

Sampling the Forest

A trained forester can make observations

about a forest and determine if it is

healthy or fire prone. However, even professionals can make better decisions

when they make quantitative rather then

qualitative observations. But how

do we measure the forest?

One measure of forest health is the density of trees within an area. Before 1880, a 

typical acre of ponderosa pine forest held 

50 to 100 trees. Using that number as a

guide, researchers today can use the

number of trees per acre as an important

indicator of forest conditions.

W e can’t travel into the past to study forest conditions in the 1800s. But throughout the Southwest, forest managers have

used modern techniques to backtrack

through time and change forest conditions

to something more like those in the past.

W e can use thinned and unthinned stands

of ponderosa pine to make a comparison

between pre-settlement and modern

forests and to evaluate the health of the

present forest. One such stand is located

just outside of Los Alamos in Rendija

Canyon. The stand was thinned in 1996

and presents a picture of an open forest

much like those of the last centuries.

Ecologists can’t count the number of trees

in an entire forest, and even an acre of

forest can be too large to study. To make

measurements easier while keeping them

accurate, ecologists use a study plot to

sample the forest. A plot is a small area

you measure to estimate conditions in a

large area that is too big to study. For

example, to find the percent of surviving

pine seedlings planted after a fire, you

couldn’t count all the dead and surviving

seedlings on 600 acres. But it would be

possible to set up several one-tenth-acre

plots and from what you learn to estimate

the survival rate of the whole planted

area.

Researchers can use a plot sample to

calculate tree density. They simply count

all the trees in the plot and multiply the

count by the size of the plot. For example,

in a quarter-acre plot, multiply the number

of trees by four. If the plot is one-quarter

of one-quarter acre, then multiply the

count by 16.

The size and age of the trees in forests

can also indicate something about forest

health. (To standardize the diameter

measurements in the field, foresters

measure trees about four feet above the

ground or at chest height. The number is

called the DBH.) In a dog hair thicket,

trees grow close together. Closely spaced

trees must compete with each other for

water, nutrients in the soil, and for sunlight. Not many trees get all they need to

grow. The result is slow growth. This can

create a forest of old trees that have

small diameters. By drastically reducing

competition among the crowded trees, a

thinning project releases a burst of growth

in the remaining trees. The result is a

rapid increase in the size of the trees.

When ecologists measure tree diameters,

they can calculate the tree basal area of a

stand. Tree basal area is the area of the

plot covered by tree trunks. In unthinned

plots, there are lots of small diameter

trees; in a thinned plot, there are fewer

but bigger trees. The total basal area of

two plots such plots can be surprisingly similar.

The two pieces of information about the

understory show the effects of the thick

accumulation of pine needles when fire is

removed from the system, and the effects of

a closed canopy that reduces the amount of

sunlight on the forest floor. Both the per cent

cover and the biodiversity are increased

when a forest is thinned and the canopy

opened up. Biodiversity is a strong indicator

of forest health.

W H Y ARE SO MANY TREES DEAD? 

Drought hit the Bandelier area with a

vengeance in 2002.

Ponderosa and piæon

pines are showing signs

of significant mortality

brought on by the lack

of rain and the corresponding invasion of

pine beetles that

attacked the weakened

trees. 95% of the trees

across some parts of

the Pajarito Plateau

died by the summer of

2003. Because of the

increased fire danger

posed specifically by

the ponderosas,

Bandelier Fire Crews

have been working to

build fire breaks and to

remove bug-killed trees

in critical areas. Many of

the trees were piled and

burned to destroy the

beetle larvae and diminish the number that will

become adults.

Safety in a Burned Area

Many dangers are found in a burned area for years after a wildfire passes through. Visitors to burned areas

should always remember to be watchful for hazards: Always look up, look down, look all around.

Hazard Trees: Hazard trees are trees that could fall over and injure someone in the area. Hazard trees can

be ones that are leaning, have fallen part way down and are resting on another tree. They can be trees

obviously weakened by the fire at the base of the trunk, have vertical splits or cracks, broken or loose

limbs, or a loosened and damaged root system. As you walk through a burned area, always try to identify

hazard trees and to avoid walking near them. Stay out of burned areas on windy days.

Root Holes: A wildfire can burn the roots of trees and stumps-even though they are underground. When the

wood is burned, it leaves a hole in the ground. These holes are often covered with soil and not visible on

the surface. If you step on a root hole, the ground above can collapse. Always watch for root holes when

traveling in a burned area.

Rolling Objects: After a wildfire there is little vegetation to protect soil from erosion. As soil is washed from

around the base of objects on steep slopes, rocks and logs can roll downhill. When walking on slopes,

always watch above for rolling objects.

Flash Floods: Because there is no vegetationleft to absorb or slow it down, water flowing down hillsides increases after wildfire. When a storm threatens,

stay out of canyon bottoms. Remember that a storm that is miles away can send a wall of water downstream where it is not raining.

58
Plant Identification & Succession 

To survive a fire, a plant must be able to

insulate itself from the heat of the flames.

Bark thickness is one of the most important factors determining fire resistance of

trees. Ponderosa pine, long leaf pine,

slash pine, burr oak and giant sequoia are

examples of trees with thick bark that act

as insulation. Small woody plants and

shrubs, which normally have thin bark,

tend to use the soil as an insulating layer

to protect their roots. Individual plants

resist being killed in fires by producing

new growth (shoots) from underground

organs or roots. Some plants protect their

buds as an adaptive strategy to survive a

fire. Buds can be protected by layers of

succulent foliage. The buds of the longleaf

pine are protected by a thick cluster of

needles. Some plants even protect their

buds by locating them within the main

stem and roots.

Retention of seeds by plants until a fire

does occur and stimulation of seed dispersal by fire are other examples of fire

adaptation. A number of pine species

around the world, said to be serotinous,

have cones that open only as the result of

heat from a fire. Their cones are held

closed by a resin that is sensitive to and

opens in high temperatures generated by

wildland fires. Serotinous cones will not

open to release the seeds until the critical

temperature is reached. Some cones,

such as those on giant sequoia trees, will

not open unless burned by fire. Today,

people are beginning to recognize that

fire is not always destructive. Fire is

merely a means of change in ecosystems. 

A hot wildfire burns all the seeds available

on the ground and kills most or all the

seeds that lie buried in the forest soil.

W ildfire also takes away the sources of

new seeds that could regrow both the

canopy and understory vegetation.

Yet, a burned forest doesn’t stay totally

barren for very long. The first plants to

appear in a burned area are the plants

that easily sprout from roots. The roots of

some plants that grow beneath four to

eight inches of soil are insulated from the

heat of a wildfire. When a fire removes

the leaves of these plants, a chemical signal stimulates the growth of shoots from

the roots. These shoots can reach the

surface only a few weeks after a fire. In

ponderosa pine forests, Gambel and

other oaks sprout in this way. Aspens,

too, grow from the roots of fire-killed

trees.

W ithin a few weeks of a fire, seeds from

nearby, unburned stands of forest can

blow into the burned area on the wind, or

can hitchhike in the fur of mammals.

Grasses and some kinds of wildflowers

that were found in the forest before the

firestart to grow. Other species that thrive

on bare soil can go wild.

A year after a fire in ponderosa pine

forests, red-stemmed goosefoot plants

can grow by the millions.

To survive a wildland fire, most plants have adaptive traits or abilities that allow them to reproduce

or regenerate after the fire. Such plants are called phyrophytes, literally meaning fire-treated plants.

Aspen shoots grow in the Cerro Grande burn

area the year after the fire. These fast growing

trees need fires to open the canopy so that

their seeds receive enough light to grow.

Global Positioning System

Locating a sampling plot on a map was once a difficult process. Since the invention of the Global Positioning System (GPS),

finding exact locations is no more difficult than using the remote control for a television. The system consists of the satellite

component and the receiver component. Under the right conditions, handheld GPS receivers are accurate within 10 feet. 

The GPS is a system of 24 satellites. The satellites:

n orbit at 11,000 miles above the earth’s surface

n take about 12 hours to complete one orbit

n are spaced so that at least 4 are always in view of an observer at any point on Earth

n contain a controlling computer and communicate with the Earth via radio

n are powered by solar cells 

n use atomic clocks to generate and transmit time signals 

A GPS receiver locks onto the timing signals to determine the receiver’s latitude, longitude, and

elevation. Scientists use the GPS in a wide variety of studies. The data can be used to mark the

location of a study area on a map, or to re-locate a plot on the ground.

GPS readings need to be precise. This requires recording latitude and longitude in degrees, minutes, seconds, and tenths of

seconds.

n Each degree of latitude is about 70 miles. 

n Dividing a degree into 60 minutes makes each minute about 1.1 miles.

n Dividing a minute into 60 seconds makes each second about 90 feet.

n Dividing a second into tenths permits the user to be accurate within 9 feet.

59
An Arizona Example

Rodeo-Chediski Fire

Location: Fort Apache Indian

Reservation and Apache-Sitgreaves

National Forest,

June-July 2002

On June 18, 2002 a human-caused fire

spread north from near the rodeo

grounds on the White Mountain Apache

Reservation. Wind pushed the fire north

into the world’s largest stand of ponderosa pine along the 50-mile Mogollon

Rim in central Arizona. Two days later,a

lost hiker tried to signal a helicopter by

lighting a fire. Winds quickly pushed the

fire up Chediski Peak, which was 15

miles from the growing Rodeo Fire. 

Both fires found abundant fuel in the

overgrown stands of ponderosa pine,

and plenty of oxygen in the strong, dry

summer winds. Towns to the north were

evacuated. By June 22, the fire reached

the top of the rim and raced into the

towns of Heber and Overgaard, destroying more than 400 homes. 

On June 23, the two fires combined into

one huge fire called by many The

Monster, the largest recorded fire in the

history of the Southwest. About 30,000

people were evacuated from nearby

towns. By the time the fire was contained in July, it had burned almost

500,000 acres.

Crown Fires Strike the Nation

On May 10, 2000, the Cerro Grande Fire, pushed by high winds up to 54 mph, swept

through Los Alamos, New Mexico. In its path, the wildfire burned 235 structures and left 400

families homeless. Before the fire was out more than two months later, it had charred more

than 42,000 acres of forest in the Jemez Mountains.

The Cerro Grande Fire 

May-July 2000

Location: Bandelier National Monument

& Santa Fe National Forest

On May 7, 2000, what had started as a

prescribed fire jumped the fire lines near

the summit of Cerro Grande peak and

roared into the ponderosa pine forest

below. Winds up to

40 miles per hour

pushed the fire

toward the city of

Los Alamos. When

the fire front moved

one mile in a 

matter of minutes, the part of Los Alamos

closest to the flames was evacuated. 

Before the fire, scientists studied tree

rings and fire scars from trees in the ponderosa pine forests near Los Alamos.

They discovered that before 1880 fires in

the forest had burned through the area

every five to ten years. By 1910 the fires

stopped. Looking for a cause of this sudden end to fires, researchers found that

between 1880 and 1910 huge flocks of

sheep came to graze in the forests.

Starting around 1910 all fires in the area

were put out as quickly as possible.

Sheep removed the grassy fuels that

spread small fires through the ponderosa

pine forest and any fire that did start was

put out. With no fire to keep the forest

fuels -pine needles, dead trees, and

crowds of small live trees-in check, fuels

in the forest built up to dangerous levels. 

Afterits initial run, the fire grew slowly

through ponderosa pine woods choked

with small trees over the next two days.

Just after noon on May 10, wind gusts up

to 60 miles per hour pushed the fire into

the crowns of the trees on the edge of Los

Alamos Canyon. As the flames raced from

tree to tree, the wind carried burning fire

brands across the canyon and into the city.

W ithin minutes, an evacuation order was

given to the 12,000 people living in Los

Alamos. The residents hurriedly packed a

few belongings and drove slowly out of

town. By 4 PM, the streets of Los Alamos

were empty.

In the forest, wind gusts fed oxygen to the

fire and the crown fire raced two miles in

one hour. In the town, some of the homes

nearest the forest caught fire. Firemen

from all over New Mexico fought the

flames in the city. The high winds continued into the night, helping spread the

flames from house to house. 

In the forest, the fire spread to two directions. One branch of the fire reached

toward White Rock, a nearby town where

many Los Alamos residents had found

shelter. At 1 AM on May 11, the order was

given to evacuate White Rock. Many Los

Alamos residents were evacuated a second time.

The next morning, parts of Los Alamos still

burned. The homes of 400 families were

lost. The fire in the forest had moved four

miles during the night. Another day of

strong winds moved the fire through the

Santa Fe National Forest to Santa Clara

Pueblo lands.

Dry conditions and plenty of fuel kept the

fire burning on a smaller scale until July.

By then the fire had burned 42,000 acres.

The mark of a true community is when disaster strikes and everyone from school

students to senior citizens pull together to make recovery happen. From tree planting

to seeding & mulching, rebuilding trails to learning in classrooms about fire effects,

the citizens of Los Alamos worked together to begin the restoration of their mountain.

Craig Martin, Los Alamos County Open Space Specialist

An Early Crown Fire 

in the Jemez Mountains

La Mesa Fire June 1977

Location: Santa Fe National Forest

and Bandelier National Monument 

A few minutes before 4 PM on June

17, 1977 the St. Peters Dome lookout

ranger reported a thin column of

smoke on Mesa del Rito. By 4:30 PM,

flames and heavy smoke covered the

countryside. The human-caused fire

started in a slash pile near a dirt road.

In less than two hours, the fire grew to

50 acres. Hot, dry, and windy conditions led to a rapid spread. The fire

burned in heavy ponderosa pine forest

on the mesas, and cinders fell on the

town of White Rock eight miles downwind. For seven days, the fire burned

through pine forest. On the night of

June 23, a heavy thunderstorm doused

most of the fire and it was declared

controlled. The fire burned about 15,

300 acres.

60
i

Forest Recovery After a Crown Fire

Often all vegetation is killed and no tree leaves, conifer needles, or ground cover

remain to absorb the impact of falling raindrops or to slow the flow of water across the

hillsides. Beginning with the first rainstorm, forest soil begins to erode and is often

washed away. In mountain ranges in the Southwest, soil can take 10,000 years to

develop. Rainstorms can dump millions of gallons in a watershed in less than an hour.

Such storms produce flash floods. Compared to the flow of the streams before the fire,

the post-fire flows can be 1,000 times greater.

Intense heat can kill most of the seeds lying in the forest soil. But some plants, such as

aspen and oaks, have underground roots deep enough to survive the fire. Within

weeks, the surviving roots send up shoots. Aspen sprouts can grow three feet high in

the weeks following a wildfire. Oak roots can send up dozens of sprouts. Also, the wind

and birds carry seeds from areas outside the burn and drop them on the ash-covered

soil. Depending on the climate conditions, many grass and wildflower species come

back to a burned area in the first two years.

After a wildfire, it is often a race to get living plants growing before the first rains of the

summer to help hold the soil in place. Land managers often operate emergency seeding projects. Because grass plants are quick-growing and have an extensive system of

fibrous roots, they are ideal for holding soil. Grass seeds can be scattered by hand or

from the air with helicopters or airplanes. Because they are adapted to the conditions in

the ecosystem, native grass species are used. The seeds grow best when a layer of

straw mulch covers them. After the Cerro Grande fire, much of the seeding and

mulching was done by volunteers.

W ildfire can destroy ponderosa pine seeds in the soil. In areas of extensive crown fire,

live trees that could provide new seeds may be miles away. It is important to plant ponderosa pine seedlings to regenerate the forest and to provide a source of seeds for the

future. Seedlings-usually no more than six-inches tall-are planted in many burned

areas. More than 200,000 seedlings have been planted on the Cerro Grande fire.

THE FLAMES AND HEAT ARE JUST THE BEGINNING OF THE 

DAMAGE TO AN ECOSYSTEM CAUSED BY A CROWN FIRE.

(left to right) A burned section of Rendija Canyon shows that few trees survived the heat of the

Cerro Grande fire in this part of the canyon; Following reseeding efforts by volunteers, the same

section in the canyon has many grasses growing the following year; Heavy flooding affected a

burned area in Valle Canyon during the summer rains following the Cerro Grande fire; Volunteers

reconstruct a trail damaged by the Cerro Grande fire. 

Reactions to Burned Forests

The sight of a severely burned forest

touches everyone, even the most hardened firefighter. The forest, both before

a fire and after, evokes difference sensory experiences and emotions in each

of us. How does a burned forest make

you feel? You may be surprised to find

beauty even in the blackness.

On way of expressing feelings about 

a burned forest is to create a work of

art or poem. David Hockney, an artist

best known for paintings, also worked

with photographs he called joiners.

Joiners is a method of taking many

photographs, or the individual parts, of

a subject and piecing the prints together to recreate the scene in a photo collage. Hockney combined multiple views

of a single scene in order to explore the

way people shift their gaze in many

directions as they observe something.

Quemazon Trail by Caryn Kohlrust

(Mountain Elementary School 

6th Grader)

Quiet is this deserted place,

Unique in its own way as,

Erosion comes far and near when

Mammals have left,

As many people come and go,

Zillions of lizards and insects remain,

On and under rocks, with,

Nothing left of their home.

Though we know the

Reason the fire has come, the

Amphibians and

Insects might not, some of us are 

Looking for what sleft of our homes.

Both the ecological and human recovery from wildfires is very slow. The community of Los Alamos, with the help of thousands of people in New Mexico,

survived the Cerro Grande Fire. In their own words:

We will rebuild and rise out of the ashes. Senator Steve Stoddard,

retired resident of Los Alamos

A disaster survivor is anyone affected by the Cerro Grande Fire. Losing your home,

living in a damaged home, as well as having your sense of safety and well-being

compromised by the evacuation makes you a survivor. Project Recovery

61
i

Creating Defensible Space

Create a FireWise Home

by Cameron Ott, Collin Delano, and Sarah Wyman 

Sixth graders at Mountain Elementary School in Los Alamos have suggested

the following ways to help prevent a wildfire from destroying your home:

1. Clean your roof and keep gutters free of debris like pine needles.

2. Move woodpiles away from your house.

3. Clear brush around your home to create at least a thirty foot defensible 

space.

4. Landscape with fire resistant vegetation.

5. Keep flammables, like propane tanks, 50 feet away from your house.

6. Create fuel breaks by strategically placing sidewalks, graveled paths, 

fish ponds, and walls.

7. Whenever possible, use fire resistant building materials such as metal roofing

Visit w w w.firewise.org for more information.

Living on the Edge: Defensible Space

People who live in high risk wildfire areas

are faced with the growing concern that a

wildfire could damage or destroy their home

and property. Every year many families lose

their homes and possessions to wildfire.

These losses can be minimized if homeowners take a pro-active approach to home

safety. When homeowners take the time to

become aware of appropriate safety measures and put forth the effort to implement

those measures, they often greatly improve

the ability of fire fighters to protect their

homes, and will reduce their vulnerability to

the destructive forces of fire.

Defensible space is one of the primary

determinants of a building’s ability to survive

awildfire. The goal of creating defensible

space is to develop a landscape around a

building that provides an opportunity for firefighters to defend it against fire. When

grasses, brush, trees, and other common

forest fuels are removed, reduced, or modified in a yard, a fire’s intensity or nearness to

a structure decrease. That situation provides

a space for firefighters to battle the blaze.

Defensible space is not a guarantee that a

structure will survive, but it often increases

the chances of protection from wildfire.

Creating a defensible space starts with

landscaping. You should remove all

burnable vegetation from a distance of at

least 30 feet from your house. You may

have to cut down trees or remove brush.

Pine needles should be no more than

two inches deep. All other dead vegetation should be removed. If there are

many pine trees around the house, you

should thin the forest by removing many

of the trees. Any smaller trees or low

branches that could act as ladder fuels

should be taken out.

You can replace some of the vegetation

around your house with fire-resistant

plants. These plants usually have a high

moisture content in the leaves that

makes them more difficulttoburn. Trees

like maples, walnuts, and willows are

good choices. Wildflowers and grasses

can help create a more defensible space.

Houses near the edge of the forest should

be built with safe, resistant materials. A

metal roof and walls of stucco or adobe

offer good fire protection. Wooden decks

are highly flammable and should be protected with special materials. 

Other actions can make a big difference.

Keep the yard clean of debris. Clean the

roof and gutters at least twice a year. Move

piles of firewood at least 30 feet from the

house. Propane tanks should be used or

stored away from the house.

Every family who lives in the ponderosa

pine ecosystem should make a defensible

space plan.

Extension activities

Visit a nearby ponderosa pine forest. Try to find the following features and answer the questions.

Find a tree with a cat-face scar near the base. From which direction do you think the wind was blowing during the fire?

Find a tree that has been cut with a saw. How old was the tree when it was cut? Are there any fire scars interrupting the

rings?

Locate a dog-hair thicket. How deep is the layer of pine needles on the forest floor? How many kinds of wildflowers

do you see growing there?

Find a tall, orange-barked ponderosa pine. How far above the ground are the first branches? What does the bark smell like?

Locate a small ponderosa pine with needles you can reach. If you break a needle in two, does it release a pleasant smell? 62
63

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

VOCABULARY

VO C A B U L A RY O F FIRE ECOLOGY

Acre:a unit of area equal to 43,560 square feet. 

Acquisition time:the time it takes a GPS receiver to acquire satellite signals and

determine the initial position. 

Adaptation:an alteration in structure or function of a plant or animal that helpsit

change over the course of successive generations in order to be better suited to live

inits environment.

Background: all objects that come from behind the subject away from the camera. 

Basal area per hectare:the area of the cross-section of tree stems near their base,

generally at breast height and including bark, measured over 1 ha of land.

Biodiversity:the diversity of plants, animals, and other living organisms in all their

forms and levels of organization, including genes, species, ecosystems, and the evolutionary and functional processes that link them. 

Bole:trunk of a tree

Breast height:the standard height, 1.3m above ground level, at which the diameter

of a standing tree is measured. 

Camera angles:the area seen by a lens or viewfinder; or the positioning of the subject in relation to the camera shot. 

Cambium:the single layer of cells between the woody part of the tree and the bark.

Division of these cells results in diameter growth of the tree through formation of wood

cells (xylem) and inner bark (phloem).

Canopy:the forest cover of branches and foliage formed by tree crowns.

Centimeter (cm): in the metric system, a unit of length defined as 1/100 of a meter,

equal to 10 millimeters or 1/10 of a decimeter.

Circumference:the distance around a circle or sphere.

Clinometer:a simple instrument for measuring vertical angles or slopes. In forestry,

used to measure distance and tree heights.

Coordinate:a number used to locate a point on a number line, or either of two numbers used to locate a point on a coordinate grid.

Combustible debris:items that catch fire and burn easily; flammable.

Commercial thinning:a silviculture treatment that thins out a thick stand of trees by

removing trees that are large enough to be sold as products such as poles or fence

posts. It is carried out to improve the health and growth rate of the remaining trees. 
64VOCABULARY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Competing vegetation:vegetation that seeks and uses the limited common

resources (space, light, water, and nutrients) of a forest site needed by preferred trees

for survival and growth.

Competition:the struggle among individual organisms for food, water, space, etc.

when the available supply is limited.

Composition:the proportion of each tree species in a stand expressed as a percentage of the total number, basal area or volume of all tree species in the stand. 

Crown fire:a fire that burns primarily in the leaves and needles of trees, spreading

from tree to tree above the ground. 

Damaged timber:timber that has been affected by injurious agents such as wind (as

in the case of blowdown), fire, insects, or disease. 

Debris flow:mixture of soil, rock, wood debris and water which flows rapidly down

steep gullies; commonly initiate on slopes greater than 30.

Deciduous:perennial plants which are normally leafless for some time during the

year.

Defensible space:an area around a structure where fuels and vegetation are treated, cleared, or reduced to slow the spread of wildfire towards the structure, giving firefighters a chance to defend the structure. 

Data:information usually gathered by observation, questioning, or measurement. 

Density:In plant ecology, DENSITY = (Total number of individuals)/total area). 

Diameter:a line segment that passes through the center of a circle (or sphere) and

has endpoints on the circle (or sphere); also, the length of such a line segment. In

forestry, a line passing through the center of a tree.

Diameter tape: a graduated tape based on the relationship of circumference to diameter which provides direct measure of tree diameter when stretched around the outside of the tree, usually at breast height.

Dichotomous key:a tool used by scientists to find the identity of a butterfly, a plant,

a rock, or anything else. Dichotomous means divided in two parts. A key is used by

answering a series of yes or no questions.

D B H:Diameter breast height; the bole diameter of a tree measured outside the bark

at a height of 1.3 meters. 

Disturbance:a discrete event, either natural or human-induced, that causes a

change in the existing condition of an ecological system.
65

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

VOCABULARY

Dominance (Dominant):the extent to which a given species predominates in a community because of its size, abundance, or coverage. 

Drought:a time when there is little or no precipitation such as rain or snow.

Duff:the layer of partially and fully decomposed organic materials lying below the litter and immediately above the mineral soil. 

Ecological balance:a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms

in which genetic, species and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable, subject to

gradual changes through natural succession. 

Ecology:the science that studies the ways in which plants and animals live together

in the natural environment of our planet.

Ecosystem:a functional unit consisting of all the living organisms (plants, animals,

and microbes) in a given area, and all the non-living physical and chemical factors of

their environment, linked together through nutrient, cycling and energy flow. An

ecosystem can be of any size- a log, pond, field, forest, or the earth s biosphere 

but it always functions as a whole unit. Ecosystems are commonly described according to the major type of vegetation, for example, forest ecosystem, old-growth ecosystem, or range ecosystem. 

Ecotone:a transition area between two adjacent ecological communities usually

exhibiting competition between organisms. 

Elevation: the height above sea level.

Endangered species:a species in danger of extinction.

Estimate:a ballpark answer, a number close to another number, a calculation of a

close, rather than exact, answer.

Evergreen: never entirely without green foliage, leaves persisting until a new set has

appeared. 

Fire: a self-sustaining chemical reaction that can release energy in the form of light

and heat. 

Fire behavior: the manner in which a fire reacts to fuel, weather and topography;

common terms used to describe fire behavior include smoldering, creeping, running,

spotting, torching and crowning. 

Fire danger: an assessment of both fixed and variable factors of the fire environment,

which determine the ease of ignition, rate of spread, difficulty of control, and fire

impact.

Fire hazard:the potential fire behavior for a fuel type, regardless of the fuel type s

weather-influenced fuel moisture content or its resistance to fireguard construction.

Assessment is based on physical fuel characteristics, such as fuel 

65
66VOCABULARY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

arrangement, fuel load, condition of herbaceous vegetation, and presence of elevated

fuels.

Fire impact(s): the immediately evident effect of fire on the ecosystem in terms of

biophysical alterations (e.g., crown scorch, mineral soil erosion, depth of burn, fuel

consumption).

Fire history:the chronological record of the occurrence of fire in an 

ecosystem. 

Fire intensity:a general term relating to the heat energy released in a fire.

Fire-resistant species:species with morphological characteristics that give it a lower

probability of being injured or killed by fire than a fire-sensitive species, which has a

relatively high probability of being injured or killed by fire.

Fire scars:scar tissue that develops if a tree or shrub is burned by a fire but is not

killed. The fire leaves a record of that particular burn on the plant. Scientists can

examine fire scars and determine when and how many fires occurred during the

plant s lifetime. 

Fire suppression:all activities concerned with controlling and extinguishing a fire following its detection. Synonymous with fire control.

Fire triangle:the three components that are necessary for a fire to take place and for

the fire to keep burning; the ingredients are heat, fuel, and oxygen.

Firewise landscaping:management of vegetation that removes flammable fuels from

around a structure to reduce exposure to radiant heat. The flammable fuels may be

replaced with green lawn, gardens, certain-individually spaced green, ornamental

shrubs, individually spaced and pruned trees, decorative stone or other non-flammable or flame-resistant materials. 

Food chain:a chain of organisms, linked together because each is food for the next

in line. Energy passes from one level to next. All the food chains in an ecosystem are

connected together in a complex food web.

Forest fire:an uncontained and freely spreading combustion that consumes the natural fuels of a forest, such as duff,litter, grass, dead branch wood, snags, logs,

stumps, weeds, brush, foliage, and, to a limited degree, green trees. 

Forest management plan:a general plan for the management of a forest area, usually for a full ration cycle, including the objectives, prescribed management, activities

and standards to be employed to achieve specified goals. Commonly supported with

more detailed development plans. 

Forest health: a forest condition that is naturally resilient to damage; characterized

by biodiversity, it contains sustained habitat for timber, fish, wildlife, and humans, and

meets present and future resource management objectives. 
67

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

VOCABULARY

Formula:a general rule for finding the value of something. A formula is usually written

as an equation with variables representing unknown quantities. 

Fuel: all the dead and living material that will burn. This includes grasses, dead

branches and pine needles on the ground, as well as standing live and dead trees.

Also included are minerals near the surface, such as coal that will burn during a fire,

and human-built structures.

Fuel load:the amount of combustible material (living and dead plants and trees) that

is found in an area. 

Global Positioning System (GPS):a global navigation system based on 24 or more

satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of 12,000 miles and providing very precise,

worldwide positioning and navigation information 24 hours a day, in any weather.

GPS coordinates:a set of numbers that describes your location on or above the

earth. Coordinates are typically based on latitude/longitude lines of reference or a

global/regional grid projection.

GPS distance: the length (in feet, meters, miles, etc.) between two waypoints or

from your current position to a destination waypoint. This length can be measured in

straight-line (rhumb line) or great-circle (over the earth) terms. 

GPS receiver: consists of the circuitry necessary to receive the signal from GPS

satellites and uses the information to calculation the user s position on the earth.

Ground fire: fire that burns in the organic material in the litter layer, mostly by smoldering combustion. Fires in duff, peat, dead moss and lichens, and downed wood are

typically ground fires.

Habitat:the place where an organism lives and/or the conditions of that environment

including the soil, vegetation, water, and food. 

Hazard tree:a live or dead tree whose trunk, root system or branches have deteriorated or been damaged to such an extent as to be a potential danger to human safety.

Heat:necessary ingredient for fire to start; can be supplied by lightning or human

sources.

Hectare: an area of 10,000 square meters, or 100 x 100 meters. There are 100

hectares in a square kilometer.

Human impact or influence: a disturbance or change in ecosystem composition,

structure or function caused by humans. 

Increment borer: a tool used to extract a core of wood from a living tree for the purpose of studying the annual growth rings of the tree.

67
68VOCABULARY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Invasive species:species that can move into an area and become dominant numerically or in terms of cover, resource use, or other ecological impacts.

Joiner photographs:multiple frame images shot from different angles and later

joined together to recreate the scene or person. 

Juvenile spacing: a silvicultural treatment to reduce the number of trees in young

stands, often carried out before the stems removed are large enough to be used or

sold as a forest product. Preventsstagnation and improves growing conditions for the

remaining crop trees so that at final harvest the end-product quality and value is

increased. Also called pre-commerical thinning. 

Keystone species:a species that plays an important ecological role in determining

the overall structure and dynamic relationships within a biotic community. A keystone

species presence is essential to the integrity and stability of a particular ecosystem. 

Ladder fuels:fuels that provide vertical continuity between the surface fuels and

crown fuels in a forest stand, thus contributing to the ease of torching and crowning. 

Latitude:the degree measure of an angle whose vertex is the center of the Earth and

on side is a radius to the equator. Used to indicate the location of a place with reference (north or south) to the equator.

Litter:the top layer of the forest floor that includes freshly fallen leaves, needles, fine

twigs, bark flakes, fruits, matted dead grass and other vegetative parts that are altered

little by decomposition. Litter also accumulates beneath rangeland shrubs. Some surface feather moss and lichens are considered to be litter because their moisture

response is similar to that of dead fine fuel. 

Longitude:the degree measure of how far east or west of the prime meridian a location is on Earth: determined by the angle formed by semicircles of longitude connecting the North Pole and South Pole and the prime meridian. 

Maximum density:the maximum allowable stand density above which stands must

be spaced to a target density of well-spaced acceptable stems to achieve free-growing status. 

Meter(m):the basic unit of length in the metric system, equal to 100 centimeters, and

1000 millimeters. 

Monitoring:the periodic measurement or observation of selected physical and biological parameters for establishing base lines and for detecting and quantifying

changes over time.

Monitoring plot:a plot installed for measuring or calibrating actual growth of treated

stands. The objective is similar to that of research plots but usually limited to one or

two treatments; for example, thinned versus unthinned areas. These are usually permanent plots administered by the National Forest system, sometimes in cooperation

with Forest Management Research. 
69

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

VOCABULARY

Mixed stand:a stand composed of two or more tree species. 

Mortality:death or destruction of forest trees as a result of competition, disease,

insect damage, drought, wind, fire and other factors (excluding harvesting). 

Noxious weeds: any weed so designated by the Weed Control Regulations and identified on a regional district noxious weed control list. 

Old growth forest:forest which has not had significant unnatural disturbances alteringits content or structure since European settlement. 

Organizing data:arranging and presenting data in a way that makes the data easier

to understand. 

Overgrazing:the practice of grazing too many ruminants on land unable to recover

ts veget i ation or of grazing ruminants on land not suitable for grazing because of

slope. Overgrazing exceeds the carrying capacity of a pasture. 

Percent(%):per hundred, or out of a hundred. 1% means 1/100 or 0.01. 

Phleom:a layer of tree tissue just inside the bark that conducts food from the leaves

to the stem and roots. See Cambium

Photo collage:an artistic composition made of various materials (such as paper,

cloth, or wood) glued on a picture surface. 

Pioneer plants:a succession term for plants capable of invading bare sites, such as

a newly exposed soil surface, and persisting there, i.e., colonizing until supplanted by

invader or other succession species. 

Plant community:an assemblage of plants occurring together at any point in time,

thus designating no particular ecological status. 

Plant harvesting:the collection of plant life including, but not limited to, bark, berries,

boughs, branches, burls, cones, conks, ferns, flowers, grasses, herbs, fungi, lichens,

mosses, mushrooms, roots, sedges, shrubs, sprays and twigs. 

Plot:a carefully measured area laid out for experimentation or measurement. 

Prescribed fire:any fire ignited by management actions to meet specific objectives.

Prior to ignition, a written, approved prescribed fire plan must exist, and National

Environmental Protection Act requirements must be met. 

Pre-settlement fire regime:the time from about 1500 to the mid to late 1800 s, a

period when Native American populations had already been heavily impacted by

European presence and before extensive settlement by European Americans in most

parts of North America, before extensive conversion of wildlands for agricultural and

other purposes, and before fires were effectively suppressed in many areas. 
70VOCABULARY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Prime meridian:an imaginary semicircle on the Earth, connecting the North Pole and

South Pole through Greenwich, England. 

Random sample:a sample taken from a population in a way that gives all members

of the population the same chance of being selected.

Recreation:any physical or psychological revitalization through the voluntary pursuit

of leisure time. Forest recreation includes the use and enjoyment of a forest or wildland setting, including heritage landmarks, developed facilities, and other biophysical

features. 

Reduction: the removal of plant parts, such as branches or leaves, constitutes reduction. Examples of reduction are pruning dead wood from a shrub, removing low tree

branches, and mowing dead grass. 

Reforestation: the natural or artificial restocking (i.e., planting, seeding) of an area

with forest trees. Also called forest regeneration.

Removal:this technique involves the elimination of entire plants, particularly trees

and shrubs, from the site. Examples of removal would be the cutting down of a dead

tree or the cutting out of a flammable shrub. 

Replacement:Replacement is the substitution of less flammable plants for more hazardous vegetation. For example, removal of a dense stand of flammable shrubs and

planting an irrigated, well maintained flower bed would be a type of replacement.

Restoration:the return of an ecosystem or habitattoits original community structure,

with its natural complement of species and natural functions. 

Sample:a subset of a population used to represent the whole population.

Separation distance:Separation distances are measured between tree canopies

(outermost branches) and not between trunks.

Spreadsheet:atable displayed by a computer program, which is used to perform

mathematical operations, evaluate formulas, and relate data quickly. The name comes

from ledger worksheets for financial records. Such sheets were often taped together

and then spread out for examination. 

Serotinous:a pine cone or other seed case that requires heat from a fire to open and

release the seed. 

Snag:a standing dead tree or part of a dead tree from which at least the smaller

branches have fallen.

Soil erosion:the wearing away of the earth s surface by water, gravity, wind, and ice.
71

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

VOCABULARY

Solar cell:a device made of semiconductor materials which produce a voltage when

exposed to light. 

Species:a singular or plural term for a population or series of populations of organisms that are capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members of

other species. 

Stand:a group of plants of the same species, same size, and same age.

Stand density:a relative measure of the amount of stocking on a forest area. Often

described in terms of stems per hectare. 

Stewardship: caring for land and associated resources and passing healthy ecosystems to future generations.

Succession:the gradual replacement of one plant and animal community by another,

as in the change from an open field to a mature forest. 

Surface fire:a fire that burns leaf litter, fallen branches and other fuels located on the

forest floor.

Thinning:a cutting of specific trees made in a forest stand primarily to promote tree

growth and to improve the average form of the trees that remain.

Thumbnail sketch:very quick, loose drawing. 

Understory:any plants growing under the canopy formed by other plants, particularly

herbaceous and shrub vegetation. 

Vegetation:plant life in general

W atershed:an area of land that collects and discharges water into a single main

stream through a series of smaller tributaries. 

W ildfire: an unplanned or unwanted natural or human-caused fire or a prescribed fire

that has escaped its bounds. 

W ildland/Urban Interface:a popular term used to describe an area where various

structures (most notably private homes) and other human developments meet or are

intermingled with forest and other vegetative fuel types. 

Zeric:having very little moisture; tolerating or adapted to dry conditions.

73

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

W H Y DO FORESTS BURN? EXPLORING FIRE BEHAVIOR

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Why do some wildfires burn entire forests and others do not?

How do firefighters break the fire triangle to control a wildfire?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

Students will arrive at a basic knowledge of the fire triangle through four activities.

They will extend this knowledge into the realm of wildland fire, identifying the key

components of the fire triangle in the natural world. Simple demonstrations will show

students how forest density, slope, and weather conditions affect the nature of wildland fire. For a fun way to study fire behavior, students can play a game of fire tag.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: Class Time: 3 hours

LOCATION: Classroom, school yard

SUBJECT A R E A S: Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Correctly identify the three parts of the fire triangle

 Relate parts of the fire triangle to the forest environment

 Evaluate the effects of slope, forest density, and wind on fire behavior

 Explain how firefighters attack the fire triangle to put out a wildfire

V O C A B U L A RY

 Fire triangle

 Crown fire

 Fire behavior

 Slope

 Forest density

M ATERIALS

Three Parts of the Fire Triangle

 Candle

 Pie pan

 Modeling clay

 Matches

 Tall, wide-mouth jar

 Scissors

 Field journals

 Pencils

The Fire Triangle in the Real World

 Investigating Fire Ecology newspaper

 Field journals

 Pencils
74LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

Materials (cont.)

Fire Behavior: 

How, Where, And When A Fire Burns Can Affect The Fire Triangle

 Kitchen matches 

 Non-toxic modeling clay (potters clay to prevent melting) 

 Metal trays 

 Recycled spray bottles for water 

 Stopwatch

 Thermometer 

 Heat resistant mittens or oven hot pads 

 Fire extinguishers 

 Safety glasses 

 Data sheets

Fire Tag

 Yellow arm bands for one quarter of the students

 Blue Nerf balls for one quarter of the students
75

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

PROCEDURES

Three Parts of the Fire Triangle

1. Before class, use the modeling clay to hold the candle securely in the pie pan.

2. Draw a triangle on the board or overhead. Ask students what is needed for a fire.

W rite answers on the board. Then use the answers to organize the three parts of

the Fire Triangle: heat, fuel, and oxygen. Include in the discussion the following

questions: Burnable things surround us every day. Why aren t they on fire? What

is the fuel in fires we are familiar with? 

3. W ith a candle, demonstrate that if any of the three sides of the fire triangle is broken, there is no fire.

4. Stare at the candle for a moment. Ask why it is not burning? What is missing from

the fire triangle? (Heat)

5. Light the candle. Place the jar over the candle. Wait until the candle goes out. Ask

why the candle is no longer burning. What is missing from the fire 

triangle? (Oxygen)

6. Light the candle again. Use scissors to cut the wick. What is missing from the fire

triangle? (Fuel)

The Fire Triangle in the Real World

Have students read about the fire triangle in the real world in their newspaper.

Students should record in their field journal:

 Three sources of heat for wildfires

 Four types of fuel for wildfires and classify each as light fuel or heavy fuel

 Two ways that wind increases the oxygen for a wildfire
76LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

FIRE BEHAVIOR:

HO W, WHERE & WHEN A FIRE BURNS CA N AFFECT TH E FIRE TRIANGLE

1. Prepare at least four matchstick forests. Build a forest in each tray. Create a 5 x 8

base for trees (matches) from a thin layer of modeling clay by packing firmly to the

pan and flattening. In the first three trays, space matches vertically approximately

one-half inch apart. In the last tray, place about 20 matches total in well-spaced

clumps to mimic historic ponderosa pine forests.

2. Do the demonstrations on a non-flammable surface in the school yard. Place one

tray on a flat surface. Elevate one end of a second tray about 20 degrees to represent a moderate slope in the land s topography. Elevate one end of the third tray

about 40 degrees to represent a steep slope in the land s topography. For the historic ponderosa forest tray, keep the tray flat or put it on a 20 degree slope.

3. Set the matchstick forests on a heat-resistant surface. If you don t have laboratory

facilities, one really good surface to use is a trash-can lid filled with sand. Have a

spray bottle and fire extinguisher nearby.

4. Explain to students that the individual matches represent trees that have flammable

crowns, like the conifers in local forests. In this demonstration, studentswill

observe how slope and tree density affect fire spread through tree crowns. 

5. Discuss the type of observations students should make and record on the data

sheet. Make sure students understand the topography of the forest, number of

matches (forest density), the time to burn all the matches in seconds, the ambient

temperature, and number of unburned trees.

6. Before lighting the matches, ask students for their hypothesis about how the fires

willdiffer.

7. Light the match tips along one edge of the flat forest and observe fire behavior.

Then light the match tips along the top edge of a medium-slope forest and observe.

Then light the bottom row of matches on the other medium-slope forest and

observe. Finally, light the bottom row of matches on the steep forest and observe

Ask for descriptions of what the students observe and interpretations in terms of

the fire triangle. (Heat travels upward, so the matches and trees uphill from a fire

receive more heat than those below and are easier to ignite.) 

8. Ask students to remove whatever remains of the matches from each board. They

can use the nail in the kit to poke the burned matches out, if necessary.
77

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

FIREFIGHTERS A N D TH E FIRE TRIANGLE

1. Review the fire triangle.

2. Have students discuss ways that firefighters could use knowledge of the fire triangle to stop a wildfire.

a. Eliminate fuel

Cut down and remove trees in the path of the fire (create a firebreak)

Scrape away a wide band of material lying on the ground (create a fire line)

b. Eliminate oxygen

Throw water on the fire

Throw dirt on the fire

c. Eliminate heat 

Throw water or fire retardant on the fire

3. Play Fire Tag

FIRE TA G

To start, designate one child as the spark (that starts the fire). One quarter of the

group will be fire fighters, identified by their yellow arm bands and each equipped with

a blue Nerf ball. The remaining students will be trees (or fuel, which allow the fire to

grow). At the beginning, explain to the players what each of their roles will be (see

below). Have the spark go to one end of the playing area, and align the fire fighters at

the other end. Now tell the trees to take root and grow anywhere they wish on the

playing field. They should stand with their arms held up to mimic tree branches. 

The spark, or lightning, starts the game by tagging a tree. Trees may not run from the

fire! Tagged trees become part of the fire and must join hands with the spark. The fire

must now continue its pursuit of trees as a unit, attempting to capture trees with their

free hands. Captured trees must join the chain of fire. 

Fire can either move as a long chain, or may break into several smaller groups and

travel as spot fires. They may not travel as individuals (pairs or more only!). This distinguishes them from unburned trees. 

Fire fighters should be held on the sidelines until the fire has had a chance to grow

to 3-4 players. At this point, ask the fire fighters, Do you smell smoke? They ll be raring to go, so when they yell Yes!, allow them to go put out 

the fire.

Firefighters must avoid fire (they, too, can become fuel for the fire and must join the

fire if caught) while attempting to slow the fire s growth. They can do this in three

ways: 

1. Removal of fuels Firefighters may tag trees and escort them out of the game to

the sidelines. Fire fighters and trees may not be captured by fire en route!

(Adapted from A Teachers Guide to Fire Ecology in New Mexico and the Southwest, New Mexico 

South Central Mountains RD and D)
78LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

2. Direct attack - Firefighters may tag fire with their blue bandanas (water). Fire units

that get hit with water must walk from that point on. 

3. Containment Fire fighters may join hands to encircle or contain a spot fire (wet

fires are the easiest to contain because they walk slowly). Contained spot fires

must go to the sidelines. 

Summary of goals of players:

TREES: Stand still: you may be captured by either fire or removed to the sidelines by

firefighters. 

FIRE: Tag trees and fire fighters and grow! Avoid water-wielding firefighters. 

FIRE FIGHTERS: Remove trees to sidelines before they are captured by fire. Tag fire

with water to slow its advance. Join hands with other fire fighters to

encircle spot fires and remove them to the sidelines. 

The game is over when no trees remain. Compare the number of fire players leftat

the end of the game with the number of tree players on the sidelines. Who won, the

fire fighters or the fire? Point out the similarities and differences to real life.

E VA L U ATION

Direct students to design a matchstick forest to observe a different slope, weather,or

fuel condition, or to solve a specific problem. For example, make a matchstick forest

on a steep slope and then remove 12 trees from it. Find the best arrangement of 12

fewer trees to reduce the risk of fire spread. 

Students should be able to explain why their experiment is important, make a prediction of the results, and support their ideas with their knowledge of fire behavior.
79

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

STUDENT SHEET

Name________________________________________________________________

Why Do Forests Burn? Exploring the Fire Triangle 

Assessment Questions

Comprehensive Paragraph: What are the elements of a fire triangle and what

occurs when one of these components is removed from the triangle?

Matching:

Fire Triangle a. a fire that burns primarily in the leaves and

needles of trees, spreading from tree to tree

above the ground.

Crown Fire b. manner in which a fire reacts to fuel,

weather, and topography; common terms used

to described this activity include: 

smoldering, creeping, running, spotting 

and crowning.

Fire Behavior. c. the three components that are necessary 

for a fire to take place and for the fire 

to keep burning

True or False:

1. Trees, flame and weather are the three components of the fire triangle when referring to wildland fires..

True or False

2. Throwing water or dirt on a fire eliminates the fuels, thus stopping the growth of a

fire.

True or False

Multiple Choice:

The three sources of heat for a wildland fire are _______________, ______________

and ___________________.

Name two ways that wind can add to the intensity of a wild fire.

_____________________ and ___________________.

Name at least two types of light fuels _____________, and ________________.
80TEACHER MASTER

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

W H Y DO FORESTS BURN? EXPLORING THE FIRE TRIANGLE

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

Comprehensive Paragraph: 

What are the elements of the fire triangle and what occurs when one of these components is removed from the triangle? How do firefighters take advantage of the fire triangle to stop a fire?

The three elements of the fire triangle are heat, oxygen, and fuel. If any one of the

elements is removed, fires will no longer burn. Student should provide an example,

such as, cutting a fire break to halt the approach of a fire.

Matching:

Fire Triangle c

Crown Fire a

Fire Behavior b

True or False:

1. Trees, flame and weather are the three components of the fire triangle when referring to wildland fires.. False

2. Throwing water or dirt on a fire eliminates the fuels, thus stopping the growth of a

fire. False

Multiple Choice:

1.The three sources of heat for a wildland fire are lightning, fires(campfires), and

sparks or power lines.

2. Name two ways that wind can add to the intensity of a wild fire. Provides more oxygen and blows heat/fire to unburned fuel.

3. Name at least two types of light fuels . grasses and brush or small trees.
81

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

STUDENT SHEET

W H Y DO FORESTS BURN? EXPLORING THE FIRE TRIANGLE

Name___________________________________________ Date_______________

D ATA SHEET FOR MATCHSTICK FOREST EXPERIMENTS

Experiment 1: _____________________________________________

Forest density (number of matches) ______________________________________

Topography (slope angle) ______________________________________________

Temperature_________________________________________________________

Other factors ________________________________________________________

Hypothesis __________________________________________________________

Observations:

Time to burn_________________________________________________________

Number of unburned trees______________________________________________

Other observations____________________________________________________

Experiment 2: _____________________________________________

Forest density (number of matches) ______________________________________

Topography (slope angle) ______________________________________________

Temperature_________________________________________________________

Other factors ________________________________________________________

Hypothesis __________________________________________________________

Observations:

Time to burn_________________________________________________________

Number of unburned trees______________________________________________

Other observations____________________________________________________
82STUDENT SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Experiment 3:_______________________________________________

Forest density (number of matches) _______________________________________

Topography (slope angle) ________________________________________________

Temperature __________________________________________________________

Other factors __________________________________________________________

Hypothesis____________________________________________________________

Observations:

Time to burn __________________________________________________________

Number of unburned trees _______________________________________________

Other observations _____________________________________________________

Experiment 4:_______________________________________________

Forest density (number of matches) _______________________________________

Topography (slope angle) ________________________________________________

Temperature __________________________________________________________

Other factors __________________________________________________________

Hypothesis____________________________________________________________

Observations:

Time to burn __________________________________________________________

Number of unburned trees _______________________________________________

Other observations _____________________________________________________
83

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

WILDFIRE AND NATIVE PLANTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

What effect does wildfire have on plants? 

What are the common types of plant species that inhabit your area after a forest fire?

How can we use a dichotomous key to classify living things?

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON PLAN

This lesson will introduce students to common plant species found in the region following a forest fire. It will prepare them for a visit to a recently burned forest, where

they will interpret, document, and inventory common plants. Back in the classroom,

they will compile their information into a field guide. In order to ensure that this lesson

is successful, the students will need to identify common plants via available resources

in the classroom before going out in the field. Students will identify common species

using a set of plant identification cards and a dichotomous key.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E:2 hours 

LOCATION: Classroom

SUBJECTS: Science, Language Arts , Math, Art, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Respond to the quote Nobody Sees a Flower, by Georgia O Keeffe.

 Develop a working definition with the word adaptation .

 Understand the concept of forest succession. 

 Classify objects with a dichotomous key.

 Identify common trees with a dichotomous key.

 Use plant identification cards to develop their own dichotomous key.

 Develop a working knowledge of common plants and an awareness of plant diversity

in a fire disturbed area. 

V O C A B U L A RY

 Forest succession

 Adaptation

 Serotinous

 Phyrophytes

 Endangered species

 Dichotomous key

M ATERIALS

 Websites, books, newspaper articles, encyclopedias

 Overhead pictures of common plants in region (optional)

 Field journals

 Field guides of regional plant life

 Computer with internet and data base access

 Handout: Key to Some Common Trees

 Samples of ponderosa pine, limber pine, juniper, piæon pine, Douglas fir

 Plant identification cards
84LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

PROCEDURES

1. W arm up

W rite this quotation on the board: Nobody sees a flower, really it is so small we

haven t time, and to see takes time, like to have a friend takes time. Georgia

O Keeffe. Students respond to this quote in their science journals.

DISCUSSION Q UESTIONS:

 Do you agree or disagree? 

 What is the author saying?

W RITING:Create your own saying about flowers and friendships.

W rite questions you would like to ask Georgia O Keeffe.

ILLUSTRATING:Express the meaning in visual form with a sketch. 

Use color,pattern shapes or shading to interpret the meaning 

Think of five ways people are like flowers. Share your answers with the class.

2. Develop a working definition of the word adaptation with students.

Discuss the fact that plant and animal adaptations don t occur over a generation or

two but may take thousands of years to evolve. Plants have a distinct disadvantage,

compared to animals, in the face of fires. They are unable to run, fly, creep or crawl

out of a fire s path and have adapted other methods to survive fires. 

Individual plants have adaptations to ensure their survival through a fire.

To survive a fire, a plant must be able to insulate itself from the heat of the flames.

Bark thickness is the most important factor determining fire resistance of trees.

Ponderosa pine, longleaf pine, slash pine, loblolly pine and giant sequoia are examples of trees with thick bark that acts as insulation from forest fires. 

Small woody plants and shrubs normally have thin bark. These plants use

the soil as an insulating layer to protect themselves. Individual plants resist being

killed in fires by producing new growth (shoots) from underground organs or roots.

Some plants protect their buds as an adaptive strategy to survive a fire. Buds can

be protected by layers of succulent, nonflammable foliage. Longleaf pine exemplifies this adaptive strategy. The buds of the longleaf pine are protected by a thick

cluster of needles. Some plants even protect their buds by locating them within the

main stem and roots. A few poplar tree species possess this trait. 

Retention of seeds by plants and stimulation of seed dispersal by fire are other

examples of fire-adaptive strategies. A number of pine species have cones that

open only after a fire. These cones are said to be serotinous (pronounced sir-OT-inous). Jack pines have cones that are held closed by a resin that is sensitive to high

temperatures. These cones will not open to release their seeds until the critical temperature is reached. Cones of Lodgepole pines (a western U.S. variety of tree) vary

from serotinous to free-opening. 
85

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

LESSON PLAN ViPresit

When these trees grow in areas subject to frequent fires, many of the cones are

serotinous. However, if lodgepole pines grow in areas where fire is less frequent, the

pine cones open and release their seeds more often without fire. 

(Adapted from the Department of Interior, Fire Ecology: Resource Management Education Unit).

Encourage students to give examples of plant and animal adaptations that make it

possible for each to live in a particular area. List these in their journals and on the

board. Examples for animals might include a box turtle shell that protects it from predators, a great horned owl stalons that enable it to catch and hold its prey, the white

tailed deer s coloring that blends with forest vegetation and helps it evade predators.

3. Introduce the concept of forest succession.

Forest ecosystems are always changing. Plants grow using soil nutrients and eventually die, returning nutrients to the soil. Animals feed on plants and leave waste.

Bacteria, fungi and insects thrive on decaying plants, animals and animal waste,

breaking down these materials and replacing soil nutrients. These interactions of

plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and insects constantly occur in ecosystems. 

Succession is a change in plants and animals which occurs periodically in all communities. An open space or meadow will eventually be overgrown by a forest which in

turn will grow to a climax forest. The length of time and kinds of plants involved in

each successional change depend on many factors. The successional progression

can be changed at any state by many different factors and disturbances. These factors and disturbances have negative and positive effects on succession. Disturbances

in the forest can be human made or natural.

Much of what we know of the effects of wildfire on plant community succession

comes from plots established prior to low intensity prescribed fires or from plots

sampled immediately after high intensity crown fires. There is obvious change in

the plant community following fire. Some of the species may be practically eliminated, perhaps as many as 50%. Some species increase for a short time probably

from the stimulation of burning, increased sunlight, lack of competition, water availability and a slight nutrient increase. They then decline, perhaps as a result of

increased competition from plants that tolerate the increased sunlight. Some

species decline for a few years then begin to increase to their pre-burn status.

Some species that were absent or rare before the fire increase in cover; unfortunately some are non-natives. 

(Don G. Despain USGS, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center)

Ask students what they can expect to find in a forest that has been severely burned. 

4. Classifying Objects with a Dichotomous Key

(Adapted from the University of North Dakota Volcano World Curriculum)

Explain to students that a dichotomous key is a tool used by scientists to find the

identity of a butterfly, a plant, a rock, or anything else. 
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Dichotomous means divided in two parts. At each step of the process of using

the key, the user is given two choices; each alternative leads to another question

until the item is identified. It s just like playing the game Twenty Questions.

Classification is the process of organizing things into groups. The ability to classify

can be a valuable life skill for students. The concept of classification can be used in

everyday life. One can use a classification system to organize term papers, books on

a shelf, and clothes in a drawer. Classification systems are used in many different

ways in the business world. 

Biologists organize and store data about organisms in a KEY. A key is a chart that

groups organisms by their characteristics. 

Shoe Classification

This activity will give students an idea of how a key works. 

Imagine walking into a classroom and finding a pile of shoes and a group of shoeless

students. Your task is to match the shoes to the correct student. 

To use the key, you start at number one and work to the right. As you come to each

fork in the road, you make a choice based on the feature of the shoe. Eventually, by a

process of deduction, you come to the owner.

For example, you pick up a shoe. It has laces. That places you at 1A. The shoe is not

brown. This is 2B. The shoe is white. That is 10B. The shoe has a high top. That is

14A and the owner is Marty. By doing this to every shoe, you can return each shoe to

ts owner. i You can make a key of shoes for your class, as well. 

1. Divide the class into groups of 10 or 12 students.

Have each student take off one shoe and put it into a center pile. 

2. Divide the shoes into two piles. Every shoe in one group must have a feature that

no shoe in the other group has. Write this distinguishing feature down as 1A on a

chart similar to the handout. Its opposite, then, will be 1B. 

3. Ignore one pile of shoes for the time being. Pick another feature that allows you to

divide the remaining pile of shoes into two smaller groups. Write this feature and its

opposite after 1A as 2A and 2B. 

4. Repeat steps until each pile is reduced to one shoe, and the owner s name is filledin on the chart. 

5. Go back to the pile that was left behind and repeat the steps. If you are confused,

study the key.

6. To test the accuracy and clarity of your key, ask someone from another group to

match one shoe to its owner. (Everyone should cover or remove and hide his/her

remaining shoe.) 
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5. Identifying Common Trees with a Key

Before class, collect sample of the common trees listed in the key or use the samples in the Fire Box.

Divide students into groups of three. Give each group a copy of the Key to Some

Common Trees and a sample of each tree. 

Explain that all the trees in the key are conifers. These are trees that are evergreen. Their leaves are needles, which are hard, narrow leaves.

Let the students work through the key to identify their samples.

6. Student Generated Dichotomous Key using Plant Identification Cards

Using the knowledge gained in the last two exercises, students can make their own

dichotomous key. Sorting can by done by color, family, or other student-generated

methods. 

Students should familiarize themselves with at least 10 plants they will most likely

observe in the field. (Copies of these pages should be available in their science

journals for easy reference. Students can identify and color each specific plant

before the field trip.) 

E VA L U ATION

Students will be evaluated on their knowledge of using a dichotomous key, and recognizing common plants.

After the field trip, students will produce a field guide to the common plants in the burned

area.

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STUDENT SHEET

Name________________________________________________________________

W ildfire and Native Plants

Assessment Questions

Comprehensive Paragraph: How do some trees, shrubs and plants protect themselves from the heat and flames of wildland fire and make it possible to grow again on

their own?

Vocabulary:

Forest succession a. necessary ingredient for fire to start.

Adaptation b. function of plant or animal that helps it change over

successive generations.

Serotinous c. the gradual replacement of a plant or animal community by another.

Phyrophytes d. a pine cone or seed case that requires heat from a

fire to open and release the seed.

Endangered Species e. means fire-treated plant.

Heat f. plants or animals that need protection in order to

survive.

True or False:

1. Ponderosa pine and longleaf pine have thick bark to insulate them from fire, therefore, they are the only trees capable of surviving a wildland fire.

a. True b. False

2. When plant collecting, it doesn t matter how much of the plant is collected,

because, as long as it is cut properly with sharp shears the plant will always grow

back.

a. True b. False

Multiple Choice:

3. Which of the following have the slowest reproductive rate and grow more slowly

than other types of plants and therefore should only be collected sparingly?

a. grasses b. wildflowers c. vegetables d. mushrooms

4. Which type of pine cone is actually opened by the heat of a wildfire allowing the cone

to drop its seed for new growth?

a. phyrophyte cones b. serotinous cones

c. endangered cones d. adaptive cones

5. Forest ecosystems are always changing. Which of the following has direct interaction

within the management of a forest ecosystem?

a. bacteria, fungi, animal waste b.insects, dying plants, animals

c. insects, animals, plants d. all of the above
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W ILDFIRE A N D NATIVE PLANTS

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

Comprehensive Paragraph: How do some trees, shrubs and plants protect themselves from the heat and flames of wildland fire and make it possible to grow again on

their own?

Insulation, adaptive traits, reproduction, regeneration, bark thickness, heat opening

pine cones, self-protecting

Matching:

Forest succession c

Adaptation b

Serotinous d

Phyrophytes e

Endangered Species f

Heat a

True or False:

3. Ponderosa pine and longleaf pine have thick bark to insulate them from fire, therefore, they are the only trees capable of surviving a wildland fire. False

4. When plant collecting, it doesn t matter how much of the plant is collected, because,

as long as it is cut properly with sharp shears the plant will always grow back. False

Multiple Choice:

5. Which of the following have the slowest reproductive rate and grow more slowly than

other types of plants and therefore should only be collected sparingly?

b. wildflowers

6. Which type of pine cone is actually opened by the heat of a wildfire allowing the cone

to drop its seed for new growth? b. serotinous cones

7. Forest ecosystems are always changing. Which of the following has direct interaction

within the management of an forest ecosystem? d. all of the above
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LESSON PLAN ViPresit

MEASURING THE EARTH FROM THE GROUND UP

FOCUS QUESTIONS

When doing a science study, how can we make estimates of distance & how can we

make precise measurements of distance?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

Students will practice measuring techniques from estimating distance with the length

of their pace to using the Global Positioning System and its satellites to precisely map

locations around their school. They can determine the length of their pace, use measuring tapes and simple trigonometry to lay out a rectangle on the ground, and use a

GPS to collect data about their school. Each of the activities will prepare students for

tasks to which they will be assigned during the field study.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: 2 hours

LOCATION: Classroom, school, school yard

SUBJECT A R E A S: Social Studies, Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Determine their pace and apply the knowledge to measuring a part of their

school

 Use simple mathematics to lay out a rectangle on the ground

 Know how to turn a GPS receiver on and off, and to page between the screens

 Know how to find their position with a GPS receiver

V O C A B U L A RY

 Latitude

 Longitude

 Coordinate

 Satellite

 Global Positioning System (GPS)

 GPS Receiver

M ATERIALS 

 Field journals

 Pencils

Estimating distance and area by pacing

 Measuring tapes

 String

 Pin flags

 GPS receivers
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PreVisit

Using Measuring Tapes To Lay Out A Rectangle

 Measuring tapes, either 10, 30, or 50 meters

 String

 Sets of four pin flags marked A through D

 Marking pens

THREE SC H O O LYA R D ACTIVITIES F O R GPS RECEIVERS

Flag Finder

 Pin flags marked A through M

 GPS receivers

 Datasheets

Testing GPS Accuracy

 30-meter measuring tapes

 GPS receivers

 Datasheets

Where in the World is My School? Using Mapping Software

 GPS receivers

 Datasheets

 Mapping software, such as Terrain Navigator

 LCD projector

PROCEDURES

The exercises below can be run one at a time or as stations in a Measuring Marathon

activity.

Estimating distance and area by pacing

1. In the school yard or in a hallway, use a measuring tape to lay out one or several

lines or strings that are 10 meters long.

2. Practice walking in a normal manner, using a comfortable length of step.

3. Start at the beginning of the line. Walk along the string, count the number of stepsit

takes to reach the end.

4. Divide the number of steps by 10 to find the length of your pace in meters.

5. Repeat three times and estimate your average pace from the three trials.

6. Put out a 25 meter string. Have students estimate the length of the string.

7. In a wide-open part of the school yard, mark off an area of one acre with pin flags.

An acre is a square with 640-foot sides.

Using Measuring Tapes To Lay Out A Rectangle

1. Locate a place in the school yard where groups of students can lay out 8 by 10

meter rectangles. Make up student kits that include a measuring tape, string, four

coded pin flags, and a marking pen. Divide students into groups of 3 or 4. Push the

A pin flag into the ground as a corner of your rectangle.

2. Using the measuring tape, start at the A corner and measure a line that is 10

meters long. Push in the B pin flag to mark a second corner. Run a string between

the two corners. Use the measuring tape to mark a spot on the string that is 3

meters from the B corner.
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3. Starting at the B corner, use the measuring tape to measure a second side of your

rectangle that is 8 meters long. Estimate the right angle for now. Put the C pin flag

in the ground to mark the third corner.

4. Put another string between corners B and C. Make a mark on the new string that is

4 meters from corner B.

5. Have one group member take one end of the measuring tape and hold it on the

mark on the string that is 3 meters from corner B. Another group member should

walk to the other string and the mark that is 4 meters away from 

corner B.

6. Measure the distance between the two marks on the strings. If it is not 5 meters, have

one group member go to flag C. Keeping the string tight, move the C flag from side to

side until the distance between the two marks on the strings is 5 meters.

7. Use the same technique to lay out the two remaining sides of the rectangle.

THREE SC H O O LYA R D ACTIVITIES F O R GPS RECEIVERS

Flag Finder

1. Before class, scatter between 6 and 12 coded pin flags around the school yard. 2.

W rite down the coordinates and letter code for each flag.

3. Students should have a data sheet and GPS. Have the students walk around the

school yard and record the locations of as many pin flags as they can. Post the

correct coordinates in the classroom and have students check their accuracy.

Remember that tenths of seconds are important!

Testing GPS Accuracy

1. In the school yard, lay out several 30 meter measuring tapes running north-south,

east-west, or both.

2. Stand at one end of a measuring tape and record your location with the GPS. 

3. Walk to the 10-meter mark on the tape and record your location again.

4. Walk to the 30-meter mark and record your location again.

5. Use the data sheet to figure out how far the GPS said you were from the starting

point at each location. Remember that each one-tenth of a degree is about 9 feet.

Where in the World is My School? Using Mapping Software

Assign groups of students a location in the school or on the school grounds. Have

each group record the coordinates for places like the front door, a corner of the building, the library, the corner of the playground, or the principal s desk.

When students return, either download the data from the GPS receivers into the computer using a cable connection, or enter the coordinates of each location by hand.

Project the results on a screen. How accurate is the GPS?
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PreVisit

E VA L U ATION:

Evaluate each student as they go through the activities. Students should be able to

set up a density plot on the field trip and to locate one of the corners with a GPS

receiver.

Students should be able to use their pace to find a distance with no more than 20 percent error.

Students will be able to lay out a rectangle with square corners.

Students should be able to accurately locate points with a GPS receiver and record

the coordinates.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES:

http://www.state.de.us/planning/coord/dgdc/lessonplan1.htm

http://www.mercat.com/QUEST/Intro.htm

http://www.volunteertaskforce.org/lessonplans (PowerPoint presentation on GPS)
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STUDENT SHEET

Name________________________________________________________________

Measuring the Earth from the Ground Up

Assessment Questions

Comprehensive Paragraph: Explain how latitude and longitude were calculated by

16th Century explorers and how they are determined in today s world.

Matching:

Latitude a. a set of numbers that describes your location on or above the

earth

Longitude b. a global navigation system based on 24 or more satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of 12,000 statue miles and providing

very precise, worldwide positioning and navigation information

24 hours a day.

Coordinate c. the degrees measure of how far east or west of the prime

meridian a location is on Earth.

GPS Receiver d. consists of the circuitry necessary to receive the signal from a

single GPS satellite.

G P S e. the degree measure of an angle whose vertex is the center of 

the Earth and one side is a radius to the equator. Used to indi 

cate the location of a place with reference (north or south) to the

equator.

True or False:

1. GPS can only be used on land and not on water (like an ocean) since water

cannot be magnetized.

a. True b. False

2. Since Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are a relatively new invention they are

only accurate to within 100-500 feet. 

a. True b. False

Fill in:

1. GPS receivers are used in conjunction with ___________________ to determine

latitude and longitude.

2. Latitude refers to distances north and south of the _______________. 

3. Greenwich Meridian refers to the 0-degree of longitude. In which country is meridian located? ________________________.
102TEACHER MASTER

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M EASURING THE EARTH FROM THE G ROUND UP

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

Comprehensive Paragraph: Explain how latitude and longitude were calculated by

16th Century explorers and how they are determined in today s world.

Early explorers charted the skies: moon, stars, planets, in conjunction with horizon

and season. Today location is measured with computer technology.

Matching:

Latitude e

Longitude c

Coordinate a

GPS Receiver d

GPS b

True or False:

1. GPS can only be used on land and not on water (like an ocean) since water cannot

be magnetized. False

2. Since Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are a relatively new invention they are

only accurate to within 100-500 feet. False

Fill in:

GPS receivers are used in conjunction with satellites to determine latitude and longitude.

Latitude refers to distances north and south of the equator.

Greenwich Meridian refers to the 0-degree of longitude. In which country is the

meridian located? England
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STUDENT SHEET

M EASURING THE EARTH FROM THE G ROUND UP DATASHEET

Flag Finder

Record the longitude and latitude of the pin flags:

A) N ____________ W ____________ E) N _________ W ____________

B) N ____________ W ____________ F) N __________ W ___________

C) N ____________ W ____________ G) N _________ W ____________

D) N ____________ W ____________ H) N _________ W ____________

Testing GPS Accuracy

Coordinates of N _________________ 

Coordinates at 10 meters: N_________________

the starting point: W _________________ 

W _________________

Each 1/10 degree equals 9 feet:

Distance you traveled north from start ___________________

Distance you traveled west from start ___________________

Coordinates at 30 meters: N _________________

W _________________

Distance you traveled north from start ___________________

Distance you traveled west from start ___________________

Where in the World is My School?

Where I took coordinates: ________________________________

Coordinates: N _________________

W _________________

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LESSON PLAN ViPresit

PREPARING FOR THE FIELD TRIP: FIELD JOURNALS

AND PHOTO COLLAGES

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How can we best organize the data collected on a field trip? What are the basics of 

taking a photograph that we can use to make a photo collage?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

This lesson will prepare students for organizing their observations and data collected

on the field trip. Students will prepare and organize a field journal the will include data

sheets needed on the field trip. Students will learn how to organize observations

made in burned and unburned forests by using a Venn diagram. Using basic photography skills, they will prepare for taking a series of photos in the field to use in creating a photo collage. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: 2 hours

LOCATION: Classroom

SUBJECT A R E A S: Social Studies, Science, Language Arts, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

Create a field journal and understand the importance of keeping a 

well-organized record

 Understand how a Venn diagram can organize thoughts, observations, and feelings

 Learn basic photography techniques to use in a series of photographs for a

photo collage

V O C A B U L A RY

 Observations

 Venn diagram

 Joiners

M ATERIALS 

 Pencils

 Photocopied field journal sheets (provided at the end of this lesson) for each

student, teacher, and chaperone

 One package blank paper and one package lined paper

 Colored paper, card stock or cardboard for journal covers

 Magic markers or colored pencils for decorating covers 

 3-hole punch

 String, binding tape, or twigs and rubber bands for binding

 Pencil on a string for each student

 Two plastic pencils sharpeners and extra pencils for field trip

 One box of large ziplock bags to rainproof journals 
106LESSON PLAN

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PreVisit

PROCEDURES

Creating Field Journals

1. Explain to students that field journals are an effective way to record and organize

the many aspects of the information presented in this unit. Student journals can

include writing, art work, data sheets, and general observations about their experiences in the field. Journals also provide a valuable assessment of student progress

for teachers.

2. Distribute photocopies of all of the unit handouts and provide each student with

double-sided copies. Use recycled paper if it is available. Provide five additional

blank sheets of paper and five lined sheets of paper to each student. 

3. Have students create front and back covers for their journals using blank sheets of

paper.

4. Have students bind their journals using binding tape, hole punches and string,

cardboard, or twigs bound by rubber bands threaded through holes. If they do not

bind their journals, it is essential that students use a clipboard on the field trip.

5. Once journals are bound, have them decorate the covers. Have each student

attach a sharpened pencil on a long string through a hole in the journal binding. 

6. Have students use magic markers to write their names on the front covers of their

journals.

7. Students will need a sturdy writing surface behind their field journals. Incorporate

cardboard as the last page or have clipboards available for each student. 

EXTENSION IDEAS

Create a journal that is used throughout the year.

Share student journals with parents at open houses and/or to educate others.

Students may choose to use their journals to create a class newsletter, resource

newspaper, or a class website

Using a Venn Diagram to Organize Observations

1. Introduce students to the Venn diagram as a way to graphically organize their

thoughts. Explain that the diagram is used to compare two objects, concepts, or

even people.

2. After drawing a sample on the board, ask the students to draw two overlapping circles on a blank page in their field journals.

3. Ask students to identify the three areas defined in the drawing (two areas do not

overlap and one area is the overlap between the two circles).
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4. Explain that when comparing two things, some properties of each will be unique to

that object, and that the two objects will share some characteristics. Relate this to

the areas on the diagram.

5. Practice comparing two objects: friends, fruits, teachers, characters in a book,

plants and animals, historic and modern forests, or surface and crown fires.

Basic Photography for a Photo Collage:

1. W rite the following quote on the board: It takes time to see these pictures you

can look at them for a long time, they invite that sort of looking. But more importantly, I realize that this sort of picture came closer to how we actually see, which is

to say, not all-at-once but rather in discrete, separated glimpses which we then

build up into our continuous experience of the word. David Hockney.

2. Share several of Hockneys photo collages (from internet resources or library

books) with the class. Display a pre-made collage, not just prints and internet pictures. The ideas of a collage are more clearly seen when students can actually

see and touch a collage. 

3. Discuss with students why they think Hockney combined hundreds of photos 

for his compositions instead of just taking a single snapshot. What is unique about

these compositions? What techniques of his can you use to develop your own collages?

4. Discuss what makes a good photograph. Some helpfultips are: 

 Shoot tight (close to your subject).

 Be aware of what is in your background. 

 Watch that your fingers don t block the lens.

 Hold the camera steady: squeeze the shutter button gently.

 Surprise is an important ingredient in a good photograph. Photograph your subject from unexpected angles. Low angles can exaggerate the height of tall subjects or reveal unseen aspects. Ashift in lateral position or any extreme viewpoint

can also produce angles. 

POTENTIAL RESOURCES:

http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/hockney

http://www.getty.edu/artsednet/resources/Look/Landscape/hockney.html.

http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/~malek/Hockney.html

http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive.woa/wa/artist?id=262

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STUDENT SHEET

Name_______________________ 

Preparing for the Field Trip: Photo Collages

Assessment Questions

Comprehensive Paragraph: It has been written that photography is a means of visual communication, just like a word processor, telephone, or pen and paper can be

used for correspondence. What is meant by visual communication? 

Matching:

Joiners a. The area seen by a lens or viewfinder; or the positioning

of the subject in relation to the camera shot. 

Background b. All objects that come from behind the subject toward the

camera.

Camera Angles c. An artistic composition made of various materials 

(such as, paper, cloth or wood) glued on a surface.

Photo Collage d. Arranging something into proper proportions, especially

into artistic form.

Composition e. Totake many photographs, and piece the prints together

to recreate the scene or person.

True or False:

Surprising the subject of a photo is never a good idea. The photographer should

always allow the subject to get ready for the photo to eliminate blurriness and movement.

a. True b. False

Never stand close to your subject. You always want to make sure you stand far

enough away so you get the entire subject in the exact center of the frame.

a. True b. False

Multiple Choice:

1. Photographing your subject from a low angle will make your subject seem

a.taller than normal b.shorter than normal

c. closer to the bottom of the frame d. further away than they appear

2. When taking a photo of an outdoor scene, one needs to design a plan before they

actually starttaking pictures; which of the following is the most important?

a. unusual shape of the objects: (ie: trees) b. color contrast

c. shadow patterns/ landscape details d. all of the above

3. When taking a photo outdoors during the daytime, where should the sun be positioned so your subject does not become silhouetted (darkened so badly you only

see the outline of the subject)? 

a. behind the subject b. to the left of the subject

c. to the left of the photographer d. behind the photgrapher 
110TEACHER MASTER

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PR E PARING F O R THE FIELD TRIP: PH O TO COLLAGES

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

Comprehensive Paragraph: It has been written that photography is a means of visual communication, just like a word processor, telephone, or pen and paper can be

used for correspondence. What is meant by visual communication? 

Any answer that the student develops some connection with visual responses, and how

to apply these responses in a real-life situation. Students should realize that photography can be a teaching and learning tool.

Matching:

Joiners c

Background b

Camera Angles a

Photo Collage e

Composition d

True or False:

Surprising the subject of a photo is never a good idea. The photographer should

always allow the subject to get ready for the photo to eliminate blurriness and movement. False

Never stand close to your subject. You always want to make sure you stand far

enough away so you get the entire subject in the exact center of the frame. False

Multiple Choice:

1. Photographing your subject from a low angle will make your subject seem?

a.taller than normal

2. When taking a photo of an outdoor scene, you need to design a plan before you

actually starttaking pictures; which of the following is the most important? d. all of

the above

3. When taking a photo outdoors during the daytime, where should the sun be positioned so your subject does not become silhouetted (darkened so badly you only

see the outline of the subject)? a. behind the photographer
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JOURNAL SHEET

KEEPING A RECORD OF YOUR W ORK

EXPECTATIONS F O R FIELD JOURNALS

Reasons for keeping a journal:

 To teach you about documentation 

 To help you be organized 

 To have a place for your comments, observations, thoughts, questions, and reflections

Items that will be recorded in your journal:

 Data collection sheets

 Brief notes on activities done in class

 Observations and reflections

 Notes on class discussions and reading done on your own

 Assignments you are asked to do

 Anything else you choose to write that is relevant to the topic being studied

Requirements and Expectations:

 All journal pages should be numbered and both sides of the page 

should be used.

 All journal entries should be dated (day, month, year). 

 All entries should be in pencil unless instructed otherwise.

 Pages should never be torn out.

 Journal entries should contain an interesting variety of writing styles, methods, and

products including illustrations, pictures, and graphs.

 Main ideas should be clearly presented.

 Consistent use of appropriate science language and terminology should 

be present.

 Effective use of models, diagrams, charts, and graphs should be utilized.

 Journals should contain information on experiments (procedures used, actual data,

analysis of data, and conclusions). 

 Entries should be well-organized, legible, and neat.

 All notes and assignments should be completed on time.

 Organization is important a reader should be able to follow what you

have written.

 All entries should be accompanied with a heading to indicate to the reader what the

entry is about.

Evaluation of your journal:

Journals will be collected and graded in two week intervals.

You will be evaluated on:

1. Whether you have completed all of the assigned journaling prompts and if you have

followed the above guidelines.

2. If your journal reflects a variety of thoughtful responses to the subject 

matter.
112JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

FIELD JOURNAL RATING SCALE

Rate as follows: 4 = Extends/Exceeds 3 = Practitioner 2 = Apprentice

1 = Novice NA = Not Applicable 

1. Journal pages are numbered. 4 3 2 1 NA

2. Both sides of the page are used. 4 3 2 1 NA

3. Journal entries are dated (day, month, year). 4 3 2 1 NA

4. All entries are in pencil unless instructed otherwise. 4 3 2 1 NA

5. Pages are not torn out. 4 3 2 1 NA

6. Journal entries contain an interesting variety

of writing styles, methods, and products including illustrations, pictures 

and graphs. 4 3 2 1 NA

7. Main ideas are clearly presented. 4 3 2 1 NA

8. Consistent use of appropriate science language

and terminology is present. 4 3 2 1 NA

9. Effective use of models, diagrams, charts, and

terminology is present. 4 3 2 1 NA

10. Journal contains information on experiments (procedures used, actual data, analysis of data, and conclusions). 4 3 2 1 NA

11. Entries are well-organized, legible, and reasonably neat. 4 3 2 1 NA

12. All notes and assignments are completed on time. 4 3 2 1 NA

13. Journal is organized. 4 3 2 1 NA

14. All entries are accompanied with a heading. 4 3 2 1 NA

Comments:
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JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

JOURNAL SHEET

FIELD JOURNAL KE Y

4 = Extends/Exceeds

The student consistently meets and at times exceeds ( more depth/extension with

grade level work and/or performing at a higher grade level) the standard as it is

described the grade level key indicators. The student, with relative ease, grasps,

applies and extends the key concepts, processes, and skills or the grade level.The

work is the student s best effort.

3 = Practitioner

Student s work demonstrates solid academic performance. The student regularly

meets the standard as it is described in the grade level key indicators. The student,

with limited errors, grasps and applies the key concepts, processes, and skills for the

grade level.

2 = Apprentice 

Student s work demonstrates partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skills that

are fundamental for proficient work at the grade level. The student is beginning to,

and occasionally does, meet the standard as it is described by the grade level key

indicators. The student is beginning to grasp and apply the key concepts, processes

and skills at the grade level but produces work that contains many errors.

1 = Novice 

Student s work is yet to demonstrate partial mastery of the knowledge and skills that

are fundamental for proficient work at the grade level. The student is not meeting the

standard as it is described by the key indicators for this grade level. The student is

working on key indicators that are one or more years below grade level.

N A = Not Applicable 

This particular concept has not yet been taught or is not yet ready for evaluation. 
114JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

SAFETY

Safety is first and foremost. Safety concerns change as forest succession proceeds.

In the early stages of succession, root burn-out and falling rocks are issues to be

dealt with. As the trees begin to fall, hazard trees and ground litter become important.

Other hazards are present regardless of the stage of succession: lack of water, poisonous plants and animals, rolling rocks, and tripping hazards. Below are outlined

some hazards that should be discussed with the students before going into the field.

Safety Issues:

1) Sufficient Water: In this dry climate sufficient water is

essential. Each student should bring approximately

one quart of water, or water should be supplied by the

field trip leader.

2) Sunburn: At high elevations the sun is intense. 

Sunscreen on exposed skin surfaces should be encouraged.

3) Poisonous Plants: Poison ivy causes rashes and

sprouts after a fire. Leaves of three, let it be is a

good motto. 
115

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

4) Poisonous Snakes: Most snakes are not poisonous; however, the Prairie Rattlesnake can

be present in forests. The best defense is moving the group away from any snake that is

found. Do not kill any snakes. 

5) Hazard Trees: Trees that are leaning or have

snapped off are considered hazard trees.

Activities should not be done in a burned

area when there are winds. 

6) Rolling Rocks: Immediately after a fire there is not

much vegetation to hold rocks on slopes. When a rock

is loosened the student should yell Rock, warning

anyone below them of the rock hazard. 

7) Lightning: It is not safe to be on mesa tops or under trees 

during lightning storms. Lightning can strike you directly or 

indirectly through nearby objects. Take shelter in a building 

if a lightning storm arrives during your field trip.

JOURNAL SHEET
116JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PLANT SC AV E N G E R HUNT CHECK LIST

Shrubs

❑ Gambel Oak Quercus gambelii

❑ Mountain Mahagony Cercocarpus montanus

❑ Gooseberry Ribes cereum

❑ W ild Rose Rosa woodsii

❑ Raspberry Rubus strigosus

❑ New Mexico Locust Robinia neomexicana

❑ Chokecherry Prunus virginiana

Subshrubs

❑ Kinnikinnik Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

❑ Mountain Lover Pachystima myrsinites

❑ Poison Ivy Rhus radicans

Invasive Plants

❑ Cheatgrass Bromus tectorum

Non-native Plants

❑ California Poppy

❑ Blue Flax Lenum levesii

Native Plants

RED FLOWERS:

❑ Indian Paintbrush Castilleja integra

❑ Scarlet Bugler Penstemon barbatus

❑ Scarlet Trumpet Ipomopsis aggregata

PURPLE FLOWERS:

❑ Gayfeather Liatris punctata

❑ W ild Onion Allium cernuum

❑ Townsend s Aster Townsendia incana

❑ Aster Aster app

❑ Daisy Erigeron app

❑ James geranium Geranium Caespitosum

❑ Beardtongue Penstemon Geranium Caespitosum
117

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

JOURNAL SHEET

YELLOW FLOWERS:

❑ Goldenrod Solidago app

❑ W ild Chrysanthemum Bahia dissecta

❑ Snakeweed Gutierrezia sarothrae

❑ Pinque Hymenoxys richardsonii

❑ Mullein Verbascum thapsus 

❑ Mustard Sisymbrium altissimum 

❑ Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant Cleome serrulata

W EEDY O R G R E E N TO BLUEGREEN:

❑ False tarragon Dracunculus

❑ Chenopods Cheapodiaim app

❑ Sage Artemisia ludoriiciana

W HITE FLOWERS:

❑ Pussytoes Antennaria parvifolia

❑ Fleabane Daisy Erigeron divergens

Grasses 

❑ Mountain Muhly Muhlenbergia montana

❑ Little Bluestem Andropogon scoparius

❑ Slender Wheatgrass Trachycaulum

❑ Bromus

Trees

❑ Limber Pine Pinus flexilis

❑ Ponderosa Pine Pinus ponderosa

❑ Aspen Populus Tremuloides 

117
118JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PLANT SC AV E N G E R HUNT O B S E RVATIONS

Use this sheet to draw and label two native plants of your choice. 
119

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

JOURNAL SHEET
120JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PLANT DATA INFORMATION

Common name refers to the name people in a region call the plant. Often these

names express characteristics of the plant. Common names present

a problem because the same name is often applied to more than one

plant.

Scientific name refers to the name the scientific community has given

to the plant.

Location refers to the specifics of where the plant was found. 

Habitat refers to specific details of micro-habitat. Important points are type of soil or

other substrate (sand, clay, granite, dead wood, other vegetation), associated

species, moisture, and aspect (fully exposed on a south facing bank; in a

damp hollow under dense scrub, etc.). 

Description of plant includes everything about the plant that is not obvious on the

identification sheet. Essential items are the height, type of bark,

whether the stem is upright, sprawling or drooping, obvious

smells, whether the plant is clumped, single or growing in patches, and the presence of creeping or underground stems. Flower

and fruit color should also be noted as these often fade on dried

specimens. 

Surrounding vegetation also helps describe the site. For example Surrounded by

scrub oak with an abundance of asters nearby.

Date refers to the day the plant is observed or collected.
121

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

JOURNAL SHEET

PLANT DATA SHEET

Name of student: _______________________________________ Date: _________

Common name of plant:_________________________________________________

Scientific name of plant: ________________________________________________

Location: ____________________________________________________________

Habitat: _____________________________________________________________

Surrounding vegetation: ________________________________________________

Description of plant:

PLANT DATA SHEET

Name of student: ________________ _______________________ Date: _________

Common name of plant:_________________________________________________

Scientific name of plant: ________________________________________________

Location collected: _____________________________________________________

Habitat: _____________________________________________________________

Surrounding vegetation: _________________________________________________

Description of plant:
122JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS
123

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

JOURNAL SHEET
124JOURNAL SHEET

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS
Investigating Fire Ecology

On-Site Activities

6. Comparison of Thinned and Unthinned Forests:

Ponderosa Pine Plot Study.....................................................127-132

7. Wildfire and Native Plants: Sketching 

or Photographing Plants..........................................................133-137

8. Observations in Burned and Unburned Forests.................... 139-141

127

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ON-SITE ACTIVITY

COMPARISION OF THINNED AND UNTHINNED FORESTS: PONDEROSA PINE FOREST STUDY PLOTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS:

What makes a healthy forest?

When wildfire strikes, why do some trees live while others die?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN:

This interdisciplinary field unit lesson combines mathematics, science, and language

arts skills to discover and describe conditions and characteristics in thinned and

unthinned sample plots in a ponderosa pine forest. These plots are an analog of preand post settlement forest conditions. In the classroom students will be introduced to

basic fire ecology with an emphasis on local fire history. After classroom preparation

lessons on fire, fire ecology, and measuring, in the field students will collect field data

in a 20 x 50 meter ponderosa pine tree plot. They will divide this plot into 4 smaller

rectangular sections 20 x 12.5 yards meters each. Working in teams, they will be

counting, measuring diameter, and recording the number of pine trees they find in

both the thinned and unthinned sections of forest. They also will be counting the number of different species in the understory of each plot. Students will enter their data in

a database and submit a report summarizing their findings. 

TEACHER BACKGROUND INFORMATION

On the field trip, students will collect the raw data necessary to evaluate forest health.

In a post-trip classroom session, student will use the data to evaluate five indicators of

forest health: number of trees per acre, average size of trees,the total tree basal area,

and diversity of the understory.

Ponderosa Basics

Ponderosa pine (Pinus Ponderosa) is the most common and widespread pine in

North America. A ponderosa pine can live 400-500 years. They grow to be 60 130

feet tall and up to 2 to 4 feet in diameter, depending on local conditions. The variety of

ponderosa pine we have here usually has needles in bundles of three. The needles

are 4 8 inches long the longest of any conifer (cone-bearing tree) in the Jemez

Mountains. Sometimes the bark smells like vanilla! Ponderosa forests developed in

this part of the southwest about 8,000 9,000 years ago,as the climate warmed at the

end of the last ice age. These forests were open with individual trees or small

clumps of trees, spaced widely apart (about 50 150 trees per acre). Locally, ponderosa pine forests grow from about 7,000 8,500 feet in elevation.

Humans in Ponderosa Pine Forests

Humans have lived in these forests for thousands of years. There are cavates in the

cliffs on the north side of Rendija Canyon that are between 400 and 900 years old and

a homestead on the mesa above them that dates back to the 1800s.
128ON-SITE ACTIVITY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

PONDEROSA FIRE ECOLOGY

Fire is a keystone ecological process in ponderosa pine forests of the southwest. It

helped to shape and maintain these forests. Ponderosa pine is a fire-adapted species.

These trees have thick bark to protect the tender growing tissue beneath. They lose

their lower branches, so surface fires don t have a ladder to climb into the crowns.

They have long needles to help protect the growing branch tips.

Prior to 1890, ponderosa pine forests had the highest fire frequency of all forest types

found in the Jemez Mountains. Frequent, low-intensity surface fires burned through

the grassy understory of these forests about every 7 10 years. These fires, mostly

caused by lightning, kept the forest open, with trees widely spaced. These fires also

recycled important nutrients. Then, around 1890, the fires just stopped throughout the

southwest. This was due to the combined effects of overgrazing by livestock, highgrade logging, fire suppression, and climate. Grazing animals, especially sheep, ate

all the grass that used to carry the fires. Without them, the forests became much

denser and full of fuels for bigger, more destructive crown fires. Some of our ponderosa pine forests now have several thousand trees per acre! 

W ildlife Habitat in Ponderosa Pine Forests Who Lives Here?

Deer, elk, mountain lions, squirrels, porcupines, hawks, songbirds, woodpeckers,

bees, wasps, lizards can you name 3 others?

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E:

Class Time: 45 minutes, Field Time: 1.5 to 2 hours

LOCATION:

Rendija Canyon, Ponderosa Campground or other field site

SUBJECT A R E A S: Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Demonstrate mathematical skills by laying out a plot and measuring the 

diameter of the trees in two plots

 Gain an overall understanding of how forest density affects

wildfire behavior

 Study the effects of wildfire on thinned and unthinned ponderosa pine forest

stands and make quantitative measurements by comparing tree density and

understory species of two comparable plots

 Demonstrate mathematical skills by measuring the diameter of the trees and

stumps in both plots

 Collect and record scientific data in each identified plot

 Describe qualitatively the characteristics of a healthy forest and an unhealthy

forest

 Gain an overall understanding of how forest density affects

wildfire behavior
129

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ON-SITE ACTIVITY

V O C A B U L A RY

 Thinned Keystone process

 Unthinned Biodiversity 

 Competition Fire suppression

 Crown Ladder Fuels

 DBH

M ATERIALS AND RESOURCES

 Field journals

 Clipboards

 Pencils

 8 aluminum corner stakes

 4 300-foot rag tapes

 6 100-foot rag tapes

 8 rolls of surveyor tape

 8 marking pens

 8 diameter tapes

 2 increment borers

 8 pin flags, labeled T1-T4, U1-U4

 8 three-foot ropes or plastic circles

 Forest Plot Datasheets

 GPS receivers

 Plot Sketch Data Sheets

 Computers

 Internet Connection (optional)

 Database/Spreadsheet software

PRETRIP PROCEDURES

1. In the classroom, students will learn about how grazing and fire suppression over

the last 100 years have changed our forests. In the field, they will gather 

data from a healthy and unhealthy forest plot and compare tree density, ground 

cover, and species diversity to evaluate forest health. 

2. As a class, students will brainstorm a list of what makes a healthy forest and what

makes an unhealthy forest.

3. Divide students in groups of three or four, assigning each group the

following questions:

a. When wildfire strikes, why do some trees live and others die?

b. What happened in the late 1800 s that contributed to crowded 

forest conditions?

c. How has the ponderosa pine forest ecosystem changed over the

past century?

d. What differences do you think you will observe in the thinned plot and

the unthinned plot?

4. Resume whole class discussion.
130ON-SITE ACTIVITY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

FIELD ACTIVITY PROCEDURES

Lay Out Plot

Instructors may want to line out the plots ahead of time.

1. Use the method practiced in lesson 4 to lay out two rectangular plots, one in a

treated stand and the other in an untreated stand. The plots will bear 20 x 50

meters (approximately 1/4 acre). Mark plot corners with rebar or stakes.

2. Divide this plot into 4 smaller rectangular sections 22 meters by 12.5 meters each

and mark the dividing lines with pin flags.

3. Label the flags for each subplot with a two-symbol code: U or T for thinned or

unthinned, and a number from 1 to 4.

4. Use pin flags to identify the subplot section.

5. With a GPS receiver, find and record the coordinates for the corners of the plot.

Unthinned Plot Data Collection

Preliminary Observations

W rite down three things you notice about the plot. These can be things about the

trees (height, density, color), the amount of bare soil under the trees, whether or not

the tree crowns overlap, etc. Are there any signs of animals, birds, or insects living on

or using the plot?

Mark and Number Trees

1. Record the plot number code on the data sheet.

2. Record relative locations and dimensions of all the trees in the subplot by making a

sketch on the data sheet provided.

3. Tie colored flagging around each tree in the plot section. Include the stumps, if you

are working on the thinned plot.

4. Use a marking pen to write a unique number on the flagging tied around the tree. 

5. Measure the diameter of each tree at chest height (about 4.5 ft. above the ground). 

Record this number on the data sheet in the column marked DBH (diameter 

breast height). 

6. Use the tape to measure the diameter of all trees in the subplot. Record each

diameter on the flagging tied around each tree.

Map Trees

Use a pencil with an eraser for this part! Using the sheet with the outline of the plots,

write the plot (thinned or unthinned) and section (1, 2, 3, and 4) on this map. Make

sure to fill in the correct section. Work in teams. Move to one corner of the plot.

Students can estimate the position within the plot rectangle of each tree in the plot.

Use the tapes along the edges of the plot and the stakes at the corners as guides.

Students then draw a circle on their the map for each tree. Write the tree s number

next to the circle. Be careful to leave enough room on the map for all the trees.
131

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ON-SITE ACTIVITY

Measure Trees

Measure the diameter of each tree at chest height (about 4.5 ft. above the ground).

Record this number on the data sheet in the column marked DBH (diameter breast

height). 

Measure Stumps (Thinned Plot Only)

1. On the thinned plot, measure the diameter of all the stumps. Record this 

number on the data sheet.

2. Count the number of annual growth rings on the stumps. Record this

number on the data sheet.

Biodiversity Indicators

1. Select a random patch of ground and spread out a loop of rope in a rough circle,

or toss a plastic ring. Within the circle, estimate which of the following best represents the percent of ground surface covered by vegetation (as opposed to bare

dirt): is it 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% or 100%. and record the estimate on the data sheet.

Look at the plants within the circle and determine the number of different species

present. (grasses, shrubs, wildflowers, etc.). Repeat 8 times at different locations

around the plot.

2. Repeat the study for the thinned plot. 

POST TRIP ACTIVITIES DISCUSSION AND ESSAY

1. Compare the number of trees per acre for subplot data and the entire plot.

Are the numbers close? Which is more accurate and why?

2. Pre-settlement tree density in ponderosa stands averaged 70 to 100 stems

per acre. Which of the two plots is more representative of historic

forest conditions?

3. Ground cover and species diversity are measures of forest health. What does your

understory data tell you about the forest health in unthinned and thinned pine

forests? 

4. Compare the distribution of size classes in the two plots. What conclusions about

forest health can you draw from your observations?

5. Compare the volume of timber in each of the plots. What can you conclude about

the thinning on tree and forest health?

E VA L U ATION:

Students will use forest density data collected on their field trip to analyze forest structure and compare pre and post settlement forests. Using their analysis and background, they will write a prescription for creating a healthier forest. 

Student data should be complete with tree diameters, understory vegetation, and general observations recorded on their data sheets.
132ON-SITE ACTIVITY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

POTENTIAL RESOURCES:

http://www.greenforests.com/newsrel.html

http://www.wa.gov/dnr/htdocs/rp/stewardship/bfs/WESTERN/thinning

http://fire.nifc.nps.gov/fire/ecology/docs/construct.html
133

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ON-SITE ACTIVITY

WILDFIRE AND NATIVE PLANTS: 

SKETCHING or PHOTOGRAPHING PLANTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

What effect does wildfire have on plants? 

What are the common types of plant species that inhabit an area after a forest fire?

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON PLAN

This field lesson will introduce students to common plant species found in the region

following a forest fire. On the field trip they will participate in a plant scavenger hunt

and sketch or photograph selected common native plants. Back in the classroom,

they will compile their research into a plant field guide. In order to ensure that this lesson is successful, the students will need to identify common plants via available

resources in the classroom before going out in the field. It is advisable for the teacher

to survey the area where plant observations are to take place before the students go

out in order to find the most suitable location for collecting plants. The plants listed in

this guide are most common in late summer and early fall in the Los Alamos area.

(NOTE: Be sure NOT to collect or disturb any species which may be endangered or

at risk).

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: 1 hour 

LOCATION: Rendija Canyon or other field site (not Ponderosa Campground)

SUBJECTS: Science, Language Arts , Math, Art, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Use keys and plant cards for plant identification 

 Develop plant observation, identification and classification skills. 

 Use the handout, Plant Scavenger Hunt Check List and look for as many

identified plants as time allows. 

 Use the Plant Scavenger Hunt Observation sheet to draw and label two native

plants of their choice. (See also photographing & collecting)

 Become more sensitized to and appreciative of the flora around them.

V O C A B U L A RY

 Forest succession

 Adaptation

 Serotinous

 Phyrophytes

 Endangered species

 Native plants
134ON-SITE ACTIVITY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

FIELD MATERIALS

 Science journals

 Field guides of regional plant life

 Colored pencils

 Cameras

 Plant scavenger hunt check list 

 Plant scavenger hunt observation sheet

 Plant identification cards

 Plant data sheets

PROCEDURES 

1. PLANT SCAVENGER HUNT

a. Review safety rules. 

b. Pair students in teams of 2-4.

c. Using the plant scavenger hunt check list and plant identification cards find as

many plants as time allows.

2. FIELD SKETCHING

Introduce field sketching as part of both science and art. Many students will be apprehensive about drawing, and claim that they can t draw. This is just not true. The importance of field sketching is in conveying information, and allowing the sketcher an indepth understanding of the object sketched. Sketching can improve observation,

patience, and hand-eye coordination, as well as increase knowledge of how things are

put together, how they function, and where they live. 

1. Have students work in teams of 2 4. 

2. Give students a choice of plants they may sketch.

3. Spend at least 2 minutes just observing their plant before they begin

drawing. 

4. Drawing by memory: Have students observe the plant, then try and draw it from

memory. This is a skill that all sketchers would like to

perfect because they could then be formulating drawings in their heads all the

time. Have students try a few of these before they look at their plant again.

5. Contour drawing: This time, have students look only at their subject, and NOT

at the paper. Have students place their pencils on the paper and NOT lift them

up until they feel they are finished. Draw all the ins and outs, not just the outline. These drawings may be really funny looking but for new students of

sketching, they will often show some of the best observing and line use. 

6. Quick gesture sketch: Have students look at both the plant and the paper simultaneously. No erasing allowed!! This type of sketching was common for artists

like Michelangelo, Picasso and Van Gogh. Gesture sketches should loosen up

hands and fingers. Keep these sketches under 10 seconds. 

7. Diagrammatic sketches: Basically a line drawing like those seen in field guides.

Have students write details next to the drawing, like hair stem, pinkish petals,

found near a burned tree in Los Alamos, NM and the date. Spend about 5

minutes on this drawing.
135

JEMEZ M O U N TAINS EXPLORER G UIDES

ON-SITE ACTIVITY

8. Draw only part of the plant. 

9. Study drawing: A complete drawing. Spend about 15 minutes to 45 minutes.

Include shading

(Reference: Leslie, C.W. (1995). The Art of Field Sketching)

3. PHOTOGRAPHY

Handling a camera with skill and ease may make the difference between getting a

sharp picture or getting one that s fuzzy.It s important that the photographer doesn t

fumble with the camera, doesn t focus improperly, or jiggle the camera as the shutter

release is pressed. It is recommended to practice without film first to develop good

camera handling habits.

1. Have students work in teams of 2-4.

2. Give students a choice of what plants they may photograph.

3. Make sure the camera lens is clean.

4. Hold the camera steady in order to obtain sharp pictures. 

5. Explore different camera angles to determine the best composition and the

most creative approach. Shoot down to create attractive pinwheel patterns of

daisies; kneel to the level of other flowers. 

6. Use a simple background. Find a position that provides a plain, non-competing background. Or place a black or pleasingly-colored cardboard behind the

flower.

7. Move close to your subject (plant) for dynamic photos with impact. With a

digital camera, use the display screen to compose the picture.

8. Use creative lighting. Observe the lighting on your plants. Backlighting shining through some flowers gives them an appealing glow. Cloudy-day lighting

reveals subtle hues. 

(Resource: Adapted from the Kodak website http://www.kodak.com) 

4. PLANT COLLECTING

(not an option at Ponderosa Campground in Bandelier National Monument - items may not be collected anywhere in the park) 

Discuss the ethics of plant collecting.

When collecting plants you may find yourself hesitating because you don t want to

alter or disturb the particular habitat in which you find them. You always have to weigh

the educational value of the collection against the impact of removing the parts of the

plant. Make sure there is enough of the desired plant in your area. If you only see

two, the plant should be left alone. If you see 10 that s a reasonable number to work

around. You should be familiar with any sensitive, threatened, or endangered species

you might encounter. Only take enough of the plant to serve the needs of your lesson.

Never pick more than a third of a plant. If it is a solitary bush or tree, remove just a

few twigs and leaves from the outer edge. Small pruning shears work well for a cutting tool. Wildflowers have a slower reproduction rate and grow much more slowly

than other types of plants. Collecting or disturbing could affect their survival. Use your

best judgment. If they are in their seeding mode, collect the seeds from only a couple

of plants and leave the rest. Collect plants when the dew has dried and the flowers

are fully opened. Be sure to collect enough length of the plant to show several leaves,

flowers, and fruits.
136ON-SITE ACTIVITY

INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

Before going on to private land, get permission. Collecting is illegal in city, county,

state, and national parks. Collecting is allowed in most national forests and grasslands and state-owned wildlife and waterfowl production areas. You should always

seek permission from the state agencies first. 

Introduce common plants students may find in the field by showing them pictures or

making overheads from sketches. Ask students if they can identify these or know of

any other species they may find. 

1. Direct teams to specific collection areas with the following materials: pruners

or scissors, coffee filters for collecting plants, pencils, data sheets, guide

books, or copies of plant identification handouts.

2. Have students collect up to 10 samples, each of different plants they find.

3. It is very important to keep careful records when collecting plants. Plant

names do not have to be known at the time of collection they can be

looked up later. Data should contain common name of plant, scientific name

of plant, location collected, growing site, habitat, surrounding vegetation,

name of collector, date, general description. (See plant collecting data form).

4. To get successful results from pressing, it is important to pick and then store

the plants properly while you are still in the field. Ideally it is best to press

them on location. Good botanical specimens deteriorate quickly. If practical,

press plants in an old phone book or plant press on site. Paper coffee filters

work temporarily, so students can carefully store their plants until they return

to the classroom. Small plants can be placed singly, or two or three together

if necessary. Plastic bags are not recommended because the risk of damaging the specimen is very great. A small sticky note with the plant name

placed with the plant will help students with identification later.

5. If they haven t already done so in the field, students should press their plants

as soon as they return to the classroom. 

PRE-TRIP

Students should complete lesson 3 in the classroom, and review the special safety

rules below.

SAFETY IN THE FIELD FOR PLANT COLLECTION

1. Survey the study site for potential hazards before taking your class out. 

2. Define boundaries of the study site. Make sure students know these boundaries. Consider using brightly colored engineer stape to mark boundaries.

3. Check for the presence of large amounts of bees or wasps around the plants

you want to sketch or photograph. 

4. Warn the students never to eat any plant or plant part.

5. Check for allergies and asthma with your students and on their school medical cards.

6. Always have a backpack with a first aid kit and preferably a cell phone or

other communication device with you in the field.

7. Refer to attached safety sheet for general safety tips.
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ON-SITE ACTIVITY

PROCEDURE ON HOW TO PRESS PLANTS

(If using collected plants for the field guide follow this procedure)

Layered Paper Method

1. Make sure the plant is clean and dry.

2. Arrange the specimens on two layered sheets of absorbent paper. Make sure all

plant parts are spread out to show them off. Make sure your plant pressing area is

on a flat, dry, hard surface in a warm, dry room.

3. Put two or three sheets of paper on the plant(s). Add more plants to top sheet,

layer three more sheets on top and so on up to ten layers (otherwise it becomes

too unwieldy).

4. On the top three layers of paper, add books or bricks to cover paper. Make sure

there is sufficient weight to exert enough pressure on plants. Pile should yield to

weight. 

5. Change sheets every two or three days. It will take the plants one to two weeks to

dry completely.

6. They will be very brittle so handle with care.

Phone Book Method 

1. Place plant specimens randomly in phone book so they are evenly distributed. 

2. Place tissue paper on both sides of the specimen.

3. Use post-it notes to bookmark and record common name.

4. Place weight on top of phone book and leave until thoroughly dry.

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ON-SITE ACTIVITY

O B S E RVATIONS OF BURNED AND UNBURNED FORESTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How can I use my senses to help me understand burned and unburned forests?

How can I look at a burned forest and take photographs of what the burned forest

means to me?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

This field trip lesson challenges students to make observations in burned and

unburned forests, to express their observations and feelings in writing and in a photo

collage in the style of David Hockney. From notes taken on the field trip, they will

compose an essay or a poem. Using basic photography skills, they will take a series

of photos in the field to use in creating a photo collage. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: Class Time: 1 hour 

LOCATION: Rendija Canyon or other field trip location

SUBJECT A R E A S: Language Arts, Fine Arts, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Use more than just sight to make observations about burned and unburned forests

 Organize their observations with a Venn diagram

 Locate visual images that express their feelings of burned forests and organize

photos of those images into a collage

 Learn basic photography techniques

 Find an interesting forest landscape and experiment with composition 

and transformation

M ATERIALS

W riting exercise

 Pencils

 Field journals

 Clipboards

 Disposable cameras or digital

Photo collages

 Disposable cameras (color 26 exposure) 
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PROCEDURES

W riting exercise

Find a location in an unburned section of forest. Have the students sit down, get comfortable, and get out their clipboard with the Forest Observation Sheet. Working alone

(at least at first), have the students start making and recording observations. They

should record their observations in the Unburned Area circle in the Venn diagram on

the observation sheet, and add any more details they wish to record in the space below.

Have them record at least 10 observations, with at least one for hearing, smelling, and

touching. 

Some observations that might be made are the amount of vegetation, kinds of vegetation, height of vegetation, the number of different plants that are growing, the feel of

the soil, the sound of the wind, odors, and the colors in the forest.

After about 10 minutes, walk down a road or trail to find an area of severely burned

forest. Sit again and have the students repeat the observation process. Have them

record what is unique about the burned area in the Burned Area circle on the Venn

diagram. If they find observations that are common to both burned and unburned forest, they should record it in the intersection of the two circles.
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ON-SITE ACTIVITY

PH O TO COLLAGES

Before you start,it s a good idea to practice taking pictures with a cardboard viewfinder, or shaping your fingers into a box . 

W ith a partner, studentswilltake a series of 24 pictures (12 each) that can be assembled into a collage in the classroom. 

1. One student needs to take a picture of the other so they can identify their

pictures after they are developed.

2. In a section of burned forest students should look for areas that have been

severely burned, moderately burned, or areas of regrowth.

3. Emphasize to students the need to spend time designing a plan before they

actually starttaking the photographs. Have them look for interesting features, such as unusual shapes of trees, color contrast, shadow patterns and

landscape details. People are not to be in the pictures.

4. W ith their partner, students need to find a suitable area and then select a

specific spot on the ground. They will stand on this spot and begin shooting

a series of pictures so that when developed, they will overlap slightly.

Remind them to avoid horizontal and vertical gaps between photos.

5. Holding the camera level, and very still, one student will carefully take 13

pictures. He/she will then hand the camera to their partner in the exact same

position and continue with the remaining 13 pictures. The area covered is

comparable to a semi-circle.

6. If they wish to design their collage vertically instead of horizontally, they can

use the same procedure, just aim the camera differently. When finished

instruct students to put the camera inside their backpack. 

E VA L U ATION

Students will produce a writing sample and a photo collage in the classroom. Students

will be evaluated on photo composition, participation in class discussions, cooperation

with their partner, and completed photo collages.

Post-Field Trip Lessons

9. What Does It All Mean? Analysis of Plot Data....................145-150

10. Using Observations to Express Feelings:

W riting and Photo Collage..................................................151-153

11.Wildfire and Native Plants: Creating a Field Guide.............155-159

12. Developing a Forest Management Plan: Managing the Impact of

W ildfire on Communities and Ecosystems................................161-170

13. Be Prepared: Creating a Defensible Space........................171-176

Investigating Fire Ecology

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W H AT DOES IT ALL MEAN? POST-FIELD TRIP

D ATA A N A LYSIS OF FOREST DENSITY PLOTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How can we quantify a healthy and an unhealthy forest?

How can we use data to create a healthier forest?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

This interdisciplinary unit combines mathematics, science, and technology.Students

will use forest density data collected on a field trip to analyze forest structure and

compare pre- and post-settlement forests. Using their analysis and background, they

will write a prescription for creating a healthier forest.

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E:

Class Time: 2 hours

LOCATION:

Classroom or computer lab

SUBJECT A R E A S: Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Demonstrate mathematical skills by calculating forest density on two plots

 Analyze scientific data collected in the field

 Describe quantitatively the characteristics of a healthy forest and an unhealthy

forest

 Use their findings to make a recommendation for thinning a dense

forest stand

V O C A B U L A RY

 Thinned

 Unthinned

 Competition

 Biodiversity

 Diameter breast height (DBH)

 Tree basal area

M ATERIALS

 Pencils

 Forest Plot Data Sheets

 Calculators

 Computers and spreadsheet software (optional)
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PROCEDURES

Data Analysis

For this study, students can use either the data their group collected on the field trip,

or use data provided on the enclosed data sheets.

1. Calculate the number of trees per acre on thinned and unthinned plots.

a. Count the number of trees on the thinned subplot and enter the value on the

data sheet. Multiply the number of trees by four to find the estimated number

of trees on the entire 50-meter by 20-meter plot, and record the number.

Because each plot is about 1/4 acre, multiply the number of trees on the

entire plot by four to find the number of trees per acre. Record the answer

on the data sheet.

b. Repeat the calculation of trees per acre for the unthinned plot.

2. Calculate the average diameter of the trees in the plot.

a. Use a calculator to add up all the tree diameters in the thinned subplot. Divide

the answer by the number of trees on the subplot to find the average diameter. Record the answer on the data sheet.

b. Use a calculator to add up all the tree diameters on the unthinned subplot.

Divide the answers by the number of trees on the subplot to find the average

diameter. Record the answer on the data sheet.

3. Estimate the area of the thinned subplot that is covered by tree trunks, which is called

the total basal area of trees.

a. Use the average diameter of the trees to find the average basal area. To do

this, first find the radius of the average tree (r) by dividing the average diameter by 2. The average basal the area of trees is:

Tree Basal Area= 3.1 x r x r

Multiply the average area by the number of trees in the subplot to 

estimate the total basal area. Record the answer on the data sheet.

b. Use the same calculations to find the total basal area on the unthinned plot.

Record the answer on the data sheet.

4. Calculate the average percent cover for the thinned and unthinned subplots and

record the answer.

5. Calculate the average number of species for each subplot and record the answer.

QUESTIONS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Compare the number of trees per acre for subplot data and the entire plot. Are the

numbers close? Which is more accurate and why?

2. Historic tree density in ponderosa stands averaged 70 to 100 stems per acre.

Which of the two plots is more representative of historic forest conditions?

3. Ground cover and biodiversity are measures of forest health. What does your

understory data tell you about the forest health in unthinned and thinned pine

forests? 
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4. Compare the distribution of big and small trees in the two plots. What conclusions

about forest health can you draw from your observations?

5. Make a statement about which forest stand is healthier. Support your statement

with 5 observations you can make from the data.

6. In the thinned forest, the age on one tree with a 10-inch diameter is 80 years. In

the unthinned forest, one tree with a 4-inch diameter is 85 years. Explain how this

could happen.

Thinning Plan

W orking with a group, look at the plot sketch on the Forest Plot Data Analysis Sheet.

Decide if there are too many trees on the plot. If so, design a recommendation on

how to make the forest healthier. Include instructions on how many trees should be

removed from each acre. On your sketch of the unthinned plot, mark in red the trees

you would recommend be removed. Justify your decisions on how many trees should

be taken out, how many should remain, which trees should stay and which should be

removed. Present your recommendations to the class.

E VA L U ATION

Students will be evaluated based on complete and detailed data analysis sheets, participation in class discussion, and an informed presentation based on their data analysis.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES

http://www.greenforests.com/newsrel.html

http://www.wa.gov/dnr/htdocs/rp/stewardship/bfs/WESTERN/thinning

http://fire.nifc.nps.gov/fire/ecology/docs/construct.html

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STUDENT SHEET

What does it all mean?
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What does it all mean?
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EXPRESSING PERSONAL FEELINGS BASED ON 

O B S E RVATIONS OF BURNED & UNBURNED FORESTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

How can I express my feelings about the forest, both unburned and burned?

How can we create a forest landscape using photographic joiners in the style

of David Hockney?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN 

In the classroom, students will use the observations they made on the field trip in

burned and unburned forests, then to express their observations and feelings in writing and in a photo collage in the style of David Hockney. From notes taken on the

field trip, they will compose an essay or a poem. Using basic photography skills, they

will design a photo collage from photos taken in the field. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: Class Time: 3 hours 

LOCATION: Classroom, art room, computer lab (optional)

SUBJECT A R E A S: Language Arts, Fine Arts, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Express their observations and feelings in writing

 Research and study the works of David Hockney

 Communicate values, opinions, and personal insights through an original work of

art

 Learn basic photography techniques

 Identify and describe the principles of design in visual compositions, emphasizing

unity and harmony

 Learn perspective and planning techniques

 Assemble a quality photo collage using the style of David Hockney 

 Work collaboratively sharing opinions and planning designs

M ATERIALS

W riting exercise

 Pencils

 Field trip observation sheets

 Disposable cameras

 Computers and spreadsheet softwareword processing software (optional)

Photo collages

 Online or library resources on information about David Hockney

 Disposable cameras (26 color exposure) 

 Workstation that allows space to spread photos out

 Masking tape
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 Rub-on glue sticks

 Cardboard viewfinders, (optional for practice)

 Photo quality paper for mounting photos

 Framing materials (optional) 

PROCEDURES

W riting exercise

1. Have a class discussion about what the students observed in the burned and

unburned areas. What was unique about both areas, and what characteristics did

they share? Encourage the studentstotalk about how the burned forest made

them feel. Are they hopeful, saddened, threatened, or able to see beauty there?

2. W orking alone, have the students write one of the following forms, using their

observation sheets as a starting point.

a. Write a compare and contrast essay

b. Write a pair of haiku to compare the areas

c. Write a pair of diamantes to compare the areas

d. Write a cinquain that summarizes their experience in the field

e. W rite an acrostic on the trail they walked along, the fire that they studied, the

name of where they live, or on PONDEROSA PINE.

3. After working through rough drafts, have the students publish their essays or poetry. Have each student enter their work into a word processing application. Students

should choose a font that they believe best suits their words. Make a collection of 

the student work for a classroom portfolio.

Photo Collage

1. Develop film (4 x 6 double prints on a matt surface).

2. Return one set of prints to the student teams. ( Extra set can be used as a backup

or another collage).

3. Have students design their composition by laying out the photos so there 

is a slight overlap.

4. Before gluing, students should lightly tack each photo in place using 

masking tape.

5. When the design is approved students will carefully glue the photo

to the paper.

6. A completed collage can be mounted and framed if desired. 

EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

 Create an exhibit of work in the local library or other public place.

 Demonstrate how history, art, and culture can influence each other in making and

studying works of art.

 Visit museums and art displays.

 Incorporate the use of at least one means of technology in creating an original work

of art. For example use digital cameras in place of disposable cameras. 
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E VA L U ATION

Students will produce a writing sample and a photo collage. Students will be evaluated on photo composition, participation in class discussions, cooperation with their

partner, and completed photo collages.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES:

http://www.artchive.com/artchive/H/hockney.html

http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/hockney

http://www.getty.edu/artsednet/resources/Look/Landscape/hockney.html

http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/~malek/Hockney.html

http://www.artandculture.com/cgi-bin/WebObjects/ACLive.woa/wa/artist?id=262

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WILDFIRE AND NATIVE PLANTS

DEVELOPING A FIELD G UIDE F O R NATIVE PLANTS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

What effect does wildfire have on plants? 

What are the common types of plant species that inhabit your area after

a forest fire? 

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON PLAN

In the classroom, students will refer to the plants they identified in the field

and add information from other plant sources to complete their native plant field

guide. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: 4 hours 

LOCATION: Classroom

SUBJECTS: Science, Language Arts, Math, Art, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Studentswill:

 Complete plant data sheets for plants identified in the field. 

 Create personalized plant field guides. 

 Become familiar with utilizing commercial field guides and other resources. 

V O C A B U L A RY

 Forest succession Native plants

 Adaptation Phyrophytes

 Serotinous Endangered species

M ATERIALS

 Websites, books, newspaper articles, encyclopedias

 Pictures of common regional plants

 Student s sketches and/or photographs of plants

 Plant data sheets

 Science journals

 Field guides of regional plant life

 Computer with internet and data base access

 Card stock, tag board, or other heavy paper

 Colored pencils 

 Ruler

 Scissors 

 Glue

 Hole punch

 Ribbon or yarn 

 Black felt tip pen for outlining

 Misc. art supplies
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PROCEDURES

1. PLANT D ATA SHEET

Students will look up information on plants identified in the field in plant resource

books or internet sources and complete the plant data sheet. 

2. CREATING A FIELD GUIDE FOR NATIVE PLANTS

Field guides are books that contain photographs or accurate illustrations along with

clear descriptions of plants. These guides are used by scientists, students and

amateurs to help them identify species which they encounter but are unable to recognize. It is an essential tool in helping students identify plants they sketch, photograph, or collect. 

There are many different ways to make a field guide. One approach is to make an

accordion book. The zigzag shaped fold is best made with heavy paper, card stock

tag board, preferably acid free. The stiffpaper stands up well for a dramatic visual

arrangement. Accordion books are easy to make and result in an interesting form for

writing or drawing.

1. Method 1: Measuring

Carefully measure and mark equal page sections. Fold

on the marks. Be careful to make the edges match perfectly.

2. Method 2: Folding 

Fold in half repeatedly. Begin with the full length of the paper

and fold in half perfectly. Next, fold each half in half, folding the edge

back toward the center. Then fold each section in half again. As you fold,

always watch that the edges match. Continue folding in half, then quarters, eighths, and sixteenths until the pages are the desired width.
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3. Draw or glue plant photographs on paper. If using actual pressed plants lightly tack

the plant specimen to the paper with Elmer s glue. Students can mix glue and water

together in a shallow container, then apply with a small paint brush. Think sparingly,

there is no need to coat the entire back of the plant with glue. Pre-cut clear contact

paper slightly larger than the plant and carefully place it over the plant.

4. W rite the information from the plant data sheet next to the plant. Check the data

sheet beforehand for spelling accuracy.

5. Leave the front section for the cover.

6. Punch a small hole to insert a ribbon or piece of yarn to tie the finished

guide together.

E VA L U ATION

Students will be evaluated on completed plant data sheets, participation

in class discussions, participation in group work, and creation of a field guide of native

plants.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES

http://www.northmason.wednet.edu/HMHSonline/student_gallery/fire/c...

http://pictures.discovery.com/dppages/wildfire/teacher/lesson1.html

http://horizon.nmsu.edu/ddl/pltcollguide.html. http://biology.arizona.edu/sciconn/lessons2/Barber/PCDForm.htm

Collecting and Preserving Plants by Ruth B. (Alford) MacFarlane Dover Edition 1994

ISBN: 0-486-28281-3

Botany in a Day by Thomas J. Elpel 4th Edition ISBN: 1-892784-07-6

Flowering Plants of the Southwestern Woodlands by Teralene Foxx and Dorothy

Hoard 1995 ISBN: 0-9645703-1-9.
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EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

1. Invite speakers, such as the county extension agent, local nursery staff, master

gardeners, and horticulture experts to share information with students.

2. Create a herbarium for your school. The purpose of a herbarium is to preserve

specimens and share with others. Herbariums can be placed in a very visible place

in the school office, library, or cafeteria. 

3. Students can divide the preserved plants according to a category (e.g. habitat,

medicinal or dye use, food, or woody, herbaceous, etc.) In cooperative groups they

can create a presentation about their plant group. They can do a puppet show, an

overhead presentation, or a computer presentation.

4. Research non-native invasive plant species on both disturbed and

undisturbed sites. 

5. After students have identified plants on the field trip have them choose a favorite

species which they can research in greater depth. 

6. For a science fair project study forest fire succession of plants. Identify different

species of plants after a forest fire has occurred by counting the numbers of each

species and measuring them. Discover what different species will grow back, what

area grows the most diverse range of plants, and which areas have the most

growth overall.

7. Look at plants on a north-facing slope and a south-facing slope and notice the difference.

8. Examine plants having different adaptive strategies for recovery and regeneration

atdifferent stages of the successional process and in different communities on a

year-by-year basis.

9. Have students compile a class list of all the types of plants they discover in the

field. Compare the list with the list developed by students in previous years. 

a. What plants were found in all the years? 

b. What plants are new this year? 

c. What plants dropped off the list? Any ideas why?
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10. Adopt-a-tree Observe a tree for a few months to see and document how it

changes through the time you are watching it. Choose a deciduous tree and

sketch it four times during the year.Visit the tree often to observe how it is changing. The intent of this exercise is to have the students observe how plants change

over time, and to observe the nuances of the various stages

of producing leaves, flowers, and other features if applicable. 

11. More advanced students can make their own dichotomous key for their field guide.

The key which they create can be placed at the beginning of the guide and used

to help identify other plants in the field.

12. Invite younger students for a nature walk and have the older students

show the children how to use the home-made field guides for identifying 

local plants.

13. Via online communications, students can compare the types of vegetation found in

their area to what students from other schools find. This can lead to many possible research questions. For instance, students in different locations could compare

the effect of latitude, longitude, topsoil, depth, soil moisture or altitude on the vegetation of their respective areas.

14. Students might enjoy learning about how various plants are used in medicine, as

food and fiber, or by wild animals, or how Native Americans or other cultures utilized plants. The creation of a field guide can be a springboard for many ethnobotanical explorations. 

15. Create a bulletin board showing plant species from around the United States.

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DEVELOPING A FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN: MANAGING THE IMPACT OF

WILDFIRE ON COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS 

FOCUS QUESTION

What can forest managers do to improve forest health and reduce the risk

of wildfire? 

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN

In this lesson students will synthesize all the information gathered in the previous lessons to develop a forest management plan. Students will use real data from the Los

Alamos area to analyze forest conditions and develop a plan to restore and maintain

ecosystem health. This activity will simulate the decision-making process and develop

awareness of the debates and issues involved in forest-management decisions. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWA N C E: 4 hours

LOCATION: Classroom

SUBJECT A R E A S: Language Arts, Social Studies, Science, Math, Technology

STUDENT OBJECTIVES 

Students will:

 Evaluate information from a range of resources and suggest a forest management plan to support a given problem

 Utilize previous data collected in the field and collect new data.

 Think critically and logically about the relationships between evidence and explanations, constructing and analyzing alternative explanations, and communicating

scientific arguments

 Work collaboratively in small groups

V O C A B U L A RY

 Forest Management Plan

 Resource Assessment

M ATERIALS AND RESOURCES

 Field journals

 Pencils

 Forest Management Plan Worksheet 

 Resource Assessment worksheets and maps

 Computers

 Internet Connection (optional)

PROCEDURE

1. Four resource assessments are provided. Divide students into management teams

of from three to six students. Distribute the Forest Management Plan Worksheet

and Resource Assessment for four areas. Class discussions will be more engaging

if two teams of students work from the same resource assessment and students

can compare the two approaches to the same problem. 
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2. Explain to students that they will develop a forest management plan that will establish a framework that restores and maintains ecosystem health in a fire-adapted

ecosystem. Brainstorm ways in which this can be accomplished. Review management strategies like forest thinning, prescribed fire, pre-commercial thinning, logging, and other ideas.

3. Review the guidelines for a forest management plan. Students should understand

that they need to collect data from the Resource Assessment, and use that data to

determine if their stand is healthy or if it needs management.

4. Using the resource assessment and map, have students fill in the Forest

Management Plan Worksheet. Students should summarize the information on the

background of the forest and its history from the resource assessment. Next, students should summarize the current conditions of their forest stand. How does this

compare with conditions that we consider to illustrate healthy stands of ponderosa

pine? 

5. Student should research methods of forest management on the Internet and in the

library. Each group should decide which method or combination of methods would

work best on their forest stand.

6. After students have produced their Forest Management Plan, they will make a

presentation to the class. 

E VA L U ATION:

Students will be evaluated on participation in class discussions, and completion of the

Forest Management Plan. 

EXTENSION ACTIVITY

Students may want to present their ideas at a community meeting, or publish their

Forest Management Plan in the local newspaper or website.
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G UIDELINES F O R DEVELOPING A FOREST M ANAGEMENT PLAN

Adopted from The Forest Management Plan by the School of Forest Resource and Conservation, 

University of Florida

A forest management plan is a specific guideline for the way a stand of the forest is

managed. The plan has a definite goal for the forest, and details a series of activities

that will take place in order to meet that objective. In essence, a management plan

will guide you from where you are to where you want to be. In this lesson, you will be

given a resource assessment of the current conditions of a forest. You will determine

if the forest is unhealthy and if it can be improved by specific treatments.

The information in your management plan should be simple, but with enough detailto

be useful. Most management plans are designed to be reviewed every five to ten

years, with adjustments made to accommodate the continually changing environment

(from fire and bugs to landowner objectives) that is part of the natural resource management. 

Parts of a Management Plan

 Astatement of objectives

 A summary of the forest location and history

 A resource assessment that summarizes current conditions

 Management recommendations to reach the objectives

 An activity schedule of what will be done and when

 A description of what the forest will look like in the future

1. Statement of Objectives 

An objective is a desired outcome or future condition for your forest. Your objective

will be to restore healthy and fire safe conditions in the forest by changing current

conditions to more closely match those of the past.

2. Property Location and History

Your management plan should include a description of your land taken from the

resource assessment and map that you will be given. It should include a brief summary of the management history of your forest. Has it been cleared for recreation?

Is there evidence of any other uses in the past? This information will give you some

idea of your land s potential and may give you clues about what can be done with

it.

3. Summary of the Resource Assessment

Using the resource assessment, provide your plan with descriptive information

about the natural resources on your land. It may include information such as stand

types (e.g., dominant species, ages, understory), other vegetation communities,

soils, water bodies, historical features, wildlife uses, and recreational opportunities.

Summarize everything you know about your forest.

4. Management Recommendations

Based on the resource assessment and your specific objectives, make recommendations for the entire stand of forest. Recommendations should outline a general

set of treatments or operations to be done over a long term, with a 
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discussion of the expected results of each management action. General recommendations should be supplemented with specific recommendations, which are usually

designated for five-to-ten year blocks of time. Specific recommendations may include

the forest regeneration method(s) to use, where to plant wildlife food plots, when and

where to burn, and which areas to remove trees.

5. Activity Schedule

Create an activity schedule that tells when each recommended treatment will take

place. Tell what you expect to accomplish with each treatment and why it is being

done at a specific time.

6. Conclusion: The Future Forest

Describe what your forest will look like when treatment is done, in one year after

treatment, in 5 years after treatment, and 50 years after treatment.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES

http://www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/ffws/mp.htm

http://www.eri.nau.edu
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STUDENT SHEET

FOREST M ANAGEMENT PLAN W ORKSHEET

Date: ___________________

Names of Team Members: 

Location of Forest Stand:

Property Location and History:

Summary of the Resource Assessment:

Objectives of the Forest Management Plan:

Management Recommendations for the Forest Stand:

Activity Schedule for Forest Management:

Conclusion: What will the Forest Stand Look Like at One, Five and Fifty Years in the

Future? 

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STUDENT SHEET

RESOURCE ASSESSMENT: RENDIJA CANYON

37 acres

A plot study in the forest area found that 100 percent of the trees were ponderosa

pine. The tree density averaged 730 trees per acre. The average diameter breast

height of the trees was 10 cm. Only 10 large trees per acre are found on the site.

Most of the trees form thick stands. The older trees are found in clumps of 3 to 6

trees. The small trees are all about 20 feet high. The large trees are up to 80 feet tall.

In the understory, the average number of species was 2. The ground is covered with

a thick layer of pine needles. Plant cover averages about 20% of the ground. Thistle

and cheat grass are common.

The forest is on the south slope of a canyon that runs out of the Jemez Mountains.

The canyon is about 300 feet deep. The canyon walls are steep, but the forest sits on

a flat spot above the canyon bottom. A stream channel is at the canyon bottom, but

water flows in the channel only about 12 days a year. The forest is next to a recreational trail that is used by hikers, runners, horseback riders, mountain bikers, and

motorcycle riders. 

At least one archeological site is within 200 feet of the forest. It is an old village that

was occupied around 1400. One-quarter mile downstream is a field from a homestead

that was used around 1920. An old road runs up the canyon bottom.

Two endangered species are found in the canyon. Spotted owls live in the old standing dead trees. Peregrine falcons nest in the canyon walls.

Houses are found on the mesa south of the forest. The houses are about one-quarter

mile away.
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RESOURCE ASSESSMENT: BAY O CANYON

93 acres

A plot study in the forest area found that 80 percent of the trees were ponderosa pine

and 20 percent were Gambel oak. The tree density averaged 510 trees per acre. The

average diameter breast height of the trees was 50 cm, but some trees were 75 cm in

diameter. About 25 percent of the trees were big trees. Some of the trees form thick

stands. The older trees are found in clumps of 3 to 6 trees. The trees varied in size

from 3 feet tall to 40 feet tall. The large trees are 100 feet high or more.

In the understory, the average number of species was 10. The ground is covered with

a thick layer of tall grasses. Plant cover averages about 80% of the ground. Lots of

dead wood is lying on the ground.

The forest is on the bottom of a wide canyon that runs out of the Jemez Mountains.

The canyon is about 300 feet deep. The canyon walls are steep, but the canyon bottom is about one-quarter mile wide. A stream channel is at the canyon bottom, but

water flows in the channel only about 12 days a year. The forest is next to a recreational trail that is used by hikers, runners, horseback riders, and mountain bikers. 

One large archeological site is within a mile of forest. It is an old village that was

occupied around 1400. An old road runs up the canyon bottom.

Two endangered species are found in the canyon. Spotted owls live in the old standing dead trees. Peregrine falcons nest in the canyon walls.

Houses are found on the mesas north and south of the forest. The houses are about

one-quarter mile away. Many trees are found on the north slope of the canyon near

the houses. A fire behavior study found that under dry conditions a fire start in the

canyon bottom would spread at a rate of 3,000 feet per hour. Such a fire would reach

out of the canyon in 15 minutes.
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STUDENT SHEET

RESOURCE ASSESSMENT: QUEMAZON M ESA

64 acres

A plot study in the forest area found that 95 percent of the trees were ponderosa pine

and 5 percent of the trees were aspen. The tree density averaged 660 trees per acre.

The average diameter breast height of the trees was 15 cm. About 20 large trees per

acre are found on the site. Most of the trees form thick stands. The older trees are

found in clumps of 3 to 6 trees. The small trees range from 10 to 40 feet high. The

large trees are up to 80 feet tall.

In the understory, the average number of species was 6. The ground is covered with

a thick layer of pine needles. Grasses up to 2 feet high cover about 20 percent of the

ground. Total plant cover averages about 60% of the ground. Thistle and cheat grass

are common.

The forest is on a long mesa that extends east from the Jemez Mountains. The mesa

is about 400 feet above the surrounding canyons. The canyon walls are steep, but the

forest sits on flat ground. The forest has a recreational trail that is used by hikers, runners, and mountain bikers. The trail is an old road that runs up the mesa.

Two endangered species are found near the mesa. Spotted owls live in the old standing dead trees. Peregrine falcons nest in the canyon walls.

Houses are found on the flat ground northeast of the forest. The houses are about

one-quarter mile away. In spring, the wind usually blows from the southwest. A fire

behavior study found that under dry conditions a fire start in the canyon bottom would

spread at a rate of 3,000 feet per hour. Such a fire would reach the houses near the

mesa in 15 minutes.
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RESOURCE ASSESSMENT: MITCHELL TRAILHEAD

47 acres

A plot study in the forest area found that 100 percent of the trees were ponderosa

pine. The tree density averaged 540 trees per acre. The average diameter breast

height of the trees was 10 cm. Only 10 large trees per acre are found on the site.

Most of the trees form thick stands. The older trees are found in clumps of 3 to 6

trees. The small trees range from 10 to 40 feet high. The large trees are up to 80 feet

tall.

In the understory, the average number of species was 4. The ground is covered with

a thick layer of pine needles. Plant cover averages about 20% of the ground. Thistles

and cheat grass are common.

The forest is on the south slope facing Los Alamos. The nearby canyon is about 100

feet deep. The canyon walls are steep, but the forest sits on a flat spot above the

canyon bottom. The forest is next to a recreational trail that is used by hikers, runners, horseback riders, mountain bikers, and motorcycle riders. 

Two endangered species are found near the mesa. Spotted owls live in the old standing dead trees. Peregrine falcons nest in the canyon walls.

Houses are found on the flat ground right on the edge of the forest. In some cases,

the forest canopy extends right up to the houses. 
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LESSON PLAN ViPostsit

BE PREPARED: CREATING A DEFENSIBLE SPACE 

FOCUS QUESTION

What is defensible space and can it help save a house when a wildfire strikes?

OVERVIEW OF LESSON PLAN

In this lesson students will learn the principals of creating an effective defensible

space around their home and property. They will learn the definition of defensible

space and brainstorm ideas on how it is created. Using firesafe guidelines they will

plan and create a fire-wise landscape design that will help protect their home from

wildfires. 

SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWANCE

4 hours classroom

2 hours homework

SUBJECTS: Science, Language Arts, Math, Art

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

Students will:

 Discuss the meaning of defensible space.

 Compare homes that have reduced the risk from wildfire and those that have not.

 List ways they can HELP protect their home from wildfires.

 Develop a Wildland Fire Hazard Severity Assessment Form.

 Plan a firewise landscape design that will meet the needs of their home and

property.

V O C A B U L A RY

 Defensible space

 Removal

 Reduction

 Replacement

 Vegetation

 Ladder Fuels 

 Combustible Debris

 Separation distance

 Thumbnail sketch 

TEACHER BACKGROUND INFORMATION

People who live in high risk wildfire areas are faced with the growing concern that a

wildfire could damage or destroy their home and property. Every year many families

lose their homes and possessions to wildfire. These losses can be minimized if homeowners take a pro-active approach to home safety. When homeowners take the time

to become aware of appropriate safety measures and put forth the effort to implement

those measures, they often greatly improve the ability of fire fighters to protect their

homes, and will reduce their vulnerability to the destructive forces of fire. 
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Defensible space is one of the primary determinants of a structure s ability to survive

a wildfire. The goal of creating defensible space is to develop a landscape that provides an opportunity for firefighters to defend a structure against fire. When grasses,

brush, trees, and other common forest fuels are removed, reduced, or modified in a

yard, a fire s intensity or nearness to a structure decrease. That situation provides a

space for firefighters to battle the blaze. Defensible space is not a guarantee that a

structure will survive, but it often increases the chances of protection from wildfire.

M ATERIALS

 Field journals

 Scratch paper 9x12

 1 inch grid graph paper 34x26 (cut in half)

 Rulers

 Pencils

 Pink pearl erasers

 Colored pencils 

 Prismacolor watercolor pencils (optional) 

 Sharpie ultra fine markers 

 Tag board 

 Timer

 Firewise landscaping checklist

PROCEDURES

W arm-Up

Show an example of a typical house before defensible space measures have

been applied. Ask students to list potentially flammable materials. What are some

measures that could be taken to protect this home from wildfire? Are some homeowners reluctant to make changes that could reduce the threat of wildfire? Why? 

Next show a picture of a home that has reduced the risk from wildfire by using defensible space measures. What differences do you see in the two pictures? If a wildfire

came through your neighborhood, could your house survive on its own?

Group Discussion on Defensible Space

W rite the definition of defensible space on the chalkboard. (Defensible space is an

area around a structure where fuels and vegetation are treated, cleared or reduced to

slow the spread of wildfire towards the structure and to provide a space for firefighters

to work).

Strategy: Think-Pair-Share

Instruct students to: Think of three ways that you can reduce fire risk around

your home. Take a minute to allow your thoughts to flow. After a minute of silent time

pair off with the person next to you and tell each other your ideas and thoughts. After

another minute tell students you will be asking some of them to share your ideas with

the entire class. 
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LESSON PLAN ViPostsit

 For the first minute you will THINK individual and silent think time

 For the next two minutes you will be part of a PAIR discussion with 

your partner

 Lastly some will SHARE ideas class discussion 

VARIATION: Think Pair Write or Think Write Pair 

Strategy: Brainstorming

Creating a truly defensible space requires that homeowners maintain their whole

property. What are some ways that property owners can reduce the risk of wildfire?

Develop and post a working list that can be added to during the unit. 

1. Hand out a copy of the firewise landscaping checklist. Ask students to read over

the list and note the items that are already there. Discuss the contents of the list.

2. Students will work in teams of 4 to develop a risk assessment form. What are the

most hazardous / troublesome issues a firefighter would identify in trying to protect

a property? 

3. Review the professional Wildland Fire Assessment Form that is often used for professional assessments. What hazards did you catch? Which did you miss? How

might you customize your form (having seen the professional one) to get a final

assessment tool? 

4. As a homework assignment each student will take the form home and assess their

own home and property and discuss with their parents what can be done to

improve their risk of wildfire damage. 

5. Students can then design a defensible space plan for their home (see below).

PROCEDURE FOR DEFENSIBLE SPACE DESIGN

1. In their field journals students will list all the steps they need to take to reduce the

risk of wildfire damage to their home and property.

2. Beginning with scratch paper they will construct a thumbnail sketch of their home

and develop a defensible space landscape. (Thumbnail sketches are very quick,

loose drawings. Sometimes they look a little messy but they help with the planning

of the design without having to worry about making mistakes. ) (It helps to have

students work from photographs of their homes; using front, side, and back views.)
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3. After careful editing of the rough draft plan, students are ready to draw their design

on graph paper.Stress that they lightly draw where they want things to go and fill in

the details later. Color should be added sparingly after the design is complete.

Markers are not recommended as they bleed through the paper. Alist of at least

five or more changes should be typed and attached to the finished project. 

4. Glue the finished graph paper to tag board for support and laminate

if desired. 

5. Share the finished projects with the class and display in a suitable location. 

E VA L U ATION

Students will be evaluated on participation in class discussions, group work, completed defensible space designs, and informed presentations. 

EXTENSION ACTIVITIES

 W rite an essay on how you can increase community commitment and participation

regarding defensible space.

 Design an exhibit such as Who Wants to be a Wildfire Survivor?

 Design a defensible space plan for your neighbor.

 Invite a local builder to the classroom and discuss firewise construction methods

used.

 Design a new house with recommended defensible space suggestions. 

 Present student designs at a local community firewise meeting.

 Conduct a survey with community members. Address these questions: What did you

know about the history and health of your forests? What did you know about the risk

of wildfire? What did you know about fuel/hazard mitigation? How could land and

resource managers and other officials better communicate with the public? Hold a

public meeting and share the results.

POTENTIAL RESOURCES:

http://www.firesafeidyllwild.org/firesafeweb/defensibleSpace/step1/dist...

http://www.usfa.fema.gov/safety/landscape.htm

http://www.firewise.org
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STUDENT SHEET

Name________________________________________________________________

Be Prepared: Creating a Defensible Space

Assessment Questions

Comprehensive Paragraph: List three or four things a person can do that will make

your house safer from wildfire. Then write a short explanation of why your list will

work.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________

Matching:

Defensible space a. fuels that provide vertical continuity between the surface fuels and crown fuels in a forest stand, thus

contributing to the ease of torching and crowning.

Removal b. items that catch fire and burn easily; flammable

Reduction c. eliminating entire plants, particularly trees and

shrubs, from a site.

Replacement d. clearing away plant parts, such as branches or

leaves. An example would be pruning dead wood

from a shrub.

Ladder Fuels e. what you do when you substitute a less flammable

plant for a more hazardous type of vegetation.

Combustible Debris f. an area around a structure where fuels and vegeta

tion are treated, cleared or reduced to slow the

spread of wildfire.

True or False:

1. Creating a truly defensible space requires that homeowners maintain an area of at

least 15 ft. from the house.

a. True b. False

2. Removing or reducing grasses, brush and trees from near a structure will always

keep a home from burning.

a. True b. False

Multiple Choice:

What is the primary way of saving a structure from wildfire?

a. creating defensible space b. install room extinguishers

c. coat the roof with a fire retardant paint d. remove all crowning fuels

Combustible debris includes which of the following?

a. old dry limbs b. newly planted shrubs

c. cedar shingles on the house d. all of the above

Which of the following is not an effective method of creating defensible space?

a. removal of vegetation b. reducing vegetation

c. replacing vegetation d. replanting vegetation
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INVESTIGATING FIRE EC O L O G Y IN PONDEROSA PINE FORESTS

BE PR E PA R E D: CR E ATING A DEFENSIBLE SPA C E

ASSESSMENT TEACHER M ASTER SHEET

Comprehensive Paragraph: List three or four things a person can do that will make

your house safer from wildfire. Then write a short explanation of why your list will

work.

Becoming aware of dangers through education.

Replacing and replanting vegetation.

Removing, reducing, or modifying landscape. 

Matching:

Defensible space f

Removal c

Reduction d

Replacement e

Ladder fuels a

Combustible debris b

True or False:

1. Creating a truly defensible space requires that homeowners maintain an area of at

least 15 ft. from the house. False

2. Removing or reducing grasses, brush and trees from near a structure will always

keep a home from burning. False

Multiple Choice:

What is the primary way of saving a structure from wildfire?

a. creating defensible space

Combustible debris includes which of the following?

d. all of the above

Which of the following is not an effective method of creating defensible space?

c. replacing vegetation