ESTONIA

Tallinn

•Parnu

ESTONIA

•Tartu

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location and 

gain skills necessary for 

success (Photo: Estonian 

women wearing traditional 

dress dance during a culture 

day in Tallinn, photo courtesy 

of Culture Grams, ProQuest).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General”

provides the foundational 

knowledge you need to operate effectively in any global

environment with a focus on the Baltic States.

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Estonian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of 

your deployment location. 

This section is designed to 

complement other predeployment training (Photo: 

US Army engineer visits a 

school near Lasna, Estonia).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC)

website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Estonia
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and 

values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings to 

the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the story 

of George Washington admitting to having chopped down a 

cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium

Americans place on 

personal honesty and 

leadership integrity

(Photo: US and Latvian 

military personnel take a 

break during 

reconstruction of an 

orphanage in Latvia).

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, 

today the US military is operating in what we classify as 

asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of crosscultural interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to 

our culture and 

encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future.

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to 

as “cultural domains” –

in order to better understand the primary values and 

characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent military 

member can use these domains – which include kinship, 

language and communication, social and political systems,

among others (see chart on next page) – as tools for 

understanding adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Trakai Castle in 

Lithuania).

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true,

regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed (Photo: Winter in Estonia). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends on 

our deeply-held beliefs we 

started developing early 

in life that have helped

shape our characters. 

Likewise, these values 

are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and 

our self-identities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, 

they are difficult, though not impossible, to change (Photo: US 

and Estonian soldiers).

GENERAL

CULTURE
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above the 

waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your ability 

to suspend judgment in order to understand another perspective

is essential to establishing 

relationships with your hostnation counterparts. The

ability to withhold your 

opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a 

member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an alternate perspective when interpreting 

others’ behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: US and Lithuanian paratroopers prepare to 

parachute from a Black Hawk helicopter during a multinational 

exercise near Rukla, Lithuania).

As you travel through the Baltic States, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the region. 

What follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains 

which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act 

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that 

are not verifiable or 

which occurred prior 

to written language

(Photo: A relief 

depicting Lithuanians 

battling Teutonic 

Knights). 

The Baltic States 

comprise 3 countries 

bordering the Baltic 

Sea on the northern edge of Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and 

Lithuania. While archaeological finds suggest people inhabited 

the region as early as 9000 BC, scientists believe that FinnoUgric tribes from the east settled in the region beginning around 

3000 BC. In present-day Lithuania, these tribes were later joined 

by Indo-Europeans around 2000 BC. As their populations 

increased, all groups erected permanent, loosely-allied 

settlements sustained by agricultural production. By the 1st 

century AD, inhabitants began participating in trade networks 

that extended as far as the Roman Empire. 

Beginning in the 9th century, Vikings from Scandinavia began 

raiding the Baltic coast, and by the 11th century, Russian armies 

made several fruitless invasions of the region. In the 12th 

century, German knights tasked by the Pope with Christianizing

the inhabitants of the Baltic region began to conquer parts of 

Estonia and Latvia, consolidating their rule over both by end of 

the 13th century. While they did not always retain political control 

in subsequent centuries, the Germans dominated commerce in

the region and significantly impacted Estonian and Latvian 

government, religion, and education as well as the social and 

justice systems.

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
By contrast, Lithuania successfully repelled the German 

invaders, forming a powerful independent state and later uniting 

with neighboring Poland to control large parts of the region 

through the 18th century. Unable to stave off persistent attacks 

from Russia, all 3 Baltic States fell to Russian rule by the late 

18th century. Over the next nearly 120 years, Russia quelled 

nationalist movements and imposed a series of measures 

intended to promote Russification, including suppressing the 

Estonian, Latvian, and

Lithuanian languages and 

increasing Russian 

immigration to the region. 

All 3 Baltic States 

experienced substantial 

conflict during World War 

I (WWI). Estonia and 

Latvia then engaged in 

wars of independence leading to several decades of peace. By 

contrast, as a diminished independent state Lithuania remained 

embroiled in territorial disputes through the onset of World War 

II (WWII). For that war’s duration, all 3 States became a 

battleground. During its wartime occupation of the region, Nazi 

Germany murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s 

sizeable Jewish population and other “undesirables.” The blunt 

of the regime’s atrocities occurred in Latvia and Lithuania

(Photo: German troops in Riga in 1916). 

At war’s end, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 

absorbed all 3 nations, imposing its communist system, 

nationalizing private companies, and appropriating private 

property. During their almost 50 years of occupation, the Soviets 

deported thousands of ethnic Baltic residents to prison camps in 

Russia. Furthermore, it murdered those deemed a threat to the 

new system, and repressed national languages, religions, and 

cultures while rapidly expanding industrial development. 

Upon independence from the USSR in 1991, the 3 Baltic States 

transformed their governments into democracies. They adopted 

market capitalism and pivoted away from Russian influence to 

aggressively pursue political, military, and economic integration 

with the West. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

All 3 Baltic States are parliamentary republics led by an elected 

Prime Minister, President, and 1-chamber legislature. Executive 

power is vested in the Prime Minister, who leads the government 

together with the support of a Cabinet of Ministers. Presidential 

powers are largely ceremonial.

Within all 3 States, political parties typically form coalitions in 

order to attain and maintain power. The States have successfully 

created stable, well-run democracies, although they face several 

challenges to maintaining the democratic process. Weakened by 

overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, some 

ruling political coalitions dissolve shortly after consolidation, in 

some cases resulting in frequent changes of government. In 

addition, corruption is particularly pervasive in Latvia and 

Lithuania, permeating all levels of government. 

Following their independence from the USSR, the Baltic States 

formed strong regional and international alliances, such as 

joining the European Union (EU) and NATO. Today, the Baltic 

States are representative

examples of democracy and 

post-Soviet economic 

growth, serving as 

advocates of a democratic 

and pro-Western agenda in 

the region (Photo: Former 

US Defense Secretary 

Robert Gates meets with the 

3 Baltic State defense ministers in NATO headquarters in 

Brussels, Belgium). 

The Baltic States rely heavily on NATO, the EU, the US, and 

other international allies to augment their military capabilities 

and to defend against external, state-level threats. Recently, 

rising tensions with neighboring Russia dominate the Baltic 

States’ security environment. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
In 2015, the US supported the Baltic States with $100 million in 

aid to build defense capacity and improve border security as part 

of a $3.4 billion “European Reassurance Initiative” fund intended 

to bolster NATO readiness in Europe. Meanwhile, NATO agreed 

to increase the number of troops permanently stationed in the 

region, despite fears that the increase in military presence might

escalate tensions with 

Russia (Photo: City 

square in Riga, Latvia). 

The 3 States exhibit 

differing levels of ethnic 

diversity. In Lithuania, 

84% of the population are 

ethnic Lithuanians, while 

Poles are the largest 

minority group at just 7%. 

By contrast, the native populations of Estonia and Latvia are 

significantly lower, 69% and 61% respectively. In both countries, 

ethnic Russians comprise about 25% of the population. 

Relations between ethnic groups are somewhat strained in 

Estonia and Latvia where citizenship laws, language policies, 

and social divisions create some friction. Amid recently rising 

tensions with Russia, there is some concern that the Russian 

government may attempt to capitalize on the existing tension 

and by provoking social unrest among those countries’ sizeable 

Russian-speaking populations. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society.

Residents of the Baltic region were among Europe’s last to adopt 

Christianity. By the late 13th century, German knights had 

consolidated their rule over Estonia and Latvia and converted 

most residents to Christianity. By contrast, an independent 

Lithuanian state repelled the German crusaders, maintaining its 

pagan belief system as the state religion through the early 15th 

GENERAL

CULTURE
century, when it finally adopted Christianity. Of note, many 

residents of all 3 Baltic States were slow to embrace the new 

religion, continuing their pagan practices or incorporating them 

into Christian worship for centuries (Photo: A church in Vilnius, 

Lithuania). 

As the Protestant 

Reformation swept 

across Europe in the 

early 16th century, 

both Estonia and 

Latvia saw the 

Catholic Church 

reorganized under 

Lutheran authority. By 

contrast, a Catholic 

counter movement in Lithuania prevented Protestantism from 

taking root. Throughout the centuries, Russian Orthodoxy and 

Judaism also enjoyed some growth in the region. The Lithuanian 

Jewish community grew significantly, eventually becoming a 

regional center of learning that lasted until the annihilation of the 

community during WWII. 

During their years of occupation, the Soviets repressed all 

religious institutions and activities in the States. Further, the 

Soviets deported clergy while destroying or converting churches 

and synagogues for other uses. Over the years, membership in 

religious organizations decreased significantly.

Today, some 60% of Estonians and 44% of Latvians remain 

religiously unaffiliated. Among Estonians who do claim an 

affiliation, about 14% are Orthodox Christian and about 8% are 

Lutheran. Observant Latvians are about evenly split among 

Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox Christians. By 

contrast, the majority of Lithuanians claim some religious 

affiliation, with about 77% identifying as Roman Catholics. 

While Estonia and Latvia are home to small Muslim communities 

predominantly comprised of recent migrants, Lithuania’s Muslim 

population traces back to the early 14th century. In all 3 Baltic 

States, small Jewish communities are experiencing some 

growth.

GENERAL

CULTURE
4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive kin”). 

Family life and relationships are fundamental elements of the 

Baltic States’ societies. Baltic residents maintain strong 

connections with both immediate and extended family members, 

supporting them emotionally and financially while providing 

physical care for elderly or ailing kin if needed. Most households 

comprise 2 parents and their children, with many families 

choosing to have just 1 or 2 children. 

The urbanization of the Baltic States’ society has changed family 

life in recent years, as urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit 

(live in long-term, unmarried partnership) and have fewer 

children. Consequently, while the traditional family structure 

remains common in rural areas, urban households are usually 

smaller and family 

structures more diverse

(Photo: US Air National 

Guard member shows 

her camera to a Latvian 

boy).

While historically 

marriage was an 

arranged union, today 

both genders choose 

their own partners. Generally, couples spend several years 

dating, with some living together and having children before 

choosing to marry. Divorce carries little social stigma and is 

increasingly prevalent among younger generations. In fact, in all 

3 Baltic States, divorce rates are among the highest in Europe 

and comparable to the US.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that 

refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The Baltic States’ historically patriarchal culture privileged men

as leaders and providers. While some of the region’s inhabitants 

continue to adhere to traditional values – men as breadwinners 

and heads of household and women as mothers and wives –

gender roles and responsibilities began to transform during the 

Soviet era and are changing more rapidly in some families, 

particularly among younger generations in the post-Soviet 

period (Photo: US 

Army soldier talks with 

Estonian counterparts

during a multinational 

military exercise). 

Although women hold

equal rights under the 

law, they continue to 

face barriers to their 

full participation in 

political, social, and 

economic spheres. 

For example, women often face discrimination in the hiring and 

promotion process, routinely receive lower wages than their 

male counterparts, and suffer from sexual harassment in the 

workplace. 

Despite these barriers, the number of women serving in elected, 

diplomatic, and judicial positions across the region has 

increased over the past 

few decades. Baltic 

women hold a significant 

proportion of national and 

sub-national government 

positions, maintaining 

similar participation rates 

in their national 

legislatures as women in 

the US. Additionally, in all 

3 States women have held prominent leadership positions, 

including Prime Minister, President, and Speaker of Parliament 

(Photo: US Marines perform for trainees at the Baltic Guard 

Youth Camp).

GENERAL

CULTURE
Notably, Baltic women suffer from one of Europe’s highest rates 

of gender based violence (GBV), both domestic abuse and rape. 

Considered private matters, many incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases are reported, the prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. Although homosexuality is legal in all 3 

Baltic States, many residents consider homosexuality, 

bisexuality, and transgender activity inappropriate. 

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and non-verbally.

Following years of linguistic repression under Soviet rule, all 3 

Baltic States named their native languages as official languages 

following their 1991 independence. Notably, while Estonian is 

derived from the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language 

family, Latvian and Lithuanian belong to the Baltic branch of the 

Indo-European language 

family (Photo: Estonian 

street signs). 

In Estonia and Latvia, 

about 1/3 of the 

population speak 

Russian as their first 

language. Russian is also prominent in Lithuania, where over 

1/2 of residents speak it as a 2nd language. Russian was the 

predominant language in education, in media, and government 

proceedings during the Soviet era but no longer the region’s 

main language. The Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian 

languages have supplanted Russian in each Baltic State, though 

many residents continue to use it in business and everyday life.

All 3 Baltic States are also home to native speakers of other

languages including Polish, Ukrainian, Finnish, Belarusian, 

German, and other regional languages. English has become 

increasingly popular over the last several decades and is spoken 

widely in business and by young and urban Baltic communities.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, Baltic residents demonstrate respect, privacy, and 

candor in their communication practices. They typically do not 

display strong emotions in public, tend to be reserved in all 

communications, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer direct 

speech. Residents usually share personal information only with 

family or close friends and rarely engage in small talk with 

strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

Prior to the 16th century, most formal education in the Baltic 

States occurred in religious institutions, where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. By the 17th century, all 3 States saw 

the founding of universities and other centers of academic 

learning. By the late 1800s, Estonia and Latvia had developed 

extensive public school 

networks and possessed

some of the world’s 

highest literacy rates. 

The governments of all 3 

States established free 

and compulsory public 

education systems in the 

early 20th century. The 

subsequent Soviet occupation brought significant changes to 

schools and curricula. During that period, the education system 

promoted Soviet ideology and communist tenets and

emphasized Russian culture and language. It also prioritized 

vocational instruction, while simultaneously suppressing Baltic 

languages and culture (Photo: Lithuanian students).

Today, the Baltic States invest heavily in education, often at 

rates higher than in the US. School enrollment rates are high 

GENERAL

CULTURE
and nearly 100% of Baltic residents are literate. Challenges to 

the education system include low teacher salaries, rural school 

closures, and disputes over the languages of instruction in 

Russian and other minority language schools. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. Inhabitants of the 

Baltic States generally adhere to these habits, valuing 

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and efficient and candid 

professional interactions. Within their personal lives, most Baltic 

residents invest significant time in establishing and maintaining 

relationships.

In Estonia and Latvia business tends to move at about the same 

pace as in the US, although more slowly in Lithuania. Like 

Americans, Estonians and Latvians prefer to build some trust 

before doing business but may engage in business activities 

without cultivating deep professional relationships. By contrast, 

Lithuanians typically invest time in building relations before 

conducting business. In all 3 Baltic States, residents rarely 

discuss their personal lives in business settings. 

Concepts of personal 

space are similar to those 

in the US. For example, 

while conversing, Baltic 

residents stand at about 

the same distance as 

Americans, but may 

touch less often and 

display less affection 

when in public.

The Baltic States enjoy a number of public holidays. Besides the 

major Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter, residents 

typically celebrate their nation’s Independence Day. Further, all 

3 States mark mid-summer with a public holiday and various 

festivities (Photo: US Marines enjoy a cookout with members of 

the Baltic Guard Youth Camp in Latvia).

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Baltic States’ forms of artistic expression,

including its art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect 

the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign occupations,

and modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in the Baltic States typically explore 

topics like nature, the seasons, rural life, and love. Folk songs 

usually include multiple melodic verses, while dances are slow 

and intricate. Under Russian and Soviet influence, classical 

ballet became a common form of dance across the region. The 

Baltic States’ commitment to and enjoyment of song and dance 

are expressed every 4-5 years in national choir and dance 

festivals – a tradition that dates to the late 19th century. Rock, 

jazz, and classical music are popular contemporary genres

(Photo: Latvian song 

and dance festival). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in 

visual arts. Baltic

residents also practice 

a variety of traditional 

handicrafts and folk art which reflect the region’s rich peasant 

history, while incorporating Christian or ancient pagan motifs. 

Soccer and basketball are the most widely followed sports in the 

region. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey, crosscountry skiing, ice skating, bobsledding, and luge. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Baltic dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly seasoned. 

Most meals are based on a staple – often potatoes, buckwheat, 

oats, or barley. Dark bread is particularly popular across the 

region and accompanies almost every meal. Although beer is 

GENERAL

CULTURE
the most popular alcoholic beverage, Baltic residents also enjoy 

unique herbal liquors and vodka. 

Health in the Baltic States has improved significantly in recent 

decades, as evidenced by decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents have 

access to free, state-funded healthcare. 

The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges such 

as rapidly growing 

healthcare expenditures 

associated with a shrinking 

yet aging population. 

Further, although residents 

generally have access to 

modern healthcare, the 

quality of care varies 

between urban and rural 

areas. Rural clinics are often 

burdened with heavy 

workloads, equipped with outdated medical equipment, and 

understaffed (Photo: Latvian rye bread). 

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases account for the majority 

of all deaths in the region. In all 3 Baltic States, cardiovascular 

diseases are overwhelmingly the leading causes of death, 

followed by cancers and respiratory diseases. In addition, Baltic 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol poisoning. 

Notably, Baltic men experience significantly higher mortality 

rates than Baltic women primarily because they are more likely 

to smoke, abuse alcohol, and follow unhealthy diets.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.

Prior to the 19th century, the States maintained largely agrarian 

economies, with many residents engaged in subsistence 

agriculture or laboring as serfs on German-owned holdings.

During the 1800s, Russian occupiers began to industrialize the 

region. These efforts intensified during the Soviet era, when the 

government implemented a centrally-controlled economic 

GENERAL

CULTURE
system, established large collective farms, and developed 

various heavy industries.

Following their independence from the USSR in 1991, all 3 Baltic 

States immediately sought to de-centralize their economies and

adopt liberal, free market systems. The transition initially caused 

their economies to contract, but by the mid-2000s, all 3 nations 

experienced significant growth. While the Baltic States’ 2004 

accession to the EU spurred further economic expansion, the 

2008 global financial crisis slowed investment in the region and 

reduced demand for exports. As a result, the Baltic economies 

experienced severe contraction.

Reacting quickly, all 3 Baltic States enacted strict internal 

reforms, allowing their economies to recover within just a few 

years. Today, the Baltic States maintain stable, diversified 

economies, characterized by large, successful service industries 

and modernized industrial sectors. In fact, experts predict that 

each State will 

maintain current 

economic growth rates, 

which exceed the EU 

average, through 2020. 

Despite these positive 

trends, the Baltic 

States’ economies face

some challenges, 

including increasing 

income inequality, 

relatively low wages and productivity, corruption, outward 

migration of skilled workers, and ongoing unemployment (Photo: 

Skyline of Tallinn, Estonia).

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. While all 3 Baltic States have invested heavily into 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, Lithuania maintains the best roads. While only about 

1/5 of roads are paved in Estonia and Latvia, over 4/5 of 

Lithuanian roads are paved. Railways connect major cities 

throughout the region, and a planned high-speed train will soon 

GENERAL

CULTURE
connect the Baltic States with Europe. Because Latvia and 

Lithuania geographically separate Russia from Western Europe, 

both nations serve as important regional transit and trade hubs. 

Modern information technology is widely available throughout 

the Baltic States. Cell phones are extremely popular while about

80% of residents regularly use the Internet. Estonia enjoys the 

region’s highest rates of Internet connectivity and usage, 

especially among the younger generations.

Estonia is a net energy exporter, producing most of its energy 

from its large shale oil industry. By contrast, both Latvia and 

Lithuania heavily rely on oil and natural gas imports from Russia 

to meet domestic demand. Looking to decrease their 

dependence on Russia, both nations are actively diversifying 

their energy sources 

with the goal of 

reducing Russian 

imports in coming 

years. 

Renewable energy is 

an important resource 

in Latvia and 

Lithuania, where it 

comprises about 39% 

and 20% of energy consumption respectively. Although Estonia 

is currently generating the least amount of renewable energy in 

the region, it plans to increase renewable consumption by 2020 

(Photo: US Army and Lithuanian Land Forces personnel 

participate in airborne exercises near Rukla, Lithuania).

The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner. As EU 

members, the Baltic States enjoy a stable currency, a secure 

business environment, and free movement of goods and 

services. In addition, the Baltic States maintain important trade 

relationships with Russia. Regional trade among the Baltic 

States is also strong.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize 

the Baltic States’ society at large, we will focus on specific 

features of society in Estonia.

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Dominated by foreign powers for centuries, Estonia has had an 

eventful and often tragic history, suffering famine, plague, war, 

invasion, and occupation. Situated on the divide between 

Western and Eastern Europe, Estonia was one of the last 

European countries to adopt Christianity. Estonia gained

independence twice in its history, first in 1920 for 19 years and 

again in 1991. Since then, 

it has transformed its 

government into a 

democracy, adopted 

market capitalism, and 

joined the North Atlantic 

Treaty Organization 

(NATO) and the European 

Union (EU).

Early History

Estonia’s earliest archaeological finds include 10,000 year-old 

Stone Age tools. Scientists believe Finno-Ugric tribes, 

ancestors of modern Estonians, moved into the area from the 

east around 3500 BC. By about 2000 BC, inhabitants were 

producing pottery and ax-heads with artistic designs, building 

hill forts, engaging in animal husbandry, and living in

settlements (Photo: Remains of an ancient hill fort).

Roman historian Tacitus first mentioned the “Aestii” or Estonian 

people in the 1st century AD. While the Roman Empire never 

reached Estonia, its trading networks did, bringing iron tools 

and jewelry. The region’s first invaders were Vikings from 

Scandinavia who passed through Estonia in the mid-9th

century seeking trade routes to Kiev (Ukraine) and Istanbul

(Turkey). Ancient Arabic, German, and Turkish coins indicate 

the region participated in extensive trade networks, exporting 

furs, timber, and honey in exchange for metal.

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

The region also experienced conflict in its early history. While 

Estonian pirates raided the coasts of Denmark and Sweden, 

Danes and Swedes tried unsuccessfully to Christianize 

Estonians in the 11th and 12th centuries. Further, conflict with 

neighboring Russians was frequent: between 1030 and 1192, 

Estonians successfully repelled 13 Russian attacks. 

German Conquest

In 1193, the Pope as leader of the Roman Catholic Church in 

Rome, called for a religious crusade against all northern 

European non-Christian “heathens.” In response, a German 

bishop established the Order of the Brothers of the Sword, an 

organization of knights with the mission of Christianizing the 

inhabitants of the Baltic region, by sword if necessary. 

Supported by German merchants who were eager to access 

new trading frontiers, the German knights mounted a military 

invasion of the Baltic coast in 1200. By 1208, the knights had 

conquered tribes to the south then turned their attention to

Estonia. Although the Estonians put up a fierce resistance, the 

knights subdued most of southern Estonia by 1218.

Meanwhile, Russians were also making occasional raids into 

Estonia. Concerned about renewed Estonian resistance and 

further attacks 

from Russia, the 

German knights 

allied with King 

Valdemar II of 

Denmark in 1219, 

who invaded the 

northern coast 

and built a 

fortress at the site 

of Estonia’s present-day capital, Tallinn (Photo: Tallinn’s 

Toompea Castle, built by the Danes and rebuilt by the German 

knights).

In 1227, the knights acquired the only remaining Estonian 

territory, Saaremaa Island. Once the region was under German 

and Danish control, the Germans turned their attention to 

acquiring vast agricultural estates where they forced Estonians 

to labor.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1237, the Teutonic Order absorbed the Order of the Brothers 

of the Sword and took control of the area known as Livonia 

(present-day southern Estonia and Latvia). Meanwhile,

northern Estonia remained under Danish control. In addition to 

their agricultural activities on their estates, Germans settled in 

newly-established towns as merchants and craftsmen. Several

Estonian towns – including Tallinn, Tartu, and Pӓrnu –

prospered as members of the Hanseatic League, a powerful 

trading confederation of northern European towns and states.

Following several uprisings, the Danish crown sold its northern 

Estonian holdings to the Livonian Order, a branch of the 

Teutonic Order in 1346. With this acquisition, the Germans 

became entrenched in Estonia. Although they would not always 

have political control, the Germans would dominate commerce 

and have a hand in government, religion, education, and the 

justice system for the next 500 years.

Beginning in the 15th century, Estonian peasants began to lose 

their right to own land. By the early 16th century, most 

Estonians had become

serfs, enslaved laborers 

who were bought and 

sold with the land they 

worked for German 

estate-holders. 

From its origin in 

Germany, the Protestant 

(Lutheran) Reformation 

reached Estonia in the 1520s, permanently changing Estonia’s 

religious landscape (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality)

(Photo: 15th-16th century towers and walls in Tallinn).

The Livonian War

Other regional powers turned their attention to Estonia: PolandLithuania in the south, Sweden to the west, and Muscovy 

(Russia) to the east. Between 1552 and 1629, intermittent 

fighting among these powers resulted in the death of half of 

Estonia’s rural population, the desertion of farms, crop failure, 

and widespread famine. In 1558, Russian tsar (ruler) Ivan IV 

(“the Terrible”) penetrated deep into Estonia, leaving a trail of 

destruction.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Fearing further Russian expansion, the Germans requested 

assistance from Sweden, which soon invaded northern Estonia

and seized Tallinn. Meanwhile, upon the dissolution of the 

Teutonic Order in 1561, Poland-Lithuania gained control of 

Livonia. The Swedes and Russians fought through the 1570s, 

with deadly consequences for the Estonians who saw their 

population dramatically reduced again. This constant warfare 

came to end in 1581, when Sweden expelled the Russians 

from northern Estonia.

The Swedish Period

In a 1629 truce, PolandLithuania surrendered 

most of Livonia to 

Sweden. With Sweden’s 

1645 acquisition of the 

Estonian islands from 

Denmark, all of Estonia 

was united, for the first 

time, under Swedish rule, a period of relative peace and 

prosperity (Photo: St. Michael’s Swedish Church in Tallinn).

Under Swedish rule, the Germans retained their holdings and, 

with the approval of the Swedes, even took over many farms 

that had been abandoned during the prolonged wars. Although 

life for rural Estonians toiling as serfs on German estates 

changed little, Estonia’s cities prospered.

Estonian culture experienced a renaissance during the 

Swedish period. For the first time, scholars studied the 

Estonian language, and in the 1630s, the Swedes opened 

printing presses that produced grammars, hymns, and Bible 

stories in Estonian. Swedish clergy founded village schools and 

taught Estonians to read and write. The University of Tartu 

opened in 1632 (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge).

In the mid- to late-17th century, plague and then famine killed 

almost 20% of the population. Meanwhile, the Swedish king 

attempted to abolish serfdom for Estonian peasants but

German landholders fought successfully to retain enforced 

servitude. By 1700, Estonia’s “golden era” was ending as 

Sweden faced a powerful alliance among Poland, Denmark, 

and Russia that sought to regain lands lost in the Livonian War.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Great Northern War

Swedish rule soon began to collapse under assaults on several 

fronts. While the Swedes were able to push back the Russians’ 

first attack in 1700, by 1703 Russian tsar Peter I (“the Great”) 

was using newly-founded St. Petersburg as a secure base for 

further attacks on Estonia. 

During subsequent fighting, 

Peter I’s scorched-earth 

tactics destroyed all 

Estonian cities but Tallinn. 

Then, in 1710, plague 

struck Tallinn, killing 70% of 

its population. With Tallinn’s 

capitulation, the Russians 

took control. At the 1721 

Peace of Nystad, Sweden 

formally ceded all of its Baltic provinces to Russia (Photo: 19th

century painting of Peter I in Estonia).

Russian Rule

Like the Swedes before them, the Russians allowed the 

Germans to retain their estates, even engaging them to keep 

order among the Estonian peasantry and collect taxes. The

peasants’ lot initially worsened when the Russians retracted 

the few rights they had gained under Swedish rule: a 1739 

declaration confirmed the landlords’ legal right to buy and sell 

their serfs, decide their marriages, and administer corporal 

punishment.

Influenced by European Enlightenment philosophy that 

emphasized the dignity of the individual, Russian rulers 

eventually became appalled at the serfs’ deplorable conditions 

and sought to improve them. In 1804, Russian Tsar Alexander I 

gave the Estonian peasants the right of private property and 

inheritance then proceeded to abolish serfdom outright 

between 1816 and 1819. Although the Germans’ hold on their 

vast Estonian estates began to crumble, they were able to 

maintain their superior social and economic position by 

diversifying their economic interests.

Slowly, the Estonians’ situation continued to improve: an 1863 

law gave peasants the right of free movement, while an 1866 
HISTORY &

MYTH

law took away landowners’ right to whip their workers. Soon, 

some peasants were buying their own farms. The Germans’ 

role further diminished when Russian civil servants took over 

the administration of justice from German landlords in 1890. By 

1900, 40% of all privately owned land was in Estonian hands.

The Estonian National Awakening

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, Estonia’s cities prospered

due to industrialization and the construction of a railway line 

that linked Estonia to Russia. Gradually, a sense of Estonian

national consciousness arose. For the first time, Estonians 

were permitted to participate in local government. The first 

Estonian-language newspaper appeared in 1857. Authors 

began to produce a variety of Estonian-language works, both 

fiction and non-fiction, while scholars began to compile and 

publish Estonian songs and folklore (see “Myth” below).

Meanwhile, nationalists pressed for equal political rights for 

Estonians. Of note, Estonia’s first song festival was held in 

1869, a tradition that 

continues today (see p. 2-

3 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) (Photo: Late 

19th century depiction of 

Estonian traditional dress).

This period of renewal 

was not without tension. 

The 1871 founding of the 

German Empire caused

considerable worry among the Russians, especially given the 

strong German presence in Estonia. Further, the Russians 

came to view the Protestant Lutheran Church with its German 

roots as a threat to the Russian Orthodox Church.

Consequently, the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th

centuries also marked a period of rigid Russification in Estonia

(see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality).

In 1882, the Russians implemented their own criminal and civil 

codes. In 1887, Russian replaced Estonian and German as the 

language of instruction in schools and for the civil service. In 

1893, Russian replaced German as the language of instruction 

at the University of Tartu. Despite this Russian influence, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Estonian “awakening” trends continued. In 1901, Estonian 

Konstantin Pӓts, future leader of independent Estonia, founded 

a newspaper focused on Estonian affairs. Some 3 years later,

Estonians dominated the Tallinn town council elections for the 

first time.

The 1905 Russian Revolution: The 1905 Russian Revolution 

with its mass political and social unrest spread quickly to 

Estonia. In the fall, newly-founded political parties demanded 

political autonomy for Estonia, while 20,000 workers went on 

strike. In December, Pӓts called a peasant congress in Tallinn, 

then the Russian government declared martial law. 

Some Estonians took to the countryside where they looted and 

burned German manor homes. In response, the Russian 

government shot or hanged scores of Estonians while Pӓts and 

other leaders were forced to flee the country. Because the 

attacks, demonstrations, and nationalist groups lacked a focus, 

this initial momentum quickly faded. In 1910, Pӓts was allowed 

to return to Estonia where he re-established his newspaper.

World War I (WWI) and the Russian Revolution of 1917

Over the course of WWI (1914-1918), Russia conscripted 

some 100,000 Estonians for its fight against Austria-Hungary 

and Germany, with some 10,000 killed in action. Of greater 

significance for Estonia were the events surrounding the 

Russian Revolution of 

1917, which eventually 

brought the country 

autonomy.

In February, Russian 

revolutionaries forced 

Russian tsar Nicholas II 

to abdicate. Following 

protests by some 

40,000 Estonians in the 

Russian city of St. Petersburg in March (pictured), a provisional 

Russian government agreed to Estonian autonomy. By 

summer, an Estonian National Assembly, known as the 

Maapӓev was formed, which then appointed a provisional 

government with Pӓts as premier in October 1917. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Progress towards independence was temporarily halted when 

the so-called October Revolution in Russia brought the socialist 

faction, the Bolsheviks, to power under the leadership of 

Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky. When the Estonian Maapӓev

formally announced it would break away from the Russian 

state, the Bolsheviks appointed a puppet communist 

government. 

Then, in February 1918, German troops entered Estonia, 

prompting the communists to flee. Taking advantage of 

continuing chaos in Russia, the now-underground Maapӓev

declared Estonia’s independence on February 24, 1918, a date 

still celebrated as Estonia’s Independence Day. In March, 

Russia [soon to be the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

(USSR)] and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which 

transferred sovereignty over Estonia from Russia to Germany. 

German control lasted just a few months. With Germany’s 

surrender to the US and the Allies on November 11, 1918,

WWI ended. The Estonian provisional government headed by 

Pӓts immediately proclaimed independence again. Despite 

support for independence from several Western countries, the 

USSR proclaimed the treaty void and entered Estonia on 

November 28. By January 1919, Soviet forces had overrun half 

the country.

Estonian forces supported by weapons from the Allies, a British 

naval squadron, and Finnish, Danish, and Swedish troops 

initiated a counteroffensive. Within a few weeks, the Estonians 

had re-taken all of 

Estonia and 

penetrated Soviet 

territory, although 

Estonian and British 

military forces 

continued to engage 

the Soviets through 

1919. On February 

2, 1920, the USSR 

signed the Tartu Peace Treaty, renouncing its right of 

sovereignty over Estonian territory (Photo: Estonian troops in 

1919).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Independence

For the first time in its history, Estonia was independent. On 

June 15, 1920, the Estonian government adopted a constitution 

that provided for a single-chamber Parliament, a system of 

proportional representation, and universal suffrage. 

Estonia’s subsequent 19 years of independence were for many 

a golden era. German residents were granted some time to 

liquidate their holdings before their estates were nationalized 

and redistributed to Estonians. For the first time, many 

Estonians owned and worked their own land. The government 

adopted the Estonian language for all aspects of public life and 

introduced compulsory education (see p. 2 of Learning and 

Knowledge). 

Despite this progress, the political situation was unstable. 

Between 1920 and 1933, Estonia’s government comprised 20 

different political party coalitions headed by 10 different 

statesmen. Further, a feared communist subversion proved 

real in a 1924 failed coup d’état. The 

worldwide Great Depression of the 

early 1930s brought falling 

agricultural prices and broad 

unemployment. 

Unable to cope with the perceived 

communist threat and the dire 

economic situation, the government 

promulgated a new constitution in 

1933 that gave sweeping powers to 

the executive branch. Upon taking 

office as acting Prime Minister, Pӓts 

(pictured) proclaimed a state of 

emergency on March 12, 1934 and 

assumed dictatorial powers. He 

arrested opposition party leaders, forbade the political activities 

of all parties, and dissolved parliament. 

In 1938 Estonia adopted a new constitution that allowed some 

political opposition. Although Pӓts was elected President for a 

6-year term that year, the events of World War II soon ended 

Estonia’s 19 years of independence.
HISTORY &

MYTH

World War II (WWII)

In August 1939, Nazi Germany and the USSR signed the 

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a secret nonaggression pact which 

essentially divided Eastern Europe into Soviet and German 

spheres of influence, with Estonia falling into the Soviet sphere. 

When WWII began with Germany’s invasion of Poland in 

September, Estonia declared itself neutral. Ignoring this 

declaration, the Soviet government imposed a treaty of mutual 

assistance on Estonia that allowed 

the Soviets to occupy Estonian 

military bases. Germans 

remaining in Estonia were recalled 

to Germany, although most had 

not lived there for generations.

The Soviet Occupation: By mid1940, Soviet forces occupied the 

whole country. President Pӓts and 

other political leaders were 

deported to the USSR. A puppet 

government installed by the 

Soviets approved a resolution in 

July to join the USSR. Some 2 

weeks later, the USSR formally 

incorporated Estonia as one of its 

constituent republics (Photo: A Swedish newspaper reports the 

Soviet occupation of Estonian in 1940).

The Soviets rapidly imposed their communist social and 

economic system on Estonia, nationalizing private companies 

and appropriating private property. The Soviets replaced the 

Estonian currency with their own, forbade religious education at 

school, made Christmas a normal working day, and privileged 

the use of the Russian language in many contexts. Further, 

over the next 12 months some 60,000 Estonians were either 

killed or deported to the USSR to labor camps.

The Nazi Occupation: In June 1941, Germany turned on its 

former ally and attacked the USSR. Taking advantage of the 

situation and mistaking the Germans as their liberators, 

Estonian forces attacked the Soviets, freeing large areas of the 

country before the German army reached Estonian territory. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Germans quickly suppressed Estonians’ hope for a return 

to independence, executing some 7,000 Estonians identified as 

communist collaborators. Further, the Germans deported

thousands of Estonians to Germany as forced labor and 

rounded up all Estonian Jews who had not previously fled the 

country (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality), holding many in 

the Klooga and Vaivara labor and transit camps. For the next 3 

years, the Nazis occupied Estonia, making it part of Germany’s 

Ostland province and conscripting nearly 40,000 Estonians.

In February 1944, the Soviets began another invasion of 

Estonia, including bombing its cities. About 70,000 Estonians 

escaped to Sweden by sea while another 30,000 fled to 

Germany. By September, the Soviets had overwhelmed the 

Germans and their Estonian allies and took Tallinn. By war’s 

end, about 10% of Estonians lived abroad while some 280,000 

people (a quarter of Estonia’s 

population) had been killed in 

action, executed, sent to Soviet 

labor camps, or exterminated in 

Nazi concentration camps (Photo: 

1941 Ostland stamp with Hitler’s 

image).

The Soviet Era

Following the end of WWII in 

1945, the USSR immediately 

reincorporated Estonia. The 

eradication of Estonian national 

consciousness and restructuring of the country in the Soviet 

Socialist mold required repression and Russification. Between 

1945 and 1953 the Soviets executed some 19,000 Estonians 

and deported some 80,000 more to prison camps. A 

particularly large wave of deportation occurred in 1949 during 

the Soviet campaign to collectivize agriculture. 

Along with agricultural collectivization programs, the Soviets 

concentrated on developing heavy industry along Estonia’s 

northeastern coast. The extra workforce needed for these and 

other initiatives came from ethnic Russians who were 

encouraged to settle in Estonia, which served to decrease the 

native Estonian portion of the population (see p. 12 of Political 
HISTORY &

MYTH

and Social Relations). Due to these settlement policies, some 

Estonian communities are still majority Russian-speaking while 

Russian/Estonian identity and language disputes still simmer 

today (see p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations and p. 2 of 

Language and Communication).

Over the next 3 decades, Estonians enjoyed a higher standard 

of living than most other Soviet republics. There was a larger 

variety of merchandise in stores, better housing, and a more 

dependable infrastructure. Some opening to the West occurred 

over the decades. Ferry service to Finland re-opened in 1965, 

enabling some exiled Estonians to visit home and allowing

others to experience Western life and use Western goods. 

Discontent grew when Estonians gained access to Finnish 

television and its depictions of life beyond the Iron Curtain.

When some events of the 1980 Moscow Olympic games were 

held in Tallinn, some Estonians got their first ever contact with 

foreigners. Of note, dissidents vocally protested the Soviets’ 

human rights violations as well as the dangers of industrial 

pollution during these years. 

An Opening

Beginning in 1985, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced 

a series of reforms that would eventually result in the 

dissolution of the USSR. These reforms – most notably 

perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) –

introduced market forces into the struggling Soviet economy 

The Forest Brothers

Calling themselves the Metsavennad or “Forest 

Brothers,” some 14,000 Estonians formed an armed 

guerilla movement that operated against the Soviets 

from bases in Estonia’s forests beginning in 1944. Most 

active in the late 1940s, the Forest Brothers primarily 

attacked Soviet arms depots and supply convoys. 

Although the Soviet military had largely crushed the 

movement by 1956, one Forest Brother eluded the 

Soviets until 1978, when he died trying to escape arrest 

by KGB agents.
HISTORY &

MYTH

and increased individuals’ freedom of expression. Although the 

attempted reforms were largely unsuccessful, deteriorating 

economic conditions sparked a wave of democratic movements 

in the Soviet republics, including Estonia. 

In 1987, Estonian protestors forced the USSR to abandon 

large-scale industrial development plans that would have 

brought toxic environmental pollution. That same year, 

economists at the University of 

Tartu dismissed the USSR’s 

centralized economy and called 

for a self-regulating Estonian 

economy (Photo: Gorbachev and 

Former US President Reagan in 

1987). 

In 1988, Estonians discreetly 

celebrated Independence Day 

and displayed the Estonian flag. 

The Soviets employed force 

against Estonians for the last time in February of that year, 

when the Soviet police violently dispersed a demonstration in 

Tartu. Soon, an opposition Popular Front emerged that pushed 

the legislature to pass a resolution on Estonian sovereignty. In 

September, a quarter of a million Estonians gathered at the 

Estonian Song Festival grounds (see p. 2-3 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) and captured international attention with their 

“singing revolution.” 

In 1989, Estonian once again became the country’s official 

language. Then, with the publication of the once secret 1940 

USSR-Germany nonaggression pact, it became clear that the 

Soviet Union’s claim that Estonia had “voluntarily” joined the 

USSR was untrue, further fueling independence efforts.

Independence Restored

Disobeying Gorbachev’s orders, Estonia held free elections in 

1990 that were dominated by supporters of independence. In 

August 1991, the Estonia Supreme Council formally declared 

independence. Over 40 countries gave independent Estonia 

diplomatic recognition within days. Within a month, the USSR 

also recognized Estonia’s independence. Significantly, Estonia

had achieved independence without a single violent death.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In June 1992, Estonia adopted a new constitution and in 

September held elections. Supported by the conservative 

Fatherland alliance, Lennart Meri became President and Mart 

Laar became Prime Minister (PM). The new government 

immediately set to work transforming Estonia into a free market 

economy and negotiating the withdrawal of Russian troops. By 

late 1992, many new private companies had been founded; air 

and sea links to the Western world were opened; and Western 

consumer goods were pouring in.

An immediate issue facing the new republic was the rights of 

non-ethnic Estonian residents who had immigrated to Estonia 

after the Soviet annexation in 1940. The new government’s 

decision that these residents, primarily ethnic Russians, must 

apply for citizenship and prove their Estonian language 

proficiency strained relations between Estonia and Russia and 

continues to be an issue in Estonia today (see p. 13-14 of 

Political and Social 

Relations and p. 4-5 of 

Learning and Knowledge).

Transition from a Soviet 

state to independence was 

not always easy. The 

uncertainties of the market 

economy, including a 

stock market collapse, 

business bankruptcies, 

and unemployment, caused substantial economic suffering. 

Further, some Estonians regretted the loss of the social safety 

net the Soviet system had provided. For the majority, though, 

the transition was welcome (Photo: Tallinn’s Freedom Square 

with the Independence War Victory Column).

Despite allegations that some politicians had committed acts of 

corruption and abused their power, by the late 1990s Estonia 

had developed a stable democracy and embraced a market 

economy. Since independence, Estonia has sought to reorient 

itself toward the West. In 1999 Estonia joined the World Trade 

Organization (WTO), and in 2004 it became a full member of 

both NATO and the EU (see p. 9 of Political and Social 

Relations).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Modern Estonia

Elected in 2006 and re-elected in 2011, Toomas Hendrik Ilves 

serves in the largely ceremonial post of President (see p. 4 of 

Political and Social Relations). Since Estonia’s first free 

elections in 1992, coalitions of political parties have formed 

alliances to control parliament and the office of PM, where the 

real power lies. 

From 2005-2014, a coalition led by right-of-center Reform Party 

leader Andrus Ansip controlled the government. During the 

European financial crisis of 2008-09, PM Ansip implemented 

economic austerity programs that maintained the economy’s 

strength. This initiative enabled Estonia to join the so-called 

Eurozone in 2011 and adopt the EU’s Euro as its currency (see 

p. 2 of Economics and Resources). His popularity slipping, 

Ansip stepped down in 2014 and was succeeded as PM by 

Taavi Rõivas (see p. 4 of Political and Social Relations).

The Bronze Soldier Incident

In 2007, the Bronze Soldier, a monument to Soviet 

war casualties in Tallinn, became the site of 

demonstrations by both Russian nationalists and 

Estonians. To defuse the situation, PM Ansip 

suggested moving the statue out of town. But when 

government workers moved to exhume the remains 

of Soviet soldiers buried underneath the monument, 

the situation quickly escalated into 2 days of rioting 

by ethnic Russian youths. Although the Russian 

government made its own protests when the statue 

was moved to a military cemetery, most Estonian 

Russians denounced the riots and the violence 

ceased. In what most observers believe was 

retaliation initiated by the Russian government, 

hackers then successfully disabled most of Estonia’s 

commercial and banking websites. To better respond 

to similar cyber-attacks, NATO opened its cyber 

defense center in Tallinn in 2008.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity.

For Estonians, myths and folklore have played an important 

role in maintaining Estonian identity through years of conflict 

and occupation by foreign forces. During Estonia’s 19th century

“National Awakening,” Estonian scholars collected myths and 

stories from rural inhabitants. For example, Jakob Hurt 

recruited 1,400 volunteers to visit every Estonian household, 

then compiled the findings in a 162-volume collection of 

folklore. In another effort, F.R. Faehlmann and Friedrich 

Reinhard Kreutzwald focused on Estonia’s folk poems, 

compiling and publishing them as Estonia’s national epic 

Kalevipoeg (Son of Kalev) in 1857-61.

As in many Estonian folktales, the predominant motifs of 

Kalevipoeg are supernatural forces and the struggle between 

good and evil. Written in a particular style of verse, Kalevipoeg

emphasizes heroic deeds, 

honesty, and peaceful labor 

as supreme virtues, while 

portraying Estonia’s

conquerors as devils 

bringing ruin to a once free 

people. 

The epic’s central character

and mythical founder of the 

Estonian nation is 

Kalevipoeg, a hero and 

king who possesses supernatural powers allowing him to 

speak with birds and other animals. According to the story, 

Kalevipoeg journeys to hell where he defeats the devil, but then 

retreats to a forest following his own defeat by invading forces. 

The epic ends with the prediction that Kalevipoeg will return 

one day to rebuild life for Estonians and bring them renewed 

happiness (Photo: Estonia’s forests frequently provided a place 

of refuge against invaders and occupiers).
Official Name

Republic of Estonia

Eesti Vabariik

Political Borders

Russia: 201 mi

Latvia: 207 mi

Coastline 2357 mi

Capital

Tallinn

Demographics

Estonia’s population is

about 1.3 million, making 

it the least populous of 

the Baltic States and one of the most sparsely populated 

countries in all of Europe. Significantly, Estonia’s population is 

shrinking at a rate of –0.5% annually, in part due to Estonia’s 

low birthrate (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender), a high death rate 

(see p. 6 of Sustenance and Health), and emigration stemming 

from Estonians’ search for employment abroad. Nearly 68% of 

the population lives in metropolitan areas, primarily in the 

capital city of Tallinn and its 

rapidly expanding suburbs. 

Flag

The Estonian flag consists 

of 3 equal horizontal bands 

of blue, black, and white, 

each with several layers of 

significance. The top blue 

stripe symbolizes the 

principles of loyalty, faith, and devotion while also representing

Estonia’s sea, sky, and many lakes. The black band indicates 

Estonia’s dark and tumultuous history, as well as the nation’s 

rich soil. Lastly, the white band simultaneously denotes virtue 

and enlightenment, while also representing the color of snow 

and birch bark. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Estonia’s long north coast faces the Gulf of Finland. To the 

east Estonia shares a border with Russia, part of which divides 

Lake Peipus (Peipsi in Estonian). Estonia borders Latvia to the 

south and the Gulf of Riga 

and Baltic Sea to the

west. Finland lies just 50 

mi across the Baltic Sea 

to the north while Sweden 

is 235 mi across the same 

sea to the west. Estonia’s 

total land area, which 

includes 1,521 mostly 

small and uninhabited 

islands, is about 28,100 sq mi, making it approximately twice 

the size of New Jersey and slightly bigger than Belgium.

Situated in the Baltic Sea to the west, Saaremaa (pictured

above) is Estonia’s largest island, followed by Hiiumaa, Muhu, 

and Vormsi. 

Estonia has a low, marshy terrain characterized by stretches of 

unspoiled natural landscape with more than 1,000 natural and 

artificial lakes. Much of the border with Russia runs through

Lake Peipus, the largest lake in Estonia and 4th largest in 

Europe. The flat northern coastline features bays, inlets, straits, 

and towering limestone cliffs,

while marshland is prevalent 

in the East and Central 

regions. Estonia’s South 

consists of sloping hills.

Suur Munamagi (“Great 

Egg Mountain” – pictured) is

Estonia’s and the Baltic 

region’s highest elevation at 

1,043 ft (compared with 

Alaska’s Mount McKinley at 20,320 ft, the highest elevation in 

the US). About half of the country is covered in birch, spruce, 

and pine forests (see “Myth” in History and Myth). 

Climate

Estonia experiences a temperate climate with all 4 seasons 

marked by winters with extended periods of bitter cold and cool 

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summers. Temperatures in the summer month of July average 

around 62°F on both the islands and mainland. In the winter 

month of February, temperatures vary from an average of 26°F 

on the islands to 18°F inland. Of note, the number of hours of 

daylight changes dramatically between winter and summer. For 

example, darkness falls around 3:00pm in January, while in 

June daylight lasts 18 hours. 

Natural Hazards

Even though Estonia remains relatively free of natural hazards, 

it is vulnerable to heavy snowfall during winter months and 

occasional springtime flooding. Snowfall is heaviest midDecember to late March, although major roads typically remain 

cleared and safe to drive the entire winter season. 

Environmental Issues

Many of Estonia’s environmental issues over the last few 

decades stem from detrimental activities carried out by the 

Soviets during their 45-year-long occupation of Estonia (see p. 

11-12 of History 

and Myth). In 

addition to industrial 

activities that 

caused substantial 

pollution (see p. 13

of History and 

Myth), the Soviet 

army regularly 

dumped jet fuel, 

toxic chemicals, 

and discarded weaponry, including explosives, in coastal and 

inland waters (Photo: US and Estonian Navy personnel tow a 

World War II-era mine in the Baltic Sea). 

Although Estonia’s government has substantially cleaned 

damaged areas, topsoil and underground water supplies 

remain contaminated in some regions. Despite strict legislation 

regulating the release of contaminants, air pollution caused by 

sulfur dioxide emissions from oil shale power plants in the 

Northeast remains a concern. Smaller lakes and parts of the 

Baltic Sea are at risk of pollution by wastewater, agricultural 

runoff, and industrial waste.

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Government

Estonia is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 15 counties 

(maakonnad), which further subdivide into 213 administrative

units with local governments. Adopted in 1992, Estonia’s 

constitution (see p. 14 of History and Myth) separates power 

among executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and in 

detail outlines the fundamental rights of Estonian citizens, 

including the protection of minority groups.

Executive Branch

Executive power is vested in the Prime Minister (PM), who 

forms and leads a 14-member Council of Ministers and is 

head-of-government. The PM and Council of Ministers are 

responsible for implementing domestic and foreign policies, 

supervising the work of government institutions, and submitting 

draft legislation to the Parliament (see “Legislative Branch” 

below). Nominated by the President and approved by the 

Parliament, the PM is generally the leader of the party or 

coalition of parties that hold the majority of seats in the 

Parliament. Representing the Estonian Reform Party, PM Taavi 

Rõivas, took office in 

2014.

By contrast, Estonia’s

President, who is 

head-of-state and 

commander-in-chief 

of Estonia’s Defense 

Forces (see 

“Defense” below), is 

elected by the 

Parliament and may serve up to 2 consecutive 5-year terms. 

Presidential powers are largely ceremonial. Estonia’s current 

President, Toomas Hendrik Ilves (pictured, with his wife and 

US President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama), 

took office in 2006 and is currently serving his 2nd term. 

Legislative Branch

Estonia’s legislature is a 1-chamber Parliament (Riigikogu), 

comprised of 101 members directly elected through 

proportional representation to serve 4-year terms. The 

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Parliament holds all 

federal legislative 

powers, including the 

passing of laws and 

resolutions, amending 

the constitution, 

ratifying international 

treaties, passing the 

national budget, 

approving declarations of war, and appointing positions in 

government and military (Photo: Estonia’s Riigikogu in Tallinn).

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes first-level county courts, appellate circuit 

courts, and a 19-member National Court (Riigikohus). As the 

highest court, the National Court is the final court of appeal for 

both civil and criminal cases and provides guidance on the 

constitutionality of laws. The President nominates the Chief 

Justice, who is then appointed for life by the Parliament. A 

system of lower city 

courts oversees minor 

cases. 

Political Climate

Estonia’s political 

landscape includes a 

multi-party system in 

which political parties or 

coalitions of parties 

compete for power. Typically, members of the party or coalition 

with the most seats in the Parliament occupy the majority of 

government leadership roles. Consequently, these political 

parties significantly influence Estonia’s political environment 

(Photo: Tallinn’s busy central square).

Estonia’s current coalition government is composed of the 

Estonian Reform Party (RP), led by PM Taavi Rõivas, the 

Social Democratic Party (SDP), and the Pro Patria and Res

Publica Union (IRL). Presently holding 30 seats in the 

Parliament, the liberal RP has consistently participated in most 

Estonian government coalitions since the party’s founding in 

1994 and is Estonia’s largest, most influential political party. 

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Supported predominantly by well-educated, young urban 

dwellers, the RP advocates market liberalism and promotes 

low taxes, a free market 

economy, and civil 

liberties (Photo: Political 

advertisement in Tallinn).

Joining the RP as a 

coalition member with 15 

seats in the Parliament, 

the SDP is presently the 

3rd largest party and is 

ideologically similar to its coalition partner, advocating fiscal 

and socially liberal policies. Holding 14 seats in the Parliament, 

the socially conservative IRL is the 4th largest party and final 

member of the ruling government coalition. 

Other active parties include the populist Estonian Centre Party 

(currently the 2nd largest party in the Parliament with 27 seats), 

the Free Party (5th largest party with 8 seats), and the 

Conservative People’s Party (6th largest party with 7 seats). 

Other recently active political parties that do not currently 

participate in the Parliament include the Estonian Greens, the 

Party of People’s Unity, the Estonian Independence Party, and 

the Estonian United Left Party.

Despite their different ideologies, Estonia’s governing parties 

and coalitions have historically pursued common political, 

economic, and security 

goals. Since 

independence in 1991, 

they have cooperated

to create a stable, wellrun democracy with an 

established free market 

economy (see p. 1-2 of 

Economics and 

Resources) and successfully integrated Estonia into 

international organizations (see “Defense” and “Foreign 

Relations” below) (Photo: US President Obama and Estonian 

PM Rõivas speak with US Army paratroopers in Tallinn in 

2014).

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Defense

The Estonian Defense Forces (EDF) are a unified military force 

consisting of primarily ground forces, with smaller maritime, air, 

and internal security branches. Military service of at least 1 

year is compulsory for all Estonian men aged 19-28. Women 

may choose to join the military and today make up 11% of 

active duty personnel.

With a joint strength of just 5,750 active duty troops, 30,000 

reservists, and 12,000 internal security personnel, Estonia 

relies heavily on military support from its international allies to 

defend against external, state-level 

threats. Estonia receives the majority 

of defense support from NATO, a 

political and military alliance among

28 nations (including the US) that 

promotes the safety of its members 

through collective defense.

Army: As the largest branch of the 

EDF, the Estonian Army is a welltrained force of 5,300 active-duty 

troops, consisting of 5 maneuver 

brigades and battalions (including 

reconnaissance and light), 4 combat 

support battalions, and 1 combat 

service support battalion (Photo: 

Estonian soldiers during NATO 

exercises in 2014). 

Navy: Consisting of 200 active-duty personnel, the Estonian 

Navy is a small force consisting of 1 patrol and coastal 

combatant and 4 mine warfare and countermeasures vessels. 

Air Force: The Estonian Air Force consists of 250 active-duty 

personnel and 2 transport squadrons. One squad consists of 2 

aircraft and the other 4 helicopters. 

Defense League: Charged with internal security, the Defense 

League consists of 12,000 active-duty personnel distributed

across Estonia’s 15 counties. The Defense League has 144 

armored personnel carriers, 376 artillery units, and other 

equipment. 

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Foreign Relations

Since independence, Estonia has actively pursued economic, 

political, and military integration with its Western European, 

Baltic, and Nordic neighbors, culminating in its accession into 

the UN in 1991 and

into NATO and the EU 

in 2004. Through its

successful democracy 

and stable economy, 

Estonia is an 

important regional 

advocate of a 

democratic and proWestern agenda for 

Belarus, Ukraine, 

Moldova, Georgia and other former Soviet states (Photo: 

Estonian soldiers march during a training exercise in Latvia). 

Regional Cooperation: Regionally, Estonia participates with 

Latvia and Lithuania in the trilateral Baltic Assembly, 

established in 1991 to address common economic, political, 

and cultural issues. Estonia is also active in the Nordic-Baltic 

Cooperation (with Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, 

Denmark, Latvia, and Lithuania) formed to coordinate 

economic policy, foreign and national security, energy and 

transportation infrastructure, and civil protection. Estonia also

enjoys substantial economic interdependence with the Nordic 

nations. For example, over 35% of Estonian exports were sent 

to Sweden and Finland in 2014 and today over 3/4 of foreign 

investment in Estonia originates from Nordic countries.

Relations with the EU: The EU is a political and economic 

partnership among 28 European nations. Estonia’s accession

into the EU marked its divergence away from a Russian sphere 

of influence toward its current social and political alignment 

with its European neighbors. Further, Estonia views its 

membership in the EU as a security buffer against a somewhat 

unpredictable Russia. Of note, Estonia adopted the EU’s euro 

as its own currency in 2011, further solidifying its economic 

integration with European states (see p. 1-2 of Economics and 

Resources). 

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International Cooperation: Estonia also works with other 

international institutions, including the Western European 

Union (WEU), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in 

Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), 

among others. Of note, Estonia has participated in a number of 

UN, NATO, and EU peacekeeping missions in the Balkans, 

Afghanistan, and Iraq.

Relations with the US: The US and Estonia have strong 

political, economic, and military ties. First establishing

diplomatic relations with Estonia in 1922, the US did not 

formally recognize Estonia’s incorporation into the USSR at the 

end of World War II (see p. 10-11 of History and Myth). Today, 

the US views Estonia as the legal continuation of the 

independent republic that existed between the 2 World Wars 

(see p. 9 of History and Myth). The US considers Estonia a 

reliable partner in promoting democracy and peace in Western 

and Eastern Europe. Further, 

the US supported Estonian 

membership in NATO against 

initial resistance from several 

European nations which feared 

Estonia’s involvement might 

create friction with Russia. 

Today, the US offers security 

assistance to Estonia, while in 

return Estonia supports US-led 

military efforts, including in 

Afghanistan and Iraq. In another example of amicable USEstonia relations, Estonia is one of 38 nations allowed to 

participate in a “Visa Waiver” program, which allows Estonians 

to travel to the US for up to 90 days without obtaining a visa

(Photo: Estonian President Toomas Hendrik Ilves greets US 

Secretary of Defense Ash Carter).

Security Issues

Estonia’s security environment is dominated by a historically 

volatile relationship with neighboring Russia (see History and 

Myth). Estonia considers its membership in NATO, the UN, 

and the EU vital to its security and defense, relying on its 

international partners to insulate it against large, state-level 

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threats like terrorism and 

cyberattacks, such as the 

hacking attack that 

occurred in 2007 (see text 

box on p. 15 of History 

and Myth). Estonia is 

vital to NATO 

interoperability in the 

Baltic region and, in 2014, 

hosted a multilateral 

military exercise for NATO members (Photo: US and Estonian 

sailors talk during a multinational maritime exercise).

Estonia and Russia: Although relations with Russia have 

markedly improved since the end of the Soviet occupation (see 

p. 12-13 of History and Myth), political and social tensions 

persist. Some stress originates from Estonia’s economic and 

political realignment with Western Europe since Estonia’s 

independence in 1991. Other friction stems from perceived 

social inequalities afflicting ethnic Russians in Estonia (see 

“Social Relations” below). 

Relations between Russia and Estonia substantially 

deteriorated in 2007 following controversy over a World War II

monument (see p. 15 of History and Myth). Recently, Russia’s 

2014 annexation of Crimea and associated unrest in eastern 

Ukraine have caused concern in Estonia. In response, Estonia 

is considering permanently accepting NATO ground forces in 

its territory and has 

made plans to 

construct a fence 

along its eastern 

border with Russia. 

Despite these strains, 

Russia and Estonia 

maintain a dialogue

and economic ties 

that somewhat diffuse 

political tensions

(Photo: US and Estonian soldiers celebrate the installation of a 

helicopter landing pad in Narva, a city on the Estonian-Russian 

border).

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Ethnic Groups

During a long history of conquest and occupation by other 

peoples (see History and Myth), Estonians always retained 

their distinctive language and cultural identity. Partly due to the 

Estonian language’s similarity to Finnish, Estonians tend to feel 

culturally closer to the 

Scandinavians than to 

their Baltic neighbors, 

Latvia and Lithuania.

Estonia’s population 

today is ethnically 

diverse. During the 

USSR’s occupation of 

Estonia, the state

encouraged ethnic 

Russians to settle there (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth).

Consequently, the ethnic Estonian proportion of the population 

fell significantly, from 90% before World War II to 60% in 1990.

By the 2011 census, the ethnic Estonian proportion had 

increased somewhat, to about 69% (Photo: Estonians 

participate in a dance festival).

Russians continue to comprise the largest minority group, 

about 25% of the total population. Other groups include 

Ukrainians (1.7%), Belarusians (1%), and Finns (0.6%). These 

non-ethnic Estonian residents live primarily in urban areas. The 

Estonian government funds activities that support the cultures 

and languages of these minority groups.

Some linguistic and cultural differences exist among ethnic 

Estonians. About 10,000 Setu people live in southeastern 

Estonia. They speak a different dialect of Estonian (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication) and largely identify with Slavic 

culture and the Russian Orthodox religious tradition (see p. 4 of 

Religion and Spirituality). The inhabitants of the Muhu 

archipelago also have their own dialect.

Estonia is home to about 1,000 Roma, or “Gypsy” people. Like 

similar populations across Europe, the Roma suffer 

discrimination in employment and higher-than-average school 

drop-out rates.

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Social Relations

In 1992, newly-independent Estonia mandated that all nonethnic Estonian residents must apply for Estonian 

citizenship. The policy immediately rendered 32% of Estonia’s 

population stateless, straining relations between ethnic 

Estonians and ethnic minorities (see p. 11 of History and Myth). 

To become citizens, applicants had to prove their proficiency in 

Estonian language and history by passing a series of exams, 

some of which Russia and the EU criticized for being too 

challenging. In response, Estonia eased some of its 

naturalization requirements, and today, non-citizens make up 

about 8% of the population. Most ethnic Russians either have 

applied for and received Estonian citizenship or accepted

Russian citizenship while remaining residents of Estonia.

The government largely supports the integration of ethnic 

minorities and non-citizens, although specific policies 

occasionally cause tensions. For example, non-citizens may 

vote in local elections but are prohibited from participating in 

parliamentary elections. Generally, the distinction between 

citizen and non-citizen will continue to lose significance: since 

1998, the law 

decrees that 

children born in 

Estonia to parents 

who have lived in 

the country at least 

5 years 

automatically 

receive citizenship.

Other policies cause 

societal tensions 

between Estonians and ethnic minorities, whether or not they 

are citizens. For example, a law requiring a minimum Estonian 

language competence for public sector employees has been 

divisive. Legislation concerning the use of the Russian and 

Estonian languages in public schools has been especially 

controversial (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge) (Photo: 

The city of Narva on the Estonian-Russian border is 

predominantly ethnic Russian).

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Other friction stems from perceived social inequalities. 

Originally encouraged to move to Estonia to support industrial 

development (see p. 11 of History and Myth), ethnic Russians 

still work predominantly in industry where they experience 

higher unemployment and earn lower wages than ethnic 

Estonians (Photo: A 

Russian-majority town on 

the island of Piirissaar in 

Lake Peipus).

Generally, Estonia’s

Russian speakers are not 

fully integrated into Estonian 

society. In fact, most live 

relatively segregated from 

Estonians. Proud of their cultural differences, ethnic Russians 

tend to marry other Russians (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship), 

live together in Russian-speaking neighborhoods, attend 

Russian language schools (see p. 4 of Learning and 

Knowledge), and socialize separately. Russian-speakers make 

up the majority in some areas, including the northeast county of 

Ida-Viru, where Russians constitute 73% of the population. 

About 38% of Tallinn’s residents are Russian.

While some older Estonians who lived under the Soviet 

occupation hold some anti-Russian sentiment, there have been 

no overt conflicts between Estonians and ethnic Russians 

since 2007 (see p. 15 of History and Myth). Although they may 

protest certain government policies, most ethnic Russians 

express satisfaction with their lives in Estonia. Few support 

Russian nationalist ideas, mostly appreciating the liberties and 

comforts Estonia provides.

Still, the Estonian government worries that Russia may try to 

inflame societal tensions or foment anti-Estonian feelings 

among the Russian population, especially through its media. 

Significantly, less than half of Estonia’s Russian speakers 

regularly access Estonian media for their news and 

information. Meanwhile, almost 3/4 of them regularly turn to

Russian media outlets. To counteract any potential negative 

effects of Russia’s media penetration, the Estonian government 

has begun broadcasting its own programs in Russian.

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Overview

Outside observers often 

refer to Estonia as the 

least religious country in 

the world. In a 2009 

survey, only 20% of 

Estonians acknowledged

religion as having an 

important role in their 

lives. Further, a 2012 

study found that almost 

60% of Estonians do not identify with any religious tradition. 

Across the world, only the Czech Republic and North Korea 

have higher rates of religious non-affiliation. Religious or not, 

most Estonians enjoy the Christmas holiday season (Photo: 

Tallinn’s Christmas market).

The Estonians who do identify with a religious tradition are 

largely Christian. According to the 2011 census, about 14% of 

Estonians identify as Orthodox 

while slightly more than 8% 

identify as Lutheran. Other 

Christian groups – including

Baptists, Roman Catholics, 

Jehovah’s Witnesses, members of 

Christian Free Congregations, and 

Pentecostals – collectively

constitute just over 1% of the 

population (Photo: Tallinn’s St. 

Nicholas Church houses an art 

museum).

Estonia’s constitution protects 

religious freedom and recognizes 

no state religion. Generally, neither religion nor particular 

churches have much influence on Estonian politics, business, 

education, or intellectual life. Despite their lack of commitment 

to organized religion, many Estonians consider themselves 

spiritual in a very private and personal way. For example, over 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
half of Estonian survey respondents in 2012 expressed belief in 

some sort of spiritual or life force.

Estonia’s Early Spiritual Landscape

While scholars know few details of Estonians’ religious beliefs 

and practices before the arrival of Christianity, they believe 

regional residents practiced animism, the belief that the spirit of 

life or consciousness resides in natural objects such as trees, 

rocks, hills, fields, and animals. Early Estonians likely believed 

that these powerful spirits could guide or obstruct human 

behavior. Further, Estonians recognized several gods or 

perhaps several aspects of 1 divine being, including Taara

(War), Uku (Thunder and Lightning), Maaema (Land), Ahti

(Water), and Vanejumi (Fertility).

The Arrival of Christianity

Compared to most other parts of Europe, Christianity arrived 

relatively late to Estonia. While Christian missionaries from 

Denmark and Sweden arrived as early as the 11th century,

with the Swedes installing the region’s first Christian bishop in 

1165, the religion initially failed to take root. Only the Setu, a 

minority people living in southeast Estonia (see p. 12 of 

Political and Social Relations and p. 1 of Language and 

Communication), adopted Orthodox Christianity brought by

Russian missionaries 

during this early period

(Photo: Tallinn’s St. 

Olav’s Church dates to 

the 14th century).

The situation began to 

change at the end of the 

12th century. As head of 

the Roman Catholic 

Church in Rome, the Pope announced a religious crusade 

against all northern European “heathens” or non-Christians in 

1193. By 1200, German knights had mounted a military 

invasion of the Baltic coast and subdued most of southern 

Estonia by 1218 (see p. 2 of History and Myth). Forced to 

convert to Catholicism and suspicious of services conducted in 

Latin, a language they could not understand, the Estonians 

were slow to embrace the new religion. Throughout the 14th

RELIGION & 

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century, Estonians continued to practice their old nature-based 

rituals, especially for weddings and funerals.

Over the next decades, many Germans established a 

permanent presence, acquiring vast agricultural estates and 

settling into towns (see p. 3 of History and Myth). A Catholic 

bishop oversaw the construction of cathedrals while Catholic 

religious orders founded monasteries. By the 15th century, 

Estonians were using Christian names and combining their 

ancient rites with Catholic rituals.

The Protestant Reformation and Rise of Lutheranism

The Protestant Reformation began in the early 16th century to 

answer a call for change in the Roman Catholic Church from all 

across Europe. A key event in the movement occurred when 

Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to a church door in Germany 

in 1517. Critical of several Catholic Church teachings and the 

authority of the pope, Luther’s ideas spread quickly among 

German-speaking populations, especially through the use of 

the newly-invented printing press.

At this time, most Estonians were serfs, enslaved laborers who 

worked the land for German estate holders (see p. 3 of History 

and Myth). Although some German landowners initially resisted 

the change, they eventually welcomed Lutheran teachings and 

required their Estonian serfs to adopt the new faith as well. At 

first, the Lutheran Church in Estonia 

developed slowly due to extended 

periods of warfare in the region (see 

p. 3-4 of History and Myth). By the 

mid-16th century, though, the place of 

Lutheranism was secure: Estonia’s

Christian church was reorganized 

under Lutheran authority and all

Catholic monasteries had closed

(Photo: Tallinn’s Church of the Holy 

Spirit dates to the early 14th century).

Upon taking control of Estonia in the 

17th century (see p. 4 of History and 

Myth), the Swedes made the Lutheran Church Estonia’s state 

church. Swedish clergy strived to make church teachings more 

accessible to Estonians, establishing schools (see p. 1 of 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Learning and Knowledge), printing Bible stories in the 1630s,

and publishing the Bible’s New Testament in Estonian in 1686.

The Arrival of the Russian Orthodox Church

Following years of war and plague (see p. 5 of History and 

Myth), the Swedes formally ceded 

Estonia to Russia in 1721. With an 

influx of Russians into Estonia 

over the next 200 years of 

Russian domination, the Russian 

Orthodox Church enjoyed 

moderate growth through state 

support. Meanwhile, the Lutheran 

Church began to decline due to its

repression by the state coupled 

with dissatisfaction among some 

Estonians who resented the 

religion being forced upon them

(Photo: Our Lady of Kazan 

Russian Orthodox Church, built in 

1721, is Tallinn’s oldest wooden structure).

Threatened by the 1871 founding of the German Empire and 

distrustful of the Lutheran Church, Russia in the late 19th

century imposed a period of rigid 

Russification on Estonia (see p. 6

of History and Myth). Along with

the implementation of Russian 

legal codes and language policies, 

this era included the state’s overt 

promotion of Russian Orthodoxy 

and construction of Russian 

Orthodox churches across the 

country. Despite these efforts, most 

Estonians remained affiliated with

Lutheran churches while about 

20% of the population, primarily 

ethnic Russians, were members of 

Orthodox churches (Photo: 

Tallinn’s Alexander Nevsky Russian Orthodox Cathedral, 

commissioned by Russian tsar Alexander III in the late 19th

century). 

RELIGION &

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Revolution and Independence

The events of the 1917 Russian Revolution and World War I 

resulted in Estonia’s first period of independence (see p. 7-8 of 

History and Myth). With Estonia under self-rule, the Lutheran 

Church reorganized as the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran 

Church and flourished, with about 80% of the population 

officially listed as members. Orthodox Church members 

continued to comprise about 19% of the population.

While a 1925 decree proclaimed the separation of Church and 

state, the independent Estonian government demonstrated 

some preference for 

Lutheranism, such as 

incorporating Lutheran 

religious instruction in 

the public school 

curriculum. Meanwhile, 

some Estonians

affiliated with the 

Russian Orthodox 

Church split to

establish the Estonian 

Orthodox Church,

offering services in Estonian rather than Russian (Photo: 

Tallinn’s Alexander Nevsky Russian Orthodox Cathedral).

Religion during the Soviet Period

The Soviet Union’s 1940 invasion and annexation of Estonia 

(see p. 10 of History and Myth), brought permanent changes to 

Estonia’s religious landscape. Besides attempting to eradicate 

Estonian national consciousness and restructure Estonia to fit 

their socialist order (see p. 10 of History and Myth), the Soviets 

imposed their communist anti-religious worldview of atheism, or 

the disbelief in deities and the rejection of religion.

The Soviets’ brutal repression of the Estonian population in 

general (see p. 10 of History and Myth) also included the 

execution, deportation, or banning of around 2/3 of the clergy. 

Further, the Soviets abolished the Estonian Orthodox Church 

while granting the Russian Orthodox Church some privileges 

designed to extend Russian culture and language through the 

region. 

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Despite this nominal support, both the Russian Orthodox and

the Lutheran churches saw their activities drastically cut. 

Lutheran ministers could preach only censored sermons in a

reduced number of churches, while Orthodox priests could only 

celebrate the liturgy. Congregations could undertake no other 

activities or charitable work. Further, it was illegal to provide 

religious education to children. 

While Orthodox priestly candidates could attend a seminary in 

Russia, training for Lutheran 

clergy was virtually 

nonexistent. The Soviet state 

confiscated many church 

properties and converted 

them for other uses (Photo: 

The interior of Tallinn’s St. 

Michael’s Swedish Church 

was used as a gymnasium 

during the Soviet occupation).

By the 1970s, fewer than 10% 

of Estonians identified as 

Christian. With Soviet leader 

Mikhail Gorbachev’s social 

and economic reforms in the 

1980s (see p. 12-13 of History 

and Myth) came the lifting of 

religious repression. For the 

first time in 40 years, the 

Lutheran Church enjoyed a 

resurge of interest and allied itself with the growing 

independence movement.

Religion following Independence

Following Estonia’s 1991 declaration of independence (its

second), there was a brief revival of religious activity, including 

renewed conflict between followers of the Estonian and 

Russian Orthodox churches. The split between the 2 was 

formalized in 1997, with the Russian Orthodox Church 

remaining within the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Moscow 

and the Estonian Orthodox Church becoming part of the 

Constantinople Patriarchate. 

RELIGION & 

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Religion Today

Today, the government estimates that about 14% of Estonians 

belong to 1 of the 2 Orthodox churches. Ethnic Russians tend 

ro affiliate with the Russian Orthodox Church, which has about 

30 congregations nationwide. Although it counts about 60 

congregations, the Estonian Orthodox Church has far fewer 

members, around 25,000. About 8% of the population are 

Lutherans divided into 165 congregations. Members of other 

Christian churches make up about 1% of the population, 

including about 6,000 practicing Roman Catholics.

Judaism: Jews arrived in Estonia as early as the 14th century, 

and by the early 1930s, the community numbered about 4,300. 

While over 3/4 of Jews fled Estonia before the Nazi occupation 

in World War II, most of those who remained were sent to Nazi 

concentration camps where they perished (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth). Since the end of the war, a small community of 

around 2,500 Jews has re-established itself primarily in Tallinn, 

where a synagogue re-opened in 2007.

Islam: Estonia is home to a small number of Muslims who 

originated primarily from Muslim-majority former Soviet 

republics such as Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan. They came to 

Estonia during the Soviet era to become industrial workers.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

The Old Believers

The shores of Lake Peipus on the Estonian-Russian 

border are home to the Old Believers, members of an 

offshoot of the Russian Orthodox Church. Today’s Old 

Believers are descendants of Russians who objected 

to mid-17th century reforms in the Russian Orthodox 

Church. To avoid persecution in their home 

communities, they fled to Estonia where they formed 

communities dedicated to maintaining their unique 

social and religious traditions. In addition to rejecting 

mainstream Orthodox Church leadership, the Old 

Believers conduct their services in Old Church 

Slavonic, a medieval language.
Overview

In recent decades, many Estonians have moved to urban areas 

to pursue employment and education opportunities and

therefore tend to marry later and have fewer children. Despite 

these changes, family remains at the center of social life. 

Estonians typically visit close family members once or twice a 

week and involve them in all important life decisions. 

Residence

While over 2/3rds of Estonians live in urban areas, the other 

1/3 identify with the solitude and tranquility of the rural 

countryside. Urban dwellings, especially apartments, tend to be 

small with just 2-3 rooms. By contrast, rural residences are 

typically more spacious and may comprise multiple structures. 

Rural: Following independence in 1991 (see p. 13-14 of 

History and Myth), some rural Estonians who had been 

employed on Soviet-era state-run collective farms chose to 

remain in the countryside. Today, rural Estonians mostly live on 

small, self-sufficient family-owned farms. Some farmhouses 

lack indoor plumbing and electricity, requiring residents to rely 

on wood burning 

stoves for heat. 

Estonians traditionally 

erected rural homes of 

thick wooden logs to 

block out the cold.

Today, homes are 

commonly constructed 

from cement and 

bricks. Besides a main 

house, most rural residences include a separate storehouse 

and a sauna. Typically constructed outside the home and 

consisting of a single room, the sauna contains benches and a 

wood-burning heating element (Photo: A rare barrel-type 

sauna).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urban: During the Soviet occupation (see p. 11-12 of History 

and Myth), the state built large, basic high-rise apartment 

buildings (pictured) on the edges of cities to accommodate the 

influx of rural Estonians and ethnic Russians seeking work in 

Soviet industries (see p. 11 of 

History and Myth). Today, many of 

these tenement blocks continue to 

house a large portion of Estonia’s 

ethnic Russian residents and 

lower income Estonians. Although 

many apartment buildings have 

been renovated, some remain in 

poor condition, with unreliable 

water and electricity.

Seeking an alternative to Sovietera architectural styles, many 

Estonians invest substantially in

their apartments and homes to make them more attractive and 

comfortable. Many middle and upper income families live in 

new, luxury apartment buildings or modern single-family 

homes. Many urban dwellers also own 2nd homes on the 

outskirts of their cities, where they retreat for rest and 

recreation during the summer and on weekends. Of note, over 

80% of Estonians own their residences.

Estonian Saunas

Offering relief from Estonia’s long winter, saunas are a 

fundamental aspect of rural Estonian life and a popular 

Estonian pastime. Basic saunas consist of a small, 

insulated room heated by an iron stove surrounded by 

hot stones and bricks. Bathers toss water on the 

stones to produce clouds of steam, often brushing their 

skin with birch twigs to increase circulation and 

stimulate nerve endings. Traditionally used to treat 

illness, saunas today give Estonians a place to relax, 

socialize with family and friends, and escape the bitter 

cold. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Family Structure

While most family households comprise nuclear families (2 

parents and their children), extended family members remain 

important in daily life, gathering frequently for meals, birthdays, 

and other special occasions. Traditionally, the father is the

head of the household, while the mother holds responsibility for 

household chores like cleaning, child-raising, and preparing 

meals (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender). This view of gender roles 

and responsibilities is changing in some families. 

Estonians highly respect their elderly family members, often 

choosing to provide physical and financial care for their aging 

parents. Nursing homes generally house only elderly who have 

critical health conditions or who are without close kin. 

Children

Most Estonian families choose to have just 1 or 2 children. As 

implied earlier, urban dwellers tend to have fewer children and 

at a later age than rural inhabitants. While other extended 

family members may 

help raise children, 

grandparents are often 

significantly involved in 

child rearing, particularly 

while both parents work. 

Children often live with 

their parents until they 

marry, although a 

growing number of young 

adults move away for education or employment opportunities. It 

is common for parents to financially support adult children 

when needed (Photo: Estonian children on a school trip).

Birth: Estonians consider the birth of a child a significant 

event. After the birth, the child’s parents host a katsik

(newborn party), during which family and friends visit the 

mother and child. Guests may bring gifts to the katsik, such as 

flowers, cakes (if the child is a girl) and sweet pastries (if the 

child is a boy). Some Christian Estonians may baptize their 

children within a month of birth, though this custom is relatively 

uncommon. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age and begin 

dating around age 15. Couples meet through mutual friends, by 

attending parties, at school, or at work. Relationships are not 

always strictly defined, and couples may spend some time 

together before deciding to pursue a serious relationship. 

Popular socializing activities include attending cultural events 

and parties, dining, and going to the movies. Estonians 

typically spend several 

years dating and often 

live together before 

deciding to marry

(Photo: Young people 

attend a music festival).

Of note, attitudes 

toward marriage have 

changed dramatically 

over the past 2 

decades. Instead of viewing marriage as an inevitable step to 

be taken at a certain time in their lives, more Estonians are

delaying or choosing to avoid marriage altogether. Of note, 

over 58% of Estonian children are born to unmarried, 

cohabitating couples or single mothers – a substantially higher

rate than the US rate of 41%. Of note, marriage between 

Estonians and ethnic Russians or other ethnic minorities is rare 

(see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations).

Weddings: Although a 2004 regulation allows Estonians to 

marry in places other than a government office, church 

ceremonies remain uncommon. Instead, most Estonians marry 

in a civil ceremony at the local government marriage bureau. 

During the service, the bride and groom typically recite vows, 

exchange rings, and sign a marriage contract. Afterwards, the 

mother of the groom may place a cap or veil on the bride’s 

head to signify her passage from maidenhood into 

womanhood. 

Families generally share wedding costs and together organize 

the celebration that follows the marriage ceremony. Festivities

typically include a series of parties held at a hotel, restaurant, 

or family home. Family and friends may gather for 2-3 days to 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
play games, feast on elaborate meals, dance, and play 

practical jokes. In one tradition, guests seek to “steal the bride,” 

a game in which guests temporarily kidnap the bride and then 

challenge the groom to perform various challenges before he 

can claim her back. 

Divorce: Divorce is increasingly common and carries little 

social stigma. In fact, some Estonians view divorce as an 

unfortunate yet unavoidable event. At 2.5 per 1,000 people, 

Estonia’s divorce rate is among Europe’s higher rates, but 

remains lower than those of its Baltic neighbors Latvia (3.6) 

and Lithuania (3.5). In comparison, the rate in the US is 3.6 per 

1,000 people.

Death

After a loved one’s death, Estonians commonly place an 

announcement in the local newspaper. Mourners then gather 

for a casket viewing at the deceased’s family home or on its 

front porch. In urban areas, the casket may instead be placed 

in the church where the funeral will be held. Mourners typically 

cover the road leading to the family home or church with fir tree 

branches – a residual animist practice (see p. 2 of Religion 

and Spirituality).

Later, mourners 

gather at a church, 

home, or cemetery 

for a funeral service. 

Following the 

service, mourners 

may throw handfuls 

of dirt into the open 

grave as a symbolic 

gesture. The casket is then buried near other family members. 

Of note, urban Estonians are increasingly choosing cremation 

over a casketed burial (Photo: Cemetery with chapel on 

Hiiumaa island).

Following the ceremony, family and close friends gather for a 

quiet meal to honor the deceased. On All Souls Days,

celebrated in November each year, family members may light 

candles in remembrance of the dead, placing them in windows 

and on graves. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditionally, Estonian society was patriarchal, meaning that 

men held most power and authority. Over the past few 

decades, that outlook has changed somewhat. Nevertheless, 

women continue to face barriers in the labor market and 

challenges to their full participation in the political process.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Estonian women traditionally held 

responsibility for all household chores and childcare. In addition 

to their domestic duties, women in rural areas often performed 

farm work alongside their husbands to support their families. 

Women who work outside the home today still perform the 

majority of domestic work, including child rearing. Some

women find it difficult to manage both work and family life and 

elect to forfeit employment. Some women reenter the labor 

force only several years after having a child (Photo: A woman 

waits for a bus in Tallinn). 

Labor Force: About 53% 

of Estonian women work

outside the home, roughly

the same rate as the 

European Union (EU) 

average and slightly lower 

than the US rate of 57%.

Women often work in the 

traditional “female”

professions, such as teaching, healthcare, social work, and in

retail. Some women hold high level positions in government

and business. In all sectors, women typically receive lower 

wages than men with comparable work experience and 

education levels. In fact, Estonia exhibits the highest gender 

income gap in the EU, with Estonian women earning an 

average of 31% less than their male counterparts. Women also

experience discrimination in hiring and promotion. As of 2013, 

just 8% of board members of the largest public corporations 

were female, a rate that is half the EU average. 

SEX &

GENDER

5. SEX AND GENDER
Gender and the Law

Estonia’s 1992 constitution guarantees equal rights to women 

in employment, education, and social welfare. In 1996, the 

Estonian government established the Gender Equality 

Department, a federal agency tasked with drafting gender 

equality legislation. In 2004, the government passed a 

sweeping Gender Equality Act (GEA) to promote the equal 

treatment of men and women in Estonian society. 

The GEA explicitly prohibits gender discrimination by public 

and private employers while affording special protections to 

single mothers and pregnant women. The GEA further dictates 

that women and men enjoy equal rights within marriage and in 

their authority over their children while granting both spouses 

equal inheritance and divorce rights. In addition, both genders 

may confer citizenship to their children and share equal land 

access and property rights. 

Despite this legal framework, laws are not always enforced, 

particularly in cases of gender discrimination. Although over 

100 women brought accusations of gender discrimination in 

2013, courts confirmed unequal treatment in just 15 cases. 

Sexual harassment 

remains a serious 

workplace issue 

despite being ruled 

unlawful.

Gender and Politics

While it names no 

specific proportion, 

the GEA mandates 

that both genders 

must be represented 

in all councils, committees, and other bodies formed by the 

national and local governments. In 2014, 5 female ministers 

held positions in the 13-member Council of Ministers while

women held 21 seats in the 101-member Parliament (see p. 4-

5 of Political and Social Relations). This rate is comparable to 

the US, where women comprise 20% of all Congress 

members. Of note, the deputy speaker of the Estonian 

Parliament is a woman (Photo: US Deputy Secretary of State

SEX &

GENDER
Estonian Media Stereotypes

Recent studies revealed that Estonian media outlets 

regularly reinforce negative female stereotypes. 

Although Estonia has a large number of female 

journalists, few hold leadership positions. Further, 

female journalists receive only 20% of television airtime 

and are rarely featured as experts or opinion leaders. 

Acknowledging the problem, Estonia has launched 

media campaigns with a “Does it have to be like this?” 

tagline to promote equality and reduce stereotypes in 

the media and workplace.

Blinken greets Estonian Foreign Minister Marina Kaljurand in 

2015).

Gender Based Violence (GBV) 

A 2014 study found that 1/3 of Estonian women have 

experienced some form of physical or sexual violence in their 

lifetime, with 20% suffering from domestic abuse. Rape, 

including spousal rape, is a criminal offense and carries a 

penalty of up to 15 years imprisonment. Although there is no 

specific law against domestic violence, instances of physical or 

psychological harm to women are addressed by Estonia’s 

federal penal code and punishable by 1-5 years imprisonment.

While authorities encourage victims to seek justice, indictment 

and prosecution of GBV perpetrators is relatively rare. For 

example, in 2013, courts convicted only 33 individuals out of 

135 reported rape cases, giving prison sentences ranging from 

11 months to 13 years. That same year, courts ruled on 

approximately 25% of all reported domestic violence cases.

Estonia opened its first battered women’s shelter in 2002. 

Today, a network of shelters and support groups offers victims 

of violence temporary housing, counselling, and medical 

assistance. In addition, the Estonian government and non-profit 

organizations provide training to police officers and social 

workers to help combat GBV crimes and offer relief to victims. 

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

During the Soviet era (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth), open 

sexuality and displays of affection were largely socially 

unacceptable. Today, Estonians generally have developed an 

easygoing and liberal view of sexual intimacy. Accordingly, 

public displays of affection, including kissing and holding 

hands, are common.

Estonia’s birthrate has been declining in recent decades, from 

2.3 children per woman in 1988 to 1.6 in 2013, well below the 

rate required to maintain the population. This drop is due in 

part to young Estonians’ prioritization of career or financial 

objectives over procreation. Concerned about the low birth 

rate, the Estonian government offers families incentives to 

have children. In addition to generous leave policies, the 

government provides families “parents pay” equivalent to the

parent’s normal 

monthly salary for a 

period of 18 months 

following a baby’s 

birth (Photo: US 

President Obama 

and Estonian 

President Ilves 

greet children in 

Tallinn). 

Of note, abortion is 

legal and common in Estonia. In 2013, abortion significantly 

outpaced Estonian birth rates, with 26 abortions to 10 births per 

1,000 women.

Homosexuality

Estonia’s 1992 constitution decriminalizes homosexual activity 

and prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation. In 

2013, Estonia passed a law criminalizing same-sex rape, then 

in 2014, adopted the Civil Partnership Act, which recognizes 

same-sex couples and affords them civil protections. Despite 

these legal protections, LGBT Estonians commonly experience 

harassment but often avoid reporting incidents of violence. 

Many are also reluctant to display affection in public for fear of 

physical or verbal assault.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Estonia’s official language is Estonian, which about 69% of the 

population speaks as a first language. As a result of large 

numbers of ethnic Russians settling in Estonia during the 

Soviet occupation (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth), almost 

30% of Estonia’s population speak Russian as their first 

language. Just over 1% of the population have another primary 

language, such as Ukrainian, Finnish, Belarusian, or another

regional language. 

Estonian

Estonian belongs to the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic 

language family. It is most similar to Finnish and a distant 

relative of Hungarian. Since language is often an important 

marker of identity in Estonia’s ethnically diverse population

(see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations), the Estonian 

language is becoming a significant symbol of national identity. 

To be “Estonian” often means the ability to speak Estonian, 

regardless of ethnicity or 

surname (Photo: Estonian 

military musician performs 

in front of the War of 

Independence Victory 

Column in Tallinn).

Over centuries, regional 

dialects of Estonian 

developed. Following the 

late 19th and early 20th centuries “National Awakening” (see p. 

6 of History and Myth), the dominant northern dialect became 

the national language. Võro, the most commonly-spoken form 

of the southern dialect, was declared a separate language in 

1998. More than 75,000 native Võro speakers live primarily in 

rural southeastern Estonia. Võro-Setu, the language of the

minority Setu people (see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations), is a variant of Võro spoken by about 10,000 people.

Mulgi and Tartu are other variations of the southern dialect, 

although they are more similar to standard written Estonian 

than Võro.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
Estonia passed the Language Act of 2011 to develop, 

preserve, and protect standard Estonian by promoting its use in 

public life. According to the law, all forms of public information 

must be available in Estonian. In addition, the law states that

residents of towns with a 

majority of non-Estonian 

speakers have the right to 

access information in their 

primary language as well.

Estonian features a complex 

grammatical system that may 

make it a difficult language for 

English-speakers to learn. 

Further, Estonian utilizes many 

unfamiliar vowel sounds, such as ä, õ, ö, and ü. Consequently, 

some Estonian words, particularly those with multiple vowels 

such as jäääär (edge of the ice) and kõueöö (night of thunder) 

may present pronunciation challenges. Stress is almost always 

placed on a word’s first syllable (Photo: Street sign in Estonian 

and Võro).

Russian

Estonia’s Russian-speakers are concentrated in the Northeast, 

particularly the county of Ida-Viru and in Tallinn. Of note, about 

95% of the population of Narva, Estonia’s 3rd largest city, 

speak Russian.

In the Soviet era, Russian was a required subject in school,

and Estonians were compelled to use the language in all 

communications with Russians and the citizens of other Soviet 

republics. Further, the Soviets considered Estonian an inferior 

language. Because of this history, language issues

occasionally cause tensions between Estonian and Russian 

speakers (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge). 

To avoid causing offense, foreign nationals should speak 

Russian only if their Estonian communication partner indicates 

a preference for the language. Despite governmental efforts to 

require employees to speak Estonian during public business 

engagements (see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations), 

some Russian-speaking service sector workers in Russianmajority areas elect not to comply and speak only Russian.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Other Languages

About 95% of Estonians speak another language besides

Estonian or Russian. Common 2nd and 3rd languages include

English, Finnish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German, Swedish, 

Latvian, and Lithuanian.

English: Some 67% of Estonians aged 15-74 have some 

knowledge of English. Generally, urban youth are more likely to 

speak English than older Estonians or rural residents. Many 

schools begin offering English instruction in the 3rd grade. 

Estonians who have different 1st languages may use English to 

communicate. 

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Estonia requires not only 

knowledge of Estonian but also the ability to interact effectively 

using language. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Estonian communication 

patterns reflect the value

Estonians place on privacy 

and candor. Compared to 

Americans, Estonians may 

seem reserved, feel 

comfortable in silence, and 

display strong emotions 

only during certain social 

situations, such as music and sporting events (see p. 2-3 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation). In addition, most Estonians prefer 

direct speech and an even tone. Because they value the 

privacy of their home and family, Estonians conduct most 

socializing in public places. Further, Estonians typically share 

personal and family information only with relatives or close 

friends (Photo: US Airman speaks with Estonian air controllers 

during a NATO training event).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
While Estonians are typically proud, confident people, they are 

often modest when speaking about their achievements. Most 

Estonians appreciate humor, which tends to be selfdeprecating, sophisticated, mocking, and ironic. Of note, rural 

Estonians and Russian speakers tend to be more open and 

expressive than urban Estonian speakers.

Hierarchy is important in Estonian communications. Age, 

experience, and position/title oblige respect. For example, 

Estonians typically introduce elders and people in senior 

positions first and may follow their lead in decision-making. 

Greetings

Estonian greetings are usually simple and direct, often 

consisting of Tere (hello) and a firm handshake. After greeting 

once, subsequent acknowledgement between colleagues is 

unnecessary. While close friends and family may exchange 

hugs, Estonians rarely 

exchange cheek kisses

even though that greeting 

is common in some other 

European countries. 

Estonians typically expect 

youth to greet and initiate 

conversation with elders 

and men to do the same 

with women. When approached, Estonians often stand up to 

acknowledge the newcomer’s presence and maintain eye 

contact throughout the greeting (Photo: An Estonian general

introduces staff to US Army General Dempsey).

While less common, some Estonians prefer greetings like 

Kuidas läheb? (How’s it going?) or Kuidas elate? (How’s 

life?). Unlike Americans, Estonians may interpret these 

expressions as personal questions that require a thorough and 

sincere response.

Forms of Address

Estonians use different forms of address to demonstrate 

respect and the nature of the relationship. For example, 

Estonians typically address new acquaintances with a title and 

last name. The use of Härra (Mr.), Proua (Mrs.), or Preili (Ms.) 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
or appropriate job title or military rank combined with the last 

name is appropriate. Close colleagues, friends, and family may 

call each other by first names.

Estonian has different “you” pronouns that reflect degrees of 

formality and respect. They tend to use the formal “you” or teie

when meeting for the first time, with elders, and with authority 

figures. By contrast, Estonians reserve the informal sina for 

relatives, friends, and close colleagues. Foreign nationals 

should use formal forms 

of address unless 

directed otherwise.

Conversational Topics

Estonians rarely speak

much about themselves,

their property, or their

wealth. Instead, their 

culture, language, and 

politics are popular 

conversation topics. Estonians appreciate any polite attempt to 

speak even just a few words in Estonian (Photo: Members of 

the US Army 173rd Airborne Brigade brief 3 Estonian soldiers).

Foreign nationals should avoid potentially sensitive topics such 

as the foreign occupations of Estonia, neo-Nazism, and 

relations between Estonia’s Russian- and Estonian-speakers. 

Of note, the Estonian language has very little profanity. Foreign 

nationals should avoid language that could be considered 

vulgar or ill-mannered.

Gestures

Estonians rarely use gestures and may find frequent gesturing 

inappropriate. Like Americans, Estonians use the “thumbs up” 

gesture to indicate a positive occurrence. Estonians consider 

pointing with the index finger to be impolite. Instead, they 

indicate direction with the entire hand.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Estonian

Hello Tere

Good morning Tere hommikust

Good afternoon Tere päevast

Good evening Tere õhtust

How are you? Kuidas läheb?

I’m fine, thanks Tänan hästi

My name is ______ Minu nimi on ______

Please / You are welcome Palun

Thank you Tänan

Yes/No Jah/Ei

Goodbye Head aega

Goodnight Head ööd

Have a nice day! Ilusat päeva!

Excuse me Vabandage

Sorry Vabandust

No problem Pole viga

Do you speak English? Kas te räägite inglise keelt?

I don’t speak Estonian Ma ei räägi eesti keelt

Please speak more slowly Palun rääkige aeglasemalt

I don’t understand Ma ei saa aru

I don’t know Ma ei tea

What? Mis?

When? Kui?

Where? Kus?

Who? Kes?

Why? Miks?

Cheers! Terviseks!

Help! Appi!

Are you OK? Kas teiega on kõik korras?

I am lost Ma olen eksinud

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99.8%

• Male: 99.8%

• Female: 99.8% (2015 estimate)

Early History of Education

Before the arrival of formal education that accompanied the 

introduction of Christianity (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality), regional inhabitants informally transmitted values, 

skills, beliefs, and historical knowledge to younger generations.

From the 13th through the 16th centuries, Germans and Danes 

established schools to train clergymen, typically in Latin or 

German. Meanwhile, children of Estonia’s mostly German elite

learned to read and write in church or at home.

Estonian peasants acquired access to formal education 

following the 16th-century Protestant Reformation (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality). To make Lutheran teachings more 

accessible to the general population, the Swedish clergy 

printed Bible stories and taught some Estonian peasants to 

read Swedish and Latin. 

During the 17th century, 

the Swedes established 

academic schools called 

“gymnasiums” in 

Estonia’s 2 largest cities –

Tartu and Tallinn –

primarily for Swedish and 

German elites. In 1632, the Swedes founded the University of 

Tartu, which offered courses in theology, philosophy, law, and 

medicine (Photo: A 1910 illustration of the University of Tartu).

Years of war and disease in the early 18th century (see p. 5 of 

History and Myth) caused educational offerings to reduce in 

number and quality. Following the Russians’ acquisition of the 

region in 1721, educational opportunities initially decreased 

and then improved in the 19th century when the Russian rulers 

fell under the influence of European Enlightenment philosophy

(see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE
The National Awakening and Early 20th Century Education

An integral part of the Estonian National Awakening (see p. 6

of History and Myth) was the widespread use of written 

Estonian. By the mid-19th century, 

Estonian-language journalism and 

literature were supporting the rise 

of an Estonian national 

consciousness. An 1881 census 

revealed that Estonia had one of 

the world’s highest literacy rates at 

the time: 94% of the population 

could read and 48% could write. 

Estonian authors and poets 

produced new works, while 

scholars collected Estonian folklore 

and folk poems (see p. 16 of 

History and Myth) (Photo: First 

edition of the Estonian language 

newspaper Postimees from 1857).

Following Estonia’s 1st independence in 1920 (see p. 9 of 

History and Myth), the new government realized that education

delivered in the 

Estonian language

could foster national 

identity and patriotism. 

The 1920 Law of Public 

Primary Schools 

mandated free, 

compulsory primary 

education and 

introduced Estonian 

language textbooks

and instruction to secondary schools. Despite these changes, 

instruction in Russian and German remained common, 

particularly at the university level (Photo: Classroom in an old 

village school on Muhu island).

Education under the Soviet Occupation

During the Soviet occupation (see p. 11-12 of History and 

Myth), education experienced significant changes. While 

making some improvements to the Estonian system, including 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
increasing compulsory schooling to 8 years in the 1950s, the 

Soviets used the education system to impose their socialist 

system (see p. 10 of History and Myth and p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Consequently, the curriculum emphasized Soviet 

patriotism and communist tenets such as collectivism, MarxistLeninist philosophy, and socialist humanism. In response to 

this lack of freedom of thought and speech, many Estonian 

intellectuals fled the 

country, further 

facilitating the

dominance of Soviet 

ideas in education 

(Photo: Tallinn school 

known as “Vocational 

School #10” during the 

Soviet era).

Further, the Soviets 

reinforced a divided 

education system. Ethnic Russians residing in Estonia (see p. 

10 of History and Myth) attended separate Russian-language 

academic and vocational schools. These schools followed the 

Soviet curriculum and offered little instruction in Estonian. 

Meanwhile, ethnic Estonians primarily attended schools which 

also followed the Soviet curriculum, including mandatory 

Russian language and history courses, but offered most 

instruction in Estonian. Tensions that trace to the development 

of these 2 systems continue today (see “Modern Education 

System” below).

By the 1970s, the Soviets had implemented universal 

secondary education, prioritizing vocational schools to give 

residents the requisite skills to work within the Soviet militaryindustrial complex. About 99% of 18-year-olds held secondary 

degrees (high school diplomas) by the early 1980s.

In the late 1980s, Estonians began to protest education’s focus 

on Russian language and culture and demanded reform. In line 

with calls for independence (see p. 11 of History and Myth), the 

1987 Estonian Teacher’s Congress adopted a new secondary 

curriculum that replaced Soviet philosophy and educational 

goals with Estonian nationalist ones. Following the 2nd

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
independence in 1991 (see p. 13 of History and Myth), 

legislation laid the foundation for the current curriculum, which 

emphasizes Estonian national identity, traditions of lifelong 

learning, computer literacy, and education within a globalized 

context.

Modern Education 

Following significant reform, Estonia’s educational achievement 

is now among the world’s highest, particularly in math and 

science. Students’ scores on 2012 international exams were 

significantly higher than those of American students and were

Europe’s 4th highest scores. In 2011, the government spent 

13.4% of its budget on education, slightly higher than total

(local, state, and 

national) government 

spending on education 

in the US (Photo: 

Primary school on 

Saaremaa Island).

Technology is central to 

Estonian education. 

Public school teachers, 

administrators, and 

parents access 

assignments, attendance and grades via the eKool (e-School) 

platform. A public-private partnership created in 1996 focuses 

on computer skills, including Proge Tiiger (Code Tiger), a pilot 

program that teaches students how to write computer code.

About 20% of public school students, mostly ethnic Russians, 

attend schools that follow the Estonian national curriculum but 

teach most lessons in Russian. A controversial 2007 regulation 

requires that all upper secondary schools, including such 

Russian-language schools, offer 60% of their courses in 

Estonian. The regulation further requires upper secondary 

students to pass an Estonian proficiency exam to graduate. 

Many Russian-speakers protest these requirements, claiming

that the proficiency exam is difficult for students who have 

taken few Estonian language courses. Further, critics point to

disparities between students who attend Russian and Estonian 

schools. For example, Russian-language students typically 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
have a weaker command of Estonian (which can limit their 

career choices – see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations), 

score lower on national exams, and are less likely to attend 

university.

Other educational challenges include rural school closures due 

to population decline, a mismatch between course offerings 

and labor market needs, low teacher salaries, and declining 

university standards. The Ministry of Education and Research 

has addressed these and other issues in its Lifelong Learning 

Strategy 2020. Proposed measures include funding for

universal digital learning access, an increase in teacher 

salaries, and more resources for informal study programs.

Pre-Primary: Public nurseries and kindergartens provide noncompulsory, low-cost preschool education for children aged 2-

7. In 2014, 76% of children enrolled in such programs.

Basic: Consisting of 9 grades starting at age 7, basic schooling

is compulsory and consists of primary school (grades 1-6) and 

lower secondary school (grades 7-9). The curriculum includes 

Estonian and/or Russian, math, nature study, social sciences, 

history, natural sciences, foreign language (including English), 

art, music, handicrafts, and physical education. To graduate, 

students must pass exams in Estonian (or, for Russian 

speakers, Estonian as a 2nd language), math, and 1 subject of 

the student’s choice. In 2013, 95% of children of the 

appropriate age 

were enrolled in 

basic schools.

Upper Secondary: 

While upper 

secondary school 

(grades 10-12) is 

not compulsory, 

most Estonian 

students enroll. 

About 70% of students attend so-called “academic 

gymnasiums” to prepare for university entrance, while the 

remainder enroll in vocational schools (Photo: Academic 

gymnasium in Tallinn).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Hobby Schools

The government funds so-called “hobby schools” to 

provide students of different backgrounds the 

opportunity to learn together, develop their 

personalities, and cultivate Estonian language and 

culture. These schools provide informal instruction in 

sports, dance, drama, art, music, nature, handicrafts, 

and technology. Annual competitions and events serve 

to engage the local community. In 2013, nearly 70,000 

young people participated in these non-compulsory 

learning opportunities. 

The upper secondary academic curriculum allows students to 

deepen their knowledge of basic school subjects as well as

explore various elective subjects. To qualify for university 

studies, students must pass exams in Estonian, a foreign 

language, math, and 2 subjects selected by the student.

A significant part of the Soviet educational system, vocational 

schools remain an important part of Estonian education today. 

About 2/3 of all upper secondary vocational school students 

are males who primarily study science and engineering. Other 

programs include tourism, information technology, 

telecommunications, agriculture, and education. 

Post-Secondary: Estonians may pursue post-secondary 

academic and vocational education at 24 institutions of higher 

learning. In the early 1990s, Estonia restructured its higher 

education system so that institutions now offer bachelor’s, 

master’s, and doctoral academic degrees as well as vocational 

certificates. About 38% of 25-64 year-olds hold post-secondary

degrees, close to the US rate of 42%.

While many universities offer English-language programs, 

Estonia is notably one of the smallest countries in Europe to

offer university instruction in its native language. To encourage 

the use of Estonian, the government offers scholarships for 

students who enroll in any post-secondary program taught in 

Estonian at public or government-supported private institutions.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Estonians tend to maintain boundaries between their personal 

and professional lives. While they typically invest significant 

time fostering relationships in their personal lives, they rarely 

cultivate deep professional relationships and typically manage 

their professional time closely. 

Time and Work

Estonia’s work week runs from Monday-Friday with most 

business hours from 8:30am-5:00pm, although hours of 

operation vary by store size and location. Urban stores typically 

open Monday-Saturday from 10:00am-7:00pm, with some large 

malls and supermarkets open until 9:00pm and on Sundays. 

Rural shops have less consistent schedules, frequently with 

earlier closing times and typically remaining closed on 

Sundays. Banks and post offices typically open weekdays from 

9:00am-5:00pm and for a half 

day on Saturday. While 

businesses, banks, government 

offices, museums, and schools 

close on public holidays,

restaurants and cinemas typically 

remain open (Photo: A street 

lined with shops in Tallinn). 

Working Hours: Estonia’s

standard work week is 40 hours,

though many Estonians work 

longer hours, especially those 

employed by private businesses.

While Estonian law does not 

explicitly limit the total number of hours employees may work in 

a single week, it does require a period of at least 11 contiguous 

hours of rest in every 24 hours. Further, special protections 

exist for minors and those who perform work that poses health 

risks, is performed underground, or is otherwise unique. On 

average, Estonians enjoy 28 days of paid leave annually.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Estonia adheres to Eastern European Time (EET), 

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Estonia 

observes daylight savings time from April-October, which 

makes Estonia 3 hours ahead of GMT during that period. 

Date Notation: Like the US, Estonia uses the Western 

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Estonians tend to 

write the day first, followed by the month and year.

Time and Business

Business in Estonia tends to move at about the same pace as

in the US. Like Americans, Estonians prefer to get acquainted 

casually prior before doing business, sometimes relying on a

personal introduction or a referral from a mutual acquaintance 

or trusted source. Some Estonian workplaces are hierarchical, 

with managers making decisions without significant input from 

their subordinates. Other businesses follow an informal, 

consultative, and democratic approach to decision-making. 

Even in such nonhierarchical structures, 

upper management 

typically must approve final, 

high-level decisions (Photo: 

A vendor sells clothing in 

Tallinn). 

Estonians value 

punctuality, generally 

adhere to deadlines, and

consider significant tardiness to be rude. If they anticipate 

arriving late to a meeting, Estonians will notify other attendees 

of their tardiness. Estonians strive for the efficient use of time 

during meetings and rarely allow them to run long. Afterwards, 

Estonians often follow up with e-mail correspondence, detailing

discussion points, deadlines, and agreements for both parties’ 

reference. Of note, business discussions typically occur during 

scheduled meetings in the office and not during meals or

outside of working hours. 

Most Estonians are hardworking, ambitious, and reliable but 

tend to be modest about their own individual achievements and 

generally reserved in their communications (see p. 3 of 

SPACE

TIME &
Language and Communication). Some Estonians may be 

openly critical of ideas and proposals and willing to voice 

concerns or openly question a workplace situation. 

Nevertheless, managers typically avoid critiquing their 

employees publicly and may be hesitant to offer negative 

feedback. Instead, it is customary as in America for Estonians

to convey constructive feedback privately to avoid causing 

embarrassment or risk offending a colleague. 

Personal Space

As is common in most societies, personal space in Estonia 

depends on the nature of the relationship. With strangers, 

Estonians maintain about an arm’s length of distance when 

conversing, while with family and friends the space tends to be 

closer. 

Touch

In general, Estonians use conversational touching less 

frequently than in some other cultures. Although close friends 

and family members may touch during conversation to convey 

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• February 24: Independence Day

• March/April: Good Friday and Easter 

Sunday (dates vary each year)

• May 1: Spring Day or May Day

• 7th Monday after Easter: Pentecost 

• June 23: Victory Day

• June 24: St. John’s Day or Midsummer Day

• August 20: Day of Restoration of 

Independence

• December 24: Christmas Eve

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

Of note, if the date falls on a Sunday, the holiday is 

observed the following Monday. 

SPACE

TIME &
sincerity, affection, concern, or friendliness, strangers rarely 

touch after the initial greeting (see p. 4 of Language and 

Communication). Foreign nationals should wait for their 

Estonian counterpart to initiate any touch to avoid appearing 

invasive, flirtatious, or offensive. 

Eye Contact

Estonians tend to maintain direct eye contact when conversing 

with colleagues, friends, acquaintances, and even strangers. 

They generally consider a reluctance to make eye contact a 

sign of dishonesty.

Photographs

Churches, museums, government buildings, and similar places 

may prohibit photography. If in doubt, foreign nationals should 

acquire permission 

before taking photos of 

public places and 

should always ask an 

Estonian permission to 

take his photo.

Driving

Estonians tend to 

disobey certain traffic 

laws, tailgate, and 

ignore lane markings

when passing and maneuvering congested urban streets.

While city roads tend to be well maintained, poor lighting and 

signage can make driving hazardous in rural areas. Of note,

trolleybuses and trams always have priority over cars in Tallinn. 

Estonia has a zero-tolerance drunk driving law, meaning 

infractions are immediately punishable with fines and in some 

cases imprisonement. The government requires all pedestrians 

to wear a reflector during the long dark winter months (Photo: A 

street in Tallinn).

Despite Estonians’ aggressive driving habits, deaths from 

traffic related accidents have significantly decreased in recent 

years, from 204 road fatalities in 2006 to 78 in 2014. This 

decrease primarily results from firmer enforcement of traffic 

laws and government road safety advocacy programs. Like 

Americans, Estonians drive on the right side of the road.

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Estonia’s traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect its

kinship with other northern Europeans, its rural peasant history, 

past foreign occupations, and modern global trends.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Traditional dress serves as a visible expression of 

Estonian national culture. Estonians commonly wear traditional 

costumes for special 

events, during festivals,

and on national holidays

(Photo: Estonians dressed 

in traditional costumes).

Although each county has 

its customary costume, 

women’s wear typically 

includes a long, woven

black, red, yellow, or 

orange skirt decorated with thin vertical or broad horizontal 

stripes. If married, women may wear an apron over the skirt 

held in place by a black or patterned belt. Accompanying 

blouses are usually white, long-sleeved, and held in place by 

large ornamental pins. 

The blouses often 

feature laced collars 

and cuffs embroidered 

with floral patterns.

White stockings, black 

shoes, and white linen 

caps or kerchiefs 

adorned with lace 

usually complete a 

woman’s outfit (Photo: 

Estonians in traditional dress at a song and dance festival).

Men’s traditional wear usually includes black breeches secured

at the knees with silver buttons topped by a white, long-sleeved 

shirt fastened at the neck with a braided tie or pin and worn 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION
under a dark patterned vest. Men complete their traditional look 

with white stockings, black shoes, and sometimes a skullcap or 

hat.

Modern: For day-to-day wear, Estonians typically wear

clothing that reflects the latest European fashion trends, 

although particular styles often depend on age and geographic 

location. Estonian women tend to dress more formally than 

men. While older women often wear dresses, particularly in the 

summer, younger women tend to prefer pants or jeans. Men 

commonly dress in long pants with collared, long-sleeved 

shirts. Generally, most Estonians prefer a “smart casual” dress 

code, although business attire is often more formal. Due to the 

severe climate, Estonians rely on heavy clothing during much 

of the year.

Recreation and Leisure

Many Estonians prefer to spend their leisure time alone or with 

close friends and family. Popular activities include visiting 

saunas (see p. 1-2 of Family and Kinship), swimming, meeting 

at bars/cafes, and playing chess. Other leisure activities are 

seasonal. During the cold, dark 

winter months, Estonians often 

frequent the theater and cinema, 

participate in snow sports

(pictured), or socialize indoors. 

Increasing numbers of Estonians 

travel south to warmer destinations 

during the winter months.

During the temperate summer, 

many Estonians retreat to homes 

in the countryside, where they tend 

to feel connected to the land (see 

p. 1 of Family and Kinship). 

Popular activities include 

gardening, long forest walks, picking wild mushrooms and 

berries, camping, and visiting the beach to relax, swim, and 

participate in water sports.

Festivals: One of Estonia’s most significant cultural events, the 

Estonian Song Festival, traces to Estonia’s 19th-century 

“National Awakening” and has been held about every 5 years 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
since 1869 (see p. 6 of History and Myth). The 1988 event in 

Tallinn attracted about 300,000 people, or more than 20% of 

the population, who sang patriotic songs and openly demanded 

independence from the USSR (see p. 13 of History and Myth). 

Today’s Song and Dance Festival typically occurs in July and 

features around 40,000 singers, choir members, and folk 

dancers. The next 

festival will be held in 

2019 (Photo: Tallinn 

Song Festival 

Grounds).

Other popular festivals 

include Tallinn Music 

Week, Viljandi Music 

Festival, Baroque 

Music Days, Pärnu 

Classical Music Festival, August Dance Festival, Tallinn Jazz 

Festival, and Tartu Accordion Festival. The popular Õlle 

Summer festival attracts visitors from across the region for its 

music, food, and beer offerings. Other festivals celebrate

calendrical events. For example, Midsummer Festival

celebrates Jaanipäev, the summer equinox, while the

Mardipäev festival celebrates the end of the harvest. Although 

most festivals are held in the summer, popular winter festivals 

include the Black Nights Film Festival and Midwinter Night’s 

Dream theater festival.

Sports and Games

Sports: Estonians enjoy many winter sports, including 

bobsledding, luge, ice skating, ice hockey, and cross country 

skiing. Considered the winter sports capital of Estonia, Otepää 

in southern Estonia regularly hosts a Cross Country World Cup 

event. Basketball, ice hockey, and football (soccer) are the 

most popular team sports, and many Estonians enjoy sailing 

during the summer months. Of note, Estonians have been 

successful at the Olympics, winning medals in cross-country 

skiing, wrestling, track and field, and rowing in recent years.

Traditional Games: Estonians enjoy traditional games, 

especially during holidays. Popular children’s games include 

kull (tag); jooks kartuliga (munaga), a foot race conducted

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
while balancing a potato on a spoon; silmategemine, a 

winking game similar to musical chairs; and kotisjooks, a bag 

race. Card games are popular among all ages as is chess, the 

national pastime. Based 

on a traditional game,

kiiking (swinging)

involves competitors 

attempting to move all 

the way around the 

fulcrum of a swing 

(Photo: Estonians on a 

swing in 1913).

Music

Traditional: As a result of the 19th century “National 

Awakening” (see p. 6 of History and Myth), Estonia has one of 

the world’s largest collections of traditional music, some 

133,000 songs. The oldest Estonian folksongs, known as runes 

or runic music, consist of short tunes sung in a particular poetic 

meter without end rhyme and using a limited range of tones. 

Traditionally sung by women, these songs tell of love, daily life, 

work, and myths (see p. 16 in History and Myth). 

Traditional instruments include simple wind and reed 

instruments, horns, wooden trumpets, flutes, and whistles. The

ancient harp-like kannel (pictured) is the most popular folk 

instrument. Typically 5-stringed, the kannel has no standard 

shape and is played on a table or the musician’s knees. Other

Estonian instruments 

include the torupill, 

similar to a bagpipe, and

the talharpa, a 4-

stringed bowed lyre.

During their 17th century 

rule (see p. 4 of History 

and Myth), the Swedes 

introduced violins, guitars, drums, and accordions to Estonia. 

These instruments feature prominently in modern folk 

ensembles. German and Swedish choral music became

popular in the 19th century. Choirs are now integral to Estonian 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
musical traditions, exemplified in the song and dance festivals 

that brought Estonia its nickname, the “singing nation.”

Modern: Well-known Estonian composers include Veljo 

Tormis, Erkki-Sven Tüür, and Arvo Pärt, who is especially 

famous for his minimalist style (employs limited or minimal 

musical materials) and choral compositions. While thriving rock 

and jazz scenes feature local bands like Jäääär, Ruja, and 

Jazzkaar, many Estonians also enjoy international pop music. 

Dance

Performed by both men and women, traditional Estonian folk 

dances exhibit certain common characteristics. Groups of 

dancers typically perform in lines or circles, sometimes while 

singing; dance steps are performed methodically and usually 

slowly; and dancers 

rarely show emotions. 

The most popular folk 

dance is the kaerajaan, 

similar to a square 

dance with roots in the 

late 19th century. Other 

common dances 

include the 

labajalavalss, a folk 

dance similar to the German waltz, and the polka. Over time, 

dance traditions from other European countries influenced and 

altered Estonian folk dances (Photo: Dancers at the Estonian 

Dance Festival). 

Modern and artistic dance began to develop in the early 20th 

century. Under Soviet rule (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth), 

Estonia became an important center for Russian classical 

ballet. Today, Estonia is home to world-class ballet dancers

who compete and perform around the world.

Literature

Traditional Estonian folklore and folk poems, first collected

during the 19th century “National Awakening” (see p. 16 of 

History and Myth), have significantly influenced Estonian 

literature. During Estonia’s first period of independence in the 

early 20th century (see p. 9 of History and Myth), authors and 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
poets produced original Estonian works, many of which 

depicted Estonian rural life. Known as the “Estonian 

Shakespeare,” A.H. Tammsaare produced his 5-volume epic 

novel Tõde ja Õigus (Truth and Justice) during this period.

Much early 20th-century literature reflected the political climate 

of the time, emphasizing the common themes of rural 

peasantry, ordinary people, and life under foreign rule. The 

early 20th-century Noor Eesti (Young Estonia) movement

comprised writers and poets who emphasized Estonian identity 

yet strived for a place within broader European culture. 

During the Soviet era (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth), 

Estonian authors were subject to censorship. Despite this 

restriction, some authors like Jaan Kaplinski and Jaan Kross 

managed to disguise their treatment of contemporary themes 

within historical settings, such as Kross’ 1978 novel The Czar’s 

Madman. Much of Estonian literature remains inaccessible to 

readers outside of the country because it has not been

translated.

Visual Arts and Handicrafts

Like other Estonian creative works, Estonia’s art often reflects 

common themes, including the political condition, patriotism, 

Estonian folklore, peasantry, and rural life (Photo: 1914

painting of Kalevipoeg, 

mythical founder of the 

Estonian nation – see p. 16

of History and Myth).

Handicrafts and folk art 

reflect Estonia’s rural, 

peasant history when

Estonians made all their

clothing, tools, footwear, 

utensils, and toys by hand. 

Today, traditional handicrafts 

include textiles, metalwork, 

wooden objects, and 

ceramics. The Estonian government has invested in the 

preservation and promotion of traditional handicrafts through 

the development of cultural centers, handicraft courses, and 

hobby schools (see p. 6 of Learning and Knowledge).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Socializing during meals with family and friends is an important 

aspect of Estonian life. Families usually gather for meals 

prepared at home, while friends often dine together in bars and 

restaurants. Characteristically hearty, Estonian dishes feature

meats, dairy products, and fresh, local vegetables.

Dining Customs

Estonians typically eat 3 daily meals and may snack throughout 

the day. When invited to an Estonian home for dinner, guests 

always arrive on time, often bringing flowers, chocolate, or wine 

as gifts for the hosts. Guests usually remove their shoes upon 

entering the home. As a gesture of respect to their guests, 

hosts typically serve them first, although it is polite for guests to 

postpone eating until everyone at the table has been served. 

To begin a meal, Estonians may wish one another “head isu” 

(“good appetite”). While dining, they tend to keep their hands 

above the table and consider resting elbows on the table to be 

impolite. After finishing their portions, guests may request 

additional servings. 

Estonians consider it

impolite to leave 

unfinished food on a 

plate (Photo: A holiday 

buffet often features 

Estonian pancakes).

Diet

Historically, Estonians 

ate meals primarily 

consisting of wheat 

porridge or light soup served with bread and salted herring. As 

nutrition improved in the mid-20th century, meat became more 

common. At that time, a typical meal included pork and 

potatoes accompanied by a sauce. Today, potatoes, along with 

a variety of breads, remain an important staple. In some rural 

areas, stewed turnips replace potatoes as the main staple. 

Besides pork, Estonians today enjoy a variety of other meats 

such as beef, veal, lamb, and chicken. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Estonians do not typically eat fish as a main meal, but rather,

consume it as an appetizer or incorporate it in salads with sour 

cream or mayonnaise dressings. Often served smoked or 

salted, common varieties include trout, salmon, herring, sole, 

whitefish, pike, and perch. Sprats, small fish preserved in brine 

and spices, are particularly popular 

in Tallinn. 

Besides potatoes and turnips, 

common vegetables include wild 

mushrooms, carrots, cabbage, 

beets, and beans. Estonians also 

consume assorted dairy products, 

such as cottage cheese, yogurt, sour 

cream, cheese, and milk. 

Estonians enjoy a number of native 

fruits, including apples, cherries, 

pears and a variety of wild berries, 

such as blueberries, currants, raspberries, strawberries, 

gooseberries, and cloudberries (pictured). Because fresh fruits 

and vegetables may only be available and affordable in the 

spring and summer, Estonians often preserve them for 

consumption when fresh items are out of season.

Popular Dishes and Meals

Common breakfast foods include porridge, fried potatoes, 

eggs, cheese, pastries, dark rye bread, and various 

sandwiches, usually accompanied by milk, tea, or coffee. As 

the largest meal of the day, lunch typically begins with a hearty 

soup, such as cabbage, sauerkraut, or pea, followed by a main 

dish of meat served with potatoes and seasonal vegetables. 

Dinner is usually a lighter meal, typically incorporating dark rye 

bread served alongside salad, potatoes, stew, pasta, or soup. 

Salads range from platters of lightly dressed green vegetables 

to heavy mixtures of eggs, potatoes, fish, meat, and/or 

vegetables tossed with mayonnaise or sour cream. 

Other popular items include piruka (a pastry stuffed with meat, 

vegetables, or other fillings); pelmenid (small pockets of dough 

filled with meat); and pankoogid (pancakes served with meat, 

cheese, or mushrooms). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Typical holiday dishes include verivorst (blood sausage), sült

(head cheese), black pudding (a savory dish made from pork 

fat, onions, spices, and pig blood), roasted pork, and jellied 

meats. Popular dishes of Russian origin include seljanka (a 

meat soup with olives, onions, and pickles, often served cold); 

rosolje (a potato salad, known for its distinct pink color that 

includes beets and salted herring); and borscht (a beet, meat, 

and potato soup, served hot or cold).

For dessert, Estonians may enjoy fresh fruit, fruit preserves, 

sai (sweet buns), or ice cream. Cakes, including kringel (a 

sweet loaf with dried fruit), chocolate cake, and curd cake are 

also popular and typically served with whipped cream. 

Eating Out

Many Estonians, especially in urban areas, eat out regularly, 

gathering in bars and restaurants for a casual meal or to

celebrate special occasions, such as birthdays and holidays. 

Restaurants range from upscale establishments serving 

regional and international cuisine to small eateries offering

inexpensive meals. Casual cafes and bars typically serve 

sweets and savory snacks, including smoked sausages, 

cheeses, salted herring (pictured), and smoked eel. Rural 

kõrts (inns) specialize in simple, traditional Estonian fare. Most 

establishments do not automatically add a surcharge to the bill 

and expect a 10% tip for 

good service. While street 

stalls are not particularly 

popular, some vendors in 

city squares sell light 

snacks and sweets, like 

sugared almonds spiced 

with cinnamon. 

Beverages

Estonians enjoy coffee and tea throughout the day. Popular 

alcoholic beverages include vodka, cognac, Vana Tallinn

(Estonia’s national liquor, crafted from a blend of spices and 

herbs), and Kristelkuumu (a caraway seed liquor). Beer (õlu) 

is Estonians’ most popular alcoholic beverage, especially local 

brews like Saku and A le Coq. At fairs (laat), many Estonians 

enjoy strong moonshine-type drinks like Hansa and Buskar. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Estonia’s healthcare system has improved dramatically in 

recent decades, increasing the population’s overall wellbeing.

Between 1991 and 2015, infant mortality (the proportion of 

infants who die before age 1), decreased dramatically from 17 

to 4 deaths per 1,000 live births. Similarly, maternal mortality 

dropped from 42 to 9 deaths per 100,000 live births. 

Meanwhile, life expectancy at birth steadily increased from 

approximately 70 to 76 years, though it remains shorter than 

the EU and US averages of 80.

While quality of care varies somewhat between urban and rural 

facilities, the majority of Estonians have access to free, modern 

healthcare. Of note, Estonian men experience a higher

mortality rate than Estonian women, which experts link to a 

prevalence of unhealthy behaviors among men, particularly

smoking and alcohol abuse. 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Estonian medicine emphasizes the 

use of herbal remedies, not surgical methods, to identify and 

treat the basic causes of illness. 

Knowledge of natural remedies is widespread. Many Estonians 

use traditional remedies in conjunction with conventional 

therapies. While merchants in both urban and rural markets 

commonly sell medicinal plants, many Estonians grow or 

gather their own. Most

pharmacies sell over-thecounter herbal medicines. 

Common components of 

herbal remedies include 

honey, butter, rye 

sprouts, marigold, and 

plant resin. Example

remedies include seabuckthorn (pictured) juice to boost the immune system and 

chokeberries to reduce high blood pressure. Saunas are also 

popular because of their perceived therapeutic and healing 

properties (see p.1-2 of Family and Kinship).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

Most Estonians have access to state-funded healthcare. The 

national, publicly-funded Estonian Health Insurance Fund 

(EHIF) insures about 95% of Estonians and finances over 90% 

of hospitals and medical facilities which, in return, offer free 

care. Today, Estonia has approximately 800 family primary 

care physicians (FPCPs) and 65 public and private hospitals, 

including 35 specialized 

rehabilitation and nursing 

hospitals (Photo: A clinic 

in Tartu).

FPCPs provide basic 

curative and preventative 

care, acting as 

“gatekeepers” to other 

medical facilities by 

coordinating, managing, 

and authorizing health 

services for their patients. Urban hospitals deliver a full range 

of emergency, intensive, and surgical care, while rural facilities 

provide emergency services and limited surgical procedures. 

Hospitals also commonly provide inpatient support, including 

home care for cancer patients, those adjusting to disability, and 

the elderly. 

Healthcare System Challenges: The quality of care 

diminishes somewhat in rural areas. Generally, city hospitals 

are well-equipped while some rural medical facilities are 

understaffed, outdated, and offer limited surgical procedures.

Caring for as many as 2,000 patients, FPCPs tend to be 

burdened with heavy workloads, struggle to meet patient 

needs, and offer a limited scope of primary care services. 

Further, the medical training of some FPCPs is outdated, 

particularly among Russian-speaking practitioners who 

encounter language barriers when accessing Estonianlanguage training courses and literature. Finally, some newly 

graduated and highly-trained Estonian physicians and nurses 

choose to leave Estonia to practice in other countries where 

they receive better pay.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Of note, Estonia’s aging population is likely to burden its

healthcare system in coming decades. The almost 20% of the 

population aged 65 or older in 2015 is expected to grow to 

about 30% by 2040. As the population ages, the rising 

prevalence of chronic diseases and associated need for 

nursing and rehabilitation services will challenge the adequacy 

of Estonia’s health system.

Health Challenges

As in most developed countries, communicable diseases like 

tuberculosis, polio, and hepatitis are no longer the leading 

causes of illness and death. Instead, Estonia’s aging 

population suffers from chronic and non-communicable 

diseases, such as heart disease and cancer, which now 

account for about 79% of 

all deaths (Photo: US 

Airmen visit Tallinn’s 

children’s hospital).

In 2013, the leading

causes of death included 

cardiovascular diseases 

(54%) and stomach, lung, 

and breast cancer (25%). 

Heavy industrial pollution in northeast Estonia (see p. 3 of 

Political and Social Relations) results in high rates of chronic 

respiratory diseases, including asthma as well as lung and 

throat cancers. So-called “external causes,” such as accidents 

and suicides, caused about 6% of all deaths. Among those 

external causes, suicides accounted for nearly 20% of deaths, 

while alcohol poisoning accounted for 11%. Notably, external 

causes are the primary reasons of death for Estonians under 

age 34.

The average life expectancy of Estonian women is 82 years, 

which is considerably higher than the average of 72 years for 

men. In fact, Estonian male life expectancy is the 3rd shortest 

in the EU, just ahead of its Baltic neighbors of Latvia (70) and 

Lithuania (69). As noted earlier, Estonia’s higher rate of male 

mortality is primarily linked to external causes of death like 

accidents and suicides as well as higher rates of alcohol abuse 

and tobacco use.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, Estonians subsisted as peasants in an agrarian 

economy controlled by German landowners (see History and 

Myth). In the late 1800s, Russian occupiers began 

industrializing Estonia, then intensified those efforts during the 

Soviet era (see p. 11-12 of History and Myth). Besides large, 

collectivized farms, the Soviets developed shipbuilding, timber, 

machinery, and oil shale industries until the USSR’s collapse 

and Estonian independence in 1991.

Using the West as a model, newly independent Estonia 

initiated extensive reforms in order to transition from the

centrally-planned Soviet economy to a liberal free-market 

system. These included the privatization of many state-run 

industries and collective farms, the establishment of a new 

currency, and an influx of foreign investment. Initially, the 

enormity of this effort caused a decline in growth, 

hyperinflation, and high unemployment. Gradually, growth 

resumed due to Estonia’s support for the free flow of capital, 

goods, and services. As the economy began to grow, the 

government promoted transparency within the open market,

technological innovation, 

and trade. Between 1997-

2011, Estonia created 4 

trade zones open to tariffand tax-free foreign 

investment at ports in 

Muuga, Paldiski, 

Sillamäe, and Valga 

(Photo: Tallinn’s old 

town).

By the early 2000s, the 

diversified economy included a modernized industrial sector as 

well as large services and agricultural sectors. Stable banks, 

low public debt, low flat tax rates, high-quality low-cost 

production, and limited corruption brought over 8% growth from 

2000-2007. Successive governments encouraged

technological innovation and entrepreneurship, supporting the

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
growth of companies such as Skype, founded in Estonia in 

2003. Estonia’s 2004 accession to the European Union (EU) 

further facilitated its economic liberalization and expansion.

The health of Estonia’s economy is largely dependent on that

of its trading partners. Because of decreased foreign 

investment and low demand for its exports during the 2008-09 

financial crisis, the Estonian economy shrank by 14.7%. 

Thanks to government austerity programs, growth rebounded 

to 7.6% in 2011, allowing Estonia to be the first former Soviet 

republic to join the Eurozone that year. The term Eurozone 

refers to those EU member states that have adopted the euro 

as their currency. 

With a few exceptions, Estonia’s economy has remained 

stable, and experts predict that it will grow by just over 3% 

through 2020, moderately higher than the predicted EU

average. The government’s “Estonia 2020” strategic plan aims 

to increase economic 

efficiency, inclusion, and 

competitiveness (Photo: A 

wind farm in Estonia).

Despite the economy’s 

impressive transformation 

since independence, 

wages have not kept 

pace: today, the average 

Estonian income is only about 70% of the EU average. Other 

challenges for the Estonian economy include high structural 

unemployment (mismatch between skills workers possess and 

those the economy demands), emigration, slow productivity 

growth, and labor market barriers for many Russian-speaking 

Estonians (see p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations).

Services

Accounting for 68% of both GDP and employment, the services 

sector is the largest, fastest-growing segment of the Estonian 

economy. Key services industries include telecommunications, 

banking, information technology (IT), and tourism.

IT and Telecommunications: A technology innovator, Estonia 

pioneered government “e-services” and became the first 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
country to offer internet voting in 2005. Also a first and 

exclusive to Estonia, “e-residency” was created in 2014, 

providing state-issued secure digital identity for non-residents. 

Tourism: Estonia is one of the fastest-growing tourism markets

in the EU. Many of Estonia’s 4 million annual tourists are Finns

who travel to Tallinn by ferry. Other tourists come from 

Sweden, Germany, Russia, and Latvia to shop, relax in spas, 

or visit resort areas in 

Pärnu, Haapsalu, the 

islands, and Otepää (see 

p. 3 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) (Photo: 

Tallinn’s busy harbor).

Industry

As the 2nd largest 

component of the 

economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for 28%

of both GDP and the labor force. The most significant industrial 

sub-sectors are manufacturing, oil shale, and construction.

Manufacturing: About 25% of this sub-sector consists of 

electronics and vehicle production. Other manufactured goods 

include wood and paper products, food and beverages, 

chemicals, and metals.

Oil Shale: This industry comprises about 4% of GDP and 1% 

of the labor force. Developed by the USSR in order to support 

the energy needs of other Soviet republics, shale oil generation

(shale oil is generated from oil shale, a rock) reached its peak 

in the 1980s. Today this industry provides for about 85% of the 

country’s electrical needs. In addition, Estonia exports energy 

produced through shale oil to Finland, Latvia, and Russia. Of 

note, the oil shale industry employs many Russian-speakers in 

Estonia’s northeast.

Construction: Construction accounts for 7% of GDP and 10% 

of employment and has been key to promoting Estonia’s

transition to an open market economy. Generally, this subsector has experienced high growth since 2010. Foreign 

projects account for about 11% of total construction volume.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Agriculture

This sector, the smallest component of Estonia’s economy,

includes farming, livestock, fishing, and forestry and accounts

for nearly 4% of both GDP and employment.

Farming and Livestock: About 21% of Estonia’s territory is 

dedicated to cultivation. Major crops include cereals, oilseed, 

potatoes, and vegetables, mostly for domestic consumption. 

Nearly self-sufficient in 

food production, Estonia

exports berries, 

mushrooms, and organic 

produce. Dairy cows, 

poultry, and pigs are the 

most common livestock. 

With privatization 

following independence, 

most farms became

small, family-owned businesses. Over the past decade, some

farms have consolidated into larger, more efficient 

industrialized farms (Photo: Saaremaa Island farmhouse).

Fishing: Estonia’s relatively large fishing fleet consists of over

950 vessels. The industry produces nearly 70,000 tons of 

sprat, herring, prawn, eel, and other fish, mostly for domestic 

consumption. Exports account for about 20% of the harvest, 

most of which is processed and canned for shipment to about 

60 countries. The industry employs about 4,000 fishermen. 

Forestry: With over 50% of its territory covered in woodlands, 

Estonia has a highly-developed forestry industry that provides

jobs for about 35,000 people. Besides raw timber, the forestry 

industry supports the production of paper, cellulose, furniture

products, and wood chips for power plants. Commercial 

harvests include pine, spruce, and birch.

Currency

The euro (€), the EU’s common currency, is issued in 7 

banknote values (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and 2 coin 

values (1, 2). A euro subdivides into senti, issued in 6 coin 

values (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50). With the variance in exchange 

rates, $1 has been worth between 67 and 95 senti in recent

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
years. Most businesses accept credit 

cards, although some smaller

vendors may only accept cash in 

small denominations (Photo: 1€ 

coin).

Foreign Trade

Totaling $15 billion in 2014, 

Estonia’s exports include machinery,

electronics, food and chemical 

products, mineral fuels, timber and wood products, metals, 

vehicles and parts, and textiles. That year, Estonia’s most 

important export partners were Sweden (19%), Finland (16%),

Latvia (11%), Russia (10%), Lithuania (6%), and Germany

(5%). In 2014, imports to Estonia totaled $16.4 billion, including

machinery, electronics, mineral fuels, food and chemical 

products, metals, and plastics from Finland (16%), Germany 

(12%), Sweden (9%), Latvia (9%), Lithuania (8%), Poland 

(8%), the Netherlands (6%), Russia (5%), and China (5%).

European Union

Participation in the 28-member EU (see p. 9 of Political and 

Social Relations) provides Estonia with many economic 

benefits, including a large common market for exports, a stable 

currency, a secure business environment, and easier access to 

foreign direct investment. In 2014, about 78% of Estonian trade 

was with EU countries. Some disadvantages to membership 

include market regulations that restrict the flow of a few goods 

and services, as well as easier emigration of Estonians to other 

EU countries, which negatively impacts Estonia’s labor force.

Foreign Aid

The EU is Estonia’s largest provider of aid, giving more than 

€3.4 billion from 2007-2013 for infrastructure and regional 

development. Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein

are notable individual donors. The US pledged $68 million to 

Estonia in 2015 to develop military base infrastructure. In 2016, 

the US pledged $3.4 billion to Europe as a whole in response 

to recent Russian aggression. Although Estonia is a net 

recipient of aid, in 2014 the Estonian government gave about 

$3 million in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief to 

Ukraine, Syria, South Sudan, and others.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Estonia’s modern physical infrastructure includes wellmaintained roads and efficient public transit systems. 

Estonians enjoy the most advanced media and 

telecommunications network in the Baltic States, with a free 

press and unrestricted Internet access.

Transportation

Most Estonian families have a privately-owned vehicle (POV), 

although local travel by taxi, bus, foot, bicycle, or mass transit

is common. Tallinn’s public transit 

system, which is free for residents, 

includes buses, trams, and trolleys

that usually run from 6ammidnight. A well-maintained 

nation-wide trail system and flat 

geography facilitate biking, which 

has gained popularity in recent 

years (Photo: Street in “New” 

Tallinn).

Many Estonians commute long

distances for work, including those 

who travel by POV to Tallinn or

even by ferry to Helsinki, Finland. 

In early 2016, Tallinn and Helsinki agreed to build a 57-mile rail 

tunnel connecting the 2 cities to reduce commuter travel time. 

In 2013, Estonia became the first country to build a national 

electric vehicle charging network. Over 160 charging stations 

service electric cars on major roadways and in towns with

5,000+ residents.

Roadways: In 2014, Estonia had over 36,500 mi of roads, 18% 

of which are paved. While only city streets and major roads 

tend to be paved, nearly all roads are in good condition. Due to 

low levels of traffic across Estonia, expressways are often only 

1 lane in each direction outside urban areas. The primary 

Estonian throughways are E67, E263, and E20, which connect

Tallinn with Pärnu, Tartu, and Narva, respectively.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Estonia has about 1,350 mi of railways. While trains 

remain a slow alternative to local and regional buses, the 2007 

re-nationalization of Eesti Raudtee (Estonian Railways) has

increased efficiency. 

Estonia’s National 

Transport Development 

Plan 2014-2020 

includes plans to make

trains the preferable 

mode of transportation

by increasing the 

number of stations, train 

speed, and connectivity to Russia and Latvia. A planned

electric high-speed Rail Baltic train is set to connect Estonia to 

the European Union Railroad Network by 2025 (Photo: An 

electric train en route from Tallinn to Keila).

Ports and Waterways: Estonia has nearly 210 mi of navigable

waterways. Major ports include Kunda, Pärnu, Tallin, Sillamäe, 

Muuga, and Paldiski – the latter 3 are free trade zones (see p. 

1 of Economics and Resources). The Port of Tallinn is 

Estonia’s largest port authority for both passengers and cargo. 

In 2015, nearly 10 million passengers departed the port to 

Helsinki, Stockholm (Sweden), and the Estonian islands. Of 

note, the Tallinn-Helsinki ferry route is 1 of the world’s busiest.

Airways: Estonia has 18 airports, 13 having paved runways. 

The Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport accounted for more than 95% 

of passenger air traffic in 2015. Since the 2015 bankruptcy of 

Estonian Air, Avies Air is Estonia’s only domestically-based 

airline, serving local cities and Stockholm. Several global

carriers connect to international destinations.

Energy

Estonia produces about 85% of its energy from shale oil and is 

an energy exporter (see p. 3 of Economics and Resources).

Estonia presently generates the remaining 15% of its electricity 

needs from wood, peat, biomass, and hydroelectric dams. By 

2020, Estonia seeks to bring its share of renewable energy 

consumption to 25%. Estonia also imports a limited amount of 

Russian natural gas. Of note, Eesti Energia, the state-owned 

energy firm, is the largest company and employer in Estonia.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

The Estonian constitution provides for freedom of speech and 

press. Estonian media outlets are some of the world’s most 

open, with little censorship or government interference. 

Although television is the most popular media form, a vibrant 

press includes daily newspapers in Estonian, English, and

other languages. Popular daily newspapers include Eesti 

Ekspress, Eesti Päevaleht, and Postimees (a newspaper 

originally founded during Estonia’s 19th century National 

Awakening – see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge). The main 

English-language paper is The Baltic Times, which is based in

Latvia. Many Estonians get their news from online sources

(Photo: Tallinn TV tower, Estonia’s

tallest structure).

Radio and TV: The Estonian stateowned broadcaster, Eesti

Rahvusringhääling, operates 3 digital

TV channels and 5 radio networks in

Estonian and Russian (see p. 14 of 

Political and Social Relations). Most

households subscribe to cable,

satellite or Internet services providing

content in several languages

Telecommunications

Estonia’s telecommunications network covers almost the entire 

country. In 2014, Estonia had 30 landline and 160 mobile 

phone subscriptions per 100 people. The major mobile phone 

service providers are Elisa, Tele2, and EMT, which plans to 

pilot one of the world’s first 5G networks by the end of 2016. 

Internet: With a high-speed fiber-optic broadband network 

available to nearly every household and free Wi-Fi in most 

public spaces, Estonia has earned the nickname “E-stonia.” In 

2014, nearly 85% of residents used the Internet, with rates 

near 100% among youth who use it to conduct banking, make 

payments, and even vote. With its deep support of free and 

open Internet access, the Estonian government plans to

continue to develop, promote, and invest in its 

telecommunications infrastructure as a part of its Digital 

Agenda 2020.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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August 2016

CULTURE GUIDE