# Patent

## Title
Adaptive IIP2 calibration

## Abstract

A radio frequency transceiver (102), including a transmitter (104), a duplexer (108) and a direct-conversion receiver (106) including a mixer (140 and 141). An IIP2 calibration system (170), coupled to the transceiver, includes an IIP2 coefficient estimator (172) for calculating an estimate of second-order distortion intermodulation distortion, and an IIP2 controller (174) for adjusting an IIP2 tuning port of the mixer in the receiver to minimize second-order distortion intermodulation distortion in the receiver that may be caused by the receiver receiving a transmit RF signal leaking through the duplexer.

## Background
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This is a divisional of application Ser. No. 12/248,421, filed Oct. 9, 2008. The entire disclosure of prior application Ser. No. 12/248,421 is hereby incorporated by reference.


BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates generally to radio frequency receivers, and more specifically to reducing second-order intermodulation distortion in a direct-conversion receiver.
2. Related Art
A radio frequency (RF) receiver uses the frequency response of a low noise amplifier (LNA), a surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter and a duplexer to attenuate signals that are far from a center frequency of the receiver sufficiently enough to not corrupt a desired signal. If the LNA and the SAW filter are removed from the analog line-up of the receiver, problems that can detrimentally affect the performance of the receiver may arise. In a transceiver, which comprises a transmitter and a receiver, one such problem is a signal transmitted by the transmitter leaking into the receiver. In a transceiver having only a duplexer to isolate the receiver from the transmitter, there is considerably less attenuation in the receiver of signals at the transmit frequency. A receiver that lacks a SAW filter requires additional and/or tighter constraints on the second-order intercept point (IP2) of the mixer. Without a sufficiently high IP2 of the mixer, the presence of second-order intermodulation distortion (IMD2) substantially reduces the sensitivity of the receiver. The IMD2 results from an unwanted squaring of the transmitted signal at the mixer of the receiver.
Most cellular wireless transceivers use a direct-conversion receiver because a high level of integration can be obtained. However, a direct-conversion receiver requires a high input-related second-order intercept point (IIP2), which is the theoretical input level at which the power of the IMD2 products are equal in power to the power of a desired signal.
When the receiver is at sensitivity and the transmitter is at maximum output power, the self-blocking effect of the transmitter can, through a second-order nonlinearity of the mixer, desensitize the receiver. In such a receiver, transmitted signals are attenuated via the duplexer by approximately 50 dB; nevertheless, attenuated transmitted signals leak into the receive signal path prior to a front-end amplifier. For example, in the receiver, the duplexer attenuates a strong signal, transmitted by the transmitter of the transceiver, of +25 dBm (316 milliwatts) located at 190 MHz from the center frequency by only 50 dB, thus resulting in a signal of −25 dBm (3.16 μwatts) at the input of the front-end amplifier. This −25 dBm signal creates strong IMD2 products that land on the desired signal, thus producing interference.
The IP2 of the mixer in a direct-conversion receiver that lacks a SAW can vary due to manufacturing processes and/or change in temperature. Any mismatch between differential signals in the mixer causes a reduction in the IP2 from an optimal IP2. The mismatch can be due to variations in manufacturing processes or due to temperature changes during operation of the receiver, or due to both causes. The mismatch can also occur due to direct current (DC) offset, local oscillator leakage, or other factors. When there is a large mismatch between differential signals in the mixer, a worst case IP2 of approximately 25 dBm can occur. The following example uses the worst case IP2 of 25 dBm from measured data of a known 3G receiver.
IMD2=Pin−(IP2−(Pin))=−25−(25−(−25))=−75 dBm=3.16 μwatts
When a transmit signal is at maximum power, 25 dBm, the IMD2 referred to the input of a transconductance amplifier (not shown) is −75 dBm. The received power spectral density, Ior, as per the sensitivity specification set forth in the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standard, should be at or below −106.7 dBm to achieve a 0.1% bit error rate. The thermal noise, kTBF, in this example is approximately −99 dBm. Because the power of the IMD2 over the bandwidth of the desired signal is much greater than the kTBF, the sensitivity rises to −82.7 dB, i.e., 24 dB above the required sensitivity. Therefore, a receiver, including, in particular, a direct-conversion receiver that lacks a SAW, should have a sufficiently large IP2 to meet the specifications of the 3GPP standard.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The present invention is illustrated by way of example and is not limited by the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements. Elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale.
FIG. 1 illustrates a simplified functional block diagram of portions of a direct-conversion transceiver and a simplified functional block diagram of an IIP2 calibration system that includes an estimator and a controller;
FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram of the estimator;
FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of the controller;
FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating operation of IIP2 calibration system;
FIG. 5 is a chart of an IIP2 coefficient for a real component of a received signal versus voltage of an I-channel digital-to-analog converter;
FIG. 6 is a chart of an IIP2 coefficient for an imaginary component of a received signal versus voltage of a Q-channel digital-to-analog converter;
FIG. 7 is a chart of the IIP2 coefficient versus a code outputted by one of the I-channel and the Q-channel digital-to-analog converters; and
FIG. 8 is a chart of step size versus IIP2.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENT
FIG. 1 illustrates a simplified functional block diagram of portions of a direct-conversion transceiver 102 that includes a portion of a transmitter 104 and a portion of a receiver 106. The transmitter 104 and the receiver 106 share a duplexer 108 and an antenna 110. The transmitter 104 includes a reference transmit baseband signal comprising an I-channel reference signal Iref and a Q-channel reference signal Qref outputted from another portion (not shown) of the transmitter. The I-channel reference signal Iref and the Q-channel reference signal Qref are fed into a respective digital-to-analog (D/A) converter 120. For simplicity of illustration, only one schematic symbol is shown in FIG. 1 for the D/A converter 120 and for several other components that occur in pairs in the I-channel and Q-channel signal paths of the transmitter 104 and the receiver 106. The output from the D/A converter 120 is fed into an analog lowpass filter 124. The transmitter includes a transmit oscillator 126. The output from the lowpass filter 124, which is at baseband, is multiplied with an output from the transmit oscillator 126 at a mixer 128. The output from the mixer 128 is amplified by a power amplifier 130. The output from the power amplifier 130 is a transmitted radio frequency (RF) signal that is fed into the antenna 110 through the duplexer 108.
The receiver 106 is coupled to the antenna 110 through the duplexer 108. To a limited extent, the duplexer 108 isolates the receiver 106 and the transmitter 104. In an exemplary embodiment, the duplexer 108 provides approximately 50 dB of isolation. A received RF signal is fed into an I-channel mixer 140 and a Q-channel mixer 141. The received RF signal is at a different frequency from the transmitted RF frequency. In an exemplary embodiment, the frequency of the received RF signal and the frequency of the transmitted RF signal are separated by approximately 45-180 MHz, depending upon the frequency band. In an exemplary embodiment, the transceiver 102 operates in one or more frequency bands between approximately 800 MHz and approximately 2 GHz. In an exemplary embodiment, the transceiver 102 transmits and receives a spread-spectrum modulated RF signal, such as a signal compatible with a wideband code division multiple access (WCDMA) protocol. The receiver 106 includes a receive oscillator 144 coupled directly to the I-channel mixer 140 and coupled to the Q-channel mixer 141 via a phase shifter 146 that shifts the signal going to the Q-channel mixer 141 by 90°. The signals outputted from each mixer 140 and 141 are at baseband, and the output from each mixer is coupled to a respective analog lowpass filter 148.
In addition to a desired component downconverted to baseband from a desired received RF signal, the signal outputted by the I-channel mixer 140 and the Q-channel mixer 141 may also have components at other frequencies as a result of non-linearities in the mixers, such as an undesired, problematic component downconverted to baseband from a RF signal transmitted by the transmitter 104 and leaked into the receiver 106 through the duplexer 108. The undesired, problematic signal is downconverted to baseband as a result of a second-order nonlinearity in the mixer 140 and 141. Any component at baseband other than the component downconverted from the desired, receive signal detrimentally raises the noise figure of the receiver 106.
In general, the output z(t) of a nonlinear device can be represented as follows:

z(t)=a1s(t)−a2s2(t)−a3s3(t)−a4s4(t)−a5s5(t)  (1)

where s(t) is the signal at the input of the nonlinear device, and aN are dimensionless gain terms associated with the nonlinear device. If all nonlinearities higher than second-order are ignored, the above equation becomes,

z(t)=a1s(t)−a2s2(t)  (2)

where a2s2(t) represents a second-order intermodulation distortion product.

The output yI(t) of I-channel mixer 140 and the output yQ(t) of the Q-channel mixer 141 may include a second-order intermodulation distortion product caused by a second-order nonlinearity in the mixers. Therefore, the I-channel mixer 140 is a nonlinear device, and its output yI(t) can be represented as follows (if all the nonlinearities higher than second-order are ignored):

yI(t)=a1IsI(t)−a2IsI2(t)  (3)

The actual I-channel mixer 140, which is a nonlinear device, can be modeled as an ideal mixer receiving an input signal Iref cos ωtxt that is multiplied with a receive oscillator signal cos ωrxt. The output of the ideal mixer has no second-order or higher nonlinearities; therefore, the output of the ideal mixer is (Iref cos ωtxt)(cos ωrxt). The model further includes adding the second-order intermodulation distortion product a2IsI2(t) to the output of the ideal mixer, so that the output of the actual mixer becomes (Iref cos ωtxt)(cos ωrxt)+a2IsI2(t).
It can be shown also that the second-order intermodulation distortion product for the I-channel mixer is

y2I(t)=a2IsI2(t)=|x(t)cos(ωrxt+φ0)|2=|Aref cos(ωtxt+φref)cos(ωrxt+φ0)|2  (4)

The signal x(t) that is transmitted by the transmitter 104, which may be leaked into the receiver 106 through the duplexer 108, can be represented as:

x(t)=Iref cos(ωtxt)+Qref sin(ωtxt)  (5)

Alternatively, it can be represented as:

x(t)=Aref cos(ωtxt+φref)  (6)

At the I-channel mixer 140 in the receiver 106, x(t) is multiplied by a signal cos(ωrxt+φ0) from the receive oscillator 144; therefore, for the I-channel mixer,

sI=x(t)cos(ωrxt+φ0)  (7)

After substituting equation (5) into equation (7), yields

sI=(Iref cos(ωtxt)+Qref sin(ωtxt))cos(ωrxt+φ0)  (8)

Performing the multiplication indicated in equation (8), yields the following equation (9):




  
    
      s
      I
    
    ⁡
    
      (
      t
      )
    
  
  =
  
    
      
        
          I
          ref
        
        2
      
      ⁢
      
        cos
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                (
                
                  
                    ω
                    tx
                  
                  -
                  
                    ω
                    rx
                  
                
                )
              
              ⁢
              t
            
            -
            
              φ
              0
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    +
    
      
        
          I
          ref
        
        2
      
      ⁢
      
        cos
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                (
                
                  
                    ω
                    tx
                  
                  +
                  
                    ω
                    rx
                  
                
                )
              
              ⁢
              t
            
            +
            
              φ
              0
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    +
    
      
        
          Q
          ref
        
        2
      
      ⁢
      
        sin
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                (
                
                  
                    ω
                    tx
                  
                  +
                  
                    ω
                    rx
                  
                
                )
              
              ⁢
              t
            
            +
            
              φ
              0
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    -
    
      
        
          Q
          ref
        
        2
      
      ⁢
      
        sin
        ⁡
        
          (
          
            
              
                (
                
                  
                    ω
                    rx
                  
                  -
                  
                    ω
                    tx
                  
                
                )
              
              ⁢
              t
            
            +
            
              φ
              0
            
          
          )
        
      
    
  




If there were no second-order intermodulation distortion products produced in the I-channel mixer 140, the output of the mixer would be:

y1I(t)=a1IsI(t)  (10)

However, second-order intermodulation distortion products may be produced in the I-channel mixer 140, in which case the output of the mixer would include a second-order intermodulation distortion product. The output of the second-order intermodulation distortion product, alone, from the I-channel mixer 140 can be represented as follows:

y2I(t)=a2IsI2(t)  (11)

Substituting equation (9) into equation (11) yields the following equation (12),




  
    
      y
      
        2
        ⁢
        
          
        
        ⁢
        I
      
    
    ⁡
    
      (
      t
      )
    
  
  =
  
    
      
        a
        
          2
          ⁢
          I
        
      
      (
      
        
          
            
              I
              ref
            
            2
          
          ⁢
          
            cos
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      
                        ω
                        tx
                      
                      -
                      
                        ω
                        rx
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  ⁢
                  t
                
                -
                
                  φ
                  0
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              I
              ref
            
            2
          
          ⁢
          
            cos
            (
            
              
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      ω
                      tx
                    
                    +
                    
                      ω
                      rx
                    
                  
                  )
                
                ⁢
                t
              
              +
            
             
          
          ⁢
          
             
            
              φ
              0
            
            )
          
        
        +
        
          
             
             
          
          ⁢
          
             
             
          
          ⁢
          
            
              Q
              ref
            
            2
          
          ⁢
          
            sin
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      
                        ω
                        tx
                      
                      +
                      
                        ω
                        rx
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  ⁢
                  t
                
                +
                
                  φ
                  0
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        -
      
       
    
    ⁢
    
      
         
        
          
            
              Q
              ref
            
            2
          
          ⁢
          
            sin
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    (
                    
                      
                        ω
                        rx
                      
                      -
                      
                        ω
                        tx
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                  ⁢
                  t
                
                +
                
                  φ
                  0
                
              
              )
            
          
        
        )
      
      2
    
  




Performing the indicated squaring operation in the above equation, and removing all cross terms because they result in higher frequency terms that will be filtered out by the analog filter 148, yields the following equation (13),




  
    
      y
      
        2
        ⁢
        
          
        
        ⁢
        I
      
    
    ⁡
    
      (
      t
      )
    
  
  =
  
    
      a
      
        2
        ⁢
        I
      
    
    ⁡
    
      (
      
        
          
            
              I
              ref
              2
            
            4
          
          ⁢
          
            
              (
              
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      
                        (
                        
                          
                            ω
                            tx
                          
                          -
                          
                            ω
                            rx
                          
                        
                        )
                      
                      ⁢
                      t
                    
                    -
                    
                      φ
                      0
                    
                  
                  )
                
              
              )
            
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              I
              ref
              2
            
            4
          
          ⁢
          
            
              (
              
                cos
                ⁡
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      
                        (
                        
                          
                            ω
                            tx
                          
                          +
                          
                            ω
                            rx
                          
                        
                        )
                      
                      ⁢
                      t
                    
                    +
                    
                      φ
                      0
                    
                  
                  )
                
              
              )
            
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              Q
              ref
              2
            
            4
          
          ⁢
          
            
              (
              
                sin
                ⁡
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      
                        (
                        
                          
                            ω
                            tx
                          
                          +
                          
                            ω
                            rx
                          
                        
                        )
                      
                      ⁢
                      t
                    
                    +
                    
                      φ
                      0
                    
                  
                  )
                
              
              )
            
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              Q
              ref
              2
            
            4
          
          ⁢
          
            
              (
              
                sin
                ⁡
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      
                        (
                        
                          
                            ω
                            rx
                          
                          -
                          
                            ω
                            tx
                          
                        
                        )
                      
                      ⁢
                      t
                    
                    +
                    
                      φ
                      0
                    
                  
                  )
                
              
              )
            
            2
          
        
      
      )
    
  




Removing the double-angle terms after squaring, and saving only the terms located at or near DC, from equation (13) yields,




  
    
      
        
          
            y
            
              2
              ⁢
              I
            
          
          ⁡
          
            (
            t
            )
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              a
              
                2
                ⁢
                I
              
            
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    I
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  8
                
                +
                
                  
                    I
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  8
                
                +
                
                  
                    Q
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  8
                
                +
                
                  
                    Q
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  8
                
              
              )
            
          
          =
          
            
              a
              
                2
                ⁢
                I
              
            
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    I
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  4
                
                +
                
                  
                    Q
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  4
                
              
              )
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        14
        )
      
    
  
  
    
      
        
          
        
        ⁢
        
          
            
              y
              
                2
                ⁢
                I
              
            
            ⁡
            
              (
              t
              )
            
          
          =
          
            
              
                a
                
                  2
                  ⁢
                  I
                
              
              ⁡
              
                (
                
                  
                    
                      I
                      ref
                      2
                    
                    +
                    
                      Q
                      ref
                      2
                    
                  
                  4
                
                )
              
            
            =
            
              
                
                  a
                  
                    2
                    ⁢
                    I
                  
                
                4
              
              ⁢
              
                
                  A
                  2
                
                ref
              
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        15
        )
      
    
  




In a similar fashion, it can be shown that




  
    
      
        
          
            y
            
              2
              ⁢
              Q
            
          
          ⁡
          
            (
            t
            )
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              a
              
                2
                ⁢
                Q
              
            
            ⁡
            
              (
              
                
                  
                    I
                    ref
                    2
                  
                  +
                  
                    Q
                    ref
                    2
                  
                
                4
              
              )
            
          
          =
          
            
              
                a
                
                  2
                  ⁢
                  Q
                
              
              4
            
            ⁢
            
              A
              ref
              2
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        16
        )
      
    
  




Therefore, the total in-band second-order distortion product, y2(t), of the receiver 106 can be written as follows:




  
    
      
        
          
            IMD
            ⁢
            
              
            
            ⁢
            
              2
              I
            
          
          =
          
            
              
                y
                2
              
              ⁡
              
                (
                t
                )
              
            
            =
            
              
                
                  
                    y
                    
                      2
                      ⁢
                      I
                    
                  
                  ⁡
                  
                    (
                    t
                    )
                  
                
                +
                
                  j
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                  
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                      y
                      
                        2
                        ⁢
                        Q
                      
                    
                    ⁡
                    
                      (
                      t
                      )
                    
                  
                
              
              =
              
                
                  
                    
                      (
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                            ⁢
                            I
                          
                        
                        +
                        
                          j
                          ⁢
                          
                            
                          
                          ⁢
                          
                            a
                            
                              2
                              ⁢
                              Q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      )
                    
                    4
                  
                  ⁢
                  
                    (
                    
                      
                        I
                        ref
                        2
                      
                      +
                      
                        Q
                        ref
                        2
                      
                    
                    )
                  
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      
                        
                          a
                          
                            2
                            ⁢
                            I
                          
                        
                        +
                        
                          j
                          ⁢
                          
                            
                          
                          ⁢
                          
                            a
                            
                              2
                              ⁢
                              Q
                            
                          
                        
                      
                      4
                    
                    ⁢
                    
                      A
                      ref
                      2
                    
                  
                  =
                  
                    
                      
                        a
                        2
                      
                      4
                    
                    ⁢
                    
                      A
                      ref
                      2
                    
                  
                
              
            
          
        
        ⁢
        
          

        
        ⁢
        
          
        
        ⁢
        
          
            where
            ⁢
            
              
            
            ⁢
            
              a
              2
            
          
          =
          
            
              a
              
                2
                ⁢
                I
              
            
            +
            
              
                2
                
                  2
                  ⁢
                  Q
                
              
              .
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        17
        )
      
    
  




At the IIP2 intersection, s(t)=Viip2, and the following equations hold:

y1I(t)=a1IsI(t)=y2I(t)=a2IsI2(t)  (18)

a1I=a2IAiip2I—v  (19)

If the IIP2 is measured in Vrms, then the following equation holds (with a1I being the linear gain of the I-channel mixer 140).




  
    
      
        
          a
          
            2
            ⁢
            I
          
        
        =
        
          
            a
            
              1
              ⁢
              I
            
          
          
            
              2
            
            ⁢
            
              A
              
                iip
                ⁢
                
                  
                
                ⁢
                2
                ⁢
                
                  
                
                ⁢
                
                  I_vrm
                  ⁢
                  s
                
              
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        20
        )
      
    
  




If the IIP2 were measured in decibels Vrms, then a2I could be expressed as follows:




  
    
      
        
          a
          
            2
            ⁢
            I
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              a
              
                1
                ⁢
                I
              
            
            
              2
            
          
          ⁢
          
            10
            
              -
              
                
                  IIP
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                  
                  ⁢
                  
                    2
                    I
                  
                
                20
              
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        21
        )
      
    
  




In a similar fashion, it can be shown that a2Q can be expressed as follows:




  
    
      
        
          a
          
            2
            ⁢
            Q
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              a
              
                1
                ⁢
                Q
              
            
            
              2
            
          
          ⁢
          
            10
            
              -
              
                
                  IIP
                  ⁢
                  
                    
                  
                  ⁢
                  
                    2
                    Q
                  
                
                20
              
            
          
        
      
    
    
      
        (
        22
        )
      
    
  




Therefore, minimizing the value of a2I and a2Q is equivalent to maximizing the value of IIP2I and IIP2Q, respectively, in the receiver 106. Maximizing the IIP2 minimizes the IMD2.
The output from each lowpass filter 148 is fed into a sigma-delta digital-to-analog (D/A) converter 150. The output from each D/A converter 150 is fed into a decimation filter 152, which acts as a lowpass filter. In one embodiment, the decimation filter 152 is a sinc filter or a series of multi-rate filters. In another embodiment, the decimation filter 152 is a root raised cosine filter. The output from each decimation filter 152 is an Io(n) and a Qo(n) signal, respectively. The Io(n) signal and the Qo(n) signal include an Idc signal 160 and a Qdc signal 161, respectively. The Idc signal 160 and the Qdc signal 161 are direct current (DC) offsets that are produced in the receiver 106 at various points in the receiver because of non-idealities in the receiver. The Idc signal 160 and the Qdc signal 161 may include residual DC offsets that are produced by effects, such as a common-mode effects, that are unrelated to the DC produced as a result of the second-order nonlinearity in the mixers 140 and 141. In FIG. 1, the Idc signal 160 and the Qdc signal 161 are shown as being inserted into the receive path at a single point as a simplified idealization. Although the majority of the DC contributions occur in the analog section of the receiver 106, and thus the DC could be extracted prior to the A/D converter 150; it is, nevertheless, mathematically accurate to apply the DC after the A/D converter, where Idc=Idc—analog (potentially quantized). The baseband signal in the receiver 106 after the decimation filter 152 can be represented as Io(n)+jQo(n), and this signal is fed into a demodulator (not shown).
The baseband signal in the receiver 106 after the decimation filter 152 can be further represented as follows:

Io(n)+jQo(n)={a2I+ja2Q}Gtx—rx|Aref(n−D)|2+Idc+jQdc+wI(n)+jwQ(n)  (23)

where {a2I+ja2Q} represents IIP2 coefficients; Gtx—rx represents a linear gain from baseband in the transmitter 104 to baseband in the receiver 106; |Aref(n−D)|2 represents an amplitude squared of the reference transmit baseband signal; D represents a propagation delay of a signal from baseband in the transmitter 104 to baseband in the receiver 106; the term Idc+jQdc represents DC offsets; and the term wI(n)+jwQ(n) represents residual noise, which includes the desired receive signal, blockers, circuit noise and numerical noise. However, the term “blockers”, as used in the preceding sentence, does not include the transmit signal self-blocker at 3.84 MHz. For the reference sensitivity level specified in Technical Specification 25.101 of the 3GPP standard, the worst case blocker, −49 dBm at 3.25 MHz, occurs when a CDMA signal (for example, Interim Standard 95, which has 1.2288 Mchips per second) interferes with the 3GPP signal being received by the receiver 106. Other examples of blockers include adjacent channel interference and co-channel interference. It can be shown that the IIP2 coefficients, a2I and a2Q, are proportional to the cross correlation between the received signal and the amplitude squared of the transmit signal. It can be shown also that the IIP2 coefficients, a2I and a2Q, are proportional to the second-order intermodulation distortion occurring in the mixer 140 and 141, respectively. The value of D is determined for each different design of a transceiver 102, and then remains constant for all copies of each such different design. The value of Gtx—rx depends upon transmit power out, POUT, of the transmitter 104, the amount of isolation provided by the duplexer 108, and a setting of an automatic gain control (AGC) of the receiver 106. More precisely, Gtx—rx is an estimate of the linear gain from a baseband portion of the transmitter 104 through the transmitter, through the duplexer 108, and to the receiver 106 from its front end to its baseband portion. Furthermore, it can be shown that

Gtx—rx=G2txG2dxGrx  (24)

where Gtx is a gain from the baseband portion of the transmitter 104 to the duplexer 108, Gdx is a gain of, or the degree of isolation afforded by, the duplexer 108, and Grx is a gain from the front end of the receiver 106 to its baseband portion.

FIG. 1 also illustrates a simplified functional block diagram of an adaptive IIP2 calibration system 170 (hereinafter “calibration system”) that includes an IIP2 estimator (hereinafter “estimator”) 172, an IIP2 nonlinear controller (hereinafter “controller”) 174 operatively coupled to the estimator, and D/A converters 176 and 178 operatively coupled to the mixers 140 and 141, respectively, and to the controller. Input signals to the estimator 172 include Iref and Qref signals from the baseband portion of the transmitter 104; Io and Qo signals from the baseband portion of the receiver 106; a TX_POWER signal obtained from an automatic output controller (AOC) of the transmitter 104, whose value is indicative of the power of the signal transmitted by the transmitter 104; and a RX_POWER, or received signal strength indication (RSSI) obtained from the AGC of the receiver, whose value is indicative of the strength of the signal received by the receiver measured at baseband before any baseband amplifier. The RSSI may contain only the power associated with the bandwidth necessary for the desired received signal or the RSSI may contain the power associated with a wider bandwidth to allow for adjacent channels to be estimated. In one embodiment, the RSSI contains an estimate of the power over the same bandwidth as seen at the output of the decimation filter 152. The estimator 172 outputs to the controller 174 an â2I signal and an â2Q signal, which are estimates of the IIP2 in the I-channel and the Q-channel, respectively The controller 174 outputs a tuning signal v2I and a tuning signal v2Q, whose values are converted, at the D/A converters 176 and 178, to analog voltages used for tuning the mixers 140 and 141, respectively, to counteract any second-order intermodulation distortion that may be otherwise occurring in the mixers. The controller 174 adjusts the IIP2 tuning voltages v2I and v2Q to minimize the IIP2 coefficients a2I and a2Q, respectively. In an exemplary embodiment, the D/A converters 176 and 178 operate at approximately 96 MHz. Advantageously, the calibration system 170 is usable during normal receive operation of the receiver 106.
The calibration system 170 is a closed-loop, digital, adaptive, self-calibrating, on-line method for optimally tuning the IIP2 setting so as to minimize the second-order nonlinearity of the receiver 106. The calibration system 170 compares an original transmitted signal (as it appears at baseband in the transmitter 102) with a received signal (as it subsequently appears at baseband in the receiver 106). The amplitude squared of the transmitted signal is used as a reference source to estimate a level of correlation between the received signal (as it appears at baseband in the receiver) and the original transmitted signal (as it appeared at baseband in the transmitter) that is then transmitted as an RF signal by the transmitter 104 and that blocks, or jams, the receiver 106 due to second-order mixing. The amplitude squared of the original transmitted signal is used as a reference source because the transmit signal that falls into the receive band (at baseband) in the receiver 106 due to second-order mixing is proportional to the amplitude squared of the original transmitted signal. The level of correlation is a measure of the amount of the transmit signal that falls into the receive band (at baseband) in the receiver 106 due to second-order mixing. The level of correlation is used as a measure of the second-order nonlinearity of the receiver 106. The desired receive signal also falls into the receive band (at baseband) in the receiver 106; however, this occurs because of first-order mixing. The controller 174 adjusts the IIP2 setting of the receiver 106 to drive â2I and â2Q to as close to zero as it can. The calibration system 170 uses a “live” signal, or self-blocker transmitted by the transmitter 104, as a training signal to drive the calibration algorithm. The calibration system 170 tunes the receiver 106 for maximum IIP2 in the presence of temperature drift. Because the calibration system 170 operates on-line, it can dynamically track out IIP2 temperature variations during normal operation of the transceiver 102 including during normal receive operation of the receiver 106.
FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram of the estimator 172. The estimator 172 distinguishes between the amount of the transmit signal that may fall into the receive band (at baseband) in the receiver 106 due to second-order mixing, and the amount of other signals in the receive band such as the desired receive signal that falls into the receive band due to first-order mixing. The estimator 172 actively estimates the IIP2 coefficients a2I and a2Q, based on the amplitude-squared signal transmitted by the transmitter 104 and a detected in-band signal received by the receiver 106. The estimator 172 includes state machines 204 which, using values of the TX_POWER signal and the RSSI signal, determine an adaptive gain (or step size) μa of the estimator, a gain μdc of a DC estimator 260, an adaptation (or update) rate FC of the controller 174, and a linear gain Gtx—rx. The state machines 204 are configured, initiated and triggered, and then they run autonomously. The estimator 172 includes an estimator gain look-up table 206, a DC estimator gain look-up table 207, a controller rate look-up table 208 and a linear gain look-up table 209. The values of the adaptation rate coefficient μa of the estimator 172, the gain μdc of the DC estimator 260, the update rate FC of the controller 174, and the linear gain Gtx—rx of the transceiver 102 are predetermined (during a laboratory characterization stage) and are stored in the look-up tables 206, 207, 208 and 209 in firmware. The rate of operation of the estimator 172 is, in one embodiment, sixteen (16) times the chip rate. In one embodiment, the chip rate is 3.84 MHz. The estimator 172 uses a synchronized, scaled, amplitude-squared signal transmit signal as a reference for IIP2 estimation.
The estimator 172 includes a magnitude element 212 that receives signals Iref and Qref from the baseband portion of the transmitter 104 and that determines a magnitude Aref of the transmit reference signal. The signal Aref incurs the delay, D, at a delay element 214, and then the delayed magnitude is squared, or multiplied by itself, at a multiplier 216. The resulting signal |Aref(n−D)|2 is filtered by a decimation filter 218. The decimation filter 218 is used because although a WCDMA signal has a bandwidth of 5 MHz, the signal |Aref(n−D)|2 has a bandwidth much wider than 5 MHz. The decimation filter 218 reduces the bandwidth of the signal A2ref(n−D) back to approximately 5 MHz. In one embodiment, the decimation filter 218 is a sinc filter. In another embodiment, the decimation filter 218 is a root raised cosine filter. In any event, the decimation filter 218 is of a same type of filter as the decimation filter 152 in the receiver 106. In addition, if the analog filter 148 or any other filters in the receiver 106 shape |Aref(n−D)|2, i.e., the squared version of the transmitted signal, then the decimation filter 218 should have a response that is a composite of all filters in the receiver that impact the bandwidth of the signal |Aref(n−D)|2. It is insufficient to model the decimation filter 152 by its latency alone. When the estimator 172 is used with the embodiment of the receiver 106 that includes a sinc filter as the decimation filter 152, it is necessary to model, in the estimator, the sinc effect on the amplitude squared of the transmit reference signal; therefore, in such case, the estimator 172 includes a sinc filter 218 as its decimation filter 218. The signal |Aref(n−D)|2 outputted by the decimation filter 218 is fed into update equations 240 where it is multiplied with εI and εQ. Separately, the signal |Aref(n−D)|2 is also fed into a multiplier 230 where it is multiplied with the linear gain Gtx—rx outputted by one of the state machines 204. Therefore, the output of the multiplier 230 is Gtx—rx|Aref(n−D)|2.
The estimator 172 determines an amount of second-order intermodulation distortion in the receiver 106 by estimating a value of a2 using update equations 240, as follows:

â2I(n)=â2I(n−1)+μaAref2(n−D)εI(n)  (25)

â2Q(n)=â2Q(n−1)+μaAref2(n−D)εQ(n)  (26)

The update equations 240 may start blindly with arbitrary initial values for the estimated â2I and the estimated â2Q. Alternatively, the update equations 240 may start with better initial values for the estimated â2I and the estimated â2Q that are based on a priori knowledge of the range of IIP2 values of the mixer to be tuned. For example, if it is known that the IIP2 of a given mixer is in the range of 30-60 dBm, one could set an initial value of â2 to the value that corresponds to an IIP2 of 30 dBm. Inputs to the update equations 240 include the signal |Aref(n−D)|, error signals, εI and εQ, and the signal μa. Error signal εI is the difference between a desired signal Io and an estimated signal Îo. Error signal εQ is the difference between a desired signal Qo and an estimated signal {circumflex over (Q)}o. At occurrence of each update, each update equation 240 outputs an estimated value of a2, which are â2I(n) and â2Q(n). The estimator 172 includes multipliers 250 and 251 that multiplies â2I(n) and â2Q(n), respectively, with the signal Gtx—rx|Aref(n−D)|2. It can be shown that the I-channel IMD2 is proportional to â2I(n)Gtx—rx|Aref(n−D)|2, and that the Q-channel IMD2 is proportional to â2Q(n)Gtx—rx|Aref(n−D)|2.
In one embodiment, a least mean squares (LMS) based optimization algorithm is used in the estimator 172 to estimate the IIP2 coefficient. In another embodiment, a sign-sign LMS-based algorithm is used in the estimator 172, in which case the values of the terms μaA2ref(n−D)εI(n) in the update equations 240 are replaced by their signs. In still other embodiments, one of a gradient search algorithm, a signed error algorithm, and a recursive least squares algorithm is used in the estimator 172. In yet another embodiment, a cross correlator is used in the estimator 172. A modified sign-sign LMS-based algorithm is used in the controller 174.
The transmit-to-receive gain of the transceiver 102 can change, by multiple decibels, from transceiver to transceiver and from frequency band to frequency band. Therefore, the version of the sign-sign LMS-based algorithm used in the controller 174 uses a variable step size depending on the magnitude of â2. The variable step size advantageously desensitizes the transient performance of the controller 174 from variations in the transmit-to-receive gain. If the controller 174 were sensitive to such gain variations, then the transient, or settling time, of the loop would be highly variable.
The selection of a step size of the controller 174 is based on the IIP2 estimation to desensitize the transient or convergence behavior of the controller from system loop gain variation. Otherwise, variation in isolation by the duplexer 108, for example, could hamper the tracking performance of the calibration system 170. The gain of the estimator 172 and the update rate of the controller 174 are automatically adjusted based on the POUT of the transmitter 104 and the received signal strength of the receiver 106, so as to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and tracking performance of the calibration algorithm. Depending on the embodiment, the update equations 240 are implemented with hardware, firmware or software.
The estimator 172 includes an on-line, adaptive DC estimator 260 (hereinafter “DC estimator”) that removes any non-IIP2 DC components from the signals being estimated by the estimator 172, thereby mitigating any degrading of the estimation of the IIP2 coefficients a2I and a2Q caused by such non-IIP2 DC components. In another embodiment, the IIP2 estimation algorithm runs such that Idc and Qdc contain all the DC in Io and Qo, including the DC due to IIP2 products, thereby allowing the estimator 172 to remove all the DC components from the signals being estimated. In this other embodiment, the signal |Aref(n−D)|2 at the output of the decimation filter 218 is further filtered with a high pass filter (not shown) such that the DC component of the signal |Aref(n−D)|2 is removed. This further filtering allows Idc and Qdc to be used by the DC estimator 260 to estimate all DC contributions in Io and Qo.
In one embodiment, the DC estimator 260 uses an LMS-based algorithm, and performs the following Idc and Qdc update equations:

Îdc(n)=Îdc(n−1)+μdcεI(n)  (27)

{circumflex over (Q)}dc(n)={circumflex over (Q)}dc(n−1)+μdcεQ(n)  (28)

Depending on the embodiment, the preceding Idc and Qdc update equations are implemented with hardware, firmware or software. Adaptive DC correction is employed to remove any non-IIP2 DC components to more accurately measure the IIP2.
The receiver 106 includes a DC offset correction circuit (not shown), or a coarse DC offset correction circuit and fine DC offset correction circuit (not shown), which correct for all DC offsets. The coarse DC offset correction algorithm measures a coarse estimate of DC offset due to the analog portion of the receiver 106, as this is typically run during cold calibration without a transmit signal present. The fine DC offset correction circuit runs during normal receive operation to correct all additional DC (residual DC offset remaining after the coarse DC offset correction circuit, and DC due to IMD2 effects). When the transmitter power is below a certain threshold, the DC measured by the fine DC offset will be only the residual DC of the analog portion. The fine DC offset can be used to aid in the estimation of the initial values of Idc and Qdc in the DC estimator 260.
The DC estimator 260 may start blindly with arbitrary initial values for the estimated Idc and the estimated Qdc. Alternatively, the DC estimator 260 may start with better initial values for the estimated Idc and the estimated Qdc that are based on a priori knowledge of the DC offset of the analog portion of the receiver 106. By “better” it is meant that the initial values for the estimated Idc and the estimated Qdc are closer in value to the values of Idc and Qdc than are arbitrary initial values. In one embodiment, where a coarse DC offset is being applied in the analog portion, one could use the residual DC offset as a starting point (where the residual DC offset is due to the DAC size for the coarse DC steps). Because the DC offset of the analog portion changes as a function of the AGC gain, this information can be used to initiate a new DC offset measurement, instead of waiting X microseconds (see step 401 of FIG. 4). Inputs to the DC estimator 260 include error signals, εI and εQ, and a signal μdc, which is a gain of the DC estimate update equations. The variable μdc defines a step size for the DC estimate. The magnitude of the step size μdc is variably changed. Alternatively, for an initial Idc(n) and Qdc(n), the magnitude of the step size μdc is loaded into the DC estimate update equations because the value of the residual non-IMD2 DC term will likely be known from the coarse DC offset correction setting and the fine DC offset corrections setting. The step size μdc could be made larger after an AGC step for a few updates, m, because an AGC change will result in larger residual DC in the receiver 106. When the AGC changes, the amount of DC seen by the DC estimator 260 may change, thus it would be beneficial to initially have a coarser step size μdc, then adjust it to a finer step size μdc. This improves the overall tracking performance of the DC estimation algorithm. Outputs from the DC estimator 260 comprise the signals Îdc and {circumflex over (Q)}dc, which are feed into adder 270 and 271, respectively, where they are added to the signals â2IĜtx−rx|Aref(n|D)|2 and â2QĜtx−rx|Aref(n−D)|2, respectively. Therefore, the output signal from adder 270 is â2IĜtx−rx|Aref(n−D)|2+Îdc, and the output signal from adder 271 is â2Q{circumflex over (Q)}tx−rx|Aref(n−D)|2+{circumflex over (Q)}dc. The signals Îdc and {circumflex over (Q)}dc are estimates of the non-IIP2 DC components of Io(n) and Qo(n), respectively. The output signal from each of adder 270 and 271 is fed into adder 280 and 281, respectively, where it is subtracted from Io(n) and Qo(n), respectively, to obtain error signals, εI and εQ, respectively.
A firmware-based supervisor algorithm (see FIG. 4) configures the estimator 172 and the controller 174 for optimal convergence, based on the transmit power level and the received signal strength. The larger the transmit power with respect to the received signal strength, the more accurate and faster is the performance of the calibration system 170 and vice versa. The estimator 172 has a gain, or adaptation rate coefficient μa, that can be set to trade off convergence with respect to noise rejection. The larger the transmit power with respect to the received signal strength, the larger μa can be set and vice versa. The transmit signal acts as a signal, and the desired receive signal acts as noise, as far as the estimator 172 is concerned. Therefore, a decrease in transmit Pout degrades the SNR of the algorithm, and an increase in received signal strength also degrades the SNR of the algorithm. As the SNR increases, μa is increased to accelerate convergence. Conversely, as the SNR reduces, μa is decreased to average out the effect of increased noise on the estimator 172. Similarly, the update rate FC of the controller 174 is programmed with respect to the SNR. As the SNR reduces, the update rate FC is reduced (i.e., the controller runs slower), and vice versa. One of the state machines 204 sets the Gtx—rx, based on the transmit power level and the received signal strength.
The calibration algorithm of the estimator 172 estimates a baseband component of a received signal that is correlated with the amplitude squared of a transmit signal. The estimate is proportional to the cross correlation between the receive in-band signal and the amplitude squared of the transmit signal. All other sources (e.g., receive signal, blockers, . . . ) appear as uncorrelated noise. The calibration algorithm of the controller 174 adjusts the D/A converters 176 and 178 to minimize the IIP2 component in the receiver 106 caused by the signal transmitted by the transmitter 104.
The controller 174 tunes the IIP2 port of the mixers 140 and 141 to maximize the IIP2 of the receiver 106. The step sizes are based on the IIP2 estimation. The controller 174 implements a search algorithm that finds an optimum setting of v2 that minimizes a2. In one embodiment, the search algorithm that the controller 174 employs is an approximation of the LMS algorithm. In another embodiment, the search algorithm that the controller 174 employs is a steepest descent algorithm.
The LMS algorithm to minimize a2 with respect to v2 can be described as follows:




  
    
      
        
          
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where μc is the gain of the controller 174. FIG. 8 is a chart of step size versus IIP2.

Upon substituting an estimate of â2 for the actual a2, equation (29) becomes:




  
    
      
        
          
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A first order numerical approximation of the LMS gradient can be expressed as follows, with k being the latency between v2 and a2:




  
    
      
        
          
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The sign, alone, of the gradient can be used in the controller 174 rather than the sign and a value of the gradient, which avoids division and reduces complexity, but which preserves the directional information of gradient. If the sign, alone, of the gradient is used, then equation (31) can be further approximated as follows:




  
    
      
        
          
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Equation (32) can be substituted into equation (30). Equation (30) then becomes:

v2(n)=v2(n−1)−μc{sgn{â2(n)−â2(n−1)}sgn{v2(n−k)−v2(n−1−k)}}â2  (33)

FIG. 5 is a chart of an IIP2 coefficient for a real component of a received signal versus voltage of an I-channel D/A converter 176.
FIG. 6 is a chart of an IIP2 coefficient for an imaginary component of a received signal versus voltage of a Q-channel D/A converter 178. In general, the shape of the curve in FIG. 5 is different from the shape of the curve in FIG. 6. Accordingly, the minimum â2I and its corresponding v2I for the I-channel shown in FIG. 5 are different from the minimum â2Q and its corresponding v2Q for the Q-channel shown in FIG. 6.
FIG. 7 is a chart of a cost function, or the IIP2 coefficient versus a code outputted by one of the I-channel D/A converter 176 and the Q-channel D/A converter 178. The controller 174 selects a code that produces a lowest a2.
FIG. 8 is a chart of an exemplary embodiment of step size versus IIP2. For the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 8, the gained estimate of a2 in equation (33), i.e., μcâ2, can have one of the values 1⁄2, 1 and 2, depending on the value of a2, the value of a2 being proportional to IIP2. For example, if the value of the IIP2 is less than −60 dBm, the step size is 1⁄2; if the value of the IIP2 is greater than −50 dBm, the step size is 2; otherwise, the step size is 1. Alternatively, a 10 dB margin of error could be added to the value of the IIP2 to ensure enough margin for temperature variations. When the TX_POWER is weak and the RSSI is strong or interferences are strong, it may not be beneficial to run the calibration algorithm. Having an additional margin ensures that during the periods that the calibration algorithm is not running, the receiver 106 still has an excellent IIP2. The use of a nonlinear, sign-sign variation of the LMS algorithm in the controller 174 advantageously makes the closed loop dynamics less sensitive to variations in gain.
Alternatively, the gained estimate of a2 in equation (33), i.e., μcâ2, can be replaced by its sign, i.e., sgn{μcâ2}. This replacement means that the controller 174 has no gain.

μcâ2→sgn{μcâ2}=1  (34)

This replacement allows the algorithm to be desensitized from variations in the linear gain, Gtx—rx, particularly variations in the amount transmitter-receiver isolation afforded by the duplexer 108. With this replacement, no multipliers or gain stages are required in the controller 174.
Alternatively,

μcâ2→sgn{μcâ2}=C  (34a)

where the gain C could be derived from a step size look-up table 342 in which the value of C is a function of a present value of â2.

Equation (34a) can be substituted into equation (33). Equation (33) then becomes:

v2(n)=v2(n−1)−C sgn{â2(n)−â2(n−1)}sgn{v2(n−k)−v2(n−1−k)}  (35)

where k represents a delay, measured in number of samples, for a reaction to occur in â2I and â2Q after a change in v2I and v2Q, respectively. The presence of the k term assures that v2I and v2Q is proper aligned with â2I and â2Q, respectively. It takes a certain amount of time, after changing v2I and v2Q, to update the D/A converters 176 and 178, and for a new IMD2 to be passed through analog and digital portions of the receiver 106 and into the estimator 172 updating â2I and â2Q and finally passing these estimates into the IIP2 algorithm of the controller 174. If the delay in the I-channel is different from the delay in the Q-channel, the value k can be replaced with kI and kQ, respectively. This delay mismatch could be the result of I/Q mismatches of the analog filters 148. If these delays are different, one must make sure that v2I and v2Q are always updated at the same instant regardless of when the new estimates of â2I and â2Q are ready. Alternatively, to ensure that v2I and v2Q are updated at the same instant, one can choose the larger of kI and kQ and use it for both v2I and v2Q.
The controller 174 comprises an I-channel controller 300 and a Q-channel controller. The I-channel controller 300 and the Q-channel controller operate independently of each other. FIG. 3 illustrates a functional block diagram of the I-channel controller 300. A functional block diagram of Q-channel controller is not shown because it is substantial similar to I-channel controller 300.
The I-channel controller 300 operates at a rate of FC. The I-channel controller 300 receives values of â2I from the estimator 172 at a rate equal to the rate of operation of the estimator. Usually, the rate of operation FC of the controller 174 is less than or equal to the rate of operation of the estimator 172. In one embodiment of a 3G transceiver, the rate of operation FC of the controller 174 is two (2) to thirty-two (32) times the chip rate. FC is a function of the data rate, and, for the long term evolution (LTE) standard, the data rate can be smaller or larger, i.e., the data rate is a function of the symbol/bit/chip rate. A value of â2I is fed into a differentiator 304, where a difference between a present value of â2I and a previous value â2I is performed, i.e., â2I(n)−â2I(n−1). Alternatively, a true derivative is performed at the differentiator 304. The output from the differentiator 304 is fed into a sign element 308, the output of which is defined as

sgn{a2I(n)−a2I(n−1)}  (36)

The output of the sign element 308 can be theoretically one of −1, 0 and +1. However, the output of the sign element 308 is almost certainly either +1 or −1. It is unlikely that the output of the sign element 308 be zero because noise is always present.
The output v2(n) is fed back into a differentiator 330, where a difference between a present value of v2I and a previous value v2I is performed, i.e., v2I(n)−v2I(n−1). The output from the differentiator 330 is fed into a sign element 334, the output of which is defined as

sgn{v2I(n)−v2I(n−1)}  (37)

However, for the sign element 334, the operation sgn{0} is defined as being equal to the value 1, to avoid stalling on start-up of the controller 174. Therefore, the output of the sign element 334 is always either +1 or −1. The output of the sign element 334 is fed into a delay element 338 that delays the signal by k samples. The output of the delay element 338 is defined as

sgn{v2(n−k)−v2(n−1−k)}  (38)

Equation (36) and equation (38) are multiplied at the gradient direction element 312. The output of the gradient direction element 312 is defined as

sgn{a2I(n)−a2I(n−1)}*sgn{v2(n−k)−v2(n−1−k)}  (39)

The output of the gradient direction element 312 is the gradient direction of the change in a2 with respect to a change in v2. The gradient direction is one of −1, 0 and +1. The gradient direction is based a combination {â2I, v2I} that consists of the sign of the derivative of the â2I and the sign of the derivative of the v2I. The output of the gradient direction element 312 is as follows:
If {−1, −1} or {1, 1} then the gradient direction is −1.
Else if {+1, −1} or {−1, +1} then the gradient direction is +1.
Otherwise, the gradient direction is 0, i.e., sgn{Δâ2I}=0.
The output of the gradient direction element 312, which is either +1 or −1, is fed into a dynamic step size limiter 316. The dynamic step size limiter 316 ensures stability. The controller includes a step size look-up table 342 in which are stored a plurality of values of a2I and associated step sizes C (for example, −2, −1, −0.5, +0.5, 1, 2). The step size C reduces as â2 diminishes. As well, one could control the step size as a function of the output of the gradient direction element 312. Once the output of the gradient direction element 312 switches between +1 and −1 on consecutive updates, the algorithm of the controller 174 is getting closer to the minima (or, most likely, has passed the minima). When the this occurs, the step size can be reduced. The step size could be a function of the integral of the output of the gradient direction element 312. As the integral of the output of the gradient direction element 312 goes to zero, the step size could be decreased. At the dynamic step size limiter 316, the step size C from the step size look-up table 342 and the gradient direction from the gradient direction element 312 are combined and outputted to an adder 320. The value and sign of the output from the dynamic step size limiter 316 determine which direction and by what amount to change, or step, the next setting of v2. At the adder 320, the previous value of v2(n) is updated by the output from the dynamic step size limiter 316, to produce v2(n+1), i.e., v2(n+1)=v2(n)±C. At a delay element 324, v2(n+1) is delayed by one sample, thereby becoming v2(n). The bottom input to the adder 320 (i.e., output of the delay element 324) is v2I(n). The output of the adder 320 is v2I(n+1). The input to the delay element 324 is v2I(n+1).
FIG. 4 is a flow diagram 400 illustrating operation of the calibration system 170. The method of operation of the calibration system 170 estimates the IIP2 coefficient, and minimizes the IIP2 estimation. The method of operation of the calibration system 170 starts at step 401. At step 403, a determination is made whether TX_POWER is greater than a predetermined level F. If it is not, the method returns to step 401. If it is, the method proceeds to step 405. At step 405, a determination is made whether RSSI is less than a predetermined level H. If it is, the method proceeds to step 407. If it is not, the method returns to step 401 and waits a predetermined period of X microseconds for a change to occur in the level of one or both of the TX_POWER and the RSSI. In addition, any change in the AGC settings, the RSSI, or the TX_POWER could initiate an update by the estimator 172. At step 407, state machines 204 determine whether a change in one or more of Gtx—rx, μa, FC and μdc is required, based upon the present level of TX_POWER and RSSI, and any such required change is made. At step 409, the estimator 172 operates, which estimates values of â2I(n) and â2Q(n). At step 411, the controller 174 operates, which minimizes V2I(n) and V2Q(n), thereby minimizing IIP2 in the receiver 106. At step 413, the flow returns to step 401.
Maximum SNR means that the transmitter POUT is 24 dBm at receive sensitivity and that there are no in-band blockers. As the SNR decreases, the adaptive gain μa of the estimator 172 is turned down proportionally and the adaptation (or update) rate FC of the controller 174 is decreased proportionally. As the SNR decreases, the IIP2 becomes less critical; however, it is still desirable to be able to track out temperature drift of the IIP2.
As the transmit power reduces, the performance of the calibration system 170 becomes less critical. The gain μa of the estimator 172 is automatically scaled with POUT via Gtx—rx isolation gain setting (i.e., set via firmware as a function of POUT and received signal strength). A lower gain μa of the estimator 172 increases settling or latency of the estimator, which, in the limit, leads to instability. The adaptation (or update) rate FC of the controller 174 is reduced to facilitate reduction in the gain μa of the estimator 172.
As received signal strength increases above sensitivity, the performance of the calibration system 170 becomes less critical. As the received signal strength increases, the adaptive gain μa and the adaptation (or update) rate FC are turned down. The adaptation (or update) rate FC of the controller 174 becomes progressively slower as received signal strength increases. For a high enough received signal strength, the calibration algorithm is essentially stalled or turned off.
The desired receive signal and in-band blockers act as uncorrelated “noise” sources. The larger the power of the desired receive signal plus the in-band blockers is, the smaller is the SNR recognized by the estimation algorithm. The “linear” residual baseband component dominates SNR recognized by the estimation algorithm.
As the signal strength of the desired signal plus any in-band blocker increases, the gain μa of the estimator 172 is reduced to maintain a required level of noise rejection. The rate FC of the controller 174 is reduced to maintain overall stability of the calibration algorithm. As transmit power reduces, the Gtx—rx of of the calibration algorithm decreases proportionally and the adaptation (or update) rate FC of the controller 174 (the rate of the calibration algorithm) is decreased, to maintain loop stability. As transmit power decreases below a predetermined level and/or as the received signal strength increases above a predetermined level, adaptation is essentially off.
As the transmit-receive isolation of the duplexer 108 increases above its specified minimum, Gtx—rx decreases proportionately at a 2:1 rate. For every 1 dB increase in the transmit-receive isolation provided by the duplexer 108, Gtx—rx decreases by 2 dB. Without knowing what the reduction in isolation is, any such reduction results in slower convergence of the estimator 172 and a 2:1 proportional reduction in the a2 estimate. The controller 174 is designed without any gain terms to desensitize it from such gain variations. For every 1 dB increase in gain before the mixer 140 and 141, the IMD2 will increase by 2 dB.
The calibration system 170 is effective at any SNR; however, the calibration system is most effective when the receiver 106 is at sensitivity and the transmitter 104 is at maximum power out, POUT. The calibration system 170 maximizes IIP2 performance when the receiver 106 is at sensitivity (i.e., attempting to receive a signal at approximately −106.7 dBm), and when the transmitter 104 is at maximum POUT and the transmit signal detrimentally leaking into the receiver, which, after attenuation by the duplexer 108, is at approximately −25 dBm (i.e., several orders of magnitude stronger than the receive signal). If the SNR at the estimator 172 is sufficient at the maximum IIP2, then the calibration system 170 tunes to that point. Therefore, although the SNR will not be best when the transmitter 104 is not at maximum power, the calibration system 170 still can tune to the optimal IIP2.
The calibration system 170 optimizes IIP2 performance to allow the receiver 106 to satisfy the linearity requirement of third generation (3G) Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) receivers.
The calibration system 170 may include a processor (not shown), operatively coupled to the estimator 172 and to the controller 174, which controls some of or all the operation of the calibration system 170. It should be understood that all circuitry described herein may be implemented either in silicon or another semiconductor material or alternatively by software code representation of silicon or another semiconductor material.
In one embodiment, the transceiver 102 and the calibration system 170 are disposed on an integrated circuit fabricated using a deep dual-oxide, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) process.
Although the invention is described herein with reference to specific embodiments, various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims below. For instance, although the exemplary embodiments show that the invention is used with a direct-conversion 3G receiver 106 that lacks both an LNA and a SAW filter, the invention is usable in a direct-conversion 3G receiver that includes one of, or both, an LNA and a SAW filter. Furthermore, the invention is not limited to use with a direct-conversion 3G receiver; the invention is usable in any type of receiver. Although the exemplary embodiments show that the calibration system 170 is used with a transceiver 102 that uses spread-spectrum RF modulation, the invention is usable with a transceiver that uses any of various other RF modulations in which the transmitter 104 transmits at the same moment as the receiver 106 receives. Although the exemplary embodiments show that the calibration system 170 is used with the WCDMA protocol, the invention is usable with other types of protocols. Although the exemplary embodiment of the transceiver 102 operates in one or more frequency bands in a range between approximately 800 MHz and approximately 2 GHz, the invention is also usable with a transceiver 102 that operates in one or more frequency bands outside of that range. Although the exemplary embodiments show that the calibration system 170 is used to tune the second-order intercept point (IP2) to reduce second-order intermodulation distortion (IMD2), the invention also applies to any higher order intercept point (IPn) and a corresponding higher order intermodulation distortion product (IMDn), where n is an even integer. Although in one exemplary embodiment, the transceiver 102 and the calibration system 170 are disposed on an integrated circuit fabricated using CMOS technology; the invention can also be used with an integrated circuit fabricated using other technologies.
Accordingly, the specification and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense, and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention. Any benefits, advantages, or solutions to problems that are described herein with regard to specific embodiments are not intended to be construed as a critical, required, or essential feature or element of any or all the claims.
Unless stated otherwise, terms such as “first” and “second” are used to arbitrarily distinguish between the elements such terms describe. Thus, these terms are not necessarily intended to indicate temporal or other prioritization of such elements.

## Claims

1. A method of tuning a input-related, second-order intercept point (IIP2) of a mixer in a receiver of a transceiver including a transmitter, comprising the steps of:
determining whether power output of the transmitter is greater than a predetermined power output level;
determining whether a received signal strength indication of the receiver is less than a predetermined received signal strength indication level;
providing values for a gain of an IIP2 estimator and an update rate of a IIP2 controller;
using the gain of the IIP2 estimator, performing an optimization algorithm for estimating an estimated value of an IIP2 coefficient that is proportional to second-order intermodulation distortion occurring in the mixer;
using the update rate of the IIP2 controller and the estimated value of the IIP2 coefficient, performing an optimization algorithm for changing a tuning voltage of the mixer;
waiting a period for a change to occur in one or both of the power output level of the transmitter and a received signal strength indication of the receiver;
after waiting the period, determining whether a change in one or both of the gain of the IIP2 estimator and the update rate of the IIP2 controller has occurred;
based upon one of or both the change of the power output level and the received signal strength indication, determining whether a change in one or both of the gain of the IIP2 estimator and the update rate of the IIP2 controller are required; and
if any such change is required, making a change in one or both of the gain of the IIP2 estimator and the update rate of the IIP2 controller, based upon information stored in a look-up table.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of performing the optimization algorithm for estimating the estimated value of the IIP2 coefficient includes a step of compensating for DC offset in the receiver, thereby reducing any degradation of the estimate caused by the presence of the DC offset.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the values for the gain of the IIP2 estimator and the update rate of the IIP2 controller are obtained from respective look-up tables, based upon the power output of the transmitter and the receiver signal strength indication of the receiver.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the optimization algorithm is a sign-sign least means squared optimization algorithm.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the sign-sign least means squared optimization algorithm has a variable step size, the variable step size depending on a magnitude of the IIP2 coefficient estimation.