Hydrokinetic Energy 

Projects and Recreation 

A Guide to 

Assessing Impacts
[This page intentionally left blank].
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects and Recreation:

A Guide to Assessing Impacts

December 2010

Edited by 

Doug Whittaker and Bo Shelby

Prepared by the “Hydrokinetics and Recreation Workgroup”

Rich Bowers, Joan Harn, Susan Rosebrough, Bo Shelby, 

Rupak Thapaliya, Randy Thoreson, and Doug Whittaker 

Support provided by 

National Park Service Hydropower Assistance Program

Department of Energy

Hydropower Reform Coalition

Confluence Research and Consulting

Oregon State University
Note and Disclaimer:

Several federal agency officials involved in hydrokinetic energy technology regulatory processes or assessing 

recreation impacts reviewed draft versions of this document and provided feedback on its accuracy, completeness, 

and clarity. Feedback provided by reviewers helped guide revisions, but final content is the responsibility of the 

authors and editors. The document provides general information about hydrokinetic devices, permitting processes, 

potential recreation impacts, and ways to study and mitigate those impacts, but applications of this information will 

vary for specific projects and situations. In addition, changes in statutes, rules, regulations, technologies, or 

understanding of recreation effect issues may occur after publication, thus requiring revisions or new interpretations 

of the document‟s content. 

The preparation of this document was sponsored by the United States Government (Department of Energy [DOE] 

and National Park Service [NPS]) in cooperation with the Hydropower Reform Coalition (HRC), a coalition of more 

than 140 national, state and local conservation and recreation groups The document attempts to provide complete 

and accurate information, but the United States Government (or any of its agencies), HRC, and Confluence 

Research and Consulting (CRC) do not make any warranty, express or implied, or assume any legal responsibility for 

the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process described or contained 

in this document. The information in this document does not represent a complete record of hydrokinetic licensing 

and permitting requirements, recreation impacts from such technologies, or studies that might be conducted to 

assess and evaluate such impacts. This document is intended for general information purposes only and should not 

be construed as legal advice or a legal opinion. The views and opinions of authors in this document do not 

necessarily reflect those of the United States Government (or its agencies) or the Hydropower Reform Coalition. 

Chapter Authorship and Acknowledgements 

Lead chapter authors have been identified below to allow readers to follow-up on particular topics. The list includes 

authors of In Focus sections when those were written by someone other than lead chapter authors.

Chapter 1: Introduction Doug Whittaker, Bo Shelby, Joan Harn

Chapter 2: Types of Hydrokinetic Projects Rich Bowers and Joan Harn

Chapter 3: Types of Recreation in Hydrokinetic Settings Rich Bowers and Randy Thoreson 

In Focus: What If Area Recreation Uses Are Unknown? Susan Rosebrough

Chapter 4: Applying Recreation Concepts Doug Whittaker and Bo Shelby

Chapter 5: Potential Impacts on Recreation Opportunities Doug Whittaker and Bo Shelby

In Focus: Assessing Cumulative Impacts on Recreation Susan Rosebrough 

Chapter 6: Types of Studies for Recreation Impacts Doug Whittaker and Bo Shelby

In Focus: Recreation studies for the Mississippi River projects Randy Thoreson

Chapter 7: Protection Strategies and Adaptive Management Susan Rosebrough 

Chapter 8: Getting Involved Joan Harn, Rich Bowers, Rupak Thapaliya 

The authors thank the Department of Energy, National Park Service and Hydropower Reform Coalition for supporting 

the project, with particular thanks to Robert Whitson and Alejandro Moreno of DOE for their assistance. We also 

thank Denise Authier (UEK Turbines), Jocelyn Brown-Saracino (DOE), John Beuttler (CSPA), George Detweiler 

(USCG), Tom Flanagan (NPS), Simon Geerlofs (DOE), Janet Hutzel (FERC), Mark Ivy (FERC), Ken Kimball (AMC), 

Gina Krump (DOE), Michael Linde (NPS), Ed Lovelace (Free Flow Power), Vicki McCusker (NPS), Kevin Mendik 

(NPS), Ann Miles (FERC), Kristen Murphy (FERC), Thomas O‟Keefe (AW), Nicholas Palso (FERC), Brain Polagye 

(University of Washington), Kelly Powell (NPS), John Rudolph (DOI), John Ruskey (Quapaw Canoe Company), John 

Seebach (AR), Michael Spray (DOE), Randy Stanley (NPS), Peter Stauffer (Surfrider Foundation), Dave Steindorf 

(AW), Cassie Thomas (NPS), Ken Wilcox (Skookum Peak Consulting), Vince Yearick (FERC), and Ocean 

Renewable Energy Coalition (OREC) for thoughtful reviews of earlier drafts (or sections).
Executive Summary

Introduction

“Hydrokinetic Energy Projects” refers to technologies that generate electricity from waves, tides, and 

ocean or river currents. These emerging technologies may become an important energy source, but like 

any technology they may affect other public resources such as fisheries, wildlife, and recreation. This 

paper provides guidance on how to study recreation impacts and consider ways to minimize adverse ones. 

It is designed for staff from utilities/developers and state and federal agencies involved in assessing 

hydrokinetic impacts, as well as interested stakeholders who want to be “critical consumers” of studies.

Types of hydrokinetic development

Over a hundred conceptual designs of hydrokinetic devices have been developed worldwide, but only a 

few have been tested at full-scale. The report summarizes broad categories of wave and current 

technologies and provides examples that give a sense of their size, generating capacity, working 

principles, place in the water column, or distance from shore. The major distinction between devices is 

whether they harness 1) wave or 2) current energy (current technologies can be in river, tidal, or ocean 

current settings). When considering potential impacts on recreation, it is helpful to further divide 

categories by 1) location relative to shore; 2) location in the water column; and 3) type of technology. 

The diversity of hydrokinetic devices makes it challenging to illustrate the range of device characteristics. 

Additional information needs for recreation impact assessments include: 1) clearance distance for 

submerged devices; 2) size, shape, appearance, and lighting of visible development; 3) the type and extent 

of mooring systems; 4) size and shape of anchors and pilings; 5) size, number, and spacing of arrays; 6) 

specific siting relative to shore; 7) speed and motion of moving parts; 8) initial installation characteristics; 

9) routine maintenance activity characteristics; 10) noise levels; 11) transmission facilities; and 12) 

appearance and location of proposed security features, including a description of potential exclusion 

zones and activity restrictions.

Types of recreation 

The report provides a checklist of recreation activities that occur in river or marine areas with potential 

hydrokinetic development. Descriptions include setting conditions and attributes that may be affected by 

hydrokinetic development. Activities include: boat- and shore-based fishing, powerboating, swimming, 

diving, kayaking, surfing, general recreation on beaches and shorelines, and wildlife viewing. 

Concepts for assessing impacts

The report reviews several recreation management and impact assessment concepts, including: 1) 

providing opportunities for people to have recreation experiences through management of social, 

biophysical, and managerial setting conditions; 2) distinctions between descriptive and evaluative 

information; 3) the importance of assessing trade-offs between potential alternative projects; 4) 

distinctions between direct and indirect effects; and 5) a “progressive approach” of analysis that matches 

the amount of study, monitoring, and mitigation proportional to a project’s likely impact. 

i
Impacts

The paper reviews a range of potential impacts from hydrokinetic projects on recreation, including: 

Access restrictions. Restrictions could include full “exclusions” or “activity restrictions.” The 

amount of impact depends on the type of restriction; size and shape of the “restriction zone”; 

importance of the restricted zone to that type of recreation; and availability of substitute recreation

opportunities.

Changes in aesthetics. Hydrokinetic projects can change the visual quality of an area by introducing 

structures, cables, power-substations, lights, moorings, or barges. They may also produce sounds 

during construction, maintenance, or normal operation that some people will find objectionable. The 

extent of aesthetic or noise impacts from hydrokinetic development depends on the specific project 

(size, shape, and number of devices; restriction zone buoys; sub-stations; and lighting, etc.), the 

setting where it will be located, and the types of uses, including recreation, that occur in the area.

Changes in wave or hydraulic characteristics. A hydrokinetic project designed to capture energy 

from waves or currents may affect their characteristics. Surf-related recreation in marine settings may 

be the most sensitive, but kayakers and others may also seek out areas with dynamic current or wave 

conditions. 

Wreckage and salvage impacts. Impacts from a wrecked device may damage habitat or create 

pollution, which may have longer-term implications on plants and animals that in turn affect 

recreation. Devices that cannot be salvaged may also become navigation hazards, entanglement 

hazards, or eyesores.

Displacement to other recreation areas. Access restrictions may displace recreation users to other 

areas, which in turn may increase crowding at those areas.

Effects on recreation-relevant fish and wildlife. Hydrokinetic facilities may alter fish and wildlife 

habitat or behavior, with implications for recreation dependent on those species (especially fishing 

and wildlife viewing). Hydrokinetic development may also increase the abundance of certain fish or 

wildlife species by creating new habitat or other more favorable conditions.

Cumulative impacts. While an individual hydrokinetic project’s adverse impacts may be minor, the 

long-term success of hydrokinetic development relies on many projects over broad areas. The 

cumulative effect of multiple projects is likely to exceed direct effects on any single project. 

Types of studies

The paper reviews several types of studies (organized by three levels of study intensity), describes general 

study objectives and approaches, and suggests some “keys to success” or other issues, including:

Overview from existing information 

Hydrology, current, and wave summary 

Interviews with key experienced users 

Expert analyses of potential impacts 

Extensive user interviews & focus groups 

Observations of recreation use 

Limited fieldwork and “expert” assessments 

User surveys 

Economic impact and valuation studies

Supply and demand assessments

Computer and physical modeling 

Post-installation monitoring 

Many studies focus on indicators/standards-based measures of quality or natural resource health. 

Choosing recreation indicators for monitoring hydrokinetic development can be challenging, depending 

on the type of development, type of recreation, site characteristics, and impacts of concern. Indicators are 

more useful when they are specific, measurable, responsive, sensitive, integrated, relatively few in 

number, and reflect important conditions. 

ii
Protection strategies

There are three general approaches to protect, mitigate, and enhance recreational resources from 

hydrokinetic projects: 1) identify sensitive and less sensitive areas (a focus on choosing best sites); 2)

minimize or reduce impacts through project design modifications; and 3) develop off-site mitigation for 

impacts that can’t be reduced to acceptable levels. 

As a new technology, there is limited scientific or historic basis for assessing impacts. This increases the 

importance of applying adaptive management principles: ensuring there is a structured process for longterm monitoring, evaluation of potential impacts, and adaptation (or removal) of projects to keep impacts 

to acceptable levels. 

Getting involved in licensing processes

A final chapter briefly reviews authorities and processes required to develop hydrokinetic projects, 

including BOEMRE leases (for projects on the Outer Continental Shelf) and FERC pilot and conventional 

licenses. It also highlights key information requirements and opportunities for addressing recreation 

issues. There are many opportunities for stakeholders to participate in the licensing process including: 1) 

helping identify issues of concern; 2) proposing studies and negotiating study plans; 3) commenting on 

licensee proposals; 4) recommending operations and protection, mitigation, and enhancement measures; 

and 5) challenging FERC decisions through administrative and legal appeals.

iii
[This page intentionally left blank].
Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................1

Paper goals and objectives...............................................................................................................2

Paper organization ...........................................................................................................................3

2. Types of Hydrokinetic Projects..............................................................................................................5

Categorizing technologies................................................................................................................5

Wave Energy Technologies.............................................................................................................6

Current Energy Technologies..........................................................................................................9

Additional technology information needs......................................................................................11

3. Types of Recreation in Hydrokinetic Settings......................................................................................13

River settings .................................................................................................................................13

Marine settings...............................................................................................................................15

Recreation opportunities in both marine and river settings ...........................................................19

In Focus: What If Area Recreation Uses Are Unknown? .............................................................20

4. Concepts for Assessing Impacts...........................................................................................................23

Basic recreation management concepts .........................................................................................23

Applying recreation concepts to hydrokinetic impact assessments...............................................24

Distinguishing direct and indirect impacts.....................................................................................25

Level of effort and “a progression of study options”.....................................................................26

Integrating concepts into project licensing ....................................................................................28

5. Potential Impacts on Recreation Opportunities....................................................................................29

Access restrictions and public safety .............................................................................................29

Aesthetics and noise.......................................................................................................................30

Impacts on waves or hydraulic characteristics...............................................................................32

Wreckage and salvage impacts......................................................................................................33

Displacement that leads to crowding at substitute areas................................................................33

Fish, wildlife, and related ecological impacts................................................................................34

Local recreation economic impacts................................................................................................35

In Focus: Example Access Restrictions for Different Types of Devices.......................................36

In Focus: Example Access Restriction Impacts for Recreation....................................................40

In Focus: Example Aesthetic Impacts and Issues..........................................................................43

In Focus: Example Ecological Impacts with Recreation Implications.........................................45

In Focus: Assessing Cumulative Impacts on Recreation ..............................................................47

6. Types of Studies for Recreation Impacts of Hydrokinetic Projects .....................................................49

Level 1 methods.............................................................................................................................49

Level 2 methods.............................................................................................................................53

Level 3 methods (“intensive studies”) ...........................................................................................56

Economic impact and valuation studies.........................................................................................59

In Focus: Hydrokinetic – Recreation Studies on the Lower Mississippi River.............................63

In Focus: Evaluating Recreation Implications of Biological Changes: .......................................64

The Example of Fishability Studies in Traditional Hydropower Relicensing................................64

In Focus: Mapping the Relative Importance of Recreation Areas ...............................................65

In Focus: Effective & Efficient Monitoring: Choosing Appropriate Indicators...........................66

In Focus: Integrating Information Across Disciplines.................................................................67
7. Protection Strategies and Adaptive Management.................................................................................69

Protection strategies.......................................................................................................................69

Adaptive management framework.................................................................................................72

8. Getting Involved:..................................................................................................................................73

Authorities and information requirements.....................................................................................73

FERC Licensing Processes............................................................................................................76

In Focus: FERC Recreation and Aesthetic Information Requirements........................................78

In Focus: Making Study Requests and Settlements.......................................................................79

In Focus: Hydropower Proposals and the National Park Service ...............................................80

9. References............................................................................................................................................83

10. Glossary................................................................................................................................................93

11. List of interviewees..............................................................................................................................99

12. List of hyperlinks................................................................................................................................104
1. Introduction

“Hydrokinetic Energy Projects” (hereafter labeled “hydrokinetics”) refers to a class of devices that 

generate electricity from waves, tides, and ocean or river currents.

1

Interest in these technologies has 

grown in recent years; at the end of 2010, there were more than 160 projects on file at Federal Energy 

Regulatory Commission (FERC), the primary federal agency with jurisdiction over hydrokinetic projects. 

These emerging technologies may become an important energy source, but like any energy technology 

they may affect other public resources such as fisheries, wildlife, and recreation. Few technologies have 

been tested in a marine or river environment in this country, although several prototypes have been 

developed in Europe and Australia. At the end of 2010, there was only one licensed hydrokinetic project 

in the United States (through an amendment to an existing conventional hydropower project) and there 

had been limited in-water testing (and no larger-scale projects). However, a regularly updated summary 

of projects showed FERC issued preliminary permits for 143 projects (17 tidal, 10 wave, and 116 in 

rivers) and 22 preliminary permits were pending (13 tidal, 1 wave, and 8 inland rivers); two license 

applications are pending (1 tidal, 1 wave); and another project had tested devices without a license 

(because it did not transmit power into the national energy grid). Most of these projects are being 

developed under FERC’s “pilot license” option, a much shorter than normal license term to allow 

developers to test equipment on-site and study potential impacts. Pilot projects also allow stakeholders to 

help identify potential environmental impacts and request reasonable studies that will help developers 

determine the scope of project impacts. 

The Department of Energy (DOE) recently completed a review of potential biological and physical 

impacts from hydrokinetic projects (DOE 2009b) as directed by Congress in the Energy Independence 

and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). However, that report does not address potential recreation impacts. To 

help fill that information need, this paper reviews potential impacts2to recreation and suggests ways those 

impacts can be studied, minimized, or mitigated. Potential recreation impacts may include:

Recreation access exclusions or activity restrictions for safety or security reasons.

Aesthetic impacts, including visual and aural impacts from the devices or the cables, powersubstations, lights, moorings, or barges associated with them. 

Impacts on “hydrodynamics,” including waves or hydraulics in river, tidal, or ocean currents that 

affect surfing, kayaking, fishing or other activities.

Wreckage/salvage impacts that create boating hazards, damage habitat, or change aesthetics. 

Changes to fish or wildlife populations, behaviors, or habitat that in turn affect fishing and wildlife 

viewing opportunities. 

Potential for hydrokinetic development to become an “attractive nuisance” that encourages recreation 

use in hazardous areas. 

 

1 Several labels have or could be used to identify these technologies (or categories of technologies), including “wave energy 

technologies,” “current energy technologies,” “marine and hydrokinetic technologies,” or “marine and river hydrokinetic 

technologies” (each with separate acronyms). We encourage use of the general term “hydrokinetics” to cover the full range, all 

of which involve some method of generating energy from the movement of water. Ocean Thermal Energy Technology (OTEC) is 

a related technology that is sometimes included in this group. However, this report does not explicitly cover recreation impacts

from OTEC because that technology falls under a different regulatory framework (even as many principles discussed are 

applicable). 

2

“Impacts” may refer to positive or negative impacts.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 2

The National Park Service (NPS, which has consulting responsibilities concerning recreation issues in 

FERC hydropower licensing proceedings, and the Hydropower Reform Coalition (HRC, which includes 

organizations with an interest in water-based recreation) collaborated to review the potential impacts of 

hydrokinetic projects on recreation in a 2008 workshop in Seattle. From that session, participants 

recognized the need to develop a document that would help FERC, agencies, stakeholders, and project 

developers understand and address the issues. Similar guides have been developed to help assess 

recreation impacts from traditional hydropower projects (Whittaker et al., 1993; Whittaker et al., 2007), 

but hydrokinetic projects are likely to be developed in different environments and have different impacts. 

This document applies recreation management concepts and study options to the distinct issues presented 

by hydrokinetic development. 

Paper goals and objectives

The overall goal of the paper is to provide guidance on how to study recreation impacts and minimize (or 

mitigate) adverse impacts from hydrokinetic projects on recreation in river and marine settings. Specific 

objectives include:

Review concepts that help assess impacts of hydrokinetic projects on recreation. 

Develop common terminology for types of projects, impacts, and studies and provide links for 

stakeholders and professionals interested in further information. 

Identify types of hydrokinetic projects and the recreation-relevant characteristics that distinguish 

them, with links to a Department of Energy database with more information. 

Identify the range of potential project impacts on specific types of recreational opportunities.

Identify types of studies that can be used to assess impacts on recreation from hydrokinetic 

development and describe issues in conducting studies well. 

Discuss challenges integrating recreation study results with other resources (e.g., studies on impacts 

to fish, wildlife, or ecological resources). 

Briefly describe existing FERC licensing processes for hydrokinetic development and the 

opportunities they provide agencies and stakeholders to assess recreation impacts. 

Educate project developers, agencies, and stakeholders about recreation issues and provide links to 

existing documents that can help.

The guide is designed for staff from utilities/developers and state and federal agencies involved in 

assessing hydrokinetic impacts, as well as interested stakeholders who want to be “critical consumers” of 

studies and become involved in hydrokinetic project licensing processes. The guide is not intended to 

provide detailed information about specific technologies, their recreation impacts, or instructions on how 

to conduct specific studies; the EISA report likewise does not assess impacts from specific devices on 

ecological resources or describe ecological study protocols. However, the intent is to provide a sufficient 

overview that allows readers to become meaningfully involved in licensing or study processes. 

The guide describes processes for 1) determining appropriate levels of study, and 2) conducting and 

documenting those studies; the goal is the same regardless of the size, complexity, or level of impact from 

the project. We recognize that hydrokinetic energy development is in its early stages, and some 

developers are testing pilot devices that are likely to have small impacts, while others have larger designs. 

A good process matches the study effort (including cost, time, etc.) to the type, location, or extent of 

likely impacts. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 3

The guide focuses on site impacts from hydrokinetic development. Comparing impacts from 

hydrokinetics with other energy alternatives (such as coal, natural gas, oil, traditional hydropower, 

nuclear, wind, or solar) is an important task, as is consideration of impacts such as climate change that are 

not site-specific. We recognize the importance of these larger comparisons, but our focus in this guide is 

narrower. 

Finally, the guide does not compare legal or administrative requirements for hydrokinetic studies with 

requirements for alternative energy technologies. The applicable licensing/permitting regulations were 

developed independently, so the “rules” and study processes for assessing impacts on recreation may be 

different. Addressing potential inequities in those rules or processes is beyond the scope of the guide.

Paper organization

The paper is organized into eight chapters. In several chapters there are “In Focus” sections (identified by 

shading and different font type), which provide additional information or detailed examples for topics in 

that chapter. We have collected the In Focus sections at the back of each chapter to improve the flow of 

broader concepts in the main text. 

Chapter 2 provides an overview of different types of hydrokinetic projects, with representative 

examples for each. The goal is to suggest the range of hydrokinetic project characteristics (e.g., size, 

location, and generation capacity). 

Chapter 3 provides a summary of different types of recreation that may occur in hydrokinetic

development areas. The goal is to provide a preliminary “check list” of activities (and their key 

attributes) which may be affected by hydrokinetic development.

Chapter 4 reviews several principles for assessing impacts on recreation, providing a conceptual 

framework for other sections of the report. 

Chapter 5 is a major focus of the document and reviews potential impacts of hydrokinetic projects on 

recreation. The goal is to provide a “check list” of impacts for study consideration, as well as 

provide examples that illustrate the issues involved in each. 

Chapter 6 is the other major focus of the document. It reviews types of studies for assessing impacts

of hydrokinetic projects on recreation, organized by level of effort. For each type of study, we 

provide descriptions of study objectives, approaches, and keys to success. 

Chapter 7 provides an overview of protection strategies and adaptive management, exploring how 

study information might be used to minimize or mitigate impacts on recreation. 

Chapter 8 provides an overview of getting involved in hydrokinetic licensing, with brief reviews of 

authorities, information requirements, and licensing processes.

Appendices include references and website links, a glossary of terms, a list of interviewees, and a list of 

hyperlinks for readers with non-electronic versions of the document. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 4

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 5

2. Types of Hydrokinetic Projects

This chapter reviews general classes of river and ocean hydrokinetic projects and provides links to the 

DOE database and the FERC eLibrary for more information about specific projects. The use of specific 

projects as illustrations does not imply the project is more likely to be developed or that its impacts apply 

to other technologies (illustrative examples were provided by DOE for each type). 

Over a hundred conceptual designs of hydrokinetic devices have been developed worldwide, but only a 

few have been built and tested at full-scale (and most of those have been in Europe). The following broad 

categories are intended to be general and to illustrate hydrokinetic technologies. DOE (2009a) has 

developed an extensive device database and categorized different types by technology or other attributes. 

More detailed descriptions and taxonomies of potential devices are also available: 

Wave and Current Energy Generating Devices Criteria and Standards (MMS, 2009).

Marine and Hydrokinetics (MHK) Knowledge Base (Pacific Energy Ventures, 2009).

For this document, we have summarized broad categories of wave and current technologies (see outline 

below) and provided examples (see tables that follow) to provide a sense of their size, generating 

capacity, working principles, where they may be deployed in the water column, or their distance from 

shore. We have also provided links to example projects or other background material, with example 

photos for each type of device. (Note: We have tried to provide examples from the United States, but 

when those don’t exist, we use examples or photos from other countries).

Categorizing technologies

The major distinction between types of devices is whether they harness 1) wave or 2) current energy 

(current technologies can be in river, tidal, or ocean current settings). Within those categories, it is 

possible to divide types by: 

Location relative to shore (on-shore, near-shore, or off-shore). 

Location within the water column (e.g., fully submerged vs. some components above the surface). 

Type of technology (e.g., oscillating water column, pitching/surging/heaving/swaying, point absorber, 

turbine). 

With our focus on recreation impacts, we primarily organize examples by their location relative to the 

shore and to the amount of visible development above the water surface. Once project siting has been 

determined, location relative to recreation access points, attractions, and routes will also be important. 

We also illustrate the major technologies used within these categories. Note that some technology types 

are repeated because they can be placed in different settings and locations within the water column. 

Also, some types include more than one example (to cover prominent U.S. projects; these were suggested 

by DOE as representative of each type). 

Wave Energy Technologies

A. Shore-based

B. Fixed with above-water components

C. Fixed with all components submerged

D. Floating 

Current Energy Technologies 

A. Floating

B. Submerged
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 6

Wave Energy Technologies 

Wave energy devices use surface wave motion or pressure changes beneath passing waves to generate 

power. With surface devices, the vertical rise and fall of the water surface is converted into rotary motion 

to run a generator, while devices located below the surface exploit the vertical head created by passing 

waves, just as conventional hydro turbines harness the potential energy of falling water. 

Table 1. Examples of Wave Energy Technologies. 

Type of Technology Description Examples3

A. Shore-based

These devices are typically attached to shore, with generating facilities contained in a watertight concrete or steel chamber. 

There are typically components above and below the water surface. 

1. Shore-based

Oscillating Water 

Column

The pneumatic pressure from long swell waves pushes an 

internal water column back and forth, which turns a 

generator. 

Existing prototypes are embedded in cliffs; others are 

proposed to be incorporated into jetties. It may be possible 

to hang device from a floating or other fixed structure.

Devices typically designed for 6 to 30 meter depths.

Dimensions vary, but one prototype is 20 meters wide. 

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 500 KW; 

scalable to 1.5 MW.

Wavegen Project

Islay, Scotland

Douglas County Wave Energy Project

Winchester Bay, OR

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P12743 issued 4/6/2007.

B. Fixed with above-water components

These devices are typically in nearshore settings. They are fixed to the shore or ocean floor, but have substantial components 

above the water surface. 

2. Fixed - Oscillating 

Wave Surge Converter

As waves pass the device, the rising peak pushes an 

oscillating water column from underneath (not visible in 

photo at left) which pushes air through a generator. 

When the water passes, the water column drops, air is 

decompressed and pulled through the generator from the 

other direction. 

Dimensions vary, but one prototype appears to have an 

above surface “pipe” radius of about 4.5 to 6 meters and 

a length of 23 to 30 meters. 

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 1.5 to 

2.5 MW.

Potential projects in Australia, Hawaii, 

Mexico, and Spain. To date, no 

FERC preliminary permit for USA. 

Prototypes developed in Port Kembla,

Australia.

3. Fixed - Overtopping Device is anchored with the head up against the incoming 

waves and guides the water into a tube which then drains 

through a generator. 

Mounted on the sea floor or man-made beach.

Dimensions vary depending on device. Full scale 

prototype being tested in Hanstholm, Denmark.

The developers project capacity for a single unit: .0.2 MW

Waveplane Prototype 1. 

 

3 We encourage hydrokinetic projects to be identified by their geographical location and type of technology (e.g. “Hastings 

current project”) rather than by their developer‟s corporate name (which may change, is not descriptive, and which could apply to 

several sites if the technology becomes popular). However, readers should note that many others may use developer names. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 7

Type of Technology Description Examples

4. Fixed - Oscillating 

Wave Surge Converter

Captures wave surge energy directly by using relative 

motion between a flap and a fixed reaction point; the flap 

oscillates along a given axis dependent on the device; 

energy is extracted from the relative motion of the body 

part relative to its fixed reference. The tops of most 

devices are just above the water surface. 

Devices typically designed for 10 to 12 meter water 

depth. Dimensions vary depending on device. One 

prototype is about 18 meters wide.

Devices are likely to be developed in arrays; example 

spacing is about 18 meters between devices. Single Unit 

wave-shore prototype is being tested at EMEC (European 

Marine Energy Centers)

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 0.3 to 

0.6 MW

Aquamarine Power EMEC-1 project 

“The Oyster”, Scotland

C. Fixed and submerged 

These devices are typically in near-shore settings (but may be located off-shore). They are fixed to the shore or ocean floor 

(both pile supported and tethered/moored devices) and have no components above the water surface. 

5. Submerged - Point 

Absorber

This converter is fully-submerged and uses the power of 

waves to deliver high pressure seawater ashore to 

produce either electricity or freshwater from desalination. 

It requires no high voltage transmission.

Devices are permanently anchored to the seafloor and 

can operate in water deeper than 15 meters in areas 

where there are no breaking waves.

Prototype is approximately 2 meters wide by 5 meters in 

height. Formal launch January 2010 in Fremantle, 

Western Australia.

The commercial demonstration project will have a peak 

installed capacity of 5MW.

CETO Wave Energy Technology

6. Submerged -

Oscillating Wave Surge 

Converter

This device captures energy from the swaying motion of 

buoyant blades with the oscillating flow field. 

Devices sit on seafloor.

Prototype is approximately 2 meters wide by 5 meters in 

height. 0.25 MW prototypes being deployed in Port Fairy, 

Victoria, Australia.

The developers project capacity for a single unit: .25 MW, 

scalable to 1 MW per unit.

BioWave Technology
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 8

Type of Technology Description Examples

D. Floating 

These devices are moored to shore or the ocean floor, but they float and have substantial components above the water surface. 

7. Floating - Oscillating 

Wave Surge Converter 

Waves enter this large floating powerplant, causing flaps 

hung below the floats to heave or sway. 

Prototypes deployed Lolland in Denmark in 2008. A 

recent prototype was 37 meters wide, 25 meters long, 6 

meters high (to deck) and weighed approximately 350 

tons. A full scale project may be up to 450 meters wide.

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 10 MW.

“Poseidon” Floating Power Plant

7. Floating - Point 

Absorber (power 

buoys)

Most work by “bobbing” and capturing the energy from 

the “up and down” motion of waves. 

These are partially submerged (e.g., rising 1.8 meters

above the surface), but also tend to be relatively long and 

have substantial components below the surface (e.g., 

extending 45 meters).

“PowerBuoy” technology is expected to be deployed in 

depths of 50 meters. 

The developers project capacity for a single unit: scalable 

to 2 MW.

Reedsport OPT Wave Park Project 

Reedsport, OR

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P12713 issued 2/16/2007 and 

application filed with FERC on 

1/27/2009.

Coos Bay OPT Wave Park Project

Coos Bay, OR.

FERC Preliminary Permit No. 12749, 

issued 3/9/2007. 

8. Floating - Attenuator 

– Rotational Joint

Device is oriented parallel to the direction of the incoming 

wave and converts the energy due to the relative motion 

of the parts of the device as the wave passes along it. 

They look somewhat like semi-submerged “train cars” and 

are typically moored to the ocean floor. 

An example device may be 120 meter long and 3.5 meter 

wide, with about 2 meter above the water surface. 

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 750 kW

Orcadian Wave Farm Profile, 

Scotland 

9. Floating -

Overtopping

Large devices that capture water in a reservoir from the 

tops of waves, then allows water to drain through a 

traditional low-head hydropower turbine in the device. 

Pilot / testing since 2004. 

May be scalable as large as 170 meters by 300 meters.

The developers project capacity for a single unit: 11 MW 

WaveDragon,

Denmark
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 9

Current Energy Technologies 

These often submerged devices operate in rivers, tidal areas, or ocean currents, generally using the energy 

of horizontal currents to spin turbines that power generators.

Table 2. Examples of Current Energy Technologies.

Type of Technology Description Examples

A. Floating or with above-water surface components 

1. Floating - Cross Flow Turbine –

Shrouded Rotor

Four fixed hydrofoil blades of the turbine 

are connected to a rotor that drives an 

integrated gearbox and electrical 

generator assembly. The hydrofoil 

blades employ a hydrodynamic lift 

principal that causes the turbine foils to 

move proportionately faster than the 

speed of the surrounding water.

Dimensions vary by device. 

The developers project capacity for a 

single unit: .25 MW. 

Turnagain Arm Tidal Generation Project, 

AK (Blue Energy Ocean Turbine)

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-13509, 

Preliminary Permit issued 9/3/2009 

2. Floating - Axial Turbine Flow –

Shrouded Rotor

Typically has two or three blades 

mounted on a horizontal shaft (wind 

turbine design) to form a rotor; the kinetic 

motion of the water current creates lift on 

the blades causing the rotor to turn 

driving a mechanical generator. Rotors 

on these projects are designed to 

operate over a wide range of flow 

speeds. 

Hastings Project is mounted to a 20 by 

12 meter barge located in the tailrace of 

an existing dam, 2-units with total 

capacity of .07 MW; (Sole license issued 

in the United States to date).

Hastings Project, Minnesota

FERC Project No. P-4306, license issued 

12/13/2008 

3. Floating - Cross Flow Turbine –

Open Rotor 

Typically has two or three helical blades 

mounted along a shaft (egg beater) to 

form a rotor; the kinetic motion of the 

water current creates lift on the blades 

causing the rotor to turn, driving a 

mechanical generator.

The OCGen prototype can be bargemounted and unidirectional regardless of 

current flow direction and is 11 by 32 

meters long, 2 to 5 meters in length. The 

device can be stacked either horizontally 

or vertically to form arrays.

Project capacity for a single unit is 158 

kW; 80 to 120 units proposed for 

Western Passage Project (total capacity 

between 12.6 and 19 MW).

Western Passage OCGen Power Project, 

Maine

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12689, 

issued 7/23/2007. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 10

Type of Technology Description Examples

B. Submerged devices 

These devices are typically attached to fixed pilings or moorings with no substantial development above the surface. 

4. Submerged - Axial Turbine Flow 

– Open Rotor 

Typically has two or three blades 

mounted on a horizontal shaft (wind 

turbine design) to form a rotor; the kinetic 

motion of the water current creates lift on 

the blades causing the rotor to turn 

driving a mechanical generator. Rotors 

on these projects are designed to operate 

over a wide range of flow speeds. 

An example device may have 5-11meter 

rotor diameters for each unit. 

Six units with a project capacity of .175 

MW.

Roosevelt Island Profile (RITE), New York

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12611 

issued 12/13/2005 with pilot license 

application submitted 11/25/08. 

5. Submerged - Oscillating 

Hydrofoil – Reciprocating Device 

(Flow Flutter)

Similar to an airplane wing but in water; 

yaw control systems adjusts their angle 

relative to the water stream, creating lift 

and drag forces that cause device 

oscillation; mechanical energy from this 

oscillation feeds into a power conversion 

system. 

Fifteen meter wide hydroplane

The developers project capacity for a 

single unit: 1.5 MW.

Shetland Islands Profile , United Kingdom

6. Submerged - Axial Turbine Flow 

– Shrouded Rotor 

Submerged device similar to #2 above, 

but using ocean currents located in an 

inland marine waterway and sitting 

directly on the sea floor. The turbine is bidirectional to capture ebbing and flowing 

tidal currents. 

Admiralty pilot project to include two 

units with a combined installed project 

capacity of 1 MW. Projected build-out 

450 units.

Admiralty Inlet Project, Washington 

FERC Pilot License application P-12690 

issued 12/28/2009. 

Yukon River at Eagle, AK

7. Submerged - Axial Turbine Flow 

– Shrouded Rotor 

Submerged device similar to #2 above, 

fixed to the river bottom, with several 

turbine units per mount structure.

Example units have 7-10 blades, and a 

diameter of either 1.4 m or 3m. Turbines 

designed for river applications are not bidirectional.

Devices are likely to be developed in 

arrays; example proposal is for 3850 

units, generating 77 MW.

The developers project capacity for a 

single unit: 10 kW – 40 kW.

Ste. Genevieve Bend Project, Missouri

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12917, 

issued 2/1/2008.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 11

Additional technology information needs 

The diversity of hydrokinetic devices makes it challenging to illustrate the range of device sizes, extent of 

development above the water surface, or design features, even within the broad categories above. 

Accordingly, we have developed an initial, non-exclusive list of additional information needed to 

adequately assess impacts for recreation:

For submerged devices, it is important to know the “subsurface clearance distance” (vertical distance 

between the top of device and the water surface), and whether that distance changes with flow or tidal 

fluctuations. The issue here is what size recreation vessels could navigate over the device.

For submerged or floating devices, it may be important to describe a “lateral clearance distance” 

(horizontal distance from the sides of the device) that vessels need to maintain to avoid colliding with 

the device. 

For floating devices or those with above-water components, another issue relates to the size, shape, 

and appearance of visible development, which may have potential aesthetic impacts as well as 

indirect impacts on skimming/diving birds, waterfowl, and sea mammals. 

For all floating devices (or submerged devices that are not fixed to the sea or river floor), the type and 

extent of mooring systems will be important. The depth and extent of cables or anchors could affect 

whether recreation users can fish or anchor in an area, some mooring systems may present navigation 

hazards, and there may also be indirect impacts on fish and wildlife. To date, few conceptual device 

descriptions provide extensive detail about their mooring systems. 

For devices that are fixed to pilings or otherwise anchored to the ocean or river bottom, developers 

should provide detailed information about the size and shape of anchors and pilings. These may 

become “channel” structure that may affect fish and wildlife populations or behavior, current or wave 

characteristics, or influence potential access restrictions for recreation. 

Pilot projects typically have only one or two devices, but commercial projects may involve arrays of 

tens or hundreds. The size and shape of an array (footprint, exclusion zones, and impacts on 

navigation) is a major issue for recreation analyses, and most projects have not provided detailed 

information that will allow adequate analysis of commercial project impacts. 

Distance from shore is a potentially important issue for recreation impacts. Several impacts depend 

upon the specific site characteristics where devices will be deployed. Many projects focus on water 

column depths rather than distance from shore, but both variables are important for recreation. 

The speed and “range of motion” of moving parts in hydrokinetic devices may be important. They are 

likely to vary by type of device and setting characteristics (e.g., a turbine will move faster in stronger 

currents, a wave device may sway more dramatically or with greater force in large waves), and may 

affect safety of boats or other recreation uses in the vicinity (which may affect the need for access 

restrictions). Key information may include average, typical, and maximum velocity estimates for 

moving parts. 

Initial construction or deployment may involve greater amounts of activity, support vessels, noise 

(especially for piling-based development), access restrictions, or other impacts. Estimates of the 

length and level of activity during deployment are an important part of the project description. Time 

of year for initial deployment may be a factor, allowing impacts to be concentrated in low recreation 

use seasons, or less critical times for fish and wildlife. 

Estimates of the frequency and length of maintenance periods and associated levels of activity could 

also be important. Maintenance activities may involve support vessels, increased noise impacts, risks 

of leakage or salvage, increased aesthetic impact due to greater activity at the site, or larger or 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 12

different access restrictions. Descriptions should include whether maintenance can be conducted 

underwater or whether they require components brought to the surface, which may take longer or

create greater aesthetic impacts. Scheduled maintenance may be able to be scheduled during lower 

use seasons or when fish and wildlife populations are less vulnerable, but unexpected maintenance 

needs might occur at less opportune times (e.g., fish migrations or spawning, peak recreation 

seasons). 

Information about under or above water noise levels during deployment, maintenance, or regular 

operations could be important. The primary potential effects are likely to focus on fish and wildlife 

behavior, but in some “quiet” settings, the buzz or hum of development may affect human aesthetic 

evaluations. 

Some technologies may alter circulation in river channels or near-shore environments, affecting 

impacting navigation and changing the distribution or abundance of aquatic and marine organisms 

important for wildlife watching, fishing, and shell fishing.

All technologies must connect to a land-based grid. The type of connection (subsea/underground v. 

overhead) and associated facilities needed (e.g. substations) should be described because these may 

affect recreation access, aesthetics, or shore-based fish and wildlife.

Most wave and current development is unlikely to change ocean or river temperatures, but ocean 

thermal energy conversion (OTEC) development is a related technology that generates energy from 

temperature differentials between warm surface water and cold deep ocean water. Although OTEC 

devices are not a focus of this guide, temperature changes are a critical variable for that technology. 

It would also be beneficial to have estimates of “project footprint” (both area of actual development 

and area of access restrictions) to compare with projected generation (in terms of kilowatts). This 

will allow comparisons with other alternative energy projects (e.g., wind, solar, nuclear, micro-hydro, 

etc.), which also occupy a certain amount of space to produce a certain amount of energy, each with 

recreation repercussions. . 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 13

3. Types of Recreation in Hydrokinetic Settings

This chapter provides a general list of recreation activities that occur in areas with potential hydrokinetic 

development. The goal is to provide a “checklist” for potential developers, agencies, or stakeholders to 

review as a project is proposed, as well as briefly describe the activity and its key biophysical, social, and 

managerial setting attributes. The list should not be considered exhaustive, but we have tried to identify 

the most common recreation activities and important attributes. Chapter 4 discusses the importance of 

setting attributes for specifying recreation opportunities, which is the foundation for assessing impacts as 

discussed in Chapter 5.

Hydrokinetic projects may be located in river and marine settings, including estuaries, coastal marine and 

near-shore zones, and open-ocean, deep-sea regions, where a diversity of recreation opportunities occur. 

While it is challenging to develop a comprehensive list of recreation for each setting, it is possible to 

identify the most common recreation opportunities and the key characteristics or setting attributes that 

may become issues during hydrokinetic – recreation analyses. 

The following recreation opportunity list is organized by type of setting (river and marine) and then by 

type of opportunity, with some opportunities grouped to avoid repetition. For each, we provide basic 

information about how the opportunity “works” and describe attributes that define high quality. 

Opportunity descriptions are necessarily general, and may need to be more carefully described for 

particular projects. For example, descriptions generally do not distinguish between opportunities related 

to experience settings (e.g., whether an area is more primitive or more developed, or has higher vs. lower 

use levels), size or type of boat craft (e.g., jetboats vs. other motorized craft on a river, larger vs. smaller 

sailboats), or technique or target species fishing (e.g., top-casting vs. bottom-fishing in a surf fishery, 

trout vs. salmon in a river fishery). 

The great variety of outdoor recreation pursuits in the United States, including in river and marine 

environments, plays an important role in the lives of most Americans in terms of quality of life, the 

importance of public resources, and the state of our overall economy and health. For example, a 2006 

Active Outdoor Recreation Economy Report found that outdoor recreation contributes $730 billion to the 

US Economy, and supports nearly 6.5 million jobs.

River settings 

Boat-based fishing 

Taken together, fishing from boats or the shore is one of the most popular water-based recreation 

activities, with 44 percent participating (National Survey on Recreation and the Environment (NSRE), 

2004; see 2004 report and 2005 summary PowerPoint). Anglers fish from boats in cold and warm water 

for a variety of different species using different techniques (usually categorized by type of “terminal 

tackle:” bait, spinning or other artificial lures, or flies). The details of these differences may be important 

when assessing potential impacts from hydrokinetic development, depending on where it is located in the 

water column. For example, anglers may fish the bottom of the river with bait for catfish, walleye, or 

sturgeon, while targeting other species closer to the surface with lures or flies (e.g., trout, steelhead trout, 

salmon, or bass). On the Lower Mississippi, bottom-fishing anglers sometimes attach weighted tackle to 

floating jugs and set out several at a time (when they see them bobbing, indicating a strike, they retrieve 

the jug, tackle and hooked fish). By comparison, top-casting techniques (with spinning or fly gear) are 

generally at much lower risk of becoming entangled in hydrokinetic development. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 14

River anglers may fish from both drift or power boats. A drift boat is more flow-dependent (has less 

ability to travel long distances or deal with strong currents), so hydrokinetic project locations,

navigational lanes, and access restrictions may have greater impact, especially regarding devices that are 

not completely submerged. In contrast, powerboat anglers may have more ability to travel around 

hydrokinetic development or restriction zones. 

Many fishing techniques occur from stationary or slow-moving boats (drifting with the current, or trolling 

with a small motor or oars), which may depend upon certain flows and current velocities. Most anglers 

fish from their own boats, but others may rent or charter boats with a guide, which may have different 

economic impacts for a local community. 

The density of boat-based fishing varies greatly. A high potential harvest area may experience seasonal 

crowding (Columbia and Kenai salmon fisheries are some examples), though many fisheries have high 

success rates and lower densities. The spacing between boats can also be important (e.g., in order to 

avoid entanglements, or competition for fishing locations, boats may be widely dispersed). All of these 

factors may interact with hydrokinetic development in such a way that reduces access to fishing. 

Shore-based fishing

Many anglers fish from shore rather than boats, for both warm and cold water species. Target areas and 

techniques for shore-based fishing vary greatly (and include those who wade from shore while they fish). 

Similar to boat-based fishing, shore anglers may be interested in bottom fish (catfish, sturgeon, or carp) or 

those targeted in the middle of the water column or closer to the surface (trout, salmon, various species of 

bass). Spin, bait, and fly fishing are three general categories of shore-based fishing techniques, which 

may interact with species targets to determine which parts of the water column they use. Techniques that 

fish deeper waters are more likely to be affected by sub-surface hydrokinetic development. 

Angler specialization may be an important consideration when assessing fishing opportunities. The 

angling specialization concept was proposed by Bryan (1977, 1979) to partially explain differences 

between anglers that use different equipment and seek different species, settings, and experiences (see 

Dawson, 2010 for a recent review). Specialized anglers may have invested more time and money in a 

chosen activity, and may be more sensitive to conditions at their setting. 

Shore-based anglers may also be distinguished by their interest in a specific harvest, as well as other 

characteristics, such as membership in fishing clubs, interest in tournaments and competitions, and

affiliation with a socio-economic class. Both shore- and boat-based anglers tend to have higher 

proportions of men than women, and tend to have older participants than the general population. 

Swimming

Swimming in natural waters (identified as lakes, streams, rivers, etc.) is one of the most popular 

recreation activities in the country, with 42 percent participating (NSFE 2005). There are different types 

of swimming based on skill level and/or preference for specific conditions (e.g., currents, waves, calm 

water, proximity of rocks to diving, etc.), which may interact with potential hydrokinetic development. 

Many swimming activities are associated with periods of relaxation or other activities (e.g., picnicking or 

sunbathing), and occur in environments that offer pleasant scenery or facilities for these activities. Also, 

fish watching is becoming more popular on rivers and can include snorkeling and diving.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 15

Recreational boating (non-fishing)

Recreational boating includes both motorized and non-motorized water craft. Most recreational boating 

requires launch areas, parking, and associated facilities. More than 42 percent of the national population 

participates in motor boating, sailing, jet skiing, canoeing, kayaking and rafting (NSFE 2005).

Motorized boats include dinghies, bass boats, bow riders, runabouts, wakeboard/water skiing boats, and 

personal water craft (PWCs). Most boats are privately owned, but some boaters also use rentals and 

charters. Motorized boating use may be focused in areas with marinas, boat launch facilities, and gas or 

maintenance services; they may also be associated with large group events such as competitions and 

rallies. Motorized boating may be associated with several other diverse activities, including access to 

beaches or similar areas for swimming, picnicking, camping, or relaxation and “water sports” such as 

water skiing and wake-boarding. These activities may have different navigation and access needs, which 

can interact with hydrokinetic development. 

Non-motorized river boats include canoes, kayaks, sculls, rafts, and sailboats (discussed separately 

below), and may be used in conjunction with several other activities such as racing, relaxing, or access to 

areas swimming, relaxing, or camping. Whitewater river recreation is a distinct form of non-motorized 

boating with a focus on currents, waves, and rapids. Whitewater recreation may occur on long segments 

of a river (downriver trips) or at specific whitewater features (sometimes known as “park and play” or 

locational playboating areas). Trips may be offered through commercial outfitters or organized through 

competitions, club outings, or by private users. About one percent of the population participates in 

whitewater kayaking but higher proportions (as much as five percent) may take whitewater rafting trips 

(Shelby and Whittaker 2004). 

Multi-day float trips (such as on Idaho’s Middle Fork Salmon, Alaska’s Tatshenshini, and West 

Virginia’s Gauley River) are another potential distinction within river boating. These often focus on 

camping, whitewater, and fishing, and require increased logistical planning compared to day trips. Many 

also require permits (because demand exceeds capacity to maintain high quality trips). Multi-day trips 

can also include coastal, wilderness lake, river route and urban artery water trails. Water trails are located

in almost every state (see American Canoe Association Water Trails Database). 

Marine settings

Boat-based fishing 

About 10 percent of national population participates in boat and shore-based saltwater fishing (NSFE 

2005). Boat-based recreational fishing in marine settings (commercial fishing and crabbing are not a 

focus of this report) may focus on different species in off or near-shore locations (i.e., less than 30 meters 

depth and within sight of land); some typical target species may include tarpon, bonefish, blue fish, 

salmon, striped bass, halibut, white seabass and rock fish (as well as crab, lobster or other non-fish 

species). Offshore (aka deep sea or open water) fishing generally occurs in deeper water from larger

boats and may target species such as tuna, shark, and marlin. 

Both types of boat-based fishing may seek existing “structure” in the marine setting topography, which 

may be created by natural features (e.g., reefs or drop-offs) or artificial features (e.g., artificial reefs, 

wrecks, or even oil drilling platforms). As a general rule, structure creates more physical habitat 

diversity, attracting ecological communities, including game fish. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 16

Boat-based fishing techniques in marine settings include simple topcasting (see the section on “Boat 

based fishing” under “River settings” above), trolling techniques (slowly pulling tackle through an area 

with the boat’s motor), setting traps (especially for crab), and even harpooning. Artificial and natural 

baits are used. Larger species require larger and heavier tackle, including sea rods with lines of 30 to 50 

pounds and conventional rods and reels (multiplier or fixed spool). It is important to distinguish 

techniques because they can use different parts of the water column, and may conflict with different 

hydrokinetic technologies. 

Boats used for marine fishing include sea kayaks, small dinghies, PWCs, runabouts, cruisers, large multihulled powerboats, cabin cruisers, and sailboats. Different crafts employ different techniques and may 

interact differentially with hydrokinetic development.4 

Shore-based fishing

Shore-based fishing in marine settings (including surf casting and jetty fishing) is very popular in some 

parts of the country, with anglers typically targeting striped bass, blue fish, fluke, black fish, red fish, 

shark, halibut, haddock and mackerel or using traps to catch crabs. As with river shore fishing, anglers 

may use different techniques or exhibit specialization levels that vary by location and season. Anglers 

often fish from jetties and docks (usually with spinning tackle or bait), cast into surf from the beach or 

tidewater banks, or set single pots for crab. Shore based fishing can be highly seasonal depending on 

migratory patterns of different species (more often in spring, fall and winter), and which may affect the 

best locations for fishing. All these variables may differentially interact with hydrokinetic development. 

Access is critical to shore based fishing as many anglers like to fish from or near their vehicles, and 

permits are often required to drive on beaches or along shore. In some cases, docks and jetties have beed 

developed to provide ADA accessibility. Considerable private land and potential conflict between anglers 

and other beach users in some marine settings have reduced shore-based fishing access over the years. 

Although many shore-based anglers fish at night (which may reduce these conflicts), access restrictions 

are a major issue with this activity, which has implications for hydrokinetic development. 

Swimming

Ocean swimming is an important recreation activity in many locations, often in association with beach 

settings. Most people swim from sand beaches during warm water months, but some good swimming 

may be available in areas with steeper topography (cliffs and rocks). Swimming opportunities may vary 

from family wading to wave surfing (see below) to open water swimming, with different skill levels 

required for each. Use levels may depend on the swimming characteristics (e.g., size of waves, strength 

of currents, water temperatures) as well as adjacent setting features (e.g., quality of sand, availability of 

shade, scenery) and facilities (e.g., parking, restrooms, picnic tables and shelters, concessions, restaurants, 

and hotels). Swimming opportunities may differentially interact with hydrokinetic development.

 

4

In both river and shore based settings, traditional subsistence fishing (which is not recreation, but is sometimes assessed with 

it) may use boats and different techniques, including rod and tackle, arrows and harpoons, throw nets, set nets, drag nets, weirs 

and fish wheels. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 17

Recreational boating (non fishing) including sailing

Marine recreational boating can be either motorized or non-motorized, ranging from sea kayaks, surf skis, 

drift boats, power or sailing boats, PWCs, to large cruising vessels. Larger cruisers, either sailing or 

motorized, participate in both day and multi-day trips, often along well known navigation lanes, including 

navigation lanes in channels and harbors. Boat sizes and required depths vary greatly, affecting where 

boats go to avoid natural and man-made hazards, including rocks, rips, shoals, buoys, pots and lines (and 

potential hydrokinetic projects). Large boats may be over 100 feet long and require (draw) 10 to 12 feet

of depth. Larger racers (35 to 50 feet) draw 6 to 10 feet. Most cruisers from 20 to 50 feet in length draw 

3 to 6 feet. 

Geographic use patterns vary by type of craft and activity goals. Some recreational boating focuses on 

exploring a marine setting, making it difficult to identify high or low use areas. Weather patterns may 

affect the ability of small boats and kayaks, often without navigational aids or motors, to avoid restricted 

areas. 

Marine sailing may be differentiated by racing and cruising, although other distinctions might include 

length of trip (e.g., day sailing vs. long-distance, also known as “blue-water” or “offshore,” sailing). For 

cruising sailors, both anchorage and storm refuge locations are important. Sailboats include dinghies 

(usually under 16 feet), day sailors (about 14 to 25 feet) and larger craft (usually 25 to 65 feet). Craft 

over 20 feet often have auxiliary motors. Approximately five percent of the population participates in 

sailing activities (NSRE 2005). Kite boarding and sailboarding/windsurfing are related recreation boating 

activities that combine sailing and surfing techniques, and may occur in distinct recreation settings or 

differentially interact with hydrokinetic development. 

There are distinct recreational boating areas in the United States; some coasts have much higher use levels 

than others for a diversity of reasons. Major locations include the North Atlantic coast from Rhode Island 

to Maine; Long Island Sound; Chesapeake Bay to the Outer Banks in Maryland, Virginia, and North 

Carolina; Florida Keys; San Diego, San Francisco, and Catalina Island, in California; Salish Sea5and San 

Juan and Gulf Islands in Washington and British Columbia; the Intracoastal Waterway extending along 

the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Coast; and the Inside Passage along Washington, British Columbia, and 

Southeast Alaska. 

Sea Kayaking

Sea kayaking occurs year-round in fresh and marine water bodies. Inland waterways often provide 

outstanding locations due to protection from weather and heavy motorized use, good aesthetics, and an 

abundance of biodiversity and marine life. For these reasons, prime sea kayaking areas include Prince 

William Sound and Glacier Bay in Alaska, the San Juan and Gulf Islands in British Columbia and 

Washington, the Down East Islands in Maine, and Pictured Rocks Lakeshore in Michigan. 

Paddling can cover simple day to multi-day long distance paddling trips, and appropriate camping and 

landing locations are necessary for multi-day trips. Salt water kayaking can involve the use of a sail, and 

like whitewater kayaking, can involve play boating on waves and in currents. Some outstanding play and 

surf areas for sea kayaks or surf skis include Deception Pass, Washington, Santa Cruz, California, and 

Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Sea kayaking occurs in all weather and navigation conditions, and is 

affected by fog, open ocean crossings, marine shipping lanes, tides, currents, wind, and waves. Many of 

these situations require advanced skill levels. 

 

5

"Salish Sea" refers to the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound and Strait of Juan de Fuca (US Board of Geographical Names, 2009). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 18

Diving and Snorkeling

Nearly 10 percent of the national population enjoys diving (using SCUBA equipment) and snorkeling 

(NSFE 2005). Most recreation and technical diving occurs where existing structures (e.g., artificial reefs, 

drop-offs, wrecks, platforms, and artificial dive parks) attract biodiversity and visually interesting vistas. 

Known locations also provide increased safety (from well-documented tides and currents), specific 

species for viewing, and predictable social interaction with other participants.

Tides, waves, surf and surge, currents and rip tides affect diving and snorkeling. Except for divers with 

special certifications (e.g., technical divers who conduct salvage, research, search and rescue, night and 

deep water dives), few divers seek water with velocities greater than a few knots. However, divers 

sometimes time their activities to take advantage of lower currents during slack tides, or to test their skills 

in challenging areas (e.g., Puget Sound’s Deception Pass, tides and surge along the Oregon coast). These 

higher velocity current areas may also be good locations for hydrokinetic development. 

The depth limit for recreational SCUBA diving is about 100 feet, with most divers limiting their dives to 

the 30 to 50 foot range. More skilled divers may go to 150 to 160 feet, and trained deep, “big-wall,” 

divers can descend deeper. Recreational dives rarely exceed about an hour or cover more than a half-mile 

in length. However, multiple dives may occur per outing and boat-accompanied dives can greatly 

increase the range. Free-diving refers to diving without SCUBA equipment and may be associated with 

snorkeling. Some forms of fish or invertebrate harvest or collecting (for abalone, sponge, and coral, 

pearl) are not permitted except on free dives, but other forms of harvest (e.g., spear fishing) may occur 

with or without SCUBA gear). Diving or snorkeling may occur from beach and shore locations or from 

boats. Access and parking may contribute to the popularity of dive sites. 

Existing cables or lines for mooring and/or electrical transmission are sometimes used by some divers as a 

route-finding tool. Hydrokinetic development, which includes such cables or lines, may attract some 

divers, particularly if development also produces reef structure that increase biodiversity (without 

increasing substantial safety hazards). 

Surfing and other wave-sports

Approximately three percent of the national population participates in surf-related activities (NSFE 2005). 

Surfing refers to any water sport in which a person moves along the face of a breaking wave. Surfing 

waves are formed by prevailing winds, fetch (distance over which the wind blows), and local 

characteristics such as beach or reef breaks. Surfing traditionally occurs on longboards, mid-size 

funboards, or shortboards (where participants stand while surfing) but variations include boogie boarding 

(where participants lay prone), body surfing (no board is used), surf and sea kayaking (where participants 

use boats and paddles), wave skiing, and kite boarding and wind surfing (where participants use sails or 

kites to catch or jump waves), and stand up paddle boards (use of a paddle in conjunction with a surf 

board). Surfing is not restricted to ocean currents, and sometimes occurs on standing waves in rivers. 

Kite and board sailing could be classified under sailing, but are listed here because they are usually 

located in high surf zones, especially for highly skilled users. 

Skill level is a major variable with surfing recreation. Beginners usually surf close to shore on smaller, 

glassy waves, while experts can utilize a greater variety of wave conditions but may prefer large, fast, and 

dynamic storm swell (and sometimes even employ motorized PWC to match wave speeds and allow them 

to tackle very large waves). Different types of surfing may also work better in specific wave/wind 

conditions that further interact with skill levels. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 19

Weather, including water and air temperature, affects surfing, although new technology and equipment, 

(e.g., higher quality wet and dry suits), have expanded the waters that surfers are willing to use. Initially 

developed in warm water locales such as Santa Cruz, California; Oahu, Hawaii; or Daytona Beach, 

Florida, surfers today seek out good conditions in locations such as Yakutat, Alaska; China Beach, 

British Columbia; Coos Bay, Oregon; and La Push, Washington.

In addition to certain sized waves, good surfing locations require good take-off points and breaks – which 

are created by specific bathymetric features (similar to the way river rapids accelerate within channels 

framed by large rocks). The presence of usable rip tides, wind protection (from a jetty or headland), and 

proximity to a headland that refracts waves, can all be important for creating specific wave characteristics 

that facilitate a certain type of surfing. 

As with all recreational use, beach access and parking are important, and facilities can play an important

role in the popularity of some sites. As with other recreational areas, good surfing locations are relatively 

rare, may not be well known, and may have limited space, often leading to crowding and territorial 

behavior. This can lead to unwillingness to reveal preferred locations. 

Recreation opportunities in both marine and river settings

General recreation

Active and passive recreation activities such as wildlife viewing, picnicking, walking, hiking, rock 

hopping, biking, shell collecting, wading, tubing, tanning, and relaxing, can occur in both river and 

marine settings. These can be day or multi-day trips. For example, approximately 60 percent of the 

population has participated in a visit to a beach or waterfront site (NSFE 2005).

Ancillary facilities at these sites are important, and may include campsites (both formal as well as 

backcountry sites for multi-day trips), shelters, bathrooms, and parking. Ancillary facilities should be 

included in a recreation review and analysis of a hydrokinetic project. Key issues to consider are impacts 

to access, wildlife viewing, and general aesthetics. Access is a good indicator for general recreation that is 

planned and/or currently occurring. 

Wildlife viewing 

Wildlife viewing is one of the top ten most popular recreation activities, and one of the fastest growing 

with more than 31 percent of the national population participating (NFRE 2005). In addition, wildlife 

viewing may enhance other activities. For example, eagle watching along the Lower Snake in Idaho, and 

the Skagit and Nooksack Rivers in Washington include both land- and water-based viewing; the latter 

facilitated by commercial or private kayak or raft trips. Whale watching trips can also be land- and waterbased (e.g., commercial trips are available along the Northeast Coast and throughout the Salish Sea in 

British Columbia and Washington). Birding, including observing mass migrations of shorebirds and 

waterfowl from shore, is a particularly popular form of wildlife viewing.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 20

In Focus: What If Area Recreation Uses Are Unknown? 

This chapter outlines the many recreational activities that occur in river and marine environments that could be 

affected by hydrokinetic projects. For some hydrokinetic projects, the existing recreational use of the area is wellestablished and documented by users and agencies. For other projects in more remote or unfamiliar areas, existing 

and potential recreation use may be unknown, presenting additional challenges for impact assessments. For projects 

where use is not well understood, even initial “desk top” research can be helpful (see additional discussion in 

Chapters 4 and 6), and might include:

Review aerial photographs. New internet tools like Google Earth provide a quick, easily accessible way to 

initiate desktop analysis. Current and historical high quality aerial photographs can be viewed for evidence of 

how humans have used a shoreline over time. Flat open areas and social trails that provide, or have the 

potential to provide water access, are often visible. In addition, other information (e.g., recreation activities, 

water features, land ownership, other uses nearby, etc.) is often provided and can help indicate recreation 

opportunities. Panoramio, a photo sharing site that is linked with Google Earth, is related tool that can help 

researchers visualize the area and assess recreation possibilities. 

Literature/internet search and review. Review relevant information describing recreation opportunities in the 

area from books, reports, and internet web pages. If information cannot be found about a specific area, review 

regional information for clues about potential recreation uses. 

Interview key users and resource specialists who know the area. Although information is likely anecdotal, it 

can be accurate and indicative of the type and magnitude of use, especially if additional networking confirms the 

narrative of initial contacts. Finding initial interviewees can be challenging, but contacts with user clubs for 

potential activities or local parks and recreation staff may help. These contacts may also provide perspectives 

on the national, regional, or local recreation importance of the area. 

Create base maps using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This step can help summarize spatial 

characteristics of the project area and identify discovered recreation use features (e.g., travel corridors, rapids if 

in a river, access facilities, shoreline use, potential recreation use sites). These data can then be integrated with 

other mapping data that exists for coastal activities and marine spatial planning efforts. Mapping tools can also 

be used as a forum for public participation. 

Public engagement. Reach out to nearby communities, resource specialists, and user groups to help identify 

historic, current, and potential future recreation uses.

The goal of these analyses is to help prioritize recreation opportunities and important impacts. In some cases, a 

hydrokinetic project could have substantial direct impacts to recreation use (e.g., a commercial-scale project that 

excludes recreation from a nationally significant surfing area). In other cases, impacts may be negligible (e.g., a 

pilot-scale project with one submerged turbine in an industrial area where the nearest recreational use is beach 

combing). There are a full range of possible impacts, depending upon the types and significance of the recreation 

opportunities, and how the hydrokinetic project will affect those. Activities with low use, low importance, or low 

probability of being impacted by hydrokinetic projects could be eliminated from further consideration, while attention 

could be devoted to areas with extensive recreational use, significance, or high probability of being impacted by 

hydrokinetic projects. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 21

Key questions to consider in such an analysis include:

Is recreation use occurring?

What types of activities and experiences are being provided?

Are the opportunities nationally, regionally, or locally significant?

How will the proposed project change use of and access to the area? 

What are the recreation use participation trends?

What are potential future recreation uses?

What are the expected direct, indirect, and cumulative impacts on these opportunities? Are impacts adverse or 

beneficial? What are the spatial and temporal boundaries of the impacts? What is the expected intensity of the 

impact (e.g., major, moderate, minor or negligible)? 

In addition to identifying existing use, potential future recreation use needs to be considered. Consideration of 

potential future recreation use is required under FERC regulation (18 CFR 4.41.7(iv)); see Chapter 8 for more 

information. Recreation uses may also change over the 30 to 50 year length of a traditional license. For example, 

remote areas with limited access historically may have had little past recreation use, but an increase could occur if a 

hydrokinetic project makes the area more accessible (through changes in access, amenities, or other facilities). This 

requires some forecasting of suitable types of and potential demand for new recreation. 

If increased use is forecast, it may also be important to document how a more solitude/primitive experience may be 

replaced by a higher density recreation opportunity. In these cases, an assessment of the trade-offs between the 

type and quality of recreation experiences may be needed. Adequately predicting future recreation demand and how 

hydrokinetic projects will change recreation use for an area can be challenging. New activities and equipment can 

change opportunities available in an area. As an example, only one-percent of the national population in 1960 

participated in downhill skiing; today 15% of a much larger population ski or snowboard. This has affected local 

economies of small towns like Vail, Colorado which largely developed in response to the growth of the skiing industry 

(Whittaker and Shelby, 2005). Similar recreation-driven booms may occur in river and marine settings. 

Long-term monitoring of recreation use is critical to capturing changes near the project. The initial baseline studies

that are conducted pre-construction can help inform monitoring plans for recreation to be conducted periodically over 

the life of the license. The time interval and level of monitoring will vary by project depending on the activities and 

experiences provided, significance, and degree of impacts expected.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 22

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 23

4. Concepts for Assessing Impacts 

This chapter describes conceptual principles used for understanding how a hydrokinetic device may 

affect recreation. It reviews basic recreation management concepts, applying those concepts in 

hydrokinetic impact assessments, distinctions between direct vs. indirect impacts, “level of effort” and a 

progression of study options. 

Note: Discussion in this and remaining chapters focus on project-specific impacts to local or regional 

recreation. It is beyond the scope of this document to compare larger-scale impacts of hydrokinetic 

generation options with status quo energy generation (e.g., gas, coal, oil, nuclear, or traditional 

hydropower) or other alternative energy generation (e.g., wind, solar), and doe. This is important, but 

out of our scope. All about trade-offs at a different scale. Same rules apply for other energy siting.... 

Basic recreation management concepts 

Assessing hydrokinetic impacts on recreation requires a definition of “recreation,” and criteria to 

determine when high quality recreation is being provided. Recreation is not defined simply by types and 

numbers of recreation facilities (e.g., parking areas, rest rooms, campgrounds, marinas, etc.) or the types 

and numbers of people that use them. While facility inventories and use-level statistics describe 

important dimensions of outdoor recreation, they do not describe the nature or quality of outdoor 

recreation opportunities. 

A better definition also considers outdoor recreation in terms of recreational experiences – psychological 

outcomes that people obtain by participating in certain activities in certain settings (Driver & Brown, 

1978; Driver et al., 1987). The overarching goal of recreation management is to provide opportunities 

for people to have these experiences. An important goal of recreation research is to identify and 

understand how resource or setting conditions and management decisions affect those opportunities 

(Manning, 1985; Shelby and Heberlein, 1986). 

Two fundamental principles follow from this definition and guide recreation management and research. 

First, because people demand a diversity of recreation experiences, management should ensure a diversity 

of opportunities is provided. This idea has been institutionalized in many resource management agencies 

(e.g., Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management) through planning frameworks such as the 

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS; Brown et al., 1978; Clark & Stankey, 1979), which define types 

of recreation along a setting continuum defined by biophysical, social, and managerial conditions. 

Second, recreation opportunities are provided by specific combinations of these biophysical, social, and 

managerial conditions. For example, an opportunity for wilderness sea kayaking is provided by a 

biophysical marine setting with an unmodified natural environment; a social setting that provides 

relatively few contacts with other users; and a managerial setting that encourages the preservation of 

wilderness values. The “wilderness sea kayaking” experience is derived from this opportunity as users 

participate in the activity and respond to the conditions. 

Recreation management analyzes how conditions provide high quality opportunities, which thus allow 

people to have high quality experiences. Hydrokinetic development may affect elements of the 

biophysical setting (e.g., wave or current characteristics, fish or wildlife populations and behavior), 

managerial setting (e.g., access or activity restrictions), or social setting (e.g., displacing users or 

increasing crowding at other locations because of access restrictions). Providing high quality river or 

marine recreation opportunities requires information about these impacts in relation to specific 

opportunities. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 24

 

As this information is collected and organized, it is important to distinguish whether it is descriptive or 

evaluative (Shelby & Heberlein, 1986). Descriptive information shows how the recreation system works 

and explores specific changes to recreation from development: Who is recreating in the area and when? 

What facilities do they use? How will development change recreation use patterns? What components of 

development will be visible to recreation users? How will development change flows, waves, or currents 

that recreation users enjoy? How will development affect the population size or behavior of watchable 

wildlife, etc.? Descriptive information does not evaluate whether an impact (or effect) is positive or 

negative – it simply describes the changes to setting conditions. 

In contrast, evaluative information identifies important recreation opportunities or attributes, the 

acceptability of impacts, and the acceptability of management actions that might reduce negative impacts: 

Which areas are most important for different types of recreation? How important are setting attributes or 

facilities? Will users tolerate some access or activity restrictions? What aesthetic changes are 

acceptable? What is the value of lost recreation opportunities due to biological or physical changes? 

Many controversial recreation management decisions revolve around evaluative rather than descriptive 

issues – and separation is needed to clearly understand what is being debated. 

Applying recreation concepts to hydrokinetic impact assessments

Applying these concepts to hydrokinetic impact assessments requires clear distinction between resource 

condition changes (which require descriptive information) and the acceptability of those changes or 

alternative ways the project could be developed (which require evaluative information). The ultimate 

goal is a transparent accounting of the trade-offs between different project alternatives with different 

recreation impacts. Considering trade-offs may provide feedback which could change the hydrokinetic 

project’s technology type (less likely) or its size, location, or other characteristics (more likely). 

Monitoring and adaptive management provides additional feedback to address longer-term changes to 

conditions. 

Proposed hydrokinetic project

The attributes of a hydrokinetic project are the starting point in the analysis. For example, the type of 

device, location, and size/number/spacing are critical variables that drive biophysical impacts or potential 

access restrictions (see categories of devices in Chapter 2). Descriptive information about the device also 

needs to account for the type of setting where it will be located (e.g., is it an urban, rural, or wildernesslike setting?), because that is the context for assessing impacts. Developers usually provide the initial 

project proposal, but there may be opportunities for stakeholders and agencies to work with developers to 

consider project modifications that minimize recreation (or other) impacts during licensing. 

Changes in “resource conditions” 

Changes in “resource conditions” refer to the specific ways a hydrokinetic project affects biological, 

physical, or social/experiential resources that collectively provide recreation opportunities. For example, 

a specific device may directly change recreation access, viewshed aesthetics, wave characteristics, river or 

tidal hydraulics, channel characteristics, or fish and wildlife abundance or behavior in an area. The need 

for transmission lines, powerhouses, and access roads can also alter conditions. All these factors are at 

the center of an impact assessment and they are typically analyzed separately. However, these impacts 

may be complex and inter-connected, and sometimes collectively produce an overall impact that is greater 

than the sum of their parts. Potential impacts on resource conditions and attributes are discussed in 

Chapter 5, while Chapter 6 outlines various ways to study them. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 25

“Resource outputs” and the importance of assessing trade-offs

Once resource condition impacts have been specified, it is useful to summarize broader implications of 

the project. Different combinations of specific resource conditions produce different “resource outputs” 

that favor different recreation opportunities, fish and wildlife communities, or produce different levels of 

power generation. At this point, the analysis begins to move from the technical arena (where scientists 

and resource specialists assess impacts of different configurations on conditions and subsequent outputs) 

to the decision-making arena (where resource managers, interest groups, and developers evaluate and 

possibly negotiate the desirability of different outputs). 

The focus here is assessing trade-offs between potential alternative projects (including “no project”). 

This process involves evaluation and “balancing,” integrating technical (usually descriptive) information 

with value judgments about what is “better” or “worse,” “acceptable” or “unacceptable,” and considering 

uncertainties. For example, is it better to maximize power generation but lose access to a popular fishing 

and surfing jetty, or develop at a different site that may generate slightly less power but displace less 

recreation use? What is the appropriate balance between lost recreational crabbing opportunities and the 

size of an array of wave devices? Assessing specific impacts of the proposed project is the starting point 

for alternative -development, but it is also important to consider alternatives that offer other realistic 

combinations development and recreation outputs. In traditional hydropower licensing processes, 

negotiations among developers and stakeholders, particularly after studies have been completed, often 

produce settlements that substantively change the project scale or other characteristics to provide better 

environmental outcomes. Chapter 7 explores some of the issues in developing protection and mitigation 

strategies for recreation; Chapter 8 provides an overview of licensing processes and how developers, 

agencies, and stakeholders can become involved in these evaluations and crafting balanced settlements. 

Monitoring and adaptive management 

Finally, it is important to integrate monitoring and adaptive management into the assessment process. 

Adaptive management is a system of structured decision-making that periodically reviews potential 

impacts and considers new actions to reduce impacts. Any new technology may have impacts that are 

long-term or unforeseen; this step allows agencies, stakeholders, and developers to respond to problems 

as they become known. Long-term monitoring checks whether actual impacts are the same as those 

predicted. If not, adaptive management prescribes a systematic approach to assess the magnitude of 

unanticipated impacts, and consider whether changes to the hydrokinetic project (including potential 

removal) are necessary. 

Distinguishing direct and indirect impacts

As impacts are assessed, it is helpful to distinguish direct versus indirect impacts. Direct impacts tend to 

be immediate and obviously caused by a hydrokinetic device. For example, an “exclusion zone” that 

prohibits recreation use within 100 meters of a river-based hydrokinetic device immediately and 

unambiguously reduces the area where recreation can occur. Likewise, a visible device that changes an 

area’s aesthetics or scenic quality does so immediately and directly. 

In contrast, indirect impacts may affect other recreation resources over the long-term or less directly, and 

sometimes causation may be less obvious. For example, a device might change hydrodynamics (the 

current or wave energy) of an area, which could alter sediment transport or related ecological 

characteristics, which might change wildlife viewing opportunities or sport fishing populations and 

harvest success. At each “stage” in this “chain of impacts,” the impacts may be delayed in time or 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 26

mediated by other variables unrelated to the hydrokinetic device, and so a direct accounting of the 

recreation impacts may be more challenging. 

It is beyond the scope of this document to review research on the wide range of potential long term 

ecological or physical (hereafter shortened to “biophysical”) impacts from hydrokinetic devices; each 

scientific area has a well-developed literature and research protocols. Biophysical impacts are the focus 

of a major report to Congress on the Potential Environmental Impacts of Marine and Hydrokinetic

Energy Technologies (EISA; DOE, 2009b), and they are likely to receive considerable attention during 

licensing of hydrokinetic devices. However, the recreation implications from biophysical changes may 

also be important and deserve explicit consideration and integration into the overall decision-making 

about project licensing. 

For many indirect impacts, there may be greater uncertainty about potential changes, particularly for new 

technologies that have not been “in the water” in many places (DOE, 2009b). Initial assessments for 

these biophysical impacts may be speculative and require systematic monitoring, so evaluations of related 

recreation impacts will mirror this uncertainty, complicating recreation evaluations. Recreation studies 

can identify important biophysical resources for certain activities (e.g., fish, wildlife, or plant/reef 

communities) or assess trade-offs between different choices (e.g., different types of fisheries), but not 

until biophysical scientists can specify alternative “futures” with different devices or site locations. In 

traditional hydropower relicensing, it has been challenging to produce consensus on biophysical outcomes 

from alternative flow regimes, so “early and often” discussions between recreation and biophysical 

scientists will be needed. 

For both direct and indirect impacts, it is important to identify baseline conditions for a potential site to 

compare with post-development monitoring. Baseline information includes existing uses and types of 

opportunities, and the key attributes that make those high quality opportunities. 

Level of effort and “a progression of study options”

Deciding the appropriate amount of effort for studying or mitigating impacts is a major issue in 

hydrokinetic development. Some settings have extensive recreation use that would clearly be affected by 

hydrokinetic development and deserve more intensive or detailed efforts. In other settings, the potential

for recreation use may be less well-known, or will likely be minimally affected (e.g., a submerged turbine 

situated in a powerhouse outflow, where boating and fishing is already prohibited). Given the potential 

diversity of situations, it is challenging to specify a single “standard” for a sufficient study. We 

recommend a “progressive approach” with phased efforts of increasing focus and precision as needed. 

This applies a “sliding scale” of analysis to the issues, with the amount of study, monitoring, and 

mitigation proportionate to a project’s likely impact. The following provides an overview of this 

approach; Chapter 6 provides more detailed examples of the kinds of studies that fit with each level. 

All projects are required to provide basic information about recreation opportunities in the affected area 

and review the range of potential direct and indirect impacts (see Chapter 8, In Focus – FERC Recreation 

and Aesthetic Information Requirements). However, more intensive or detailed studies need only be 

prescribed in situations that merit them. To be effective, a phased approach needs 1) a clear sequential 

framework; 2) standardized terminology for various study options; 3) agreement about which study 

options provide which degree of resolution; and 4) explicit decision criteria to help determine whether the 

study needs to continue to the “next level.” The following suggests three general “levels of resolution or 

precision,” with distinct study options identified for each level: 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 27

Level 1 – “Desk-top” options. This first level focuses on basic information collection and integration. 

This phase usually focuses on “desk-top” methods using existing information in contrast to new field 

work, or limited interviews with experienced recreation users for each identified recreation opportunity. 

This is the sort of information included in a “Preliminary Application Document” (PAD) for a FERC 

license, but may sometimes exceed the technical requirements for that document. In general, we believe 

that any hydrokinetic development proposed for waters that have existing or potential recreation uses 

should conduct a Level 1 analysis (with findings in early components of that effort to determine if 

additional Level 1 options are needed too). 

Level 2 – Limited reconnaissance and structured interview options. This level increases the resolution 

and precision of information through limited reconnaissance-based studies, more intensive analysis of 

existing information, more systematic, numerous, and structured interviews (possibly including targeted 

focus groups), or on-site observational studies. This level will probably be necessary but sufficient when 

hydrokinetic development will affect recreation, but impacts are not expected to be substantial (based on 

determinations in Level 1 studies). 

Level 3 – Intensive studies. This level further increases the resolution and precision of information 

through more intensive studies, which may include large-scale use or observational assessments, 

representative surveys of users, aesthetic evaluation studies, monitoring recreation impacts during a pilot

project, or laboratory modeling (physical or computer-based models to predict specific impacts). 

Intensive studies like these will probably be necessary when hydrokinetic development will affect 

recreation, those recreation opportunities are regionally significant, and impacts are likely to be 

substantial. 

Advantages of the progressive study approach

The progressive study approach has been applied successfully in FERC licensing proceedings for 

traditional hydropower projects, and improves recreational impacts analyses in several ways. First, 

efforts are focused on those river and marine settings with greater interest to the recreation community or 

with greater impacts from potential projects, rather than less important opportunities and minor impacts. 

Although NEPA and CEQ regulations require a comprehensive review of impacts, there is a clear need to 

apply a “filter” that directs attention toward significant impacts during environmental review, and this is 

accomplished in the NEPA scoping process (see Chapter 8)

Second, the approach provides a transparent and defensible record for all parties (e.g., potential 

Licensees, stakeholder groups, and agencies) regarding the “sufficiency” of effort, and should lead to 

more efficient licensing proceedings with fewer challenges. Developers would ideally prefer clear “rules” 

about how much effort is needed to assess potential recreation impacts, but lessons learned from 

conventional hydropower licensing suggests this is a consensus decision that emerges from the process 

(FERC, 2006). Developers, stakeholders, and agencies with conditioning authority ideally arrive at these 

decisions through on-going discussions during the preparation of the PAD and study plans, with FERC 

generally acting as a waiting “referee” if various sides can’t agree. FERC is ultimately responsible for 

deciding which studies need to be conducted, but applicants get to propose initial studies after considering 

stakeholder and agency study requests, and all parties are encouraged to comment on others’ proposals 

and participate in study plan meetings to informally resolve study issues prior to FERC Study Plan 

determination. In addition, conditioning agencies can invoke a formal study dispute resolution process 

(18 CFR § 5.9-5.15) if they disagree with a determination; for stakeholders or other agencies, alternatives 

to an adverse determination may include a rehearing of FERC’s determination and court challenges. 

Third, the approach helps standardize study methodologies and improve comparability across situations. 

It has taken many years and projects in conventional hydropower licensing to develop well-accepted 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 28

labels and protocols for many types of recreation impact studies. With hydrokinetic technologies being so 

new, there is an opportunity to develop “best practice” recreation impact assessment methods from the 

start. 

Fourth, the approach increases transparency and allows information to be shared earlier in the process, 

particularly across resource disciplines, and among stakeholders and agencies who are addressing issues 

in the licensing process. This allows an earlier discussion addressing potential conflicts between impacts 

or outputs for different resources, which may help researchers design studies that address solutions to 

those conflicts. Integrating information across resources is a major challenge in licensing new 

technologies; the sooner issues are articulated, the more likely researchers can study them, provide 

information about trade-offs, or develop ways to mitigate them. 

Integrating concepts into project licensing

The previous discussion refers to general concepts that should be integrated into general licensing 

processes, but does not describe specific authorities, processes, or integration steps. Chapter 8 provides 

an overview of how hydrokinetic projects are licensed in the United States, with reference to specific 

applicant responsibilities related to recreation, as well as opportunities for agencies and stakeholders to 

become involved. This includes links to specific MMS leasing processes (for hydrokinetic projects on the 

Outer Continental Shelf) and FERC licensing processes (for all projects), each with steps where 

applicants and stakeholders may consider, develop, conduct, or review findings from recreation studies.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 29

5. Potential Impacts on Recreation Opportunities

This chapter reviews a range of potential direct and indirect impacts from hydrokinetic projects on 

recreation. The impacts are generally ordered by their importance to recreation interests, recognizing 

that these may vary by type of device, location, and type of recreation. For each effect, we describe 

concerns and impacts to provide a “brainstorming checklist” for study plan consideration. The chapter 

includes four In Focus sections on example access restrictions (one organized by type of device, one by 

type of recreation), aesthetic impacts, recreation impacts related to ecological changes, as well as a 

sidebar on cumulative impacts. In all cases, discussions of impacts and device-effect relationships are 

illustrative rather than exhaustive. In addition, readers should note that the list is of potential impacts, 

and that not all will be applicable or inevitable. 

Access restrictions and public safety 

The most obvious direct impacts on recreation from hydrokinetic development are access restrictions or 

other use alterations designed to enhance public safety. Access restrictions have spatial and temporal 

components, and “exclusions” (no recreation use allowed) should be distinguished from alterations such 

as “activity restrictions” (e.g., where access is allowed, but regulations may limit vessel types, vessel 

speed, or specific activities such as swimming, surfing, or fishing). It is also important to distinguish 

device-specific exclusions (which prevent recreation use within a certain distance of an individual device 

but allows use between devices) from array-specific exclusions (which do not allow use between devices)

and transmission facilities (where the power comes to shore). Finally, some access restrictions may apply 

continuously throughout the life of the project, while others may apply for shorter periods during 

construction/deployment or maintenance only. 

The amount of impact from an access restriction depends on the type of restriction; size and shape of the 

“restriction zone”; importance of the restricted zone to a given type of recreation; and availability of 

substitute recreation use areas. The type, size, and shape of a restriction, however, also depend on the 

type, number, and spacing of hydrokinetic devices; attributes of the location (its physical configuration, 

depths, currents, or other navigational hazards); and the type and amount of recreation use, all of which 

give rise to the reasons for developing restrictions. In general, it appears that reasons for restrictions 

include (1) device security (e.g., preventing intentional damage from any source); (2) device damage risks 

(e.g., collisions or unintentional interference from recreation such as anchor lines or fishing tackle); and 

(3) recreation user safety (e.g., preventing harm from collisions or interactions with hydrokinetic devices). 

It is beyond the scope of this document to identify specific access restrictions that might be adopted for 

different hydrokinetic devices. However, an In Focus section on example restrictions for hydrokinetic 

devices provides some examples, suggesting that restrictions will be greater for development with:

Larger and more expensive devices (greater security concerns).

More devices or less spacing in an array (increased chances for collisions).

More “fragile” devices (more vulnerable to damage).

Challenging navigation conditions (e.g., stronger currents, larger waves, or extreme weather).

Multiple recreation uses in the area (increased chances for collisions).

Recreation uses where larger vessels are common (increased damage from collisions).

Recreation uses that utilize the same part of the water column occupied by the hydrokinetic device 

(e.g., bottom-fishing and submerged turbines). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 30

A second In Focus section examines example impacts of access restrictions by specific types of 

recreation. These examples illustrate how certain activities occupy specific “recreation habitats” and 

how different types of hydrokinetic devices may affect those areas differently. 

Potential access restrictions will also need to be consistent with existing navigation-related programs and 

regulations of the Coast Guard (USCG; largely in maritime waters) and/or Army Corps of Engineers

(COE; largely in inland waters). These agencies are responsible for assessing and marking navigation 

hazards, establishing navigable channels (e.g., into harbor areas, along inter-coastal waterways, across 

estuary bars, or along rivers), and otherwise supporting public use of navigable waterways. The Coast 

Guard considers itself a cooperating agency in FERC licensing processes, with its primary role to 

“provide...expertise in the areas of navigation safety and maritime security” that may lead to 

“recommended terms and conditions which may include mitigation measures such as restricted areas,”

regardless of whether they are “inside/outside or very near designated channels” (Detweiler, 2010). 

The USCG has created “security” exclusion zones around military installations, shipyards, vessels, 

presidential residences, and some coast-accessible utility plants (particularly nuclear power plants). It 

also has created “safety” exclusion zones around some (but not all) oil drilling platforms, but these 

generally do not apply to boats under 100 feet (most recreation craft), so potential damage from larger 

vessels appears to be the primary concern. By contrast, the USCG does not generally apply access 

restrictions at aquaculture sites. 

In addition to federal input regarding access restrictions, state agencies may also provide input. Some 

state constitutions (e.g., California, Oregon, Alaska) appear to reserve public fishing or other access rights 

that might preempt or at least influence siting and access restriction choices. 

FERC often adopts access restrictions at traditional hydropower projects. For both security and recreation 

safety reasons, boating exclusion zones near dams and powerhouses are common. Powerhouses, 

penstocks, and canals are also sometimes restricted from land-based recreation uses, although many new 

licenses provide more recreation opportunities than in the past. Similar safety-related recreation 

exclusions occur at COE and Bureau of Reclamation dams or hydropower projects.

Even considering the above information, it is difficult to predict the specific access restrictions that might 

be requested by hydrokinetic developers, or whether FERC (or other agencies) will change these requests 

when issuing permits or licenses. To minimize recreation impacts, hydrokinetic developers may prefer 

few restrictions or smaller restriction zones that are device- or array- specific, or to choose to develop in 

areas with existing restrictions (e.g., a Hastings, Minnesota project located in the tailrace of an existing 

dam). But from a maintenance and liability perspective, applicants may propose more restrictions or 

larger restriction zones, particularly for devices with high replacement costs, challenging maintenance, or 

substantial hazards for recreation users. From a public agency perspective, the goal is to balance the 

tradeoffs between increased safety and lost recreation or navigation access. 

Aesthetics and noise

Changes in aesthetics (landscape/visual beauty or related sensory issues) are another potential direct 

effect from hydrokinetic development. There is growing evidence that people increasingly value 

aesthetics in their daily life and environment (Postrel, 2003). Hydrokinetic projects can change the visual 

quality of an area by introducing structures, cables, power-substations, lights, moorings, or barges. They 

may also produce sounds during construction, maintenance, or normal operation that some people will 

find objectionable (“noise”) in recreation settings (Miller, 2002) or that is extraneous to the environment 

(Morfey, 2001). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 31

Sound from normal hydrokinetic project operations could include terrestrial transformer hum and power 

line corona discharge (buzz) or above/underwater noise from the hydrokinetic generator systems. 

Potential hydrokinetic generator noise could result from turbulence around turbine blades and hydrofoils 

or from other moving parts such as rotor/gearbox systems and the actual electrical power generators. Fog 

horns or buoy bells warning of a surface or subsurface project’s location may be necessary; associated 

sounds may be perceived negatively or positively by different recreational users. Sound, especially low 

frequency sound, travels much farther and with much less attenuation under water than through air, so 

sensitive receptors for underwater noise could include recreational divers. Aesthetic and noise impacts

also go beyond recreation to include local residents or others concerned about an area’s scenic or related 

natural values (Thayer & Freman, 1987).

Several studies in National Parks suggest that large majorities consider enjoyment of natural quiet and the 

sounds of nature as compelling reasons to visit (McDonald, Baumgartner, & Iachan, 1995), and that 

anthropogenic noise can detract from experiences or decrease scenic evaluations (Mace, Bell & Loomis, 

2004; Benfield et al. 2009, 2010). Although speculative, findings would probably generalize to similar 

high value recreation areas (especially those with low development levels). 

Evaluations of aesthetic and noise impacts from human-built environments are a complex topic 

(Arbogast, 2005; Dickinson, 2002; Orr, 2002). Such impacts have been a component of environmental 

effect analysis for many similar developments, including traditional hydropower in river settings (mostly 

focused on visual aesthetics) and wind energy projects in offshore and upland settings (both visual and 

noise impacts). 

Well-established principles and methods of studying and managing visual resources have been developed 

by federal land managing agencies and can be applied to hydrokinetic projects (BLM, 2009; USDA 

Forest Service, 1995). Methods generally involve visual resource inventories and preference evaluations 

of project alternatives by experts (usually agency staff or consultants with landscape architecture 

backgrounds). Evaluations by recreation users are less commonly used, although they may provide 

different findings than “expert” judgments (Daniel, 1990; Manning & Friemund, 2004; Whitmore et al., 

1995), a topic that may deserve greater research attention. 

Similar research and planning literature is available for noise impacts, particularly related to airport, 

highway, and railroad siting, and noise abatement structures (Federal Highway Administration, 2006; 

Airport Noise Law, 2009). However, transportation noise impact assessments typically focus on impacts 

to land use in community settings, so impact thresholds are typically too high for noise sensitive areas.

Understanding and preserving natural soundscapes (e.g., waves crashing, water flowing, leaves rustling, 

birds chirping, etc.) and natural lightscapes (particularly night sky views) are growing areas of interest 

and research focus (NPS, 2010; Smith, 2009). 

The extent of aesthetic or noise impacts from hydrokinetic development depends on the specific project 

(size, shape, and number of devices; restriction buoys; sub-stations; and lighting, etc.), the setting where it 

will be located (e.g., primitive vs. rural vs. urban), and the types of uses, including recreation, that occur 

in the area. It is beyond the scope of this report to provide a comprehensive review of aesthetic issues 

associated with specific hydrokinetic development in different settings, but an In Focus section at the end 

of the chapter lists some example concerns and hypothesized relationships that deserve attention as 

projects are planned and developed. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 32

Impacts on waves or hydraulic characteristics 

A hydrokinetic project can directly affect and alter wave or hydraulic characteristics. By design, 

hydrokinetic devices absorb and convert wave or current energy, which may slow currents or decrease 

wave height or strength. These changes in turn may affect sediment transport, bathymetry, substrate type, 

shoreline profiles, or the ecological characteristics of plants and animals (DOE, 2009b; commonly known 

as the “EISA report”), which in turn affect other wave or current characteristics (a longer-term indirect 

effect). Collectively, these changes may alter opportunities for recreation users, some of whom seek 

higher energy waves or currents, while others avoid them. 

Surf-related recreation activities may be the most sensitive to wave characteristic changes (although 

effects on diving or snorkeling are also conceivable). The size and shape of waves determine types of 

surfing (e.g., body surfing vs. board surfing), skill level needed, types of maneuvers possible, and the 

overall quality of the experience. There is developing research literature on the dynamics of high quality 

surfing waves, which are created by specific combinations of wave characteristics and ocean floor 

topography (Scarfe et al., 2003). Some research and subsequent projects are aimed at controlling erosion 

in high value beach areas by creating artificial surf reefs (ASRs), while other projects have focused 

explicitly on creating new surfable breaks (Jackson & Corbett, 2007; Hearin, 2006). Related work has 

occurred for artificial wave pools (e.g., human-built water parks), producing data describing the wave 

energies and bathymetry necessary to create surfing conditions for different skill levels and techniques.

The surfing community has debated whether artificial reefs are appropriate in natural settings, can 

perform as well as designed, will attract considerable surfing use, or will induce substantial economic 

benefits (Surfermag.com, 2008; Marine Consulting Research, 2008). One review suggests that better 

designs have created surfing improvements and provided coastal protection, but early ASR projects in 

Australia, New Zealand, and California have not produced outstanding recreation opportunities, and most 

hope that proposed projects in Florida, Indonesia, India, and South Africa will improve the “state of the 

art” (Marine Consulting Research, 2008). Given that human activities in coastal areas (e.g., jetties, beach 

nourishment, or dredging) have sometimes inadvertently produced high-quality surfing breaks (Corne, 

2009), advocates of artificial reefs argue that designed reefs should be able to do as well or better 

(Marcus, 2009). 

Regardless of one’s position on artificial reefs or artificial surfing facilities, the science advancements 

have identified the variables that create high-quality surfing, and this knowledge may help determine 

hydrokinetic impacts on surfing. Although early work suggests that hydrokinetic impacts on wave height 

and power are likely to be small, longer-term changes to sediment patterns that affect reef bathymetry and 

wave characteristics may be important (Michel et al. 2007; Nelson et al. 2008; DOE, 2009b). Reduced 

wave energy may also affect beach profiles (making their slopes more shallow) and possibly reduce the 

average particle size of cobbles, gravels, sands and silt in the swash zone, or create new shoals and 

sandbars, with potentially important impacts on swimming, boating, surf-casting, etc. 

A similar science has helped determine how currents and channel features in rivers interact to produce 

whitewater rapids, which may have applicability to hydraulic features in tidal channels (Whitewater 

Courses and Parks, 2009). In the past decade, dozens of “whitewater parks” (some in natural channels 

and some in artificial rivers) have been developed for racing or “playboating,” and many have produced 

high-quality whitewater opportunities. Applying this science to hydrokinetic concerns may help assess 

impacts on whitewater features. We speculate that impacts from river hydrokinetic devices are likely to 

be lower than wave devices in surfing settings, because river hydrokinetic devices are more likely to be 

located in deeper water with strong but steady currents (less likely areas for rapids). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 33

Wreckage and salvage impacts

“Wreckage and salvage impacts” refers to direct and indirect impacts if hydrokinetic devices sink or 

break up, or are otherwise abandoned. Hydrokinetic devices may need to withstand corrosive salt water, 

sediment-laden rivers, large temperature fluctuations, the physical forces of high energy waves, sustained 

currents, and debris. It seems likely that some development will fail, particularly as developers seek to 

build sufficiently “hardy” devices that can survive challenging environments while also controlling costs. 

In addition, even if complete device loss does not occur, any construction in water-based settings could 

produce partial losses (e.g., tools or materials that sink, buoys or anchors that break free). It is important 

to contemplate these potential losses and calculate how they might affect other resources, including any 

mitigation or salvage efforts. 

Impacts from a wrecked device may include damaged habitat and pollution, which may have longer-term 

implications on plants and animals that in turn affect recreation (see below). Devices that cannot be 

salvaged may also become navigation hazards, entanglement hazards (for diving birds, marine mammals,

anglers or anchoring vessels), or eyesores (debris on beaches or coasts). Salvage efforts may require 

temporary access restrictions (because the device has moved) and aesthetic impacts related to recovery 

(e.g., vessels and divers at the site for extended periods). 

In all these cases, predicting impacts will be difficult. However, it is possible to develop hypothetical 

wreckage and/or salvage scenarios, which can be analyzed for likely recreation implications. Wreckage or

salvage experiences from other ocean development may help estimate the proportion of development that 

may become wreckage in extreme weather events or how long it generally takes to salvage them (for 

example, the Minerals Management Service (2006) estimates that Hurricane Katrina destroyed 113 oil 

platforms, set 20 adrift, and damaged 457 undersea pipelines). Damage to undersea cables from storms, 

fishing trawlers, or landslides are also possible, even as new technologies tend to bury cables to minimize 

these risks (Connected Earth, 2009). 

Displacement that leads to crowding at substitute areas

Displacement that leads to crowding at a substitute area (or areas) can be an indirect effect. Access 

restrictions displace recreation users to other areas, which in turn may increase crowding or conflict at 

those areas. This effect is related to the extent of access restrictions, but may be abated by recreation use 

trends, demand factors, and available substitutes in a region. 

The effect of displacement and crowding at an alternative area is likely to be more acute when access 

restrictions block opportunities that are relatively rare. For example, a hydrokinetic device that 

eliminated shore-based fishing from one of two jetties in a town would probably increase use at the 

remaining jetty. Whether crowding or conflict will occur depends on the initial use level at each site, the 

number of users that are likely to be displaced, and user sensitivity to crowding. Displacement and 

crowding is also more likely to be an issue if hydrokinetic access restrictions divide a river or marine 

channel into segments, eliminating thru-travel or access to launch sites. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 34

Fish, wildlife, and related ecological impacts 

Direct impacts on fish and wildlife are important for ecological reasons, but these impacts can also have 

indirect effects on fish or wildlife-dependent recreation. Hydrokinetic development that changes the 

number or behavior of game fish species or “watchable” fish and wildlife could have substantial 

consequences on the number and quality of recreation opportunities (e.g., divers or snorkelers often target 

certain species or communities; sea kayakers may plan trips for areas with greater likelihood of marine 

mammal or bird species). Similarly, many recreation opportunities depend on “being in a natural place” 

or “observing natural processes,” and may be affected by a change in the presence of viewable fish and 

wildlife (Manfredo, 2002). 

The abundance of certain species is particularly important for “consumptive” recreation opportunities 

(harvest-based fishing or hunting), which are completely foregone if the target species is unavailable or 

regulations close the fishery. Many non-consumptive recreation opportunities are enhanced by rather 

than dependent on watchable fish and wildlife. But activities such as birding, whale-watching, and some 

types of diving/snorkeling are comparable to consumptive recreation activities in their narrow focus on a 

single species. Satisfaction levels for these activities drop substantially when species are not viewable 

(Manfredo & Driver, 2002; Gill, 2002; Orams, 2000).

Hydrokinetic facilities may alter ecosystems, fishery habitat and the capacity of habitat to maintain 

historic fish population levels. It may also increase the abundance of certain fish or wildlife species by 

creating new habitat or other more favorable conditions. To effectively assess recreation impacts, one 

must translate ecological effect findings into meaningful “scenarios” (e.g., number or sizes of certain 

species; fishing success rates) for recreation stakeholders and agencies to evaluate. 

It is beyond the scope of this document to review a comprehensive list of potential environmental impacts

with fish and wildlife implications, which are summarized in the EISA report (DOE, 2009b). The EISA 

report notes that few studies have specifically targeted fish and wildlife impacts from hydrokinetic 

projects (because few hydrokinetic projects have even been developed), but literature for related 

technologies (e.g., impacts from marine construction, electro-magnetic fields, submarine cables, offshore 

wind farms, and fish passage injuries for conventional hydropower turbines) provides a useful starting 

point. In the EISA report, impacts are summarized in a matrix of issues and potential environmental 

impacts (see below): 

Issues

Altered currents and waves

Altered bottom substrates, sediment transport, or sediment deposition

Altered benthic habitats

Noise

Electromagnetic fields

Chemical toxicity from anti-fouling treatments and/or releases of lubricants, hydraulic fluids, and 

electrical insulating fluids

Interference with animal movement/migrations

“Strike” (animal-device contact)
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 35

Potential environmental impacts

Physical environmental changes

Animal behavior changes

Individual injury or mortality

Population-level impacts

Community and ecosystem-wide impacts

For each cell in the matrix, the EISA report suggests the likelihood (low, medium, high) that additional 

investigation will be needed to understand potential impacts. For cells identified as “medium” and 

“high,” impacts may be more “serious” and characteristics of the site or device are likely to be critical, 

requiring additional research or monitoring as hydrokinetic projects are developed. The EISA report also 

notes that information about fish and wildlife population, community, or ecosystem-level impacts

(particularly cumulative impacts) are generally insufficient at this time and need further research. 

A review of these issues and available literature in light of their recreation implications may prove 

instructive. As with the EISA report (DOE, 2009b), we caution that current research may be insufficient 

to identify whether an effect is likely or important. But given finite resources for research and 

monitoring, we have identified example environmental impacts in an In Focus section on “Example 

ecological impacts with recreation implications” (see below) with potentially large indirect impacts on 

recreation. 

In most of these examples, conservation concerns about various species, habitats, or natural behaviors is 

likely to “trump” recreation implications. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize the interrelationships 

between recreation, fish and wildlife resources, and potential hydrokinetic development. Although 

existing science may offer limited information and make it difficult to assess fish and wildlife population, 

community, or ecosystem-level impacts, it is important for biologists to ascertain general magnitudes of

hydrokinetic project impacts, which necessitates a comprehensive look at other “threats” (which may 

include recreation users themselves). Fishery and marine mammal agencies are frequently asked to make 

these types of decisions about resources they manage (e.g., estimating and managing numbers to 

determine harvest levels; or assessing the impacts from creating marine sanctuaries). Similar efforts will 

be needed to assess hydrokinetic development scenarios so stakeholders and agencies can weigh potential 

outcomes. 

Local recreation economic impacts

It is possible that some hydrokinetic devices may attract some visitation for the purpose of simply 

viewing the technology. Particularly noteworthy conventional hydroelectric projects (e.g., Bonneville 

Dam on the Columbia River, Hoover Dam on the Colorado) can attract considerable recreation and 

produce significant local economic impacts, while FERC has often required (or at least encouraged) 

utilities operating smaller projects to provide sufficient interpretive information to explain projects and 

encourage visitation. It is unclear whether hydrokinetic projects will be sufficiently dramatic (like large 

dams or wind farms) to attract substantial visitation of this sort (particularly if they become more 

commonplace), but this effect may be worth monitoring. 

A related topic concerns whether some devices will become “attractive nuisances” – objects that draw 

recreation users out of curiosity but which may then create safety or liability problems. Access 

restrictions are probably the most direct way to address this issue 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 36

In Focus: Example Access Restrictions for Different Types of Devices

There are few existing hydrokinetic projects or agency track records regarding hydrokinetic access restrictions. In 

spite of this, it is instructive to consider example restrictions for different types of devices. The examples are based 

on USCG restrictions for in-water safety zones at oil platforms, FERC restrictions at traditional hydropower facilities, 

hydrokinetic developer requests in license applications or information in the hydrokinetic device database (see DOE 

2009a), safety recommendations from a “wave hub” research area in Europe (Halcrow Group Limited, 2008), and a 

general understanding of hydrokinetic devices, site characteristics, and recreation uses. The resulting range of 

potential restrictions should not be considered definitive. We have organized the discussion into categories 

distinguished by the variables most likely to affect restrictions, including: whether the device is on the surface, 

submerged, or land-based, and whether it utilizes current or wave energy. 

Access restrictions should also not be assumed to be “inevitable” near all hydrokinetic development. In conventional 

hydropower projects, safety concerns sometimes led to extensive restrictions (e.g., no boating use in a long bypass 

reach because flows might fluctuate from project operation). However, recreation stakeholders have worked with 

agencies and developers in many of these cases to remove such restrictions without compromising safety. 

Surface-based river, tidal, or ocean current devices

These devices are likely to be turbines suspended from a barge in river or tidal currents, creating navigation hazards 

with safety and damage risks. As a result, these devices are likely candidates for exclusion zones that might extend 

several hundred feet, even when adjacent “navigation lanes” are provided. These exclusions also reduce chances of 

anchor lines or fishing gear becoming entangled in the moving parts of turbines or their mooring systems. In cases 

where adjacent navigation lanes are provided, speed limits or anchoring, fishing, and diving activity restrictions

might also apply. 

A hydrokinetic project on the Upper Mississippi River near Hastings, Minnesota (FERC P-4306-017), developed as 

an amendment to a traditional hydropower license at the same site, offers an example. The project has two turbines 

suspended below a barge moored just downstream of a run-of-river hydropower dam. The hydrokinetic access 

restrictions are part of an existing recreation exclusion zone that extends 300 feet downstream and 600 feet 

upstream of the existing dam. The asymmetric shape of the exclusion zone (larger restriction upstream, smaller 

downstream) makes sense because the river current affects the ability of recreation users to avoid the device. In 

tidal currents where the “upstream” and “downstream” locations change with each tide, zones should conceptually be 

symmetric, but local bathymetry and shoreline geometry could create complex currents that require other shapes. 

Exclusion zone size and shape are major variables in determining lost access. In a river (or narrow marine channel) 

setting, a “wide” array of devices may encompass the entire channel, blocking navigation and dividing a recreation 

area into discontinuous segments. In the Hastings example, hydrokinetic devices do not reduce “pass-through” 

access because the dam has a navigation lane through an adjacent lock. But the issue is well-known and was a 

major issue in a proposed (and later retracted) Illinois dam safety regulation that would have created 350-foot 

exclusion zones (300 feet upstream, 50 feet downstream) at every run-of-river dam in the state. As boating 

stakeholders noted, this “one-size-fits-all” approach does not account for different hazards for different dams and 

devices. Ultimately, Illinois decided to review dam exclusion zones on a case-by-case basis (Illinois Paddling 

Council, 2008). Until there is a longer history for specific types of hydrokinetic devices, we expect a case-by-case 

approach will be necessary. 

If hydrokinetic devices are arranged in a “long” array parallel to the current (e.g., a series of barges with turbines 

connected longitudinally), other access issues may emerge. A long exclusion zone (e.g., thousands of feet or even 

several miles) can limit navigation options, particularly in channels with shifting features such as sand bars, or cut off 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 37

use to attraction areas (e.g., a slough, fishing area, diving area, or rapids used by kayakers). Even if navigation 

lanes physically allow access, travel may be inconvenient enough to displace some use. 

Submerged river or tidal current-based devices 

Submerged hydrokinetic devices in rivers or tidal currents are attached to pilings or moored in the water column 

without any development above the surface. Although these may require exclusion zones similar in size and shape 

to those for surface-based devices, less intrusive activity restrictions may be adequate (e.g., to prevent fishing gear 

or anchor lines from interfering with the hydrokinetic device‟s moving parts) may be sufficient. The deciding factor is 

the depth from the surface to the top of the device (the clearance depth”), which could vary due to tide or flow levels. 

If the clearance depth can accommodate vessels, there is little safety rationale for excluding boats. However, if 

problems associated with diving, fishing, or anchoring remain in these areas, activity restrictions could still be

required. 

A hydrokinetic project in the East Channel of the East River in New York City (Verdant Power, 2008; FERC 

Preliminary Permit No. P-12611) offers an example of exclusion zones for a fully submerged but shallow array of 

devices. In this case, a small exclusion zone was established for two turbines during a testing phase, and a larger 

one is now proposed for a 30-turbine build-out (a narrow but long array of 3 turbines by 10 rows). The entire size of 

the proposed exclusion zone is about 12 acres (roughly 250 feet by 0.4 miles). The location avoids some shorebased fishing locations and allows commercial and recreation boat passage through the channel even though most 

traffic uses the another channel of the river (the navigation lane is 21 feet deep by 140 feet wide). The project 

requires an exclusion zone, rather than activity restrictions, because the project‟s clearance depth is only 6 to 10 feet

at low tide (and vessels that use the East River often require larger depths). 

Floating or semi-submerged wave devices 

Floating or semi-submerged devices designed to tap wave energy in marine environments are likely to have access 

restrictions similar to surface-based river or tidal current devices. The difference is the setting in open ocean, which 

may make some device designs easier for vessels to avoid compared to a constrained river or tidal channel. 

Depending on height and weather, distance-to-horizon calculations suggest a structure about 15 feet above the water 

surface is likely to be visible to recreation craft at a distance of 4 miles (Boatsafe, 2009). Devices may be even more 

visible or noticeable if they are outfitted with appropriate navigation aids (e.g., lights, foghorns, or bells) to reduce the 

chance of collisions. If devices are outside commonly used navigation lanes, they may not require exclusions. 

Smaller activity restrictions may be sufficient to address recreation safety issues (for example, one might restrict 

fishing, anchoring, or swimming and diving within 50 feet). 

Other situations may require exclusions. Some devices are individually large (e.g., overtopping devices may exceed 

1,000 feet and floating attenuator/rotational devices may exceed 500 feet) and supported by substantial investments, 

so developers are more likely to request greater protection. Some oil companies have received 500 meter Coast 

Guard exclusion zones around active oil drilling platforms. Similar security measures may be requested for 

hydrokinetic projects. 

Safety risks increase when devices cover larger areas. Proposed arrays of 10 wave-train devices could occupy a 

0.7-mile by 0.3-mile area, and twenty-three “power buoys” could occupy a 1.0-mile by 0.4-mile area. Even if small to 

moderate recreation craft (e.g., less than about 60 feet long) could easily navigate between these devices, there may 

be agency or developer interest in excluding recreation craft. If these devices attract sport fish or shellfish species 

and anglers (see previous discussion), exclusions or activity restrictions could create an enforcement challenge at 

the boundary of the exclusion zone as anglers concentrate at this location (a similar situation appears to occur near 

some Gulf of Mexico oil drilling platforms, which are known to attract some anglers). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 38

As with previous examples, the size, shape, and location of restriction zones are critical for assessing the impacts on 

recreation. Important variables include total device depth, the type and extent of mooring systems, and proximity to 

shore. Restrictions in shallow waters or within a few hundred feet of shore are more likely to disrupt shore- or boatbased fishing or affect vessel travel patterns. Although it depends on species and technique, many important fishing 

locations are close to shore (e.g., within a couple of hundred yards) and in shallower waters (e.g., less than 50 feet) 

with specific reefs or other topographic “structure” known to provide good fishing. Likewise, sea kayakers or other 

small vessels generally travel close to shore except during crossings, and require access to specific areas along 

coasts for landings, anchorages, and refuge from storms. To the extent that attractive recreation areas conflict with 

an exclusion zone, the effect will be larger. In contrast, devices in deeper waters or farther out to sea are less likely 

to occupy locations critical for a specific recreation use. If there is relatively low overall use in the area and there are

adequate substitute areas to fish or dive, the loss from a specific project may be less consequential (and the focus 

will shift to cumulative impacts of many projects; see In Focus section below). 

Submerged wave devices 

Like submerged turbines in river or tidal current settings, submerged wave devices may not require complete 

exclusions if they are deep enough to provide a navigable channel. However, a review of existing designs suggests 

clearance depths generally do not allow larger vessels (e.g., larger sailing vessels or powerboats, which commonly 

draw 6 to 10 feet) to pass over them. Because these devices are not visible, but still represent a navigation hazard, 

there may be greater impetus for full exclusions or significant activity restrictions. In addition, these access 

restrictions will likely need to be identified with navigation aids such as buoys with lights and sound. 

As with floating wave devices, the size, shape, and location of access restriction zones will be important. Some 

project designs propose multiple devices arranged parallel to a segment of coast, which could have substantial 

impacts on activities such as diving and sea kayaking. For example, an array of five 50-foot-wide submerged 

pitching/heaving/ swaying devices positioned every 50 feet could extend nearly 500 feet along a coastline. If poorly 

sited, this array could effectively close off access to attractions such as “take-off” points for surfing, good fishing 

grounds, or sailboat, powerboat, and/or kayak travel routes. 

Shore-based wave devices

Shore-based wave-energy devices are sited at the end of a jetty, groin, or along a segment of coast. As with dams 

and powerhouses, land-based recreation users can expect some access closures (e.g., fencing around the facilities). 

Adjacent water-based use may also have restrictions (probably exclusions) if there are demonstrable safety hazards. 

Because jetties commonly provide important recreation features (e.g., access to deeper water for shore-based 

anglers; “rips” that surfers use to access “take-off” locations), such restrictions could represent significant recreation 

access losses. 

A proposed jetty-based hydrokinetic project on Oregon‟s coast (FERC P-12743, Douglas County, at the mouth of the 

Umpqua River) offers an example. Utilizing an “oscillating water column” technology similar to the Land Installed 

Marine Powered Energy Transformer (LIMPET) project developed on the Scottish Coast, the Oregon project could 

occupy a substantial part of a jetty popular with anglers and surfers. In this case, a second jetty nearby offers an 

alternative site for the project, resulting in smaller recreation impacts, but possible lower energy outputs. Trade-offs 

continue to be studied and debated. 

Transmission lines and associated development 

Regardless of the type of device, cables that transmit energy to shore and connect to the grid will be necessary; 

these may include sub-stations or other associated shore-based development that may also require access 

restrictions for security and safety reasons. In some cases, restrictions could be minimal. For example, a 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 39

hydrokinetic project in Wiscasset, Maine is considering developing on-shore development in a retired coal

gasification plant that has a sub-surface water cooling tunnel that could accommodate transmission cables (and thus 

not require any recreation access restrictions). In other cases, typical sub-station sized facilities are likely to be 

fenced and restricted like many conventional hydroelectric powerhouses. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 40

In Focus: Example Access Restriction Impacts for Recreation 

This In Focus section provides examples of access restriction impacts organized by specific recreation activities. 

The goal is to highlight the most likely restriction concerns as a new hydrokinetic device and/or site is considered. 

Conclusions are illustrative rather than comprehensive. As noted previously in the chapter, access restrictions are 

not inevitable at hydrokinetic projects, and developers may be able to work with agencies and stakeholders to 

develop effective education programs that provide for public safety without restrictions (and potentially expensive 

enforcement). 

Shore-based fishing

Shore-based saltwater fishing is probably the activity most at-risk from hydrokinetic-related access restrictions, 

particularly on the Atlantic coast. Bottom fishing, surf casting, and crabbing from jetties, groins, beaches, docks, or 

other shoreline areas, is already limited to a small proportion of the coast due to fishing regulations, fish availability, 

and limited public access (or associated parking facilities). These activities are most likely to be affected by (1) 

shore-based wave devices, or (2) near-shore wave or current devices located within casting distances (about 50 to 

150 feet). Jetties and groins are popular fishing or crabbing locations because they offer “structure” that attracts 

many game species such as striped bass and blue fish (see discussion under fish and wildlife impacts below), as well 

as opportunities to fish deeper water without a boat. 

Even without full exclusions, shore-based fishing is unlikely to be allowed near any wave or current device with 

moving parts (due to interference with operations or safety hazards for anglers). This seems especially likely for 

recreational crabbing, which may involve small traps that rest on the bottom, but also includes shore-based surf 

fishing, where “getting tackle deep” is an important part of success. Diving-based spear fishing may also be affected 

because safety concerns are unlikely to allow these relatively limited mobility users to approach development. 

Fishing from shore, in river settings, may also be affected by hydrokinetic development, particularly in cases with 

“long” arrays that limit access to a substantial length of river. Fishing will generally be incompatible with these turbine 

arrays, which may be located close to existing towns or landings, to facilitate transmission. The same areas are 

advantageous for hydrokinetic development because they are close to population centers and may have parks or 

other public lands used by shore-based fishing. 

Boat-based fishing

Boat-based fishing will probably be affected by access restrictions near hydrokinetic development. The on-shore or 

near-shore fisheries described above also receive considerable boat-based use (particularly by those in small craft). 

Boat-based anglers may be attracted to hydrokinetic development farther off-shore (e.g., floating or semi-submerged 

wave devices), because a project may offer alternative fish habitat, attract fish, and offer good fishing opportunities. 

Many anglers are attracted to buoys and oil drilling development because they provide habitat for sport fish, and 

hydrokinetic development may offer similar opportunities if anglers are allowed to fish near them. 

Similarly, devices may interfere with fishing in large rivers like the Columbia, Mississippi, or Ohio. Although many 

fishing techniques are used, common target species include catfish and other bottom feeders that are generally 

targeted by putting tackle on or close to the channel bottom, which could potentially conflict with moving turbines. 

Longitudinal arrays that cut off sloughs or coves that anglers use are another issue. As with shore-based anglers, 

hydrokinetic development might be sited close to existing towns or landings, which are often frequented by anglers in 

boats. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 41

Powerboating 

Recreational powerboating involves diverse craft, and activities that may include cruising, fishing, water skiing, and 

transporting to other locations for snorkeling, diving, camping, or relaxing. The diversity of opportunities makes it 

challenging to describe potential impacts from hydrokinetic access restrictions, but in general, powerboating

opportunities are unlikely to be substantially affected unless device arrays are large (e.g., several square miles), they 

block narrow navigation channels, or they close off specific attraction sites. Recreation powerboats are generally 

smaller and more maneuverable than commercial vessels, and may be able to pass over submerged devices. 

However, powerboat safety is a major issue for many state and federal agencies and several factors are involved in 

risk assessments and recommendations for reducing risk (Washington Parks and Recreation Commission, 2004).

Surfing and related opportunities 

Access restrictions from shore-based (or near-shore) wave devices are likely to affect surfing. These devices are 

likely to be located in high-energy locations where surfing is common, and may close off access to other important 

recreation features (e.g., a predictable rip-tide current along a jetty that allows surfers easy passage to “take-off” 

locations). 

Near-shore wave devices may also affect surfing access, depending upon their proximity to surfing breaks. Surfable 

waves typically start to break in depths about 1.3 times the wave height, so if surfers are interested in waves between 

4 to 15 feet high (a reasonable range for most skill levels), typical “take-off” depths are about 5 to 20 feet. The DOE 

(2009a) database shows that typical near-shore wave proposals target 20 to 30 feet depths, so an exclusion zone 

that extended very far from the device may impinge on surfing. 

Wind surfing (also known as “board sailing”) and kite-boarding are less often tied to specific wave break locations, so 

these recreational users can use a wider expanse of beach or surf. However, these activities still require good shore 

access and an adjacent area that is suitable for boarding or kiting. Changing conditions may make it difficult for wind 

surfers and kite boarders to avoid near-shore devices, necessitating large exclusion or activity restriction zones. 

Kayak touring 

Hydrokinetic development is unlikely to impinge on access for kayak touring, unless near-shore or shore-based 

devices prevent use of kayak navigation routes. Touring kayakers generally travel well-defined routes that avoid 

higher energy wave areas that are the likely sites for above-surface devices. If devices are submerged, paddling 

over them probably presents no problems. If devices are surface-based or semi-submerged, kayaks are sufficiently 

maneuverable to avoid contact. However, if development is in a high energy zone also used by kayakers, it is 

important to offer a route for safe passage that does not force paddlers into more challenging waters that they would 

otherwise avoid. 

Kayak “playboating” in rivers or fast current tidal areas

River or tidal areas with higher energy hydraulics that attract playboating kayakers may likewise be desirable 

locations for hydrokinetic turbine development, because these areas have underwater topography and tidal patterns 

that accelerate currents (Fraenkel, 2006). Conflict in uses in these areas could be acute. Submerged devices may 

not require exclusions, but activity restrictions may be necessary if devices are close to the surface or affect current 

hydraulics, increasing hazards for kayakers “playing” on those features. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 42

Sailing

Sailing is unlikely to be affected by most hydrokinetic access restrictions unless development and associated 

restrictions occur in narrow channels. In these passages, submerged development that allows navigation through

defined lanes (or over the top of devices) would mitigate most problems. While most recreational sailing vessels 

draw less than about 6 feet, some racing vessels or larger yachts draw up to 12 feet. 

In open ocean settings, hydrokinetic development is unlikely to have substantial impacts on sailing (unless array size 

is large). Sailors generally have multiple travel options once they reach open water and they can avoid abovesurface devices or arrays. It is important for hydrokinetic development to be identified on navigational charts and by 

physical navigation aids (e.g., lights and bells). 

Diving

Snorkeling typically occurs in shallow reefs, which have lower energy waves and currents and are typically 

unattractive for hydrokinetic development. In contrast, diving occurs in deeper water that may have some stronger 

tidal currents or surface waves. Unlike many surface water activities, divers may use parts of the water column 

occupied by submerged hydrokinetic devices (dive depths typically range from 20 to 110 feet). 

The critical issue is whether hydrokinetic development will occupy specific places where divers go. Most “point to 

point” dives occur over short distances (usually well less than a mile) to view specific attractions (e.g., a big wall, 

wreck, or plant, invertebrate, or fish concentrations), which hydrokinetic development could probably avoid. In 

addition, most divers prefer velocities lower than about 4 to 5 knots, while hydrokinetic developers appear to seek 

stronger currents. However, some highly skilled divers seek “drift diving” opportunities in high current, shallow 

areas, which may present conflicts with hydrokinetic projects (Polagye, 2010).
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 43

In Focus: Example Aesthetic Impacts and Issues 

This In Focus section provides example aesthetic effect concerns and hypotheses about the types of development 

likely to have larger impacts on different types of recreation. As with other examples, conclusions are intended to be 

illustrative rather than comprehensive. 

Submerged vs. above-surface development

Submerged devices will generally produce fewer aesthetic impacts than those above the water surface because most 

recreation occurs on shore or the water surface, but sub-surface aesthetic impacts may be relevant for diving-related 

activities. 

“Hiding” on-shore development

On-shore development which can be housed in buildings, buried, screened, or otherwise camouflaged or blended 

into the existing visual setting will produce fewer adverse aesthetic impacts (Pasqualetti et al., 2003). This is the 

primary protection or mitigation strategy for aesthetics impacts from traditional hydropower development (see 

discussion in Chapter 7). 

Regular vs. irregular patterns of development

In some cases, large arrays with a discernible pattern may be perceived negatively, because they produce a humanbuilt “order” in a more organic or “random” natural environment. However, wind power aesthetic evaluations have 

suggested that irregular patterns for these large structures (e.g., wind towers of different heights or variable spacing, 

turbines of different sizes) may be less acceptable than regularly-spaced and -sized development (Gipe, 1995; 2008). 

Aesthetic evaluations may reflect broader attitudes

Some experts have hypothesized that aesthetic evaluations of a hydrokinetic development may be more reflective of

general attitudes toward a setting, type of recreation, or type of hydrokinetic development than specific judgments

about design elements of the project such as color, shape, contrast, or texture,(Carlson, 2009; Gobster, 1999). For 

example, some people may find wind and wave energy development attractive in part because of what they 

represent (alternative energy) or for what they might partially replace (e.g., coal or nuclear plants) rather than their 

specific physical attributes (Saito, 2003). In contrast, other people may find certain types of wind or hydrokinetic 

development unattractive because it represents an obstacle to places they would like to use (especially if 

development includes prominent restriction markers or fencing). 

Aesthetic sensitivity may vary by types of recreation users

In general, people engaging in activities with a greater focus on being in, learning about, or interacting with a natural 

environment (activities such as wildlife viewing or beach walking) are likely to be more sensitive to visual impacts. 

Some consumptive recreation activities (e.g., harvest-oriented fishing) are likely to be less sensitive to aesthetics. 

Aesthetic sensitivity may vary within activities 

Aesthetic sensitivity may be higher for people engaged in longer (especially multi-day) trips and for more specialized 

users (those with higher skill levels, greater experience, or greater equipment and travel cost expenditures for their 

activity). There may also be differences between residents and tourists that need to be examined. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 44

Context and setting affect aesthetic evaluations

Context and setting are important considerations for evaluating impacts to recreation (Schreyer and Beaulieu, 1986). 

New hydrokinetic development in remote and less developed areas is likely to be evaluated more negatively than 

development in an urban setting. For example, the buoys, restriction signs, and relatively small shore-based 

switching stations associated with the East River Project (FERC Preliminary Permit No P-12611) in mid-town 

Manhattan is unlikely to be considered “out of place.” In contrast, similar development in a rural area with few 

structures (e.g., the west coast of Washington‟s San Juan Islands) or an area distinguished for its scenic beauty 

(e.g., Washington‟s Deception Pass) is likely to elicit more negative evaluations. 

A useful recreation planning tool, called the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), helps account for various 

settings based upon level of development, type and amount of use, and level of management. ROS concepts help 

agencies inventory and evaluate different geographic settings (usually within 6 institutionalized classifications) from 

“primitive” to “urban,” and further encourages setting different standards for acceptable impact levels in different 

classes (Driver et al., 1987). 

Aesthetic evaluations may change over time

User sensitivity to aesthetic impacts may change over time, as people become habituated or sensitized to 

development. Structures such as the Golden Gate Bridge and the Eiffel Tower, widely considered aesthetically 

pleasing today, were widely disparaged when first built (Saito, 2004), and judgments toward 19th century windmills in 

the Netherlands have similarly shifted over the years (Righter, 2002). On the other hand, large dams on the 

Columbia and Colorado Rivers were widely celebrated when first built, but may elicit more mixed reactions today 

(especially given the better understanding of ecological impacts associated with large dams). Aesthetic researchers 

have disputed fundamental aesthetic shifts of this nature (Boone, 2005). Initial impact assessments may not be able 

to predict such changes in aesthetic evaluations but monitoring might track them over time. 

Night sky and lighting 

There is growing recognition that natural darkness and night skies are important resources that are at risk in many 

developed settings (Smith, 2007). The increasing population and dependence on lights is causing “light pollution” 

that prevents people from seeing stars and planets, even in rural areas (National Geographic, 2008). Light impacts

from development can affect night skies for a long distance; the National Park Service‟s “Night Sky Team” has 

detected impacts over 200 miles from a source and most NPS units that have been tested had some detectable light 

pollution (NPS, 2010). Fortunately, simple changes in design and installation (e.g. motion sensor lights, shielded 

lights, low wattage lights) can substantially reduce light pollution, and unlike many other types of pollution, trends can 

be reversed (NPS, 2010). If lights are needed for hydrokinetic projects, efficient products that limit light pollution are 

available (Dark Sky, 2010). 

Noise and natural soundscapes

Hearing adds to the richness and is usually an integral part of a visitor‟s experience in a place (NPS, 2010). The 

acoustic environment is defined as the aggregate of all sounds at a location, together with the physical capacity for 

transmitting sounds, while the human perception of that acoustical environment is “more broadly included in the 

definition of soundscape” (NPS, 2010). The importance of natural soundscapes to visitors varies by location and 

setting. For example, visitors to protected areas (e.g., marine sanctuaries, parks, etc.) generally have higher 

expectations to hear natural sounds (e.g., wildlife noises, waves crashing). The National Park Service has developed 

a protocol for measuring the acoustic environment of National Park System units (NPS, 2008). Potential impacts of 

noise, including underwater noise, generated from hydrokinetic projects on visitors‟ experiences and wildlife should 

be considered. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 45

In Focus: Example Ecological Impacts with Recreation Implications 

This section provides ecological effect concerns with recreation implications. As with other “example” sidebars, 

conclusions are intended to be illustrative rather than comprehensive. 

Creating “structure” that changes fish abundance 

Hydrokinetic development may alter channel bottoms, sediment deposition patterns, and create artificial reefs or 

similar “structure” that may change the abundance of game fish species, whether increasing some species or 

decreasing others. For example, anecdotal information from Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean sport fish anglers 

notes that buoys and oil drilling platforms tend to increase benthic and bait fish habitats that attract game species,

including striped bass, red snapper, mahi mahi, yellow fin tuna, flounder, and grouper. 

There is a substantial literature about the positive and negative impacts of “fish attraction devices” (FADs) and 

“artificial reefs” (Carr & Hixon, 1997; Dauterive, 2000; Caselle et al., 2003; Schroeder & Love, 2004). But applicability 

to hydrokinetic development will likely depend on specific species, extent and location of devices, device design and 

maintenance, and the characteristics of local ecosystems. Potential game fish increases will also need to be 

considered in light of access restrictions, because anglers will not benefit from more fish if they cannot effectively 

target them. Conversely, structure created from extensive mooring systems in otherwise sandy bottom habitats may 

reduce some crab populations (e.g., Dungeness crab). These species may be concentrated in particular areas 

(especially estuaries or near the mouths of large rivers), and lend themselves to specific harvesting techniques,

which may be disrupted by hydrokinetic development. 

Creating “no fishing” sanctuaries that change fishing population levels

Hydrokinetic access restrictions could reduce recreation or commercial harvest in an area, which in turn may protect 

some species, similar to marine sanctuaries. Marine sanctuaries are a major ocean spatial planning topic, with many 

proponents, critics, and mixed research findings (Halpern et al., 2004; Klein et al, 2008; Marine Renewable Energy 

and Spatial Planning Workshop, 2009). Sanctuaries may increase biodiversity and are likely to increase some 

fishery population levels, but it is unclear whether sanctuaries simply shift harvest to other areas or have other 

unwanted consequences. There is also considerable controversy over specific sanctuary boundaries and impacts on 

local recreational fisheries, commercial fisheries, or local economies (Klein et al., 2008). 

Creating attractive habitat for watchable wildlife

Game fish may not be the only animal species that may be attracted to hydrokinetic development. Plant, 

invertebrate, and fish species may attract divers or snorkelers to mooring structures or the devices themselves, while 

above-surface development may provide habitat for watchable bird species and marine mammals such as seals and 

sea lions. Many buoys or other floating development appear to attract watchable wildlife, but not much research is 

available that documents population or ecosystem impacts, or responses of recreation users. Divers interviewed for 

this report noted that submerged structures in marine settings are quickly colonized by diverse sea life to become 

attractive dive sites. A good example is a popular “underwater park” developed in Edmonds, Washington, with 

artificial reefs created from a sunken vessel and other materials (Emerald Diving, 2009a). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 46

Construction, operations and maintenance impacts on fish and marine mammals

Marine mammals and some fish species may be particularly sensitive to noise impacts (e.g., seismic exploration or

construction involving submarine pilings), which may damage their hearing or change their behavior by masking 

communications or echolocation abilities, or in rare cases cause death (DOE, 2009b; Southall et al, 2009; Hastings 

and Popper, 2005). The likelihood of these impacts will depend on location and device characteristics, and many 

other variables (e.g., pollution, marine food sources, or recreation impacts from whale watching). 

Some marine mammals (e.g., humpback, grey, and orca whales; and sea lions) receive considerable research 

attention in part because they are “charismatic megafauna” (large animals with popular appeal). There are many 

challenges to integrating the impacts of human activities (with hydrokinetic development being just one of many) into 

a coherent overall management strategy (NMFS, 2009). From a recreation perspective, specific species tend to 

travel or concentrate in specific locations that attract associated viewing activities (Koski, 2009). If hydrokinetic 

development is proposed for wildlife viewing areas, the species frequenting these areas may deserve particular 

research and management attention (DOE, 2009b). 

Electromagnetic field impacts on fish and wildlife

A final example focuses on electromagnetic fields (EMF) produced by submarine cables that deliver hydrokinetic 

energy to shore (Gill et al., 2005; Center for Marine and Coastal Studies, 2003). These cables produce a direct 

electric field (that can largely be contained by insulation), and an induced magnetic field (which cannot be controlled 

through insulation), which in turn induces a second electric field. Several fish species (e.g., sharks and rays) are 

known to sense electric fields that attract or repel them (depending on species and underwater characteristics). 

Other species are thought to depend on magnetic fields for navigation during complex migration patterns (including 

sea turtles, salmon, and benthic marine species, such as mussels, prawns, and crabs). However, research about 

EMF impacts on all of these species from submarine power cables is “variable and inconclusive” (DOE, 2009b), and 

does not specifically demonstrate substantive impacts from EMFs. Surfing and diving occur in areas where sharks 

may be present, so even a perceived increase in aggressive shark behavior could raise the profile of these potential 

EMF impacts. Research on these impacts, especially long-term monitoring, is needed. Potential mitigation (e.g., 

burying cables, asymmetric cables, etc.) may be able to be identified during the planning stages of the project, with 

adaptive management informing better mitigation strategies/options. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 47

In Focus: Assessing Cumulative Impacts on Recreation 

Cumulative impacts, or the combined impacts of human activity on a resource over time (EPA, 1999), are a critical 

concern with hydrokinetic development. While an individual hydrokinetic project‟s adverse impacts may be minor, 

they may combine with impacts from other projects to cumulatively affect important resources (e.g., “the straw that 

breaks the camel‟s back”). Timber harvest impacts provide an illustrative analogy: Individual small clear-cuts in a 

forest may not substantially affect wildlife populations, scenic values, or overall ecological function. However, a 

patchwork of clear-cuts combined with housing developments in the area could have these impacts, and planners 

need to account for them during environmental impact analysis. 

A relevant example applicable to hydrokinetic development concerns fishing access. Shore-based fishing 

opportunities may have decreased in recent years because of management changes (creel limits, catch and release 

regulations, etc.), fishery declines, increasingly limited access (e.g., vehicle restrictions or private land „no 

trespassing‟ enforcement), and increased crowding due to population increases. Any single issue may account for a 

small portion of the lost opportunity, but taken together, losses may be severe (and access restrictions caused by 

hydrokinetic development could intensify the losses). 

Since hydrokinetic projects will require review and approval by at least one federal agency, they fall within the 

purview and requirements of National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA). NEPA requires consideration of 

cumulative impacts. “Cumulative impact” is defined by the Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations 

implementing NEPA as the “impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of the action when 

added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions...” (40 CFR 1508.7). “Considering 

cumulative impacts under NEPA” (CEQ, 1997) and “Consideration of cumulative impacts in EPA review of NEPA 

documents” (EPA, 1999) provide further guidance on analyzing cumulative impacts. The EPA report states 

“cumulative impacts result when the impacts of an action are added to or interact with other impacts in a particular 

place and within a particular time...cumulative impacts of an action can be viewed as the total impacts on a resource, 

ecosystem, or human community of that action and all other activities affecting that resource no matter what entity is 

taking the action (EPA, 1999).” 

The spatial and temporal boundaries for cumulative impacts need to be broad enough to include all potentially 

significant impacts on the resources, which typically are larger than the geographical and time-period boundaries 

used in the direct and indirect impact analysis (CEQ, 1997). In general, the time period of the cumulative impacts 

analysis should equal the length of the proposed license period. 

EPA guidance provides that all NEPA documents need to consider whether cumulative impacts are a significant 

issue that should be addressed. EPA recommends consideration of the following when determining cumulative 

impacts (EPA, 1999):

Is the resource especially vulnerable to incremental impacts? 

Is the proposed action one of several similar actions in the same geographic area? 

Will other activities in the area have similar impacts on the resource? 

Have these impacts been historically significant for this resource? 

Have other analyses in the area identified a cumulative impacts concern?

Scoping and input from recreational users and agencies can help project proponents define those resources that 

should be considered in the cumulative impacts analysis. For each case, the expected adverse and beneficial 

project impacts will vary based on a number of factors, including, but not limited to, the hydrokinetic device (e.g., 

whether the device is submerged or visible above the surface, whether drilling into seafloor is required to install or 

whether device is anchored, and whether transmission cable is bored through the near-shore seafloor or lays on top 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 48

of the seafloor, etc.), project footprint, and location of the project (e.g., whether it is in a high recreational use area, 

whether the setting is urban or primitive, whether it is at an adequate depth to allow surface uses, etc.). The national, 

regional, or local significance of the recreational opportunity(s) will also help inform the degree of expected impacts. 

For many areas, recreation opportunities are particularly vulnerable to incremental impacts of a number of past, ongoing, and likely future projects. 

Cumulative impacts analysis should cover past, present, and “reasonably foreseeable future” projects regardless of 

which entity has taken or proposes to take an action. As mentioned above, past and ongoing activities by public and 

private entities impacting the same resources in the same geographical area and time period should be considered. 

Trends for activities in an area should also factor into the analysis (EPA, 1999). Regarding future actions, CEQ 

guidance warns against consideration of only those projects that are funded or completing the NEPA analysis. 

However, considering all potential projects that may be included in long-term plans likely overestimates future 

impacts, since some of these projects may not be constructed or implemented. Therefore, CEQ directs agencies to 

“use the best available information to develop scenarios that predict which future actions might reasonably be 

expected” (CEQ, 1997). Scoping and feedback from stakeholders can further help identify and refine relevant past, 

present, and reasonably foreseeable actions. 

Fully assessing cumulative impacts is especially critical to hydrokinetic projects. Because hydrokinetic technology is 

a new and developing industry, many initial proposals are small pilot projects consisting of only a few devices 

resulting in relatively small impacts. However, it is likely that many developers proposing a pilot project intend to 

construct larger projects with many more devices that occupy larger areas. For example, at the end of 2010, over 40

hydrokinetic projects were proposed along the Mississippi River from St. Louis to New Orleans, with an estimated 

total of over 100,000 devices. Further adding to the complexity is the fact that in some cases there will be multiple 

entities implementing different projects in the same river or marine environment. As stated earlier in this chapter, one 

of the greatest concerns of recreational users is loss of access to existing or potential future recreational resources. 

A small exclusion zone for one or two devices may not have much impact, but if a larger-scale project or several 

smaller exclusion zones are implemented in a region, the cumulative impacts could be substantial. 

Clearly, more research is needed to improve cumulative impacts analyses of hydrokinetic projects. Ensuring that

project development moves at an appropriate pace and uses adaptive management to monitor pilot- and commerciallevel projects will be vital to understanding and addressing potential impacts of this new technology. Cumulative 

impacts to recreational resources are a significant concern. Many recreational opportunities have already been 

restricted or lost by other development. Since cumulative impacts analysis addresses more than an individual 

project, monitoring recreational resources on a project-by-project basis may not be adequate to prevent degradation 

of important resources. To address this issue, new institutional mechanisms may be needed to facilitate collaboration 

among developers of individual projects to research and review recreational impacts on a broader, watershed-scale. 

Conducting comprehensive planning that would delineate the most appropriate places for development and monitor 

impacts would further ensure hydrokinetic energy development occurs in an environmentally and recreationallyfriendly manner. Some concepts for developing mitigation and protection strategies are discussed in Chapter 7.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 49

6. Types of Studies for Recreation Impacts of Hydrokinetic Projects 

This chapter describes different types of studies that can be used to examine hydrokinetic impacts on 

recreation. For each, we describe study objectives, approaches, products, responsibilities, and 

additional issues or keys to success. Types of studies are illustrative rather than comprehensive, and 

descriptions do not provide detailed instructions for conducting them (ample technical literature is 

available on recreation studies). Methods are organized by the three levels of study intensity discussed in 

Chapter 4. 

Level 1 methods 

Recreation overview from existing information 

Objective: Review and summarize existing documents with information about recreation opportunities or 

the characteristics of the river/marine setting that attract specific types of recreation. 

Typical approach: Literature searches on the Internet, in libraries, or in agency collections, with 

systematic documentation of sources and findings. Literature may include summaries or basic analysis of 

recreation use information collected by management agencies. 

Product: Report summarizing recreation opportunities, facilities, use, and recreation-related setting 

characteristics (including regional and local maps). 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

and stakeholders may provide documents or access to files. 

Additional issues: 

A brainstorming session among agencies and stakeholders may help identify documents; searches of 

agency files sometimes produce useful “gray literature” or use statistics. 

A major brainstorming goal is identifying “recreation opportunities of interest.” At this stage, all potential 

opportunities should be listed (when in doubt, “split” rather than “lump” potentially distinct 

opportunities). The intention is to identify substantial opportunities that may be affected by hydrokinetic

development. The document should prioritize opportunities for further attention. 

For river segments, important setting characteristics include length, gradient, channel type, access, 

attraction sites, and facilities. 

For marine environments, important setting characteristics include channel widths and depths, tidal 

ranges, current velocities, wave characteristics (size and direction by season), access, attraction sites, and 

facilities. 

Extensive analysis of recreation use data is seldom necessary at this stage, but even approximate estimates 

of typical and peak levels can be helpful. Qualitative assessments of seasonal or weekly use patterns may 

be important and identifiable at this early stage.

The report should be systematic and comprehensive, organized by recreation opportunities and identify

physical characteristics or use information with each category. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 50

The report should provide spatial information on maps. Regional scale maps identify population centers, 

recreation attractions, and potential substitute recreation areas. More localized maps identify access 

points (e.g., public and private boat launches, parking lots for anglers, surfers, or other shore-based 

recreation), recreation facilities (e.g., campgrounds, picnic areas, rest rooms, etc.), recreation travel 

corridors (e.g., navigation lanes), and recreation attractions (e.g., rapids, wildlife viewing areas, and

surfing breaks, anchorages). 

Guidebooks and website information often provide a good “first source” for a river or marine area’s 

physical characteristics and types of uses. However, hydraulic, wave, or tidal information contained in 

these sources should be used with caution. The level of accuracy and rigor varies considerably, and 

evaluations often represent the opinion of the author(s) only. 

Recreation-relevant hydrology, current, and wave summary 

Objective: Summarize recreation-relevant hydrology, current, or wave information as an initial step for 

assessing potential impacts that may have recreation implications. 

Typical approach: Search for hydrology, current, or wave data, usually available from the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) for river settings and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) for marine settings, but such information may also be available from state water resource 

departments, academia (particularly for oceanographic data), or other resource agencies. Assemble and 

summarize recreation-relevant findings, including graphs and tables for typical/example recreation 

seasons.

Product: Report (or appendix to the “recreation overview” report) with summary information. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

provide access to data or summaries to make this effort efficient (and non-duplicative). 

Additional issues:

The amount of analysis and reporting in this task depends on the resolution needed. For a Level 1 report, 

summaries of existing or example information for an average year or season may be adequate; more 

intensive analyses and presentations are usually necessary to reach the higher degree of precision 

common for a Level 2 or 3 effort. 

River hydrology information focuses on flows or depths, which help recreation users assess navigation 

hazards or best conditions for fishing, boating, whitewater, etc. 

Tidal current information focuses on average and peak velocities and depths at different tides, all of 

which may affect recreation and navigation. Information should be specific to geographic areas (e.g., 

navigation lanes in constrained channels, primary shore or boat-based fishing areas). 

Wave information focuses on direction, height, duration, plus wind speeds and direction, all of which may 

affect conditions for surfing, angling, sailing, powerboat cruising, kayaking, or swimming. 

In most cases, summary information for one key gauge (on a river) or wave/current buoy (in marine 

settings) will not be sufficient. Raw data, gauge or buoy statistics, project operational constraints, and 

similar information commonly need to be “re-packaged” to focus on recreation-relevant flows or seasons. 

The goal is a concise summary through a typical year of the “baseline condition.” 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 51

Interviews with key experienced users 

Objective: Improve recreation overview information by adding local knowledge from recreation users 

and resource experts about the river/marine setting, recreation opportunities, and potential impacts from 

hydrokinetic development. 

Typical approach: Identify a list of experienced recreation users or resource experts, usually through 

networking. Develop questions to learn about recreation opportunities, use patterns, opportunity 

attributes, and potential impacts from hydrokinetic development. Conduct and document interviews, 

analyze responses, and summarize findings. 

Product: Companion report (or additional sections) for the “Recreation Overview.” This should include 

importance of recreation opportunities, geographic locations for them, and potential hydrokinetic impacts

on those opportunities. Lists of interviewees and notes from interviews are in appendices. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

and stakeholders can help develop the interview panel or review questions and findings. Recreation 

groups can be particularly helpful for identifying people who use the study area for recreation. 

Additional issues: 

There are inherent challenges in determining the appropriate number and type of users to interview. In 

general, these decisions are made collaboratively during study plan development by developers, 

stakeholders, and agencies. The goal is to ensure panels of interviewees adequately represent important 

recreation groups, including potentially displaced users. 

The number of interviews and level of analysis depends in part on the resolution needed. For a Level 1 

report, a few interviews per type of recreation opportunity, limited summaries of interview results, and 

occasional “personal communication” citations may be adequate. For a Level 2 or 3 report, more 

interviews (e.g., three to ten per opportunity), quantified analysis, and summary statistics or graphs may 

be more appropriate. 

Some recreation users may be reticent to disclose favorite locations or attractions because publicity may 

contribute to crowding or competition. Others may not trust developers or agencies to use such 

information appropriately. Researchers/planners need to work with trust issues and explain the 

importance of spatial information for assessing whether and where hydrokinetic development may be 

appropriate (i.e., planners cannot protect a place if they do not know where it is). 

Interview panels may be small in a Level 1 effort, limiting the ability to characterize group evaluations

statistically. Interview information is best for learning about setting characteristics, past use patterns, and 

critical recreation use areas (attraction and access sites). This knowledge can then applied in more 

detailed reviews of potential hydrokinetic impacts. 

“Representativeness” of panels is a potential issue, especially when developed through “self-selection” 

techniques. Active networking designed to reach different parts of a recreation community can help 

overcome this limitation. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 52

“Expert analyses” of potential impacts

Objective: Assess potential hydrokinetic impacts on recreation opportunities through logic-based 

analyses using existing studies from other locations, basic scientific principles, general knowledge of 

recreation opportunities, and available information from other Level 1 efforts (described above). 

Typical approach: Assemble expert researchers and a small number of stakeholders/users with 

knowledge of recreation opportunities to evaluate Level 1 information. Systematically review device 

specifications and recreation opportunities, and discuss potential impacts. Identify whether additional 

information quantifying impacts is necessary, and brainstorm mitigation or protection options that might 

be applied. A single site visit/field reconnaissance, if possible, may be helpful. 

Product: Companion report to the “Recreation Overview.” The report provides logic-based analyses of 

potential impacts for relevant recreation opportunities, with appropriate links to previous studies and other 

Level 1 information (recreation overview, summary of hydrologic or wave conditions, and interviews 

with expert users). Includes prioritization of effect issues and potential mitigation and protection 

measures. 

 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

and stakeholders may participate. 

Additional issues: 

Stakeholder/user participants may not know about studies from other locations, so education about 

previous work may be important. Success depends on integrating research and logic-based concepts with 

local information about the area and its recreation opportunities, so all participants need to become 

familiar with existing literature and concepts.

Specifically defining target opportunities is important to keep discussion focused, but one needs to avoid 

pre-judging which opportunities and impacts should be considered. 

Choosing the right mix of local users, stakeholders, “outside” researchers-planners, and hydrokinetic 

developers to participate is important. Small groups increase opportunities for interaction and 

collaboration, but larger groups can provide diversity. In general, working groups of 6 to 10 are optimal, 

with about two-thirds representing local experts. If multiple recreation opportunities require larger 

groups, it may be best to conduct separate efforts for different groups of opportunities. 

Good facilitation is critical because analyses depend on systematic consideration of issues and 

collaborative interaction among participants. These sessions have elements of “focus groups,” but they 

are “analysis-oriented” and require more active participation by researcher-planners. 

A major goal is to winnow the number of opportunities and impacts that require additional study. This 

can help “check off” items that are not major issues or can be easily addressed, allowing more attention 

on challenging or unknown impacts. 

Site visits may be important for many reasons. However, there may be logistical challenges to site visits 

that address multiple opportunities, particularly if these occur during different times or locations. 

Even with more extensive efforts to develop larger and more representative panels, these efforts still rely 

on purposive rather than random samples. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 53

Identifying representative locations for particular recreation activities may increase efficiency, but 

assumes homogeneity among locations. 

Expert judgment assessments are likely to identify magnitudes of impacts on recreation opportunities and 

potential mitigation or protection measures. But they are unlikely to provide precise quantitative 

estimates, particularly given the short history of hydrokinetic development. The report helps guide 

additional studies at higher levels but may represent the “stopping point” for issues not requiring further 

attention. 

Level 2 methods

More extensive user interviews or focus groups 

Objective: Build on Level 1 interview information with a larger and more representative panel of users, 

which may include quantitative or “group consensus” evaluations of important recreation opportunities, 

attributes, acceptable levels of effect, or acceptable management actions to reduce/mitigate impacts. 

Typical approach: Similar to Level 1, this effort would identify experienced recreation users or resource 

experts through networking and conduct structured interviews or focus groups. The difference is that 

panel sizes are larger and preliminary findings (from Level 1 work) will provide the foundation for more 

detailed information collection about recreation opportunities, use patterns, impacts from hydrokinetic 

development, and potential mitigation options. Results will provide more quantifiable data and may 

include “consensus” recommendations. 

Product: Report with quantified or consensus information about opportunities, use, impacts, and 

mitigation options. Appendices include information about interview/focus group panels and quantifiable 

data. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) conduct the studies with agency and 

stakeholder input and participation. 

Additional issues: 

Representativeness of the panel becomes more important than Level 1 and an even greater issue as 

interview data are quantified. Developing larger networking lists coupled with random selection help 

ensure that panels are representative, not just “cliques” of users (a potential problem with “snowball” or 

“networking” techniques). 

Choices between interviews and more collaborative focus groups may depend upon logistics and 

geography. Focus groups collect information more efficiently if participants are centrally located, while 

interviews may require longer data collection periods. Focus groups may also create better synergies, as 

panelists learn from and build on each other’s ideas. Good facilitation is important to make sure “stronger 

voices” in a focus group do not prevent others from providing useful information. Offering panelists 

opportunities to write individual responses can help with this problem. 

“Reticence” issues (discussed with Level 1 interview methods) will remain, particularly in focus group 

settings where information is shared “publicly.” In an interview setting, researchers can assure 

confidentiality by explaining that individual information will be integrated with other data before public 

presentation. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 54

Observations of recreation use 

Objective: Develop quantified information about recreation use levels, patterns, or responses to certain 

types of impacts. 

Typical approach: Develop observation and counting protocols to assess the types, amounts, and timing 

of recreation use at a specific site or area. Techniques may include a mix of mechanical (e.g., traffic 

counters or trail counters), photographic (e.g., remote or motion-activated cameras), or in-person 

observations. Information needs to be systematically collected and analyzed. 

Product: Report with summaries of quantified use information. Appendices should include detailed 

descriptions of observation methods to allow comparability across years and observers. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) conduct the studies with agency and 

stakeholder input and participation. Information may need to be integrated or collected from recreation 

resource managers (e.g., federal, state or local) or private service providers (e.g., outfitters, boat taxi 

operators, or boat rental companies). 

Additional issues: 

Collecting and summarizing use data is a fundamental recreation management activity that helps guide 

and support agency priorities and budgets. Use data may explain recreation use impacts, offering possible 

ways to control use in order to maintain high quality experiences or protect cultural or natural resources. 

But there are many types of use data that serve distinct purposes, requiring careful decisions about the 

units of use (e.g., boats, groups, or people), classes of activities (e.g., types of anglers or sizes and types of 

vessels), location (e.g., at facilities like campgrounds, parking areas, or attraction sites vs. larger 

geographic areas) and time scale (e.g., at one time, per day, per week, per season, or per year). 

In general, larger geographic and time scales are more helpful for assessing the “importance” of a 

particular activity (and might help assess overall impacts of access restrictions). However, smaller 

geographic and time frames may be more relevant for understanding peak recreation use impacts or 

specific responses to hydrokinetic devices. 

Modern vehicle counters can be very accurate for vehicles using a road or parking areas that lead to river 

or marine access sites, but it is often important to “ground truth” raw data with periods of direct 

observation. For example, some parking areas receive non-recreation use, or repeated “in-and-out” use 

by the same vehicles, which substantially affect use estimates. Counters also cannot distinguish different 

types, or the number of people per vehicle, which may be important. 

Remote cameras with motion detectors can be effective ways to collect boating information, especially in 

rivers, narrow marine channels, or at specific attraction sites such as reefs. They also may be able to 

distinguish types of vessels and recreation activities, and could assess how closely boats approach a pilot 

device (a major access restriction question). However, such cameras have logistical challenges (e.g., 

mounting systems, weather proofing, vandalism-proofing, and data retrieval), can be costly, and may 

intrude on visitor privacy. It is also time-intensive to review and code raw footage. 

Remote cameras are unlikely to be effective in open ocean settings, where logistical and technological 

hurdles can be very high. Visual counts over wide expanses like open ocean are problematic in general, 

although “route counts” (i.e., an observation boat travels a set route on a periodic basis) may prove 

helpful if use levels are moderate to high levels. For most open ocean settings, use information collected 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 55

from marinas and other access points may be the appropriate focus, especially when combined with 

survey information with questions about where users traveled on their trips). 

Designing efficient and replicable observation protocols (for cameras or observers) can be challenging, 

especially in backcountry or remote settings. Monitoring that is difficult to accomplish will not be 

conducted consistently. Documented protocols and thorough training can help ensure comparability and 

consistency across observers and years. 

Automatic information system (AIS) receivers can help count and monitor boat traffic (Polagye, 2010). 

AIS transponders are required on vessels over 300 tonnes grosse weight or those which carry passengers, 

but some recreation vessels also employ them. 

Observation data can go beyond “counting” to assess visitor behaviors in response to new hydrokinetic 

devices, or document recreation activity patterns. For example, observations could be used to identify 

travel paths and attraction sites used by surfers, kayakers, swimmers, or anglers. Technology such as 

GPS units or range finders may help improve accuracy and repeatability by recording observation 

locations or estimating distances. More intensive efforts may qualify as a Level 3 study. 

Observer logistics and safety may be challenging and can require substantial oversight, especially if boat 

use is involved. Enlisting the aid of volunteers (e.g., campground hosts, park rangers, or even recreation 

users themselves) to conduct counts and observations may be initially appealing, but making such 

programs sufficiently rigorous is challenging. 

Limited reconnaissance and “expert” assessments 

Objective: Use field work to develop improved information about recreation opportunities, attributes, 

potential impacts from hydrokinetic development, or options to reduce or mitigate impacts. 

Typical approach: Coordinate fieldwork with experienced recreation users (e.g., surfers or anglers) to 

examine locations, activities, or potential or existing hydrokinetic development. Fieldwork may need to 

be scheduled at multiple times (e.g., different days, tide levels, and seasons) to assess the range of 

conditions. 

Product: Report with a summary of methods, participants, and findings. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) conduct the studies with agency and 

stakeholder input. Participants for target opportunities may be required; “non-local” recreation experts 

may also be recruited (offering alternative views of opportunities and features). 

Additional issues: 

Many recreation opportunities develop in specific locations, requiring onsite assessments to understand 

them. For example, access to and use of specific surfing breaks or angling locations can be illustrated on 

a map or discussed at a meeting, but on-site demonstrations are likely to be more instructive. Joint 

fieldwork including researchers, agency personnel, recreation stakeholders, and hydrokinetic developers 

can stimulate brainstorming about development impacts or “win-win” solutions. In many cases, people 

making decisions have little personal experience with an “at risk” recreation activity; similarly, recreation 

stakeholders may not understand the scale or “footprint” of hydrokinetic development. Visiting sites 

together facilitates such exchanges. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 56

Fieldwork can be combined with focus groups or on-site evaluations of attributes, and may enhance 

“expert analysis” (see above) for devices that have not been developed before. For example, scenic 

evaluations using standardized visual resource surveys may clarify existing visual attributes and show 

how hydrokinetic development might change them. Similarly, onsite evaluations of recreation 

opportunity classes (e.g., a water-based version of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum; Haas et al., 

2000) can help develop consensus about recreation resources and build working relationships among 

stakeholders. 

Inviting a non-local participant with a particular recreation expertise may broaden perspectives and link 

local assessments to wider knowledge of similar recreation opportunities. For example, international 

rating systems provide some comparability across rivers for whitewater features, but it is difficult to 

understand the importance or quality of recreation opportunities without contrasting them with other 

regional or national locations and placing them in the proper context.

Protocols for onsite fieldwork depend on specific activities and resource features, and they are identified 

in advance of fieldwork. In river settings, field activities are usually scheduled to target specific flows, 

fishing seasons, or locations. In marine settings, identifying target tides, weather, or surf conditions may 

also be important. Weather is probably the primary factor affecting recreation use levels, and studies 

need to occur for sufficient duration to capture expected variation in weather conditions. Fieldwork 

logistics can be challenging, particularly if there is extensive travel by boat or the number of participants 

increase. Some hydrokinetic development locations may have strong currents or higher energy waves, 

which are not necessarily easy environments for group discussions, taking careful notes, or making 

considered evaluations. 

Level 3 methods (“intensive studies”)

User surveys 

Objective: Quantify recreation user opinions or behavior to develop more robust information about 

recreation opportunities and potential impacts. Surveys can help identify the importance of specific 

recreation attributes and sites; evaluate potential access restrictions, aesthetic or noise impacts, or other 

consequences of hydrokinetic development; or gauge the acceptability of management actions. Surveys 

can also quantify user characteristics, trip characteristics, and spatial or temporal use patterns. 

Typical approach: Identify a sampling frame for target opportunity(ies). Develop survey instrument 

focusing on important objectives (see above). Administer survey (choices include onsite, mail, phone, 

email/web) and code responses. Analyze data and summarize responses, disaggregating dissimilar types 

of users. Summarize findings in a report. 

Product: Report methods and findings. Methods should include sample and instrument development, as 

well as potential sources of error. Findings typically include tables and graphs appropriate to the analysis. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

and stakeholders can review the sampling frame, survey instrument, and analysis plans. Agencies often 

possess information about commercial service providers (e.g., outfitters, guides, shuttle, water taxis) or 

other knowledgeable users to help with sample development. 

Additional issues: 

Survey research and analysis is a complex topic beyond the scope of this document. However, several 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 57

recreation survey issues are listed below, along with a few specific concerns related to hydrokinetic 

development. More detailed information about survey research in recreation settings is available in 

Vaske (2008). 

Survey mode. Surveys can by conducted on-site, by mail, phone, electronically (through emails or 

websites), or with a combination of types. Each type has advantages and disadvantages that depend on 

the characteristics of the population and survey objectives. Many recreation studies are conducted onsite, an effective strategy when use levels are high enough to collect appropriate sample sizes in a short 

period of time. For lower use recreation, mail, phone, or email methods may be more efficient. 

Sampling approach. Sample issues usually trade off “representativeness” against cost or logistical 

complexity. Larger samples improve precision, but numbers may be less important than a representative 

sampling frame. Probability sampling is often considered the “gold standard,” but can be inefficient 

when a target population is small or challenging to reach (e.g., shore-based anglers who fish from 

multiple access sites). 

Researchers may choose “purposive sampling,” usually developed through stakeholder contacts, 

advertisements in newspapers or internet message boards, and networking with other contacts (e.g., 

through outfitters, recreation retailers, activity clubs, etc.). While these samples suffer from “coverage 

error,” they are often the only practical choice, and effective samples can be developed through multiple 

channels. 

Sample size and stratification. Sufficient sample sizes are important for statistical purposes, but the 

“minimum” number depends on the homogeneity of users and their evaluations. Similarly, stratified 

sampling (e.g., for weekend vs. weekday users, anglers pursuing different target species) could be 

important if sub-groups differ on variables of interest. 

Survey development. Survey question construction is important and requires expertise. Although some 

issues are straightforward, evaluations of hydrokinetic development impacts will probably require careful 

development and pretesting of questions. While draft survey instruments are often developed during 

study plan development, researchers ideally will revise instruments after pretesting that may include use 

of focus groups or additional agency and stakeholder reviews. 

Other sources of error. Non-response bias is an issue if the people that complete a survey are different 

from those who are in the sample frame but cannot be reached (or refuse to participate). Strategic bias

refers to respondents that deliberately provide an inaccurate response in an attempt to influence results in 

a certain direction. It may be helpful to conduct surveys of users before hydrokinetic development has 

received substantial publicity to minimize strategic bias. Although surveys are typically conducted after a 

project has been announced via a PAD and “Notice of Intent,” controversial recreation issues related to 

development tend to receive publicity much later in the process (when decisions about development are 

closer to being made). The concept here is to conduct survey research on such issues as early as possible 

in the process. 

Surveys assessing use and trip characteristics. Surveys can be effective for discovering and 

documenting use levels, recreation activities, and recreation locations in marine or riverine environments. 

For example, an extensive observation and survey study (Shelby & Tokarczyk, 2002) provided 

information on primary user activities, perceptions of crowding and conflict, and methods of beach access 

on the entire Oregon coast. 

Surveys assessing access closures. Addressing access restrictions from hydrokinetic development is 

likely to be challenging. How does one ask users about how much access they are willing to lose? 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 58

Surveys can help assess the relative importance of different areas, or provide information about activity or 

vessel characteristics that may help mitigate restrictions. A side bar at the end of this chapter provides 

more information about mapping the relative importance of recreation areas. 

Surveys assessing aesthetic impacts. Surveys may be used to assess aesthetic impacts from hydrokinetic 

development, particularly if realistic portrayals of devices or other infrastructure are developed. This 

level of study may be necessary when hydrokinetic projects are expected to have substantial aesthetic 

impacts (a larger visible footprint) in areas with important scenic resources (e.g., off a coastal reach

known for its scenery). Methodological issues for assessing aesthetic impacts in survey efforts include:

Developers often provide artist’s renderings to depict devices. This is a starting point for how they 

will appear in a landscape, but may be very different than what recreation users would experience. 

Illustrations should be realistic. If buoys, mooring systems, or other development will be visible, they 

should be in the illustration. If the device includes visible moving parts, those should be illustrated 

(possibly with video rather than pictures). 

Illustrations should depict development from multiple viewpoints that represent recreation use areas

(e.g., from boats at likely viewing distances, from multiple shore locations such as beaches, bluffs, or 

jetties). Views of off-shore development in marine settings is a critical issue with much taller offshore 

wind power projects (e.g., Cape Wind off the Massachusetts coast), and studies have explored precise 

distances from which such development can be seen (Environmental Design & Research, P.C. 2006).

Illustrations from different perspectives should match the user group that would experience that view. 

Alternative device sizes or array spacing and patterns should be included in evaluations if options are 

under consideration. 

Evaluations can include qualitative and quantitative components; providing both offers richer 

information about impacts. 

Survey samples should represent the diversity of groups that will see devices, potentially including 

local residents (e.g., homeowners with views of the river or marine setting). 

Studies might measure preferences as well as tolerances for various types of development. 

There are multiple formats for comparing evaluations, including ranking, scales, and paired 

comparisons. 

Projects that are just being developed (have not settled on a device or its final characteristics) may not be 

able to provide this sort of information for study. Until they can, it will be challenging to accurately 

assess aesthetic impacts. 

Surveys assessing noise impacts. If noise evaluations are important, simulations or on-site evaluations of 

pilot devices may be helpful. This is a “psychological” approach that focuses on visitor evaluations rather 

than measurements of physical sound in decibels (Gramann, 1999). Considerations in conducting such 

studies (many of which were developed from research assessing loud noise sources such as aircraft and 

highways) include:

Noise impacts vary substantially by location because of several factors, including wind patterns, 

terrain, vegetation, and existence of other ambient sounds. Complex noise propagation models 

developed to estimate noise levels from airports and highways might be applicable to other types of 

sound. 

NPS management policies define natural ambient as the baseline condition and standard against 

which noise impacts will be evaluated. Natural ambient is defined as background sound that exists in 

the absence of human-caused noise. Some audible mechanized sound may be considered acceptable 

in certain settings. In some circumstances, survey information may help provide data on visitor 

impacts. 

Visitor characteristics may affect evaluations of noise. There is greater sensitivity to aircraft noise by 

backcountry vs. frontcountry users, repeat vs. first-time users, small vs. larger groups, and motorized 

vs. non-motorized users (HBRS/HMMR 1993, Anderson et al., 1994). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 59

Contextual factors almost certainly affect noise evaluations. Noise levels may be more objectionable 

at specific locations (e.g., scenic places such as canyons, placid locations of a lake or river without 

rapids, or other places with low ambient sound) and at different times of the day (e.g., at night, in 

early morning). 

Recent NPS guidance suggests noise should be evaluated independently for different sources and 

relative to baseline ambient sound (if known). NPS (2008) has also developed data collection 

protocols. 

Noise can occur underwater, and has become a major issue for biologists studying impacts on marine 

mammals or other species (NMFS, 2009). This has implications for recreation as sound may affect 

the abundance of fish or watchable wildlife species. Sound travels faster in water than air because 

water has a significantly greater measure of stiffness than air. Divers may also have concerns about 

underwater sound, although noise from diving equipment may mask noise impacts in some cases. 

Surveys assessing wave or current characteristics. Concerns about hydrokinetic development impacts

on channel bathymetry, substrate, and/or the hydraulics of waves and currents may be a relevant survey 

topic for surfers, whitewater kayakers, or anglers. In traditional hydropower settings, intensive 

“controlled flow studies” are often used to develop field-based evaluations of different flows (which can 

sometimes be manipulated in a short period of time). In hydrokinetic development, wave or current 

changes are more likely to occur over the long-term, but survey research might focus on hypothesized 

impacts (from physical or computer modeling). Changes in wave or current characteristics need to be 

described in ways that recreation users can understand, although more experienced users may be 

“calibrated” to other variables. For example, some surfers evaluate wave heights as “knee high, waist 

high, or shoulder high” rather than in feet, even as others may be able to discuss important variables such 

as “peel angles,” wave period, or type of break (Scarfe et al., 2003 Jackson and Corbett, 2007). 

Economic impact and valuation studies

Objective: Quantify economic impacts or determine the economic value of recreation opportunities that 

may be affected by hydrokinetic development. Economic effect studies estimate recreation expenditures 

and apply information about the local economy to suggest the amount of money and jobs supported by 

recreation. Economic valuation studies estimate value of a user-day of some activity; it is the value of 

recreation to the person recreating, and is the appropriate input to cost-benefit analyses. 

Typical approaches: There are distinct methods for assessing recreation economic impacts and 

recreation valuation. In most cases, however, surveys of users are an important component. 

Economic effect studies (also known as input-output analyses) survey users about their expenditures 

while participating in an activity (e.g., food, lodging, gas, equipment, shuttles, etc.), then multiply by 

estimates of use. They also apply analyses to the proportion of money spent in the community based on 

county-by-county data of commercial activity. A recent example of expenditure data related to impacts 

on surfing from a hydrokinetic project is available (Matsler, 2009). 

Valuation studies use one of two basic techniques. The “travel cost method” (TCM) estimates the 

proportion of visitors recreating from different distances (usually from surveys), developing a “demand 

curve” that relates visits to travel costs. The curve allows calculations of the value of the recreation 

opportunity at any given cost. The “contingent valuation method” (CVM; also known as “willingness to 

pay” or WTP) creates a hypothetical market by asking participants what they would be willing to pay in 

addition to their actual costs. 

Product: Summary of methods and findings. Methods should include descriptions of the sample and 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 60

instrument, as well as potential sources of error. Findings typically include tables and graphs appropriate 

to the analysis. 

Responsibilities: Hydrokinetic developers (or their consultants) have primary responsibility, but agencies 

and stakeholders can review the sampling frame, survey instrument, and analysis plans. 

Additional issues: 

Economic impacts from recreation in a small region or local area can be significant if use levels are high 

and alternative recreation opportunities in the area are few (Loomis & Walsh, 1997). From a national or 

larger regional perspective, however, expenditures associated with a single river or marine setting are 

often negligible because users are likely to spend similar amounts of money doing another activity in the 

same region. The scale of recreation economic effect information is always a major issue, and needs to 

be carefully defined as studies are developed. A town that is substantially dependent on recreation-based 

tourism will probably have a strong interest in economic impact information, but this will be less 

important in larger, more diverse economies. 

Valuation of recreation opportunities and larger benefit-cost analyses are more likely to be more helpful 

in hydrokinetic decision-making. This information helps assess the value of particular recreation 

opportunities relative to the value of energy provided from hydrokinetic development. This is similar to 

cost-benefit analysis used in traditional hydropower projects. 

There are several complex methodological issues involved in conducting TCM or CVM studies well, but 

researchers suggest that well-designed studies produce valid results that appear consistent when study 

findings are compared (Loomis & Walsh, 1997; Mitchell & Carson, 1989). 

CVM studies typically focus on the “use value” of a recreation opportunity (the value of taking the trip). 

But some recreation opportunities may also have value for those who 1) want to use it in the future 

(option value); 2) want future generations to be able to use it (bequest value); or 3) appreciate their 

existence even if they will never use them (existence value). Values may be difficult to quantify, but in 

some cases exceed use values (Johnson & Johnson, 1990; Loomis & Walsh, 1997). A similar case has 

been made for “place identity” and the closely related concept of “place attachment,” which focus on how 

local resources and recreation opportunities associated with them provide benefits and help explain 

attitudes of local residents or recreation users toward development or other community changes 

(Williams, Patterson, Roggenbuck, & Watson, 1992; Devine-Wright, 2009; Kyle, 2010). 

Supply and demand assessments

Objective: Describe regional availability (supply) of potentially affected recreation opportunities, 

regional demand for opportunities, or likely use levels if new opportunities were to be created by project 

enhancements or mitigation. Regional supply and demand information can help decide the need for or 

scale of potential enhancements. 

Typical approach: Level 1 and 2 efforts commonly list regional recreation opportunities to provide 

context for more focused recreation studies. Similarly, information from interviews, focus groups, and 

surveys can help identify “substitute” opportunities, demand for certain types of opportunities, 

comparative ratings among different locations, or likelihood of use. This Level 3 effort involves more 

comprehensive assessments of supply and demand that integrate multiple sources of information. 

Supply studies develop a database of regional river or marine settings and characteristics; analyses can 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 61

describe or quantify the areas that meet specific criteria (e.g., Class IV boating segments or shore-based 

fishing areas within 3 hours of city X). 

Demand studies also integrate multiple sources (e.g., national, state, or regional participation surveys; 

regional equipment sales; estimates from recreation leaders) to predict participation and trends. This 

information may be used to help estimate use levels for specific recreation opportunities. Surveys of 

regional groups (e.g., local anglers) are another option that may make sense if potential project impacts

include a new resource (e.g., an enhanced reef fishery from hydrokinetic development). 

Product: Summary report of supply, existing or projected demand, and estimates of use. The report 

includes descriptions of methods, sources and their limitations, and findings. 

Responsibilities: These studies are led by hydrokinetic developers or their consultants. Agencies and 

stakeholders participate through study requests by reviewing supply database variables, suggesting 

demand assessment sources, reviewing surveys, or reviewing draft reports.

Additional issues: 

These studies require integrating several sources of information, each with limitations or assumptions. It 

is important to clearly identify sources, limitations, assumptions, and how information is combined to 

form conclusions.

Assessments of existing regional opportunities (supply) can be quite accurate. For example, analyzing 

basic guidebook information can provide useful summaries of opportunities and help assess how a 

proposed enhancement might increase regional supply. However, simple lists of opportunities usually do 

not provide sufficient information about the relative value of these opportunities. There are complexities 

in how recreation users consider and compare substitute resources and activities (Brunson and Shelby, 

1993).

Assessments of demand or estimates of use are also challenging, particularly when they are intended to 

apply thirty to fifty years into the future. Recreation participation is not always stable or predictable, and 

new activities develop over time. Other factors such as population growth and demographic trends, 

economic trends, new technologies, and the nature of an activity’s “participation cycle” (i.e., individuals 

have a short activity participation “career” with distinct stages) also affect participation and confound 

easy predictions. These complexities don’t invalidate assessments, but limits should be acknowledged.

Demand or supply assessments provide context for utilities, agencies, and stakeholders to consider the 

relative value of existing or potential recreation opportunities. However, their limitations can be 

substantial, and supply and demand are not the only criteria for protecting or enhancing recreation 

opportunities. 

Computer and physical modeling 

Objective: Computer and physical modeling is designed to predict how device installations will affect 

physical characteristics associated with waves, currents, sediment transport, or geomorphology. These 

changes can then be utilized in scenarios that users can evaluate though surveys or other stakeholder 

collaboration. 

Typical approach: Computer models utilize data from existing features or conditions to estimate how 

changes may affect wave, current, and tidal range characteristics. This science has developed rapidly in 

the past decade as engineers have helped design artificial multi-purpose reefs for erosion control and 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 62

surfing. Physical modeling occurs in laboratory settings (e.g. wave labs), which are commonly used to 

test hydrokinetic devices for energy output and seaworthiness. Scale models may be used for similar 

assessments. 

Product: Summary report of methods and findings from modeling experiments. 

Responsibilities: These studies are led by hydrokinetic developers or their consultants. Agencies and 

stakeholders may participate through study requests and reviewing developers’ study plans and findings. 

Additional issues: 

Computer and physical modeling is quantitative and probably replicable, an obvious advantage of these 

studies. For devices that have yet to be installed in real environments, computer and physical modeling 

may be prerequisites. Computer modeling is often the most cost-effective way of analyzing potential 

impacts across a long period of weather and hydraulic records, allowing researchers to assess different 

types of devices, more vs. less of them, or siting and spacing. 

However, modeling is only as good as the way it represents “reality,” so “ground-truthing” is critical. 

Most importantly, computer and physical modeling do not allow recreation users to assess conditions 

produced by hydrokinetic development, and descriptions of characteristics may not be an adequate 

substitute. Modeling-based outputs need to be monitored as devices are installed and impacts occur. 

Post-installation monitoring 

A recurring theme in this document is the lack of existing information about recreation impacts from 

hydrokinetic development. With few projects “in the water,” it is challenging to estimate lost access, 

aesthetic diminishment, or user responses to these or other impacts. This situation will change as devices 

are installed and systematic monitoring occurs. “Post-installation monitoring” refers to this work, which 

may replicate many of the techniques described in earlier “types of studies.” The difference is that 

assessments will examine realistic conditions and responses to them, which contrasts with studies of 

“what could occur.” 

With multiple assessments over time, monitoring might be conceived as “experiments” that explore 

impacts and responses. The following are considerations for future monitoring: 

Accurate description of baseline conditions is fundamental to effective monitoring. Monitoring plans 

identify baseline conditions for key indicator variables, and should conduct future measurements in 

comparable ways. 

A monitoring plan may be more effective if it accurately covers a smaller number of key indicators

(see In Focus: Effective and efficient monitoring: Choosing appropriate indicators later in this 

chapter). 

Recreation user responses to devices or access restrictions are likely to be a major monitoring focus. 

Will recreation users be attracted to some types of devices? Will they respect access restrictions? 

Interference and safety hazards associated with hydrokinetic development are likely to become one 

monitoring focus. This information can then be used to improve appropriate types and sizes of access 

restrictions. 

If monitoring focuses on changes in current or wave characteristics, data will need to cover sufficient 

periods (possibly several years) to “control for” weather or other factors. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 63

In Focus: Hydrokinetic – Recreation Studies on the Lower Mississippi River

Several hydrokinetic developments have been proposed on the Lower Mississippi River. Initial proposals from Free 

Flow Power (FFP) envisioned 55 sites from Illinois to New Orleans with as many as 188,000 turbines, although 

recent submittals suggests the developer has surrendered 9 sites, has reduced the number of total estimated 

turbines to about 100,000, and is focusing on five lead projects: Greenville Bend FERC P-12829, Scotlandville Bend 

FERC p-12861, Kemp Bend FERC P-12921, Ashley Point FERC P-12930, Hope Field Point FERC P-12938). 

A PAD covering all sites submitted in January 2009 elicited several comments from NPS, the Missouri Department of 

Conservation, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers about many environmental issues, including recreation. FERC 

released a Study Plan Determination for the five lead sites in January 2010, offering insight into the kinds of studies 

the agency will require for hydrokinetic projects. The eight recreation study elements include:

Study Goals and Objectives. Ensure recreation studies provide adequate information regarding existing 

recreational and fishing opportunities within the study areas and assess potential effects of the proposed 

projects on these opportunities.

Study Area. Define study area boundaries to include use areas farther than the developer-proposed quartermile radius from hydrokinetic facilities. FERC stated, “the study area should include the proposed turbine 

deployment areas, and areas encompassing the river and river banks above and alongside the defined 

deployment area.” It also included review of aesthetic effects within the foreground and mid-ground view from 

public use areas, which could also be farther than a quarter-mile from development. 

Recreational Facility and Use Inventory. FERC accepted an FFP proposal for an inventory of facilities, but 

added five additional components that require more detailed information. 

Recreational Use Survey. FERC required surveys to be conducted in all seasons, and requested more 

detailed information about the methodology (to be developed in collaboration with stakeholders and agencies 

such as NPS) to ensure that it covers a range of use and impact issues. 

Recreational Use and Needs Assessment. FERC requested studies to address project impacts on aesthetics 

and possible noise effects from construction and operational phases, and explicitly noted the need for 

information about cumulative effects on recreation. 

Assessment of Recreational Safety Issues and Potential Effects of Closures. This requirement highlights the 

need for analysis of recreation safety impacts and exclusion zones issues. 

Potential Protection, Mitigation, and Enhancement (PME) Measures. FERC reiterated the need for ongoing 

consultation with local, state, regional, and federal entities including agencies, non-governmental organizations, 

user groups, and other interested stakeholders in the development and implementation of study plans, as well as 

the development of PME measures that might be used to address adverse impacts, even as these are not 

required to be finalized until license applications are prepared. 

Schedule. FERC required work to begin on these studies (in conjunction with related commercial fishing 

studies) as soon as the study plan determination had been made. FFP has started this work, focusing on overall 

study plan refinement and survey(s) methodologies. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 64

In Focus: Evaluating Recreation Implications of Biological Changes:

The Example of Fishability Studies in Traditional Hydropower Relicensing 

High quality fishing opportunities cannot occur without functioning habitat and a healthy fishery, but these attributes 

alone are not sufficient. For some anglers, catching fish may be less important than experiential benefits such as 

“exploration,” “experiencing natural environments” or “the challenge of fishing” (Knopf et al. 1973; Fedler and Ditton 

1994). A “blue ribbon” fly-fishing stream, for example, has a good fishery and good water to fish (e.g. wadeable 

access to riffles and pocket water, sufficient casting space away from riparian vegetation, and clear water). Likewise, 

shore-based fishing from beaches or jetties may be enhanced by certain tide or wave conditions, or access to parts 

of the shore. While anglers can adapt to different situations, they often have preferences for specific locations, 

conditions, and fishing techniques (Whittaker et al. 1993), which may be affected by hydrokinetic development. 

In traditional hydropower licensing, “fishability” studies assess the impacts of development on flows and related 

fishing conditions. Although biological and physical scientists may be needed to assess how development will 

change biophysical resources, there is often a need to include angler or stakeholder evaluations. 

In conducting these studies, separating evaluations of “angler habitat” from “fish habitat” is important. Flows that 

optimize high quality angler habitat may sacrifice fish habitat, just as flows that maximize numbers of fish may 

sacrifice important elements of anglers‟ experiences. For example, would wading-based fly anglers prefer higher 

catch rates if it required fishing from a boat or using spinning gear? Would anglers prefer “easier” fishing conditions 

(e.g. wadeable low flows where fish are concentrated), even if harder conditions increase the number of fish? 

Fishability studies address immediate impacts on fishing that anglers can evaluate; they do not provide information 

about immediate or long-term biophysical impacts. Anglers in fishability studies consistently express concerns about 

flow impacts on fish populations, feeding behavior, spawning success, and the overall health of the fishery. 

However, anglers generally are not the appropriate “experts” to assess these impacts. The best way to prevent 

these biophysical concerns from confounding fishability evaluations is to discuss them in a pre-evaluation focus 

group. This gets the issues “out on the table” and allows anglers to voice their opinions, but then narrows the focus 

to attributes anglers are best equipped to evaluate: access to fishable water (wading, from the bank, or by boat) and 

use of fishable water (tackle and technique considerations). 

Fishability studies carefully specify the type of fishing opportunity under consideration. Even on the same river, for 

example, boat-based fishing for salmon may have flow needs substantially different from wading-based fly fishing for 

trout. New flows may change the type of fishing, and anglers may not want to “lose” the old opportunity. Welldesigned fishability studies can address these different opportunities and evaluations, but require considerable care 

in developing evaluation panels and focusing on appropriate variables. 

Social scientists have begun developing models for assessing complex tradeoffs inherent in fisheries management 

decisions (Aas et al. 2000; Gillis and Ditton 2002). Social science can help determine anglers‟ preferences for 

different types of fishing opportunities affected by flows. However, the opportunities must be carefully specified with 

both social and biophysical information. Preferences will probably shift depending upon 1) the abundance, size, and 

distribution of the current versus “new” fishery; 2) whether the new fishery will include new species (e.g. salmon 

and/or steelhead); 3) how new species might affect existing species; 4) relationships between development and 

fishing success; and 5) how development would affect the way anglers fish (technique and tackle, and whether it was 

boat, shore, or wading-based). To assess angler preferences, biophysical scientists need to specify how flow 

regimes affect the fishery and social scientists need to develop data from anglers to consider the trade-offs. This is 

an area for interdisciplinary work.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 65

In Focus: Mapping the Relative Importance of Recreation Areas 

The relative importance of different recreation areas cuts across many hydrokinetic effect issues. The ultimate 

impacts of access restrictions, aesthetic impacts, or changes in fish and wildlife all depend on the importance of a 

river or marine area to recreationists. Many may not want to identify their preferred locations. Interviews with 

knowledgeable users, focus groups, or surveys all explore this issue with various levels of specificity, but useful 

quantifiable information requires more systematic protocols and greater care with representative samples. 

EcoTrust, a Northwest environmental NGO focused on a range of fisheries and forestry resource issues, has 

developed a GIS-based project to map the importance of resource areas used by commercial and recreational 

fishermen for a marine life protection initiative (EcoTrust, 2009a; Scholz et al., 2006). The project asked a purposive 

sample of fishing vessel owners and captains to identify important fishing grounds by drawing polygons on 

computerized marine charts, then assigning weights to specific polygons by distributing a hypothetical “bag of 100 

pennies.” The technique forces participants to carefully specify spatial boundaries and relative values. They can 

view output from the project after completion, and may have additional opportunities to revise their weightings. 

Conducted on computer programs that assure confidentiality of individual data (which fishermen may want to keep 

private), the program also allows researchers to assign more weight to participants that catch more fish (coded 

through landings data). The result is an aggregate gradient map showing more vs. less important areas. The 

information is intended to help assess economic impacts of large-scale ocean planning, which includes suitable 

areas for hydrokinetic development or marine sanctuaries. 

A review of the project is available (EcoTrust, 2009b), as is a peer review of the technique and applications to 

commercial fisheries (McCay et al, 2006). Recreation fishery applications are being developed and should be 

available in summer 2010. Issues raised by reviewers include the representativeness of samples, clarity of criteria 

participants use when identifying “important” polygons, appropriate groupings of target species, and links between 

overall importance findings and impacts for specific ports. Reviews also identify concerns about confidentiality, use 

of information to exclude fishing, and strategic bias. 

We agree with reviewers that this technique is a “thoughtful attempt” to identify important fishing grounds without 

disclosing specific “hot spots” that some fishermen consider proprietary. The maps capture local knowledge and they 

are particularly helpful at a larger regional scale. The “100 pennies” concept also standardizes and quantifies 

evaluations. However, there are legitimate concerns about sample representation and whether recreational anglers 

can identify and value important locations as well as commercial fishermen.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 66

In Focus: Effective & Efficient Monitoring: Choosing Appropriate Indicators

The concept of “indicators and standards” is commonly used in many fields, including business, medical research, 

health, and education; they are designed to reflect the “health” of a system. In general, indicators identify what 

conditions will be monitored, while standards define when those conditions become acceptable or unacceptable. 

Indicators and standards help focus on future conditions, articulate management responses to conditions, establish 

management priorities, and allow managers to be proactive. In recreation applications, they also connect on-theground conditions with more intangible experiences (Whittaker & Shelby, 1993).

Choosing recreation indicators for monitoring as hydrokinetic project development can be challenging, depending on 

the type of development, type of recreation, site characteristics, and impacts of concern. Several criteria can help 

narrow the choices (Whittaker, 1992):

Specific. Indicators should be precise and clearly related to conditions of concern. For example, an aesthetic 

indicator should focus on visual resource ratings for a defined viewshed from a specific location.

Measurable. Indicators should be efficiently calculable in the field (e.g., counts of surfers or creel data), or 

efficiently developed to evaluate several conditions). The choice of an appropriate level of measurement will 

depend on such factors as availability of funding and staffing, number of sites that must be evaluated, and 

frequency of measurement and evaluation.

Responsive. Indicators should be related to hydrokinetic-caused changes in conditions. Scientists recognize 

that many important indicators (e.g., number of viewable whales, fishing success for a certain species) may be 

affected by other variables (e.g., fishery management, climate change, etc.) and disentangling sources of 

impacts is complex. Factors that limit understanding include lack of baseline data, spatial and temporal 

discontinuities between cause and effect, and the general challenge of isolating individual components of 

complex ecosystem interactions. If it is unclear whether human development is causing a condition change, that 

condition may not be a good indicator. 

Sensitive. Indicators should detect meaningful change at an appropriate level of precision. The indicator 

needs to be sensitive to changes in conditions during relatively short time periods. Such changes may be 

reflected in biological conditions (e.g., the presence or absence of particular wildlife species) or the human 

experience (e.g., the frequency of encounters with others at an attraction site). If the indicator only changes after 

impacts are substantial, the variable lacks the early warning signs that allow managers to be proactive. 

Integrated and relatively few in number. The most useful indicators reflect multiple impact conditions. 

Because developers and agencies typically have small monitoring budgets, indicators that can be used to 

represent several different impacts allow managers to focus their attention and efforts while being reasonably 

assured that the overall quality of a given experience is maintained. 

Important. Finally, indicators should represent important impacts. If managers and visitors do not care about 

an impact, other indicators make more sense (Whittaker, 1993). For example, harvest-oriented jetty anglers 

may not consider aesthetic impacts from a ashore-based device to be particularly important (especially if they 

fish mostly at night), but may be very concerned about potential loss of access to fishing locations on the jetty. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 67

In Focus: Integrating Information Across Disciplines

In traditional relicensing, integrating findings from recreation, fisheries, and other biophysical resources is challenging 

even with well-defined processes and increasingly well-informed agencies and stakeholders and researchers. There 

will be even greater needs to integrate findings in hydrokinetic – where many impacts are unknown and may be 

indirect (e.g., impacts on fish and wildlife that in turn affect fish- and wildlife-dependent recreation). 

Current hydropower licensing processes generally become more time constrained as studies are completed, the 

precise time when integration is crucially important. In order to address this fact of the process, successful efforts 

have sometimes avoided a “rushed” integration effort by coordinating early and often cross-discipline meetings 

between researchers and agencies. This helps prepare for the settlement period when time is often short. As a 

hydrokinetic process and timeline are developed, particularly with pilot projects, we encourage a deliberate effort to 

encourage cross-discipline study development and exchanges of preliminary findings, as well as a slower pace after 

study results become available, so better integration can occur.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 68

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 69

7. Protection Strategies and Adaptive Management 

This chapter outlines potential strategies to protect, mitigate, and enhance recreational resources from 

hydrokinetic projects. It describes the relevant laws and regulations that can be applied. It also outlines 

the adaptive management framework and the need for flexible and sound decisions to preserve 

recreational resources while further developing hydrokinetic technology. 

There are numerous laws and regulations that apply to hydrokinetic projects; Siting Methodologies for 

Hydrokinetics: Navigating the Regulatory Framework Handbook (PVE, December 2009) provides a good 

review. Significantly, the Federal Power Act, as amended, and the National Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA) create the overarching framework for protecting and enhancing environmental and recreational 

resources (see Chapter 8). The Federal Power Act and related FERC guidelines require “equal 

consideration” of the public’s interest in recreation and power generation; they also require that FERC 

judge the project which will best able to protect, mitigate, and enhance beneficial public uses, including 

recreation. Since hydrokinetic projects require actions (i.e. permits, leases, license, etc.) by at least one 

federal agency, they also need to comply with NEPA. Depending on the lands and waters where a project

is located, there may also be other requirements.

Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations for implementing NEPA (40 C.F.R. § 1508.2.)

define mitigation as:

Avoiding the impact altogether by not taking a certain action or parts of an action.

Minimizing impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation.

Rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, or restoring the affected environment.

Reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations during the 

life of the action.

Compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources or environments.

The FERC process provides a framework for developers and stakeholders to work together to develop 

protection, mitigation, and enhancement (PME) measures. The parties use the information learned 

through studying potential impacts to develop PME measures. The type and amount of PME measures is 

negotiated on a case-by-case basis depending on the extent of the impacts involved. FERC is the ultimate 

decision maker on which measures will be carried forward in the license to operate the project. If the 

negotiated PME measures do not fit within the scope of FERC’s jurisdiction, settlement agreements and 

side-agreements are effective tools for stakeholders and developers to use. 

Protection strategies

Using the CEQ regulations, three main protection strategies/ best practices are outlined below for 

addressing recreation impacts from hydrokinetic projects:

1. Identify sensitive and non-sensitive areas of recreational and natural resources. This strategy falls 

under the “avoid” and “minimize” impact categories defined by CEQ guidelines. This strategy should be 

used first, as it provides the greatest potential for preservation of recreational resources. Setting and 

location are highly important factors in determining what types of impacts could occur. Identifying 

sensitive and less-sensitive areas for recreational and natural resources could help facilitate 

environmentally sound development. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 70

Less-sensitive areas:

near existing dams and hydropower facilities

in highly developed areas

low existing and/or potential recreation use

low quality of recreational experiences

Sensitive areas:

designated protected areas (e.g. parks, marine sanctuaries, etc.)

locations public access locations

sites sensitive to changes in wave or hydraulic characteristics (e.g. surfing areas, whitewater rapids)

key navigation routes, passage ways, and water trails 

high existing or potential recreation use

areas with high quality recreational opportunities 

remote and/or scenic settings 

regionally or nationally significant or unique recreation areas for particular uses (e.g. fishing grounds, 

wildlife watching areas, diving, etc.)

Some recreational users may be reluctant to provide information about their favorite spots unless the area 

is already well-known. Establishing trust and a process where individual user-provided information 

remains confidential while aggregated information is shared with the public (a standard social science 

practice) is important. Once collected, recreation data can then be compiled with environmental data to 

identify appropriate locations for hydrokinetic development. This strategy is being employed in Oregon, 

where Ecotrust is interviewing commercial and recreational fishermen to identify and map fishing 

grounds in order to define good locations for hydrokinetic projects (See In Focus: Mapping the Relative 

Importance of Recreation Areas in Chapter 6.)

Within potential project boundaries, there could be ways to select sites that avoid or minimize impacts. 

For example, Snohomish County Public Utility District avoided locating devices near the popular S.S. 

Governor Ship Wreck Diving site to minimize impacts to divers from its Admiralty Inlet Hydrokinetics 

project (FERC # p-12690). When assessing project siting, recreation access issues are also important. If 

exclusion zones are proposed, ensuring boat passage to high quality recreation areas is critical. 

CEQ recently finalized recommendations Interagency Ocean Task Force (CEQ, 2010) for developing a 

regionally-based coastal and marine spatial planning system (CMSP); a concept supported by several 

advocacy organizations (e.g., FISH, 2009) that is also examined in a website developed by NOAA. 

CMSP is a comprehensive, integrated, science-based, spatial planning process that will analyze existing 

and anticipated ocean uses and define areas most suitable for various types of activities. CMSP will help 

facilitate reaching long-term goals of protecting ecosystems and recreation resources, while also 

optimizing sustainable development. 

The CEQ framework identifies guidelines and essential elements of the CMSP process, but the actual 

planning will be carried out by regional officials in nine geographic areas. Like municipal zoning, the 

ocean could be divided into zones where some uses have priority over the others. For example there 

could be a hydrokinetic zone, a recreation area, an ecosystem protection zone, a wind power area, etc. 

While some marine areas already have protected area designations (e.g. National Marine Sanctuaries, 

National Parks or Sea Shores, or State Parks), CMSP represents a significant shift in the way the ocean is 

managed, allowing more opportunities to comprehensively review biophysical, recreational, and 

economical goals for ocean settings. This could benefit hydrokinetic developers since it would help 

identify acceptable places for this new energy development. With CMSP still on the horizon, the default 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 71

existing approach is a more reactive, case-by-case permitting system. Where feasible though, smallerscale comprehensive reviews of regional issues and resources could be conducted. 

The state of Oregon is actively applying this approach through an update of their Territorial Sea Plan, 

(OregonOcean.info, 2010), which includes sections on hydrokinetic opportunities and marine spatial 

planning. This includes a non-consumptive recreation study completed by Surf Rider on recreation 

opportunities and economic data, as well as results from a survey of anglers, which inform scenario

development. 

2. Identify ways to reduce impacts. This strategy falls under the “minimize,” “rectify,” and “reduce or 

eliminate” impact categories defined by CEQ guidelines. If one can’t avoid impacts by siting projects in 

less sensitive areas, the goal shifts to finding ways to reduce or mitigate potential impacts. This strategy 

should be implemented where the benefits of the project outweigh the environmental and recreational 

costs, including cumulative impacts, and the project is slated to move forward. While benefits from 

multiple hydrokinetic projects can potentially provide important sources of “green” rather than fossil fuelbased energy, the goal is to design energy systems with the least impact possible. This may add some 

costs to the project, which must be weighed against the energy they would generate, but some recreation 

impacts may be reducible with forethought and good planning. 

Within project boundaries, there may still be opportunities to modify locations, technologies, and/or 

operations to reduce or mitigate impacts. Alternatives should explore ways to reduce the footprint of 

recreation access restrictions to ensure they do not impede passage and connections to other resources. In 

many cases, designated boat passage channels through exclusion zones may be effective. In others, full 

exclusion zones may not be necessary and could be replaced with specific activity restrictions (e.g. no 

anchoring, no fishing, etc.) that protect development from recreation use and reduce safety concerns while 

still letting some recreation use occur. Limiting exclusions and restrictions to off-peak times and seasons 

could also help minimize impacts. Increased user education and patrolling may be other ways to meet 

safety and security goals without exclusions or activity restrictions. 

If any access restrictions are implemented, impact analysis and mitigation should consider what happens 

to the recreation users who were using these areas. Where will they go? Will these displaced users have

unintended consequences for use or impacts at other places? Possible mitigation could include enhancing 

other areas where recreation users are likely to go. 

To address aesthetics concerns, several design and technology choices may reduce adverse impacts. 

Choosing devices that are mostly submerged probably provides the greatest benefit, but even simple color 

choices may be effective at reducing aesthetic problems. Similarly, project designs can limit light 

pollution at facilities by employing motion sensors or shielded lights that shine downward. 

3. Develop “off-site” mitigation. In general, this strategy should be considered only when “impact 

avoidance” or “impact minimization” are judged to be insufficient – an evaluation that must consider the 

full range of costs and benefits of the project. Depending upon the nature of the impacts and the site, offsite mitigation may not even be compatible with some federal agencies’ guidelines or authorities. But in 

other cases, mitigation may enhance the overall acceptability of a project to local communities and user 

groups. The concept is to enhance recreation away from the project to “make up” for what was lost at a 

project; it falls under “compensating for the impact” category defined by the CEQ guidelines. Some 

projects may have substantial impacts on recreation, but will still be built because their power generation 

benefits outweigh those or other impacts. In these cases, developers and agencies may be able to redress 

recreation losses. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 72

Examples of potential off-mitigation include:

Secure and develop public access for recreation at another location through acquisition of property or 

easements.

Enhance recreation amenities at locations already being used for recreation (i.e., build additional boat 

docks, new trails along the river, or improve existing facilities, etc.).

Provide one-time compensation payments to relevant agencies, and possibly non-profits, which could 

be used to secure new access sites or enhance recreation resources.

Off-site mitigation proposals should provide benefits for recreation opportunities similar to those affected 

by the hydrokinetic project. When feasible, mitigation should apply to recreation in similar settings, types 

of activities, levels of use, and types of experiences. Off-site mitigation sites should be located as close to 

the existing site as possible, and linked to the degree of expected impact. For example, a project that only 

restricts recreation access during construction/installation of the devices would require less mitigation 

than a project that proposes recreation access restriction continuously through the life of the license. 

With any of these strategies, there is a need for good information about existing conditions; a site’s local, 

regional, or national importance; and the opportunities for onsite enhancements or nearby mitigation. 

Similarly, any strategy is likely to be more successful if developed in collaboration with recreation users, 

stakeholders, and agencies, which can help prioritize potential benefits and costs of different approaches. 

Adaptive management framework

Given the early state of hydrokinetic technology, there is limited scientific or historic basis for assessing 

impacts of even one hydrokinetic device, let alone hundreds that may be developed in a given marine or 

river environment. This increases the importance of applying adaptive management to hydrokinetic 

development, a structured process of iterative decision-making that includes systematic monitoring. 

Adaptive management sets up a framework to plan, monitor, evaluate, and adapt project activities based 

on the results. 

The key to successful adaptive management is to develop clear monitoring plans that outline desired 

conditions, the indicators and standards that will be used to quantify them, and define when management 

actions will be taken. Monitoring should also help assess cumulative impacts to recreation, as these may 

exceed the direct impacts of single projects (especially pilot projects). The Department of Interior’s 

guidance provides further information on developing and implementing adaptive management

approaches. 

As discussed previously, it may be important to develop collaborative recreation research and monitoring 

across a broader watershed-scale with hydrokinetic development, at least until a body of knowledge about 

the impacts to recreation is developed. After several projects have become operational, there will be 

much greater opportunity to understand impacts to recreational, natural, visual, and acoustical resources 

or account for previously unforeseen impacts. While each technology and site is different and impacts

will vary, wide dissemination of information collected for these early projects will help facilitate future 

environmentally-sound development.

With such a new technology, unexpected and unwanted consequences may occur, and in some cases 

development might even be considered for removal. FERC currently has protocols in pilot licenses for 

quick “decommissioning” if adverse outcomes occur. Monitoring and adaptive management are the tools 

that allow those assessments, and they need to be applied with sufficient rigor to ensure that hydrokinetic 

technology moves forward in an environmentally-responsible and recreationally-acceptable way. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 73

8. Getting Involved:

Authorities, information requirements, and Licensing Processes

This final chapter provides a brief overview of the authorities and processes required to develop 

hydrokinetic projects, then highlights key information requirements and opportunities for addressing 

recreation issues. The chapter includes three In Focus sections on recreation and aesthetic information 

requirements, study requests and settlements, and consultation requirements with the National Park 

Service. More detailed information about specific steps and roles for applicants and stakeholders are 

available from FERC and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement 

(BOEMRE). Additional resources to help navigate the authorization processes include materials 

available from DOE and the Hydropower Reform Coalition. 

Authorities and information requirements

The authorization process for hydrokinetic projects is complex and it is beyond the scope of this 

document to provide detailed information. For the latest information on various requirements, consult 

with the relevant agencies. However, the basic authorization paths are shown in Figure 8-1 and briefly 

described below.

A hydrokinetic project requires federal authorizations to operate. Although the types of required 

authorizations may vary depending on the project location, most will need a license from FERC and those 

located on the Outer Continental Shelf 6(OCS) also require a lease from BOEMRE. Each agency uses its 

own basic authorities and follows NEPA during its environmental review. Both agencies provide for 

public involvement. 

Figure 8-1. Federal authorizations for hydrokinetic projects.

 

6 The OCS includes all submerged lands, subsoil, and seabed lying between the seaward extent of the States‟ jurisdiction 

(approximately 3 nautical miles from shore, or 3 marine leagues for Texas and the Gulf coast of Florida) and the seaward extent 

of federal jurisdiction (approximately 200 nautical miles or more from shore).

Project conception 

FERC preliminary permit MMS lease

FERC Licensing Process

Federal waters: 

Marine waters > 3 miles 

State waters: Rivers & 

marine waters < 3 miles 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 74

The intent of NEPA is to help public officials understand the environmental consequences of potential 

federal actions and review alternative ways to protect, restore, and enhance the environment in 

conjunction with those decisions. While NEPA processes are sometimes implemented differently by 

federal agencies, both FERC and BOEMRE are required to prepare either an Environmental Assessment 

(EA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), depending upon the nature of the action and the 

significance of potential impacts. Both agencies involve the public in preparing and implementing NEPA 

procedures, so stakeholders have opportunities to provide comments before any final action. FERC 

provides guidelines for public participation. Additional NEPA resources include: Preparing 

Environmental Documents and the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) website to guide the public 

“A Citizen’s Guide to the NEPA – Having Your Voice Heard.” 

The siting handbook for wave and hydrokinetics projects prepared on behalf of the Department of Energy 

(Pacific Ventures, 2009) provides an excellent overview of the various authorizations required at the State 

and Federal level, including consultations under various laws such as: the Clean Water Act section 

401(a), the Endangered Species Act, Coastal Zone Management Act, National Historic Preservation Act,

7

and with federal land managers that are integrated with licensing/leasing authorities of FERC and 

BOEMRE. The NEPA process provides a mechanism for additional agencies and others to provide 

expertise and make recommendations. For example, the U.S. Coast Guard may make recommendations 

about navigation safety and maritime security. More guidance about FERC hydropower licensing is 

available from Citizen’s Toolkit for Effective Participation in Hydropower Licensing (Hydropower 

Reform Coalition, 2005).

BOEMRE Lease

Projects located on the OCS require a lease (or an easement/right of way) from the BOEMRE, in addition 

to a license from FERC. The basic authority is the 2005 Energy Policy Act (EPAct), Section 388, as 

codified in subsection 8(p) of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA). 

The BOEMRE will convey the property right (lease or grant) on the OCS for hydrokinetic projects, and 

FERC will license and regulate the construction and operation of the generating facility. A FERC license 

can only be obtained after securing a lease from the BOEMRE. 

Additional information is available from the BOEMRE, the Programmatic Environmental Impact 

Statement on the leasing process, and the Final Renewable Energy Framework . BOEMRE provides 

public participation guidelines at Environmental Comment – Public Review.

FERC Preliminary Permit

A FERC preliminary permit provides the exclusive right to apply for a license for a particular site for a 

period of 36 months. It does not authorize construction or guarantee the issuance of a project license and 

grants no land-disturbing or other property rights. The basic authority is the 1935 Federal Power Act

(FPA) and associated amendments.

Preliminary permits are available, but optional, for in-river and marine projects in state waters. It is not 

necessary to obtain a permit in order to apply for or receive a license. Preliminary permits are not 

 

7 Additional laws with consultation requirements include: Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Pacific 

Northwest Power Planning and Conservation Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, Wilderness Act, and Marine Mammal Protection 

Act. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 75

available for projects located on the OCS. 

FERC has adopted a “strict scrutiny” approach for evaluating applications for preliminary permits. Under 

this approach, FERC states that it will review preliminary permit applications for hydrokinetic projects to 

limit the boundaries of permits to prevent site banking and to promote competition. Further, to ensure 

that permit holders are actively pursuing project exploration, FERC intends to carefully scrutinize semiannual applicant reports and consider canceling permits that do not show sufficient progress. For 

additional information on the Commission’s “strict scrutiny” approach, see the Order Issuing Preliminary 

Permit for the Reedsport OPT Wave Park, LLC (FERC Project No. 12713-000).

We recommend that applicants interested in obtaining a preliminary permit consult with recreation 

stakeholders early in the process, especially to identify locations that might adversely affect significant 

recreational and aesthetic resources and identify issues that may need additional evaluation. 

FERC License

A FERC license is the primary regulatory document that authorizes the use of public waters for electricity 

generation, and is required for projects located in state and off-shore federal waters. It specifies the 

conditions and legal responsibilities for construction, operation, and maintenance of the project (including 

a schedule). When final, a license is enforceable by FERC, who may issue fines or revoke a license in the 

event of systematic non-compliance. Licenses often require mitigation for environmental and recreational 

impacts, as well as monitoring to assure compliance and (in some recent licenses) to evaluate whether the 

measures have the intended results. Specific content for draft applications is described in FERC’s 

checklist.

Under the FPA, any applicant must consult with appropriate federal, state, and local resource agencies, 

Indian tribes, non-governmental agencies, and members of the public (all of these are considered as 

“stakeholders” for the purpose of this report).8 For projects located in the United States, individuals and 

organizations with recreation interests have the right to participate as a stakeholder. 

Applicants for a FERC license must address information about recreation (18 CFR § 5.6(viii)), aesthetics 

(18 CFR § 5.6(ix)), and wildlife information related to recreation (18 CFR § 5.6(v)(b)) as part of their 

draft license application (see In Focus section on Recreation and Aesthetic Information Requirements for 

FERC Hydropower Licenses below). We encourage applicants to contact and involve potential recreation 

stakeholders in developing this information because they may be knowledgeable sources of information 

and can help identify issues of concern and study needs. Input helps assure that licenses protect and 

enhance fish and wildlife resources, recreation, and water quality. There is both a process and a goal to 

accomplish this; under the Electric Consumers Protection Act (ECPA, 1996) FERC is required to give 

“equal consideration to power and non-power values” when issuing licenses. Recreation qualifies as 

“non-power” values. 

Although the FERC licensing processes allow comment at many stages, early involvement offers more 

opportunities to learn concerns and address them, and is recommended as a best practice in guidance

available from FERC. We recommend applicants to reach out early and often to stakeholders in order to 

understand and address recreational, aesthetic, and other potential impacts. Stakeholders should contact 

the developer directly, seek assistance from federal or state agencies, talk with local environmental and 

recreational nonprofits, and formally participate in the process for licensing any new hydroelectric 

 

8 The consultation role of the National Park Service goes beyond addressing impacts to National Parks and is confusing to many applicants. 

(See In Focus: Hydropower Proposals and the National Park Service).
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 76

project. Early involvement is even more important for new technologies that require authorizations from 

multiple agencies and jurisdictions (e.g., projects sited on the OCS require FERC licenses and an 

BOEMRE leases). While FERC’s pilot process (small, short-term, removable, and carefully monitored 

projects intended to test technologies, sites, or both) is intended to reduce the time required to receive a 

pilot license to as few as six months, the typical permitting and licensing process is expected to require 

more than five years before a final license is issued and construction can begin. This process is more 

analogous to a marathon than a sprint, and both applicants and stakeholders should be prepared for 

several years of involvement. Again, experience shows that success for developers, agencies, and 

stakeholders is higher when the range of stakeholder input is broad and available early in the process. 

There are many opportunities for stakeholders to participate in the licensing process including: 

Helping identify issues of concern.

Proposing studies and negotiating study plans.

Commenting on licensee proposals, including:

o issue identification

o studies

o proposed project operations 

Making recommendations about operations and protection, mitigation, and enhancement measures.

Challenging FERC decisions through administrative and legal appeals.

The study process is particularly relevant to this guide. The study plan describes how new information 

will be collected to prepare license applications. Information is needed to characterize the environmental 

baseline affected by the project and to assess potential project impacts and alternatives to protect, 

mitigate, and enhance environmental quality. 

This is an iterative process that includes the applicant developing a study plan in consultation with 

agencies, tribes, and other participants; opportunities for stakeholders to comment and request studies; 

meetings to informally clarify the plan and resolve outstanding issues; a formal study dispute process 

available to Federal agencies with mandatory conditioning authorities; and ultimately, FERC approving 

the revised study plan with any modifications after considering all information in the record.

Study requests must meet strict criteria. (See “In Focus: Making Study or Information Requests and 

Settlements”).

FERC Licensing Processes

There are two general types of licenses that can be obtained from FERC for hydrokinetic projects: 1) pilot 

license or 2) conventional license, briefly described below. Additional information on hydrokinetic 

licensing processes is available from FERC. One key difference between these types is when study 

information is collected. 

FERC Pilot Hydrokinetic Licenses

The purposes of licensing hydrokinetic pilot projects are to test new, hydrokinetic technology devices; to 

determine the appropriate sites for hydrokinetic projects; and to gather information on environmental and 

other impacts of the devices. Most impact studies will occur during the pilot license term (about 5 years), 

rather than during the application process for a conventional license. The process includes opportunities 

for input from federal, state, and local resource agencies, Indian tribes, non-governmental organizations, 

and members of the public. The process allows applicants to collect information to determine whether or 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 77

not to progress to a full-scale project. If not, then the licensee has responsibility to remove the pilot 

project. Expansion beyond the pilot project will require a new application (usually through the 

Conventional Hydropower License Process; see below). 

Additional information about pilot license criteria and requirements is available from FERC. To qualify, 

a project must meet the following criteria: 

Projects will be small in capacity (equal to or less than 5 MW) and occupy the minimum area 

commensurate with the technology to be employed;

the license will be short term;

Project site avoids sensitive locations;

Project applications will contain strict safeguard plans to protect the public and environmental 

resources

Projects will be removable and able to shut down on short notice, and will be removed, with site 

restored, before the end of the license term (unless a new license is granted); and

the draft application must be in a form sufficient to support environmental analysis and include 

proposed monitoring plans

FERC Conventional Hydropower Licenses

Hydrokinetic projects are not limited to the Pilot Licensing process. Developers can initially choose to 

use FERC’s conventional hydropower licensing processes, or use a conventional process to transition 

from a successful pilot process to full build-out. Conventional licenses are issued for 30 to 50 years. The 

licensing process provides multiple opportunities for stakeholder input and requires studies during the 

application process. Key elements of licensing are listed below. Detailed information about these 

elements is beyond the scope of this report. In addition to guidance available from FERC, stakeholders 

are encouraged to review guidance available from DOE and the Hydropower Reform Coalition.

Key Elements of FERC Hydrokinetic Licensing Processes

Preliminary Application Document (PAD)

NEPA scoping and stakeholder comment

Develop study plans

Conduct studies

Preliminary license proposal

Final License Application (FLA)

FERC-conducted NEPA

FERC License Order

Project development and monitoring
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 78

In Focus: FERC Recreation and Aesthetic Information Requirements 

The following information is required by FERC as part of both pilot and conventional licensing, as listed below and 

described in (18 CFR § 5.6 ). 

Recreation and land use (18 CFR § 5.6(viii). A description of the existing recreational and land uses and 

opportunities within the project boundary. The components of this description include:

Text description illustrated by maps of existing recreational facilities, type of activity supported, location, 

capacity, ownership and management;

Current recreational use of project lands and waters compared to facility or resource capacity;

Existing shoreline buffer zones within the project boundary;

Current and future recreation needs identified in current State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans, other 

applicable plans on file with the Commission, or other relevant local, state, or regional conservation and 

recreation plans;

If the potential applicant is an existing licensee, its current shoreline management plan or policy, if any, with 

regard to permitting development of piers, boat docks and landings, bulkheads, and other shoreline facilities on 

project lands and waters;

A discussion of whether the project is located within or adjacent to a:

o River segment that is designated as part of, or under study for inclusion in, the National Wild and Scenic 

River System; or

o State-protected river segment;

Whether any project lands are under study for inclusion in the National Trails System or designated as, or under 

study for inclusion as, a Wilderness Area.

Any regionally or nationally important recreation areas in the project vicinity;

Non-recreational land use and management within the project boundary; and

Recreational and non-recreational land use and management adjacent to the project boundary.

Aesthetic resources (18 CFR § 5.6(ix). A description of the visual characteristics of the lands and waters affected 

by the project. Components of this description include a description of the dam, natural water features, and other 

scenic attractions of the project and surrounding vicinity. Potential applicants are encouraged to supplement the 

text description with visual aids.

Wildlife information related to recreation - Temporal or spatial distribution of species considered important 

because of their commercial, recreational, or cultural value (18 CFR § 5.6(v)(b)).
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 79

In Focus: Making Study Requests and Settlements

The results from studies and the project study plan provide key information in the record on which FERC will make its 

decision in a typical proceeding. Commenting on and requesting studies is a good way for public and agency 

stakeholders to start working directly with the applicant to provide early and substantive input in the process, and to 

influence FERC on including conditions to protect sensitive recreational and other resources. Early collaboration can 

also reduce controversy and uncertainty concerning the outcome of a licensing proceeding. Additional guidance 

about studies is available from FERC and the Hydropower Reform Coalition.

The study plan must: (1) identify each study to be completed by the licensee to characterize existing conditions of 

resources affected by the project; (2) identify corresponding management goals and objectives; and (3) and propose 

analytical methods (generally, field studies) to determine the nature and scope of the project's existing or potential 

impacts and alternatives to mitigate such impacts. As specified by CFR 18, §5.9(b) of FERC's regulations under the 

Integrated Licensing Process (ILP), study requests must address the following seven criteria: 

Subject and purpose of the request (e.g., “this study will assist in our understanding of project impacts on the 

following resource...”); 

Relevant management goals of any agency or tribe with jurisdiction over the resource to be studied; 

Relevant public interest considerations supporting the request, if the commenter is not an agency; 

Existing information concerning the subject and an explanation why additional information is needed; 

Nexus between the project and the resource to be studied, and how the study results will inform the 

development of the license articles; 

Proposed study methodology and explanations why they are consistent with generally accepted practice in the 

scientific community or, as appropriate, consider relevant tribal values and knowledge; and 

Level of effort and cost, as applicable, and why any proposed alternative studies would not be sufficient to meet 

the stated information needs.

Settlements

One method for seeking early collaboration and reducing controversy is by seeking a settlement agreement among 

all or most of the project stakeholders: “The Commission looks with great favor on settlements in licensing cases. 

When parties are able to reach settlements, it can save time and money, avoid the need for protracted litigation, 

promote the development of positive relationships among entities who may be working together during the course of 

a license term, and give the Commission, as it acts on license applications, a clear sense as to the parties‟ views on 

the issues presented in each settled case” (See FERC Policy Statement on Settlements, 2006).

Settlement discussions can begin whenever the licensee and a critical mass of other participants believe there is a 

reasonable prospect of timely success, and early collaboration provides an opportunity to create agreement about 

studies and license provisions, including mitigation. Settlement also prevents or at least reduces the frequency or 

severity of disputes about the adequacy of the licensee's study plan, so early collaboration and involvement with 

study plans is often the earliest opportunity to reach agreement and a potential course towards settlement. FERC 

prefers settlement as the basis of any new license for a given project, no matter which of the licensing processes is 

used. Even though the three conventional licensing processes (i.e., ILP, TLP, ALP) differ in their emphasis on 

collaboration, Practice and Procedure Rule 601 establishes settlement as an accepted method to resolve disputed 

issues in any proceeding before FERC (18 CFR § 385.601 et seq.). 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 80

In Focus: Hydropower Proposals and the National Park Service 

The National Park Service (NPS) may become involved in hydropower proceedings for a variety of reasons including: 

Potential impact on recreation opportunities;

Potential impact on the National Park System resources; and

Potential impact on areas where NPS has oversight or management responsibilities.

NPS Hydropower Recreation Assistance 

Consultation with the National Park Service is required in FERC hydropower licensing proceedings, regardless of 

whether a park unit is affected (18 C.F.R. § 4.38(a), 18 C.F.R. § 5.1(d), and 18 C.F.R. § 16.8(b)(4)). This broad 

responsibility stems from the NPS Organic Act (16 U.S.C. § 1 et seq.) and the technical assistance provisions of the 

Outdoor Recreation Act (16 U.S.C. § 4601-1), the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (PL 90-542), and the National 

Trail System Act of 1968 (16 U.S.C. § 1246(a)). 

When evaluating proposals for technical assistance, NPS may select projects that do not impact the Park System or 

places where NPS has oversight (see below). NPS Policy and Guidelines for Recreational Technical Assistance in 

Hydropower Licensing (Federal Register 57 FR 61915, December 29, 1992) provides a framework and criteria for 

project selection. Priority is given to projects in areas with high natural, cultural and/or recreational resource values 

and where there is a significant opportunity to create or improve recreation opportunities. In addition, NPS seeks to 

provide assistance for a diverse mix of recreation experiences, settings, and geographic locations, particularly if 

multiple projects are involved. NPS also gives priority to requests from groups that have little or no access to 

professional sources of planning assistance and analysis. For more information about the NPS Hydropower 

Assistance Program see http://www.nps.gov/hydro

Hydropower and Units of the National Park System

The Federal Power Act generally prohibits FERC from licensing or exempting hydropower projects within National 

Parks and Monuments 16 U.S.C. §§ 797a (2006). The Federal Power Act also prohibits FERC from licensing 

hydropower projects within the boundaries of other units of the National Park System if those projects “would have a 

direct adverse impact to federal lands within any such unit” 16 U.S.C. § 797c (2006). 

When project boundaries overlap with federal lands managed by NPS, NPS may require developers to obtain an 

NPS issued right-of-way permit 16 U.S.C. §§ 5, 79 (2006). In these situations, NPS may also develop conditions to 

ensure the adequate protection and utilization of the federal lands managed by NPS, which FERC must include in the 

project license 16 U.S.C. § 797(e) (2006). In situations where a project would be sited in a unit of the national park 

system, but where the project boundary does not overlap NPS lands, it may recommend terms and conditions to 

FERC that would best adapt the project to a comprehensive management plan for that unit 16 U.S.C. § 803(a)(2) 

(2006). In addition to the authorities described above, enabling legislation for any national park system unit 

potentially affected by a project must be reviewed to identify additional protections or authorizations that may apply. 

BOEMRE is also prohibited from leasing projects in any unit of the National Park System, or similar protected 

conservation units such as National Marine Sanctuaries, National Wildlife Refuges, and National Monuments on the 

OCS 43 U.S.C. § 1337(p)(10); Pub. L. 109–58, § 388(a)(2005).
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 81

NPS Oversight Responsibilities 

NPS has several oversight responsibilities relevant to recreation areas protected under many federal laws. Local, 

tribal, and state government lands that have received grants through the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) 

are protected under Section 6(f) of the LWCF Act for public outdoor recreation use. Any conversions from outdoor 

recreation use require NPS approval and replacement property (equal to current market value, in a similar location, 

and with reasonably equivalent usefulness). Similarly, local government lands with recreation sites that were 

rehabilitated through the Urban Park and Recreation Recovery (UPARR) program are protected under Section 1010 

of the Urban Park and Recreation Recovery Act of 1978, as amended. Local government and state lands that have 

been donated through the Federal Lands to Parks program are also restricted to public recreation use only; 

conversion of lands to non-park use triggers a reversion of title to the federal government. See 16 USC §460l-8; 16 

USC §2501-14; 36 CFR §59; 40 USC § 550 (b), (e); 41 CFR § 102-75.625 through 75.690.

In addition, NPS has special oversight responsibilities, along with the other river administering agencies, for the 

National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. FERC is prohibited from licensing new construction of hydropower projects 

within the boundaries of Wild and Scenic Rivers and rivers that have been designated for potential inclusion into the 

Wild and Scenic Rivers System. 16 U.S.C. § 1278(a)-(b) (2006). FERC is subject to the river-administering agency‟s 

finding relating to hydropower projects located below/above, or on a tributary to, a designated Wild and Scenic River 

or a congressionally authorized study river. 16 U.S.C. § 1278(a)-(b) (2006). For designated rivers, a 

downstream/upstream project may not invade the area or unreasonably diminish the scenic, recreational, and fish 

and wildlife values present at the date of designation. For congressionally authorized study rivers, greater protection 

is provided. The project must not invade the area or diminish the area‟s values. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 82

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 83

9. References

Aas, O., W. Haider, and L. Hunt. 2000. Angler responses to harvest regulations in Engerdal, Norway: a 

conjoint based choice modeling approach. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 20:940-950.

Airport Noise Law. 2009. Advocacy group website with extensive bibilography on airport noise issues, 

including government hearings and reports, newsletters, noise policy noise impacts on health and welfare, 

airport noise perception studies, airport noise abatement, aircraft noise measurement, and airport noise 

surveys. http://airportnoiselaw.org/biblio.html

Anderson, G.S., Horonjeff, R.D., Menge, C.W., Miller, N.P., Robert, W.E., Rossano, C., Sanchez, G., 

Baumgartner, R.M. & McDonald, C. 1993. Dose-Response Relationships Derived from Data Collected 

at Grand Canyon, Haleakala and Hawaii Volcanoes National Parks. HMMH Report No. 290940,14, 

NPOA Report No. 93-6. 

Arbogast, B. 2005. Bibliography of Selected References in Visual Resource Management. Open file 

report 2005–1155. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 

Benfield, J., Bell, A., Troup, L.J., and Soderstrom, N.C. 2010. Aesthetic and affective impacts of vocal 

and traffic noise on natural landscape assessment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 30, Issue 1, 

March 2010, Pages 103-111. 

Benfield, J., Bell, P, Troup, L. J., and Soderstrom, N.C. 2009. Does Anthropogenic Noise in National 

Parks Impair Memory? Environment and Behavior. 

http://eab.sagepub.com/cgi/rapidpdf/0013916509351219v1.

Bureau of Land Management. 2009. Visual Resource Management System. 

http://www.blm.gov/nstc/VRM/.

Boatsafe. 2009. Website with distance to horizon calculator. Accessed on web at: 

http://boatsafe.com/tools/horizon.htm

Boone, J. 2005. The aesthetic dissonance of industrial wind machines: Response to Saito. 

Contemporary Aesthetics, 3. 

Bowes, M. D. and Loomis, J. B. 1980. A note on the use of travel cost models with unequal zonal 

populations. Land Economics 56(4): 465-470. 

Boyle, K. J., and Bishop, R. C. 1988. Welfare measurement using contingent valuation. American 

Journal of Agricultural Economics. 70(1): 20-28.

Brown, P.J., B.L. Driver, & C. McConnell. 1978. The opportunity spectrum concept and behavioral 

information in outdoor recreation resource supply inventories: background and application. In Integrated 

inventories of renewable natural resources: Proceedings of a workshop. USDA Forest Service General 

Technical Report RM 55. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, CO. p. 73-

84.

Brunson, M. and B. Shelby. 1993. Recreation substitutability: A research agenda. Leisure Sciences 

15(1):67-74.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 84

Cada, G., J. Ahlgrimm, M. Bahleda, T. Bigford, S. D. Stavrakas, D. Hall, R. Moursund, and M. Sale.

2007. Potential Impacts of Hydrokinetic and Wave Energy Conversion Technologies on Aquatic 

Environments. Fisheries Vol 32(4). April.

Campbell, H. V. 2009. Emerging from the Deep: Pacific Coast Wave Energy. Journal of Environmental 

Law and Litigation Vol. 24 (7). 

Carlson, A. 2001. On aesthetically appreciating human environments. Philosophy and Geography, Vol 

4, no. 1: pp. 9-24.

Carr, M. H., and Hixon, M. A. 1997. Artificial reefs: the importance of comparisons with natural reefs. 

Fisheries, 22: 28–33.

Caselle, J. E., Love, M. S., Fusaro, C., and Schroeder, D. 2002. Trash or habitat? Fish assemblages on 

offshore oilfield seafloor debris in the Santa Barbara Channel, California. – ICES Journal of Marine 

Science, 59: S258–S265.

Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies. 2003. A baseline assessment of electromagnetic fields generated 

by offshore windfarm cables. COWRIE Report EMF-01-2002 66. Liverpool, UK. 

http://www.offshorewind.co.uk. 

Clark, R. N. and Stankey, G. H. 1979. The recreation opportunity spectrum: A framework for planning, 

management and research. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment Station; General 

Technical Report PNW-98, Portland, OR.

Connected Earth. 2009. Laying submarine cable. From “telecommunications development museum” 

website. www.connected-earth.com/Galleries/Fabricofcommunications/Buildingthenetworks/

Layingsubmarinecables/index.htm

Corne, N. 2009. The Implications of Coastal Protection and Development on Surfing. Journal of Coastal 

Research, 25(2): 427‐434.

Council on Environmental Quality. 1978. Regulations for Implementing the National Environmental 

Protection Act. 40 CFR Parts 1500-1508.

Council on Environmental Quality. 1997. Considering Cumulative Impacts Under the National

Environmental Policy Act. Council on Environmental Quality, Executive Office of the President, 

Washington, DC.

Council on Environmental Quality. 2010. Final Recommendations of the Interagency Ocean Policy

Task Force. Washington D.C. July. 

Dauterive, Les. 2000. Rigs-To-Reef Policy, Progress, and Perspective. OCS Report (U.S. Department of 

the Interior).

Daniel, Terry C. 1990. Measuring the Quality of the Natural Environment. American

Psychologist. May. p. 633-637.

Department of Energy. 2009a. Marine and Hydrokinetic Technology Database. Accessed at: 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/default.aspx
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 85

Department of Energy. 2009b. Potential Environmental Impacts of Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy 

Technologies: A report to Congress in response to the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 

2007, Section 633(b). Commonly referred to as the “EISA Report.” June. 

Detweiler, G., LCDR USCG (Retired). 2010. Personal communication. Lt. Commander Detweiler is a 

Marine Transportation Specialist with the Navigation Standards Branch (CG-54133) in the Navigation 

Systems Division (CG-5413). 

Devine-Wright, P. 2009. Rethinking NIMBYism: The role of place attachment and place identity in 

explaining place-protective action. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology

Volume 19 Issue 6, Pages 426 – 441.

Dickinson, P.J. 2002. Outdoor recreational noise – an overview. Proceedings of

Internoise 2002 (International Congress and Exposition on Noise Control Engineering). Dearborn, MI.

Driver, B. L., & Brown, P. J. (1978). The opportunity spectrum concept and behavioral information in 

outdoor recreation resource supply inventories: A rationale. In Integrated inventories of renewable 

natural resources: Proceedings of the workshop. (USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM55). Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest Range Experiment Station.

Driver, B. L., Brown, P. J., Gregoire, T. G., & Stankey, G. H. (1987). The ROS planning system: 

Evolution and basic concepts. Leisure Sciences, 9, 201-214.

EcoTrust. 2009a. Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) Initiative. 

http://www.ecotrust.org/mlpa/interview_comm.html

EcoTrust. 2009b. Summary of uses and values pilot project in support of the Oregon Territorial Sea Plan 

Revision. Accessed documents include:

Summaries of the overall project: http://www.ecotrust.org/tsp/TSP_values_project.pdf

Issues with commercial survey: http://www.ecotrust.org/mlpa/interview_comm.html

Issues with recreation survey: http://www.ecotrust.org/mlpa/interview_rec.html

Emerald Diving. 2009. Edmonds Underwater Park and Map of classic Puget Sound and Hood Canal 

dive areas.. Accessed at: http://emeralddiving.com/edmonds_up_frame.html.

Environmental Design & Research, P.C. 2006. Seascape and Shoreline Visibility Assessment, Cape 

Wind Energy Project in Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, MA. July.

Fishermen Interested in Safe Hydrokinetics (FISH). 2009. Press release describing suit against FERC 

regarding Mendocino CA project and for regional Wave Energy Planning. Contact: E. Mitchell.

Fedler, A. J. and R. B. Ditton. 1994. Understanding angler motivations in fisheries management. Fisheries

19(4):6-12.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 2006. Ideas for Implementing and Participating in the 

Integrated Licensing Process (ILP): Tools for Industry, Agencies, Tribes, Non-Governmental 

Organizations, Citizens, and FERC Staff. Report by the Office of Energy Projects. Washington, DC. 

February.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. Code of Federal Regulations. 18 CFR 4.41.7(iv)
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 86

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 2006. Policy Statement on Hydropower Licensing Settlements. 

Docket PL06-5-000. September 21. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/092106/H-1.pdf

Federal Highway Administration. 2006. Highway Traffic Noise in the United States: Problem and 

Response. April. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/probresp.htm

Fraenkel, P.L. 2006. Tidal current energy technologies. Ibis 148:145-151.

Gill, A.B. et al 2005. The potential impacts of electromagnetic fields generated by sub‐sea power cables 

associated with offshore wind farm developments on electrically and magnetically sensitive marine 

organisms – a review. Accessed at 

http://www.offshorewindfarms.co.uk/Assets/1351_emf_phase_one_half_report.pdf.

Gill, R. B. 2002. Build an experience and they will come: Managing biology of wildlife viewing for 

benefits to people and wildlife. In Wildlife viewing: A management handbook (M. J. Manfredo, editor).

Gillis, K. S. and R. B. Ditton. 2002. A conjoint analysis of the U. S. Atlantic billfish fishery management 

alternatives. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22:1218-1228.

Gipe, P. 1995. Design as if people matter: Aesthetic guidelines for the wind industry. Paper presented at 

the American Wind Energy Assoc. conference in Washington, DC, March. Accessed at http://windworks.org/articles/design.html.

Gipe, P. 1997. Removal and restoration costs in California: Who will pay? WindStats Newsletter (Vol. 

10, No. 2, Spring). 

Gobster, P.H. 1999. An ecological aesthetic for forest landscape management. Landscape Journal 18(1): 

54-64.

Gramann, J.H. (1999). The effect of mechanical noise and natural sound on visitor experiences in units of 

the National Park System. Social Science Research Review series, Vol. 1, no. 1. Washington, DC:

National Park Service Social Science Program, 16 pp.

Halcrow Group Limited. 2008. Safety options evaluation at South West Wave Hub. May. Accessed 

via: http://www.wavehub.co.uk/

Halpern, B.S., S.D. Gaines, and R.R. Warner. 2004. Confounding impacts of the export of production and 

the displacement of fishing effort from marine reserves. Ecological Applications 14(4):1248-1256.

Hastings, M. and A. Popper. 2005. Impacts of Sound on Fish. Report to California Department of 

Transportation Contract No. 43A0139, Task Order 1. 

HBRS, Inc. 1994. Survey of National Park Service Managers Related to Aircraft Overflying National 

Parks. HMMH Report No. 290940.17, NPOA Report No. 93-7.

Hearin, J. 2006. Preliminary Design of an Artificial Surfing Reef for Cocoa Beach, Florida by M.S. 

Ocean Engineering. January. Powerpoint presentation. 

Hoyt, E. 2001. Whale watching 2001: Worldwide tourism numbers, expenditures, and expanding

socioeconomic benefits. International Fund for Animal Welfare. Yarmouth, MA. 

http://www.blm.gov/nstc/VRM/.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 87

Illinois Paddling Council. 2008. The Access Project. Web page with multiple links to dam access issues 

in Illinois. 

Jackson, L. and B.B. Corbett. 2007. Review of Existing Multi-Functional Artificial Reefs

Australasian conference on coasts and ports. Accessed at 

http://www.coastalmanagement.com.au/papers/CP2007-MFAR.pdf

Johnson, R. L., and Johnson, G. V. 1990. Economic valuation of natural resources: issues theory, and 

applications. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 

Klein, C.J., A. Chan, L. Kircher, A. J. Cundiff, N. Gardner, Y. Hrovat, A. Scholz, B. E. Kendall, and S.

Airam. 2008. Striking a Balance between Biodiversity Conservation and Socioeconomic Viability in the 

Design of Marine Protected Areas . Centre for Applied Environmental Decision and Analysis. 

Klinkenborg, Verlyn. 2008. Our Vanishing Night. National Geographic. Accessed at 

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/light-pollution/klinkenborg-text

Knopf, R. C., B. L. Driver, and J. R. Bassett. 1973. Motivations for fishing. Transactions of the North 

American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 38:191-203.

Koski., K. 2009. Soundwatch opinion on proposed NOAA Killer Whale regulations. Sand Juan 

Islander. 

Kyle, G. An examination of the relationship between leisure activity involvement and place attachment 

among hikers along the Appalachian Trail". Journal of Leisure Research. FindArticles.com. 

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3702/is_3_35/ai_n29030819/

Loomis, J. B. & Walsh, R. G. 1997. Recreation economic decisions: comparing benefits and costs. 2nd 

Edition. Venture publishing, Inc. State College, PA. 

Mace, B. L., Bell, P. A., & Loomis, R. J. (2004). Visibility and natural quiet in national parks and 

wilderness areas - Psychological considerations. Environment and Behavior, 36(1), 5-31.

Manning, R.E. 1986. Studies in Outdoor Recreation: Search and Research for Satisfaction,

Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon, USA.

Manning, R. and W. Freimund. 2004. Use of Visual Research Methods to Measure Standards of 

Quality for Parks and Outdoor Recreation. Journal of Leisure Research. 36(4): 552-579

Manfredo, M. J. 2002. Planning and managing for wildlife viewing recreation: An introduction. In 

Wildlife viewing: A management handbook (M. J. Manfredo, editor).

Manfredo, M. J. and B.L. Driver. 2002. Benefits: The Basis for action. In Wildlife viewing: A 

management handbook (M. J. Manfredo, editor).

Marine Renewable Energy and Spatial Planning Workshop. 2009. Workshop agenda. October. Seattle, 

WA. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 88

Marine Consulting and Research. 2008. A Review of Existing Multi-Purpose Artificial Surfing Reefs 

and the Physical Properties behind their Function. A report prepared for the Feasibility Study of MultiPurpose Artificial Surf Reefs along Brevard County, Florida. March. 

Marcus, B. 2009. Interview with Professor Kerry Black. Accessed on Surfermag.com website. 

http://www.surfermag.com/features/onlineexclusives/kerryblckintrvu/

Matsler, M. 2009. Winchester Bay Coastal User Survey: A look at the intersection of recreational use

and renewable energy project siting on the Oregon coast. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental 

Studies. 

McDonald, C. D., Baumgartner,R. M.,&Iachan, R. (1995). National Park Service aircraft management

studies (USDI Rep. No. 94-2). Denver, CO: National Park Service.

McCay, B. J., C. Pomeroy, K. St. Martin. 2006. Peer review of Ecotrust MLPAI Products. Coordinated 

by B. L. E. Walker; commissioned by California Fisheries Coalition, an ad hoc committee of the Alliance 

of Communities for Sustainable Fisheries. Accessed at: 

http://www.ecotrust.org/mlpa/CFC_Ecotrust_peer_review_final.pdf

Michel, J., H. Dunagan, C. Boring, E. Healy, W. Evans, J. Dean, A. McGillis, & J.Hain.

2007. Worldwide synthesis and analysis of existing information regarding

environmental impacts of alternative energy uses on the Outer Continental Shelf. OCS

Report 2007-038 for Minerals Management Service. Washington, DC. 

http://www.researchplanning.com/pubs/MMSAEFINALSYNTHESISREPORT.pdf

Miller, N.P. 2002. Transportation noise and recreational lands. Proceedings of Internoise 2002 

(International Congress and Exposition on Noise Control Engineering). Dearborn, MI. 

Mitchell, R. & Carson, R. 1989. Using surveys to value public goods: The contingent valuation method. 

Resources for the Future: Washington D.C.

Minerals Management Service. 2006. MMS estimates of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita damage. Release: 

#3486. Accessed at http://www.mms.gov/ooc/press/2006/press0501.htm

Morfey, C.L. Dictionary of Acoustics. Academic Press, 2001, p. 254.

National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Region. 2009. Draft Environmental Assessment for New 

Regulations to Protect Killer Whales from Vessel Impacts in Inland Waters of Washington. Department 

of Commerce. January 2009.

National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Center. 2010. Natural lightscapes and night sky 

program. Accessed at http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/lightscapes/mgmt.cfm

National Park Service, Natural Resource Program Center. 2008. Acoustical Sampling and Analysis 

Guide: Fort Collins, CO. <http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/protocols/Acoustical Sampling & 

Analysis Guide 2008-12-02 v1.0 FINAL.doc>

National Park Service. 1994. Report on effects of aircraft overflights on the National Park system

prepared pursuant to the National Parks Overflights Act of 1987. Report to congress. September. 

Available at: http://www.noisepollution.org/library/npreport/intro.htm
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 89

Night Sky International. 2010. Night sky, light pollution, and effective lighting resources. Accessed at 

www.darksky.org.

Nelson, P.A., D. Behrens, J. Castle, G. Crawford, R.N. Gaddam, S.C. Hackett, J. Largier,

D.P. Lohse, K.L. Mills, P.T. Raimondi, M. Robart, W.J. Sydeman, S.A. Thompson, and

S. Woo. 2008. Developing Wave Energy in Coastal California: Potential Economic and Environmental 

Impacts. California Energy Commission, PIER Energy-Related Environmental Research Program & 

California Ocean Protection Council CEC-3 500-2008-083. 

Orams, M. B. 2000. Tourists getting close to whales, is it what whale-watching is all about? Tourism

Management. Volume 21: pp 561-569. 

Orr, D. 2002. The nature of design: ecology, culture, and human intention. Oxford University Press. 

Oregon Ocean Information. 2010. Web pages on several topics related to its Territorial Sea Plan, 

including: 1) Amendment Process; 2) Community Team Marine Reserve Scenarios. 

http://www.oregonocean.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66:territorial-sea-planamendment-process&catid=15:stay-up-to-date-on-ocean-alternative-energy&Itemid=12

Pacific Energy Venture, LLC. 2009. Siting Methodologies for Hydrokinetics. Report for the U.S. 

Department of Energy, December. 

PCCI, Inc. 2009. Wave and current energy generating devices: Criteria and standards. Prepared for 

Minerals Management Service. June. 

Pasqualetti, M. J., P. Gipe, and R.W. Righter. 2002. Wind Power in View: Energy Landscapes in a 

Crowded World. Academic Press, San Diego, CA: 234 p. 

Polagyre, B. 2010. Personal communication regarding 1) diving opportunities in Puget Sound and 2) 

utility of automatic information system (AIS) receivers on large or passenger vessels. (From comments 

on draft guide). 

Postrel, V. 2003. Substance of Style: How the Rise of Aesthetic Value Is Remaking Commerce, Culture, 

& Consciousness. New York: HarperCollins. P. 156.

Review of NEPA Documents. Office of Federal Activities (2252A) EPA 315-R-99-002.

www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/policies/nepa/cumulative.pdf

Thayer, R. and H. Hansen. 1989. Consumer Attitude and Choice in Local Energy Development, 

Department of Environmental Design, University of California-Davis, May, pp 17-19.

Saito, Y. 2004. "Machines in the ocean: The aesthetics of wind farms. Contemporary Aesthetics, 2. 

Accessible at http://www.contempaesthetics.org/newvolume/pages/article.php?articleID=247

Saito, Y. 2005. Response to Jon Boone's Critique. Contemporary Aesthetics, 3. Accessed at: 

http://www.contempaesthetics.org/newvolume/pages/article.php?articleID=321

Scarfe, B. et al. 2003. The science of surfing waves and surfing breaks ‐- at review. 

Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Accessed at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6h72j1fz.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 90

Scholz, A., C. Steinback, and M. Mertens. 2006. Commercial fishing grounds and their relative 

importance off the Central Coast of California. Report to the California Marine Life Protection Act 

Initiative. April. 

Schreyer, R., and Beaulieu, J.T. 1986. Attribute preferences for wildland recreation settings. Journal of 

Leisure Research, v. 18, no. 4, p. 231–247. 

Schroeder, D.M. & Love, M.S. 2004. Ecological and political issues surrounding decommissioning of 

offshore oil facilities in the Southern California Bight. Ocean and Coastal Management 47: 21–48. 

Shelby, B., & T.A. Heberlein. 1986. Carrying Capacity in Recreation Settings. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

State University Press.

Shelby, B. and Tokarczyk, J. 2002. Oregon Shore Recational Use Study. Report prepared for Oregon 

Parks and Recreation Department. June 2002. 

Smith, B. 2007. Grassroots policy prescription: A case study in light pollution and night sky 

preservation and natural resource policy making. Master’s Thesis. University of Alabama at 

Birmingham. 

Southall, B., J. Berkson, D. Bowen, R. Brake, J. Eckman, J. Field, R. Gisiner, S. Gregerson, W. Lang, J. 

Lewandoski, J. Wilson, and R. Winokur. 2009. Addressing the Impacts of Human-Generated Sound on 

Marine Life: An Integrated Research Plan for U.S. Federal Agencies. Interagency Task Force on 

Anthropogenic Sound and the Marine Environment of the Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and 

Technology. Washington, DC. 66 p. http://ocean.ceq.gov/about/docs/iatf_finalreport_09.pdf

Surfermag.com. 2009. Artificial Surfing Reefs. When Will We Get a Wave? Interview with Chad 

Nelson of Surfrider Foundation. 

Surfrider Foundation. 2009. Summary of proposed non-consumptive recreational use study for the 

Oregon Coast. 

Thayer, R.L., and Freeman, C.M., 1987, Altamont: Public perceptions of a wind energy landscape: 

Landscape and Urban Planning, v. 14, no. 5, p. 379–398. 

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service (1995) Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for 

Scenery Management. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 701. US Government Printing 

Office, Washington, DC.

US. Environmental Protection Agency, Office. 1999. Consideration Of Cumulative Impacts In EPA 

Vaske, J.J. 2008. Survey research and analysis: Applications in parks, recreation and human dimensions. 

Venture Publishing, Inc. State College, PA. 635p.

Verdant Power, LLC. 2008. Pilot License Application: Roosevelt Island Tidal Energy Project. Exhibit 

E, Environmental Report. November. 

Vogel, J. M., Titre, J. P., Chilman, K. C. 1996. A study of water-based recreation on the Upper 

Mississippi (Pools 7 and 8). Miscellaneous paper R-96-2. September. US Army Corps of Engineers. 

Waterways Experiment Station. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 91

Washington Parks and Recreation Commission. 2004. Recreational boating safety in Washington: A 

report on methods to achieve safer boating practices. Olympia, WA: 104 p. 

Whitmore, W., Cook, E., and Steiner, F. 1995. Public involvement in visual assessment: The Verde 

River corridor study: Landscape Journal, Vol. 14 (1): pp. 27–45.

Whittaker D. and Shelby, B. 2005. Clackamas River Hydroelectric Project, Regional Demand for 

Whitewater Kayaking. Final report to Portland General Electric. September. 

Whittaker, D., B. Shelby, and J. Gangemi. 2007. Flows and Recreation: A Guide to Studies for River

Professionals. Washington, D.C.: Hydropower Reform Coalition and the National Park Service. 

http://www.nps.gov/ncrc/programs/hydro/flowrec.htm

Whittaker, D., Shelby, B., Jackson, W., and Beschta, R. 1993. Instream Flows for recreation: A 

handbook on concepts and research methods. Anchorage, AK: National Park Service Rivers Trails and 

Conservation Assistance program.

Whittaker, D., Vaske, J. J., & Manfredo, M. J. 2006. Specificity and the cognitive hierarchy: Values 

orientations and the acceptability of urban wildlife management actions. Society and Natural Resources, 

19, 515-530.

Whitewater Courses and Parks. 2009. Third national conference on artificial river development and 

planning. Website includes links to major engineering firms and conference topics for a 2010 Salida, CO 

conference. http://whitewatercoursesandparks.com/about/

Whittaker, D. 1993. Selecting indicators: Which impacts matter more? In Defining wilderness quality: 

The role of standards in wilderness management. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research 

Station General Technical Report No. PNW-GTR-305: 13-22. Portland, Oregon.

Whittaker, D., & Shelby, B. 1993. Developing good standards: Criteria, characteristics, and sources. 

In Defining wilderness quality: The role of standards in wilderness management. USDA Forest Service, 

Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report No. PNW-GTR-305: 6-12. Portland, 

Oregon.

Williams, D. R., Patterson, M. E., Roggenbuck, J. W., & Watson, A. E. (1992). Beyond the commodity 

metaphor: Examining emotional and symbolic attachment to place. Leisure Sciences, 14, 29-46.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 92

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 93

10. Glossary

Adaptive Management. A process that acknowledges the imperfect and evolving understanding of 

environmental dynamics. Adaptive management includes monitoring conditions, testing hypotheses, 

evaluating results, and using the conclusions to improve management decisions.

Aesthetics. The study or evaluation of the beauty of some object or setting. It is typically associated 

with visual quality, but could be extended to concern about impacts to other senses (sound, 

touch/vibration, taste, or smell).

ALP. Alternative Licensing Process.

Attenuator. Wave energy capture device with principal axis oriented parallel to the direction of the 

incoming wave and converts the energy due to the relative motion of the parts of the device as the wave 

passes along it. (From DOE, 2009). 

Baseline (or Environmental Baseline). The environmental conditions that are the starting point for 

analyzing the impacts of a proposed licensing action (such as approval of a license application) and any 

alternative. 

BLM. Bureau of Land Management, an agency within the US Department of Interior

BOEMRE. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement. An agency in the US 

Department of Interior (formerly the Minerals Management Service; it was changed in the wake of the 

2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill).

Call. Call for Information and Nominations, a process during MMS leasing where MMS solicits 

information from stakeholders to assist the MMS in determining the area to be offered for lease.

CEQ. Council on Environmental Quality.

C.F.R. Code of Federal Regulations.

CMSP. Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning system.

Comprehensive Plan. A plan for the development of generation or other beneficial uses of a river 

recognized under FPA Act section 10(a)(2)(a).

Consultation. Under FPA Part I, consultation is a cooperative effort of the licensee and other 

participants to prepare and implement a study plan and subsequently a license application to minimize 

unresolved disputes of fact and law. Under ESA Section 7, consultation is a cooperative effort of FERC, 

licensee, and FWS or NMFS, to analyze the impacts of a licensing action on listed species or critical 

habitats. 

Consumptive Recreation. Recreation opportunities that involve “harvest” or some other “consumption” 

of a natural resource. This label is typically applied to fishing and hunting where wildlife are specifically 

targeted and are killed, but could include berry, mushroom, or plant collecting.

CWA. Clean Water Act.

CZMA. Coastal Zone Management Act.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 94

Draft License Application (DLA). A preliminary license application that provides a project description, 

existing and proposed plan for project operation and maintenance, including environmental measures, and 

an analysis of existing and any impacts, taking into account the environmental measures.

Docket. A formal record of a proceeding on a given application for permit, license, or exemption.

ECPA. Electric Consumers Protection Act.

EMF. Electro-magnetic Field.

Endangered Species Act (ESA). The federal law, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544, that provides for protection 

and recovery of endangered or threatened species of fish, wildlife, or plant.

Endangered Species. Any species of fish, wildlife, or plant listed under the Endangered Species Act as in 

danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

Environmental Assessment (EA). A document prepared by FERC and any cooperating agency, pursuant 

to NEPA, to determine whether a licensing action may significantly affect environmental quality. 

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). a document prepared by FERC under NEPA to analyze a 

licensing action that, even after mitigation measures, may have significant adverse impacts on 

environmental quality.

EPA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

ESA. Endangered Species Act.

Federal Lands. Lands which the U.S. holds in fee title.

FERC. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.

Filing. Any document filed in a licensing proceeding. 

FPA. Federal Power Act, 16 U.S.C. §§ 791-823 (Part I) and 16 U.S.C. §§ 824-824n (Part II). 

FWS. Fish and Wildlife Service, a bureau under the Department of Interior with jurisdiction over fish and 

wildlife resources.

Groin. A structure similar to a jetty, but usually shorter and not associated with an inlet or harbor 

entrance. Groins interrupt lateral sand movement along a beach and may prevent erosion (or increase 

deposition) in some locations. However, they may also disrupt sediment transport to other locations 

(which may see increased erosion).

Horizontal Axis Turbine. Typically has two or three blades mounted on a horizontal shaft to form a 

rotor; the kinetic motion of the water current creates lift on the blades causing the rotor to turn driving a 

mechanical generator. (From DOE, 2009). 

HRC. Hydropower Reform Coalition.

Hydraulics. The characteristics of moving water; typically focused on velocity, depth, and energy 

variables. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 95

Hydrokinetics. General term that refers to a full range of energy technologies. 

ILP. Integrated Licensing Process.

Installed Capacity. The instantaneous capacity of the project to generate electricity, expressed in 

kilowatts or megawatts. 

Jetty. A barrier designed to control lateral sand movement at an inlet or harbor entrance, usually to 

improve navigation. In a natural inlet, sand transported along the shore by waves and currents creates 

inner bars on a flood tide and an outer bar on an ebb tide, both of which may shift and affect navigation. 

Lease. A legal document executed between MMS and a developer which grants right to the developer to 

use a certain area in the OCS for energy production for a specific period of time.

Licensee. The entity which holds a license and thus is legally responsible for construction, operation, and 

maintenance of a project. For simplicity of reference, this Toolkit uses the term “licensee” to describe a 

license applicant, including an applicant for original license.

Mitigation. Avoidance or reduction in the potential impact of a license or exemption. 

MMS. Minerals Management Service, an agency within the Department of the Interior that has recently 

been reorganized into BOEMRE. 

MW. Megawatt.

NEPA. National Environmental Policy Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321 - 4347.

NMFS. (formerly NOAA Fisheries) National Marine Fisheries Service, fisheries branch of the U.S. 

Department of Commerce.

NOAA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Notice of Intent (NOI). Document that the licensee files at least five years before expiration of a license, 

to state its intent whether it will seek a new license.

NPS. National Park Service, an agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior.

OCSLA. Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.

OEP. Office of Energy Projects, a division within the FERC that regulates siting and operation of energy 

projects, including hydropower projects.

Oscillating Hydrofoil. Similar to an airplane wing but in water; yaw control systems adjusts their angle 

relative to the water stream, creating lift and drag forces that cause device oscillation; mechanical energy 

from this oscillation feeds into a power conversion system (from DOE, 2009). (From DOE, 2009).

Overtopping Device. Partially submerged structure; a collector funnels waves over the top of the 

structure into a reservoir; water runs back out to the sea from this reservoir through a turbine. (From

DOE, 2009).

PAD. Pre-Application Document. A FERC term for a document that summarizes reasonably attainable 

existing information about a hydrokinetic project, an area’s characteristics, potential effects, and potential 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 96

studies that might be needed to assess effects and mitigation options. They are prepared by the licensee 

early in the relicensing process.

PM&E. Protection, mitigation and enhancement. Acronym used to describe actions that may be 

included in License Articles to enhance positive and reduce or mitigate negative impacts from a 

hydropower project. 

Pilot License. A five year license issued by FERC for experimental projects using new technology to test 

the technology and its impact on the environment.

Point Absorber. Wave energy capture device with principal dimension relatively small compared to the 

wave length and able to capture energy from a wave front greater than the physical dimension of the 

device. (From DOE, 2009).

Preliminary Permit. An authorization from FERC, valid for three years, that allows the permit holder to 

conduct initial technical and environmental assessments to determine the feasibility of developing a site.

Project Boundary. The boundary designated by FERC to identify the lands and structures included in a 

license or exemption. 

NREA. Notice of Ready for Environmental Analysis. The notice issued by FERC that finds that the 

application is complete and ready for environmental review under NEPA. It is after the issuance of NREA 

that parties can formally intervene in the FERC process and resource agencies can submit their initial 

recommendations and conditions.

Recreation experience. The collection of psychological and physiological outcomes or benefits received 

by recreation users when they engage in a recreation activity. 

Recreation opportunity. The combination of physical, biological, social, and managerial conditions that 

give value to a place, and allow users to pursue and receive a recreation experience. 

Recreation opportunity spectrum. A concept from recreation research that suggests recreation settings 

range on a spectrum from “paved to primitive.” In general, development and use levels drive these 

setting assessments, but the concept considers other variables as well. 

Rehearing. An administrative procedure requesting reconsideration of FERC decisions, either at staff or 

Commission level.

SD. Scoping Document.

SD-1. Scoping Document 1.

SD-2. Scoping Document 2, as revised following public comment.

Settlement Agreement. Often a binding document, between signatories regarding operations of a

hydropower project. While FERC is not a party to any settlements, it usually respects the decisions 

reached amongst stakeholders in a settlement and includes the provisions within the settlement as license 

conditions later on.

Study Plan Determination. The determination by the Director of Office of Energy Projects on what 

studies are required of the applicant to develop adequate record for environmental analysis.
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 97

Submerged Pressure Differential. Wave energy capture device, which can be considered a fully 

submerged point absorber; a pressure differential is induced within the device as the wave passes driving 

a fluid pump to create mechanical energy. (From DOE, 2009). 

Swash zone. The zone of wave action on the beach, which moves as water levels vary, extending from 

the limit of run-down to the limit of run-up.

Threatened Species. Any species that is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable 

future throughout all or a significant portion of its range, as listed under the Endangered Species Act, 16 

U.S.C. § 1532(20). 

TLP. Traditional Licensing Process.

USCG. United States Coast Guard.

USDA. United States Department of Agriculture.

USGS. United States Geological Survey.

Vertical Axis Turbine. Typically has two or three blades mounted along a vertical shaft to form a rotor;

the kinetic motion of the water current creates lift on the blades causing the rotor to turn driving a 

mechanical generator. (From DOE, 2009).
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 98

[This page intentionally left blank.]
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 99

11. List of interviewees

Interviews were conducted in fall 2009; the goal was to discuss recreation and hydrokinetic development 

with people from a diverse range of recreation activities and geographic locations. Interviewees were 

suggested through a brainstorming process and additional networking. Interview questions generally 

focused on 1) information about various recreation activities; 2) a review of potential hydrokinetic 

impacts on the target recreation opportunity; and 3) opportunities for studying impacts (including 

networking options within a recreation community). A few interviewees offered expertise on licensing 

process issues rather than recreation issues, and interviews were structured differently. Brief notes 

below outline interviewees’ expertise and the topics that received most attention during their interviews. 

While information from these experts on recreation provided a wealth of information for this document, 

they are not responsible for its content or conclusions (any errors are the responsibility of the authors). 

Julie Anderson. Washington Water Trails Association. This is an non-profit organization with a focus 

on developing and protecting access for paddlers in the Puget Sound region and other areas in the 

Northwest. More information is available at wwta@wwta.org. Interview discussion focused on kayaking 

access issues, sea kayaking recreation opportunities, and networking options among sea kayakers. 

Peter Arnold. Chewonki Foundation. Chewonki is a non-profit organization that offers environmental 

education programs to youth and others, primarily in Maine coastal and river/lake settings where sailing, 

sea kayaking, and river paddling are featured recreation activities. It also works on “sustainability” 

projects and has been assisting the city of Wiscasset with a potential hydrokinetic project. More 

information about Chewonki is available at www.chewonki.org. Interview discussion focused on 

potential recreation impacts from the Wiscasset project, recreation craft navigation issues in coastal 

Maine, recreation user networking, and aesthetic impacts from submerged devices. 

Kris Arnold. Avid diver in the Pacific Northwest and Florida Keys. Interview focused on types of 

recreation and technical diving opportunities (including diving in high current areas), diving attractions in 

the Northwest, diver networking options, and potential diver responses to access and aesthetic impacts 

from hydrokinetic development. 

Tom Babbitt. Yacht broker and sailor with a focus on the Maine coast (50+ years of experience). More 

information at Wayfarer Marine or East Coast Yacht Sales (www.ecys.com). Interview focused on 

sailing navigation needs, sail racing and cruising trip characteristics, networking options among sailors 

and other coastal recreation users, and potential impacts from hydrokinetic development (especially 

access restrictions or aesthetics). 

Steve Bennett. Sound Rowers. Kayak and other paddle sport racing in Puget Sound. This non-profit 

organization is one of the primary organizers of paddle races in the region. More information available at 

soundrowers.org. Interview discussion focused on race routes, networking options among paddlers, and 

potential hydrokinetic impacts (particularly potential access restrictions and aesthetics).

John Beuttler. California Sportfishing Protection Alliance (CSPA). This is a non-profit organization 

dedicated to conservation of California’s fisheries and their aquatic habitat. Interview discussion focused 

on networking options for fishing studies, and a review of potential impacts from hydrokinetic 

development on anglers. More information about CSPA is available at www.calsport.org. 

Flaxon Conway. Oregon State University professor and researcher in Ocean Sciences. Her research 

program includes potential hydrokinetic impacts on recreational and commercial fishing, or related social 

impacts in communities. Interview discussion focused on challenges of finding and developing 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 100

information from local and recreation users, several specific hydrokinetic developments on the Oregon 

coast, issues related to EcoTrust fishing grounds “importance” studies, and future recreation-hydrokinetic 

research needs. 

Tom Christopher. New England FLOW. This is a non-profit organization focused on securing improved 

flow regimes on New England rivers for boating and other recreation, often through relicensing processes. 

He has been involved in hydropower issues since the late 1980’s and pioneered recreation stakeholder 

involvement in traditional relicensing. Interview discussion focused on importance of cumulative 

ecosystem impacts, potential physical impacts on currents from hydrokinetic development, and the 

importance of setting in assessing aesthetic impacts. 

Frank Daignault. Author and lecturer on east coast surf and shore-based salt water fishing (55 yars 

experience). Titles include Fly Fishing the Striper Surf, Twenty Years on the Cape, The Trophy Striper, 

and Striper Surf. More information is available at www.stripersurf.com/daignault.html. Interview 

discussion focused on access issues (including cumulative impacts of access degradation for multiple 

reasons) and aesthetic issues (including differences in sensitivity among different types of anglers). 

Bob D'Amico. Author, lecturer, and website developer on east coast surf and shore-based salt water 

fishing (over 50 years experience). More information available at www.stripersurf.com. Interview 

discussion focused on boat and shore-based techniques for different species; potential impacts from 

hydrokinetic development on access, fishing success, and aesthetics; cumulative impacts from other 

access restrictions; and networking options for developing local information. 

Sherrie Duncan. Private kayaker and fisheries biologist with extensive experience in Alaskan and 

Pacific Northwest waters. Interview discussion focused on potential hydrokinetic development impacts 

on recreation (especially access restrictions and aesthetics) and local resident or recreation user 

networking options. 

Bob Eder. Commercial fisherman, member of Fishermen Involved in Natural Energy (FINE), and board 

member of Oregon Wave Energy Trust. Interview discussion focused on process issues and stakeholder 

involvement associated with licensing of hydrokinetic development. 

Jordan Fields. Board member of Florida Oceanographic Society and avid surfer with extensive (42 

years) east coast and international experience. Interview discussion focused on Atlantic coast surfing 

opportunities, networking options among surfers, potential impacts from hydrokinetic development on 

wave characteristics, access restrictions, noise, and aesthetics. 

Shawna Franklin. Sea kayak instructor and co-owner of Body Boat Blade International (instruction and 

retail store) in Washington’s San Juan Islands. With over 20 years of kayaking experience and an 

instruction focus, she provided general information on sea kayaking in Puget Sound and the San Juans, 

sea kayaker networks, and concerns over recent proposed “no boat” areas to protect Orcas in the San 

Juans (potential lost sea kayak access that has parallels to potential hydrokinetic development access 

restrictions). She also provided specific information about Deception Pass use levels and safety concerns 

(which could interact with potential hydrokinetic development in the area). 

Paul Hartfield. US Fish and Wildlife Service biologist and Lower Mississippi canoeist and angler; he is 

based in Jackson, Mississippi. He provided background information on several recreation opportunities 

on the river, with specific information about biodiversity, fisheries, local fishing techniques (e.g., “jug 

fishing”), interactions between recreation users and barge traffic, navigation issues, and potential 

hydrokinetic development proposals in the Lower Mississippi. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 101

Kaety Hildenbrand. Marine fisheries educator for Oregon Sea Grant (Oregon State University). Oregon 

Sea Grant develops and supports research, outreach, and education related to marine and coastal 

resources. She has participated in some outreach meetings related to recreation or fishing impacts from 

hydrokinetic projects. Interview discussion focused on recreation user networking options, community 

involvement issues (including “trust” issues in developing information about priority recreation uses or 

fishing grounds), and aesthetic impact assessments. 

Tim Holschlag. Fly angling guide, author, and lecturer in Upper Mississippi basin (primarily Wisconsin, 

Minnesota, and Iowa). Interview focused on upper Midwest angling opportunities (including vessel types 

and fishing techniques), use levels, ecological concerns from hydrokinetic development, networking 

options among anglers, and aesthetics needs for different types of anglers. More information about his 

trips is available at www.smallmouthflyangler.com. 

Don Hudson. Chewonki Foundation. Chewonki is a non-profit organization that offers environmental 

education programs to youth and others, primarily in Maine coastal and river/lake settings where sailing, 

sea kayaking, and river paddling are featured recreation activities. 

Brian Jacobson. Avid near and off-shore fisherman off Virginia and North Carolina Coast; he has 

pioneered off shore fishing from Personal Watercraft and operates a website on the topic at 

www.jetskibrian.com). Interview discussion focused on boat-based fishing opportunities on the central 

Atlantic coast and potential hydrokinetic development impacts (access restrictions, aesthetics, line 

entanglement issues). 

Jeremy Jones. Avid diver, diving instructor, and owner of Washington Divers (Bellingham dive shop; 

since 2001). Instructs all levels of diving, including open water and technical (mixed gas) courses. He 

provided background on recreational and technical diving in the Northwest, including informal diver 

networks, artificial reefs, diving attractions, and potential aesthetic and noise issues related to 

hydrokinetic development. 

Ken Kimball. Director of research for Appalachian Mountain Club. Extensive experience with 

traditional hydropower relicensing, wind power projects, and river recreation. He discussed “lessons 

learned” from other power licensing efforts, including specific discussions of wildlife impacts, aesthetics 

assessments, and the need to include natural resource planners in siting and design decisions. 

Bill King. Private marina operator on the Upper Mississippi near Hastings, Minnesota (site of first 

licensed hydrokinetics devices in the country). Interview discussion focused on types of uses in the 

Upper Mississippi, responses to the Hastings project, and potential recreation impacts if additional similar 

units were to be developed in other areas.

Alberto Knie. Avid salt water angler, author, and charter boat captain; affiliated with Recreation Fishing 

Alliance and NY Sport Fishing Federation. Interview discussion focused on salt water fishing 

opportunities on the Atlantic coast, eroded access from multiple causes over the past several decades, 

angler networking options, and likely angler responses to hydrokinetic-caused access restrictions. 

Curtis Knight. California Trout, Northern Representative. Avid fly angler with hydropower relicensing 

experience. Interview discussion focused on potential hydrokinetic impacts on river-based fishing, 

particularly on larger rivers (e.g., Sacramento) where these technologies may be more likely. 

Jan Konigsberg. Hydropower Reform Coalition staff in Alaska who works on Yukon River fisheries 

projects and several traditional hydropower projects in Southeast and Southcentral Alaska. Interview 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 102

discussion focused on proposed Yukon hydrokinetic development, potential recreation impacts, and local 

residents and recreation user networking options. 

Brian Lockwood. Avid salt water and estuary angler, often using personal watercraft. Has developed a 

web blog on the topic; more information at www.jetskibrian.com. Interview discussion focused on 

fishing opportunity attributes, navigation requirements for different craft, and potential impacts from 

hydrokinetic development (especially entanglement issues, aesthetics). 

Jim Martin. West Coast Director for Recreational Fishing Alliance (RFA). RFA is a non-profit lobbying 

organization focused on recreational fishing rights in marine fisheries issues. It supports litigation 

requiring comprehensive planning prior to site by site licensing of hydrokinetic projects. He provided 

extensive background information on sport and commercial fisheries along the California coast (including 

abalone diving), fishing vessel navigation capabilities (ability to avoid potential me development), and 

issues related to compensating commercial or recreation fishermen affected by such development. 

Steven Medeiros. President of Rhode Island Saltwater Anglers Association and avid salt water angler. 

RISAA is a non-profit organization focused on education, sportsmanship, support for marine 

conservation, and a “unified voice preserve and protect the rights, traditions and the future of recreational 

fishing in Rhode Island.” Interview discussion focused on shore-based fishing opportunities, networking 

options among anglers, and a range of potential hydrokinetic development impacts (e.g., especially access 

concerns, but also fish abundance changes and aesthetics). 

Kate Miller. Legal analyst for Trout Unlimited with a focus on hydropower impacts on fresh water 

fisheries issues. Interview focused on potential hydrokinetic affects on fish and fishing in river-based 

settings, but also addressed access restriction and aesthetic impacts. 

Beth Mitchell. Attorney for Fishermen Interested in Safe Hydrokinetics (FISH). Lead in developing 

litigation requiring comprehensive planning prior to site by site licensing of hydrokinetic projects. 

Interview discussion focused on state and federal agency processes for licensing or permitting 

hydrokinetic development, advocacy for broader scale marine planning, specific recreation opportunities 

off the California coast, and a range of potential impacts from hydrokinetic development (including 

access and aesthetic impacts on charter fishing operators, abalone diving, whale watching, and fishing).

Mark Perry. Executive Director, Florida Oceanographic Society (a non-profit that advocates for marine 

resources, conducts research and monitoring of marine life, and operates the 60 acre Florida 

Oceangraphic Coastal Center). Interview discussion focused on the diversity of coastal recreation in 

Florida (including scuba, snorkeling, boating, and fishing) and potential impacts from hydrokinetic 

development. Additional information focused on artificial reefs and fish attraction devices. Additional 

information about FOS is available at www.floridaoceanographic.org. 

John Pfeiffer. Columbia Basin Flycasters (fly angler group based in tri-cities area in central 

Washington). Interview discussion focused on potential hydrokinetic development impacts on fishing 

opportunities in Pacific Northwest, including boat and shore based fishing. 

John Ruskey. Avid canoeist/kayaker and owner of Quapaw Canoe Company in Clarksville, Mississippi. 

He has been taking multi-day canoe/kayak trips on the Mississippi (from St. Louis to the Gulf of Mexico) 

most from for nearly 30 years and has guided similar trips since 1998. He provided extensive 

information about recreation values on the river, non-motorized trip options, use estimates for other types 

of recreation trips (e.g., anglers, powerboats), development levels, access issues, barge-recreation use 

interactions, and potential responses to hydrokinetic development or potential access restrictions. 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 103

Margie Simpson. Avid cruising sailor, with most experience in Puget Sound and the Pacific Northwest. 

Interview discussion focused on types of sailing opportunities, navigation requirements for different craft, 

access restrictions, sailor networking options, potential aesthetics impacts, and salvage concerns. 

Brandi Smith. Clemson University researcher with expertise on night sky / light pollution issues. 

Interview discussion focused on potential aesthetic impacts. 

Rem Smith. President of Hole in the Wall Kayaking Club (sea kayakers in San Juan Islands). Interview 

discussion focused on networking options among kayakers, safety and navigation issues, and potential 

access restrictions or aesthetic impacts from hydrokinetic development. 

Glenn Spain. Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Association (trade organization focused on 

CA/OR coastal fishing issues). Interview discussion focused on potential impacts (especially access 

restrictions) from hydrokinetic development on commercial and recreation fishing on the CA coast. 

Ray Spillman. Avid (20+ years) salt water angler, with most experience off the North Carolina coast and 

in Lower Chesapeake Bay. Interview focused on near shore boat-based fishing opportunities, including 

networking options among private and charter fishing users. 

Peter Stauffer. Avid surfer and Policy Coordinator for Oregon Surfrider Foundation; has been involved 

in Douglas County, Oregon hydrokinetic development proposals and recreation study requests. More 

information is available at www.surfrider.org/oregon. Interview discussion focused on a full range of 

potential hydrokinetic development impacts on recreation (particularly surfing), including wave 

characteristic issues, access restrictions, aesthetics, ecological impacts, networking options among surfers, 

and recreation research needs in licensing efforts. 

Dave Steindorf. Avid whitewater kayaker, fly angler, and Stewardship Director for American 

Whitewater with primary focus on California rivers (particularly thorough traditional relicensing 

processes). Interview discussion focused on potential hydrokinetic impacts on whitewater in river 

settings, including navigation concerns, impacts on rapid features, and assessing aesthetic impacts. 

Bobbi Walker. Executive Director of National Association of Charterboat Operators. This national trade 

organization has 3,400 members nationwide; she is based out of Orange Beach, Alabama (more 

information available at www.nacocharters.org). Interview discussion focused on charter fishing 

opportunities, navigation needs for different vessels, networking options among charter captains, and the 

range of potential impacts from hydrokinetic development (especially fish abundance changes, access 

restrictions, and aesthetics). 

Doug Welch. Executive director of Maine Water Trail Association. This is a non-profit organization that 

has developed a 375-mile chain of over 180 coastal islands and sites along the coast of Maine for boaters 

and paddlers (among the first water trails in the country). Interview discussion focused on North Atlantic 

coast recreation opportunities (sailing, powerboating, and sea kayaking), access issues, and other potential 

hydrokinetic development impacts (e.g., aesthetics, noise, navigation impacts). 

Karl Wickstrom. Avid salt water angler, Founder/Editor-in-chief of Florida Sportsman, and a leader in 

the Florida-based Rivers Coalition (focused on St. Lucie River and Everglades restoration). Interview 

discussion focused on Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico sportfishing opportunities, angler networking options, 

artificial reefs, potential impacts from hydrokinetic development (e.g., access restrictions, aesthetics), and 

other alternative energy development (e.g. wind). 

 
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 104

12. List of hyperlinks

For readers with an electronic version of this document, hyperlinks direct them to several references or 

other information on the internet. For readers with a printed copy of the document, we have assembled a 

list of hyperlinks by chapter (type these into your browser to access the document or internet webpage).

Chapter 1 - Types of Hydrokinetic Projects

Page Reference URL Link

1

Summary of FERC 

hydrokinetic projects. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/indus-act/hydrokinetics.asp

Chapter 2 - Types of Hydrokinetic Projects

Page Reference URL Link

5 Device database http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/default.aspx

5

Wave and Current Energy 

Generating Devices 

Criteria and Standards

http://www.boemre.gov/tarprojects/629/AA.pdf

5

Marine and Hydrokinetics 

(MHK) Knowledge Base http://www.advancedh2opower.com/default.aspx

6 Wavegen Project 

Technology Link - LIMPET OWC fixed Near shore 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=67c3f11

0-f817-430e-a8d8-4dfd416a4689&type=tech

6

Douglas County Wave 

Energy Project 

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=d8aa46

49-eb39-4aeb-bac8-2c3cb5cdcf8e&type=project

Technology Link - LIMPET OWC fixed Near shore 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=67c3f11

0-f817-430e-a8d8-4dfd416a4689&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12743, Accession No. 20070406-3006

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11304163

6

Fixed - Oscillating Wave 

Surge Converter

Technology link –

http://www.oceanlinx.com/index.php/our-products/bluewave

6 Waveplane Prototype 1.

Technology Link -

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=tech&

id=aee84186-d695-424e-a998-73d7eda238f3

7

Aquamarine Power 

EMEC-1 project

Technology Link – Oyster

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=53268c

d8-74be-4a4c-bc7a-851e93bc0d06&type=tech

7

CETO Wave Energy 

Technology

Technology Link -

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=eb5a94

03-c038-487b-9d3a-47f37a8de04b&type=tech

7 bioWAVE Technology

Technology Link -

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=5ee7ba

85-cc10-43fe-8173-61b48854cc19&type=tech

8

“Poseidon” Floating Power 

Plant

Technology Link - Poseidon 37

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=proje

ct&id=e3496965-54b5-4892-a259-0c6ecf25245f
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 105

Page Reference URL Link

8

Reedsport OPT Wave 

Park Project

Project Profile 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=proje

ct&id=4e120708-c79c-464d-9a29-c72fb5c6eae5

Technology Link – PowerBuoy

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=1812f3c

a-a8cb-4f70-b306-41166d8a2b7f&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12713, Accession No. 20070216-4004

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11264469

8

Coos Bay OPT Wave Park 

Project

Project Profile 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=fd56bf7

7-c21e-4bab-b7f9-3177df0d5688&type=project

Technology Link – PowerBuoy

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=1812f3c

a-a8cb-4f70-b306-41166d8a2b7f&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. 12749, Accession No. 20070309-3018

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11283961

8

Orcadian Wave Farm 

Profile

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=proje

ct&id=72c5c76b-b8c0-4219-a783-46cb2a380dc3

Technology Link – Pelamis

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=tech&

id=c403e422-7feb-43e1-8f6c-3eeb273f614a

8 WaveDragon

Technology Link - Wave Dragon

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=93b249

0c-ea38-4cbd-92ee-ab0b71ccd53d&type=tech

9

Turnagain Arm Tidal 

Generation Project

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=7ed9f7

de-4e8d-4a92-be05-addb0ead9d1f&type=project

Technology Link - The Davis Hydro Turbine

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=9a4763

08-97db-4690-98ec-e50c193b404f&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-13509, Accession No. 20090903-3027

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=12132192

9

Hastings Project

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=a939cf3

3-fa5e-4b17-96ca-4df07cc479ea&type=project

Technology Link – Kensington

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=16bbeb

8d-7469-49fd-b273-fd0225e9499f&type=tech

FERC Project No. P-4306, Accession No. 20081213-4000

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11876400

9

Western Passage OCGen 

Power Project

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=68296cf

6-730d-43cb-8a9b-79ee358c02a1&type=project

Technology Link - OCGen turbine-generator unit

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=7862e0

f2-29e0-4fb4-a71d-a74dc801784d&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12689, Accession No. 20070723-3013

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11403669
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 106

Page Reference URL Link

10 Roosevelt Island Project 

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=1bc140

b2-dd50-416f-ae56-02f2acf6822c&type=project

Technology Link – Free Flow Kinetic Hydropower System

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=f90cd77

0-4761-402d-bd62-8cfdfa4ca73e&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12611, Accession No. 20051213-3017

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=f90cd77

0-4761-402d-bd62-8cfdfa4ca73e&type=tech

10* Shetland Islands Profile , 

United Kingdom

Technology Link - Stingray 

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?type=tech&

id=6962aadb-26bb-47c5-9338-e3e0aa45a990

10

Admiralty Inlet Project, 

Washington 

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=7e2669

60-e13b-4eb1-8c5f-a79d61feecf3&type=project

Technology Link - Open-Centre Turbine

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=f53233

db-2fe5-4435-bc41-59d0e2acb310&type=tech

FERC Pilot License application P-12690, Accession No. 20091228-5046

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/search/intermediate.asp?link_file=yes&doclist=1378089

3

10 Yukon River Project at 

Eagle, Alaska

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=349250

fd-b4ce-435b-aa65-328e0677c665&type=project

No Pilot License Application

10

Ste. Genevieve Bend 

Project, Missouri

Project Profile

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=6e9261

93-539a-430f-b561-493cf851280b&type=project

Technology Link – SmarTurbine

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydrokinetic/information.aspx?ID=9421b1

ce-cd78-4f2a-855e-62629760c0b5&type=tech

FERC Preliminary Permit No. P-12917, Accession No. 20080201-3048

http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=11575978

Chapter 3 - Types of Recreation 

Page Reference URL Link

13 Active Outdoor Recreation 

Economy Report

http://www.outdoorindustry.org/images/researchfiles/RecEconomy_State 

final403.pdf?52

13

National Survey on 

Recreation and the 

Environment

Report: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/trends/Nsre/nsre2.html

PowerPoint: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/trends/Nsre/NSRE200562303.pdf

14 Dawson, 2010 http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/gtr_ne198/gtr_ne198_039.pdf

15 American Canoe trails 

database

http://www.americancanoe.org/site/c.lvIZIkNZJuE/b.4850753/k.3403/The_ACAs_Wate

r_Trails_Database.htm
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 107

Chapter 4 – Concepts for Assessing Impacts

27 FERC licensing review http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/ilp/eff-eva/ideas.pdf

Chapter 5 – Potential Impacts on Recreation Opportunities 

Page Reference URL Link

30 Coast Guard regulations http://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/cfr.php?title=33&type=chapter&value=1

30 Army Corps of Engineers 

regulations http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/NDC/navchart/navregs.htm

36

Review of Illinois low head 

dam access restriction 

issues

http://www.illinoispaddling.org/access_project

37

Angler attraction to oil 

drilling platforms in Gulf of 

Mexico

http://www.rodnreel.com/gps/DeepWater.asp

44

National Geographic 

article about night sky 

issues

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/light-pollution/klinkenborg-text

44 NPS study about light 

pollution http://www.nature.nps.gov/air/lightscapes/mgmt.cfm

44

Organization with 

information about low-light 

pollution products and 

design techniques

http://www.darksky.org/

Chapter 6 – Types of Hydrokinetic Projects

Page Reference URL Link

63 Study plan determination 

for Mississippi projects http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/File_list.asp?document_id=13788453

65 EcoTrust fishing 

importance map http://www.ecotrust.org/ocean/OpenOceanMap.html

Chapter 7 – Protection Strategies and Adaptive Management

Page Reference URL Link

70 EcoTrust ocean mapping 

project http://www.ecotrust.org/ocean/

70

Finalized 

recommendations of 

Interagency Ocean Task 

Force

http://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/OPTF_FinalRecs.pdf

70 Marine spatial planning http://www.msp.noaa.gov/

71 Oregon territorial sea plan

http://www.oregonocean.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66:terri

torial-sea-plan-amendment-process&catid=15:stay-up-to-date-on-ocean-alternativeenergy&Itemid=12

72

Department of Interior 

adaptive management 

principles

http://www.doi.gov/initiatives/AdaptiveManagement/whatis.html
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 108

Chapter 8 – Getting Involved: Authorities, information requirements, and Licensing Processes

Page Reference URL Link

73 FERC hydrokinetics 

webpage http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/indus-act/hydrokinetics.asp

73 BOEMRE renewable 

energy page

http://www.boemre.gov/offshore/RenewableEnergy/index.htm

73 DOE wind and 

hydrokinetics webpage http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/pdfs/siting_handbook_2009.pdf

73 Hydropower Reform 

Coalition webpage http://www.hydroreform.org/hydroguide

74 FERC public participation 

information http://www.ferc.gov/for-citizens/get-involved.asp

74 Preparing environmental 

documents

http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/geninfo/guidelines/eaguide.pdf#xml=http://search.atomz.com/search/pdfhelper.tk?sp_o=2

,100000,0

74 CEQ guidelines on public 

participation http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/Citizens_Guide_Dec07.pdf

74 Siting handbook http://www.advancedh2opower.com/Resources/Regulatory Roadmaps/Siting 

Handbook_2009.pdf

74 Clean Water Act Section 

401(a) http://www.nwo.usace.army.mil/html/od-rwy/33USC1341.htm

74 Endangered Species Act http://www.fws.gov/endangered/consultations/s7hndbk/s7hndbk.htm

74 Coastal Zone 

Management Act http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/about/czma.html

74 National Historic 

Preservation Act http://www.mms.gov/eppd/compliance/nhpa/index.htm

74 HRC Citizen‟s toolkit http://www.hydroreform.org/hydroguide/hydropower-licensing/citizen-toolkit-foreffective-participation

74 Section 338 of Energy 

Policy Act http://www.boemre.gov/ooc/PDFs/EnergyPolicyActof2005andMMS.pdf

74

Programmatic 

Environmental Impact 

Statement

http://www.ocsenergy.anl.gov/documents/docs/OCS_FPEIS_NOA.pdf

74 BOEMRE NEPA guidance http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/homepg/regulate/environ/nepa/nepaprocess.html

74 FERC preliminary permits http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/pre-permits.asp

74 Federal Power Act http://wildlifelaw.unm.edu/fedbook/fedpower.html

75 Reedsport FERC 

preliminary permit http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/opennat.asp?fileID=11264469

75 FERC license checklist http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/indusact/hydrokinetics/pdf/pilot_project.pdf

75 FERC guidance http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/ilp/eff-eva.asp

76 FERC hydrokinetics links http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/indus-act/hydrokinetics.asp

77 FERC pilot license 

information http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/indus-act/hydrokinetics/energy-pilot.asp
Hydrokinetic Energy Projects & Recreation: A guide to assessing impacts

December 2010 Page 109

Page Reference URL Link

78 FERC required 

information http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2006/aprqtr/18cfr5.18.htm

78 CFR regulations regarding 

FERC licenses http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2006/aprqtr/18cfr5.6.htm

79 FERC pre-filing steps 

(regarding studies) http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/ilp/pre-filing-steps.asp

79 HRC study plan 

development advice

http://www.hydroreform.org/hydroguide/hydropower-licensing/4-2-study-plandevelopment-and-nepa-scoping

79 FERC advice regarding 

potential settlements http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/092106/H-1.pdf

80

NPS webpage on 

hydropower assistance 

program

http://www.nps.gov/hydro

81

NPS webpage on National 

Wild and Scenic Rivers 

system

http://www.rivers.gov/