OCS Study 

MMS 96-0016 

NBS 96-01 

Northeastern Gulf of Mexico 

Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Program : 

Data Search and Synthesis, 

Annotated Bibliography 

Appendix B : Meteorology 

AL. Pensacola 

Mobile } F * Tallahassee 

Panama City 41? ~. 

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Springs 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

NB S National Biological Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Eastern Region 
OCS Study 

MMS 96-0016 

NBS 96-01 

Northeastern Gulf of Mexico 

Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Program : 

Data Search and Synthesis, 

Annotated Bibliography 

Appendix B : Meteorology 

Compiler 

Science Applications International Corporation 

September 1996 

Prepared under NBS Contract 

1445-CT0009-95-002 

by 

Science Applications International Corporation 

Raleigh, North Carolina 27605 

Published by 

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals management Service National Biological Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Eastern Region 
DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared under contract between the National Biological 

Service (NBS) and Science Applications International Corporation . This report 

has been technically reviewed by the NBS and the Minerals Management Service 

(MMS), and has been approved for publication . Approval does not signify that 

the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the NBS or MMS, 

nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement 

or recommendation for use . It is, however, exempt from review and compliance 

with the MMS editorial standards . 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Extra copies of this report may be obtained from : 

U .S . Department of the Interior 

National Biological Service 

Eastern Region 

1700 Leetown Road 

Kearneysville, WV 25430 

Telephone : (304) 725-8461- x675 

U .S . Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Public Information Unit (MS 5034) 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard 

New Orleans, LA 70123-2394 

Telephone: (504) 736-2519 or 

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CITATION 

Suggested citation : 

Science Applications International Corporation . 1996 . Northeastern Gulf of 

Mexico Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Program : Data search and Synthesis, 

Annotated Bibliography . Meteorology . OCS Study NBS 96-01 and MMS 96-

0016 . U .S . Dept . of the Interior, National Biological Service, Eastern 

Region, Kearneysville, WV and U .S . Dept . of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA . 61 pp . 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

Thanks are extended to Paul Blankinship whose knowledge of Papyrus was 

essential to integrating the results of the many different electronic search 

formats . Those from outside this project who made our job more manageable by 

locating and sending the requested electronic copies of existing 

bibliographies include : 

" Dr . Worth Nowlin and Maureen Reep, Texas A&M University 

" Dr . Allan Clarke, Florida State University 

" Steven Wolfe, Dept . of Environmental Regulation, State of Florida 

" Carla Langley, MMS 

" Michele Tetley, MMS 

" Rosalie Shaffer, NOAA/NMFS 

All the above are thanked for their efforts . A number of others went to 

considerable effort in locating and sending printed versions of existing 

bibliographies . They too are thanked . 
Alphabetic Index 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 

O 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

W 

Z 

Alliss, R .J . 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Bailey, J .F . et al . 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

Cardone, V .J . 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Dagg, M .J . 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

Eleuterius, C .K . and S .L . Beauqez . 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

Fernandez-Partegas, J . and M .A . Estoque . 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

Gaby, D .C . et al . 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 

Aalper, F .B . et al . 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Ichiye, T . 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

Janish, P .R . and S .W . Lyons . 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

Kirwan, A .D ., Jr . et al . 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

Lamb, D . and L . Comrie . 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Mailhot, J . 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

National Climatic Data Center . 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 

O'Neil, P .E . et al . 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

Parungo, F . and J . Miller . 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 

Quayle, R .G . and D .C . Fulbright . 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Rabin, R .M . et al . 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Salsman, G .G . and A.J . Ciesluk . 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 

Tan, C .L . 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 

University of Florida et al . 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 

Vega, A .J . and M .S . Binkley . 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 

Wallcraft, A .J . 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

Zervas, C .E . 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 
Alliss, R .J ., G .D . Sandlin, S .W . Chang and S . Raman . 1993 . Applications of 

SSM/I data in the analysis of Hurricane Florence (1988) . J . Appl . 

Meteorol . 32(10) :1581-1591 . 

Abstract . Data from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/2) on board a 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program satellite are used to study the 

precipitation patterns and wind fields associated with Hurricane Florence 

(1988) . SSM/I estimates indicate that the intensification of Florence was 

coincident with the increase in total latent heat release . Additionally, 

an increase in the concentration and areal coverage of heavier rain rates 

near the center is observed . SSM/I marine surface winds of Florence are 

examined and compared to in situ data, and to an enhanced objective 

isotach analysis over the Gulf of Mexico . Results indicate that the SSM/I 

winds are weaker than those depicted in the enhanced objective analysis 

and slightly stronger than in situ observations . Finally, center 

positions of Florence are estimated using the 85 GHz brightness 

temperature imagery . Much improved estimates are achieved using this 

imagery compared to using GOES infrared imagery . These results concur 

with previous studies that applications of SSM/I data could be valuable 

in augmenting current methods of tropical cyclone analysis . 

American Meteorological Society . 1970 . Cooperative Investigation of the 

Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (Cicar) . Bibliography on Meteorology, 

Climatology, and Physical/Chemical Oceanography . Volume I . American 

Meteorological Society . Washington, D .C . 391 pp . 

Abstract . The abstracted bibliography has been compiled from the files of the 

Meteorological and Geoastrophysical Abstracts Office of the American 

Meteorological Society (AMS) and from files of Government libraries in 

the Washington, D .C ., area . Its purpose is to provide the participants of 

CICAR with a reasonably comprehensive and timely review of the published 

literature in physical/chemical oceanography and in 

meteorology/climatology concerned with the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, 

Greater and Lesser Antilles Regions, and the adjacent coastal areas of 

North, Central, and South America . Articles dealing with weather 

phenomena outside of this geographical region, but influencing the 

atmosphere within the area, have been included occasionally . Similarly, 

references to oceanographic region, but influencing the atmosphere within 

the area, have been included occasionally. Similarly, references to 

oceanographic cruise data taken outside of but close to this area were 

also sometimes included . 

Anon . 1991 . Symposium on Air-Sea Interaction and Air Mass Modification over the 

Gulf of Mexico, Galveston, Tex ., Jan . 7-9, 1991 . Bulletin of the American 

Meteorological Society . 72 :827-832 . 

Anon . 1992 . Air-sea interaction and airmass modification over the Gulf of 

Mexico . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31(8) :817-1017 . 

Abstract . The following topics were dealt with : Gulf of Mexico precipitable 

water and return flow event, marine atmospheric boundary layer near 

intensifying cyclone, GIIFMEX return-flow event synoptic analysis, frontal 

overrunning and surface baroclinicity, cold-air modification, mixed layer 

modelling, airmass transformation model forecasts, tropical oceanatmosphere interactions, severe thunderstorm forecasting, boundary layer 

properties affecting wind forecasting, cold-air outbreaks and moisture 

field evolution. 

1 
Bailey, J .F ., J .L . Patterson and J .L .H . Paulhus . 1975 . Hurricane Agues rainfall 

and floods, June-July 1972 . U.S . Geol . Surv . Prof . Pap . 924 :403 . 

Abstract . Hurricane Agrees originated in the Caribbean Sea region in mid-June . 

Circulation barely reached hurricane intensity for a brief period in the 

Gulf of Mexico . The storm crossed the Florida Panhandle coastline on June 

19, 1972, and followed an unusually extended overland trajectory, 

combining with an extratropical system, to bring very heavy rain from the 

Carolinas northward to New York . This torrential rain followed the 

abnormally wet may weather in the Middle Atlantic States and set the 

stage for the subsequent major flooding . The record-breaking floods 

occurred in the Middle Atlantic States in late June and early July 1972 . 

Many streams in the affected area experienced peak discharges several 

times the previous maxima of record . Estimated recurrence intervals of 

peak flows at many gauging stations on major rivers and their tributaries 

exceeded 100 yr . The suspended-sediment concentration and load of most 

flooded streams were also unusually high . The widespread flooding from 

this storm caused Agrees to be called the most destructive hurricane in 

U.S . history, claiming 117 lives and causing damage estimated at $ 3 .1 

billion in 12 states . Damage was particularly high in New York, 

Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia . The detailed life history of 

Hurricane Agues, including the tropical depression and tropical storm 

stages, is traced. Associated rainfalls are analyzed and compared with 

climatologic recurrence values . These are followed by a detailed 

description of the flood and streamflows of each affected basin. A 

summary of peak stages and discharges and comparison data for previous 

floods at 989 stations are presented. Deaths and flood damage estimates 

are compiled . 

Baltz, A. J. 1978 . A climatology of monthly sea surface temperatures for the 

Gulf of Mexico . WSAFETACPR-78-0001 . USAF Env . Tech . App . Center . Scott 

AFB, IL . 15 pp . 

Abstract . This report presents monthly mean sea surface temperatures for the 

Gulf of Mexico in one degree quadrangles . It also includes a short 

discussion of the temperature data and the ocean currents in the Gulf of 

Mexico . 

Barrett, B .B ., J .W. Tarver, W .R . Latapie, J .F . Polland, W .B . Mock, G .B . Adkins, 

W .J . Gaidey, C .J . White and J .S . Mathis . 1971 . Cooperative Gulf of Mexico 

estuarine inventory and study, Louisiana . Phase II, hydrology . pp . 9-130 . 

y Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study, Louisiana . 

Phase II, Hydrography and Phase III, sedimentology . Louisiana Wildlife 

and Fisheries Commission, New Orleans, LA . 

Abstract . Louisiana's estuaries from Sabine Lake to the Pearl River were 

sampled at 109 stations during 1968 and 1969 . Salinity and water 

temperature were measured at all stations ; dissolved oxygen, turbidity, 

and the nutrients nitrate, nitrite, inorganic phosphate, and total 

phosphorus were sampled at 82 stations . Tide, barometric pressure, 

rainfall and wind speed and direction were measured at one station . 

Coastwind data on air temperature, precipitation, and stages and 

discharges of the principal rivers were also collected . Salinities were 

highest during the fall and lowest during the peak river discharge while 

water temperatures were seasonal, closely following air temperatures . 

Dissolved oxygen concentrations were highest during periods of low water 

temperature and salinity . Turbidities generally fluctuated directly with 

2 
river discharge and wind speed. The seasonal distributions of nutrients 

were generally irregular ; however, nitrate values were highest at 

stations near the mouths of the Atchafalaya and Mississippi rivers during 

periods of peak discharge . In general, Louisiana's estuaries and near 

offshore waters are low in salinity and high in nutrient concentrations 

as compared with other states bordering the northern Gulf of Mexico . 

These characteristics are due primarily to Louisiana's high rainfall and 

the large volume of river water which makes its way through rich alluvial 

soils to the Gulf of Mexico . The major contributors of nutrients to the 

estuaries are the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers . These rivers are 

also responsible for major salt water dilutions within the coastal area 

and in the near offshore waters . 

Bennett, C .M . and F .C .W . Olson . 1971 . An assay of environmental data collected 

off Panama City, Florida from 1962 to 1968 . NSRDL/PC 3444 . Naval Ship 

Research and Development Lab . Panama City, FL . 314 pp . 

Abstract . Presents oceanographic and meteorological data collected from the 

offshore research stages off of Panama City . 

Black, P .G . 1983 . Ocean temperature changes induced by tropical cyclones . Ph .D . 

Thesis . The Pennsylvania State University, Graduate School, Department of 

Meteorology. State College, PA. 

Abstract . Discusses how major Gulf of Mexico storms (in particular storms 

Frederic, Anita and Allen) interact with the Loop Current and associated 

mesoscale eddies . Investigates both SST and mixed layer depth (MLD) 

changes caused by hurricane passage . 

Blaha, J.P . and W. Sturges . 1978 . Evidence for wind forced circulation in the 

Gulf of Mexico . Technical Report . Department of Oceanography, Florida 

State University . Tallahassee . 134 pp . 

Blahs, J .P . and W . Sturges . 1981 . Evidence for wind-forced circulation in the 

Gulf of Mexico . J . Mar . Res . 39(4) :711-734 . 

Abstract . A study is conducted into the response of sea level and dynamic 

height to fluctuations of alongshore wind stress and wind stress curl at 

periods greater than a few months per cycle . Monthly tide gage data from 

Key West to Progreso, Mexico, during 1954-1974 are adjusted to remove the 

effects of local atmospheric pressure and seasonal steric heating . The 

adjusted mean monthly sea level elevations are significantly greater from 

Progreso to Port Isabel than they are elsewhere in the Gulf . This 

observation remains unchanged after the elevations are reduced for the 

effect of local alongshore winds . Among the tide gages in the western 

Gulf, Galveston is the most coherent, with the local alongshore wind 

forcing at periods greater than 2 mo/cycle, exhibiting a phase with the 

winds not significantly different from PI . At the other coastal sites, at 

least half of the elevation signal remains . This residual signal is 

presumed to be caused by the geostrophic fluctuations of an offshore 

boundary current . The available wind data from the western half of the 

Gulf show a negative wind stress curl ; the mean is -11x10-9 dyne/cm', and 

curl is most negative in July . A common feature in the sea level 

elevations from Progreso to Port Isabel and in curl is the sharp 

transition from summer to fall . It is suggestive of a seasonal component 

to the Gulf circulation forced by the wind stress curl . This transition 

occurs from July to Sept . in curl but from Aug . to Oct . in sea level, a 

3 
one-month lag. The observed 17 cm of change in elevation corresponds to 

23x10-9 dyne /cm3 of change in curl . A mean baroclinic circulation in the 

northwestern Gulf is evident, in which the mean difference in dynamic 

height (sea surface relative to 700 db) from offshore to inshore regions 

is about 14 dynamic cm . The total seasonal variation across the flow 

(after the influence of Loop Current rings has been minimized in the 

data) is about 5 dynamic cm, which is one third the above-mentioned 

change in sea level attributed to curl . 

Blain, C .A., J .J . Westerink and R. A. Luettich Jr . 1994 . The influence of domain 

size on the response characteristics of a hurricane storm surge model . J . 

Geophys . Res . 99(C9) :18467-18479 . 

Abstract . The influence of domain size on boundary condition specification and 

on computed storm surge response is investigated . Storm surge response 

along the Florida shelf in the Gulf of Mexico due to Hurricane Kate is 

examined over three domains using two different open ocean boundary 

forcing functions, a still water (or zero elevation) condition and an 

inverted barometer condition which accounts for the atmospheric pressure 

component of the meteorological forcing . The first domain is relatively 

small and is situated primarily on the continental shelf in the region of 

intense storm surge generation . A second domain includes the entire Gulf 

of Mexico basin . The first domain covers the Gulf of Mexico, contiguous 

basins, and extends out into the deep Atlantic Ocean . The computed storm 

surge response indicates that the small domain is inadequate, since 

cross-shelf boundaries are in regions of significant storm surge 

generation where surge and therefore boundary conditions are not known a 

priori . Also, the behavior of resonant modes that are physically excited 

within the Gulf of Mexico due to the passage of the hurricane is unknown 

at the boundaries of this small domain . The domain that includes the 

entire Gulf of Mexico captures the primary storm surge well but may not 

correctly model resonant modes . In general, these resonant modes are 

difficult to accurately set up by boundary condition specification, since 

they may be dependent on interactions between the Gulf and contiguous 

basins . The primary storm surge response as well as resonant modes 

excited by the storm are best represented using a domain which 

encompasses the western North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the 

Gulf of Mexico . This domain with deep Atlantic Ocean boundaries 

facilitates simple boundary condition specification and minimizes the 

influence of boundary conditions on storm surge generation in coastal 

regions . Basin resonant modes and basin to basin interactions are also 

captured . 

Blumel, S .M . 1981 . Comparison of three major northward-moving Gulf Coast 

hurricanes : Camille (1969), Eloise (1975), and Frederic (1979) . National 

Weather Digest . 6(3) :21-28 . 

Abstract . The following report serves to analyze both differences and 

similarities of three recent major northward-moving hurricanes along the 

Gulf Coast . Hurricanes Camille, Eloise, and Frederic severely affected 

the mid-Gulf Coast region, between New Orleans, LA ., and St . Marks, FL . 

The comparative weakening rates of two different intensities of storms 

traversing the same general geographic and physiographic regions are 

discussed briefly. All tide data is in feet above mean sea level (msl, 

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929) and is based primarily on 

4 
poststorm high water mark surveys. Significant wave heights are based on 

oil rig and NOAA data buoys and refer to the prevailing wave heights over 

the sea surface in view . Wave heights were measured from trough to crest . 

Bosart, L . 1976 . The role of the Gulf of Mexico in cyclogenesis . pp . 9-17 . 

Role of the Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : A 

Conference on Meteorology Over and Near the Gulf . 

Breaker, L .C ., L .D . Burroughs, J .F . Culp, N .L . Guinasso and R .L . Teboulle . 

1993 . Surface and near-surface marine observations during Hurricane 

Andrew . Technical Note . Also published as Ocean Products Center, Report 

No . CONTRIB-68 . See also PB93-111060 . National Meteorological Center . 

Washington, D .C . 42 pp . 

Abstract . It is the purpose of the study to document the impact of Hurricane 

Andrew on the near-surface marine environment across the Bahamas and the 

Gulf through observations of sea level pressure, surface winds, surface 

air temperature, sea surface temperature, water level, near-surface 

currents, temperature and salinity. These data naturally take the form of 

time series and thus characterize the intensification and decay of Andrew 

at specific locations along its track . 

Brown, M . and B . Rhodes . 1982 . Navy corrected geostrophic wind data for the 

Gulf of Mexico, wind stress subset . DOI/DF/MT-88/005 ; Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office . Metairie, LA. 

Abstract . The Navy Corrected Geostrophic Winds are the result of a Navy effort 

to obtain a Gulf of Mexico wind field with the proper temporal and 

spatial resolution necessary to resolve the highly variable Gulf wind 

field . The report that documents the techniques used and results obtained 

is a NORDA Technical Note titled 'Navy Corrected Geostrophic Wind Set for 

the Gulf of Mexico,, NORDA, NSTL Station, Mississippi, 39529 . The wind 

stresses were calculated from the Navy corrected geostrophic wind data 

set using constant atmospheric density and a drag coefficient equal to 

.0013 . The delivered data set consists of 17 files (blocksize 2400 and 

record length 80) on 3 tapes . The first file on the first tape contains 

an internally documented FORTRAN 77 program for reading any of the other 

16 files . All other files contain the geostrophic wind data on a 1 degree 

grid with each file corresponding to one years worth of data from 1967-

1982 . 

Bunpapong, M ., R .O . Reid and R .E . Whitaker . 1985 . Investigation of hurricaneinduced forerunner surge in the Gulf of Mexico . Technical Report CERC-85-

5 . Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center . 

Vicksburg, MS . 201 pp . 

Abstract . A system of coupled, normal mode equations, describing a two-layer 

ocean basin of variable depth, was derived from the quasi-hydrostatic 

equations of motion by using a general form of the method of Veronis and 

Stommel (1956) . A finite-difference, time marching, numerical model for 

the normal mode equations, which uses an alternating direction implicit 

(ADI) scheme on a space-staggered grid, was developed . The model is 

quasi-linear and allows for variable bathymetry and variable Coriolis 

parameters . The model domain includes the Gulf of Mexico and the Cayman 

Sea with a resolution of 15' . A no-flow condition is taken at all solid 

boundaries, and the inverted barometer term is used to stipulate 

barotropic height anomalies on the open boundaries . Hurricanes Carla 

5 
(1961) and Allen (1980) are used as historical storms to verify the model 

by comparing numerical and observed hydrographs . A parametric study 

utilizing three forward speeds, two radii to maximum winds, and five 

paths characterizing Gulf hurricanes is presented. The results of the 

study show that volume transports through the Florida and Yucatan straits 

consisted of in-phase (both in or both out) and out-of-phase components . 

The in-phase volume transport excited a volume mode in the Gulf of 

Mexico, having periods of -28 hr and -3 .4 days . The mode of oscillation 

can produce a forerunner surge for many storm tracks . The hurricane path 

and evolution play important roles in generating a forerunner . The outof-phase volume transport through the ports was found to produce a Gulfwide, quasi-geostrophic tilt mode of -6 .5-day period . Surges on the 

shelf, including the forerunner, are primarily a barotropic response . The 

quasi-linear model transmitted only a fraction of the baroclinic energy 

onto the shelf . 

Burdin, W.W. 1977 . Surge effects from Hurricane Eloise . Shore and Beach . 

45(2) :3-8 . Also published in The Proceedings of the Mississippi Water 

Resources Conference, Mississippi State Univ ., 1976 . 

Abstract . The impact of this hurricane on Panama City Beach. 

Burk, S .D . and W .T . Thompson . 1991 . Numerical Forecasts of Postfrontal Air-Mass 

Modification Over the Gulf of Mexico . International Conference on 

Mesoscale Meteorology and TAMEX, p . 295-301, 3-6 Dec . 91 . Naval 

Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research Lab . Monterey, CA . 9 pp . 

Abstract . During the winter and early spring, cold fronts periodically plunge 

southward across some, or all, of the Gulf of Mexico . For a period of 

time (typically several days), the Gulf states are cut off from the 

tropical and subtropical moisture source of the Gulf . In the cold air to 

the rear of the front, a low-level anti-cyclone invariably is present . 

Its position and movement determine the timing and location along the 

Gulf coast where the wind first develops a southerly component and the 

so-called 'return flow' is established . Thus, accurate forecasts of these 

postfrontal surface highs are critical to forecasts of the return flow . 

Forecasts of the return flow itself are not sufficient, however, to 

define the thermodynamic structure of the returning air mass -- and it is 

this factor that is most crucial to forecasting the actual weather type 

to be expected . Air-sea fluxes modify the continental polar (cP) or 

maritime polar (mP) air masses as they traverse the Gulf . The strength of 

these fluxes and the over water fetch of the air mass determine the 

extent to which the boundary layer air is modified by processes from 

below. In addition to modified cP or mP air, the return flow also may 

contain warm, moisture-laden tropical air that has advected northward, 

thereby making deep convection more probable due to the destabilizing 

effect of a low-level Increase in equivalent potential temperature . 

Operational forecasters often need to know whether there is sufficient 

moisture in the return flow to fuel a growing baroclinic system and 

produce severe weather. In the data sparse Gulf, such knowledge 

concerning the thermodynamics of the return flow is very difficult to 

obtain . 

Burk, S .D . and W .T . Thompson . 1992 . Airmass modification over the Gulf of 

Mexico : Mesoscale model and airmass transformation model forecasts . J . 

Appl . Meteorol . 31(8) :925-937 . 

6 
Abstract . Several numerical models are used to examine strong air-sea fluxes 

and resultant air mass modification following a cold-frontal passage over 

the Gulf of Mexico . Data from the Gulf of Mexico Experiment (GUFMEX), 

which was conducted in February-March 1988, are used for model 

validation . To provide a benchmark by which to evaluate the role of 

diabatic processes in airmass modification, the mesoscale model was 

initially run with surface fluxes deleted. Subsequent full physics runs 

show profound alterations to the boundary layer due to the diabatic 

processes . A one-dimensional airmass transformation (AMT) boundary-layer 

model is also tested and compared with the mesoscale modal and Gt7FMEX 

data . The Lagrangian character of the AMT model is a useful compliment to 

the mesoscale model output . Further, at least in one forecast, the AMT 

model yields a better forecast of boundary-layer depth . Strong sensible 

and latent heat fluxes in the vicinity of the cold front act 

frontolytically, while a subsidence-induced local maximum in latent heat 

flux appears in the return flow that is established in the western Gulf . 

The precipitable-water field shows a tongue of moist air returning to the 

Louisiana coast and indicates that substantial mesoscale horizontal 

gradients in the moisture field are to be expected in the return flow . 

Global modeling, air-sea interaction, fine mesh modeling, tide modeling . 

Burk, S .D ., W .T . Thompson and R .H . Langland . 1991 . Numerical weather prediction 

of the marine atmospheric boundary layer . Naval Oceanographic and 

Atmospheric Research Lab . Monterey, CA. 6 pp . 

Abstract . The burgeoning interest in mesoscale meteorology, particularly in 

coastal regions, has necessitated an enhanced emphasis on boundary layer 

physics and their parameterization in numerical weather prediction (NWP) 

models . Here we discuss several NWP models used by our group and describe 

some unique techniques we have developed for producing detailed forecasts 

of marine atmospheric boundary layer dynamics and thermodynamics . 

Forecasts are compared with data from the Gulf of Mexico Experiment 

(GUFMEX) of 1988 . We examine an instance of cold frontal passage over the 

Gulf, and the return flow to the Gulf states that is established in the 

wake of the front . 

Cardone, V .J . 1978 . Forecasting hurricane winds and waves, a pilot study . pp . 

1027, In United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Labs ., Collected Reprints, 

1977 . Vol . 2 . NOAA, Miami, FL . 

Abstract . A directional spectral wave hindcast model developed at the City 

University of New York Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences for 

application to Gulf of Mexico hurricanes is modified for implementation 

on the NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories' 

computer facility for application in real time to forecasting of Gulf and 

East Coast hurricanes . The results of this model are compared to results 

from a simpler parametric model developed at the AOML Sea-Air Interaction 

Laboratory for several severe historical storms that have affected the 

Gulf and East Coast . The intercomparison indicates that the models 

produce similar results for slow moving (f15 knots) storms and 

increasingly divergent results for faster moving storms . A real time 

forecast of Hurricane Belle is described . The forecast sea states 

verified at a NOAA data buoy suggest that both models are limited mainly 

by errors in operational forecasts of hurricane track, intensity, and 

scale . 

7 
Carter, M.T . 1983 . Probability of hurricane/tropical storm conditions : a users 

guide for local decision makers . National Climatic Data Center . 

Asheville, NC . 25 pp . 

Abstract . In a growing number of communities along the Atlantic and Gulf 

coasts, local decision makers must begin initiating protective actions 

before the National Hurricane Center can confidently issue a Hurricane 

Warning for their community . In an attempt to provide these decision 

makers with useful long range forecasts of a hurricane's movement, the 

National Hurricane Center will issue probabilities that the hurricane 

will affect any of 44 communities from Brownsville, Texas, to Eastport, 

Maine . This manual was written to acquaint local decision-makers with 

some of the characteristics of these probabilities and outline some of 

the ways that they may be used to guide decision making when facing a 

hurricane threat . While it is hoped that local decision makers find this 

manual useful in effectively utilizing this new forecast information, it 

should be remembered that National Weather Service field personnel are 

available, as always, to answer any questions and to provide specific 

interpretations of both the probabilities and the forecast tracks that 

are issued for any given storm . 

Chang, Fong-C . 1986 . On the seasonality of climate fluctuations over the 

contiguous United States (air-sea interaction) . Ph .D . Dissertation . 

University of Washington, Seattle, WA . 180 pp . 

Abstract . The dominant spatial patterns of climatic fluctuation over the 

contiguous United States during the winter and summer seasons (1931-82) 

are examined using monthly mean temperature and monthly total 

precipitation anomalies for the 344 climatic divisions . These data are 

expanded into orthogonal components using rotated principal component 

analysis . Related patterns of sea-level pressure over the Northern 

Hemisphere (1931-82) and sea surface temperature over both the North 

Pacific and the North Atlantic (1950-79) for these dominant patterns are 

discussed . These results are used to evaluate the seasonal dependence of 

climate fluctuations . The Palmer Drought Severity Index, relative 

humidity and dewpoint anomalies were used to document the relationship 

between the soil moisture and summertime climate anomalies . The results 

suggest that some of the summer climate fluctuations over the contiguous 

United States are forced by soil moisture anomalies . 

Chermock, R .L . 1976 . Hurricanes and tornadoes in Alabama . Geological Survey of 

Alabama, Information Series . Series 46 

Cooper, C .K. 1987 . Hurricane-generated currents on the outer continental shelf . 

Ph .D . Dissertation . University of Maine . 204 pp . 

Abstract . This work focused on currents generated by hurricanes on the outer 

continental shelf and slope . Emphasis has been on the maximum mixed layer 

response . This restricts the time scales of interest to within a few 

hours of storm passage. But considerable insight has also been gained 

about the lower layer response, and the post-storm response including 

shelf waves . A numerical model is developed using a layered, explicit 

finite difference formulation based on the nonlinear primitive equations 

including thermodynamics . The problem of topography intersecting the 

model layer is resolved by introducing artificial steps where the layer 

intersects the slope . Comparisons are given between the model simulations 

and six test cases in which the solutions either are known, or results 

8 
are available from other numerical models which have been proven . The 

favorable comparisons validate the numerical scheme and the model code . 

The model is configured for the Gulf of Mexico and used to hind-cast 

three storms using a 0.2 degree grid . In the mixed layer, the model 

typically reproduces better than 80% of the observed variance with 

correlation coefficients of greater than 0 .8 for the mixed layer. In the 

bottom layer, the correlation falls, although the predicted variance 

still compares well . The model simulations suggest that substantial shelf 

waves can be generated by Gulf hurricanes . These have phase speeds of 4-

10 m/s, suggesting a resonance coupling with the storm translation speed. 

A parameter study is conducted to quantify the sensitivity of the maximum 

mixed layer response to variations in the storm parameters, model 

physics, and topography . Results reveal the most important factors are 

(in decreasing order) : wind speed, storm translation speed, direction of 

storm approach, asymmetry in the wind field, entrainment 

parameterization, and advection at slower translation speeds . For a storm 

approaching cross-shelf, the response is primarily baroclinic (greater 

than 90%) and only weakly dependent (less than lOg) on the water depth at 

the site . For a storm with an alongshelf component, the free surface 

pressure component can modify the response by 20% . 

Cooper, C . and J .D . Thompson . 1989 . Hurricane-generated currents on the outer 

continental shelf . I . Model formulation and verification . J . Geophys . 

Res . 94(C9) :12513-12539 . 

Abstract . A numerical model is developed to simulate currents generated by 

hurricanes on the outer continental shelf and slope . Emphasis is on the 

mixed-layer response within a few hours of storm passage ; however, some 

attention is given to the lower layer and shelf wave responses . The model 

is based on a layered, explicit, finite difference formulation using the 

nonlinear primitive equations including conservation of heat . The problem 

of topography intersecting the model layer is resolved by introducing 

artificial steps of the order of 100 m where the layer intersects the 

slope . Model comparisons are presented for three Gulf of Mexico 

hurricanes using a 0 .2 degrees grid . 

Council On Environmental Quality . 1980 . The Eleventh Annual Report of the 

Council On Environmental Quality . Council On Environmental Quality . 

Washington, D .C . 497 pp . 

Cragg, J ., G . Mitchum and W . Sturges . 1983 . Wind-induced sea surface slopes on 

the west Florida shelf . J . Phys . Ocean . 13(12) :2201-2212 . 

Abstract . Tidal and meteorological records at stations in the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico have been studied. The sea level response is a maximum for winds 

along the coast and varies symmetrically with angle . The coherence is 

maximum at periods of 4-10 days . The horizontal coherence of sea level is 

high out to 500 km for 4- to 10-day periods . The horizontal coherence for 

wind (measured at coastal stations) is high out to at least 500 km. The 

amplitude of the response of sea level to winds is larger by a factor of 

4 here, on a broad shelf, than on the Oregon coast, which is narrower by 

approximately the same ratio . A response of -16 cm is induced by -4 m/sec 

wind . This response, or transfer function, is uniform over the spectral 

range (4-100 days) . The sea level response to the longshore wind stress 

is not linear, but to the power 0 .8 ± 0 .1, and is attributed to the 

relatively low tidal currents in this region . The large horizontal 

9 
coherences of wind and sea level imply broad longshore flows extending 

500 km or more along the coast . Over 85% of the variance between 4 days 

and 3 yr is contained in fluctuations with periods <3 mo . A longshore 

slope of sea level is observed ; in the 4- to 10-day band, this slope can 

be explained by longshore variation in the width of the shelf . A mean 

longshore slope of -0 .6x10-' is found, and it may be caused by the (weak) 

mean winds . Freely propagating coastal trapped waves are found in a 

narrow band -0 .18 cpd. 

Cragg, J . and W . Sturges . 1974 . Wind induced currents and sea surface slopes in 

the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Technical Report/NSF Grant GA-29734/ONR Grant 

N00014-67-A-0235-0002 . Florida State University, Department of 

Oceanography . Tallahassee, Florida . 50 pp . 

Crance, J .H . 1971 . Description of Alabama estuarine areas-cooperative Gulf of 

Mexico estuarine inventory . Ala . Mar . Resour . Bull . 6 :1-85 . 

Abstract . Physical characteristics of estuarine areas are given ; importance as 

nursery areas are discussed. Maps include : study area, sediment types, 

pollution sources, oyster beds, isotherms, isohalines, and some economic 

characteristics . Tabular data include : climate, tides, open water surface 

area and average depth, tidal marsh, stream discharge, domestic and 

industrial wastes, navigation channels, and commercial fisheries . 

Crescenti, G .H . and R . A. Weller . 1992 . Analysis of surface fluxes in the marine 

atmospheric boundary layer in the vicinity of rapidly intensifying 

cyclones . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :831-848 . 

Crisp, C . and J . Lewis . 1992 . Return flow in the Gulf of Mexico . Part I : A 

classificatory approach with a global historical perspective . J . Appl . 

Meteorol . 31(8) :868-881 . 

Abstract . Return-flow events have been examined with the aid of a 

classification scheme that identifies each event with cold air masses 

that invade the Gulf during the cool season (February-March) . These air 

masses were classified as either continental polar (cP), maritime polar 

(mP), or a mix of two or more of these basic types (MIX in future 

reference) . Each event was viewed as a cycle in which the first phase 

represented an offshore flow typifying the cold-air outbreak over the 

Gulf and the second phase was associated with the return of modified air 

to the continent . Surface data for a 12-yr period, 1978-89, were used to 

make a statistical analysis of the event and each of its phases . The 

principal results of the study are 1) a total of 127 events occurred in 

this cool season over the 12-yr period . The relative percentages of mP, 

cP, and MIX air masses are 28%, 20t, and 52%, respectively . A median of 

10 .5 return-flow events occurred in the cool season where the MIX 

category was the dominant regime . The median duration for a return-flow 

cycle is 3 .3, 5 .2, and 6 .2 days for mP, cP, and MIX, respectively, for 

the cool season. 2) The median duration of the offshore-flow phase for 

the cool season shows a wide range depending on airmass type with 30, 55, 

and 49 h as median times for mP, cP, and MIX, respectively . 3) The median 

duration of the return-flow phase for the cool season was significantly 

longer than the offshore-flow phase when all cases were examined en 

masse ; but when the cases were segregated according to airmass type, the 

duration of the return flow for the cool season exhibited a wide range 

with 47, 57, and 62 h as median times for mP, cP and MIX, respectively . 

10 
In order to view the return-flow events in the Gulf of Mexico from a 

wider perspective, a historical summary of research on this event and 

similar events around the world is included . 

Cummings, A.D . 1968 . Climatological aspects of the balance of water-vapor in 

the atmosphere overlying the Gulf of Mexico . M. S . Thesis . Texas A&M 

University . Meteorology Department . 38 pp . 

Curry, T .F . 1986 . Time series prediction of hurricane landfall (nonlinear, 

threshold autoregression) . Ph .D . Dissertation . The University of Texas at 

Austin, Austin, TX . 152 pp . 

Abstract . For many years, land development in the coastal regions of the Gulf 

of Mexico and the eastern seaboard has continued unabated . As coastal 

populations increase it is becoming more and more difficult to evacuate 

people from hurricane threatened areas, and to secure industrial plants . 

Greater accuracy is required in predicting hurricane landfall in order to 

insure that everyone can get out alive . In this dissertation, it is shown 

that the landfall of North Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms can be 

accurately predicted by modeling the storm track as a bivariate (latitude 

and longitude) fifth-order autoregressive process . A threshold approach 

is used to allow model parameters to change as the storm moves to a new 

region of the ocean . For test cases, operational average 72 hour 

prediction error is at least three standard deviations below the average 

error of the official forecasts issued by the National Hurricane Center . 

A significant result is the classification of past storms by time series 

stationarity category which relates to direction of movement . Also, a 

psi-weight representation of the forecast is used to develop a bivariate 

normal confidence ellipse for the threshold autoregressive model . 

Dagg, M .J . 1988 . Physical and biological responses to the passage of a winter 

storm in the coastal and inner shelf waters of the northern Gulf of 

Mexico . Cont . Shelf Res . 8 :167-178 . 

Davidson, K .L ., P .J . Boyle and P .S . Guest . 1992 . Atmospheric boundary-layer 

properties affecting wind forecasting in coastal regions . J. Appl . 

Meteorol . 31 :983-994 . 

Davis, D .R . and W .C . Bridges . 1971 . A Blocked Minimal Tropical Depression 

Becomes a Storm of Rare Occurrence . NOAA-TM-NWS-SR-59 . National Weather 

Service, Southern Region . Fort Worth, TX . 22 pp . 

Abstract . A small tropical low, marginal in intensity between a depression and 

disturbance, moved out of the Gulf of Mexico on September 19-20, 1969 . An 

absence of steering currents aloft and the blocking action of a surface 

high caused the low to become stationary on the Florida coast for 

approximately 48 hours . Torrential, record-breaking rains occurred in a 

small area 60-65 miles to the east and 50 miles inland from the point 

where the low made landfall . Record-breaking floods resulted . The 23-inch 

maximum rainfall in 1969 was about 9 inches greater than the previous 

maximum rainfall of record produced by a 1924 tropical storm in the same 

area . The location of the area of maximum rainfall, with respect to the 

point of landfall of the low's center, closely follows the pattern 

previously reported for the more intense hurricanes and tropical storms . 

11 
de la Cruz, A .A . 1981 . Differences between South Atlantic and Gulf Coast 

marshes . pp . 10-20 . In Carey, R .C ., P .S . Markovits and J .B . Kirkwood, 

eds . Proceedings of the U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service workshop on 

Coastal Ecosystems of the United States . Office of Biological Services, 

Washington, D .C . FWS/OBS-80/59 . 

Abstract . The one factor that determines the biological (plant communities), 

ecological (primary productivity, food web, energy flow), and chemical 

(salinity, nutrients) differences between the South Atlantic and Gulf 

Coast marshes is water-the hydrological processes and hydrodynamic 

regimes that characterize each region . Gulf Coast marshes are developed 

primarily on deltaic formations constructed on alluvial deposits created 

by several major river systems, while the South Atlantic marshes are 

basically formed on estuarine and lagoonal soft silt deposits bridging 

the barrier islands and the mainland shorelines . Tides in the South 

Atlantic (a tidal dominated coast) are normally semidiurnal with 

fluctuations of more than 2 .0 m; meteorological phenomena are more stable 

with fewer events of major storm surges . In the Gulf, tides are generally 

diurnal with maximum fluctuation of 0 .3 m; but during periods of lowest 

fluctuations, tides can change over to very weak semidiurnal occurrences . 

Prevailing local weather conditions, the occurrence of seasonally 

changing major wind directions, high energy summer tropical storms, and 

Gulf basin natural oscillations complicate the hydrodynamics of the Gulf 

marsh system . The peculiar hydrology of the Gulf Coast (a wave dominated 

coast coupled with the great freshwater input dominated by the 

Mississippi River) influences salinity producing a more diverse 

vegetation structure and seasonal fluxes of material into the Gulf Coast 

marsh-estuary . 

DeWald, O .E . 1980 . Severe storm and hurricane impacts along the Gulf and lower 

Atlantic coasts . Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional 

Office . Metairie, LA . 10 pp . 

Eleuterius, C .K . and S .L . Beaugez . 1981 . Mississippi Sound : A hydrographic and 

climatic atlas . MASGP-79-009 . Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium . 

Ocean Springs, MS . 135 pp . 

Estoque, M .A . 1976 . Behavior of fronts over the Gulf of Mexico . pp . 1-8 . 

Role of the Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : A 

Conference on Meteorology Over and Near the Gulf . University of Miami, 

Miami, FL . 

Fernandez-Partegas, J . and M .A . Estoque . 1981 . Climatology and meteorology of 

the Gulf of Mexico . In Proceedings of a Symposium on Environmental 

Research Needs in the Gulf of Mexico (GOMEX) . NOAA Publication 89-126, 

(NOAA Publication 89-126 .) 

Fernandez-Partegas, J . and C .N .K . Mooers . 1975 . Some front characteristics over 

the eastern Gulf of Mexico and surrounding areas . Contract No . 08550-CT4-

L6 . Bureau of Land Management . 

Florida A&M University and T . College of Engineering Science and Agriculture . 

1988 . Meteorological Database and Synthesis for the Gulf of Mexico . Vol . 

OCS Study MMS 88-0064 Prepared for NIIMS by Florida A&M University under 

12 
Contract No . 14-12-0001-30191 . U .S . Department of Interior, Minerals 

Management Service . New Orleans . 486 pp . 

Abstract . Lists and describes ship, buoy and platform data sets collected to 

produce final summary in FAMU Gulf of Mexico study, including sources, 

formats and periods covered. The summary includes monthly, seasonal and 

annual means, extremes and variance of velocity and stress components at 

each of the stations . Wind stress curl calculations are also evaluated. 

Franceschini, G.A . 1953 . The distribution of mean monthly wind stress over the 

Gulf of Mexico . Reference 53-1 . Department of Oceanography . Texas A&M 

University, College Station. 19 pp . 

Abstract . The areal distribution of the mean monthly and annual wind stress on 

the Gulf of Mexico is presented. Approximate values of the stress were 

determined for each 2 degrees latitude-longitude quadrangle using mean 

monthly wind tabulations of ship observations . Calculations were based on 

the assumption that wind stress is proportional to the square of the wind 

speed. Prominent features of the stress distribution are noted. 

Qualitative agreement, according to classical theory, of this 

distribution which observed mean surface currents in the western half of 

the Gulf is indicated . A brief discussion of the association in this area 

between mean surface flow and the mean pattern of surface water 

temperature is included . 

Franceschini, G .A . 1976 . A portraiture of the horizontal fluxes of dry and 

moist static energy around the Gulf of Mexico . pp . 13 . La Role of the 

Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the U .S : A Conference on Meteorology 

over and near the Gulf . 

Frank, N .L . 1972 . Atlantic tropical systems of 1971 . Mon . Weather Rev . 

100(4) :268-275 . 

Abstract . The 1971 hurricane season featured 103 seedlings, 23 depressions, and 

12 named storms . An anomalous circulation pattern developed over the Gulf 

of Mexico and the southwestern Atlantic Ocean in September and spawned a 

large number of depressions and storms within the subtropical belt near 

or north of latitude 25°N . 

Franklin, M .A . and L .R . Bohman . 1980 . Hurricane Frederic tidal floods of 

September 12-13, 1979 along the Gulf coast, Oriole Beach, Garcon Point, 

Holley, south of Holley, and Navarre quadrangles, Florida . US Geological 

Survey . Hydrologic Investigations Atlas . Map HA-0641 . Scale 1 :24,000 . 

Abstract . Shows the areas flooded along the shores of Santa Rosa Sound and the 

Gulf of Mexico from Pensacola Beach eastward to The Narrows near Fort 

Walton Beach, Fla . The areas flooded along the shores of Pensacola, 

Escambia, Blackwater and East Bays were not delineated; however, 

floodmark elevations were determined . 

Fu, J . 1991 . Atmospheric deposition of nutrients to north Florida rivers : A 

multi-variate statistical analysis . Master's Thesis . Florida State 

University, Tallahassee, FL . 95 pp . 

Abstract . Atmospheric nutrient input to the Apalachicola Bay estuary was 

studied because it has been demonstrated that atmospheric deposition can 

be a major source of nutrients to eastern US estuaries . Besides the 

Apalachicola River, the Sopchoppy and the Ochlockonee were also selected 

for a comparative analysis . Receptor model, absolute principal of 

13 
component analysis (APCA), and mass balance methods were applied in the 

study . The results of the study show that nitrogen is probably not a 

limiting nutrient in the three rivers because their N : P mole ratios are 

nearly 3 times higher than the Redfield ratio for photosynthesis . The 

total atmospheric nitrogen depositions in the three river watershed are 

at least as great as their river fluxes . In the Apalachicola River, the 

atmospheric source of nitrogen is found to be several times higher than 

the largest possible input of urban sewage . Atmospheric deposition, 

therefore, might be the dominant nitrogen source entering the estuary . 

The results of APCA show that Apalachicola River water is mainly a 

mixture of components that correspond their compositions to aged rain, 

ground water, and fresh rain . Atmospheric nitrate deposition is the 

result of the air pollution, i .e ., acid rain . The studies also show that 

the annual average deposition of nitrate has a narrow range, mainly from 

5 .8 to 11 .5 kg/ha/yr in most of the NADP sites in the 8 southeastern 

states . Since all the software and date sets employed in the study are 

accessible nationwide, the methods could be applied in other watersheds . 

Gaby, D .C ., D .R . Cochran, J .B . Lushine, S .C . Pearce and A .C . Pike . 1975 . 

Atlantic tropical cyclone classifications for 1974 . NOAA-TM-NESS-68 ; 

NOAA-75042803 . National Environmental Satellite Service, Satellite Field 

Services Station . Coral Gables, FL . 12 pp . 

Abstract . Estimates of the locations and maximum sustained winds 

(classifications) of all named tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic 

Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico during 1974 were made 

using the technique developed by Dvorak . This technique was applied to 

pictures from the SMS-1 (Stationary Meteorological Satellite) and ATS-3 

(Advanced Technology Satellite) geostationary satellites . These estimates 

were compared with other data to establish the measure of accuracy 

achieved . The results are presented together with comments on expected 

future performance . 

Galtsoff, P .S . 1954 . Gulf of Mexico, its origin, waters and marine life . U .S . 

Fish Wildl . Serv . Fish . Bull . 55(89) :1-604 . 

Abstract . Contents : I . Historical sketch of the explorations in the Gulf of 

Mexico; II . Geology ; III . Marine meteorology of the Gulf of Mexico, a 

brief review ; IV . Bacteria, fungi, and unicellular algae ; VII . Protozoa ; 

VIII . Sponges, coelenterates, and ctenophores ; IX . Free-living flatworms, 

nemerteans, nematodes, tardigrades, and chaetognaths ; X . Parasitic worms ; 

XI . Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Phoronida, and Enteropneusta ; XI2 . Echinoderm; 

XIII . Annelids and miscellaneous worms ; XIV. Arthropods ; XV . Mollusks ; 

XVI . Tunicates and lancelets ; XVII . Fishes and sea turtles ; XVIII . The 

birds of the Gulf of Mexico ; XIX . Mammals of the Gulf of Mexico ; XX . 

Pollution of water . 

Garcia, A .W . 1991 . On the relationship between the intensity of extratropical 

frontal cyclone systems and water levels in the Gulf of Mexico 

(cyclones) . Ph .D . Dissertation . Purdue University . 138 pp . 

Abstract . The effects of winter season frontal cyclone systems on tidal-period 

Gulf of Mexico water levels are investigated . The passage of a series of 

hypothetical and observed frontal cyclone systems across the Gulf of 

Mexico is simulated using a Gulf-wide hydrodynamic model driven by a 

synoptic-scale, balanced flow wind model . The observed frontal cyclone 

systems were selected to represent a fast moving front, a slow moving 

14 
front, and a frontal system which involved Gulf cyclogenesis . Evaluation 

of the model simulations was based upon comparison of tidal anomalies 

acquired at National Ocean Service tidal monitoring stations . Results of 

the model simulations show generally good qualitative agreement with the 

tidal anomalies . Because the wind model used routinely available 

meteorological data, forecasts of surge levels in the Gulf may be 

possible . 

Gaul, R .D . 1965 . Air-sea environmental studies off Panama City, Florida . 

Unpublished report . Texas A&M Univ ., Dept . of Oceanography and 

Meteorology . College Station, TX . 11 pp . 

Abstract . A description of the projects being conducted from the Navy's 

offshore stages . 

Geo-Marine . 1973 . A program of field measurements to define the thermal and 

dissolved oxygen distribution at the Lansing Smith Plant on West Bay/St . 

Andrew Bay . Geo-Marine . St . Petersburg, FL . 27 pp . 

Abstract . Hydrographic and meteorological data from the vicinity of the power 

plant. 

Gray, W .M . 1987 . Forecast of Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity for 1987 . 

(Updated July 28, 1987) . Colorado State University . Fort Collins . 32 pp . 

Abstract . The author's updated forecast of the amount of seasonal hurricane and 

tropical storm activity which can be expected to occur in the Atlantic 

basin, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico region in 1987 is discussed . This 

updated forecast is issued just before the start of the most active part 

of the hurricane season . The author's previous forecast for 1987 was 

issued on 27 May and called for 5 hurricanes (1 below the average of the 

1947 to 1986 seasons), 8 named tropical storms (2 below average), and 20 

hurricane days (5 below average) . This updated forecast is based on the 

author's earlier forecast and more recent June and July meteorological 

data . This revised forecast is considered to be more reliable than the 

forecast issued at the end of May . Statistical information received by 

the author as of 28 July indicates that the hurricane and tropical storm 

activity for 1987 can be expected to be a somewhat more suppressed than 

that anticipated in late May . This revised forecast indicates a 

probability for 4 hurricanes (2 below average), 7 hurricanes and tropical 

storms (3 below average), and 15 hurricane days (10 below average) . 

Gray, W .M . 1992 . Forecast of Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity for 1992 . 

Colorado State University . Fort Collins . 17 pp . 

Abstract . Details are presented of the forecast for the amount of tropical 

cyclone activity which might be expected to occur in the Atlantic Ocean 

region, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, during 1992 . 

This forecast is based on ongoing research relating to the amount of 

seasonal Atlantic tropical cyclone activity that can be specified in 

early June by four factors : (1) the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation of 

equatorial stratospheric wind (QBO) ; (2) the E1 Nino (EN) ; (3) West 

African Rainfall (AR) anomalies of the previous year ; and (4) West 

African west to east gradients of surface pressure and temperature during 

Feb . through May . Information received through 3 June 1992 indicates that 

the 1992 hurricane season should be below average with about 4 

hurricanes, 8 named storms of at least tropical storm intensity ; about 15 

hurricane days, a total of 35 named storm days and a Hurricane 

15 
Destruction Potential of 35 . Reduced hurricane activity during the 1992 

season will be due to Tropical Pacific Sea Surface Temperature anomaly 

patterns ; below average rainfall conditions are expected in the Sahel 

region of west Africa ; and West Africa west to east pressure and 

temperature gradients during Feb . to May indicate a weaker than normal 

summer monsoon trough and consequently, below average hurricane activity . 

Gray, W .M . 1992 . Updated forecast of Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity for 

1992 . Colorado State University . Fort Collins . 17 pp . 

Abstract . Presented here are the details of the author's updated forecast of 

tropical cyclone activity for the Atlantic Ocean region including the 

Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico during 1992 . This updated forecast 

includes meteorological data for June and July and is based on the 

ongoing research activities which relates the amount of seasonal Atlantic 

tropical cyclone activity to five factors : (1) three measures of the 

Quasi-Biennial oscillation of equatorial stratospheric zonal wind (QBO) 

at 50 mb (20 km) and 30 mb (23 km) and the absolute value of the shear 

between these levels ; (2) the E1 Nino (EN) as specified by the Equatorial 

East Pacific Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly (SSTA) and the value of the 

Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) ; (3) Caribbean basin Sea-Level Pressure 

Anomalies (SLPAs) and upper tropospheric 200 mb Zonal Wind Anomalies 

(ZWA) ; (4) two measures of West African Rainfall (AR) anomalies, one of 

June-July in the western Sahel region, and the other the previous year 

August through November precipitation in the Gulf of Guinea region ; and 

(5) the surface west to east pressure and temperature gradients across 

the western Sahel region of Africa . Information received by the author 

through 4 August 1992 indicates that the 1992 hurricane season should be 

below average with about 4 hurricanes, 8 named storms of at least 

tropical storm intensity, about 15 hurricane days, a total of 35 named 

storm days, and a Hurricane Destruction Potential of 35 . Because the 

western Sahel is expected to be dry again this year, it is anticipated 

that there will be only one intense hurricane of Saffir/Simpson intensity 

category 3, 4, or 5 this season . This year's forecast is for the same 

amount of hurricane activity that was previously forecasted on 26 

November 1991 . 

Gray, W .M . 1993 . Forecast of Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity for 1993 . 

Colorado State University . Fort Collins . 18 pp . 

Abstract . This paper presents details of the author's forecast for the amount 

of tropical cyclone activity expected to occur in the Atlantic Ocean 

region, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, during 1993 . 

This forecast is based on ongoing research relating the amount of 

seasonal Atlantic tropical cyclone activity to five basic forecast 

parameters . These are : (1) the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) of 

equatorial stratospheric wind ; (2) the E1 Nino Southern Oscillation 

(ENSO) ; (3) West African Rainfall (AR) anomalies of the previous year ; 

(4) West African west to east gradients of anomalous surface pressure and 

surface temperature (APT) during Feb . through May ; and (5) Caribbean 

Basin Sea Level Pressure and Upper Level Zonal Wind Anomalies (SLPA and 

ZWA respectively) . Information received by the author through 3 Jun . 1993 

indicates that the 1993 hurricane season should be an average season with 

about 7 hurricanes, 11 named storms of at least tropical storm intensity, 

a total of about 25 hurricane days, 55 named storm days, and total 

Hurricane Destruction Potential (HDP) of 65 . It is also expected that 

16 
there should be two major hurricanes of Saffir/Simpson intensity category 

3, 4, or 5 this season and about 3 intense hurricane days . These 

parameters represent an overall measure of hurricane activity about 95 

percent of the last 42-year average . The amount of intense or major 

hurricane activity has been reduced from that given in the author's 24 

Nov . 1992 forecast . This reduction is due to the slow dissipation of the 

current E1 Nino and to new estimates of West African drought conditions . 

Hurricane activity in 1993 will be enhanced by favorable stratospheric 

QBO westerly phase winds and low values of Caribbean Basin sea level 

pressure . It will be reduced by expected west Sahel drought conditions, 

and by a weakening El Nino event . The November forecast had anticipated 

cold ENSO conditions . 

Gray, W .M . 1993 . Updated forecast of Atlantic seasonal hurricane activity for 

1993 . Colorado State University . Fort Collins . 16 pp . 

Abstract . Details of the author's updated forecast of tropical cyclone activity 

for the Atlantic Ocean region including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of 

Mexico during 1993 are presented . This updated forecast utilizes 

meteorological data for June and July and is based on the author and his 

research colleagues ongoing research activities which relates the amount 

of seasonal Atlantic tropical cyclone activity to five factors : namely, 

(1) three measures of the Quasi-Biennial oscillation of equatorial 

stratospheric zonal wind (QBO) at 50 mb (20 km) and 30 mb (23 km) and the 

absolute value of the shear between these levels ; (2) the E1 Nino 

Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions as specified by the Equatorial 

East Pacific Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly (SSTA) and the value of the 

Tahiti minus Darwin surface pressure ; (3) Caribbean basin Sea-Level 

Pressure Anomalies (SLPA) and upper tropospheric 200 mb Zonal Wind 

Anomalies (ZWA) ; (4) two measures of West African Rainfall (AR) 

anomalies, one of June-July in the Western Sahel region, and the other 

the previous year Aug . through Nov . precipitation in the Gulf of Guinea 

region ; and (5) the surface west to east pressure and temperature 

gradients across the Western Sahel region of Africa during Feb . through 

May . Information received by the author through 4 Aug . 1993 indicates 

that the 1993 hurricane season should, overall be about an average season 

when compared with hurricane activity of the last 43 years . Our 

statistical analysis indicates that this season should have about 6 

hurricanes, 10 named storms of at least tropical storm intensity, about 

25 hurricane days, a total of 50 named storm days and a Hurricane 

Destruction Potential of 55 . Because the Western Sahel is expected to 

again have below average rainfall this year, it is anticipated that there 

will be only two intense or major hurricanes of Saffir/Simpson intensity 

category 3, 4, or 5 this season . This updated forecast is for slightly 

calmer conditions than were suggested in the 24 Nov . 1992 and 4 Jun . 1993 

forecasts for 1993 . A verification of this forecast will be issued in 

late Nov . 

Gruber, A. 1968 . The energy budget and climatological description of the 

atmosphere over the Florida peninsula when a convective regime dominates. 

Ph .D . Dissertation . Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL . 

Gruber, A. 1969 . Energy budget and climatology of the atmosphere over the 

Florida peninsula . U .S . Army Elect . Comm ., Tech . Rep . ECOM-04367-F :64 . 

17 
Halper, F .B ., D .W . McGrail and W .W . Schroeder . 1982 . The response of shelf 

waters in the Gulf of Mexico to the passage of tropical storms and 

hurricanes in 1979 . EOS . 63 :18 . 

Halper, F .B . and W .W . Schroeder . 1990 . The response of shelf waters to the 

passage of tropical cyclones-observations from the Gulf of Mexico . Cont . 

Shelf Res . 10(8) :777-793 . 

Abstract . Current meter data obtained from sites on the Alabama, west Florida, 

and Texas-Louisiana shelves during 1979 coincided with the passage of 

five tropical cyclones ; hurricane Bob, tropical storm Claudette, tropical 

storm Elena, hurricane Frederic and hurricane Henri, and a sixth storm 

(hurricane David) which skirted the west Florida coast . The observations 

suggest that along the Alabama shelf (25 m water depth), where the 

isobaths were essentially perpendicular to the path of the storms, 

hurricanes Bob and Frederic and tropical storm Claudette caused coastal 

set-up/set-down, resulting in a complex response . The observations from 

the west Florida shelf, where storm paths generally paralleled the 

isobaths, suggest that the flows associated with hurricanes Frederic, 

David and possibly tropical storm Claudette were a combination of the 

storms setting water in motion as they moved through the Gulf of Mexico 

and local wind forcing. 

Hamilton, G .D . 1987 . Buoy records : set in 1985 hurricanes . Mar . Weather Log . 

31(4) :7-10 . 

Abstract . During the 1985 hurricane season in Sept ., a North Atlantic buoy 

reported the highest significant wave height ever recorded by the 

National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) in a hurricane (Gloria) : 46 .9 ft . The 

track of Gloria from its development near the Cape Verde Islands, within 

55 mi of buoy station 41002, is described . In Oct . in the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico, an NDBC buoy registered a record wind of 92 knots with a 114-knot 

peak in Kate . The development of Kate and its track are described . The 

expected winds are compared by means of a numerical wave prediction 

scheme . By applying the required values of wind speeds from the times of 

the most extreme wind/wave conditions at the two buoys, the significant 

wave height (H1/3) and peak period (Tm) are estimated (computed) . The 

estimates during Kate are reasonably close, as is the peak period for 

Gloria . There is, however, a large discrepancy in the significant wave 

height predicted for Gloria . Several characteristics of the storms, which 

may explain the difference involving the discrepancy between wind speed 

and wave height in the storms, are considered . 

Hart, W .E . and S .P . Murray. 1978 . Energy balance and wind effects in a shallow 

sound . J . Geophys . Res . 83(C8) :4097-4106 . 

Abstract . Tidal energetics and wind effects in an extensive (3000 km2) shallow 

(3 .Sm) sound with two widely separated entrances were studied numerically 

with a two-dimensional vertically averaged model . A comparison of current 

predictions with observation from 15 current meter stations under 

differing tidal regimes proved the reliability of the model . Evaluation 

of the instantaneous energy balance equation showed the change in energy 

content to be nearly balanced by input energy flux, frictional energy 

dissipation being of secondary importance . In contrast to the 

equipartition of energy in classical long waves, there is on the average 

eight times more potential energy than kinetic energy . Input energy flow 

shows preferential pathways ; the wide northern entrance mainly shows 

18 
energy gain to the Sound, the southern entrance shows equal amounts of 

gain and loss, while small cuts through the barrier island chain serve 

mainly as conduits for energy loss . When real tidal input is used, the 

energy balance time-averaged over a diurnal tidal cycle is not in a 

steady state, and frictional dissipation is the dominant term . 

Experiments showed that with winds in the 8- to 9-m/s range, extensive 

setup can occur (20 cm), strongly dependent on wind direction . Increased 

speeds through the passages can significantly reduce the residence time 

in the Sound. Relaxation time of the wind perturbations is only about 3 

hours . 

Hastenrath, S .L . 1968 . A contribution to the wind conditions over the Caribbean 

Sea and Gulf of Mexico . Tellus . 20(1) :163-178 . 

Hawkins, J .D ., D .A . May, R .L . Pickett and F . Abell . 1990 . Benefits of NOAA-11 

Channel 3 in detection of mesoscale eddies in the Gulf of Mexico during s 

ummer . pp . 356-361 . la Proceedings Annual Gulf of Mexico Information 

Transfer Meeting (11th) . Naval Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research 

Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS . 

Abstract . Monitoring the Loop Current and mesoscale (50-350 km) warm and cold 

core eddy positions in the Gulf of Mexico year round has taken on 

enhanced interest as our understanding of the Gulf's physical 

oceanography and its impact on a diverse set of industrial and scientific 

disciplines matures . Early sporadic hydrographic cruises were 

supplemented in the late 1970's and early 1980's with satellite infrared 

(IR) imagery from the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

(GOES) and various versions of the present National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (AVHRR) . The synoptic IR views helped immeasurably by 

permitting mapping of the major mesoscale features via their sea surface 

temperature (SST) signatures . The early work of Ichiye (1962), Cochrane 

(1972) and others was then enhanced considerably when imagery began to 

fill in the time-space void inherent in Gulf ship surveys . Information 

pertaining to the cycle of Loop Current penetration, eddy shedding and 

drift of resultant warm core eddies westward to the Texas shelf rapidly 

revised earlier speculation and brought us to a now level of viewing the 

dynamics of the Loop Current System . Several drawbacks remained while 

utilizing IR imagery to detect Gulf mesoscale features . Cloud 

contamination often eliminated this valuable resource for time spans 

lasting weeks when poor meteorological conditions prevailed. Summertime 

conditions, including solar heating, reduced the SST gradients associated 

with all features, requiring the capability to measure relative and 

absolute SSTs to the accuracy of 0 .25°C and better in order to view the 

faint surface signatures . 

Ho, F .P ., R .W . Schwerdt and H .V . Goodyear . 1975 . Some climatological 

characteristics of hurricanes and storms on the Gulf and East coasts of 

the United States . NWS-15 . National Weather Service, NOAA Technical 

Department . 

Abstract . A climatology of hurricane factors important to storm surges is 

presented for the U.S . Gulf and East coasts . A smoothed frequency of 

tropical storms and hurricanes entering and exiting the coast and storms 

passing within 150 n .mi . of the coast during the period 1871-1973 is 

given. Directions of landfalling hurricanes and tropical storms at the 

19 
time they crossed the coast at selected points were also analyzed . The 

probability distribution of each factor was plotted and analyzed for each 

50-n .mi . interval along the coast . Selected probability levels of each 

distribution were then summarized, and smoothed variations along the 

coast were obtained by analysis . The speeds of motion for two classes of 

hurricanes (those that entered the coast and those that passed within 150 

n.mi . of the coast) were studied separately and a smooth speed analysis 

determined for each . The question of joint probability among the various 

factors and with latitude is discussed qualitatively . 

Ho, F .P . and R .J . Tracey . 1975 . Storm tide frequency analysis for the Gulf 

Coast of Florida from Cape San Blas to St . Petersburg beach . National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service 

Technical Memorandum . NOAA TM NWS HYDRO-20 :34 . 

Hope, J .R . and C .J . Neumann . 1971 . Computer methods applied to Atlantic area 

tropical storm and hurricane climatology . Mar . Weather Log . 15(5) : 

272-278 . 

Abstract . Tropical cyclone advisories and bulletins for the Atlantic Ocean, the 

Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico are issued or coordinated through 

the National Hurricane Center of the National Weather Service . Relevant 

to this responsibility is the maintenance of suitable documentation of 

past tropical cyclone tracks . Such data are stored on magnetic tape and 

can be instantly processed by a digital computer . With the data now 

stored on tape, the National Hurricane Center, using fully computerized 

methods, has the capability of quickly consulting the climatology of 

areas of any size for such portions of the hurricane season as may be 

pertinent to a particular forecast problem or for long-range planning 

purposes . The HURRAH technique, an analog process used routinely as a 

basic forecast aid, is discussed . 

Hopkins, C .K . 1990 . Ocean response to hurricane forcing . Master's Thesis . Naval 

Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA . 90 pp . 

Abstract . The current meter records collected at three sites in the Gulf of 

Mexico during the passage of Hurricane Frederic are analyzed to determine 

the storm-induced flow at various ocean depths, determine the associated 

energy increase and decay, and compare these observations to similar 

results from a numerical model . The records at the two deeper sites are 

rather unique because they are within 100 km of the hurricane track . Prestorm conditions are controlled by topography, and as the storm passes 

there is an abrupt change in the direction of flow and initiation of a 

strong inertial response at all levels of the two deeper sites . After 

this initial surge, the residual flow tends toward the pre-storm 

direction. The horizontal kinetic energy associated with inertial motion 

is calculated . The energy increase and decay is shown to vary with depth . 

An embedded mixed-layer ocean circulation model is forced with an 

idealized storm translating at the same speed as Frederic . The abrupt 

response and strong inertial component predicted by the model is 

qualitatively similar to the observations . 

Fisu, S .A . 1977 . Atmospheric dispersion characteristics in the Louisiana coastal 

zone . Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton 

Rouge, LA . Bull . No . 229 :29 . 

20 
Abstract . Atmospheric dispersion characteristics in the coastal zone are unique 

in that physical processes of air, sea, and land combine at the shoreline 

to create motions on many scales which differ in important respects from 

processes over land or over water . Some of these differences in coastal 

Louisiana are reviewed . Synoptic-scale characteristics indicate that the 

coastal zone is superior to areas farther inland for dispersing 

pollutants . However, mesoscale and microscale studies reveal that diurnal 

circulation of land-breeze and sea-breeze systems and the development of 

an internal boundary layer because of aerodynamic roughness changes 

across the shoreline may actually increase pollution concentration in the 

nearshore region . Specific studies on these scales of atmospheric motion 

in relation to the optimum siting for industrial plants are outlined and 

recommended . 

Hsu, S .A . 1992 . Effects of surface baroclinicity on frontal overrunning along 

the central Gulf coast . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :900-907 . 

Hsu, S .A . 1993 . The Gulf of Mexico--a breeding ground for winter storms . 

Mariners Weather Log, Washington . 37(2) :4-il . 

Abstract . Cyclogenesis, that is, the development or strengthening of cyclonic 

circulation in the atmosphere, is studied for storms in the Gulf of 

Mexico . Using 1972-1982 as a control period, an average of 10 .4 winter 

cyclones developed each year over the Gulf of Mexico, and in 5 .5 of 

these, central pressures dipped to 1010 millibars or below . Additionally, 

from November 1982 through March 1983 a total of 26 surface cyclones 

affected the Gulf region, and five of these met the criteria for 

meteorological bombs . During these intensification periods the mean 

subtropical jet stream was about 5 degrees farther south than normal over 

the Gulf of Mexico, and was an important factor in the formation of upper 

level disturbances . One classic example of such cyclogenesis and its 

effect on shelf waters occurred on February 16, 1983, when central 

pressure fell 12 millibars within a 24-hour period, lowest pressure was 

1001 millibars, and there was a maximum wind of 15 m/s (29 knots), and a 

significant wave height of 4 .3 meters . A classification scheme is 

presented that uses the relationship of maximum winds to minimum 

pressures to acknowledge the importance of these winter storm systems . 

This mathematical development recognizes that the airflow around the 

center of these storms in the Gulf is nearly circular, and that as a 

first approximation the cyclostrophic equation may be applicable such 

that the forces between the centrifugal force and the pressure gradient 

are in balance . There are two constraints in this storm ranking scheme, 

however : (1) when minimum pressure of the storm is greater than 1015 mb 

no cyclogenesis was observed ; and (2) when the minimum pressure is less 

than 980 mb, the minimum (or central) pressure approaches the hurricane 

classification scheme of Saffir/Simpson . 

Hsu, S .A ., E .A . Meindl and D .B . Gilhousen . 1994 . Determining the power-law 

wind-profile exponent under near-neutral stability conditions at sea . J . 

Appl . Meteorol . 33(6) :757-765 . 

Abstract . On the basis of 30 samples from near-simultaneous overwater 

measurements by pairs of anemometers located at different heights in the 

Gulf of Mexico and off the Chesapeake Bay, Virginia, the mean and 

standard deviation for the exponent of the power-law wind profile over 

the ocean under near-neutral atmospheric stability conditions were 

21 
determined to be 0 .11 f 0 .03 . Because this mean value is obtained from 

both deep and shallow water environments, it is recommended for use at 

sea to adjust the wind speed measurements at different heights to the 

standard height of 10 m above the mean sea surface. An example to apply 

this P value to estimate the momentum flux or wind stress is provided . 

Hsueh, Y ., G .O . Marmorino and L .L . Vansant . 1982 . Numerical model studies of 

the winter-storm response of the west Florida shelf . J . Phys . Ocean . 

12(10) :1037-1050 . 

Abstract . The wintertime, wind-driven ocean circulation on the West Florida 

Continental Shelf is studied within the framework of a linearized stormsurge model . The model bathymetry incorporates a realistic shelf, 

extending from New Orleans to the southern tip of Florida, and a deep 

ocean region . The boundary condition at the coast is that there is no 

normal flow . At the open boundaries, located off the shelf in deep water, 

the adjusted sea level is fixed at zero . It is found that 1) a coastally 

trapped response is achieved within one local inertial period following 

the imposition of the wind ; 2) the curved coast forces a mass exchange 

between the coastal water and the deep ocean; 3) this exchange leads to 

the generation of a series of mesoscale eddies along the shelf edge ; and 

4) these eddies give rise to long-period, shelf-wide oscillations that 

persist beyond the local spin-up time . A hindcast of the wind-driven flow 

on the West Florida Shelf for a particular period (11-25 March 1978) that 

contains the passage of a distinct cold front produces coastal sea-level 

and current fluctuations that are in reasonable agreement with 

observations . 

Hughes, R .M . 1967 . Balance of atmospheric water vapor over the Gulf of Mexico . 

M .S . Thesis . Texas A&M University . College Station, TX . 41 pp . 

Huh, O .K ., L .J . Rouse and N .D . Walker . 1984 . Cold air outbreaks over the 

northwest Florida continental shelf : Heat flux processes and hydrographic 

changes . J . Geophys . Res . 89(01) :717-726 . 

Abstract . An experimental study of the meteorology and oceanography of cold air 

outbreak cycles was conducted during the fall of 1978 off Panama City, 

FL . Details of the air-sea interaction processes they induce on such 

upwind continental shelves are poorly known because of a lack of 

appropriate measurements . Shallow depths and proximity to land make the 

processes significantly different from their deepwater counterparts . The 

cycle has three phases that are recognizable in the measurements : the 

prefrontal, frontal passage, and cold air outbreak-high-pressure phases . 

The time variability of oceanic heat fluxes was monitored through the 

cycle in two ways : by measuring heat content changes and by measuring 

turbulent and radiative heat fluxes . Advective effects on the heat budget 

were minimized by the site selection . A mild cold air outbreak stripped 

26 .8x106 J/m2 (640 cal /cm2) of heat and 1 .1 cm of liquid water from the 

shelf in 63 hr, and a severe cold air outbreak removed 147 .6x106 'T/M2 

(3528 cal /cm2) and 4 .4 cm of liquid water in 87 hr . For these events, 

evaporation, sensible heat loss, and radiative heat loss were 51, 16, and 

33, and 58, 25, and 17W of the totals, respectively . A simple onedimensional shallow water heat flux model predicted temperature and heat 

content changes during severe cold air outbreaks to within 8% . 

22 
Observations indicate the extreme time variability of heat flux processes 

and the hazards of extrapolating to daily rates from spot measurements or 

very short time series . 

Ichiye, T . 1971 . Circulation changes caused by hurricanes . Oceanographic 

Studies . 2, Ch 13 :229-257 . CONTRIB-509-CH-13 . 

Abstract . Observations in the Gulf of Mexico of temperature and salinity 

changes due to passing hurricanes are reviewed . Observations for 

Hurricane Carla (1961) and for Hurricane Inez (1966) were made on the 

continental slope in the northwestern and the western Gulf, respectively . 

The data from the latter case indicate upward displacement and deepening 

of the thermocline near to and to the left hand side of the hurricane 

center, respectively . The data from Hurricane Hilda (1964) were obtained 

on several transects across the track in the central Gulf and are the 

most comprehensive . Comparison of hydrographic data with those of the 

undisturbed state indicate upward and downward displacement of the 

thermocline at and outside the track of the eye, respectively . 

Irwin, G .A . and R .T . Kirkland . 1980 . Chemical and physical characteristics of 

precipitation at selected sites in Florida . USGS Water Res . 

Investigations . 80-81 

Danish, P .R . and S .W . Lyons . 1992 . NGM performance during cold-air outbreaks 

and periods of return flow over the Gulf of Mexico with emphasis on 

moisture-field evolution . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31(8) :995-1017 . 

Abstract . The National Meteorological Center's Nested Grid Model (NGM) analyses 

and 24-48-h forecasts of cold-air outbreaks and their associated return 

flows are examined from January through March 1988 coincident with the 

Gulf of Mexico Experiment (GUFMEX) . Seven episodes of moderate-to-strong 

cold-air outbreaks and associated return flows are isolated . A good index 

of these cycles is the 950-mb meridional wind component . Composites and 

individual cases of the horizontal, vertical, and temporal structure of 

wind, temperature, and moisture are diagnosed for NGM analyses and 24-48 

h forecasts of these events . Primary focus is on air and moisture 

modification over the Gulf during the return-flow cycle . Comparisons 

among observed inversion layers capping the low-level moisture and those 

present in NGM analyses and forecasts are examined . These differences 

highlight model strengths and weaknesses . With regard to humidity-field 

evolution during the return-flow cycle, NGM forecasts are consistently 

too dry over the Gulf during both offshore and onshore flow phases . 

Isentropic trajectory computations suggest that advective processes 

clearly dominate the moisture modification processes in the NGM 

forecasts . Comparisons indicate that low-level moisture errors in the 

model forecasts result more from short comings in model physics than from 

inadequate or poor model initialization . Recently, changes to the NGM 

input analyses and physics package have been implemented . While the 

affects of these changes have yet to be determined, this study 

illustrates strengths and weaknesses of the NGM during the 1988 cool 

season and emphasizes the necessity for accurate simulation of boundarylayer processes during return-flow events and times of air mass 

modification . 

23 
Jarrell, J .P ., G .C . April and D .C . Raney . 1981 . Hydrodynamics of Mobile bay and 

Mississippi Sound - pass exchange studies . MASGP-80-023, University of 

Alabama Bureau of Engineering Research Report No . 271-112 . MississippiAlabama Sea Grant Consortium, Ocean Springs, MS . MASGP-80-023 . 177 pp . 

Abstract . This research was undertaken to develop a mathematical model of 

Mobile Bay and East Mississippi Sound, Alabama capable of describing the 

hydrodynamics in Pass aux Herons and Main Pass . The elucidation of the 

complex interaction of these passes is necessary to further the knowledge 

of the Alabama coastal system gained through previous modeling efforts . 

The recently developed WES Implicit Flooding Model, version II (WIFN II) 

is applied to the Mobile Bay-East Mississippi Sound system . This model is 

suitable for the indicated purpose because of the implicit solution form 

and variable grid size capabilities which it possesses . This model is 

determined to be an effective trend analysis tool for the study of the 

pass hydrodynamics on the basis of field calibration and verification 

data . 

Jehn, K.H . 1976 . Observational methods and needs . pp . 77-85 . Zn Role of the 

Gulf of Mexico in the weather of the United States : a conference on 

meteorology over and near the Gulf . TAMU, College Station, TX. 

Jelesnianski, C .P . 1972 . SPLASH (Special Program to List Amplitudes of Surges 

From Hurricanes) 1 . Landfall storms . NOAA Tech . Memo . NWS TDL-46 :52 . 

Jensen, J.J . 1970 . Calculated and observed changes in sea surface temperature 

associated with hurricane passage. Master's Thesis . Naval Postgraduate 

School, Monterey, CA . 56 pp . 

Abstract . Analyses were made of the sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of 

Mexico in August for the four years 1965 through 1968 . No one pattern was 

found to predominate . The subsurface temperature profiles were then 

considered, and a rate of simulated withdrawal of 4000 calories of heat 

per day was made, until there was no heat in excess of 26°C . This 

withdrawal represented heat removed during passage of a hurricane . 

Difference analyses were constructed for the initial sea surface 

temperature at each station and that after twenty-four hours of simulated 

withdrawal . The differences ranged from less than one degree to over four 

degrees . Again, no consistent pattern was found but generally areas of 

high concentrations of heat experienced smaller decreases . Actual sea 

surface temperatures collected after two hurricanes were then analyzed 

and compared to temperature patterns predicted by the computer model . 

Illustrations of the relative availability of sensible heat energy for 

different sea surface temperatures are presented and a hypothesis made to 

account for the greater than average intensities of Hurricane Betsy 

(1965) and Camille (1969) . 

Johnson, D .R . 1989 . Vector EOF analysis of SSH and wind stress for the GEOSAT 

pre-ERM mission in the Gulf of Mexico . Naval Ocean Research and 

Development Activity . NSTL Station, MS . 2 pp . 

Abstract . Sea Surface Height (SSH) data collected during the Pre-exact Repeat 

Mission of the U .S . Navy's GEOSAT satellite were analyzed together with 

wind stress data from FNOC to determine basin scale patterns of coherent 

variability . Time series of SSH variations were formed from altimeter 

cross-over points in 3-degree diamond-shaped grids in the Gulf of Mexico 

(GOM) . Similarly, wind stress time series were formed at selected grid 

24 
points in the GOM and in the North Equatorial Trade wind region of the 

Atlantic . The two sets of time series, one year in length, were subjected 

to Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis . The first EOF mode contained 

more than twice the variance of the second mode, with the largest 

amplitudes (sigenvectors) of the pattern occurring just west of the loop 

current intrusion for SSH and in the western and northern Gulf for wind 

stress . A comparison is made with similar combined data for the Northern 

Indian ocean where ocean response to Monsoon winds is strong, and better 

understood . In addition to the EOF analysis, events are followed through 

the Gulf in both wind and SSH records . 

Johnson, G .A ., E .A . Meindl, E .B . Mortimer, M .C . Koziara, W .L . Read and J .S . 

Lynch . 1986 . Winter cyclogenesis over the Gulf of Mexico . NOAA/NWSFO, 

Slidell, LA, 7 pp . 

Jordan, C .L . 1973 . Climate . pp . 22 . Za Jones, J .I ., R .E . Ring, M .O . Rinkel and 

R .E . Smith, eds . A Summary of Knowledge of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico . 

State University System of Florida, Institute of Oceanography, St . 

Petersburg, FL . 

Abstract . Climatological data from coastal stations and summaries of 

meteorological observations from ships are used to describe the broad 

climatic features of the eastern Gulf of Mexico . The seasonal changes in 

wind, temperature, cloudiness, and precipitation are related in a general 

way to the character of the large-scale circulation patterns and the 

associated seasonal changes in storm tracks and air masses . Statistical 

information is presented for selected coastal stations and for a summary 

area in the east-central Gulf for a number of climatological elements 

including rainfall, thunderstorms, fog, winds, and waves . Information is 

also provided on the frequency and seasonal distribution of tropical and 

extra-tropical cyclones in selected areas, and data are given on maximum 

hurricane surge heights for the region . Data sources and reliability are 

discussed in relation to the possibility of providing more detailed 

climatological information for the eastern Gulf . 

Jordan, C .L . 1984 . Florida's weather and climate : Implications for water . pp . 

18-35 . IQ Fernald, E .A . and D .J . Patton, eds . Water Resources Atlas of 

Florida . Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL . 

Kirwan, A .D ., Jr ., G . McNally, M .-S . Chang and R . Molinari . 1974 . The Effect of 

Wind and Surface Currents on Drifters . J . Phys . Ocean . 5(2) :361-368 . 

Abstract . The problem analyzed here is the motion of a drifter acted on by 

wind, surface and subsurface currents . From the condition of static 

equilibrium of all drag forces acting on the drifter, the effects of wind 

and surface current of arbitrary direction and magnitude and drogue 

characteristics are examined parametrically . Specific application is made 

to a recently developed drifter with 9 .2 and 11 .85 m parachute drogues 

and a window shade drogue . The calculations show that for some 

environmental conditions the deviation between the magnitudes of the 

drifter velocity and the water parcel velocity may exceed 50%r . 

Furthermore, the direction of velocity vectors may differ by as much as 

45 degrees . Drifter data from an experiment conducted by the Atlantic 

Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories and the NOAA Data Buoy 

Office in the Gulf of Mexico Loop Current are examined in light of the 

theoretical results . The wind effects predicted by the theory were 

25 
observed in the field . Thus wind corrections to the drifter velocity 

records which are based on the theory can significantly improve the 

velocity records. 

Kjerfve, B . 1983 . Analysis and synthesis of oceanographic conditions in 

Mississippi Sound, April thru October, 1980 . U .S . Army Corps of 

Engineers, Mobile District . Mobile, AL . 436 pp . 

Lamb, D . and L . Comrie . 1991 . Meteorological and chemical factors controlling 

the composition of precipitation in eastern North America . International 

Conference on Precipitation Scavenging and Atmosphere Surface Exchange 

Process (5th), Richland, WA (United States), 15-19 Jul . 1991 . Sponsored 

by Department of Energy, Washington, D .C . Pennsylvania State Univ ., Dept . 

of Meteorology. University Park . 4 pp . 

Abstract . Precipitation in eastern North America is characterized by high 

concentrations of free acidity and sulfate that are generally attributed 

to anthropogenic air pollution . The relatively long record of 

precipitation chemistry measurements at the Penn State MAP3S site is used 

to analyze the seasonal and interannual variability of precipitation 

composition in terms of specific mechanisms of atmospheric transport and 

chemical transformation . The interrelationships of the chemical variables 

in the precipitation record and in recent air measurements clearly link 

the precipitation acidity with the wet deposition of sulfate derived from 

the in-cloud oxidation of sulfur dioxide . High-deposition events are 

shown through meteorological trajectory analyses to be associated with 

moist air from the Gulf of Mexico that passes through the upper 

midwestern parts of the United States . The main chemical factor 

controlling the deposition of sulfate appears to be the availability of 

strong oxidants for transforming dissolved sulfur dioxide into aqueous 

sulfate . Excess sulfur dioxide is expected to exit the storm systems at 

high altitudes and experience truly long-range transport . This 

interpretation of the data gives confidence that episodes will occur even 

after sulfur dioxide emissions have been reduced substantially . 

Leipper, D .F . 1954 . Marine meteorology of the Gulf of Mexico, a brief review . 

pp . 89-98 . Ja Galtsoff, P .S ., ed. Gulf of Mexico, Its Origin, Waters, and 

Marine Life . U .S . Fish Wildl . Serv . Bull . 89 . 

Leipper, D .F . 1965 . The Gulf of Mexico after Hurricane Hilda (preliminary 

results) . Texas A&M Project 286, Reference 65-12T . Texas A&M University, 

Oceanography Department . College Station, TX . 19 pp . 

Abstract . Hurricane Hilda crossed the Gulf of Mexico in the period September 30 

to October 4, 1964, developing to a very severe hurricane in the central 

Gulf . Sea temperature data available prior to the storm indicated what is 

probably a typical late summer situation with some surface temperatures 

running above 30°C . Beginning on October 5, a seven-day cruise was 

conducted over the area where hurricane winds, had been observed . Using 

the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries vessel GUS III, four crossings of the 

hurricane path were made, one where the maximum 150 mph winds were 

observed, one south of that where the winds had first reached 120, one 

north where they had decreased to 120 and one in shallow water (40 

fathoms), where prior data had been collected by the U. S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service from their Galveston Biological Laboratory . 

Bathythermograms were taken regularly to depths of 270 meters and 

26 
hydrographic casts to 125 meters . All four sections of observations 

indicated similar patterns of upwelling . During the passage of the 

hurricane it appears that sea surface temperatures over an area of some 

70 by 220 miles decreased by more than 5°C, and that a cyclonic ocean 

current system was established around this area . The data collected on 

the GUS cruise appear to be the first systematic oceanographic 

observations available in such a situation . 

Leipper, D .P . and D . Volgenau . 1972 . Hurricane heat potential of the Gulf of 

Mexico . J . Phys . Ocean . 2(3) :218-224 . 

Abstract . Presents data suggesting significant influence of the amount of heat 

initially available in Gulf waters on the ability to sustain a hurricane . 

Le Ngoc Ly and L .H . Kantha . 1993 . A numerical study of the nonlinear 

interaction of Hurricane Camille with the Gulf of Mexico Loop Current . 

Oceanol . Acta . 16(4) :341-348 . 

Abstract . A three-dimensional, primitive equation, ocean general circulation 

model is used to study the response of the Gulf of Mexico to Hurricane 

Camille (1969) . The free-surface dynamics and the mixed-layer features 

are included in the model . The numerical model incorporates the realistic 

coastline and bottom topography . The sigma coordinate model has eighteen 

levels in the vertical and 0 .2x0 .2 degree horizontal resolution for the 

entire Gulf . The study focuses on nonlinear interaction between hurricane 

induced currents and the Loop Current . The numerical simulations show 

that there is a strong nonlinear interaction between the hurricane and 

the Loop Current in the southern and central parts of the eastern Gulf . 

The surface currents due to nonlinear interaction obtain a maximum of 

over 1 m/s in the southern Gulf . The numerical results also show that the 

hurricane interaction with the Loop Current strongly affects current, 

mixed-layer depth, and elevation fields . 

Lewis, J .M . 1993 . Challenges and advantages of collecting upper-air data over 

the Gulf of Mexico . Marine Technology Society Journal . 27 :56-65 . 

Lewis, J .M ., C .M . Hayden, R .T . Merrill and J .M . Schneider . 1989 . GUFMEX : a 

study of return flow in the Gulf of Mexico . Bulletin of the American 

Meteorological Society . 70 :24-29 . 

Ling, T .F .T ., G .C . April, D .C . Raney and J .N . Youngblood . 1981 . Hydrodynamic 

and salinity models for Mobile Bay and east Mississippi Sound . MASGP-81-

020, University of Alabama Bureau of Engineering Research Report No . 283-

112 . U .S . Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District . Ocean Springs, MS . 

149 pp . 

Abstract . This research undertakes the task of determining numerical solutions 

to the equations of hydrodynamic change as applied to Mobile Bay and East 

Mississippi Sound. In doing so, results from the calibrated and verified 

models can be used to better explain and understand the complex behavior 

of these water bodies and the interactive forces that occur between them 

at Cedar Point . The hydrodynamic model is exercised over four tidal 

cycles, beginning with the estimates from a previous run, until no 

significant change in the magnitude of the parameter is observed . In 

addition, an isolated subsystem model of the Cedar Point area was 

developed for the purpose of obtaining salt concentration profiles in 

27 
this pass exchange area . The subsystem model for salinity is a valuable 

tool in determining the influence that Mobile Bay has on East Mississippi 

Sound under varying meteorologic and hydrodynamic conditions . 

Liu, Q ., J .M . Lewis and J .M . Schneider . 1992 . A study of cold-air modification 

over the Gulf of Mexico using in situ data and mixed-layer modeling . J . 

Appl . Meteorol . 31 :909-924 . 

Ly, L .N . 1992 . Gulf of Mexico response to Hurricane Frederic simulated with the 

Princeton numerical ocean circulation model . Technical Report . Institute 

for Naval Oceanography . Stennis Space Center, MS . 44 pp . 

Abstract . This report is a three-dimensional, nonlinear, primitive equation, 

ocean general circulation model developed at Princeton University and is 

used to study the response of the Gulf of Mexico to Hurricane Frederic . 

The model has surface dynamics and a second order turbulence closure 

scheme for the mixed layer . The study focuses on nonlinear interaction 

between Hurricane Frederic and the Loop Current, the hurricane induced 

current, shelf wave, and sea level response to hurricane forcing. 

Ly, L .N . and L .H . Kantha . 1993 . A numerical study of the nonlinear interaction 

of Hurricane Camille with the Gulf of Mexico Loop Current . Oceanol . Acta . 

16(4) :341-348 . 

Abstract . A three-dimensional, primitive equation, ocean general circulation 

model is used to study the response of the Gulf of Mexico to Hurricane 

Camille (1969) . The free-surface dynamics and the mixed-layer features 

are included in the model . The numerical model incorporates the realistic 

coastline and bottom topography . The sigma coordinate model has eighteen 

levels in the vertical and 0 .2 x 0 .2 degree horizontal resolution for the 

entire Gulf . The study focuses on nonlinear interaction between hurricane 

induced currents and the Loop Current . The numerical simulations show 

that there is a strong nonlinear interaction between the hurricane and 

the Loop Current in the southern and central parts of the eastern Gulf . 

The surface currents due to nonlinear interaction obtain a maximum of 

over 1 m/s in the southern Gulf . The numerical results also show that the 

hurricane interaction with the Loop Current strongly affects current, 

mixed-layer depth, and elevation fields . There is a strong current 

response to Hurricane Camille in the surface layer on the shelf with a 

peak velocity approximately 2 .2 m/s . There is a definite right hand bias 

in the mixed-layer depth field with a maximum of about 90 m . 

Mailhot, J . 1992 . Numerical simulation of airmass transformation over the Gulf 

of Mexico . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31(8) :946-963 . 

Abstract . A mesoscale numerical simulation (35 km) of a return-flow event over 

the Gulf of Mexico that occurred during the Gulf of Mexico Experiment 

(GUFMEX) is presented in order to examine the structure and the 

transformation of the polar air mass and to assess the model's skill in 

simulating the event . The study deals with the phase of cold-air outbreak 

over the Gulf of Mexico and the subsequent rapid modification of the cold 

air mass by the underlying warm ocean, prior to the onset of return flow . 

The investigation focuses on the physical processes operating during the 

airmass transformation, notably the air-sea fluxes and the vertical 

destabilization of the airmass . The results are compared with various 

data gathered during GUFMEX and suggest that a realistic simulation of 

airmass transformation can be obtained . The results indicate a strong 

28 
interplay between 1) large-scale subsidence above the planetary boundary 

layer behind the front and 2) destabilization near the sea surface and in 

the boundary layer. In particular, advective processes play a central 

role in the airmass modification above the boundary layer and in the 

maintenance of a strong capping inversion . However, very large surface 

energy fluxes and vigorous turbulent vertical mixing appear as dominant 

mechanisms within the boundary layer itself . A sensitive experiment where 

surface energy fluxes are turned off supports these conclusions and 

clearly demonstrates their impact on the advance of the cold air mass 

over the Gulf and on the changes in moisture and stability of the return 

flow . 

Manty, R .E . 1993 . Effect of the E1 Nino/southern oscillation on Gulf of Mexico, 

winter, frontal-wave cyclones : 1960-1989 . (Volumes I and II) . Ph .D . 

Dissertation . The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and 

Mechanical Col . 806 pp . 

Abstract . Seasonal counts of frontal-wave cyclones forming over the Gulf of 

Mexico and its coastal plain show more storms in the five E1 Nino winters 

and fewer storms in the eight La Nina winters, from 1960 to 1989, 

significant at the .O1 level by a rank sum test . This is corroborated by 

two results . First, during the same period, the frequency of frontaloverrunning weather conditions in the region, indicative of storms, was 

higher in E1 Nino winters and lower in La Nina winters, significant at 

the .05 level . Second, 140 years of precipitation and temperature records 

show wetter, cooler E1 Nino winters and drier, warmer La Nina winters at 

Gulf-region land stations and climatic divisions . A threefold 

explanation, based on National Meteorological Center, upper-air data, is 

offered for the greater frequency of Gulf-region cyclogenesis during E1 

Nino winters between 1960 and 1989 . 

Maresca, J .W ., Jr . and C .T . Carlson . 1977 . Tracking and monitoring hurricanes 

by HF skywave radar over the Gulf of Mexico . SRI-5630-1 ; AFOSR-TR-78-

0762 . SRI International . Menlo Park, CA . 123 pp . 

Abstract . This report describes the results of a study to evaluate the 

effectiveness of a high-frequency skywave radar used to determine the 

track, movement, size, and intensity of hurricanes from ocean gravity 

waves . Experimental data were collected using the Wide Aperture Research 

Facility (WARF), a high-resolution skywave radar capable of forming a 

1/2° beam at 15 MHz, located in central California . The data were 

collected for hurricanes Anita, Babe, Caroline, and Eloise in the Gulf of 

Mexico, and Hurricane Kate in the Pacific Ocean . One or more position 

estimates were made from radar-derived surface wind direction maps 

covering a 2° of latitude radius for each hurricane, and agreement to 

within 10 to 40 km of the National Hurricane Center Best Tracks was 

found. Both day and night measurements were made, as well as one- and 

two-ionospheric-hop measurements extending out to ranges of 2800 to 4000 

km. The first WARF-measured track was generated for hurricane Anita from 

20 independent position estimates over a 5-day period . WARF measurements 

of the ocean wave spectrum and surface currents were made during 

hurricanes Anita and Babe . A parametric wave model developed elsewhere 

was used to compute wind speeds . Preliminary WARF wind-speed measurements 

show agreement to within 1 to 2 m/s when compared with winds measured by 

aircraft and at several offshore oil platforms . 

29 
Maresca, J .W ., Jr . and C .T . Carlson . 1978 . Tracking and monitoring hurricanes 

by HF skywave radar over the Gulf of Mexico . AFOSR-TR-79-0042 . Air Force 

Office of Scientific Research . Bolling AFB, D .C . 111 pp . 

Abstract . This report describes the results of a study to evaluate the 

effectiveness of a high-frequency (HF) skywave radar used to determine 

(1) the track of a hurricane, and (2) hurricane wind velocity and wave 

height throughout all regions of a storm . Experimental data were 

collected using the SRI-operated Wide Aperture Research Facility (WARF) 

located in central California . The WARF radar is a high-resolution 

skywave radar capable of forming a 0 .5° beam at 15 MHz . HF skywave radar 

sea-echo Doppler spectra were recorded for six hurricanes/tropical storms 

in the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean between 1975 and 1978 . Both day 

and night measurements were made, as well as one- and two-ionospheric-hop 

measurements ranging out from 2800 to 4000 km . Surface wind direction 

maps were computed for all 6 tropical storms . In situ measurements were 

available for two storms for comparison to the WARF radar wind maps . The 

radar-derived wind directions coincident in time and space with National 

Data Buoy Office moored buoys showed agreement to within 10° . The center 

of the hurricane was estimated from each WARF wind map and was compared 

to the official track compiled by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) . 

The mean difference between the WARF radar positions and the interpolated 

positions along the NHC track was 19 km for Hurricane Anita 1977 . 

Marmorino, G .O . 1982 . Wind-forced sea level variability along the west Florida 

shelf (Winter, 1978) . J . Phys . Ocean . 12(5) :389-405 . 

Abstract . Coastal tide gauge and meteorological records from Pensacola to Key 

west for the period January-April 1978 have been examined for lowfrequency fluctuations . The dominant 6-day period signals in sea level, 

alongshore wind stress, and atmospheric pressure were coherent over the 

entire shelf and propagated southward, consistent with the movement of 

cold fronts through the area . Sea level response lagged the local wind 

stress by 18 h (in the north) to 9 h (in the south) . In response to a 

1 dyn/cm z alongshore stress, sea level amplitudes were largest (similar 

to 60 cm) where the shelf is widest (200 km) and undergoes an abrupt 

bend, and were similar to 30 cm elsewhere ; large transient alongshore sea 

level slopes, on the order of 10-6, were thus set up . A linear steadystate shelf circulation model (Hsueh, 1980) is used to explore the sea 

level distribution that is in frictional equilibrium with a wind stress 

of given orientation . 

McClelland, S .I . 1975 . Wind-driven vorticity transport model of the circulation 

in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea : preliminary results . EOS . 

56(6) :378 . 

McDonald, G . UNKNOWN YEAR . Water heights associated with various hurricanes . 

U .S . Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District . Mobile, AL . 

Abstract . Several larger hurricanes occurring in the Gulf of Mexico were 

investigated and reported on . Water heights associated with each 

hurricane were included in these reports as well as patterns of movements 

and dates of occurrence from 1911 to the present time . 

McGlothin, C.C . 1991 . Ambient sound in the ocean induced by heavy precipitation 

and the subsequent predictability of rainfall rate . Master's Thesis . 

Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA. 78 pp . 

30 
Abstract . An experiment was performed in the Gulf Mexico to characterize the 

underwater sound generated by the heavy precipitation and to determine if 

rainfall rate can be measured using underwater sound . During this stage 

of the experiment, twenty-two data sets were recorded with rainfall rates 

up to 340 mm/hr. For a given rainfall rate, it is found that sound levels 

from heavy connective precipitation are higher at the beginning of the 

storm and when rainfall rate is increasing than at the end of the storm 

event or when rainfall rates are decreasing . This may be due to changes 

in the drop size distribution during the life cycle of the storm or to 

variations in the temperature difference between the raindrop and the 

ocean surfaces . Very heavy rainfall generates near surface bubble layers 

or bubble clouds which attenuate sound energy at higher frequencies . The 

distinctive 15 kHz peak in the sound spectrum for light rain or absent 

during heavy rain suggesting that the sound production mechanism 

previously identified for small drops is suppressed by heavy rain even 

though those small drops are undoubtedly present during heavy rainfall 

rates . These data show a very high correlation between underwater sound 

level and the logarithm of the rainfall rate except when high wind speeds 

and high rainfall rates are present . An empirical rainfall rate algorithm 

for connective precipitation is proposed suggesting that sound energy is 

directly proportional to rainfall rate . 

Merrill, R .T . 1992 . Synoptic analysis of the GL7FMEX return-flow event of 10-12 

March 1988 . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :849-867 . 

Michelena, E . 1990 . Joint oil industry Meteorological/Oceanographic Measurement 

System (MOMS) . NOAH National Data Buoy Center, Stennis Space Center, MS, 

Technical Bulletin . 16(1) :1 . 

Abstract . This article discusses a new joint industry project between the NDBC 

(National Data Buoy Center) and Chevron USA called MOMS 

(Meteorological/Oceanographic Measurement System) . It is a 3-yr . Gulf of 

Mexico measurement program that will provide improved environmental 

information for hurricane evacuation, daily industry operations planning, 

and design criteria for future deep-water oil platforms . A description is 

given of the buoy type used, its role in improving modeling capabilities, 

the functions of the six observation stations, and the measurement 

instruments installed at the stations . All resulting MOMS data, except 

for current data and time series data, are acquired and reported hourly 

via the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system 

and disseminated on NWS communication circuits . 

Milliman, J .D . and E . Imamura . eds . 1992 . Physical oceanography of the U .S . 

Atlantic and eastern Gulf of Mexico . Final Report . OCS/NIIMS/92-0003 

Contract : DI-1412-00013-0350 . Battelle Ocean Sciences . Herndon, VA . 

519 pp . 

Abstract . The report provides a summary of the physical oceanography of the 

U.S . Atlantic and Eastern Gulf of Mexico and its implication to offshore 

oil and gas exploration and development . Topics covered in the report 

include : meteorology and air-sea interactions, circulation on the 

continental shelf, continental slope and rise circulation, Gulf Stream, 

Loop Current, deep-western boundary current, surface gravity-wave 

climatology, offshore engineering implications, implications for resource 

commercialization, and numerical models of pollutant dispersion . 

31 
Mitchum, G.T . 1984 . Continental shelf water response to large-scale, lowfrequency wind forcing with emphasis on the frictional nearshore region . 

Ph .D . Thesis . The Florida State University . Tallahassee, FL . 90 pp . 

Abstract . Three related problems concerning the response of the continental 

shelf waters to large-scale, low-frequency (synoptic scale) wind forcing 

are addressed. Briefly the results are as follows . (i) An understanding 

is gained to the dynamics of the poorly studied frictional region which 

lies inshore of the region which has been shown (e .g ., Gill and Schumann, 

1974 and Clarke and Van Gorder, 1984) to be well described by long wave 

dynamics . Simple accurate solutions for the pressure and alongshore 

velocity fields are developed and their domains of applicability are 

given. (ii) Through use of the knowledge gained in (i), a link is 

established from the frictional nearshore regions to the wave dynamics 

region by providing a proper boundary condition for models which strictly 

consider the latter . Also, a formula is given to predict coastal pressure 

(generally the best data set) given the boundary pressure prediction from 

a wave dynamics model . (iii) The above results, together with the model 

of Clarke and Van Gorder (1984), are applied to a data set on the west 

Florida shelf . It is shown that the response there is accurately modeled. 

Further, the simplicity of the model allows the west Florida shelf 

response to be understood as a sum of a forced wave moving with the wind 

field, a free wave generated at the Florida Keys and a smaller, but 

significant, free wave flux from the east coast of Florida. 

Mitchum, G .T . and A .J . Clarke . 1986 . Evaluation of frictional, wind-forced 

long-wave theory on the west Florida shelf . J . Phys . Ocean . 16(6) : 

1029-1037 . 

Abstract . Clarke and Van Gorder have recently formulated a model describing the 

large-scale, low-frequency response of continental shelf waters to 

synoptic-scale wind stress in terms of a sum of forced waves . The model 

includes realistic friction and time dependence and provides an efficient 

method for calculating the response . Evaluation of the model using west 

Florida shelf data gave the following results . (i) The model successfully 

predicts both the coastal sea level and alongshore velocity component . 

(ii) The west Florida shelf coastal pressure field is dominated by the 

first mode and can be understood as the sum of a forced wave which 

travels with the southward-propagating wind stress and a free wave 

generated at the Florida Keys . (iii) Almost all the wind-induced energy 

on the west Florida shelf is due to the wind forcing acting on west 

Florida shelf waters . However, a small but significant energy flux 

appears to enter the west Florida shelf from the eastern Florida shelf 

wave guide. 

Mitchum, G .T . and W . Sturges . 1982 . Wind-driven currents on the west Florida 

shelf . J . Phys . Ocean . 12(11) :1310-1317 . 

Abstract . Three weeks of current-meter, wind and sea-level data off Cedar Key, 

Florida are analyzed . Currents and sea level are found to be coherent 

with alongshore wind stress in the "synoptic" band (similar to 0 .05-0 .25 

cycle per day) and to lag it by approximately half a day. Little 

coherence is found with cross-shelf wind stress . At the inshore mooring 

(22 m depth) currents are nearly barotropic for these winter 1978 data . 

The dominant momentum balance in the alongshore direction is between wind 

and bottom stress . The offshore frictional length scale (Csanady, 1978) 

is estimated to be 75-100 km, which implies a seaward extent to a depth 

32 
of about 30 m. At the offshore mooring (44 m depth) there is vertical 

shear between the currents at 9 and 39 m. The upper cross-shelf 

component, which is large relative to that at the inshore mooring, is 

consistent with Ekman transport while the lower record shows a return 

flow . The u, v velocity components correlate significantly at the 

offshore mooring and lead to an upper layer uv gradient on the order of 

10-SCmZ/s2 between the arrays (75 km separation) . 

Molinari, R .L . 1987 . Air mass modification over the eastern Gulf of Mexico as a 

function of surface wind fields and Loop Current position . Mon . Weather 

Rev . 115(3) :646-652 . 

Molinari, R.L . and G .A . Franceschini . 1972 . Bathythermograph sections across 

the path of Hurricane Celia . pp . 259-264 . 113 Capurro, L .R .A . and J .L . 

Reid, eds . Contributions on the Physical Oceanography of the Gulf of 

Mexico . Gulf Publishing Co ., Houston, TX . 

Abstract . Three vertical sections taken across the track of Hurricane Celia 

using XBTs indicate that the storm may have caused upwelling of colder 

sub-surface waters, whose effect may be dependent on the length of time 

strong winds were present . 

Molinari, R .L . and D .A . Mayer . 1982 . Current meter observations on the 

continental slope at two sites in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . J . Phys . 

Ocean . 12 :1480-1484 . 

Abstract . Current-meter observations obtained at two sites on the continental 

slope of the eastern Gulf of Mexico, at nominal positions of 29°N, 88°W 

(the Mobile site) and 27 .5°W (the Tampa site) are presented . Data were 

collected at three levels at Mobile (90, 190, and 980 m) from July 1977 

through August 1978 and at four levels at Tampa (150, 250, 550 and 950 m) 

from June 1978 through June 1979 . At 90 and 190 m, the flow at Mobile was 

on the average to the east . Sustained periods of flow to the west were 

observed during the summer 1977 and spring 1978 . During the periods of 

eastward flow the wind was generally out of the north and during the 

periods of westward flow, the wind was out of the east . The flow at the 

top meter at Tampa was on the average to the west, in the same direction 

as the average wind . At both sites, the motions are perturbed by events 

associated with the Loop Current . These events make it difficult to 

define any seasonal variability in the upper layers . The flow at the 

bottom meters is strongly aligned with the bottom topography and lacks a 

strong seasonal signal . Little barotropic tidal energy was observed at 

either site . At both sites, maximum diurnal energy occurred near the 

local inerital frequency at the upper levels . These motions are probably 

induced by either cold-front passages or other atmospheric events . At the 

bottom meters, maximum diurnal-band energy occurred near the K1-tidal 

constituent . These motions are strongly time-dependent and they may be 

related to internal tides . 

Mooers, C .N .K ., J . Fernandez-Partegas and J .F . Price . 1975 . An evaluation of 

meteorological data from several buoys of the NOAA Data Buoy Office 

(Eastern Gulf of Mexico, 1973-1974) . Technical Report UM-RSMAS# 75030 . 

University of Miami . Miami, FL . 89 pp . 

33 
Morgan, C .W . 1977 . Average monthly wind stress along coastal regions of the 

United States and Western Canada . Ocean . Unit Tech . Paper 77-1 . 

Abstract . Average monthly values for wind stress are provided for Gulf of 

Mexico and Atlantic regions . These wind stress values can be used as 

boundary conditions for numerical circulation models but only on coarsegrids . 

Murray, S .P . 1975 . Wind and current effects on large scale oil slicks . pp . 523-

533 . ja 7th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, May 5-8, 1975 . 

Abstract . The relative effect of local winds and near-surface currents in 

determining the movement of oil slicks in coastal and shelf waters was 

determined from 39 surveys by Raydist-equipped helicopters during the 

Main Pass 41C spilloff the Mississippi Delta in March 1970 . Orientation 

of oil slicks is closely controlled by local wind direction; slicks 

usually form 10°-40° to the right of the wind . Wind shifts associated with 

various sectors of migrating high-pressure cells quickly realign new 

slicks and actively dissipate old ones . Density fronts, both ambient and 

quasi-stationary, also play important roles in determining slick movement 

and size . An easily utilized regression model for slick area and 

orientation as a function of wind velocity and local conditions is also 

presented. 

National Climatic Data Center . 1972 . Environmental guide for the U .S . Gulf 

Coast . National Climatic Data Center . Asheville, NC . 177 pp . 

National Climatic Data Center . 1983 . Climatic summaries for NOAH data buoys . 

National Weather Service, NOAA Data Buoy Center . NSTL Station, MS . 214 

PPNational Climatic Data Center . 1984 . Local climatological data, annual summary 

with comparative data - 1983, Mobile, AL . National Climatic Data Center . 

Asheville, NC . 4 pp . 

Abstract . This is an annual NOAH publication which includes a local narrative 

climatological summary, the meteorological data for the current year and 

normals, means and extremes . In addition to this data, monthly average 

temperatures, and precipitation are presented . 

Neumann, C .J . 1975 . A Statistical Study of Tropical Cyclone Positioning Errors 

with Economic Applications . NOAA-TM-NWS-SR-82 ; NOAA-75090301 . National 

Hurricane Center . Coral Gables, FL . 26 pp . 

Abstract . Hurricane landfall forecasts are based heavily on the latest 

available motion vector and position of a storm . Inaccuracies in these 

data are closely related to errors in the time and place of storm 

landfall . The study uses a Monte Carlo simulation of hurricane 

positioning errors to determine a statistical relationship between 

positioning errors and landfall errors . It is shown that for a typical 

18-hour landfall forecast, approximately 22% of the landfall position 

error can be attributed to initial data uncertainties . It is further 

shown that a 20% increase in the size of a hurricane warning zone can be 

expected if the currently observed positioning errors are increased an 

average of 10 nmi . However, a 10 nmi decrease in positioning error yields 

only an 11t decrease in the size of the warning area . An economic 

34 
analysis of potential changes in the size of hurricane warning areas is 

also shown. It is estimated that protection costs for a typical 300 nmi 

Gulf of Mexico coastal hurricane warning zone total $25 .1 million. 

Neumann, C .J . 1981 . Some characteristics of Atlantic tropical cyclone forecast 

errors . Mar . Weather Log . 25(4) :231-236 . 

Abstract . This paper is part of a study by Charles J . Norman and J . M . 

Pelissier (Monthly Weather Review, 1981) which involved the examination 

of approx . 1000 forecasts of tropical cyclone motion issued by the 

National Hurricane Center over the 10-yr period 1970-1979 . The 12- and 

24-hr forecast portions of the study which are of interest to mariners 

are examined . The forecast errors, the factors influencing forecast 

errors, interannual variation in forecast errors, and regional 

differences in forecast errors are discussed . It is shown that forecast 

errors for tropical cyclones are, on the average, directly proportional 

to the initial latitude of a storm ; i .e ., low-latitude storms generally 

have a low forecast error, and high-latitude storms have a high forecast 

error . An exception exists in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, where forecast 

errors are less than might be expected . This condition reflects 

persistence of storm motion in this portion of the Gulf, as well as a 

large amount of observational data . 

Norwine, J .R . 1971 . Cities, air pollution, and regional climate : A quantitative 

analysis of the relationships between climatological parameters and urban 

influences, primarily atmospheric pollution, in the six-state region of 

the United States Gulf of Mexico coastline . Ph .D . Dissertation . Indiana 

State University . 342 pp . 

Nowlin, W .D ., Jr . and C .A . Parker . 1974 . Effects of a cold-air outbreak on 

shelf waters of the Gulf of Mexico . J . Phys . Ocean . 4(3) :467-486 . 

Abstract . Two surveys of the waters over an area of the continental shelf in 

the northwestern Gulf of Mexico were made during January 1966 . The first 

observation period was just before a major outbreak of cold, dry air; the 

second was about 15 days later with the region still under the influence 

of this outbreak . Waters were well mixed to 100 m, or the bottom in 

shallower depths . During the 15-day period temperature decreased nearly 

5°C and salinity increased near the shore . Some 150 mi offshore, 

temperature decreased only 1-2°C and salinity showed no significant 

change . 

Nummedal, D ., S . Penland, R . Gerdes, W . Schramm, J . Kahn and H . Roberts . 1980 . 

Geologic response to hurricane impact on low profile Gulf Coast barriers . 

Trans ., Gulf Coast Assoc . Geol . Soc . 30 :183-195 . 

Abstract . Hurricane Frederic made landfall near Pasagoula, Mississippi at 

midnight September 13, 1979 . At the time of landfall the central pressure 

had dropped to 946 mb, onshore winds in excess of 200 km/hr were lashing 

the Alabama coastline and the open coast storm tide peaked at 365 cm at 

Gulf Shores, Alabama. Vertical aerial photography obtained in 1976 and 

again 9 days after Frederic made landfall, combined with multiple 

reconnaissance overflights and ground surveys by the authors provided the 

data base for determination of shoreline erosion and the distribution of 

hurricane scour and sedimentary deposits . Erosion of the Gulf beach at 

Dauphin Island proved to follow a predictable pattern controlled by 

nearshore bathymetry whereas retreat of the shoreline of the Mississippi 

35 
Sound margin was an unexpected occurrence, apparently due to a hydraulic 

jump as washover currents entered the deep water of Mississippi Sound . 

Large scale sediment redistribution on Dauphin Island proper was a 

consequence of the storm surge flood . However, the ebb surge was 

responsible for the reopening of three inlets across Little Dauphin 

Island . Hurricane Frederic also had a major impact on the Chandeleur 

Islands, Louisiana . Even though the maximum surge height on the left side 

of the hurricane track was only 1 .3 m, pre-existing hurricane channels 

and washovers acted as conduits for the flood and ebb surge. 

O'Neil, P .E ., M .E . Mettee, E .J . McCallough, L .A . Acker and D .W . Wilson . 1982 . 

Alabama coastal region ecological characterization . Volume 1 . Coastal 

bibliography . FWS/OBS-82/21 . U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of 

Biological Services . Washington, D .C . 404 pp . 

Abstract . The primary goal of the Coastal Bibliography is to provide a 

comprehensive data base to potential users of Alabama's coastal areas and 

resources . The bibliography is comprised of published and unpublished 

studies that describe the socioeconomic structure and environmental 

setting of coastal Alabama . Entries include papers from professional 

journals, unpublished theses and dissertations, unpublished open-file 

reports, proceedings of symposia on coastal resources, existing 

bibliographies, and federally funded studies . References to on-going 

studies are also included . Bibliographic data were organized into a 

standardized format and indexed by keywords . These data were placed on 

computer tape and are managed using a computer-base information storage 

and retrieval system known as FANNLUS . Bibliographic entries may be 

retrieved by author and keywords . 

O'Neil, P .E . and M .F . Mettee . 1982 . Alabama coastal region ecological 

characterization . Volume 2 . A synthesis of environmental data . FWS/OBS82/42 . U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services . 

Washington, D .C . 346 pp . 

Abstract . The Environmental Synthesis report consists of two parts . The first 

contains a detailed description of the natural environment of coastal 

Alabama relative to its biological, geological, and hydrological 

resources and processes. The second part presents a conceptual model of 

energy flow through major coastal ecosystems (freshwater, coastal 

terrestrial, estuarine and outer continental shelf) and interrelates them 

to modified and manipulated systems (urban, industrial, and agricultural) 

in Mobile and Baldwin Counties . Also included are detailed discussions 

and models of the estuarine ecosystem and one of its components, the 

marsh, as it relates to coastal Alabama. 

Ostapoff, F . 1971 . Ocean-atmosphere interaction in the Caribbean Sea : viewed 

from the oceanographic side . pp . 137-145 . Xn Symposium on investigations 

and Resources of the Caribbean Sea and Adjacent Regions, Willemstad, 

Curacao, Netherlands Antilles, Nov . 18-26, 1968, Papers on physical and 

chemical oceanography, marine geology and geophysics, and marine biology . 

UNESCO, Paris . 

Abstract . A brief review is given of the large-scale circulation and 

distribution of water masses once formed under specific climatological 

conditions at the sea surface, in far removed and widely departed areas, 

and advected into the Caribbean Sea. The heat and water budget in the 

area on a seasonal basis is described, and its impact on the oceanic 

36 
conditions, in particular, on the sea-surface temperature and salinity 

distribution . A numerical model on time scales of a few days, combining 

the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers, is described with emphasis 

on the ocean layer . Examples are given with climatological atmospheric 

and oceanic data input from the area east of Barbados at about 13°N and 

560W . The model includes the simulation of eddy fluxes in stratified 

flow, mixing due to wind-generated waves on the sea-surface, and clouddependent radiative heating . Results will be discussed in terms of 

diurnal current variations, temperature variations, and salinity 

variations . An important aspect of ocean-atmospheric interaction in the 

area is the effect on the ocean of extreme atmospheric forces of short 

duration, such as a hurricane moving through the Caribbean . An example is 

presented of the sea-surface temperature distribution as measured in the 

Gulf of Mexico with IR - instrumented aircraft, after a hurricane. Cold 

water upwelling in the wake of the storm leaves a temperature signature 

at the sea-surface . The temperature depression may amount to 5°C. With 

the help of available technology and the use of aircraft, important 

problems of time response of the ocean to atmospheric forces may be 

studied under partially controlled conditions . The Caribbean may be an 

ideal place where such a complex process may be carried out . 

Overland, J .E . 1975 . Estimation of hurricane storm surge in Apalachicola Bay, 

Florida . United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Weather Service, Technical Report . NOAA TR NWS-17 :66 . 

Abstract . A vertically integrated two-dimensional numerical hydrodynamic model 

is developed for simulation of hurricane surge in Apalachicola Bay. 

Standard explicit time differencing is used in conjunction with a single 

Richardson lattice . Model features include finite amplitude effects, 

space variable wind velocities, parameterization of flooding of terrain, 

overtopping of barrier islands, and flow through narrow passes . The model 

uses the results of C . P . Jelesnianski's SPLASH model computation for 

open coast surge as input seaward of the Bay and continues the same storm 

track and wind field as used in the SPLASH computation across the Bay. 

The Bay model was calibrated for the astronomical tides and verified 

against hurricane Agnes . The response of Apalachicola Bay has been 

determined from numerical computations for a variety of hypothetical 

hurricanes as specified by various storm parameters . Surge heights in the 

Bay increase with hurricane central pressure depression in a nearly 

linear fashion as does the open coast surge . An important parameter is 

the duration that the open coast surge remains high, a function of the 

forward speed of the storm and, to a lesser extent, the radius of maximum 

winds . Surge heights in the Bay increased relative to open coast surge 

values for slow moving storms . For bays of the extent of Apalachicola 

Bay, basin orientation relative to wind direction, headlands, and marsh 

areas can produce significant local variations in surge heights. 

Parungo, F . and J . Miller . 1988 . Air chemistry studies over the Gulf of Mexico : 

A bilateral scientific cooperative project between the United States of 

America and Mexico ; Technical Memo . NOAA-TM-ERL-ESG-29 . National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration . Boulder . 254 pp . 

Abstract . The report documents the scientific research of a bilateral 

cooperative project between the United States of America and The United 

States of America . In 1986 scientists from both nations joined a research 

cruise in the Gulf of Mexico to investigate the air chemistry over the 

37 
water that the two nations share . Emphases were placed on natural air 

quality, anthropogenic air pollution, acid rain, air-sea-land exchanges 

of gases and aerosols . The investigation included in-situ measurements 

and post-cruise laboratory analyses . Chemical, physical, meteorological, 

and oceanographic analyses were conducted to survey temporal and spatial 

variations of diverse parameters throughout the Gulf . The data sets were 

analyzed, interpreted, and intercorrelated . The results show that during 

the cruise (20 July-22 August), the large-scale air trajectories were 

easterly from the Caribbean Sea at all levels ; however, the Gulf air 

measured was highly polluted in general . 

Parungo, F ., C . Nagamoto, S . Hoyt and A .H . Bravo . 1990 . The investigation of 

air quality and acid rain over the Gulf of Mexico . Atmospheric 

Environment, Part A [General Topics] . NOAH/ERL . 24A(1) :109-123 . 

Abstract . A research cruise was conducted in the summer of 1986 by a group of 

scientists from the USA and Mexico to investigate air chemistry over the 

Gulf of Mexico . Chemical, physical, meteorological and oceanographic 

measurements were carried out to survey temporal and spatial variations 

of diverse parameters throughout the Gulf . Emphases were placed on airsea-land exchange of gases and aerosols, natural air quality, transport 

of anthropogenic air pollution and acid rain deposition to the Gulf . 

Although the prevailing winds were easterly from the sea during the 

cruise, the air was highly polluted with continental aerosols, probably 

caused by local shifting winds and the oscillation between sea breeze and 

land breeze . The life cycles of the aerosols in the Gulf, including 

sources, transport, transformation and wet and dry deposition are 

discussed. 

Paskausky, D .F . 1971 . Numerically predicted changes in the circulation of the 

Gulf of Mexico accompanying a simulated hurricane passage . J . Mar . Res . 

29(3) :214-225 . 

Pearl, E .W . 1976 . Description of mesoscale systems . pp . 33-42 . Za Role of the 

Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : A Conference on 

Meteorology over and near the Gulf . TAMU, College Station, TX . 

Penland, S . and J .R . Suter . 1984 . Process response models for Gulf Coast 

barrier island breaching . Trans ., Gulf Coast Assoc . Geol . Soc . 36 :397-

400 . Thirty-fourth annual meeting of the Gulf Coast Association of 

Geological Societies, Oct . 24-26, 1984 . 

Abstract . The analysis of 17 tropical cyclone impacts along the U.S . Gulf Coast 

leads to the following conclusions regarding barrier island breaching: 

1) tropical cyclones are the mechanisms of barrier island breaching, 

2) landward and seaward overwash flow can breach barrier islands, 

3) storm track orientation controls the direction of barrier island 

breaching, 4) shore-normal and right-oblique hurricane impacts breach 

barrier islands by landward overwash flow, and 5) left-oblique hurricane 

impacts breach barrier island by seaward overwash flow . 

Philander, S .G .H . 1992 . Ocean-atmosphere interactions in the tropics : a review 

of recent theories and models . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :938-945 . 

38 
Pielke, R .A . 1976 . Models of environmental sciences . pp . 55-67 . In Role of the 

Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : A Conference on 

Meteorology over and near the Gulf . TAMU, College Station, TX . 

Pielke, R .A . 1990 . The Hurricane . Routledge . London, England. 227 pp . 

Abstract . This book describes tropical cyclones in a non-mathematical framework 

and includes over . 200 charts and photographs . The book begins with a 

description of the geographical and seasonal distribution of tropical 

cyclones . It looks at the mechanisms of formation and development and 

outlines the controls on tropical cyclone movement . The impact of these 

storms is then described, both on land and over the ocean. Finally, the 

book examines tropical cyclone forecasting techniques and the attempts 

made at modification . The appendices include a climatology of tropical 

cyclone tracks in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico from 1871 to 

1989, and a tracking map that the reader can use for future cyclones . 

Ponte, R .M . 1993 . Variability in a homogeneous global ocean forced by 

barometric pressure . Dynamics of Atmospheres and oceans . 18(3-4) :209-234 . 

Abstract . The oceanic response to pressure loading is explored using a 

constant-density, shallow-water numerical model driven by atmospheric 

pressure fields . Meridional gradients in mean sea-level are generally 

large (10-20 cm over 20-30 degrees), particularly in high southern 

latitude . Sea-level variability is strong in mid- and high latitudes 

(typical standard deviations of 10-15 cm), but weakens towards the 

equator. The results indicate a significant contribution of pressuredrive fluctuations to the observed large-scale sea-level variability in 

mid-and high latitudes away from western boundary regions . Pressureinduced velocity signals are generally small . The validity of the 

inverted barometer approximation is strongly dependent on frequency and 

geographical location . Globally, the approximation is not reliable for 

periods shorter than approximately 2 days ; but failure at longer periods 

occurs over extensive regions (e .g . the tropical Atlantic and Pacific, 

and the Southern Ocean) . Non-isostatic contributions to the sea-level 

variability are substantial in many areas, including the tropics, the 

high-latitude North Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, and several other 

boundary regions . 

Quayle, R .G . and D .C . Fulbright . 1977 . Wind and wave statistics for north 

American, Atlantic, and Gulf coasts . Mar . Weather Log . 21(1) :13-14 . 

Rabin, R .M ., L .A . McMurdie and C .M . Hayden . 1992 . Layered precipitable water 

from the infrared VAS sounder during a return-flow event over the Gulf of 

Mexico . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :819-830 . 

Rabin, R .M ., L .A . McMurdie, C .M . Hayden and G .S . Wade . 1993 . Evaluation of the 

atmospheric water budget following an intense cold-air outbreak over the 

Gulf of Mexico-application of a regional forecast model and SSM/I 

observations . J . Appl . Meteorol . 32(1) :3-16 . 

Abstract . The atmospheric water budget is examined for a 12-day period 

following an intense cold-air outbreak over the Gulf of Mexico . Budget 

terms are compared using analyses from the US National Meteorological 

Center's operational Nested Grid Model (NGM) and using precipitable water 

and surface wind speed estimated from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager 

(SSM/I) instrument aboard the defense meteorological satellite FS . The 

39 
atmospheric-storage term, determined from the areal-averaged total 

precipitable water, does not differ significantly between that obtained 

from the NGM and that obtained from SSM/I data . The storage increases by 

a factor of more than 3 during the initial five days following the 

passage of the surface high over the Gulf . Horizontal flux divergence of 

water vapor computed from the full vertical structure in the NGM output 

is well approximated by the substitution of the surface-700-mb mean wind 

and the total precipitable water for the vertical profiles along the 

boundaries of the atmospheric volume . Evaporation from the sea surface is 

determined using GOES surface temperatures and NGM surface air 

conditions . 

Ramsdell, J .V . and J .D . Thompson . 1981 . Surface stress estimation for study of 

the circulation dynamics of the Gulf of Mexico . NORDA Technical Report 

113 . Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity . NSTL Station, MS . 20 pp . 

Abstract . This report presents the results of a literature search concerning 

estimation of wind stress over large bodies of water and an evaluation of 

several sets of stress estimates for the Gulf of Mexico . Wind stress can 

be estimated directly from wind observations or indirectly from 

atmospheric pressure by using the pressure gradients and the geostrophic 

relation . In regions where wind data are sparse, as in the Gulf of 

Mexico, the use of the indirect method is more practical . The major 

problems considered in stress estimation are : treatment of the drag 

coefficient that relates wind to stress, spatial and temporal averaging 

of the data before and after making stress estimates, and empirical 

corrections to be applied to winds computed from pressure gradients. 

R . Dixon Speas Associates . 1970 . Joint Upper Gulf Coast Regional Air 

Transportation Study, Vol . I . Clearinghouse for Federal, Scientific, and 

Technical Information . Washington, D .C . 210 pp . 

Rhodes, R.C ., J .D . Thompson and A.J. Wallcraft . 1989 . Buoy-calibrated winds 

over the Gulf of Mexico . J . Atmos . Oceanic Technol . 6(4) :608-623 . 

Abstract . The large variability of the Gulf of Mexico wind field indicates that 

high-resolution wind data will be required to represent the weather 

systems affecting ocean circulation . The report presents methods and 

results of the calculation of a corrected geostrophic wind data set with 

high temporal and spatial resolution . Corrected geostrophic wind was 

calculated from surface pressure analyses compiled by the Fleet Numerical 

Oceanography Center . The correction factors for wind magnitude and 

direction were calculated using linear regressions of observed Gulf buoy 

winds and geostrophic winds derived at the buoys . The regressions were 

performed for each month to determine the seasonal variability of the 

correction factors . The corrected geostrophic wind was calculated twice 

daily from 1967-1982 on a spherical grid over the Gulf, together with the 

corresponding wind stress and wind stress curl fields . 

Rhodes, R .C ., A .J . Wallcraft and J .D . Thompson . 1985 . Navy-corrected 

geostrophic wind set for the Gulf of Mexico . NORDA Tech . Note . 310 :112 . 

Ricks, E .L . 1981 . Some empirical rules for forecasting fog and stratus over 

northern Florida, southern Georgia, and adjacent coastal waters . NOAA/NWS 

Tech . Memo . SR-104 :9 . 

40 
Abstract . The formation and characteristics of sea fog and stratus near the 

northwestern Florida coast, near fronts or troughs over northern Florida, 

and in association with anticyclones over the southeastern U.S ., and the 

characteristics of these hydrometeors are described; and empirical rules 

for forecasting them are presented. Strong low-level winds, especially 

strong vertical wind shears, generate and maintain enough mixing below 

the subsidence inversion over southern Georgia and northern Florida to 

counteract or inhibit low stratus and fog formation. Weaker northeastern 

and eastern winds favor low stratus and fog formation over southern 

Georgia and northern Florida when the trajectory is from the Atlantic 

coast . The same empirical rules seem to apply over the Florida panhandle 

and southwestern Georgia under a southerly wind regime with a trajectory 

from the Gulf of Mexico . 

Rodgers, E .B ., S .W . Chang, J . Stout, J . Steranka and J .J . Shi . 1991 . Satellite 

observations of variations in tropical cyclone convection caused by 

upper-tropospheric troughs . J . Appl . Meteorol . 30(8) :1163-1184 . 

Abstract . Examines the mutual adjustment between upper-tropospheric troughs and 

the structure of western Atlantic Tropical cyclones Florence (1988) and 

Irene (1981) . The study suggests that the initiation and maintenance of 

intense convective outbreaks in these tropical cyclones during their 

mature stage are related to the channeling and strengthening of their 

outflow by upper-tropospheric troughs . The convection can be enhanced in 

response to the outflow jet-induced import of eddy relative angular 

momentum and ascending motion associated with the thermally direct 

circulation . Channeling and strengthening of the outflow occur when the 

upper-tropospheric troughs are located in a favorable position relative 

to the tropical cyclones . Both Florence and Irene intensify after the 

onset of these intense convective episodes . Satellite observations also 

suggest that the cessation in the convection of the two tropical cyclones 

occurs when the upper-tropospheric troughs move near or over the tropical 

cyclone . 

Rogers, R .F . and R .E . Davis . 1993 . The effect of coastline curvature on the 

weakening of Atlantic tropical cyclones . International Journal of 

Climatology. 13(3) :287-299 . 

Abstract . This study attempts to determine the relationship between the 

curvature of the coastline and the filling (increase in central pressure) 

of hurricanes and tropical storms by comparing both the rate of filling 

and the total filling for storms striking convex, concave, and linear 

coastlines . The USA and Mexican coastline was approximated by a 

subjective smoothing procedure, and the coastal curvature corresponding 

to each landfalling Atlantic tropical cyclone from 1900 to 1979 was 

measured and grouped into one of the three curvature categories . Stormfilling rates and total amounts of filling were determined before and 

after landfall by computing the change in wind speed for various SaffirSimpson hurricane intensity categories . The averages of these variables 

within each strength and curvature grouping were compared in order to 

determine if they were statistically different . Storms were also compared 

in order to determine if stronger storms fill a greater total amount than 

weaker storms, regardless of the coastline's curvature . 

41 
Salsman, G .G . and A.J . Ciesluk . 1978 . Environmental conditions in coastal 

waters near Panama City, Florida . Naval Coastal Systems Center Technical 

Report . NCSC-TR-337-78 :89 . 

Abstract . A comprehensive summary of information regarding the coastal waters . 

Includes topics such as : hydrography, meteorology, bottom 

characteristics, tides, currents, waves, and biofouling . 

Saltzman, B ., W . Ebisuzaki, K .A . Maasch, R . Oglesby and L . Pandolfo . 1991 . 

Nonlinear dynamics of global atmospheric and earth-system processes . Yale 

University . New Haven, CT . 2 pp . 

Abstract . General Circulation Model (GCM) studies of the atmospheric response 

to change boundary conditions are discussed. Results are reported on an 

extensive series of numerical studies based on the National Center for 

Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Climate Model (CCM) general 

circulation model . In these studies the authors determined the response 

to systematic changes in atmospheric COZ ranging from 100 to 1000 ppm; to 

changes in the prescribed sea surface temperature (SST) in the Gulf of 

Mexico, such as occurred during the deglaciation phase of the last ice 

age ; to changes in soil moisture over North America ; and to changes in 

sea ice extent in the Southern Hemisphere . Study results show that the 

response of surface temperature and other variables is nearly 

logarithmic, with lower levels of COZ implying greater sensitivity of the 

atmospheric state to changes in CO2 . It was found that the surface 

temperature of the Gulf of Mexico exerts considerable control over the 

storm track and behavior of storm systems over the North Atlantic through 

its influence on evaporation and the source of latent heat . It was found 

that reductions in soil moisture can play a significant role in 

amplifying and maintaining North American drought, particularly when a 

negative soil moisture anomaly prevails late in the spring . 

Schreiner, A .J ., C .M. Hayden and C .A . Paris . 1992 . A study of satellite-derived 

moisture with emphasis on the Gulf of Mexico . J . Appl . Meteorol . 

31(7) :742-757 . 

Abstract . Visible-Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Atmospheric Sounder 

(VAS) moisture retrievals are compared to the National Meteorological 

Center Regional Analysis and Forecast System (RAFS) 12-h forecast and to 

1200 UTC rawinsondes over the United States and the Gulf of Mexico on a 

daily basis for nearly 1 .5 years . The principal objective is to determine 

what information the current moisture retrievals add to that available 

from the RAFS and surface data . The data are examined from the 

climatological perspective, that is, total precipitable water over the 

seasons for three geographical regions, and also for synoptic 

applications, that is, vertical and horizontal resolution . 

Schroeder, W .W . 1975 . Meteorological and oceanographic observations made during 

Hurricane Carmen (September 1974) At Dauphin Island, Alabama . Dauphin 

Island Sea Laboratory, Technical Report . 75-003 

Schroeder, W .W . 1975 . Meteorological and oceanographic observations made during 

Hurricane Eloise (September 1975) At Dauphin Island, Alabama . Dauphin 

Island Sea Laboratory, Technical Report . 75-004 

42 
Schroeder, W .W . 1976 . Physical environmental atlas of coastal Alabama . MASGP76-034 . Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium . Ocean Springs, MS . 

275 pp . 

Abstract . This is an atlas of physical oceanographic data, meteorological data, 

and hydrologic data for Mobile Bay, eastern Mississippi Sound, and 

selected nearshore Gulf locations of coastal Alabama. The data were 

collected from 1973 to 1976 . This publication is an atlas in the truest 

sense in that data are presented as facts without any interpretation . The 

great majority of this atlas presents data on East Mississippi Sound and 

Mobile Bay. Data presented include wind, tide, temperature, salinity, 

dissolved oxygen and currents . The part on the offshore environment 

presents current measurements collected with a taut-line buoy system 

anchored adjacent to a Liberty Ship reef some 14 nautical miles south of 

Dauphin Island . The last part of the atlas presents meteorological data 

collected at Dauphin Island . Supplements to the atlas are compiled yearly 

beginning with 1977 . 

Schroeder, W .W ., R . Horton and L . Lutz . 1979 . 1978 meteorological data summary, 

Dauphin Island, Alabama, Technical Report 80-001 . Dauphin Island Sea Lab . 

Dauphin Island, AL . 

Abstract . This technical report is part of a series of reports presenting 

meteorological data collected at the Dauphin Island Sea Lab . The data 

presented are supplemental to meteorological data found in the "Physical 

Environment Atlas of Coastal Alabama" (1976) . 

Schroeder, W .W ., R . Horton and L . Lutz . 1980 . 1979 meteorological data summary, 

Dauphin Island, Alabama, Technical Report 80-001 . Dauphin Island Sea Lab . 

Dauphin Island, AL . 

Abstract . This technical report is part of a series of reports presenting 

meteorological data collected at the Dauphin Island Sea Lab . The data 

presented are supplemental to meteorological data found in the "Physical 

Environment Atlas of Coastal Alabama" (1976) . 

Schroeder, W ., O . Huh, L . Rouse and W . Wiseman . 1987 . Satellite observations of 

the circulation east of the Mississippi Delta : cold-air outbreak 

conditions . Remote Sensing Environ . 18 :49-58 . 

Schroeder, W .W . and W .J . Wiseman . 1985 . Analysis of the winds (1974-1984) and 

sea level elevations (1973-1983) in coastal Alabama . MASGP-84-024 ; 

NA81AA-D-00050 . Alabama Marine Resources Laboratory . Dauphin Island . 112 pp . 

Abstract . Monthly and annual wind roses, constructed from 10 .5 years of data 

collected on Dauphin Island, Alabama, exhibit a high degree of 

variability . However, monthly composite roses present a recognizable 

seasonal pattern: northerly winter winds ; easterly to southerly spring 

winds; southerly to westerly and back to easterly winds in the summer; 

and in the fall a return to northeasterly and northerly winds. Mean 

monthly wind speeds ranged from a high of 8 .1 k in January to a low of 

5 .2 k in July . On a directional interval basis the highest mean speed, 

9.5 k, occurred during northerly winds while the lowest mean speed, 4 .9 

k, occurred during westerly winds . Sustained wind speeds of 30 k or 

greater were recorded during tropical cyclones, a winter `cold front' 

storm and a thunderstorm . 

43 
Science Applications International Corporation . 1988 . Summary of meteorological 

conditions affecting oceanographic processes in the Gulf of Mexico, Final 

Report, NMS Met Study, Contract No . 10-1001-303, 173p . 

Abstract . This meteorological summary consists of a compilation of data from a 

number of sources and a statistical description by month, season and year 

of the pertinent meteorological variables affecting oceanographic 

operations in the Gulf of Mexico region . The primary data sets utilized 

in this study are as follows : National Weather Service (NWS) coastal 

station data ; National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) moored-buoy and marine 

platform network ; a segment of the Ocean Currents Measurement Program 

(OCMP) data ; National Hurricane Center 101-year storm track data (HURDAT) 

and the University of Virginia Cyclone data set . The coastal data covers 

the period 1970-1986, while the buoy data exists for only 1976-1986 . The 

hurricane and cyclone climatologies are for 101 and 100 years, 

respectively . In addition, a ship-based sea surface temperature (SST) 

climatology is analyzed by 1° quadrangles for the period 1854-1973 . The 

analyses included in this report should provide useful information on the 

variability of meteorological conditions in the Gulf of Mexico . 

Scoggins, J.R . 1976 . Diurnal and seasonal variations in mesoscale systems . pp . 

43-53 . In Role of the Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : 

A Conference on Meteorology over and near the Gulf . TAMU, College 

Station, TX . 

Scoggins, J .R ., J . Arellano, B . Esposito, G .A. Johnson and K .C . Brundidge . 

1991 . Report on a symposium on "Air-Sea Interaction and Air Mass 

Modification over the Gulf of Mexico," 7-9 January 1991, Galveston, 

Texas . Cooperative Inst . for Applied Meteorological Studies . College 

Station, TX . 7 pp . 

Abstract . A Workshop on Atmospheric Forcing of Ocean Circulation (Scoggins and 

Mooers 1988), and a study called GUFMEX over the Gulf of Mexico in 1988 

called attention to the importance of the Gulf of Mexico on the weather 

over much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and the need 

to summarize what is known about air-sea interaction and air mass 

modification over the Gulf . This symposium provided a forum for 

operational and research meteorologists and oceanographers to present and 

discuss the state of knowledge of air-sea interaction and air mass 

modification over the Gulf, and to provide the basis for improved 

numerical models and weather forecasts particularly for the Gulf coast 

area . However, areas other than the Gulf were considered in some of the 

papers . the symposium was divided into four sessions . they were : (1) 

Measurements ; (2) Air Mass Modification ; (3) Modeling ; and (4) 

Forecasting . It was recognized by the planning committee that overlap 

between the sessions was inevitable, but this breakdown seemed to beast 

characterize the papers and the themes of the symposium . 

Shay, L .K ., P .G . Black, A .J . Mariano, J .D . Hawkins and R .L . Elsberry . 1992 . 

Upper ocean response to Hurricane Gilbert . J . Geophys . Res . 

97(C12) :20227-20248 . 

Abstract . The evolving upper ocean response excited by the passage of hurricane 

Gilbert (September 14-19, 1988) was investigated using current and 

temperature observations acquired from the deployment of 79 airborne 

expendable current profilers (AXCPs) and 51 airborne expendable 

bathythermographs from the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration 

44 
WP-3D aircraft in the western Gulf of Mexico . The sea surface 

temperatures (SSTs), mixed layer depths, and bulk richardson numbers were 

objectively analyzed to examine the spatial variability of the upper 

ocean response to Gilbert . Net decreases of the SSTs of 3° - 4°C were 

observed by the profilers as well as by the airborne infrared thermometer 

(AIRT) along the flight tracks and advanced very high resolution 

radiometer (AVHRR) imagery . The AXCPs indicated a marked cooling from 

29°C to about 25 .5°C on September 17, 1988, which was about 1 .2 inertial 

periods (IP) following storm passage . This pool of cooler water (3 .5°C) 

was located further downstream in the hurricane wake by September 19 (2 .7 

IP following the storm) as a result of the near-inertial currents in the 

mixed layer . 

Shay, L .K ., S .W . Chang and R .L . Elsberry . 1990 . Free surface effects on the 

near-inertial ocean current response to a hurricane . J . Phys . Ocean . 

20(9) :1405-1424 . 

Abstract . During the passage of hurricane Frederic in 1979, four ocean current 

meter arrays in water depths of 100-950 m detected both a baroclinic and 

a depth-independent response in the near-inertial frequency band . The 

origin of the depth-independent component of velocity is investigated 

using a linear analytical model and numerical simulation from a 17-level 

primitive equation model with a free surface . In an analytical model, the 

Green's function (Ko) is convolved with the wind stress curl to predict a 

sea surface depression of approximately 20 cm from the equilibrium 

position . The barotropic current velocities rotate inertially, and the 

maximum amplitude of 11 cm/s is displaced to the right of the track at 

x=2R. (radius of maximum winds) . The free surface depression simulated 

by the primitive-equation model is also about 18-20 cm . The primitive 

equation model simulations indicate that the vertical mean pressure 

gradient excites 10-11 cm/s depth-averaged currents at x=3R ,, . 

Shay, L .K . and R .L . Elsberry . 1983 . Observations of inertio-gravity waves in 

the wake of Hurricane Frederic . EOS, Trans . AGU . 64(45) :739 . Spring 

Meeting, American Geophysical Union, Baltimore, MD (USA), 31 May 1983 . 

Abstract . Hurricane Frederic passed within 80 to 130 km of a U .S . Naval 

Oceanographic Office current meter array . The transient response detected 

in the DeSoto Canyon region is dominated by inertial wave excitation in 

the mixed layer with vertical propagation of energy at about 3 cm/s . The 

corresponding horizontal propagation of energy is 3 m/s . The observations 

were demodulated at the inertial frequency . The demodulated series show 

that inertial waves in the mixed layer maintain a constant energy level 

over one to two inertial periods (IP) after the relaxation of the wind 

stress, and then decay over e-folding time scales of 4 IP . The horizontal 

scales of 100 km or roughly twice the radius of deformation . Vertical 

phase differences are consistent with the subsequent generation of 

inertio-gravity waves in the thermocline . These waves spin up with the 

horizontal scales of the deformation radii (50 km) and reach secondary 

maxima 6 to 10 IP following storm passage . After these maxima, energy 

decays over e-folding scales of 4 IP as well . Vertical scales are of the 

order of the water depth . The vertical structure of 3-dimensional 

velocity fields was determined using a Brunt-Vaisala profile computed 

from the AXBT data collected by Black (1983) . 

45 
Shay, L .K . and R .L . Elsberry . 1987 . Near-inertial ocean current response to 

Hurricane Frederic . J . Phys . Ocean . 17(8) :1249-1269 . 

Abstract . Hurricane Frederic passed within 80 to 130 km of the U .S . Naval 

Oceanographic Office current meter arrays in water depths ranging from 

100 to 470 m near the DeSoto Canyon region, and within 150 km of an ocean 

Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) mooring in 1050 m of water . Excitation 

of near-inertial waves by the moving hurricane was observed throughout 

the water column along the canyon walls and at the OTEC site . The 

vertical modes of the ocean current field are determined based on AXBT 

data . Solutions with a flat bottom and with a sloping bottom are compared 

to illustrate the effect due to bottom topography in the DeSoto Canyon 

region . The horizontal velocity eigenfunctions are fit to the velocity 

amplitudes derived from the ocean current time series to estimate the 

time-dependent modal amplitudes . 

Shenk, W .E . and E .B . Rodgers . 1978 . Nimbus-3/ATS-3 observations of the 

evolution of Hurricane Camille . J . Appl . Meteorol . 17(4) :458-476 . 

Abstract . Three periods within the life cycle of Hurricane Camille (1969) are 

examined with radiometric and camera measurements from Nimbus-3 and 

camera information from ATS-3 in conjunction with conventional 

information . These periods are the deepening phase, the interaction of 

Camille with mid-latitude westerlies, and the excessive rain-producing 

period when the cyclone was over the central Appalachians . Just prior to 

significant deepening, the Nimbus-3 medium resolution infrared radiometer 

(MRIR) window and water vapor channels showed a band of developing 

convection that extended to the cirrus level in the southeastern quadrant 

of the storm, which originated from the ITCZ . Low-level wind fields were 

derived from conventional sources and from cumulus clouds tracked from a 

series of ATS-3 images . Within this band were low-level, 30-knot winds 

that supplied Camille with strong inflow where the air passed over sea 

surface temperatures that were 1-3 standard deviations above normal . At 

the beginning of the rapid deepening, the MRIR radiometer measurements 

indicated a rapid contraction of the central dense overcast and, then, an 

expansion as the maximum deepening rate occurred . Simultaneously, the 

increase in the MRIR equivalent blackbody temperatures indicated the 

development of large-scale subsidence throughout the troposphere 

northwest of the center . When Camille weakened as it moved over the lower 

Mississippi Valley, the cyclone acted as a partial obstruction to the 

synoptic-scale flow and increased the subsidence west and north of the 

cyclone center, as indicated by the increase in water vapor and verified 

by three-dimensional trajectories . 

Sheres, D . 1992 . SAR Observations in the Gulf of Mexico, In Summaries of the 

Third Annual JPL Airborne Geoscience Workshop . Jet Propulsion Laboratory . 

3 :30-31 . University of Southern Mississippi, Bay Saint Louis . Center for 

Marine Science . 

Abstract . The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) exhibits a wealth of energetic ocean 

features ; they include the Loop Current with velocities of about 2 m/s 

and strong shear fronts, mesoscale eddies, double vortices, internal 

waves, and the outflow of the `Mighty Mississippi' River . These energetic 

features can have a strong impact on the economies of the states 

surrounding the Gulf . Large fisheries, oil and gas production as well as 

pollution transport are relevant issues . These circulation features in 

the Gulf are invisible to conventional IR and visible satellite imagery 

46 
during the Summer months due to cloud cover and uniform surface 

temperatures . Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery of the Gulf does 

penetrate the cloud cover and shows a rich assembly of features there 

year-round . Below are preliminary results from GOM SAR imagery taken by 

SEASAT in 1978 and by the AIRSAR program in 1991 . 

Signorini, S .R., J.S . Wei and C .D . Miller . 1992 . Hurricane-induced surge and 

currents on the Texas-Louisiana shelf . J . Geophys . Res . 97(C2) :2229-2242 . 

Abstract . This study consists of numerical model simulations of hurricaneinduced surge and currents on the Texas-Louisiana shelf . The numerical 

experiment includes the simulation of multiple hurricane tracks with 

landfalling points along the Texas-Louisiana coast . A parallel storm that 

traverses the entire Texas-Louisiana coastline is also modeled to assess 

the difference in shelf response between landfalling and parallel storms . 

The grid extends from the Texas-Mexico border to the Gulf Coast of 

Florida, with the ocean open boundary seaward of the shelf break. Alongshelf and cross-shelf surge and current variability are assessed as a 

function of shoreline geometry and bottom topography . A complementary 

one-dimensional mixed layer model is used to evaluate the vertical 

structure of the currents and the maximum depth of hurricane influence . 

Simpson, R .H . and M.B . Lawrence . 1971 . Atlantic hurricane frequencies along the 

U .S . Coastline . NOAA-TM-NWS-SR-58 . National Weather Service, Southern 

Region . Fort Worth, TX . 19 pp . 

Abstract . From a recently completed climatology of hurricanes at the National 

Hurricane Center covering a period of 85 years of record, the total 

number of incidents and the frequency of hurricanes and tropical storms 

for 50-mile segments of the U . S . Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coastlines 

are presented . 

Smith, K.S . 1990 . Investigation of a gravity wave during GALE : 6 February 1986 . 

Master's Thesis . Air Force Institute of Technology. 79 pp . 

Abstract . A mesoscale inertia-gravity wave that propagated northeastward across 

the southeastern United States on 6 February 1986 is investigated . 

Barograph traces and surface pressure perturbations based on hourly 

observations were used to trace the wave to its origin in the northwest 

Gulf of Mexico . The analysis shows that the wave propagated in the 

direction of the mid- and upper-tropospheric flow for over 19 hours at a 

mean speed of 25 ms-1 . The wave initially expanded as an arc, but the 

northern edge became bounded by a frontal system . Over the entire event, 

the half-period ranged from 25 minutes near its origin to 2 hours at the 

U.S . east coast . The half-wavelength is about 130 km with a crest to 

trough pressure range of less than 1 .0 up to 5.7 mb along the axis of 

propagation . Potential source mechanisms for the gravity wave were 

examined . These included orographic forcing; shear instability ; 

geostrophic adjustment ; density impulses and convection . Available 

evidence leads to the conclusion that intense and explosively growing 

convection provided the initial energy . After its initiation the gravity 

wave marked the sharp western edge of a convective line moving eastward 

along the Gulf Coast . The long-lived horizontal propagation of the 

gravity wave is shown to be the result of a ducting structure within the 

mean flow . This structure was revealed by Richardson number and critical 

47 
level profiles at several sounding stations along the wave path . The duct 

is eventually disrupted by the frontal structure which marks the northern 

edge of the gravity wave . 

Smith, P .M . 1981 . Measurements of whitecap coverage and surface winds over the 

Gulf of Mexico Loop Current . NORDA-43 . Naval Ocean Research and 

Development Activity . NSTL Station, MS . 28 pp . 

Abstract . The fraction of the ocean surface covered by whitecaps has long been 

thought to be some monotonically increasing function of the prevailing 

wind velocity at least for large fetches . In order to determine the 

extent to which other factors such as air column stability or water mass 

type can influence the areal coverage of whitecaps, photographic data was 

collected over the Loop Current from a NAVOCEANO P-3 aircraft . The 

variation of whitecap coverage along a line of closely spaced (25 km) 

stations was determined and compared with other aircraft and data buoy 

information . The data indicates that, on the day of the flight, whitecapping within the boundaries of the Loop Current depended little on the 

local wind, but demonstrated a noticeable dependence on air column 

stability . The strength and nature of this dependence varied over 

mesoscale distances . These results indicate that microwave radiometric 

measurements can be sensitive to variables other than surface wind since 

microwave brightness is quite sensitive to sea foam . The value of areal 

whitecap coverage as a measurable geophysical variable is also examined . 

Sparks, P ., E .J . Baker, J . Belville and D .C . Perry . 1991 . Hurricane Elena, Gulf 

Coast, August 29-September 2, 1985, Natural Disaster Studies, Volume Two . 

National Academy Press . Washington, D .C . 121 pp . 

Abstract . This report concentrates on three aspects of Hurricane Elena : (1) 

forecasting and collection of meteorological data ; (2) evacuation 

procedures ; and (3) the performance of buildings and other structures in 

the storm. The weather system that eventually became Hurricane Elena was 

initially identified as a well-organized cloud pattern north of the Cape 

Verde Islands on August 23, 1985 . The system moved westward across the 

tropical Atlantic Ocean at an unusually fast speed (34 mph) and continued 

through the Caribbean to Cuba . It intensified and was named Elena on 

August 28 while situated on the northern coast of Cuba . As the storm 

moved north-northwest across the Gulf of Mexico, Elena strengthened 

rapidly and was classified a hurricane on August 29 . On August 30, the 

storm began to decrease its forward speed dramatically . Late on August 

30, while located about 200 miles southeast of the mouth of the 

Mississippi River, Elena made a sudden turn to the east . On August 31 

through September 1, this storm moved toward the Florida coast and 

stalled about 50 miles offshore from Cedar Key. During the afternoon of 

September l, Hurricane Elena once again turned westward, increased its 

forward speed to 10-15 mph, and finally moved ashore at Biloxi, 

Mississippi, about sunrise on Labor Day, September 2 . Hurricane Elena was 

a rare Gulf of Mexico storm in that it caused hurricane warnings to be 

issued along an extensive section of the Gulf Coast from Grand Island, 

LA, to Sarasota, FL. 

Spencer, R .W ., B .B . Hinton and W.S . Olson . 1983 . Nimbus-7 37 GHz radiances 

correlated with radar rain rates over the Gulf of Mexico . J . Climate 

Appl . Met . 22(12) :2095-2099 . 

48 
Abstract . A comparison between 37 GHz SNIIMIIt brightness temperatures and rain 

rates derived from radars at Galveston, Texas, and Apalachicola, Florida, 

showed that the brightness temperatures explained 72t of the variance of 

the rain rates . The functional form relating these data was significantly 

different from that predicted by models of radiative transfer through 

plane-parallel clouds . An hypothesis is offered for the cause of the 

observed polarization . 

Sperber, K .R . and S . Hameed . 1992 . Coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM simulation of 

southern oscillation phenomena . pp . 5 . Zn Brazilian Meteorological 

Congress : Climate Change and the Environment (7th), Sao Paulo (Brazil), 

28 Sep .-2 Oct . 1992 . Department of Energy, Washington, D .C . 

Abstract . The Oregon State University coupled upper ocean-atmosphere GCM has, 

been shown to qualitatively simulate the Southern Oscillation . A 

composite analysis of the warm and cold events simulated in this 23-year 

integration has been performed. During the low phase of the SO, when warm 

anomalies occur in the Eastern Pacific the model simulates for the 

Atlantic region during March--May (1) a deficit of precipitation over the 

tropical South American continent (2) Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico sealevel pressure and sea-surface temperature are in-phase with the Eastern 

Pacific anomalies, while those East of the Nordeste region are out-ofphase (3) northeast trade winds are anomalously weak and southwest trade 

winds are anomalously strong (as inferred from surface current 

anomalies) . During the high phase of the simulated Southern oscillation 

conditions in the atmosphere and ocean are essentially the reverse of the 

low phase . Thus the model produces a response in the South American 

region during the opposing phases of the Southern oscillation which is in 

general agreement with observations . 

Spring, W . 1978 . An investigation of the distribution of hurricane generated 

wave heights . Ph.D . Dissertation . New York University, School of 

Engineering and Science . 172 pp . 

Abstract . A method described by Borgman (1973), to determine wave data fit to a 

probability distribution was used to test the Rayleigh, Forristall and a 

mean height distribution with Gulf of Mexico hurricane and tropical storm 

data . The mean height distribution employs empirically determined shape 

and exponential coefficients and the record mean wave height is used to 

normalize wave heights . The poorest fit was shown to be the Rayleigh 

Distribution with the mean height distribution slightly worse than the 

Forristall distribution . When shape coefficients were not specified and 

exponential coefficients tested, the best results were found by using a 

mean height distribution which allowed the exponential coefficient to 

vary with each record . Attempts to use this distribution with significant 

wave height dependent shape and exponential coefficients resulted in a 

slightly worse fit than the Forristall Distribution . Plots of the 

variation of the shape and exponential coefficients with significant wave 

height are presented and a recommendation for the use of significant wave 

height dependent coefficients in future attempts to determine wave height 

distributions is made . 

State University System of Florida, Institute of Oceanography . 1975 . 

Compilation and summation of historical and existing physical 

oceanographic data from the eastern Gulf of Mexico in support of the 

49 
MAFLA sampling program . BLM/YM/ES-75/1 . Bureau of Land Management . 

Washington, D .C . 292 pp . 

Abstract . Physical oceanography has a dual role in determining the 

environmental implications of development of the Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS) . It is intrinsically important to determine physical parameters to 

predict dispersion of materials in OCS waters, but the role of physical 

oceanography is equally important in the support it must give to other 

oceanographic disciplines . In fact, it is highly unlikely that meaningful 

interpretations of biogeochemical data, or the ecosystem structure can be 

made without adequate knowledge of the advective field, for instance . 

Cognizant of the importance of understanding the circulation of the 

eastern Gulf of Mexico, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) commissioned 

a group of oceanographers familiar with the area : (a) to "assemble the 

historical and contemporary physical and associated meteorological data 

of the northeast Gulf of Mexico . . . for submission to the National 

Oceanographic Data Center (NODC)" ; (b) to "construct a zero-order 

synthesis of oceanographic conditions in the northeast Gulf of Mexico and 

have them graphically displayed" ; (c) to "describe the general 

circulation and oceanographic conditions on the continental shelf area of 

the northeast Gulf of Mexico and in the Loop Current of the deeper Gulf 

areas" ; (d) to "describe qualitatively the interaction between the shelf 

circulation of the northeast Gulf of Mexico and the Loop Current" ; (e) to 

"describe the seasonal distribution of the intensity of fish spawning and 

zooplankton productivity on the western Florida continental shelf and 

relate these to temperature and salinity data" ; (f) to "develop a firstorder understanding of the trajectory of a pollutant in the northeast 

Gulf of Mexico ; (g) to provide recommendations on sampling locations for 

future biological, geological, chemical, and physical oceanographic 

investigations" . 

Stone, J .H . 1972 . Preliminary assessments of the environmental impact of a 

superport in the southeastern coastal area of Louisiana--Louisiana 

superport studies . Report 2 . Center for Wetland Resources, Louisiana 

State University . Baton Rouge, LA . 345 pp . 

Abstract . Two offshore sites for a proposed Superport, off southeastern 

Louisiana, are evaluated for potential environmental impact on the 

coastal region . The most vulnerable areas along the coast are the 

estuaries . Oil drift projections indicate that the site more distant from 

shore would have less effect because a potential spill there would 

probably not reach the estuarine areas . Oil drift projections of 

hypothetical oil spills are based on a hydrodynamical numerical model 

using wind conditions, local tides, and bathymetry . At the closest site 

oil spills moved either northwest toward Timbalier Bay or northeast 

toward Barataria Bay. Oil spills at the farther site did not impinge on 

the shorelines nor into the estuaries . Oil spills at both sites usually 

assumed an east-west orientation and moved somewhat faster than drift 

projections based solely on winds . Potential adverse effects resulting 

from an oil spill would be most severe in the estuaries . Oil could damage 

or kill extensive areas of marsh grass, thereby reducing or eliminating 

the most important food source for the major consumers, which are fishery 

species . This damage could be by direct contact with the top of the 

plants, the root system, or the microbes which initiate the breakdown of 

grass into detritus . Regardless of the final location of the superport, 

research should be initiated on the detailed hydrography and meteorology 

50 
of the proposed site, the toxic effects of various crude oils on 

planktonic stages of fishery species, and the effects of oil on marsh 

grasses and microbes . 

Story, A .H ., R .M . McPhearson Jr . and J .L . Gaines . 1974 . Use of fluorescent dye 

tracers in Mobile Bay ; . J . Water Pollut . Control Fed . 46(4) :657-665 . 

Abstract . The purpose of this study was to determine current velocity and 

patterns of current flow from the Mobile River throughout Mobile Bay to 

oyster reefs downstream . Data were collected for one year beginning in 

March, 1970 . Dye studies were done and notes on wind speed and direction 

were taken to indicate routes of possible pollutants to these oyster 

reefs . Different types of dyes were evaluated as to their suitability to 

a specific study area . 

Stumpf, R.P ., G. Gelfenbaum and J.R . Pennock. 1993 . Wind and tidal forcing of a 

buoyant plume, Mobile Bay, Alabama. Cont . Shelf Res . 13(11) :1281-1301 . 

Abstract . AVHI2R satellite imagery and in situ observations were combined to 

study the motion of a buoyant plume at the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama . 

The plume extended up to 30 km from shore, with a thickness of about 1 m . 

The inner plume, which was 3-8 m thick, moved between the Bay and inner 

shelf in response to tidal forcing . The tidal prism could be identified 

through the movement of plume waters between satellite images . The plume 

responded rapidly to alongshore wind, with sections of the plume moving 

at speeds of more than 70 cm/s, about 11% of the wind speed . The plume 

moved predominantly in the direction of the wind with a weak Ekman drift . 

The enhanced speed of the plume relative to normal surface drift is 

probably due to the strong stratification in the plume, which limits the 

transfer of momentum into the underlying ambient waters . 

Sturges, W . and S . Welsh . 1990 . Wind-driven response of ocean surface infrared 

signals . J . Phys . Ocean . 20(12) :1842-1848 . 

Abstract . In the course of archiving positions of the edge of the Loop Current 

from satellite infrared (IR) data, the authors have found a substantial 

amount of energy at periods in the 'wind-driven band' . Using a technique 

patterned after that of Price et al . (1987) the authors constructed a 

series of new datasets of IR positions at a variety of angles relative to 

the daily wind . Using data for a period of November-May, the authors find 

that the IR fluctuations are coherent with wind, and are at an angle of 

80 degrees to the right . The IR data do not resolve periods shorter than 

approximately 10 days reliably, but motions of approximately 12-16 days 

are well resolved . These findings show that the wind-coherent motion of 

the surface IR signal is associated with the Ekman transport of the upper 

mixed layer. 

Tan, C.L . 1990 . Characterization of underwater sound produced by heavy 

precipitation . Master's Thesis . Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA . 

70 pp . 

Abstract . An experiment by the Naval Postgraduate School and the National Data 

Buoy Center was performed in the Gulf of Mexico to investigate the 

underwater sound generated by heavy precipitation under a variety of 

conditions . During the first stage of the experiment, nine data sets were 

obtained with rainfall rates up to 300 mm/hr. The characteristic fifteen 

kilohertz peak in the underwater sound spectrum generated by small 

raindrops in light rain is absent during heavy rain . These data sets show 

51 
a good correlation between rainfall rate and underwater sound levels, 

suggesting that acoustic measurement of rainfall rate at sea is possible . 

The correlation is best at lower frequencies (2-10 kHz) . At higher 

frequencies (12-22 kHz) low spectral levels are observed in conditions of 

high wind (>10 m/s), presumably due to sound absorption by ambient bubble 

clouds from breaking waves . At very high rainfall rates (>200 mm/hr), low 

levels at higher frequencies are also observed suggesting that the rain 

itself is capable of producing large populations of bubbles which absorb 

the sound radiated form the surface. 

Taylor, J.G . 1966 . An approach to the analysis of sea surface temperature data 

for utilization in hurricane forecasting in the Gulf of Mexico . Master's 

Thesis . Texas A&M Univ ., Dept . of Oceanography, College Station, TX . 106 pp . 

Abstract . Sea surface temperature (SST) patterns have been analyzed for four 

major hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico in an effort to determine if 

routinely available SST data might be more fully utilized as an aid to 

the hurricane forecaster . SST data reported by merchant vessels are the 

primary data used in this study . Mean daily SST charts were prepared for 

approximately ten to twelve days prior to the time when each hurricane 

moved inland . Also, a series of 3-day, 5-day, and 7-day mean SST charts 

were prepared for Hurricane Hilda . The SST charts for Hurricanes Audrey, 

Carla, and Hilda were plotted and analyzed with the point of hurricane 

landfall known . In an attempt to stimulate realistic conditions and to 

insure an objective analysis, a series of daily mean SST charts for 

Hurricane Betsy were plotted while the storm was in progress . The 

conservative nature of ocean temperature is discussed, and it is stressed 

that a great amount of energy is required to make a significant change . 

It is pointed out that the SST data used are taken at varying depths in 

the first few meters below the surface, and that the values obtained are 

not necessarily the same as surface temperatures measured by radiation 

devices . It is suggested that even though there are obvious limitations 

to available SST data, it is possible that the data might be more fully 

utilized as an aid to the hurricane forecaster . 

Thompson, P .A . and T .D . Leming . 1978 . Seasonal description of winds and surface 

and bottom salinities and temperatures in the northern Gulf of Mexico, 

October 1972 to January 1976 . NOAA Tech . Rep . NMFS SSRT-719 :44 . 

Abstract . Seasonal surface and bottom salinities and temperatures in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico are described . The area surveyed, from October 

1972 to January 1976, was between Mobile Bay, Alabama (88°00'W), and 

Atchafalaya Bay, Louisiana (long . 91°30'W), from 5 to 50 fathoms (9 to 91 

m) . The changing of seasons in the northern Gulf of Mexico between Mobile 

Bay, Alabama and Atchafalaya Bay, Louisiana from 5 to 50 fm, is 

recognized when surface and bottom temperatures are similar . The summer 

begins in Mar . and Apr . at all depths . This change is correlated with 

changing meteorological conditions as the wind shifts from a northerly to 

a southerly direction . This shift in direction is accompanied by a 

decrease in intensity of wind speed and an increase in air temperature . 

Water and air temperatures reach a peak in July and Aug . accompanied by 

frequent calm winds . Little wind-mixing during the period, coupled with 

solar heating, results in a large difference between surface and bottom 

temperatures . The summer season begins to disappear in Sept . and Oct . 

with a drop in air temperature and a wind shift . By Nov . and Dec . the 

winter season has begun with southeasterly winds shifting to a more 

52 
northerly direction. This change in direction and intensity causes the 

mean air temperature to drop 9°C from the July and Aug. high . The wind 

generally remains out of the N to NW in Jan. and Feb. bringing colder 

temperatures within the survey area . By Mar. and Apr. the winter season 

ends with a general warming of air temperature and a wind shift to the 

SE, completing the annual cycle. Bottom salinities at all depths in 3 

survey areas are similar and relatively constant because of the influence 

of the Loop Current . Surface salinities vary within each survey area, 

indicating seasonal changes that can be attributed to the discharge from 

the Mississippi River and calm weather during the summer months . 

Thompson, W .T . and S .D . Burk . 1991 . Investigation of boundary layer 

modification during GUFMEX . Proceedings reprint . pp . 86-90 . Zn Preprint 

Volume of the Fifth Conference on the Meteorology and Oceanography of the 

Canal Zone . Naval Oceanographic and Atmospheric Research Laboratory, 

Stennis Space Center, MS . 

Abstract . Transformation of continental polar air traversing the Gulf of Mexico 

has been documented by few authors . Dimego et al . (1976) provide a 

climatology of cold frontal incursions into the Gulf and return flow of 

warm, moist tropical air into midlatitudes . Their results indicate that 

the maximum mean monthly frequency of frontal systems occurs in February . 

Molinari (1987) discusses air mass transformation over the loop current 

in the eastern Gulf . The loop current causes relatively warm water to 

move northward through the Yucatan Channel into the eastern Gulf . Changes 

in the position of the loop current contribute to significant variability 

in surface latent and sensible heat fluxes and, therefore, variability in 

air mass transformation (AMT) . Boundary layer (BL) modification 

associated with AMT is discussed by Henry and Thompson (1976) . Using 

soundings from a station in southern Mississippi and from one on the 

Yucatan Peninsula 24 hours later, they estimate the average total surface 

heat flux during the 24 hours required for air parcels reaching Yucatan . 

Thompson, W.T. and S .D . Burk . 1993 . Postfrontal boundary-layer modification 

over the western Gulf of Mexico during GUFMEX . J . Appl . Meteorol . 

32(9) :1521-1537 . 

Abstract . Cold-frontal passages over the Gulf of Mexico in late winter or early 

spring are frequently followed by return-flow episodes in which modified 

polar air and warm, moist tropical air move toward the Gulf coast . While 

both advection and airmass modification due to boundary-layer physics are 

important in this sequence of events, the relative roles of these 

processes are unclear . In the present study, the authors utilize data 

from the Gulf of Mexico Experiment and two distinctive numerical models 

in addressing this issue. In forecasts of a return-flow event, trajectory 

computations are performed using a mesoscale numerical weather prediction 

model to determine the source regions of air arriving on the coast at 

several different levels . A one-dimensional airmass transformation model 

is also used in order to delineate boundary-layer physical processes . 

Simulations were conducted at two sites along the Gulf coast to 

investigate geographic variability in this return-flow episode, including 

the effect on boundary-layer structure of sea surface temperature 

variations in shelf waters . By careful examination of temporal variations 

in surface flux and advective forcing and by examining changes due both 

to surface heat flux and differential advection in the forecast vertical 

53 
profiles of potential temperature and specific humidity, the authors 

demonstrate that surface fluxes are important in heating and moistening 

the boundary layer as the air moves south across the Gulf . 

Tolbert, W .H . and G .B . Austin . 1956 . Oceanographic data collected off Panama 

City Beach, Florida, during period 12 April 1955 through 28 December 

1955 . U .S . Navy Mine Defense Laboratory Data Report . 5602(GX-14) :175 . 

Abstract . The data were collected from two offshore stations and one in St . 

Andrew Bay. 

Tolbert, W .H . and G .B . Austin . 1959 . On the nearshore marine environment of the 

Gulf of Mexico at Panama City, Florida . U .S . Navy Mine Defense Laboratory 

Technical Paper . 161 :104 . 

Abstract . Hydrography, sedimentology and weather data for the Panama City 

region . 

University of Florida and Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Lab. 1972 . 

Hurricane surge analysis for Choctawhatchee Bay, Florida . University of 

Florida, Coastal and Oceanographic Engineering Lab. Gainesville, FL . 13 

PPAbstract . A study of projected storm tides in the area . 

U .S . Army Corps of Engineers . 1957 . Hurricane wave statistics for the Gulf of 

Mexico . U .S . Army Corps of Engineers, Technical Memorandum . 98 :94 . 

Abstract . This report contains the results of a statistical hindcast study of 

the heights and periods of significant waves generated by hurricanes in 

the Gulf of Mexico in the period 1900 to 1949 . Results are presented in a 

series of polar plots of frequencies of occurrence of waves of given 

height and period at deep-water (100 fathoms depth) stations at different 

bearings offshore from five coastal stations . 

U.S . Army Corps of Engineers . 1973 . Report on Gulf Coast deep water port 

facilities, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. U.S . 

Army Corps of Engineers, Lower Mississippi Valley Division . 136 pp . 

U .S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1972 . Environmental guide for the U .S . Gulf Coast . 

Prepared for the Army Corps of Engineers by NOAA Environmental Data 

Center . 

Abstract . Presents tabulations of summary climate data for potential Gulf Coast 

deep water port sites . Includes environmental descriptions (extratropical 

and tropical cyclones, winds, and waves) for the Northeastern Gulf of 

Mexico sites (Panama City, Mobile, Bayou Lafourche, and Southwest Pass) 

in addition to other sites throughout the Gulf . 

U.S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1975 . Some climatological characteristics of hurricanes 

and tropical storms, Gulf and East Coasts of the U .S ., 1975 . NOAA, NWS 

Tech . Rep . 15 :87 . 

Abstract . Historical summary of hurricanes and storms occurring in the Gulf of 

Mexico and the Atlantic Coast for 1975 . General characteristics, such as 

duration, path, severity, wind speeds, origin, and direction are provided 

for each occurrence . 

54 
U .S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1975 . Wind-driven transport in 1975, Atlantic coast and 

Gulf of Mexico . NOAA Tech . Rep . NMFS Cir . 416 :229-239 . 

Abstract . Describes the importance of surface layer and wind-driven transport 

with respect to survivability of plankton . Also provides a qualitative 

description on how wind driven transport affects nearshore circulation . 

Minimal quantitative data is presented except to show that the 1985 

transport values compare well with ten year mean averages . 

U .S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1979 . Meteorological criteria for standard project 

hurricane and probable maximum hurricane windfields, Gulf and East Coasts 

of the United States . NOAA, NWS Tech . Rep . NOAA-TR-NWS-23 :347 . 

Abstract . Description of standard hurricane windfield estimates . 

U .S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1979 . Summary and analysis of synoptic meteorological 

observations in selected coastal marine areas . NOAA Report PB 296915 . 

Abstract . Tabulation of pertinent meteorological parameters derived from 

synoptic meteorological observations in selected coastal areas including 

the Gulf of Mexico . 

U .S . Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration . 1979 . Wind-driven transport, Atlantic coast and Gulf of 

Mexico . NOAA Tech . Rep . NMFS Circ . 427 :175-208 . 

Abstract . Surface waters were found to respond to the surface wind stress by 

flowing in a direction 45° to the right of the stress direction. The net 

water transport is 90° to the right of the surface stress direction. 

U .S . Department of Commerce, National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration and 

U .S . National Oceanographic Data Center . 1970 . CICAR - Bibliography on 

Meteorology, Climatology and Physical/Chemical Oceanography . Vol . 1 NODC . 

Washington, D .C . 380 pp . 

U .S . Department of Defense and Department of the Navy . 1981 . Surface stress 

estimation for study of the circulation dynamics of the Gulf of Mexico . 

NORDA Technical Note 113 . 

Abstract . Evaluates the available wind data on a fine enough mesh to be of use 

in forecast models of ocean circulation . Because of the fine grid, more 

accurate horizontal derivatives can be obtained to estimate wind stress 

curl as boundary condition forcing in numerical models . 

U .S . Department of Defense and Department of the Navy . 1985 . Navy-corrected 

geostrophic wind set for the Gulf of Mexico . Naval Ocean Research and 

Development Activity Technical Note 310 . 

Abstract . Geostrophic wind computed from surface pressure analyses resulted in 

data set with high temporal and spatial resolution . As a result, new 

features in wind stress curl patterns were observed in seasonal and 

monthly climatologies . 

55 
U .S . Department of Defense and Department of the Navy . 1986 . U .S . Navy climatic 

study of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico . Volume 3 . Florida coastal 

waters and Southwest Atlantic . Naval Oceanography Command Report No . : 

NAVAIR-50-1C-545 . 

Abstract . Climate study consists of monthly charts and table of a variety of 

oceanographic characteristics . 

U.S . Department of Defense and Department of the Navy . 1986 . U .S . Navy climatic 

study of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico . Volume 4 . Gulf of Mexico 

and Gulf of Tehuantepec . Naval Air Systems Command Report No . : NAVAIR-50-

1C-546 . 

Abstract . Charts and tables of oceanographic characteristics focusing on the 

Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of Tehuantepec . 

U .S . Department of Defense and United States Air Force . 1978 . A climatology of 

monthly mean sea surface temperatures for the Gulf of Mexico . Final 

Report to the United States Air Force Air Weather Service (MAC), 

Environmental Technical Applications Center, Scott Air Force Base, 

Illinois (USAFETAC-PR-78-001) . 

Abstract . Presents charts of monthly mean SST values in 1° quadrangles for 

entire Gulf of Mexico . A brief discussion of the SST data as it relates 

to prevailing ocean currents is also included. 

U .S . Department of Defense and United States Air Force . 1986 . Headquarters 

Armament Division (AFSC) . 100-year hurricane wind, tide, wave and current 

characteristics and wave-current force . Contract F00635-86-M-0319, 

ANG/Gulfport, ACMI Storm Wave Study . 

Abstract . Summarizes results of an analysis of 100-year hurricane wind, tide, 

wave and current characteristics and wave and combined wave-current 

forces at two tower locations of the proposed ANG/Gulfport Air Combat 

Maneuvering Instrumentation Range in the offshore Mississippi area of the 

Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity of 29°52'N, 88°27'W . 

U .S . Department of Interior and Bureau of Land Management . 1975 . Compilation 

and summation of historical and existing physical oceanographic data from 

the eastern Gulf of Mexico in support of the creation of a MAFLA sampling 

program . Submitted to BLM under Contract No . 08550-CT4-16 . 

Abstract . Describes MAFLA, a BLM-commissioned study to synthesize physical 

oceanographic and meteorologic data in the northeast Gulf of Mexico to 

develop an understanding of pollutant trajectories . Summarizes knowledge 

of atmospheric conditions, tides, river run-off, hydrography, and 

circulation of the shelf and deep basin. Mechanisms for inducing shelf 

motions are explored . 

U .S . Environmental Protection Agency . 1993 . Preliminary assessment of Gulf of 

Mexico OCS contributions to ozone formation in onshore areas using the 

regional oxidant model . Final Rpt . See also PB94-140258 . Sponsored by 

Minerals Management Service . Gulf of Mexico OCS Region . New Orleans, LA. 

214 pp . 

Abstract . The study represents the first assessment of OCS contributions to 

ozone in the Gulf of Mexico . Two ozone episodes (July 20-August 6, 1988, 

and July 24-August 1, 1990), which had onshore winds for transporting 

OCS-derived ozone to onshore areas, were selected for analysis . The 

model's onshore emissions input consisted of the 1985 National Acid 

56 
Precipitation and Assessment inventory, the Biogenic Emissions Inventory 

System, and mobile sources from the 1986 vehicle traveled data adjusted 

to 1988 . The model's performance evaluation reveals an average normalized 

gross error of 31%, while the paired accuracy of peaks averaged 22 .8 . 

The results of the assessment suggest that a similar study using an 

improved emissions database and a photochemical model with finer spatial 

resolution to gain a better understanding of OCS contributions is 

desirable . 

U .S . Nuclear Regulatory Commission . 1982 . Historical extreme winds for the 

United States : Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastlines . NRC Report, May 

82, 160 pp . 

Abstract . Annual wind data were extracted for the complete period of record for 

53 locations along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastlines . Selected 

probability estimates were developed from an extreme value model for nontropical storms and the Weibull model for tropical storms . 

Vega, A.J . and M .S . Binkley. 1994 . Tropical cyclone landfall in the United 

States 1960-1989 . National Weather Digest . 19(1) :14-26 . 

Abstract . All tropical cyclones which originated in the North Atlantic Basin 

(including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea) and made landfall within 

the United States during the period 1960-1989 are analyzed . The cyclones 

are divided into categories based on formation area (six distinct 

regions), month of cyclogenesis, maximum strength the cyclone achieved 

(using the Saffir-Simpson scale), and landfall location (nine distinct 

zones) . In order to identify climatological patterns and trends, 

statistical procedures are used with each of the stated variables . This 

study differs from others on tropical cyclone climatology through 

methodology . Here, only tropical cyclones which made landfall within the 

U.S . during the study period are examined . By incorporating this 

methodology, a greater understanding of the associated trends and 

climatological interactions of cyclones which pose danger to U.S . 

citizens is gained . The study aids in delineating the time period during 

which a tropical cyclone is expected, the extent of the area likely to 

experience a tropical cyclone, and the likely severity of the tropical 

cyclone. Results indicate that landfall zones along the Gulf Coast are 

primarily affected during the early portion of the hurricane season by 

tropical cyclones which form in the Gulf of Mexico . As the hurricane 

season progresses, the cyclones form in the Caribbean and usually make 

landfall within the state of Florida. During the time of greatest cyclone 

frequencies (August and September), the cyclogenesis area shifts to its 

farthest eastern extent, near the Cape Verde Islands . These tropical 

cyclones typically make landfall along the western Gulf Coast, Florida, 

or along the East Coast north of 34°N . Late season cyclogenesis reverts 

back to the Gulf of Mexico and once again plagues the Gulf Coast landfall 

zones . 

Vonder Haar, T .H . 1976 . The energy balance of the Gulf of Mexico . pp . 19-24 . 

Role of the Gulf of Mexico in the Weather of the United States : A 

Conference on Meteorology over and near the Gulf . TAMU, College Station, TX . 

Vukovich, F .M ., B .W . Crissman, M . Bushnell and W .J . King . 1979 . Some aspects of 

the oceanography of the Gulf of Mexico using satellite and in situ data . 

J . Geophys . Res . 84(012) :7749-7768 . 

57 
Abstract . Satellite infrared data and in situ data were combined to study 

synoptic-scale and mesoscale fronts in the Gulf of Mexico in the period 

1973-1977 . Deep northward penetrations of the Loop Current were noted in 

the winter, and a major warm gyre developed in the winter, 1974 . Other 

major warm gyres were seen to develop in the early spring (1974 and 

1977) . In all cases, a very large meander developed off the southern part 

of the west Florida shelf prior to the development of the major warm 

gyre . Smaller meanders were seen to move along the Loop Current boundary 

at an average speed of 28 km/d and with an average wavelength of 210 km . 

Wallcraft, A.J . 1991 . Gulf of Mexico circulation modeling study, Annual 

Progress Report : Years 3 and 4 . Final Report . 1982-90 . Minerals 

Management Service . Metairie, LA . 226 pp . 

Abstract . This is the final report of a four-year numerical ocean circulation 

modeling program for the Gulf of Mexico . The aim of the program was to 

progressively upgrade an existing model of the Gulf of Mexico to provide 

the most realistic long-term simulation possible of Gulf circulation . The 

NOARL/JAYCOR multi-layer hydrodynamic and thermodynamic primitive 

equation circulation models of the Gulf of Mexico on a 0 .2 degree and a 

0 .1 degree grid were used in the program . They were forced by constant 

inflow through the Yucatan Straits compensated by outflow through the 

Florida Straits, and by wind stresses from the Navy Corrected Geostrophic 

Wind data set for the Gulf of Mexico . The most realistic simulation 

produced by the program was a blending of one- and two-layer experiments, 

augmented by a perturbation analysis to extract surface currents from the 

vertically averaged ocean model velocities . Actual wind stresses from 

1967-1982 were used to force the simulation, but the resulting currents 

are intended to be representative of Gulf circulation rather than a 

hindcast of the actual state of the Gulf over this time period . Wind 

stress, surface current, and geostrophic surface current fields from this 

simulation, sampled every three days for 10 years, have been delivered to 

NMS . Current fields at 100, 300, 750, and 1600 meter depths, sampled 

every six days for the same 10-year period, have also been delivered . 

Also, detailed vertical current profiles have been delivered to the 

locations of all moored buoys used in Years 1 through 5 of NMS's recently 

concluded Gulf of Mexico Physical Oceanography Program . 

Wallcraft, A ., T . Townsend and D . Grant . 1985 . Wind-driven ocean modeling and 

ocean model development ; Final Rpt . J665-85-006/6251 . Jaycor . Alexandria . 

89 pp . 

Abstract . Numerical simulations were performed with a 0 .2 deg, two-layer, free 

surface, primitive equation, ocean circulation model of the Gulf of 

Mexico with a realistic bottom topography and coastline . As in previous 

simulations, with idealized bottom topography and coastline, realistic 

Loop Current behavior could be obtained without wind forcing and with 

constant inflow through the Yucatan Straits . However, simulations with 

both wind and port forcing showed significantly more variation than those 

with port forcing alone . A similar two layer model was set up for a North 

Atlantic region, from 20°N, 82°W to 48°N, 30°W, on a 0 .25x0 .2 deg grid . A 

Black Box' multigrid package was prepared for solving finite difference 

Helmholtz's equations with staggered grid Neumann boundary conditions in 

nonrectangular regions . In semi-implicit free surface primitive equation 

ocean models, it is competitive with other powerful iterative methods but 

slower than the direct Capacitance Matrix Technique . Several wind stress 

58 
data sets were prepared for use in ocean models, based on global analysis 

products from FNOC and NMC, regional analysis products from FNOC, and 

ship observations . These data sets have been used to drive ocean 

circulation model of the World Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the North 

Atlantic, and the Western Mediterranean Sea . 

Wanstrath, J .J . 1976 . Storm surge simulation in transformed coordinates, Vol . I, 

Theory and application . Technical Report No . 76-3 . United States Army 

Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center . Ft . Belvoir, VA . 

166 pp . 

Abstract . A two-dimensional time-dependent, numerical storm surge model using 

orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is presented . The curvilinear 

coordinate system is based on a conformal mapping of the interior region, 

bounded by the actual coast, the seaward boundary (taken as the 180-m 

depth contour), and two parallel lateral boundaries, into a rectangle in 

the image plane . Three regions of the Continental Shelf of the Gulf of 

Mexico and two regions of the eastern seaboard of the U .S . are mapped . 

Since the transformation is conformal, the associated modifications of 

the vertically integrated equations of motion and mass continuity are 

minimized . The coast, seaward boundary, and the lateral boundaries of the 

computing grid are straight lines in the image plane, thus facilitating 

the application of the boundary conditions . The final coordinates allow 

for the greatest resolution near the coast in a central area of principal 

storm surge development and modification . The model is used in the 

simulation of the storm surge induced by Hurricanes Carla (1961) and 

Camille (1969), which crossed the Gulf coast of the United States, and 

Hurricane Gracie (1959), which crossed the east coast . Analytical 

interpretations of the wind and atmospheric pressure-forcing functions 

are used in the computations . 

Wanstrath, J .J . 1976 . Storm surge simulation in transformed coordinates . Vol . II . 

Program Documentation . CERC-TR-76-3-Vol .-2 . Coastal Engineering Research 

Center . Ft . Belvoir, VA . 178 pp . 

Abstract . A two-dimensional time-dependent numerical storm surge model using 

orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is presented . The curvilinear 

coordinate system is based on a conformal mapping of the interior region 

bounded by the actual coast, the seaward boundary (taken as the 180-meter 

depth contour) and two parallel lateral boundaries into a rectangle in 

the image plane . Three regions of the Continental Shelf of the Gulf of 

Mexico and two regions of the eastern seaboard of the United States are 

mapped . Since the transformation is conformal, the associated 

modifications of the vertically integrated equations of motion and mass 

continuity are minimized . The coast, seaward boundary, and the lateral 

boundaries of the computing grid are straight lines in the image plane 

thus facilitating the application of the boundary conditions . The final 

coordinates allow for the greatest resolution near the coast in a central 

area of principal storm surge development and modification . The model is 

employed in the simulation of the storm surge induced by Hurricanes Carla 

(1961) and Camille (1969) which crossed the Gulf coast of the United 

States and Hurricane Gracie (1959) which crossed the east coast . 

Analytical interpretations of the wind and atmospheric pressure-forcing 

functions are used in the computations . 

59 
Ward, E .G . 1974 . Ocean data gathering program, an overview. Shell Development Co . 

Abstract . The ocean data gathering program resulted in the collection of 

oceanographic and meteorological data at six offshore sites in the Gulf 

of Mexico from 1968-1971 . The primary goal of the program was to obtain 

data on extreme conditions generated by severe hurricanes in the Gulf of 

Mexico . Parameters continuously recorded are wave amplitude, wind speed 

and direction, and barometric pressure . 

Ward, E .G ., L .E . Borgman and V .J . Cardone . 1979 . Statistics of hurricane waves 

in the Gulf of Mexico . J . Petrol . Technol . 31(5) :632-642 . 

Abstract . By using hurricane data from 1900-1974, an historical wave data base 

was produced by hindcasting . A model was then applied to estimate the 

cumulative probability distribution function for the largest wave in a 

given number of years . 

Washington, W . and D . Buamhefner . 1976 . The Influence of the Gulf of Mexico on 

baroclinic systems in a GCM . pp . 29-33 . Zn Role of the Gulf of Mexico in 

the Weather of the United States : A Conference on Meteorology over and 

near the Gulf . TAMU, College Station, TX . 

Weather Bureau . 1965 . Proceedings of the Sea-Air Interaction Conference, 

Tallahassee, Florida February 23-25, 1965 . TN-9-SAIL-1 . Weather Bureau, 

Sea-Air Interaction Lab . Washington, D .C . 337 pp . 

Abstract . Air-sea exchange as a factor in synoptic scale meteorology in middle 

latitudes ; The three-dimensional ocean circulation driven by density 

gradients in an enclosed basin ; On the present state of knowledge in airsea boundary layer problems ; A survey of the role of sea-air interaction 

in tropical meteorology; Sensible and latent heat exchange in low 

latitude synoptic-scale systems ; Intensity of hurricanes in relation to 

sea surface energy exchange ; The Gulf of Mexico after HILDA (Preliminary 

Results) ; Evidence of surface cooling due to typhoons ; The modification 

of water temperature by hurricane CARLA ; On the low level thermal 

stratification of the monsoon air over the Arabian Sea and its connection 

to the water temperature field; A low-level jet produced by air, sea, and 

land interactions ; U . S . Fleet numerical weather facility activities 

relating to sea-air interactions on a synoptic scale ; Synoptic scale heat 

exchange and its relations to weather ; Laboratory studies of wind action 

on water standing in a channel ; On the instability of Ekman boundary 

flow; Federal research programs in air-sea interaction . 

Weiss, S .J . 1992 . Some aspects of forecasting severe thunderstorms during coolseason return-flow episodes . J . Appl . Meteorol . 31 :964-982 . 

Weissman, D .E . 1983 . The dependence of the radar modulation transfer function 

on environmental conditions and wave parameters . DEW-83-1 . David E . 

Weissman . Northport, NY . 27 pp . 

Abstract . Recent measurements of ocean wave-radar modulation transfer function 

(MTF) from fixed ocean platforms, over a period of several years, have 

demonstrated that the loval hydrodynamic modulation of short centimetric 

waves is affected by the air-sea interaction . Results from widely 

separated ocean regions also show different individual properties, that 

make detailed measurements necessary. An X-band radar with vertical 

polarization was mounted on a platform in the Gulf of Mexico during Nov .-

Dec . 1978 . The data set is computer stored and was processed . A selective 

60 
study of this data has been conducted on the separate, independent 

influence of wind speed, air-sea temperature difference and wave slope on 

the MTF and the average radar cross section. Dependence on all these 

parameters was observed . Data from other experiments agree with these 

results . Variations of the coherence function for the modulation transfer 

function imply that other mechanisms must be found for these modulation 

effects other than hydrodynamic (wave-wave) interactions . An important 

conclusion of this study is that the surface stress depends not only on 

wind speed, but also on air-sea temperature difference and wave slope . 

Westerink, J .J ., R .A. Luettich, A .M . Baptista, N .W . Scheffner and P . Farrar . 

1992 . Tide and storm surge predictions using finite element model . 

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering . 118(10) :1373-1390 . 

Abstract . A finite element (FE) model is used to study tides and hurricane 

storm surge in the Gulf of Mexico in the region ranging from the 

Mississippi Sound to the northwest coast of Florida . Issues that are 

emphasized include the use of large domains, the importance of a high 

degree of grid resolution in coastal regions of interest, the use of 

meshes with highly varying nodal densities to minimize the size of the 

discrete problem, and the use of the generalized wave-continuity equation 

(GWCE) for FE-based solutions to the shallow-water equations . The 

computations presented are unprecedented in their scope, level of 

localized detail, and degree of grid-size variability . The GWCE-based FE 

model leads to very accurate and efficient flow solutions . 

Wolfe, M .A . and G .C . April . 1978 . Estimation of hurricane storm surge in Mobile 

Bay, Alabama. University of Alabama, Olin Summer Project . 37 pp . 

Wright, S . 1976 . Comparable development of Tropical Storm Hallie with a Gulf 

tropical disturbance . Mon . Weather Rev . 104(11) :1451-1454 . 

Abstract . A tropical disturbance formed in the western Gulf on May 20, 1976, 

and subsequently moved northeastward into the Florida panhandle on May 

23, 1976, with sustained winds up to 30 knots at Gulfport, MS ., and a low 

pressure reading of 998 .9 mb at Tallahassee, FL . The initial development 

of Hallie (Dvorak, 1975) and this Gulf disturbance were quite similar ; 

both formed east of a quasi-stationary trough aloft and in the vicinity 

of a weakening cold front . Daily visible satellite imagery taken of 

Hallie from Oct . 21-24, 1975, is shown in figures and analyzed . 

Zervas, C .E ., (ed .) . 1993 . Tampa Bay Oceanography Project : Physical 

Oceanographic Synthesis . NOAH Tech . Rep . NOS OES 002 :184 . 

Abstract . NOS's Tampa Bay Oceanography Project (TOP) collected a large and 

diverse set of physical oceanographic and meteorological data between 

June 1990 and September 1991 . This report presents the results of the 

data analysis and synthesizes these results in order to characterize the 

hydrodynamics of Tampa Bay. The TOP data set includes : (1) current meter 

data from 40 fixed stations (20 occupied by acoustic Doppler current 

profilers (ADCPs) and 20 occupied by electromagnetic current meters), (2) 

current meter data from a downward-facing towed ADCP along five transects 

in the Bay, (3) water levels at 16 stations along the shores of the Bay 

and the Gulf of Mexico, (4) meteorological (wind, temperature, and 

atmospheric pressure) data at five stations in the Bay, (5) time series 

of salinity and temperature data at 36 fixed sites, and (6) salinity and 

temperature profiles over depth along six transacts . 

61 
ENT opT y~' The Department of the Interior Mission 

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for 

most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use 

of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the 

environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for the 

M4ACH 3 enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major 

responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories 

under U.S . administration . 

The National Biological Service Mission 

As a bureau of the Department of the Interior (DOI), the National Biological Service's (NBS) primary 

mission is to provide the scientific understanding and technologies needed to support sound 

O 

management and conservation of our Nation's biological resources. Independence from regulatory and 

A management decision making greatly lessens the chance that scientific results will be viewed as less 

than objective science or subservient to the needs of policy makers. NBS provides credible, objective, 

and unbiased information needed by resources managers in the Department of the Interior in a form 

that allows them to assess, predict, and manage the biological consequences of various policies and 

management practices. Although the primary focus of the biological research is to meet DOI needs, 

the activities undertaken with natural resource research funding will also serve the science needs of a 

wide range of partners, including State governments, other Federal agencies, and private landowners. 

`'' 

The Minerals Management Service Mission 

a4 As a bureau of the Department o f the I nter i or, t h e Mi nera l s M anagement S erv i ce ' s ( MMS ) pr i mary 

%, responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer Continental Shelf 

% i ) w (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian lands, and distribute 

e4' those revenues . ~ 

" Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program 

administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally sound 

exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral resources. The 

MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities by ensuring the efficient, timely and 

accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and production due to Indian 

tribes and allottees, States and the U.S . Treasury. 

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being 

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially affected 

parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the quality of life for 

all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic development and environmental 

protection.