_______________

OCS Study

BOEM 2016-053

Pinniped Movements and Foraging

Village-Based Walrus Habitat Use Studies in the 

Chukchi Sea – Final Report

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

Alaska Region

www.boem.gov 

OCS Study

BOEM 2016-053

USFWS permit # MA039386-2
ii

_______________

OCS Study

BOEM 2016-053

Prepared under BOEM Contract M09PC00027
iii

Pinniped Movements and Foraging:

Village-Based Walrus Habitat Use Studies in the 

Chukchi Sea

Authors

Lori T. Quakenbush

Justin A. Crawford

John J. Citta

Mark A. Nelson

Prepared under BOEM Contract

M09PC00027

by

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

P.O. Box 25526

Juneau, Alaska 99802-5526

Published by

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Anchorage, Alaska

Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region June 2016

 
iv

DISCLAIMER

Study concept, oversight, and funding were provided by the U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Environmental Studies Program, Washington, DC under 

Contract Number M09PC00027. This report was prepared under contract between the Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. This report 

has been technically reviewed by BOEM, and it has been approved for publication. Approval 

does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of BOEM, nor does 

mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for 

use. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY

This report may be downloaded from the boem.gov website through the Environmental Studies 

Program Information System (ESPIS) by referencing OCS Study BOEM 2016-053. It is also 

available from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game website adfg.alaska.gov. You will be 

able to obtain this report also from the National Technical Information Service in the near future. 

Here are the addresses. You may also inspect copies at selected Federal Depository Libraries.

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Department of Commerce

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management National Technical Information Service

 Alaska Region 5285 Port Royal Road

Environmental Studies Section Springfield, Virginia 22161

3801 Centerpoint Dr. Suite 500 Phone: (703) 605-6040

Anchorage, AK 99503-5823 Fax: (703) 605-6900

Telephone requests may be placed at Email: bookstore@ntis.gov

(907) 334-5200

Fax: (907) 334-5242

CITATION

Quakenbush, L. T., J. A. Crawford, J. J. Citta, M. N. Nelson. 2016. Pinniped movements and 

foraging: village-based walrus habitat use studies in the Chukchi Sea. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Region, 

Anchorage, AK. OCS Study BOEM 2016-053. 82 pp + appendices.
v

 

www.boem.gov

The Department of the Interior Mission

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has 

responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. 

This includes fostering the sound use of our land and water resources, protecting 

our fish, wildlife and biological diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural 

values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for the enjoyment 

of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and 

mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best 

interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in 

their care. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian 

reservation communities and for people who live in island communities.

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) works to manage the 

exploration and development of the nation's offshore resources in a way that 

appropriately balances economic development, energy independence, and 

environmental protection through oil and gas leases, renewable energy 

development and environmental reviews and studies.
vi

Project Organization Page

Authors:

Lori T. Quakenbush (M.S.) is a Wildlife Biologist IV and Program Leader for the Arctic 

Marine Mammal Program within the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. Her role in this 

project was that of Principal Investigator and Project Manager and her activities included 

coordination, communication, contracting, permitting, tagging, presentations, traditional 

knowledge interviews, report writing, and manuscript preparation.

Justin A. Crawford (M.S.) is a Wildlife Biologist II for the Arctic Marine Mammal Program 

within the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. His role in this project was that of Principal 

Investigator and his activities included coordination, tagging, data management, archive, 

analysis, map production, and report and manuscript preparation.

John J. Citta (PhD.) is a Biometrician II with the Arctic Marine Mammal Program within the 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. His role in this project was assistance with data 

management, analysis, and report, and manuscript preparation.

Mark A. Nelson (M.S. candidate) is a Fish and Wildlife Technician V for the Arctic Marine 

Mammal Program within the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. His role in this project was 

assistance with tagging and documentation of traditional knowledge.

Key Project Personnel:

Mikkel Jensen is an Industrial Designer within his Denmark-based company called Mikkel’s 

Vaerkstad. He is an expert in walrus and bowhead whale tag anchor and deployment systems 

and his role in this project was to manufacture and attach tag anchors and provide tag 

deployment equipment. 

Henry P. Huntington is a social scientist within his Alaska-based company called Huntington 

Consulting. He is an expert in traditional knowledge and arranged and conducted traditional 

knowledge interviews, and assisted in report and manuscript preparation.

Clarence Irrigoo, Perry Pungowiyi, and Edwin Noongwook are Alaskan subsistence walrus 

hunters who were key participants as walrus taggers. They also educated research crews 

regarding walrus behavior and sea ice conditions.

Willard Neokok, Warren Harding Lampe, and Leo Ferrero III are subsistence hunters and 

residents of Pt. Lay who were key participants as stewards of the terrestrial haulout. They 

accompanied researchers and assisted with erecting remote camera towers to minimize 

disturbance to walruses. They also conducted beach surveys for haulout sites and carcass 

surveys.
vii

Table of Contents

List of Figures............................................................................................................................... ix

List of Tables............................................................................................................................... xii

List of Appendices...................................................................................................................... xiii

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................................1

Introduction....................................................................................................................................2

Goals and Objectives..................................................................................................................2

Objective 1................................................................................................................................3

Objective 2................................................................................................................................3

Objective 3................................................................................................................................3

Objective 4................................................................................................................................3

Methods...........................................................................................................................................3

Coordination...............................................................................................................................3

Tag development and deployment............................................................................................3

Genetic Samples..........................................................................................................................5

Mapping ......................................................................................................................................5

Movement and Dive Analyses ...................................................................................................6

Data Management and Location Processing .........................................................................7

Movement Behavior of Tagged Walruses...............................................................................7

Density Estimates.....................................................................................................................8

Haulout and Diving Behavior.................................................................................................8

Analysis of Time Spent Within Petroleum Areas...................................................................9

Haulout Activities.......................................................................................................................9

Locate terrestrial haulouts......................................................................................................9

Carcass surveys......................................................................................................................10

Local and Traditional Knowledge ..........................................................................................12

Safety .........................................................................................................................................12

Results...........................................................................................................................................12

Coordination.............................................................................................................................12

Tagging Walruses and Tag Performance...............................................................................16

Walrus Movements and Behavior ..........................................................................................22

North Migration: Late May–June, Bering and Chukchi Seas............................................26

Summer Feeding: July–August, Chukchi Sea .....................................................................28

Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (HSWUA)...........................................................................30

Southern Migration: Fall (September–October) Chukchi Sea............................................33

Use of Terrestrial Haulouts. ............................................................................................. 34

Movement Analyses...............................................................................................................37

Walrus Presence and Timing within Petroleum Areas........................................................39

Seismic Analyses....................................................................................................................42

Haulout and dive behavior....................................................................................................43

Surveys and other Activities at Terrestrial Haulouts...........................................................49

Local and Traditional Knowledge ..........................................................................................53

Accomplishment of Objectives and Tasks .............................................................................55

Overall Objective....................................................................................................................55

Objective 1..............................................................................................................................55
viii

Objective 2..............................................................................................................................55

Objective 3..............................................................................................................................56

Objective 4..............................................................................................................................56

Task 1 – Data Review and Hypothesis Development ...........................................................57

Task 2 – Experimental Design and Field Work ...................................................................57

Task 3 – Data Analysis and Reporting .................................................................................57

Task 4 – Integration of Findings with other Tasks..............................................................57

Task 5 – Data Management and Archival............................................................................58

Task 6 – Local Coordination, Outreach and Permitting .....................................................58

Task 7 – Logistics/Safety Plan ..............................................................................................58

Discussion......................................................................................................................................58

Coordination.............................................................................................................................58

Tagged Walruses, Biopsy and Tag Performance ..................................................................59

Conclusions...................................................................................................................................60

Recommendations........................................................................................................................61

Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................62

List of Project Reports, Presentations, and Products...............................................................62

Literature Cited ...........................................................................................................................64
ix

List of Figures

Figure 1. Satellite transmitter (Wildlife Computers SPOT tags) mounted on stainless steel shaft 

and cutting head and petals (made by Mikkel Jensen) used for tagging walruses......... 4

Figure 2. Map of the Chukchi Sea with active U.S. and proposed Russian petroleum 

exploration/development lease areas (red), and Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) leased 

blocks (orange). Russian petroleum areas in the Chukchi Sea include: SeveroVrangelevskiy 1 (S-V 1), Severo-Vrangelevskiy 2 (S-V 2), and Yuzhno-Chukotsky 

(Y-C). The Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area, recognized as an important foraging area 

for walruses in summer and fall and delineated by Jay et al. (2012) using utilization 

distributions of tagged walruses from June through September, is also shown (green). 

........................................................................................................................................ 6

Figure 3. Average facial characters of walruses by sex/age classes used to classify tagged 

walruses. Age classification is based primarily on tusk size in relation to the width 

and height of the snout (Fay et al. 1986; Fay and Kelly 1989, published in Citta et al. 

2013)............................................................................................................................. 11

Figure 4. Locations where satellite-linked transmitters were deployed on walruses in September 

2010, June 2013 and 2014, and May and June 2015.................................................... 21

Figure 5. Number of tagged walruses that transmitted by day, all years combined (2010–2015).

...................................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 6. Tracks of two tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from September through October, 

2010. The tag deployed on the female without a calf (red “X”) only transmitted 

locations for three days while the walrus was on shore near Cape Lisburne, Alaska.. 23

Figure 7. Tracks of 29 tagged walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas from June through 

October, 2013 relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal 

Walrus Use Area (Jay et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last 

transmission.................................................................................................................. 24

Figure 8. Tracks of 32 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October, 2014 

relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use 

Area (Jay et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last transmission. ....... 25

Figure 9. Tracks of 19 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October, 2015 

relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use 

Area (Jay et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last transmission. ....... 26

Figure 10. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in June using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 82). .............................................................................. 27

Figure 11. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in July using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 74). .............................................................................. 28

Figure 12. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in August using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 40). .............................................................................. 29

Figure 13. Average distance to shore by month for tagged adult female walruses in the Chukchi 

Sea, June through September of 2013–2015. ............................................................... 29

Figure 14. Number of tagged walruses that were in the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (Jay et al. 

2012) by day, all years combined (2013–2015). .......................................................... 31

Figure 15. Tracks of five tagged walruses that traveled to and from the HSWUA and used sea 

ice north the continental shelf break (200 m isopleth) for resting during 1 August to 21 

September 2015. One walrus used the ice north of the shelf break and the terrestrial 
x

haulout near Point Lay. AMSR2 sea ice data do not detect ice concentrations <15% 

accurately. Therefore, although walruses appear to be in open water when near the ice 

edge ice concentrations of <15% may have been present. Haulout data from the tags 

were used to indicate when and where resting bouts occurred on top of ice. .............. 32

Figure 16. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in September using 

pooled location data (2013–2015; n = 15).................................................................... 33

Figure 17. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in October using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 5). ................................................................................ 34

Figure 18. Tracks of two walruses tagged in the Chukchi Sea that hauled out at the terrestrial 

haulout near Point Lay, Alaska, between 14 August and 6 September, 2015. The 

number of transit days between the HSWUA and the haulout near Point Lay are listed 

next to each walrus track. Walrus W15-25 made two trips to the haulout................... 37

Figure 19. Locations of 82 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October, 

2010–2015, and active and proposed petroleum areas: Yuzhno-Chukotsky (YC) and 

Severo-Vrangelevskiy (SV) areas 1 and 2. .................................................................. 39

Figure 20. Number of tagged walruses that were in the Lease Area 193 petroleum area in 

Alaskan waters by day, all years combined (2013–2015)............................................ 40

Figure 21. Number of tagged walruses that were in proposed petroleum areas in Russian waters 

by day, all years combined (2013–2015). .................................................................... 41

Figure 22. Densities of dive locations of tagged female walruses from 2013 to 2015 (n = 82). 

Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy Cape contain areas with >90% 

probability of diving locations and thus were considered potentially important foraging 

areas.............................................................................................................................. 43

Figure 23. Proportion of time hauled out by reproductive category for tagged female walruses in 

the Alaskan Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015. Error bars represent 95% confidence 

intervals and letters on error bars that are different denote statistically significant 

differences. Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape were identified as potentially important 

foraging areas based on 90% density probability of haulout locations. “Other” 

represents the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. .......................................................... 44

Figure 24. Proportion of time hauled out by hour for tagged female walruses (with and without 

calves) in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015. Error bars represent 95% 

confidence intervals...................................................................................................... 45

Figure 25. Spatial representation of mean haul out percentages for tagged female walruses 

during 2013–2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy Cape contain areas 

identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of 

on ice haulout locations................................................................................................ 45

Figure 26. Mean dive durations (in minutes) by use area for tagged female walruses in the 

Alaskan Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015, after controlling for time of day. Error bars 

represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error bars that are different denote 

statistically significant differences. Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape were identified as 

potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of dive 

locations. “Other” represents the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. ........................... 46

Figure 27. Spatial representation of mean dive durations for tagged female walruses during 

2013–2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy Cape contain areas 

identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of 

dive locations................................................................................................................ 47
xi

Figure 28. Mean dive durations (in minutes) by time of day (Morning: 0300–0859, Midday: 

0900–1459, Evening: 1500–2059, Night: 2100–0259) for tagged female walruses in 

the Alaskan Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015, after controlling for area used. Error bars 

represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error bars that are different denote 

statistically significant differences. .............................................................................. 47

Figure 29. Mean dive rate (dives/hour) by use area for tagged female walruses in the Alaskan 

Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals and 

letters on error bars that are different denote statistically significant differences. Hanna 

Shoal and Icy Cape were identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 

90% density probability of dive locations. “Other” represents the rest of the Alaskan 

Chukchi Sea.................................................................................................................. 48

Figure 30. Spatial representation of mean dive rates for tagged female walruses during 2013–

2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy Cape contain areas identified as 

potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of dive 

locations........................................................................................................................ 49
xii

List of Tables

Table 1. Project history from July 2009 to June 2016. ................................................................ 13

Table 2. Walruses instrumented with satellite-linked transmitters in the Bering and Chukchi seas 

in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. Females with calves are noted by *. Tags that 

transmitted data for <24 hours after deployment due to an error in the tags’ software or 

for other unknown reasons are noted by +

...................................................................... 18

Table 3. Number of instrumented walruses whose tags successfully transmitted locations (i.e., 

number of tags that transmitted/total number of tags deployed) in the Bering and 

Chukchi seas in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. Walruses are grouped by year tagged and 

reproductive category..................................................................................................... 21

Table 4. Distances traveled by tagged walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas during 2010, 

2013, 2014, and 2015. Walruses are grouped by reproductive category....................... 22

Table 5. Summary of tagged walruses that entered the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (HS) 

during 2013–2015. Average first and last days listed in the subtotal rows are average 

dates based on all individuals regardless of sex and reproductive category.................. 30

Table 6. Tagged walruses that hauled out at terrestrial haulouts during 2010 and 2013–2015... 36

Table 7. Walrus carcass survey results from Point Lay, Alaska, September and October 2010, 

and September 2011, 2013, and 2014. Signs of trauma included blood from the nose 

and mouth, symptomatic of trampling as the cause of death. Fresh, moderate, advanced, 

and mummified carcass conditions refer to the level of decomposition observed; 

advanced and mummified (skeletal) decomposition suggests the walrus died the 

previous year.................................................................................................................. 50

Table 8. Walrus carcass survey results from Point Lay, Alaska, 3–4 October 2014 and conducted 

in cooperation with the North Slope Borough, Department of Wildlife Management. 

Signs of trauma included blood from the nose and mouth, symptomatic of trampling as 

the cause of death. Moderate and advanced carcass conditions refer to the level of 

decomposition observed; advanced decomposition suggests the walrus died the 

previous year.................................................................................................................. 52

Table 9. Summary of walrus carcasses that were observed with symptoms of trauma in 2010, 

2011, 2013, and 2014..................................................................................................... 53

Table 10. Summary of traditional ecological knowledge interviews and final reports. .............. 54
xiii

List of Appendices

Appendix A. “A Community Workshop on the Conservation and Management of Walruses on 

the Chukchi Sea Coast” held in Barrow in 2012.

Appendix B. Walrus Research Permit Report for 2013.

Appendix C. Russia’s main oil and gas company, Rosneft, agreement with ExxonMobil to 

explore three areas for liquefied natural gas (LNG) reserves.

Appendix D. Sample datasheet for carcass surveys.

Appendix E. Report of Chukchi hunters “Umpky Patrol” on walrus and polar bear Conservation.

Appendix F. Project abstracts, presentations, and reports listed chronologically.

Appendix F-1. Project update to EWC for December 2010 meeting.

Appendix F-2. Quakenbush, L., W. Neakok, J. Crawford, A. Bryan, and M. Nelson. 2011. 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2010. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 

17–21 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster)

Appendix F-3. 2011 Haulout Report for Pt. Lay.

Appendix F-4. Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, J. Garlich-Miller, M. A. Nelson, and L. T. 

Quakenbush. 2012. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2011. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 16–20 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Appendix F-5. Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, M. A. Nelson, J. Garlich-Miller, and L. T. 

Quakenbush. 2013. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2012. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 21–25 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Appendix F-6. Project update to Eskimo Walrus Commission, December 2013.

Appendix F-7. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, P. Pungowiyi, W. Neakok, and J. 

Garlich-Miller. 2014. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2013. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 20–24 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Appendix F-8. Project update to Eskimo Walrus Commission, December 2014.

Appendix F-9. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, E. Noongwook, and J. GarlichMiller. 2015. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2014. Alaska Marine Science 

Symposium, 19–22 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Appendix F-10. Project update to Eskimo Walrus Commission, December 2015.
xiv

Appendix F-11. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 

2015. Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. 21th Biennial Conference on the 

Biology of Marine Mammals. 14–18 December, 2015. San Francisco, CA, USA. (Abstract and 

oral presentation).

Appendix F-12. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 

2016. Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 

25–29 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Appendix G. Traditional Knowledge reports listed chronologically.

Appendix G-1. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2012. Traditional 

knowledge regarding walrus near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska. Report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 

11 pp. 

Appendix G-2. Huntington, H. P., and L. T. Quakenbush. 2013. Traditional knowledge 

regarding walrus near Point Hope, Alaska. Report to the Native Village of Point Hope, Alaska 

and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 9 pp. 

Appendix G-3. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015a. Traditional 

knowledge regarding walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals near Barrow, Alaska. Final report 

to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. 

Appendix G-4. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015b. Traditional 

knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals and walrus near Elim, Alaska. Final report to 

the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 7 pp.

Appendix G-5. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015c. Traditional 

knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near St. Michael and Stebbins, 

Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau 

of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015. 7 pp. 

Appendix G-6. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016a. Traditional 

knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kivalina, Alaska. Final report 

to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. 

Appendix G-7. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016b. Traditional

knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska. Final report 

to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 11 pp. 
xv

Appendix G-8. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016c. Traditional 

knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska. Final 

report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. 
1

Executive Summary

Working cooperatively with the Eskimo Walrus Commission and walrus hunters from Alaskan 

coastal communities, we designed a study to deploy satellite transmitters and conduct counts, 

carcass surveys, and observations on haulouts that are encountered near villages in spring and 

fall. During the seven years (2009–2016) of this study titled, “Village-Based Walrus Habitat 

Use Studies in the Chukchi Sea,” we combined satellite-linked transmitter technology and the 

traditional knowledge and skills of Native subsistence walrus hunters to greatly increase our 

understanding of walrus movements and behavior. Satellite-linked transmitters placed on 

walruses provided information on movements, speed of travel, feeding areas, and haulout 

behavior. We documented intensive summer use of Chukchi Lease Sale Area 193, especially 

Hanna Shoal by female walruses with calves-of-the-year and females without calves. Local and 

traditional knowledge was documented at Point Lay, Point Hope, Wainwright, Barrow, Elim, 

and St. Michaels/Stebbins to further our understanding of walrus behavior and how it may be 

changing. This final report covers 2009–2016 and includes satellite tracking 82 walruses in the 

Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas, terrestrial haulout surveillance, carcass surveys, necropsies 

and documentation of traditional knowledge. Activities were coordinated with the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, North Slope Borough, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS), and the villages of Barrow, Wainwright, Point Lay, Point Hope, 

Wales, Little Diomede, Gambell, and Savoonga.

We found that walruses migrating north with the receding sea ice were not limited to the 

marginal ice zone but traveled deep into the ice. Walruses migrated on both the U.S. and 

Russian sides of the Chukchi Sea, generally staying closer to shore (average 100 km, 62 miles) 

as they migrated north in June, and progressively moved farther from shore in the Chukchi Sea 

during July (average 119 km, 74 miles), August (average 138 km, 86 miles), and September

(average 171 km, 106 miles). 

The Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (HSWUA) is known to be important for walruses (Jay et al.

2012) and 59% of the walruses we tagged spent time there, presumably to forage. The average 

arrival date was 30 June and departure was 2 August. Prior to arriving in the HSWUA they 

traveled 49.5 km/day (30.7 miles/day), once within the area, however, travel rates slowed to 

about half that (25.7 km/day, 16.0 miles/day). 

Females hauled out on ice a higher proportion of time when in Hanna Shoal than when in coastal 

foraging areas near Icy Cape. Specifically, haulout percentages of females with calves in Hanna 

Shoal were higher than females with calves near Icy Cape and higher than females with calves in 

the rest of the Chukchi Sea, as well as higher than females without calves in all areas. Haulout 

percentages were also highest during the day (0900–2000). For all females, dive duration was 

longest and dive rate was lowest in Hanna Shoal than in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea.

Not all walruses used the terrestrial haulouts at Point Lay during their southward migration. 

During the times when walruses hauled out in large numbers near Point Lay, two of seven tagged 

walruses used the haulout, and only in 2015.
2

Introduction

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) are an important subsistence and cultural resource for 

coastal people of western Alaska and they are an important component of the Bering and 

Chukchi seas ecosystem. Walruses winter together in the Bering Sea but females with calves 

and subadults summer in the Chukchi Sea feeding on the sea floor in water less than 100 m and 

using sea ice as a resting platform; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they use 

terrestrial haulouts for resting. When the ice edge retreats too far north of the continental shelf it 

is no longer useable for resting between feeding bouts because the water is too deep for feeding. 

The rapid retreat of sea ice in recent years is changing walrus summer habitat in the Chukchi Sea 

and may be changing summer distribution and hauling out behavior, requiring that walruses haul 

out on land instead of ice. These ice conditions may require that females with calves and 

subadults feed near terrestrial haulouts, which may cause nearby feeding areas to be depleted and 

disturbance events on terrestrial haulouts can cause increased calf mortality. Walruses on ice 

floes can quickly get to deep water when disturbed, but on large land haulouts disturbances may 

lead to stampedes that cause calves and subadults to be trampled as the larger animals run over 

them to get to water. Polar bears congregate at terrestrial haulouts and can cause stampedes for 

the opportunity to prey on injured calves. Thus, the changes in the extent and duration of the sea 

ice in summer may be changing the distribution of females, calves, and subadults. For example, 

females with young calves may need to remain close to shore where calves can haul out to rest.

Due to these concerns walruses were petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act 

(ESA) in 2008. In 2011, although the population was not believed to be in decline, listing was 

determined to be warranted but precluded by other more urgent listing needs and the Pacific 

walrus was delegated as a candidate species. Court settlements have dictated that the Pacific 

walrus must either be listed under the ESA or removed as a candidate species by 2017. 

Concomitant with rapidly retreating summer sea ice, oil and gas activity increased in the 

Chukchi Sea until 2015 adding to the importance of understanding walrus movements, feeding 

areas, and habitat requirements necessary to plan lease sales, permit development activities, and 

design effective mitigation measures for better conservation and management of the species, 

however, substantial oil and gas activities in the near future appear unlikely.

During the seven years of this study (2009–2016) we learned about the movements and behavior 

of walruses during summer in the Chukchi Sea, including the amount of time spent in the 

Chukchi Lease Sale Area 193, which includes Hanna Shoal. We also learned about diving and 

hauling out behavior of adult females, both those with calves and those without calves, during a 

period of diminishing sea ice. 

Goals and Objectives

This study was designed to work in close-cooperation with Native Alaskan subsistence hunters 

to deploy satellite-linked transmitters, conduct observations, document traditional knowledge 

regarding walruses, and to integrate our findings with concurrent research on walruses and other 

marine mammals in the Chukchi Sea Lease Sale area. 
3

Objective 1: Estimate patterns of movement and behavior of walruses migrating to and moving 

within the Chukchi Sea Planning Area. Particular emphasis will be placed on estimating 

movements within industrial ship traffic lanes and between terrestrial haulout sites and feeding 

areas near Hanna Shoal and other potential oil and gas development sites.

Objective 2: Estimate and evaluate the effect of any changes in walrus behavior related to 

changes in ice coverage and ice quality in the Chukchi Sea.

Objective 3: Estimate walrus use of terrestrial haulouts by demographic class and estimate the 

duration of occupancy as related to weather, disturbance, and other potential factors.

Objective 4: Create a database of traditional knowledge of walrus behaviors including, but not 

necessarily limited to, movements, social behavior, and use of habitat including use of ice and 

land as haulout substrates.

Methods

Coordination

Meetings, workshops, other communication. Meetings with the Eskimo Walrus Commission

(EWC), walrus hunters, Point Lay Community, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have been fundamental to this tagging project. We also cosponsored and participated in the “Adapting to Climate Change: A Community Workshop on the 

Conservation and Management of Walruses on the Chukchi Sea Coast” held in Barrow in 2012 

(Appendix A).

Tag development and deployment

We researched satellite-linked transmitters (tags) available for use on walruses, including those 

used by USGS. We chose a system of deployment and attachment developed by Mads Peter 

Heide-Jørgensen and Mikkel Jensen from the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources that has 

been used successfully with walruses in Alaska and Canada. These tags are manufactured by 

Wildlife Computers, Inc. and use the Argos system of satellites for data collection. Tags were

deployed by crossbow with shafts modified for tag delivery. Crossbows were used to deploy 

tags only on adult walruses that were hauled out on ice or land. With the input of the walrus 

hunters, we developed a pole deployment system based on hunter harpoon methods to deploy 

tags on walruses that were either swimming at the surface of the water or were hauled out on sea 

ice. The pole was thrown (harpoon style) to tag walruses at a distance of 2–4 m. 

We used two types of tags; 1) SPLASH tags (Model: SPLASH10, Dimensions: 5.5 x 3.0 x 2.5 

cm) that provide both location and dive data and 2) SPOT tags (Models: SPOT5 during 2010–

2014, 4.5 x 3.0 x 2.3 cm and SPOT6 during 2015, 5.2 x 3.0 x 2.0 cm) that provide location and 

haulout behavior (i.e., time wet and dry). Both tag types were mounted on top of a stainless steel 

shaft (7 cm long). The shaft has a cutting head and petal combination on the bottom (Fig. 1). 

The cutting head is designed to cut through the tough skin upon deployment and the petals are to 

impede the transmitter shaft from working out of the skin and blubber. The transmitter sits on 

top of the skin and serves as a stop during deployment. A (17 cm long) antenna wire protrudes 
4

from the top of the transmitter. The SPOT tags and shaft weighed 49 g in air, and the SPLASH 

tags and shaft weighed 63 g.

Figure 1. Satellite transmitter (Wildlife Computers SPOT tags) mounted on stainless steel shaft 

and cutting head and petals (made by Mikkel Jensen) used for tagging walruses. Ruler is in cm.

We attempted to minimize disturbance to non-target animals during all activities (e.g., see 2013 

Research Permit Report, Appendix B). Walruses on the ice were approached very slowly from 

small boats with outboard motors. Walruses hauled out on land were approached from 

downwind by a person crawling on their stomach. Tagging and biopsy activities were not 

attempted on groups larger than 300 walruses to minimize injury from potential stampedes.

During 2010, we deployed two SPOT tags that were set to attempt 175 transmissions per day. 

Given that tags on walruses rarely transmit for more than a few months this limit was too 

conservative. For the remainder of the study, SPLASH and SPOT tags were set to attempt 250 

transmissions per day. Tags were set to transmit all hours of the day and all days of the week; 

there was no “duty cycle” or “dead time.” Tags only send data when at the surface and more 

than one transmission is required by Argos satellites to calculate a location. The number of 

transmissions received from tags was variable and likely dependent upon the position of the tag 

on the walrus (e.g., along the mid-line versus lower on the shoulder) in addition to the tag 

settings. 

The SPLASH tags transmitted dive data in compressed and simplified histogram form, as well as 

more detailed dive information. Specifically, SPLASH tags collect the following forms of dive 

and haul out data: 

1) Maximum Dive Depth data are a collection of accumulated dive depths during a 6-hr 

period. These histograms (DEPTH) tally the number of dives where the maximum 

depth recorded falls into pre-determined ranges or bins (0–5 m; 5–10 m; 10–20 m; 

20–30 m; 30–40 m; 40–50 m; 50–60 m; 60–70 m; 70–80 m; 80–90 m; 90–100 m; 

100–110 m; 110–120 m; and > 120 m).

2) Dive Duration data are a collection of accumulated dive durations during a 6-hr 

period. These histograms (DURATION) tally the number of dives where the dive 

duration of each recorded dive falls into pre-determined ranges or bins (0–2 mins; 2–
5

4 mins; 4–6 mins; 6–8 mins; 8–10 mins; 10–12 mins; 12–14 mins; 14–16 mins; 16–

18 mins; 18–20 mins; 20–22 mins; 22–24 mins; 24–26 mins; and > 26 mins).

3) Time-At-Depth data are a collection of accumulated times the walrus spent at specific 

water depths during a 6-hr period. These histograms (TAD) store the data into predetermined ranges or bins (0–5 m; 5–10 m; 10–20 m; 20–30 m; 30–40 m; 40–50 m; 

50–60 m; 60–70 m; 70–80 m; 80–90 m; 90–100 m; 100–110 m; 110–120 m; and > 

120 m).

4) Hourly Timelines summarize the proportion of each hour the tag reported being out of 

the water and dry (at the surface and dry or hauled out; PERCENT). A minute was 

classified as “dry” if the tag was dry for the entire minute. SPOT tags also collected 

these data.

5) Dive Behavior records the maximum depth and duration of a dive, along with its 

general shape. A walrus needed to go below 2 m for the behavior to be considered a 

dive. Possible dive profile shapes include “square,” “V,” or “U” shapes. This setting 

also records how much time is spent at the surface between dives.

6) Dry-Deep-Neither data classify the dominant behavioral state of the walrus for each 

hour and duplicated the chronologies of hourly haul-out and foraging state data 

collected by USGS. We collected this so that we could increase data available for 

USGS analyses. An hour was classified as “dry/hauled out” if the tag measured dry 

(out of the water) for more than 90% of the hour. An hour was classified as deep

(“foraging”) if it was deeper than 10 m for more than 50% of the hour. Otherwise the 

hour was classified as neither. The depth sensor was set to sample pressure every 1 

second. 

Genetic Samples

For our study, skin samples were only needed if sex was not evident from physical morphology. 

We collected a skin biopsy during tag deployment only when DNA was necessary to determine 

sex of the tagged walrus. Biopsy tips (manufactured by CETA-DART, Denmark) were a 2.5 cmlong, hollow, stainless steel cylinder, 0.6 cm diameter with internal barbs to retain the sample. 

When tagging with the crossbow, a biopsy was collected using a replaceable biopsy tip on a

separate arrow shaft with a float and a retrieval string. When tagging with the pole system a 

replaceable biopsy tip was mounted next to the bolt holding the satellite transmitter. Penetration 

depth was controlled by a stopper on the plastic projectile when using the crossbow and by a 

plastic backing that holds the transmitter onto the pole. Skin biopsies from tagged walruses were 

provided to USFWS for their genetic mark-recapture study. If needed, DNA was extracted and

analyzed to determine sex by genetics experts at the National Marine Fisheries Service, 

Southwest Fisheries Science Center and then archived. 

Mapping

To keep all interested parties informed of the project and share the movements of any tagged 

walruses, we produced weekly maps and sent them to an extensive mailing list that included 

many subsistence hunters as well as agency and oil company personnel. ArcMap version 10.2 

(ESRI Inc. 2012) was used for all mapping. We also created annual animations that depicted 
6

daily walrus locations and sea ice concentrations throughout the monitoring period each year. 

The maps and information about the project are also posted at the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game’s (ADFG) website: 

http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=marinemammalprogram.walrustracking

In addition to the general maps that included all tagged walruses and their movements, beginning 

in 2014, we also provided more detailed maps of tagged walruses in the active oil and gas lease 

areas near Hanna Shoal at the request of BOEM for weekly meetings with industry and agencies.

Movement and Dive Analyses

This report includes descriptive and quantitative analyses of walrus movements and behavior in 

the Chukchi Sea, from June through October, including their specific use of the Hanna Shoal 

Walrus Use Area (HSWUA; Jay et al. 2012; Fig. 2). These analyses include movement rates, 

distance from shore, density estimates highlighting high use and potentially important foraging 

areas, and haulout and diving behavior.

Figure 2. Map of the Chukchi Sea with active U.S. and proposed Russian petroleum 

exploration/development lease areas (red), and Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) leased blocks 

(orange). Russian petroleum areas include: Severo-Vrangelevskiy 1 (S-V 1), SeveroVrangelevskiy 2 (S-V 2), and Yuzhno-Chukotsky (Y-C). The Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area, 

recognized as an important foraging area for walruses was delineated by Jay et al. (2012) using 

utilization distributions of tagged walruses from June through September, is also shown (green).

( ** OCS Leased Blocks associated with Chukchi Sea Lease Sale 193 were active during the 

study period; all but one lease block has been relinquished as of May 2016).
7

Data Management and Location Processing 

Location data were collected using the Argos system (Harris et al. 1990) and a copy of the raw 

data has been archived at ADFG in Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Juneau. Metadata, raw data files, 

and processed data files are archived on the State of Alaska web server. On this server 

(WinfoNet), we have an archival application specifically for the storage of data and the creation 

of metadata. The server is backed-up daily and cached in Fairbanks, Anchorage, and 

Juneau. Processed locations were imported into a geographic information system (ArcMap or R) 

for analysis. Location error was estimated by the Argos system and characterized by “location 

classes” (see the Argos User’s Manual for a complete description; available online from argossystem.org/manual/). Location qualities provided by Argos include B, A, 0, 1, 2, and 3 with 3 

representing the highest quality and most accurate position. 

To determine which locations to use for analyses we used a speed-distance-angle (SDA) filter

(Freitas et al. 2008) in R version 3.1 (Package argosfilter) to remove less accurate locations. 

Walrus locations that resulted in swim velocities of >2.77 m/s (Udevitz et al. 2009) were

removed unless they were within 5 km of the previous location. The angular component of the 

filter is used to remove locations with a high degree of location error that fall far from the line of 

travel, but still within the threshold velocity. These locations are essentially outliers and they 

create “spikes” or acute deviations in the line of travel (e.g., Keating 1994, Freitas et al. 2008). 

For location i, this deviation is measured as the angle between locations i-1, i, and i+1. We used 

the default settings within the Freitas et al. (2008) filter; i.e., within 2.5 km of the track line, 

locations resulting in angles <15° were removed and locations between 2.5 and 5 km of the track 

line were removed if they resulted in angles <25° (see the manual for Package ‘argosfilter’ for 

more detail, available online at cran.R-project.org). We then removed locations that fell on land 

to establish the final set of locations used to determine walrus movements and areas of 

concentrated use.

For specific analyses, we also used a continuous-time, correlated random walk, state-space 

model to estimate the true locations and provide a single daily estimated location (Johnson et al.

2008) in R version 3.1 (Package crawl). In effect, the true location can be treated as an unknown 

variable and statistically estimated. The advantage of this technique is that all locations can 

potentially be used, regardless of location quality, and the estimated locations are more accurate 

than the raw data. Estimated locations of walruses were then used for analyses.

Movement Behavior of Tagged Walruses

We describe the seasonal movements of walruses in the Chukchi Sea during June through 

October. Because it is likely that walruses spend more time in higher quality foraging areas

during summer, we compared movement rates and descriptive statistics of walruses in the 

HSWUA (Fig. 2) with the rest of the Chukchi Sea. We used all locations retained by the SDA 

filter in ArcMap 10.2 (ESRI Inc. 2012) to calculate minimum distances traveled and rates of 

travel (km/day). We recognize that rates of travel using Argos locations may be biased due to 

location error and gaps in data that result in failure to capture complete animal movements (i.e., 

rates of travel are likely underestimated for walruses with fewer locations). Therefore, distances 

traveled and rates of travel are minimum estimated values. We investigated whether movement 

rates differed by reproductive category (females with calves versus females without calves), area 

of use (whether the walrus was located in the HSWUA or in the rest of the Chukchi Sea), and 
8

year using a linear mixed model and SAS software, version 9.3 (SAS Institute, 2010; PROC 

MIXED). We also investigated whether the distance walruses were from shore changed while 

they were in the Chukchi Sea. For each walrus, we determined the distance between the daily 

estimated location from the correlated random walk, state-space model (Johnson et al. 2008) and 

the nearest shoreline in ArcMap 10.2 (ESRI Inc. 2012). We then tested if distances to shore 

differed by reproductive category, month, and year using a repeated measures linear mixed 

model (PROC MIXED) and SAS software. We included month as a covariate because it 

represented the stage of migration in the Chukchi Sea. We did not include male walruses in our 

analyses of movement rates or distance to shore because our sample size was insufficient.

Density Estimates

We were interested in identifying high use areas within the Chukchi Sea, by month, during June–

October when we had walrus locations. We counted the number of locations within each cell of 

a 50 x 50 km gridded matrix that covered the Chukchi Sea to estimate the scaled probability of a 

walrus being located within each cell. We used R software to count the number of daily 

estimated locations from the correlated random walk, state-space model (Johnson et al. 2008) for 

each walrus that were located within each 50 x 50 km cell. Counts were made for each month of 

walrus locations (June–October). Next, we calculated the probability of finding a location in 

each cell by dividing the count of locations in each cell by the total number of locations. Finally, 

we estimated density contours, scaling the probability of finding a location in each cell by 

dividing the probability of finding a location in each cell by the overall maximal cell probability. 

Density contours were mapped in ArcMap 10.2.

Haulout and Diving Behavior

We investigated the haul out and dive behavior for female walruses while they were in the 

Chukchi Sea to determine if their behaviors differed by location or their reproductive category

(i.e., whether or not the female had a calf of the year when tagged). The dive and haul out data 

collected by the tags (see Tagging section above) were organized into 6 and 24 hour histograms, 

respectively, and regularly did not have a location associated with them. Therefore, we used the 

correlated random walk, state-space model (Johnson et al. 2008) to estimate locations to match 

the time stamp of the haul out (every 24 hrs) and dive (every 6 hrs) data for each walrus (see 

Movement Behavior of Tagged Walruses section above). Next, we calculated density estimates 

(see Density Estimates section above) from the estimated haul out and dive locations and used 

estimates of 90% probability to identified potentially important foraging areas. 

We were interested in the following behavior parameters: time hauled out (the proportion of an 

hour the walrus was hauled out (Hourly Timelines)), dive duration (Dive Duration), and dive rate 

(number of dives per hr). We calculated dive duration indices (used as response variables and 

derived from the data in the DURATION histograms) for each 6-hr histogram to allow statistical 

analyses and interpretation (Folkow and Blix 1999, Folkow et al. 2004; 2010). 

IndexDuration = ∑ (fi Mi)

fi : Proportion of dives assigned to the duration bin i, 

Mi: Median duration value of bin i.
9

We defined the diving rate for each 6-hr histogram as the total number of dives in DEPTH Bins 2 

through 14 divided by 6 hours. Although the depth resolution of the tags was small (±0.5 m), we 

excluded Bin 1 (0–2 m) to define a “dive” as >2 m to eliminate issues of wave height and nearsurface behavior that are not likely to be related to foraging (Hastings et al. 2004, Folkow et al.

2010). 

We used a linear modeling framework to examine haul out and dive parameters. For each 

parameter of behavior, we used model selection to examine the relationship between the 

behavior and reproductive category (females with calves versus females without calves), the area 

of use (whether the walrus was in an area identified as a potentially important foraging area or 

the rest of the Chukchi Sea), and time of day using a repeated measures, linear mixed model and 

SAS software, version 9.3 (SAS Institute, 2010). Time hauled out is proportional data (the 

proportion of an hour the walrus was hauled out), bound by 0 and 1, therefore we modeled these 

data using a logit link and a beta distribution as appropriate for proportional data with PROC 

GLIMMIX in SAS. We modeled dive duration and rate with PROC MIXED in SAS. To 

account for autocorrelated haul out and dive behavior and unequal time spacing among repeated 

measures within individuals, we used a spatial power covariance matrix structure (SP(POW)). 

For model selection, we fit repeated-measures mixed models with the REML method for 

estimating variances, and used a backward elimination procedure that sequentially eliminated 

statistically non-significant variables (P > 0.05) until only statistically significant variables 

remained (P < 0.05). 

Analysis of Time Spent Within Program Areas

We used all telemetry data collected between 2010 and 2015 to quantify when tagged walruses

were present within petroleum areas. Transmitter locations were filtered as described above. 

When calculating the number of calendar days that walruses transmitted within various oil and 

gas exploration/lease areas we pooled all study years (i.e., 1 July 2013, 2014, and 2015 are all

simply “1 July”). Although pooling across years provides a more general understanding of when 

walruses might be located within a petroleum area, it removes the ability to detect annual 

variability. Tags were deployed in May and June and few tags lasted longer than three months. 

Therefore documenting the range of days that walruses were present within an area will be a 

minimum because many tags likely went off the air while walruses were still in those areas. 

We examined walrus use of the following program areas (Fig. 2):

1. Alaskan Chukchi Sea: All of Lease Sale Area 193.

2. Russian Chukchi Sea: Russia’s main oil and gas company, Rosneft, recently signed an 

agreement with ExxonMobil to explore three areas for liquefied natural gas (LNG) 

reserves (Appendix C). These areas include Severo-Vrangelevskiy 1, SeveroVrangelevskiy 2, and Yuzhno-Chukotsky (Fig. 2).

Haulout Activities

Locate terrestrial haulouts

Traveling by boat, walrus hunters located terrestrial haulouts near their villages as they occurred 

so that they could be protected from disturbance. They reported the location and estimated 

number of animals to USFWS. Surveillance equipment (spotting scopes, blinds, cameras, and 

GPS units) was used to monitor numbers, determine the general sex and age composition, and 
10

identify animals that may be sick or injured. Hunters escorted researchers to and from the 

haulout and provided polar bear protection. Additionally, this project supported walrus hunters 

who assisted the Alaska SeaLife Center in the construction and maintenance of camera towers at 

walrus haul outs near Point Lay. Camera towers were designed to house cameras to document 

the formation, composition, and persistence of the terrestrial haulout and record causes and 

results of disturbances.

Carcass surveys

To quantify the number of walruses that died at haulouts and document their condition, the 

hunters also surveyed the beach after the walrus herd left the haulout. To avoid causing 

stampedes, carcass surveys were only conducted if they would not cause disturbance to the 

walrus herd. The hunters examined each carcass looking for signs of trauma such as tusk 

punctures, bullet wounds, broken bones, bruising, and blood from the nose and mouth. A data 

sheet was filled out for each carcass (Appendix D). Body length (straight line length from the 

nose to the tail tip) and blubber thickness (midline between the fore-flippers over the sternum) 

measurements were taken, sex was determined, and age was estimated by body size or tusk 

length (Fig. 3). Each carcass was photographed and marked with a durable numbered tag so that 

it did not get sampled more than once. These data were shared with USFWS. 
11

Figure 3. Average facial characters of walruses by sex/age classes used to classify tagged 

walruses. Age classification is based primarily on tusk size in relation to the width and height of 

the snout (Fay et al. 1986; Fay and Kelly 1989, published in Citta et al. 2013). 

Age Males Females

0 (calf)

2 yrs

1 yr

4-5 yrs

3 yrs

10-15 yrs

6-9 yrs

>15 yrs
12

Local and Traditional Knowledge

Walrus hunters contributed local and traditional knowledge regarding walrus movements, timing 

of migration, and haul out behavior. Hunters shared their experiences of how to approach 

walruses on land, and in the water, without being detected, and their observations were critical to 

this study. Hunters also know when and where to look for walruses and how to approach them 

on the ice. We worked with EWC to identify walrus hunters with extensive knowledge that were

interested in the project. 

To collect local and traditional knowledge, interviews were conducted by Dr. Henry Huntington, 

a social scientist with experience in local and traditional knowledge studies and assisted by PI 

Quakenbush and by Mark Nelson. We used the same methods as those used by Noongwook et 

al. (2007); specifically, the semi-directive interview as described by Huntington (1998). Unlike

Noongwook et al. (2007), however, our interviews were with one or two persons at a time, as 

well as with larger groups. In the semi-directive interview, researchers initiate a discussion 

around various topics of interest, but allow the person being interviewed to determine the order 

in which topics are discussed and to make connections among various topics that the researchers 

might not have anticipated. The interview is more fluid than would be a standardized 

questionnaire. 

The persons interviewed were recommended by each community’s representative to the EWC or 

by another participant’s recommendation. The interviews were conducted in English, as all 

participants were comfortable in that language; occasionally terms were translated by 

participants for clarification. We brought maps of the region and local area and had participants

draw walrus movements, haulouts, and other information directly on the maps, as they were 

being discussed during the interviews, to ensure that we accurately interpreted what was being 

described. We also recorded other information in notebooks. After information from the 

interviews was compiled, a draft report with annotated maps was sent to the interviewees to 

comment on for accuracy and for approval. 

Safety

Safety plans were specific for each area and tagging effort. We purchased safety equipment and 

trained participants in its use. Safety equipment included Mustang floatation suits, waterproof 

marine VHF handheld radios, satellite phones, personal satellite-linked locator beacons, and GPS 

units. Communication with a shore-base was coordinated prior to each trip.

Results

Coordination

We worked closely with EWC, local walrus hunters, USFWS, USGS, and BOEM. A 

chronology of the project history and accomplishments are included in Table 1. We maintained 

a webpage on the State of Alaska, Division of Wildlife Conservation website that explained the 

project and was updated weekly with a map of walrus movements 

(http://www.wildlife.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=marinemammals.walrustracking). We also sent 

maps to an extensive list of interested entities including individual subsistence hunter, Village 
13

Council Offices, EWC, USFWS, USGS, NSB (North Slope Borough), USCG (United States 

Coast Guard), and BOEM. 

Table 1. Project history from July 2009 to June 2016.

Month Year Event

July 2009 Received contract from MMS (now BOEM). Submitted applications for 

research permits to USFWS and Animal Care and Use to ADFG.

September Worked with USFWS and NSB to provide transportation for walrus 

hunters to conduct carcass surveys after a large (2,500–4,000) walrus 

haulout formed near Icy Cape and Wainwright.

Gave project update to EWC Executive Committee in Anchorage. 

Purchased 15 satellite-linked transmitters. Received approved ADFG 

Animal Care and Use Protocol for walrus research.

October Met with USFWS and USGS to discuss project during the 18th Biennial 

Conference of the Society for Marine Mammalogy in Quebec City, 

Canada.

December Received research permit from USFWS to tag and biopsy walruses. 

Planned for travel to Pt. Hope, Pt. Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow in 

February to discuss monitoring terrestrial haulouts and tagging walruses.

January 2010 Submitted Annual Report to BOEM.

February Traveled to Pt. Hope, Pt. Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow to discuss 

terrestrial haulouts and tagging activities as part of a visiting Chukotka 

hunter (Umpky Patrol) tour to share information about walrus and polar 

bear conservation (Appendix E).

June Worked with hunters from Wales and Pt. Hope, but poor ice and weather 

conditions prevented tagging walruses.

September Tagged two female walruses near Cape Lisburne (one with and one 

without a calf). 

Hunters from Pt. Lay monitored status of a large (25,000–35,000) walrus 

haulout near Pt. Lay and conducted carcass surveys.

October Hunters from Pt. Lay on standby to conduct carcass surveys once herd 

left but a storm ended the haulout and washed the carcasses away.

Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

December Provided a written project update to EWC in Anchorage (Appendix F-1).

January 2011 Poster presentation: Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 

2010 at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium in Anchorage 

(Quakenbush et al. 2011; Appendix F-2).

Submitted annual research permit report to USFWS.

March Conducted traditional knowledge interviews in Pt. Lay and Wainwright.

June Worked with hunters from Wales and Pt. Hope to tag but poor ice 

conditions and weather prevented tagging. Also tried to work with 

hunters from Little Diomede Island but travel to Diomede was restricted 

due to helicopter problems. 

September Pt. Lay hunters monitored ~22,000 walruses at the terrestrial haulout and 

conducted carcass surveys (Garlich-Miller et al. 2011; Appendix F-3).
14

October Project update to EWC in Nome (oral update).

Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

November Project update at hunter’s meeting in Gambell and Savoonga.

January 2012 This study included in update to the Marine Mammal Commission on 

Arctic Marine Mammal research. 

Poster presentation: Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 

2011 at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium in Anchorage (Crawford 

et al. 2012; Appendix F-4).

Submitted annual research permit report to USFWS.

February Co-sponsor of “A Community Workshop on the Conservation and 

Management of Walruses on the Chukchi Coast” workshop in Barrow

(Garlich-Miller et al. 2012; Appendix A). Sponsored two hunters (Pt. 

Lay and Savoonga) to attend. 

March Provided project update to joint U.S.-Russian “Assessing Pacific Walrus 

Population Attributes from Coastal Haul-outs” workshop in Anchorage.

Research permit amended to tag swimming walruses using “harpoon” 

method.

May Worked with hunters to tag walruses near Little Diomede Island for three 

weeks but ice and weather conditions were unsafe until after walruses

had migrated north of the island. 

August Worked with Pt. Lay to prepare for terrestrial haulout, reviewed 

traditional knowledge reports and provided update on the project and 

movements of tagged walrus. Supported Alaska SeaLife Center 

installing camera towers at walrus haulouts near Point Lay.

September Pt. Lay hunters prepared to monitor haulout, but none occurred.

Little Diomede Island hunters prepared to monitor haulout, conducted 

surveys for haulouts, but no haulouts occurred.

October Conducted traditional knowledge interviews in Pt. Hope.

Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

November Project update to EWC in Anchorage (oral update).

December Final report on Pt. Lay and Wainwright traditional knowledge completed 

(Huntington et al. 2012; Appendix G-1).

January 2013 Poster presentation: Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 

2012 at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium in Anchorage (Crawford 

et al. 2013; Appendix F-5).

Submitted annual research permit report to USFWS.

February Project update at hunter meetings in Gambell and Savoonga.

May Cold water survival and tagging training for hunters participating in 

research cruise.

June Tagged 34 walruses in Bering and Chukchi seas during walrus research 

cruise.

August Trip to Pt. Lay to prepare for terrestrial haulout and update on project 

and tagged walrus movements. Supported Alaska SeaLife Center 

installing camera towers at walrus haulouts near Point Lay.

September Included project in research summary for 40th Anniversary of the 

Environmental Studies Program, DOI, Anchorage, AK.
15

Pt. Lay hunters monitored 2,000–10,000 walruses at the terrestrial 

haulout and conducted carcass surveys.

October Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

Supported Alaska SeaLife Center maintenance of camera towers at 

walrus haulouts near Point Lay.

November Final report on Pt. Hope traditional knowledge completed (Huntington 

and Quakenbush 2013; Appendix G-2).

December Project update to EWC in Anchorage (Appendix F-6).

January 2014 Poster presentation: Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 

2013 at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium (Crawford et al. 2014; 

Appendix F-7).

Submitted research permit report to USFWS.

Supported Alaska SeaLife Center maintenance of camera towers at 

walrus haulouts near Point Lay.

February Project update presented at hunter meetings in Gambell and Savoonga. 

April Project end date extended to 30 June 2016 due to slow start with tagging.

Coordination with USFWS and USGS for walrus research cruise.

May Hunters in Gambell and Savoonga attempted to tag but were not 

successful due to ice conditions and weather.

June Tagged 33 walruses in the Chukchi Sea during walrus research cruise.

August Supported Alaska SeaLife Center installing camera towers at walrus 

haulouts near Point Lay.

September Pt. Lay hunters monitored ~35,000 walruses at the terrestrial haulout and 

conducted carcass surveys.

October Trip to Pt. Lay to assess carcasses, conduct necropsies, and collect 

samples from dead walruses (trampled) at the terrestrial walrus haulout 

north of the old village of Pt. Lay. In the field, we worked with NSBDWM staff and Pt. Lay hunters (Appendix F-8).

Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

November Supported Alaska SeaLife Center maintenance of camera towers at 

walrus haul outs near Point Lay.

December Project update to EWC in Anchorage (Appendix F-8).

January 2015 Poster presentation: Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 

2014 at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium (Crawford et al. 2015; 

Appendix F-9).

Submitted research permit report to USFWS.

Assisted with Alaska SeaLife Center’s plans to erect camera towers for 

haulouts near Cape Lisburne.

February Project update presented at hunter meetings in Gambell and Savoonga.

April Project end date extended to 30 June 2016 due to slow start with tagging.

Coordination with USFWS and USGS for walrus research cruise.

Submitted abstract for the Society for Marine Mammalogy Conference.

May-June Tagged 26 walruses in the Russian and U.S. Chukchi Sea during walrus 

research cruise.

August Coordinated transfer of carcass surveys and haulout surveillance to 

USFWS due to end of BOEM project.
16

September Pt. Lay had ~35,000 walruses on the terrestrial haulout.

October Submitted abstract for the Alaska Marine Science Symposium.

December Project update to EWC in Anchorage (Appendix F-10).

Oral Presentation: Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to 

identify the relative importance of foraging areas for walruses in the 

Alaskan Chukchi Sea at the Society for Marine Mammalogy Conference

(Crawford et al. 2015; Appendix F-11).

Final report on Barrow traditional knowledge completed (Huntington et 

al. 2015a; Appendix G-3).

Final report on Elim traditional knowledge completed (Huntington et al. 

2015b; Appendix G-4).

Final report on St. Michael and Stebbins traditional knowledge 

completed (Huntington et al. 2015c; Appendix G-5).

January 2016 Poster presentation: Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to 

identify the relative importance of foraging areas for walruses in the 

Alaskan Chukchi Sea at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium 

(Crawford et al. 2016; Appendix F-12).

February Prepared manuscript on TEK including walrus TEK (Huntington et al. in 

press). 

June Final report on Kivalina traditional knowledge completed (Huntington et 

al. 2016a; Appendix G-6).

Final report on Kotzebue traditional knowledge completed (Huntington

et al. 2016b; Appendix G-7)

Final report on Shishmaref traditional knowledge completed (Huntington

et al. 2016c; Appendix G-8).

Final Report

Tagging Walruses and Tag Performance 

Our original goal was to tag walruses and work with hunters based from coastal villages. Our 

attempts to tag walruses included travel to Wales and Point Hope during 2010 and 2011, and 

travel to Little Diomede Island during 2012. In all three years, ice and weather conditions, 

primarily wind, near these coastal villages prevented safe travel by boat. Also, ice retreated 

north quickly, leaving no opportunities for tagging walruses. In 2012, we began exploring the 

option of ship-based tagging as part of multi-agency walrus research cruises with USFWS and 

USGS and started tagging walruses offshore, in the Bering and Chukchi seas in 2013, 2014, and 

2015. We realized it would be important to the success of the research to have the expertise of 

the native subsistence hunters. Walrus hunters from Saint Lawrence Island, Clarence Irrigoo Jr. 

(2013–2015), Perry Pungowiyi (2013), and Edwin Noongwook (2014) taught the researchers 

how to approach most efficiently and safely with minimal disturbance to walruses. 

Walruses have excellent hearing and are sensitive to noises, as well as to smells and movement, 

therefore approaching walruses on ice when they are resting is done quietly from downwind

(Appendix G-1). Walruses are also sensitive to the type of noise and hunters say that speaking in 

a normal voice is less disturbing to walruses than whispering (Appendix G-3). The hunters know 

that walruses can be aggressive and can team up to attack small boats when disturbed from the 

ice (Appendices G-1 and G-3). Large herds and juvenile walruses can be especially dangerous to 
17

people. Females are protective of their calves and hunters have been cautioned by elders about 

females with calves. Elders know of times when hunters butchering a walrus on an ice floe have 

been surrounded by other walruses that put their tusks on the ice and chipped away at it 

(Appendix G-1). It is this knowledge and experience that was used to determine how and which 

groups the small boats could safely approach for tagging and biopsies. At times the reason to 

avoid a certain group of walruses was not known by the researchers, but their advice was heeded. 

Recently, because of less ice, hunters have begun to harpoon walruses in the water when they 

cannot find them on the ice (Appendix G-1). The hunters helped us develop a harpoon style tag 

deployment system based on their hunting method. 

We tagged a total of 95 walruses during this study between 2010 and 2015 (Table 2). Two 

walruses were tagged onshore near Cape Lisburne in September 2010 and 93 were tagged 

offshore, in the Bering and Chukchi seas, during walrus research cruises in June 2013 and 2014 

and May and June 2015 (Fig. 4). Of the 95 walruses tagged, 86 were adult females (39 of which 

were accompanied by calves of the year) and nine were adult males (Table 2). We tagged some 

males to see if they summered in the Chukchi Sea with the females and young walruses or if they 

returned to the Bering Sea and to generally compare their behavior to females. 

Of the 95 tags deployed on walruses; 56 were SPLASH tags and 39 were SPOT tags. In 

September 2010 we deployed two SPOT tags on adult female walruses, one with a calf and one 

without, hauled out near Cape Lisburne. No tags were deployed during 2011 and 2012. The rest 

of the tags were deployed in May and June 2013–2015; we deployed 38 transmitters on adult 

females with calves (28 SPLASH and 10 SPOT tags), 46 on adult females without calves (28 

SPLASH and 18 SPOT tags), and 9 on adult males (9 SPOT tags). Not all tags transmitted data;

13 (5 SPLASH and 8 SPOT) did not transmit any data or only transmitted data for <24 hours 

after deployment due to an error in the tags’ software or for other unknown reasons (Table 3). 

Therefore, our dataset includes data from 34 of 38 adult females with calves (28 of 28 SPLASH 

and 6 of 10 SPOT tags), 40 of 46 adult females without calves (23 of 28 SPLASH and 17 of 18 

SPOT tags), and 6 of 9 adult males (all SPOT tags).

Tag longevity did not differ among females with calves, females without calves, and male 

walruses or among deployment years (P > 0.53). SPOT tags (mean duration 69.8 days, range 1–

134 days) did transmit, on average, 25.8 days longer than SPLASH tags (mean duration 44.0 

days, range 4–67 days, P < 0.01). Overall, fewer than 5 tags transmitted after 15 September 

(Fig. 5).

In 2013, three tags were lost during deployment attempts due to the fitting between the 

deployment rod and tag loosening in cold temperatures. The fitting was tightened by using a 

fabric tape that broke upon impact and no other tags were lost. In 2014, two tags were lost 

during deployment. In 2015, the first five tags deployed did not transmit after the first day of 

deployment (30 May) due to an error in the tag software. We were able to obtain new software 

to upload onto the remaining tags. The tags with the new software functioned properly after 

deployment so we were able to deploy the remaining 26 transmitters. 

 
18

Table 2. Walruses instrumented with satellite-linked transmitters in the Bering and Chukchi seas 

in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. Females with calves are noted by *. Tags that transmitted data 

for <24 hours after deployment due to an error in the tags’ software or for other unknown 

reasons are noted by +

.

Walrus Id Date

tagged Latitude N Longitude Sex Tag type

Tag 

duration 

(days)

W10-01 17-Sep-10 68.881 -166.194 F* SPOT1 26

W10-02 19-Sep-10 68.861 -165.831 F SPOT 2

W13-01 6-Jun-13 62.417 -168.827 F* SPLASH2 53

W13-02 6-Jun-13 62.520 -168.799 F* SPLASH 34

W13-03 13-Jun-13 68.234 -168.893 F* SPOT 44

W13-04 13-Jun-13 68.233 -168.888 F SPOT 26

W13-05 13-Jun-13 68.241 -168.889 F SPOT 124

W13-06 13-Jun-13 68.253 -168.912 F* SPOT 96

W13-07 13-Jun-13 68.278 -168.909 F SPOT 88

W13-08 13-Jun-13 68.223 -168.907 F SPOT 92

W13-09 13-Jun-13 68.228 -168.894 F SPLASH 51

W13-10 13-Jun-13 68.226 -168.891 F SPLASH 0+

W13-11 13-Jun-13 68.227 -168.895 F SPLASH 34

W13-12 13-Jun-13 68.226 -168.901 F SPLASH 45

W13-13 13-Jun-13 68.224 -168.890 F* SPLASH 49

W13-14 13-Jun-13 68.225 -168.899 F SPLASH 4

W13-15 13-Jun-13 68.217 -168.919 F* SPLASH 55

W13-16 14-Jun-13 68.286 -169.086 F* SPLASH 52

W13-17 14-Jun-13 68.286 -169.086 F* SPLASH 56

W13-18 14-Jun-13 68.259 -169.321 F SPLASH 0+

W13-19 16-Jun-13 68.828 -167.486 M SPOT 86

W13-20 16-Jun-13 68.843 -167.461 F* SPLASH 50

W13-21 17-Jun-13 68.811 -167.201 F* SPLASH 29

W13-22 17-Jun-13 68.817 -167.201 F* SPLASH 49

W13-23 17-Jun-13 68.816 -167.200 F SPLASH 31

W13-24 17-Jun-13 68.825 -167.111 M SPOT 0+

W13-25 17-Jun-13 68.824 -167.112 M SPOT 63
19

W13-26 17-Jun-13 68.824 -167.112 M SPOT 56

W13-27 19-Jun-13 69.662 -165.577 F SPLASH 50

W13-28 21-Jun-13 69.438 -165.585 M SPOT 0+

W13-29 21-Jun-13 69.440 -165.600 F SPLASH 56

W13-30 22-Jun-13 69.590 -164.964 F SPOT 115

W13-31 25-Jun-13 69.424 -166.132 M SPOT 0+

W13-32 26-Jun-13 69.856 -165.891 F* SPLASH 50

W13-33 26-Jun-13 69.861 -165.877 F SPLASH 19

W13-34 27-Jun-13 70.246 -165.250 F* SPLASH 33

W14-01 1-Jun-14 67.401 167.977 F SPLASH 47

W14-02 1-Jun-14 67.401 167.977 F SPLASH 7

W14-03 2-Jun-14 67.486 167.971 F SPLASH 0+

W14-04 2-Jun-14 67.482 168.008 F* SPLASH 52

W14-05 5-Jun-14 68.338 167.844 F SPLASH 47

W14-06 5-Jun-14 68.342 167.852 F* SPLASH 44

W14-07 5-Jun-14 68.341 167.873 F* SPLASH 7

W14-08 5-Jun-14 68.321 167.847 F* SPLASH 47

W14-09 5-Jun-14 68.333 167.863 F SPLASH 38

W14-10 5-Jun-14 68.333 167.891 F* SPLASH 48

W14-11 5-Jun-14 68.333 167.891 F* SPLASH 24

W14-12 5-Jun-14 68.328 167.979 F SPLASH 28

W14-13 13-Jun-14 70.140 163.014 F* SPLASH 53

W14-14 13-Jun-14 70.100 162.931 F SPLASH 49

W14-15 13-Jun-14 70.091 162.894 F SPLASH 48

W14-16 13-Jun-14 70.085 162.866 F SPLASH 39

W14-17 13-Jun-14 70.053 162.773 F SPLASH 58

W14-18 13-Jun-14 69.978 162.890 F SPLASH 30

W14-19 15-Jun-14 70.432 162.897 F SPLASH 55

W14-20 15-Jun-14 70.454 162.916 F* SPLASH 66

W14-21 15-Jun-14 70.477 162.857 F* SPLASH 55

W14-22 15-Jun-14 70.435 162.892 F* SPLASH 7

W14-23 15-Jun-14 70.437 162.878 F* SPLASH 46

W14-24 15-Jun-14 70.471 162.814 F SPOT 62
20

W14-25 15-Jun-14 70.470 162.810 F SPOT 49

W14-26 22-Jun-14 69.759 163.708 M SPOT 53

W14-27 22-Jun-14 69.751 164.438 F SPLASH 57

W14-28 21-Jun-14 69.813 163.581 M SPOT 74

W14-29 22-Jun-14 69.813 163.581 F SPOT 105

W14-30 22-Jun-14 69.813 163.581 F SPOT 57

W14-31 22-Jun-14 69.813 163.581 F* SPOT 80

W14-32 22-Jun-14 69.810 164.503 F SPOT 40

W14-33 23-Jun-14 70.473 162.847 F SPOT 92

W15-01 30-May-15 67.218 -171.125 F SPOT 1+

W15-02 30-May-15 67.298 -171.202 F* SPOT 1+

W15-03 30-May-15 67.305 -171.242 F* SPOT 1+

W15-04 30-May-15 67.308 -171.280 F* SPOT 1+

W15-05 30-May-15 67.308 -171.280 F* SPOT 1+

W15-06 4-Jun-15 67.995 -170.630 F SPLASH 67

W15-07 4-Jun-15 67.947 -170.563 F* SPLASH 37

W15-08 4-Jun-15 67.925 -170.683 F SPLASH 53

W15-09 4-Jun-15 67.926 -170.684 F* SPLASH 37

W15-10 4-Jun-15 67.914 -170.688 F* SPLASH 54

W15-11 6-Jun-15 69.290 -175.559 F* SPLASH 31

W15-12 7-Jun-15 69.436 -173.903 F SPLASH 66

W15-13 7-Jun-15 69.439 -173.848 F* SPLASH 57

W15-14 7-Jun-15 69.437 -173.824 F* SPLASH 60

W15-15 16-Jun-15 71.835 -164.086 M SPOT 39

W15-16 17-Jun-15 71.743 -164.028 F SPLASH 35

W15-17 17-Jun-15 71.724 -164.018 F SPLASH 0+

W15-18 17-Jun-15 71.724 -164.018 F SPOT 68

W15-19 17-Jun-15 71.720 -164.009 F* SPOT 28

W15-20 17-Jun-15 71.727 -164.013 F SPOT 1+

W15-21 17-Jun-15 71.695 -164.035 F* SPOT 97

W15-22 18-Jun-15 71.537 -164.402 F SPOT 41

W15-23 18-Jun-15 71.543 -164.378 F* SPOT 85

W15-24 18-Jun-15 71.543 -164.374 F SPOT 35
21

W15-25 18-Jun-15 71.546 -164.364 F SPOT 95

W15-26 18-Jun-15 71.549 -164.349 F SPOT 134

1 SPOT: Tag that provides locations and haul out timelines (see Methods). 

2 SPLASH: Tag that provides locations, haul out timelines, and dive data.

Table 3. Number of instrumented walruses whose tags successfully transmitted locations (i.e.,

number of tags that transmitted/total number of tags deployed) in the Bering and Chukchi seas in 

2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. Walruses are grouped by year tagged and reproductive category.

Year

Females with 

calves

Females without 

calves Males Total

2010 1/1 1/1 0 2/2

2013 13/13 13/15 3/6 29/34

2014 12/12 18/19 2/2 32/33

2015 9/13 9/12 1/1 19/26

Total 35/39 41/47 6/9 82/95

Figure 4. Locations where satellite-linked transmitters were deployed on walruses in September 

2010, June 2013 and 2014, and May and June 2015. ( ** OCS Leased Blocks associated with 

Chukchi Sea Lease Sale 193 were active during the study period; all but one lease block has 

been relinquished as of May 2016).
22

Figure 5. Number of tagged walruses that transmitted by day, all years combined (2010–2015). 

Walrus Movements and Behavior

Walruses tagged during this study traveled an average minimum distance of 1,648 km, ranging 

from 21 to 4,457 km (Table 4). Although males traveled farther than females with and without 

calves, differences were not significant (P = 0.37). Annual movements of tagged walruses are 

shown in Figures 6–9. Satellite tracking has allowed us to identify variation in summer

movements across the Chukchi Sea and unexpected movements by some individuals near coastal 

areas. 

Table 4. Distances traveled by tagged walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas during 2010, 

2013, 2014, and 2015. Walruses are grouped by reproductive category.

Females with calf

(n = 35)

Females without calf

(n = 41)

Male

(n = 6)

Total

(n = 82)

Ave. min. distance (km) 1,494 1,718 2,071 1,648

Min. distance (km) 175 21 1,289 21

Max. distance (km) 3,719 4,457 3,280 4,457
23

Sea ice conditions influence the movements and behavior of walruses. Summer sea ice 

conditions, both coverage and the ice receding patterns, in 2013, 2014 and 2015 were generally 

similar in the Bering and Chukchi seas, although there was slightly more ice in the central Bering 

Sea in 2013 during tagging in May and less ice in the central Chukchi Sea during the end of our 

research cruise in June 2015 (i.e., the research vessel was able to travel farther north in 2015). In 

all years, during late-May and June, the ice edge arched to the north, and generally was farther 

north in the mid Chukchi Sea between Vankarem, Russia and Point Hope, Alaska and ice 

continued to retreat northward until September. By September, the summer sea ice minimum 

was generally north of the continental shelf, delineated by the 200-m isopleth (Fig. 4). 

Figure 6. Tracks of two tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from September through October, 

2010. The tag deployed on the female without a calf (red “X”) only transmitted locations for 

three days while the walrus was on shore near Cape Lisburne, Alaska.
24

Figure 7. Tracks of 29 tagged walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas from June through 

October, 2013 relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal Walrus 

Use Area (Jay et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last transmission. ( ** OCS 

Leased Blocks associated with Chukchi Sea Lease Sale 193 were active during the study period;

all but one lease block has been relinquished as of May 2016).
25

Figure 8. Tracks of 32 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October, 2014 

relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (Jay 

et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last transmission. ( ** OCS Leased Blocks 

associated with Chukchi Sea Lease Sale 193 were active during the study period; all but one 

lease block has been relinquished as of May 2016).
26

Figure 9. Tracks of 19 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October, 2015 

relative to Outer-Continental Shelf Leased Blocks and the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (Jay 

et al. 2012). Colored crosses are the location of the last transmission. ( ** OCS Leased Blocks 

associated with Chukchi Sea Lease Sale 193 were active during the study period; all but one 

lease block has been relinquished as of May 2016).

North Migration: Late May–June, Bering and Chukchi Seas

We tagged walruses opportunistically as they migrated from the Bering Sea, north through the 

Bering Strait, and into the Chukchi Sea during 2013–2015. Two walruses were tagged in the 

Bering Sea, both were females with calves tagged on the same day but in different groups. 

These two walruses migrated northward into the Chukchi Sea along similar paths through the 

eastern Bering Strait near Wales, Alaska. At ~100 km (62 miles) south of Point Hope, W13-01 

turned west and traveled northwest along the Russian coast, while W13-02 continued northward 

past Point Hope toward Hanna Shoal (Fig. 7). Point Hope typically sees (and hears) walruses in 

May after the bowhead whaling season. Hunters say walruses make sounds like a dog with a 

sore throat. The spring migration includes all sexes and ages of walruses (male, female, old, and 

young); some migrate close to shore coming from the southeast either riding on the ice or 

swimming. (Appendix G-2). 
27

Because U.S. research vessels were restricted from entering Russian waters in 2013 and 2014 

and ice conditions limited travel in Russian waters when we were on board a Russian vessel in 

2015, the majority of the walruses were tagged in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea (73 of the 82 

(89.9%) tags that transmitted locations). Of the 73 walruses tagged in Alaskan waters, however,

32 (43.8%) spent some time in Russian waters, and of the 9 walruses tagged in Russian waters 4 

(44.4%) spent some time in Alaskan waters. 

During the northward migration (late-May and June), walruses spent time in three general 

locations; 1) southern Chukchi Sea, offshore and midway between Vankarem, Russia and Point 

Hope, Alaska; 2) northern Chukchi Sea nearshore between Point Lay and Wainwright (centered 

at Icy Cape); and 3) southern HSWUA (Fig. 10). During late-May and June, 16.2% of all daily 

locations were within the HSWUA. Point Lay hunters typically see walruses in May and early 

June traveling north on the ice, particularly during break-up when they are hunting for bearded 

seals (Appendix G-1). Female walruses moved an average of 49.5 km/day and were generally 

within 100 km of shore during the northward migration in June (Fig. 11).

Figure 10. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in June using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 82).
28

Summer Feeding: July–August, Chukchi Sea 

In July and August, walruses generally continued to move north with the receding sea ice. 

Hunters from Wainwright rarely see walruses in July now that the ice breaks up earlier (in June) 

and does not return again, as it used to multiple times through the summer, bringing walruses

close to shore (Appendix G-1). During these months, walruses were primarily located in or near 

the HSWUA (Figs. 11 and 12) having moved offshore from the Icy Cape area in late June. 

During July and August, 41.7 and 47.2% of all daily locations, respectively, were within the 

HSWUA and movement rates slowed to an average of 25.7 km/day. Walruses were farther 

offshore in August (average 138.2 km) than in July (average 119.2 km; Fig. 13), which was 

generally the same for females with calves, females without calves, and males (Fig. 11). 

Figure 11. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in July using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 74).
29

Figure 12. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in August using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 40).

Figure 13. Average distance to shore by month for tagged adult female walruses in the Chukchi 

Sea, June through September of 2013–2015.
30

Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (HSWUA)

During our study, 20 of 34 (58.8%) females with calves and 26 of 40 (65.0%) females without 

calves spent an average of 35.2 and 31.6 days in the Hanna Shoal area, respectively (Table 5, 

Fig. 14). The first walrus entered the HSWUA on 18 June (average 30 June) and the last walrus 

left on 18 September (average 2 August). In general, walruses spent the entire month of July in 

the HSWUA. Distances traveled by females were lower within the HSWUA (average 25.7 

km/day) than during migration (average 49.5 km/day). Within the HSWUA, the pattern of 

habitat use was generally the same for females with calves, females without calves, and males 

(although only one of six males used the HSWUA). The male that used the HSWUA (W13-26) 

entered on 8 August 2013 and stayed until at least 11 August, when the tag stopped transmitting.

The percent of all daily locations within the HSWUA increased from mid-May and June 

(16.2%), peaked in July (41.7%) and August (47.2%), and decreased in September (18.4%).

Table 5. Summary of tagged walruses that entered the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (HS) 

during 2013–2015. Average first and last days listed in the subtotal rows are average dates 

based on all individuals regardless of sex and reproductive category.

Year

Sex and 

reproductive 

category

# in

HS

% 

tagged

Average 

first day 

in HS

Average 

last day 

in HS

Mean 

days in

HS

Mean 

distance 

traveled 

in HS

(km)

Mean rate 

of travel 

(km/day)

2013 Females with calf 9 69.2 30-Jun 29-Jul 29.1 639.5 22.0

Females w/o calf 7 53.8 1-Jul 2-Aug 32.0 723.0 22.6

Males 1 33.3 7-Aug 11-Aug 4.0 80.0 20.0

Subtotal 17 55.2 3-Jul 31-Jul 28.8 641.1 22.3

2014 Females with calf 6 50.0 29-Jun 4-Aug 35.5 1,023.1 28.8

Females w/o calf 12 66.7 4-Jul 2-Aug 29.1 782.8 26.9

Males 0 0.0 - - - - -

Subtotal 18 56.3 3-Jul 3-Aug 31.2 862.9 27.6

2015 Females with calf 5 55.6 22-Jun 6-Aug 45.6 1,032.4 22.6

Females w/o calf 7 77.8 25-Jun 31-Jul 35.6 1,096.1 30.8

Males 0 0.0 - - - - -

Subtotal 12 63.2 24-Jun 2-Aug 39.8 1,069.5 26.9

Total Females with calf 20 58.8 28-Jun 2-Aug 35.2 864.0 24.4

Females w/o calf 26 65.0 1-Jul 2-Aug 31.6 851.1 26.9

Males 1 16.7 7-Aug 11-Aug 4.0 80.0 20.0

All 47 58.8 30-Jun 2-Aug 32.5 839.6 25.7
31

Figure 14. Number of tagged walruses that were in the Hanna Shoal Walrus Use Area (Jay et 

al. 2012) by day, all years combined (2013–2015). 

In early August 2015, five tagged walruses were using the HSWUA when sea ice started to 

recede north of the continental shelf break (200 m isopleth). From 1 August through 20 

September, four of these five walruses (two females without calves and two females with calves) 

made trips to the receding ice edge, north of the HSWUA (Fig. 15). Between 3 and 4 August, a

female without a calf (W15-18) hauled out on ice ~20 km north of the shelf break (~50 km north 

of the HSWUA) for >24 hrs, (Fig. 15a). This same walrus also hauled out at the terrestrial 

haulout near Pt. Lay on 22 August (Figs. 15d and e; also see section Use of Terrestrial Haulouts

and Fig. 18). A female with a calf (W15-23) hauled out on ice at the shelf break and ~30–100 

km north of it on seven occasions: between 3 and 4 August (>29 hrs; Fig. 15a), between 6 and 7 

August (>24 hrs), on 10 August (12 hrs; Fig. 15b), between 16 and 17 August (>24 hrs; Figs. 

15b and c), on 18 August (9 hrs; Fig. 15c), on 20 August (7 hrs), and between 30 and 31 August

(>18 hrs; 15e). Another female with a calf (W15-21) hauled out on ice ~45–100 km north of the 

shelf break on four occasions: between 21 and 22 August (>20 hrs; Figs. 15c and d), on 23 

August (4 hrs; Fig. 15d), between 31 August and 1 September (>42 hrs; Fig. 15e) and between 

15 and 16 September (>24 hrs; Fig. 15f). The second female without a calf (W15-26), hauled 

out on ice ~20 km north of the shelf break (~100 km north of HSWUA) between 15 and 16 

August (>24 hrs; Fig. 15c) before moving west to an area north of Wrangel Island, Russia.

Although sea ice data derived from the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR2) 

depicted in the panels in Figure 15 show ice concentrations between 5 and 100%, AMSR2 ice 

data do not detect ice concentrations <15% accurately. Therefore, although the tracks of 

walruses appear to be in open water near the ice edge they apparently had access to ice in 
32

concentrations <15% that supported hauling out. Also, sea ice data depicted on the maps in 

Figure 15 are for the day that represents the mid-point for each time period (e.g., sea ice data for

4 August 2015 was used for mapping walrus tracks during 1–7 August 2015); therefore, the sea 

ice data may not represent the particular day when the walruses used the ice to haul out.

Figure 15. Tracks of five tagged walruses that traveled to and from the HSWUA and used sea

ice north the continental shelf break (200 m isopleth) for resting during 1 August to 21 

September 2015. One walrus used the ice north of the shelf break and the terrestrial haulout 

near Point Lay. AMSR2 sea ice data do not detect ice concentrations <15% accurately. 

Therefore, although walruses appear to be in open water when near the ice edge ice 

concentrations of <15% may have been present. Data from the tags were used to indicate when 

and where resting bouts occurred on top of ice. Figures 15a–e represent tracks during one week 

intervals and Figure 15f represents tracks during a two week interval.
33

Southern Migration: Fall (September–October) Chukchi Sea 

During September, walruses were primarily located in the north central and northeastern

Chukchi Sea near the shelf break, in the HSWUA, and at coastal haulouts near Point Lay and 

Cape Lisburne, Alaska (Fig. 16). Tagged walruses began to move south in September, leaving 

the HSWUA and the central Chukchi Sea prior to the formation of sea ice. This southern 

migration generally started 1–2 weeks before the ice edge advanced north of the continental shelf 

(200 m isobath). During September, walruses were on average 171.1 km offshore (Fig. 11) and 

by October, were primarily located north of Wrangel Island and along the Russian coastline (Fig. 

17). Walruses that used the HSWUA migrated south by one of three routes: 1) directly south 

toward Point Lay (n = 3), 2) directly south toward Cape Lisburne (n = 3), and 3) west toward 

Wrangel Island and then south (n = 4). Walruses near Wrangel Island migrated south by 

traveling along the north coast of Russia (n = 4). The one walrus that left Point Lay (W14-29)

traveled toward Cape Lisburne. The two walruses that left Cape Lisburne (W10-01 and W14-

29) crossed the Chukchi Sea to the haulout at Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Russia. This pattern of 

movement was generally the same for females with calves, females without calves, and males. 

We did not receive locations often enough in October to estimate a movement rate for that 

month, however for the months after moving away from the HSWUA, walruses averaged 55.1 

km/day, which did not differ among reproductive categories or sexes (P = 0.57). We received 

locations for only one male (W13-19) during September; he was west of Wrangel Island until at 

least 9 September, when the tag stopped transmitting.

Figure 16. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in September using 

pooled location data (2013–2015; n = 15).
34

Figure 17. Contours showing probability of use (%) by tagged walruses in October using pooled 

location data (2013–2015; n = 5).

Use of Terrestrial Haulouts.

Terrestrial haulouts formed in Alaska or Russia in late summer in all years in which we tagged 

walruses (2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015). In five of the seven years of our study, walruses formed 

large terrestrial haulouts (1,500–35,000 walruses) near Point Lay, Alaska. Large terrestrial 

haulouts (2,000–>100,000 walruses) also occurred near Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Russia every year. 

Despite the large numbers of walruses observed at these haulouts, only 8 of 28 (29%) walruses 

with tags that were active when the haulouts formed hauled out on land (Table 6). 

Walruses regularly haul out on shore in small numbers and hunters reported this activity in 

Norton Sound, near Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow (Appendices G-1–G-5). 

Walruses sometimes haulout in small numbers between Cape Thompson and Cape Lisburne, but 

regularly haul out by the dozens near Cape Lisburne. However, fewer walruses have hauled out 

near Cape Lisburne recently, possibly because barges sometimes wait there for better ice or 

weather conditions (Appendix G-2). In the past, typically a few walruses were seen at various 

locations on the islands in Kasegalek Lagoon. Large numbers were seen on shore between Point 

Lay and Wainwright in the 1950s, but much larger numbers began hauling out on the Alaskan 

coast in 2007 (Appendix G-1).
35

Large terrestrial haulouts have regularly occurred on Russian Islands and coasts for decades 

(e.g., Tomilin and Kibal'chich 1975), however even larger numbers have been reported during 

the 2000s. For example, Cape Serdtse-Kamen was documented as a terrestrial haulout as early 

as 1927 (Arsen'ev 1927), again in 1937 (Nikulin 1941), and during all of the aerial survey years; 

1960, 1964, 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990 (Fedoseev 1966, Gol'tsev 1968, Fedoseev 1981, Estes 

and Gol'tsev 1984, Fedoseev and Razlivalov 1986, Gilbert et al. 1992). Although numbers on 

haulouts have also been large in the past (9,000 to 12,000 in 1975 and >12,000 in 1990) they 

were much larger in 2009 (97,000) and 2011 (115,000) (Kochnev, unpubl. data).

During 2010, one of one tagged walruses hauled out at Cape Serdtse-Kamen in October (Table 

6). In early September 2013, one of six tagged walruses hauled out at Vankarem on the Russian 

coast. In mid-September, none of the three walruses with active tags hauled out near Point Lay. 

From 27 September to 9 October, one of two walruses with active tags, W13-30, moved 

southwest along the Russian coast, hauling out at Cape Schmidt, Vankarem, and Cape SerdtseKamen over the course of 13 days. During 2014, only two of five tagged walruses hauled out at 

terrestrial haulouts. During August, one of five walruses with active tags hauled out at Russian 

haulouts, including the southeastern shore of Wrangel Island (18–22 August) and Cape Schmidt 

(29–30 August) (Table 6). In September, one of two hauled out near Cape Lisburne, Alaska, and

none hauled out near Point Lay. Also in 2014, two walruses approached terrestrial haulouts, 

W14-31 near Point Lay and W14-33 near Cape Lisburne, but stayed in the water and did not haul 

out. 

During 2015, two of four tagged female walruses hauled out near the Point Lay haulout (Table 6, 

Fig. 18). Both of these walruses left the HSWUA and followed relatively direct paths for ~180 

km to the Point Lay haulout; W15-18 took three days traveling at 60.5 km/day while W15-25 

took six days traveling at 29.2 km/day. W15-25 first arrived at the Point Lay haulout on 24 

August and spent 1.5 days there. This walrus then left Point Lay, traveling for 4.4 days at 55.2 

km/day, to return to the HSWUA where she spent four days before leaving on 3 September to 

return to the Point Lay haulout on 4 September, traveling for 1.7 days at 99.4 km/day. W15-25 

then stayed on land for at least three days before we received the tag’s last signal on 6 

September. During our study, two of seven walruses (29%), whose tags were still transmitting 

when terrestrial haulouts formed near Point Lay, hauled out there; both in 2015.
36

Table 6. Tagged walruses that hauled out at terrestrial haulouts during 2010 and 2013–2015.

Year Dates Location

# Walruses 

hauled out

(%)a

Walrus 

IDs

# Walruses 

transmittingb

2010 4–8* Oct Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Russia 1 (100%) W10-01 1

2013 4–8 Sept Cape Vankarem, Russia 1 (17%) W13-07 6

12–27 Sept Point Lay, Alaska 0 (0%) - 3

27 Sept–1 Oct Cape Schmidt, Russia 1 (50%) W13-30 2

4–5 Oct Vankarem, Russia 1 (50%) W13-30 2

8–9* Oct Serdtse-Kamen, Russia 1 (50%) W13-30 2

2014 18–22 Aug SE Wrangel Island, Russia 1 (20%) W14-28 5

29–30 Aug Cape Schmidt, Russia 1 (33%) W14-28 3

5 Sept Cape Lisburne, Alaska 1 (50%) W14-31 2

25 Sept–5 Oct Point Lay, Alaska 0 (0%) - 1

2015 22–24* Aug

24–25 Aug

4–6* Sept

Point Lay, Alaska

Point Lay, Alaska

2 (50%)

1 (33%)

W15-18

W15-25

W15-25

4

4

3

1–4* Oct Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Russia 1 (100%) W14-29 1

Total 8c (29%) 28d

* Last date located at haulout was the last day we received a location from the tag.

a Percentage of walruses hauled out from the total number of walruses whose tags were still 

transmitting when the haulout formed

b Number of walruses whose tags were still transmitting when the haulout formed.

c Total number of unique walruses that hauled out at terrestrial haulouts.

d Total number of unique walruses whose tags were transmitting when haulouts formed.
37

Figure 18. Tracks of two walruses tagged in the Chukchi Sea that hauled out at the terrestrial 

haulout near Point Lay, Alaska, between 14 August and 6 September, 2015. The number of 

transit days between the HSWUA and the haulout near Point Lay are listed next to each walrus 

track. Walrus W15-25 made two trips to the haulout.

Movement Analyses

During the northward migration in June, female walruses traveled farther per day (49.5 km/day) 

than walruses using the HSWUA in July and August (25.7 km/day; P < 0.01) and farther than 

walruses that did not enter the HSWUA in July and August (46.5 km/day; P = 0.03). During

July and August, walruses outside the HSWUA traveled farther per day than walruses inside the 

HSWUA (P < 0.01). Movement rates did not differ between females with calves and females 

without calves (P = 0.39). Males on northward migration traveled twice as far per day (45.4 km) 
38

as the one male that used the HSWUA (20 km/day), but our sample size of male locations was 

too small to quantify statistical significance.

Movement rates of females during the southern migration (55.1 km/day) did not differ from rates 

during the northern migration (49.5 km/day; P = 0.96). Migration movement rates, however, 

were higher than rates in July and August, regardless of whether walruses had entered the 

HSWUA (P < 0.01). 

 

During late-May and June, walruses generally were closer (within 100 km) to shore than during 

July to September (Fig. 13). Distance to shore was best explained by a model that only included 

month (P < 0.01) and was not different by reproductive or sex category (P = 0.57). 

Prior to this study, no male walruses had been tagged in the Chukchi Sea. Large, male only 

terrestrial haulouts occur in the Bering Sea in summer and males are seen and harvested in the 

Chukchi Sea in summer, but male movement behavior in the Chukchi Sea in summer is not well 

understood. Although many males spend the summer in the Bering Sea using terrestrial haulouts 

along the Russia coast and in Bristol Bay, Alaska, hunters in the Bering and Chukchi seas see 

adult male walruses migrating north in the spring (Appendix G-2 and G-5). Point Hope hunters 

see fewer males and fewer walruses overall passing by, possibly due to noise from ships, smells 

from engines, or changes in sea ice. Ships traveling north and south in Alaskan Chukchi Sea 

pass closer to Point Hope than other villages along the coast because Point Hope is located at the 

end of Lisburne Peninsula. Therefore, if walruses are currently following ice breakers north in 

the spring they may pass Point Hope farther from shore than they did in the past (Appendix G-2). 

In September and October most walruses migrating from the north near Point Hope are older 

males. Overall, fewer walruses are seen in fall than in spring. In the past, most of the walruses 

that hauled out on land near Point Hope were males (Appendix G-2).

We tagged six males in the Chukchi Sea in June; during July and August, three stayed in the 

central Chukchi and three moved north; one along the Alaskan and two along the Russian coast. 

Two males had active tags in late August 2013; one was in the HSWUA and the other was 

between Wrangel Island and the northern Russian coast. By late-August 2014, two male 

walruses moved south from Wrangel Island to the Russian coast and hauled out on land near 

Cape Schmidt.

Walruses tagged in previous telemetry studies in the Chukchi Sea had not traveled east of 

Barrow (Anthony Fischbach, USGS, personal communication; Jay et al. 2012, Fig 2). Barrow 

hunters say walrus hunting occurs in the Chukchi Sea but not in the Beaufort Sea. Hunters travel

west or south then west from Barrow (Appendix G-3). Only occasionally are walruses seen in 

the Beaufort Sea, east of Point Barrow. However, a female without a calf (W14-17) that was 

tagged in the Chukchi Sea in June 2014 moved north and east of Barrow, Alaska into the 

Beaufort Sea on 14 July 2014. On 23 July, this walrus moved into Kogru River Inlet, roughly 

180 km east of Barrow. Based on the dive and haulout data collected from the Kogru River 

Inlet, this walrus continued to dive in the inlet and haul out on land until its last transmission on 

10 August. 
39

Walrus Presence and Timing within Program Areas

Most walruses tagged during 2013–2015 (77 of 80, 96%) entered at least one of the active or 

proposed program areas in the Chukchi Sea (Fig. 19), 56 of 80 (70%) entered the general Lease 

Area 193 in the U.S. and 43 of 80 (54%) entered leased blocks within the larger Lease Area 193.

We documented the timing of use of these active and proposed program areas and show the days 

for which tagged walruses were present in active (Fig. 20) and proposed program areas (Fig. 21). 

Because we combined all years and not all tags transmitted locations for the same length of time,

the histograms show the general use period and the peak of use, but do not show residence time 

for individuals. Hence, reporting the range of days that walruses were present within a program 

area is more informative than the actual number of walruses, which would be an underestimate. 

Figure 19. Locations of 82 tagged walruses in the Chukchi Sea from June through October 

2010–2015 relative to active and proposed program areas: Yuzhno-Chukotsky (YC) and SeveroVrangelevskiy (SV) areas 1 and 2. ( ** OCS Leased Blocks associated with Chukchi Sea Lease 

Sale 193 were active during the study period; all but one lease block has been relinquished as of 

May 2016).
40

Figure 20. Number of tagged walruses that were in the Lease Area 193 program area in 

Alaskan waters by day, all years combined (2013–2015).
41

Figure 21. Number of tagged walruses that were in proposed program areas in Russian waters 

by day, all years combined (2013–2015).

Severo-Vrangelevskiy 1

Severo-Vrangelevskiy 2

Yuzhno-Chukotsky
42

Chukchi Sea Lease Area 193. From 2013 to 2015, 56 of 80 (70%) tagged walruses entered 

Chukchi Sea Lease Sale Area 193 and the leased blocks. We did not include the two walruses 

tagged in 2010 in this summary because they had likely migrated south of Area 193 prior to 

being tagged at Cape Lisburne in late September. For walruses migrating north in the Alaskan 

Chukchi Sea, the spring migration followed the coast and some walruses entered the Area 193 

and the leased blocks as they followed the receding ice north. However, the majority of walruses 

that entered Area 193, and the leased blocks, did so when they moved into the HSWUA, which is 

wholly contained within the boundaries of Area 193 (Fig. 19). Walruses were located within 

Area 193 between 9 June and 18 September, however >50% of the walruses that entered Area 

193 were present between 19 June and 8 August (Fig. 20). On average, tagged walruses were 

located within Area 193 for 35 days (range = 1–93 days, n = 56 walruses).

Residence patterns within the leased blocks were similar to those within the larger Area 193 (Fig. 

19), except that the leased blocks represent a small area, thus fewer walruses were located within 

the block boundaries (43 of 80, 54%) and those that were in the leased blocks were there for a 

shorter period of time (17 June–10 September). On average, tagged walruses were located 

within the leased blocks for 18 days (range = 1–71 days, n = 43 walruses), however, because the 

leased blocks are relatively small areas, residence time in the overall lease area is likely more 

representative of when walruses might be found within leased blocks than the data from leased 

blocks alone.

Program Areas in Russia. Although most walruses (73 of the 82 (89.9%)) were tagged on the 

U.S. side of the international dateline, they used U.S. and Russian waters. Specifically, 43 of 82

(52%) spent some time in Russian waters and 33 of 82 (40%) entered the Yuzhno-Chukotsky 

(YC) Area. Use of the YC, however, is expected because of its location in the southern Chukchi 

Sea, just north of Bering Strait, and walruses migrating north generally travel through this area 

during June (Figs. 10 and 21) before following either the Alaskan or Russian coast to continue 

their northward migration. Similarly, walruses will also travel through this area during their 

southern migration. Tagged walruses were located within the YC Area between 5 June and 2

October (Fig. 21). On average, tagged walruses were present within the YC Area for 11 days 

(range = 1–34 days, n = 33 walruses). Fewer walruses entered the Severo-Vrangelevskiy (SV) 1 

and 2 Areas, located in the central Chukchi Sea, east and north of Wrangel Island where fewer

tagged walruses were located overall (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19). During this study, only 14 

(18%) and 6 (7.5%) tagged walruses entered the SV Areas 1 and 2, respectively. Walruses 

transmitted within the SV 1 Area between 25 June and 26 October (Fig. 21). On average, tagged 

walruses were present within the SV 1 Area for 8 days (range = 1–29 days, n = 14 walruses). 

Walruses transmitted within the SV 2 Area between 11 July and 24 October (Fig. 21). On 

average, tagged walruses were present within the SV 2 Area for 17 days (range = 1–59 days, n = 

6 walruses). 

Seismic Analyses

The activity associated with oil and gas exploration that has the greatest potential for harm in the 

Chukchi Sea is seismic testing due to the high noise levels associated with it. Many seismic 

arrays tow 36 airguns and noise levels can be as high as 210 dB depending on water depth, 

bottom substrate, and distance from the source. There is little information about how noise

affects walrus communication, navigation, and movements. Walruses have good hearing and are 
43

sensitive to noise, especially when they are on land (Appendix G-1). Noise or noise in 

combination with movement is known to cause disturbance related stampedes on terrestrial 

haulouts (Tomilin and Kibal'chich 1975, Ovsyanikov et al. 1994).

Although tagged walruses were located within an active program area during summer and fall of 

2013–2015, we found only one 2D operation in 2013 that overlapped in space and time with 

walrus locations. Although we have made contact with the company that performed the 

operation we have not been successful in acquiring the information need to overlay walrus 

locations with the seismic operation to conduct an analysis of walrus behavior before, after, and 

during the survey.

Haulout and dive behavior

Using the 90% probability density estimates of the estimated haulout and dive locations, we 

identified two potentially important foraging areas within the Alaskan Chukchi Sea in summer 

(June–September). One area overlapped the HSWUA and the other was offshore of Icy Cape, 

between Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska (Fig. 22). Walruses began using these two areas 

around 26 June in all years. For this analysis we did not include any dive or haulout behavior of 

walruses using terrestrial haulouts (n = 2).

Figure 22. Densities of dive locations of tagged female walruses using ice as a haulout platform 

from June–September during 2013–2015 (n = 82). Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy 

Cape contain areas with >90% probability of diving locations and thus were considered 

potentially important foraging areas. ( ** OCS Leased Blocks associated with Chukchi Sea 

Lease Sale 193 were active during the study period; all but one lease block has been 

relinquished as of May 2016).
44

The model that best approximated the proportion of time hauled out (i.e., haulout percentage) 

included area of use, reproductive category, and time of day (Area × Reproductive Category + 

Time) (Figs. 23 and 24). For all females, haulout percentage was, on average, 10% higher in 

Hanna Shoal than in Icy Cape after controlling for reproductive category and time of day (P < 

0.01; Fig. 25). Specifically, haulout percentages of females with calves in Hanna Shoal was 

higher than females with calves in Icy Cape and the rest of the Chukchi Sea and higher than all 

females without calves in all areas (P < 0.01). Within Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape, haulout 

percentage was, on average, 4.4% higher for females with calves than females without calves (P

< 0.01). However, in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea, haulout percentages did not differ by 

reproductive category (P = 0.65).

Haulout percentages of female walruses also differed by time of day (Fig. 24). Walruses hauled 

out, on average, 6.3% longer between 0900 and 2000 than during the rest of the day (P < 0.01).

Although the best model did not indicate that hourly differences in haulout percentages were 

different for females with and without calves (P = 0.99) (i.e., the best model did not include an 

interaction term with Reproductive category and Time of day), we plotted the hourly haulout 

percentages of each category separately because our data suggest there may be slight differences 

between categories, especially between 1300 and 1600, and survey-related studies are interested 

in specific hourly differences in haulout percentages between each category to adjust those 

analyses for time of day.

Figure 23. Proportion of time hauled out on ice by reproductive category for tagged female 

walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea from June–September during 2013–2015. Error bars 

represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error bars that are different denote 

statistically significant differences. Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape were identified as potentially 

important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of haulout locations. “Other”

represents the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea.
45

Figure 24. Proportion of time hauled out on ice by hour for tagged female walruses (with and 

without calves) in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea from June–September during 2013–2015. Error 

bars represent 95% confidence intervals.

Figure 25. Spatial representation of mean haul out percentages for tagged female walruses on 

ice from June–September during 2013–2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy 

Cape contain areas identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density 

probability of on ice haulout locations. 
46

The model that best approximated dive duration included area of use and time of day (Area + 

Time) (Fig. 26). Dive durations of all females were 1.6 minutes longer when in Hanna Shoal 

than Icy Cape and the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea (P < 0.01); which did not differ (P = 0.99; 

Figs. 26 and 27). After controlling for the area used, walruses dove longer in the morning 

(0300–0859) than midday (0900–1459; P < 0.01) and evening (1500–2059; P = 0.02; Fig. 28). 

Dive durations at night (2100–0259), however, did not differ from any other time of day (P > 

0.36).

Figure 26. Mean dive durations (in minutes) by use area for tagged female walruses using ice as 

a haulout platform in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea from June–September during 2013–2015, after 

controlling for time of day. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error 

bars that are different denote statistically significant differences. Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape 

were identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of dive 

locations. “Other” represents the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea.
47

Figure 27. Spatial representation of mean dive durations for tagged female walruses using ice 

as a haulout platform from June–September during 2013–2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal 

and near Icy Cape contain areas identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 

90% density probability of dive locations. 

Figure 28. Mean dive durations (in minutes) by time of day (Morning: 0300–0859, Midday: 

0900–1459, Evening: 1500–2059, Night: 2100–0259) for tagged female walruses using ice as a 

haulout platform in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea from June–September during 2013–2015, after 

controlling for area used. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error 

bars that are different denote statistically significant differences. 
48

The model that best approximated dive rate included area of use and reproductive category (Area 

× Reproductive Category) (Fig. 29). When in Hanna Shoal, females made 1.4 fewer dives per 

hour than when in all other areas (P < 0.01; Fig. 30). When in Hanna Shoal (P = 0.84) and Icy 

Cape (P = 0.41), the dive rate of females with calves and without calves did not differ. However, 

in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea, females with calves made 1.25 more dives per hour than 

females without calves (P = 0.04; Fig. 29).

Figure 29. Mean dive rate (dives/hour) by use area for tagged female walruses using ice as a 

haulout platform in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea from June–September during 2013–2015. Error 

bars represent 95% confidence intervals and letters on error bars that are different denote 

statistically significant differences. Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape were identified as potentially 

important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of dive locations. “Other”

represents the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea.
49

Figure 30. Spatial representation of mean dive rates for tagged female walruses using ice as a 

haulout platform during 2013–2015. Yellow polygons in Hanna Shoal and near Icy Cape contain 

areas identified as potentially important foraging areas based on 90% density probability of dive 

locations. 

Surveys and other Activities at Terrestrial Haulouts

Hunters in Point Lay conducted haulout and carcass surveys during 2010, 2011, 2013, and 2014

(Table 7) and assisted ADFG and NSB biologists with carcass surveys in 2014 (Table 8). 

Although one of our objectives was to conduct shore-based surveys of demographic classes of 

walruses hauled out, often the risk of disturbance was determined to be too high. From USGS 

activities (i.e., tagging Jay et al. 2012) and high altitude helicopter gimbal photography (Monson

et al. 2013) however, it was well established that the herds were mostly females with dependent 

young and juveniles. 

Calves were the most frequently identified age class of walrus carcasses surveyed, 49 of 111 

(44.1%), and calves were observed with symptoms of trauma more often, 36 of 49 (73.5%), than 

older age classes (Table 9). Each subsequently older age class; yearlings, subadults, and adults, 

had a smaller proportion of individuals showing signs of trauma.
50

Table 7. Walrus carcass survey results from Point Lay, Alaska, September and October 2010, 

and September 2011, 2013, and 2014. Signs of trauma included blood from the nose and mouth, 

symptomatic of trampling as the cause of death. Fresh, moderate, advanced, and mummified

carcass conditions refer to the level of decomposition observed; advanced and mummified 

(skeletal) decomposition suggests the walrus died the previous year.

Year Sample ID Carcass 

condition Sex Age class

Body 

condition

Length 

(cm)

Signs of 

Trauma

Skin 

lesions

2010 PLW10-001 Moderate F Calf Robust 155 Y N

PLW10-002 Fresh F Calf Robust 144 Y N

PLW10-003 Fresh M Calf Emaciated 135 Y N

PLW10-004 Moderate M Calf Robust 142 Y N

PLW10-005 Fresh F Calf Robust 132 Y N

PLW10-006 Fresh M Calf Robust 126 Y N

PLW10-007 Moderate F Calf Robust 127 Y N

2011 PLW11-001 Moderate M Yearling Robust 163 U Y

PLW11-002 Mummified F Adult Unknown U U U

PLW11-003 Moderate F Calf Unknown 146 U N

PLW11-004 Mummified U Adult Unknown U U U

PLW11-005 Moderate F Calf Robust 123 Y Y

PLW11-006 Fresh M Yearling Robust 154 Y Y

PLW11-007 Advanced F Adult Unknown U U U

PLW11-008 Fresh M Subadult Robust 215 Y Y

PLW11-009 Moderate F Calf Emaciated 123 U Y

PLW11-010 Fresh F Adult Robust 277 Y Y

PLW11-011 Moderate M Yearling Unknown 147 N Y

PLW11-012 Fresh F Calf Emaciated 121 N Y

PLW11-013 Moderate F Yearling Unknown 135 Y Y

PLW11-014 Fresh F Adult Robust 269 Y N

PLW11-015 Fresh M Calf Robust 145 Y Y

PLW11-016 Moderate F Calf Robust 142 Y Y

PLW11-017 Moderate U Calf Emaciated 130 Y N

PLW11-018 Moderate F Yearling Robust 138 Y Y

PLW11-019 Advanced U Yearling Unknown U U U

PLW11-020 Moderate F Adult Emaciated 279 Y N

PLW11-021 Advanced F Calf Unknown 127 N U

PLW11-022 Advanced U Calf Unknown U U U

PLW11-023 Advanced F Yearling Unknown 140 U U

PLW11-024 Advanced F Calf Unknown 140 U U

PLW11-025 Advanced U Calf Unknown U U U

PLW11-026 Moderate F Adult Unknown U U N

PLW11-027 Moderate F Calf Emaciated U N Y

PLW11-028 Fresh M Subadult Emaciated 178 N Y
51

2013 PLW13-001 AdvancedM Adult Robust 366NU

PLW13-002 AdvancedM Adult Robust 274NU

PLW13-003 AdvancedU Adult Unknown 396NN

PLW13-004 FreshF Yearling Robust 170YN

PLW13-005 ModerateM Calf Emaciated 155YN

PLW13-006 FreshF Calf Robust 185YN

PLW13-007 FreshF Yearling Robust 218YN

PLW13-008 FreshF Calf Robust 157YN

PLW13-009 FreshU Subadult Robust 272NN

PLW13-010 FreshM Calf Emaciated 178YY

PLW13-011 FreshU Yearling Robust 191YN

PLW13-012 FreshU Calf Robust 145YU

PLW13-013 FreshU Yearling Robust 185YU

PLW13-014 FreshF Yearling Robust 198NN

PLW13-015 FreshM Adult Robust 284NN

PLW13-016 FreshU Calf Robust 160NN

2014 PLW14-001 AdvancedF Calf Robust 153UU

PLW14-002 AdvancedU Yearling UnknownUUU

PLW14-003 ModerateU Adult Unknown 235UU

PLW14-004 ModerateU Yearling Unknown 202UU

PLW14-005 ModerateU Subadult Unknown 223UU

PLW14-006 FreshF Adult Unknown 315YN

PLW14-007 FreshF Adult Robust 318YN

PLW14-008 FreshM Calf Robust 186YN

PLW14-009 FreshU Subadult Robust 264YN

PLW14-010 FreshM Calf Robust 179YN

PLW14-011 FreshM Calf Robust 192YN

PLW14-012 FreshF Adult Robust 300YN

PLW14-013 FreshF Adult Robust 310YN

PLW14-014 FreshM Calf Robust 216YN

PLW14-015 FreshF Calf RobustUYN

PLW14-016 FreshF Calf Robust 178YN

PLW14-017 FreshF Calf Robust 165YN

PLW14-018 FreshU Calf Robust 169YN

PLW14-019 FreshF Adult Robust 310YN

PLW14-021 FreshM Calf Robust 145YN

PLW14-022 FreshF Calf Robust 140YN

PLW14-023 FreshF Yearling Robust 170YN

PLW14-024 AdvancedU Yearling Unknown 180NN

PLW14-025 FreshU Calf Robust 105NN

PLW14-026 FreshU Subadult Robust 240YN

PLW14-027 FreshF Calf Robust 160YN

PLW14-028 FreshM Calf Robust 145YN

PLW14-029 FreshF Calf Robust 151YN

PLW14-030 FreshF Yearling Robust 183YN

U: Unknown
52

Table 8. Walrus carcass survey results from Point Lay, Alaska, 3–4 October 2014 and conducted 

in cooperation with the North Slope Borough, Department of Wildlife Management. Signs of 

trauma included blood from the nose and mouth, symptomatic of trampling as the cause of death. 

Moderate and advanced carcass conditions refer to the level of decomposition observed; 

advanced decomposition suggests the walrus died the previous year.

Sample ID Carcass 

condition Sex Age class Body condition

Length 

(cm)

Signs of 

Trauma

Skin 

lesions

PLW14-031 Unknown F Adult Unknown 281 N N

PLW14-032 Unknown F Calf Unknown 170 Y N

PLW14-033 Unknown F Adult Unknown 281 N N

PLW14-034 Unknown F Adult Unknown 270 N N

PLW14-035 Unknown F Adult Unknown 302 N N

PLW14-036 Unknown F Adult Unknown 274 N N

PLW14-037 Unknown F Adult Unknown 318 N N

PLW14-038 Unknown F Subadult Unknown 251 N N

PLW14-039 Moderate F Yearling Unknown 191 Y N

PLW14-040 Unknown F Adult Unknown 279 N N

PLW14-041 Advanced F Subadult Unknown 201 Y N

PLW14-042 Unknown F Adult Unknown 286 N N

PLW14-043 Moderate F Adult Unknown 310 Y N

PLW14-044 Unknown F Adult Unknown 284 N N

PLW14-045 Unknown F Adult Unknown 287 N N

PLW14-046 Advanced U Calf Unknown U Y N

PLW14-047 Advanced U Calf Unknown 163 Y N

PLW14-048 Advanced F Calf Unknown 157 Y N

PLW14-049 Unknown F Subadult Unknown 221 N N

PLW14-050 Unknown F Calf Unknown U Y N

PLW14-051 Unknown F Adult Unknown 290 N N

PLW14-052 Unknown M Calf Unknown 141 Y N

PLW14-053 Unknown F Yearling Unknown 196 Y N

PLW14-054 Unknown U Subadult Unknown 241 Y N

PLW14-055 Unknown F Adult Unknown 259 Y N

PLW14-056 Advanced F Adult Unknown 297 N N

PLW14-057 Fresh M Yearling Unknown 183 Y N

PLW14-058 Unknown M Calf Unknown 147 N N

PLW14-059 Unknown M Calf Unknown 154 Y N

PLW14-060 Moderate U Subadult Unknown 251 Y N

PLW14-061 Unknown F Calf Unknown 149 N N

U: Unknown
53

Table 9. Summary of walrus carcasses that were observed with symptoms of trauma in 2010, 

2011, 2013, and 2014.

Age class No. sampled Signs of Trauma (%)

Calf 49 36 (73.5%)

Yearling 20 12 (60.0%)

Subadult 11 6 (54.6%)

Adult 31 10 (32.3%)

Total 111 64 (57.7%)

Determining the duration of occupancy at haulout locations and follow-up carcass surveys were 

problematic at Point Lay. In the late fall, the water level drops in the lagoon between the village 

of Point Lay and the haulout on the barrier island making boating difficult. As the temperature 

drops there is a period when neither boats nor 4-wheelers or snowmachines can be used for 

access. During this period when access is limited, high winds can cause the haulout beaches to 

be inundated. The high water and wave action simultaneously displaces the herd and washes

away unsurveyed carcasses that were too close to the herd to be visited when the haulout was 

active. For these reasons demographic data, duration of haulout occupancy, and carcass surveys 

are incomplete. 

Surveys for newly formed haulouts were conducted regularly by boat, both north and south, of 

Point Lay. Haulout surveys were also conducted during 2012 on Little Diomede Island at an 

area known to be used but no walruses were found hauled out on land.

An important part of the surveillance of the Point Lay haulout was done by camera as part of a 

project conducted by the Alaska SeaLife Center. Point Lay hunters supported by this project 

assisted in the construction and maintenance of camera towers. In 2015, two of the camera 

towers got pushed over by walruses as the haulout hit its maximum size. Tens-of-thousands of 

photos were taken and researchers at the Alaska SeaLife Center are currently examining these 

photos and plan to produce a final report by October 2016. 

In August 2015, in anticipation of the end of this project, we transferred carcass survey and 

haulout surveillance responsibilities to the USFWS. Data was shared with USFWS and USGS 

throughout the project.

Local and Traditional Knowledge

The contribution of walrus hunters including local and traditional knowledge regarding walrus 

movements, timing of migration, and haulout behavior was a valuable contribution of this study. 

Information from interviews in Point Lay, Wainwright, Point Hope, Barrow, Elim, St. Michael, 

Stebbins, Kivalina, Kotzebue, and Shishmaref, during this study (2010–2015) are contained in 

reports made for the communities and incorporated into the results of this final report. Final 

reports are available from interviews in Point Lay and Wainwright (Huntington et al. 2012; 

Appendix G-1), Point Hope (Huntington and Quakenbush 2013; Appendix G-2), Barrow

(Huntington et al. 2015a; Appendix G-3), Elim (Huntington et al. 2015b; Appendix G-4), St. 
54

Michaels and Stebbins (Huntington et al. 2015c; Appendix G-5), Kivalina (Huntington et al.

2016a; Appendix G-6), Kotzebue (Huntington et al. 2016b; Appendix G-7), and Shishmaref 

(Huntington et al. 2016c; Appendix G-8) are available on the Alaska Department of Fish and 

Game’s webpage at 

http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=marinemammalprogram.traditionalknowledgereports.

Some of the information contained in these reports is also presented in a peer-reviewed 

publication in Biology Letters (Huntington et al. in press). Details of the communities, topics, 

and numbers interviewed are presented in Table 10 and all traditional knowledge reports are 

included as Appendices G-1–G-8. 

Hunter experience in approaching walruses on land without being detected was critical to the 

success of tagging and observations done during this study. Hunters also know when and where 

to look for walruses and how to approach them on the ice. We worked with the EWC to identify 

walrus hunters that had extensive knowledge and were interested in the project. 

Walrus hunters Clarence Irrigoo, Perry Pungowiyi, and Edwin Noongwook, all from Saint 

Lawrence Island, taught us about walruses and sea ice during the walrus research cruises in 

2013–2015. During the walrus research cruises, when the ship was between concentrated ice and 

the shore the hunters were consulted about the best course to take relative to the prevailing wind 

and currents.

Table 10. Summary of traditional ecological knowledge interviews and final reports.

Community Year Species discussed No. 

interviewed Reference

Point Lay and 

Wainwright

2012 Walrus and seals 5

13

Huntington et al.

2012; Appendix G-1

Point Hope 2013 Walrus, seals, 

bowhead whales, and 

beluga whales

8 Huntington and 

Quakenbush 2013; 

Appendix G-2

Barrow 2015 Walrus, seals, polar 

bears, bowhead 

whales, and beluga 

whales

10 Huntington et al.

2015a; Appendix G-3

Elim 2015 Walrus, seals, and 

beluga whales

8 Huntington et al.

2015b; Appendix G-4

St. Michael and 

Stebbins

2015 Walrus and seals 8

2

Huntington et al.

2015c; Appendix G-5

Kivalina 2016 Walrus, seals, 

bowhead whales

5 Huntington et al. 

2016a; Appendix G-6

Kotzebue 2016 Walrus, seals 6 Huntington et al.

2016b; Appendix G-7

Shishmaref 2016 Walrus, seals 5 Huntington et al.

2016c; Appendix G-8

Total

10 communities

4 

years 7 species

70 

interviews 8 reports
55

Accomplishment of Objectives and Tasks 

Overall Objective: The overall objective of this study was to work with subsistence hunters to 

deploy satellite transmitters and conduct observations on walruses in order to collect data that 

can be used to accomplish the following specific objectives.

Between 2009 and 2016 we worked with subsistence hunters from Gambell, Savoonga, 

Diomede, Wales, Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow to deploy satellite 

transmitters, conduct observations, carcass surveys, and TEK interviews. 

Objective 1: Estimate patterns of movement and behavior of walrus migrating to and moving 

within the Chukchi Sea Planning Area. Particular emphasis will be placed on estimating 

movements within industrial ship traffic lanes and between terrestrial haulout sites and feeding 

areas near Hanna Shoal and other potential oil and gas development sites.

The greatest potential for overlap with ship traffic not related to oil and gas activities would 

occur during September and October when walruses are migrating south and ships are still 

traveling through Bering Strait. Although our tag data did not cover those months well because 

most tags were deployed in June and did not last through September, the data we have for 

September and October indicate that walruses would be near the coast of Chukotka and using 

terrestrial haulouts there. The potential danger of ship strikes to walruses is probably far less 

than if ships came close enough to shore to disturb large haulouts.

Use of the Chukchi Sea Planning Area 193 was high with 56 of 80 (70%) tagged walruses 

entering the area with most using the Hanna Shoal area (Fig. 19). Although >50% of the 

walruses that entered Area 193 were present between 19 June and 8 August (Fig. 20), the earliest 

day of use was 9 June and the latest was 18 September. On average, tagged walruses were 

located within Chukchi Sea Planning Area 193 for 35 days between June and September (range 

= 1–93 days, n = 56 walruses) with the highest density of use in the HSWUA. 

Residence patterns within the leased blocks were similar to those within the larger Area 193 (Fig. 

19), except that the leased blocks represent a smaller area, thus fewer walruses were found 

within the block boundaries (43 of 80, 54%) and those that were in the leased blocks were there

for a shorter period of time (17 June–10 September). On average, tagged walruses were located 

within the leased blocks for 18 days (range = 1–71 days, n = 43 walruses). 

Although terrestrial haulouts occurred on Russian and Alaskan coasts each year of tagging, few 

tagged walruses used terrestrial haulout sites. Only 8 of 28 (29%) tagged walruses used any 

terrestrial haulout (Table 6), and only two used the Point Lay haulout on the Alaskan coast (Fig. 

18). During our study, two of seven walruses (29%), whose tags were still transmitting when 

terrestrial haulouts formed near Point Lay, hauled out there; both in 2015 (Fig. 18).

Objective 2: Estimate and evaluate the effect of any changes in walrus behavior related to 

changes in ice coverage and ice quality in the Chukchi Sea.

Tagged walruses arrived in the HSWUA in spring when ice was present, often traveling through 

the pack ice and north of the retreating ice edge to access the HSWUA. They did not begin to 
56

haulout at Point Lay until most of the ice had retreated north of the Chukchi Shelf, however 

some walruses continued to use ice that did not show up on satellite images and ice that was

north of the shelf, over water deeper than 200 m (Fig. 15).

Whether walruses have always moved ahead (northward) of the retreating ice in the spring is not 

clear, however, the intensive use of the HSWUA in late June and early July when most walruses 

were still in the Bering Sea in the past (Fay 1982) indicates that the spring migration is earlier 

now than described by Fay (1982).

Objective 3: Estimate walrus use of terrestrial haulouts by demographic class and estimate the 

duration of occupancy as related to weather, disturbance, and other potential factors.

The terrestrial haulout at Point Lay was used by all demographic classes beginning in late 

August and continuing into September until winds from fall storms brought waves crashing on 

the haulout beach and walruses would leave. The waves also removed the carcasses that were 

too near the haulout to be counted and evaluated when walruses were present, preventing a 

complete count. 

Carcasses were mostly calves and yearlings indicating that females and dependent young used 

the haulout. Photographs and observations of the haulout indicated that older juveniles and adult 

males were also present (Monson et al. 2013).

Objective 4: Document traditional knowledge of walrus behaviors including, but not necessarily 

limited to, movements, social behavior, and use of habitat including use of ice and land as 

haulout substrates.

Interviews involving 70 people from 10 coastal Alaska communities produced valuable 

information that were presented in eight final reports to EWC and the communities. Final 

reports are available on ADFG and BOEM websites, and are included in this document as 

Appendices G-1–G-8. 

TEK findings specific to walrus behavior included their excellent hearing and sensitivity to 

smells and movement. Females are protective of their calves and have been known to attack 

boats and hunters. Hunter knowledge of how to work around large groups of walruses, including 

many females with calves was important to this study. 

Walruses regularly haul out on shore in small numbers and hunters reported this activity in 

Norton Sound, near Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow (Appendices G-1–G-5). 

Walruses sometimes haulout in small numbers between Cape Thompson and Cape Lisburne, but 

regularly haul out near Cape Lisburne by the dozens. However, fewer walruses have hauled out 

near Cape Lisburne recently, possibly because barges sometimes wait there for better ice or 

weather conditions (Appendix G-2). In the past, typically a few walruses were seen at various 

locations on the islands in Kasegalek Lagoon. Large numbers were seen on shore between Point 

Lay and Wainwright in the 1950s, but the much larger numbers began hauling out on the 

Alaskan coast in 2007 (Appendix G-1).
57

Task 1 – Data Review and Hypothesis Development. We reviewed available data on walruses 

throughout the project. In addition to examining our own data, we peer reviewed manuscripts 

and read published literature on walrus movements and behavior to refine and develop working 

hypotheses. 

Task 2 – Experimental Design and Field Work. We continued to develop our collaborations 

originally established during “The Planning Phase” of this study that begun as a University of 

Alaska Coastal Marine Institute Study in 2008. We worked with the walrus hunters, EWC, 

USFWS, and USGS to address objectives. We worked with walrus hunters from Point Lay to 

conduct carcass surveys and to make observations of the terrestrial haulout when it formed and 

to look for other haulouts. We worked with hunters from Wales, Diomede, and Point Hope to 

tag walruses from shore during the spring migration but the weather and ice conditions prevented 

any tag deployments. Hunters from Gambell and Savoonga were critical members of the walrus 

research cruises in the Bering and Chukchi seas (2013–2015). We avoided conflicts with 

subsistence hunting by allowing each community to determine if tagging activities conflicted

with their hunting.

We tracked 82 walruses for a maximum of 134 days. Tag longevity was limited by retention or 

antenna durability and not battery longevity. We coordinated with USGS to match the data 

collection parameters of the tags both agencies deployed on walruses so that data collected by 

both agencies were comparable and could be combined for some analyses. This was 

accomplished even though we used a different tag manufacturer and attachment anchor. 

Task 3 – Data Analysis and Reporting. We used findings from this study to test and refine 

hypotheses. We provided weekly maps of all tagged walruses by reproductive category (i.e., 

females with and without calves) to interested parties via an extensive email list and an 

additional map focused on the Chukchi Leases and the Hanna Shoal area for BOEM to 

accommodate weekly meetings that BOEM held with industry in order to provide the most 

recent locations of tagged walruses for near real-time evaluations of walruses and industry. We 

also supplied density estimate maps and maps that depicted walrus movements relative to the 

Distributed Biological Observatory areas in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas for BOEM 

presentations at workshops. We have presented research results at six Alaska Marine Science 

Symposiums (2011–2016) and at the Society for Marine Mammalogy Biennial Conference in 

2015. We have begun to prepare manuscripts on dive and haulout behavior, and movements 

relative to ice concentration. We intend to continue collaborations with USFWS, USGS, and 

others on data analyses and products that will improve our understanding of walrus behavior and 

ecology.

Task 4 – Integration of Findings with other Tasks. Walrus movement data from this study will 

be included in a Synthesis of Arctic Research (SOAR) publication that will overlay the 

distribution of marine mammal use of the Chukchi Sea (Citta et al. In prep.) 

We have accommodated many requests for data to augment other projects and efforts. Although 

we anticipated contributions to the U.S. Coast Guard efforts for planning shipping lanes in 

Bering Strait the date of tagging and the longevity of the tags have not provided sufficient data in 

Bering Strait. We make our maps and other products available through our website and many 
58

consulting companies and other entities use them for their reports. We have offered data to

USGS to augment their studies.

Task 5 – Data Management and Archival. We have maintained an archive of all data collected 

during this study. We have ensured that all data are properly recorded, validated, backed up, and 

archived in order to be available to BOEM and other investigators after the objectives and 

obligations of this project are met. Location data from Argos have been downloaded weekly 

from the Argos webpage and complete summaries have been received monthly. Metadata, raw 

data files, and processed data files are archived on the State of Alaska web server. On this server 

(WinfoNet), we have an archival application specifically for the storage of data and the creation 

of metadata. The server is backed-up daily and cached in Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Juneau, 

Alaska. Processed locations were imported into a geographic information system (ArcMap or R) 

to analyze location and dive data that we plan to present in future manuscripts. Our data archive 

and access policy is consistent with standards adopted by BOEM, the National Oceanographic 

Data Center, NOAA, and other federal agencies.

Task 6 – Local Coordination, Outreach and Permitting. We coordinated with EWC and the 

local communities for tagging, haulout monitoring, and traditional knowledge interview 

activities. We provided handouts at annual EWC meetings (Appendices F-1, F-6, F-8, and F10). Our primary method of outreach consisted of sending weekly project updates and maps to a 

list of interested persons, including subsistence hunters, scientists, industry, and managers. 

Updates included a map with the most recent tagged walrus locations, a description of sea ice 

conditions, and a description of any additional pertinent information. Recipients often responded

and generated real-time discussions regarding walrus movements. Maps were then posted on the

ADFG website, where they are available along with other information about the walrus tagging 

project. We also prepared posters and gave presentations in coastal communities. We held two 

Federal Walrus Research Permits from USFWS (MA220876 and MA57198B) and used a permit 

issued to USFWS in 2015 (MA039386). We also maintained Institutional Animal Care and Use 

Committee (IACUC) protocols from ADFG approved annually for our research (2010-13R, 

2012-020, 2013-20, 2014-03, and 2015-25).

Task 7 – Logistics/Safety Plan. Safety plans were developed specific to each tagging effort 

based on local logistics, infrastructure, and measures already in place. Safety equipment was

inspected to ensure it was in working order. Radio communication was established between 

boats and with a contact on shore. In addition to marine VHF radios, radio beacons, and satellite 

telephones were present on all tagging boats. 

Discussion

Coordination

Collaboration between walrus hunters, walrus hunting communities, EWC, USGS, USFWS, and 

BOEM was important for tagging and exchanging information during this study. Our original 

study design was for ADFG to tag from coastal communities with local walrus hunters because 

USGS had been focused on tagging offshore from ships. When this project began in 2009, 

however, large numbers of walruses were hauling out at Point Lay and USGS began an onshore
59

tagging effort there. Although we were working with Point Lay for haulout surveillance and 

carcass surveys we did not tag there and instead tried to work from other village locations 

including Point Hope, Little Diomede, and Wales, but weather and ice conditions were not 

conducive to tagging. All of these tagging attempts were coordinated with the communities so 

that tagging operations would not interfere with walrus hunting. 

In order to keep the EWC informed of the study progress and for them to relay questions and 

concerns we made regular oral presentations at EWC meetings and provided handouts for EWC

commissioners. In order to keep as many people informed as possible we sent weekly maps of 

the locations and movements of tagged walruses to partners and anyone that expressed an 

interest in receiving them. The e-mail list included >200 addresses; many people also forward 

our maps to their own list of addresses. 

Upon receiving maps, recipients often replied to the list with their thoughts, questions, or other 

information about current walrus observations. This often stimulated a mini-discussion that 

provided valuable real-time information with perspective on the movements of the tagged 

walruses relative to the rest of the population and allowed us to clarify some confusion about 

USGS versus ADFG tagging activities. 

After the maps were distributed to the e-mail list they were placed on the ADFG website for 

people without e-mail addresses and for archiving. We know that the website was checked 

regularly because we received inquiries if we were slow to post a map. We also posted 

publications, analyses, posters, and other products on our webpage. These products are used by 

many entities for environmental assessments, biological opinions, incidental harassment 

applications and authorizations in oil company reports and in species and habitat maps.

We coordinated with research conducted by USGS and USFWS and participated in joint 

research cruises where all but two of our tags were deployed. We produced maps specific to the 

regulatory needs of BOEM to use for meetings with oil companies and other agencies. 

Tagged Walruses, Biopsy and Tag Performance 

The amount of data collected from each tag varied greatly and was dependent on many factors, 

some of which are impossible to identify with certainty. Although the tags we deployed had 

relatively good tag longevity for walruses (mean tag duration; SPOT tags: 69.8 days; SPLASH 

tags: 44.0 days), walruses do not retain tags very long for reasons we do not completely 

understand, but are possibly related to how walruses lay and roll on their backs and on each other 

when hauled out, potentially breaking the antenna from the tag, crushing the tag’s circuitry, or 

shearing the tag off of the anchor plate. Very few tags have been observed attached to walruses 

after being deployed so there is little information available for improving tag attachment design 

for longevity and for further minimizing effects to the walrus. A walrus was harvested by Point 

Hope hunters in fall 2011 that had a satellite transmitter and the walrus was healthy with no 

apparent problems on the skin near the transmitter attachment location (Appendix G-2).

Most tags performed well and collected reliable data, however in trying to provide USGS with

equivalent behavioral data to those collected by their Telonics tags, we worked with engineers at 

Wildlife Computers to develop a new setting to collect these data on SPLASH tags. In 2013, this 
60

behavioral setting did not collect the data properly, although location, dive, and haulout 

information were not affected. After the research cruise in 2013, we worked with Wildlife 

Computers again to fix this setting and the problem was resolved prior to deploying tags in 2014

and the additional behavioral data was collected in 2014 and 2015. We checked all tags 

thoroughly before deployment by dunking them in salt water to be sure they will activate once 

deployed and to confirm battery strength. Of 95 tags deployed, 13 did not transmit any data or 

only transmitted data for <24 hours after deployment due to an error in the tags’ software or for 

other unknown reasons (Table 3). 

During this study (2009–2016), we deployed 95 tags on walruses (39 on females with calves, 47 

on females without calves and 9 on males). These are the first data collected on Pacific walruses 

where it is known if females had calves when they were tagged, and therefore allows 

comparisons between females with and females without calves to be made, although it is 

unknown if any calves were lost after tagging. Because we only deployed tags on nine male

walruses, and only six of these tags transmitted data, results of our analyses between sexes (e.g., 

tag longevity, travel distances, distance to shore) may be a function of the small sample size of 

males tagged. The success of this program was largely due to the partnership with Native walrus 

hunters. Walrus hunters could safely approach walruses and deploy tags accurately using a 

crossbow or a traditional harpoon style delivery with minimal disturbance to the group and 

maximal safety for the taggers. 

Conclusions

This project collected important information about walruses during spring and summer in the 

Chukchi Sea. We worked with Native subsistence hunters to develop new study objectives and 

to deploy tags. We worked with tag manufacturers to make our data compatible with those 

collected by USGS and to improve longevity of the tags. We shared our results with the EWC, 

subsistence hunters, and their communities, scientists, oil company personnel, agency personnel,

and other interested parties by sending out weekly maps and information updates. We have 

offered to share data with USGS and USFWS. We maintained an active website that allowed 

public access of our data products. This website was used by many entities for diverse purposes,

including species and habitat maps, environmental assessments, biological opinions, incidental 

harassment applications and authorizations. We made numerous oral and poster presentations at 

conferences, symposia, and meetings (Appendices F-1–F-13) and general summer distribution

data will be published in a peer-reviewed scientific publication in 2016 (Citta et al. In prep.). 

We also intend to publish manuscripts on migration, diving and haulout behavior, and habitat 

use. 

This project has contributed a greater understanding of the distribution, movements, and habitat 

use of Pacific walruses by combining data collected by satellite transmitters with Traditional 

Ecological Knowledge. These include, but are not limited to:

1. Further documentation of the spring, summer, and fall distribution of walruses, including 

migratory routes and summer movements by reproductive category.
61

2. Documentation of the relative importance of feeding areas. Specifically we compared 

Hanna Shoal, Icy Cape, and the rest of the Chukchi Sea and, based on walrus behavior,

found indications that Hanna Shoal is likely the most important of these areas. 

3. Documentation of the use and timing of sea ice, terrestrial haulouts, and foraging areas. 

4. We have documented walrus presence within U.S. and Russian program areas in the 

Chukchi Sea. Based on movements and behavior of tagged walruses from all years, the 

greatest potential for anthropogenic disturbances from industrial activities, including 

local shipping, occur near Hanna Shoals Walrus Use Area from June–September. 

5. We deployed tags in U.S. (n = 81) and Russian waters (n = 14) and, although the sample 

size in Russian waters was small, found that walruses often crossed the International Date 

Line and movements on both sides were generally similar

Recommendations

1. Further analyze available telemetry data to determine if female walruses with calves 

exhibit movements (e.g., southern migration), diving, and haulout behavior that are 

different from females without calves. Include an analysis of difference between using 

terrestrial haulouts vs. sea ice.

2. Conduct a comprehensive analysis of walrus interactions with seismic activities. Walrus

tracks that spatially and temporally overlap with seismic operations need to be analyzed 

to learn about walrus behavior near seismic activities. Oil and seismic companies need to 

be forthcoming with their program tracklines (location and time) for this analysis to 

occur. 

3. Investigate the combination of satellite telemetry and acoustic technology to directly 

monitor noise levels that walruses are exposed to and how walrus vocalizations change 

with level. This knowledge could then be used to better interpret passively monitored 

acoustic information.

4. Conduct a comprehensive analysis of terrestrial haulout (historic and recent) use patterns 

to better anticipate their use in the future. Using historic information about how many 

consecutive years particular haulouts were used may help predict how long Point Lay 

will be used and where the next haulout might form. 
62

Acknowledgments

The Eskimo Walrus Commission has supported this project since its beginning. Special thanks to 

Charles D.N. Brower, Victor Karmen, Vera Metcalf, and the late Chris Perkins for their support. 

Joel Garlich-Miller and Patrick Lemons at USFWS and Chad Jay at USGS have been helpful in 

planning and coordination. Funding for this research was provided by BOEM with support and 

assistance from Charles Monnett and Catherine Coon. We thank the Point Lay crew Willard 

Neakok, Arthur Upicksoun, Harold Tukrook, Jack Tukrook, Martha Tukrook, Warren Harding 

Lampe, Leo Ferreira III, and James Tazorok. Andrea Soolook conducted surveys on Little 

Diomede Island. Clarence Irrigoo, Edwin Noongwook, and Perry Pungowiyi were incredible 

assets to the research cruises. Their knowledge of walrus and their willingness to work with and 

teach the research crew greatly increased the productivity and the success of all projects aboard. 

We thank the captains and crew of the R/V Norseman II and the R/V Professor Multanovskiy for 

their skill in accommodating our challenging walrus research objectives. We thank Ronald 

Oviok, Theodore Frankson, and Steve Oomittuk in Point Hope; Willard Neakok in Point Lay and 

Enoch Oktollik in Wainwright for their help with traditional knowledge interviews. In addition to 

the movements and habitat use objectives of this project, the tags we deployed also helped other 

projects on the research cruises by providing the locations of the walruses we had sampled

relative to the ship location to minimize re-sampling. Haulout data collected by these tags were 

also important to determining correction factors for classifications by measuring differences in 

how females with calves and females without hauled out and if they hauled out more during 

certain times of day. We thank Wildlife Computers and their engineers for their products, 

willingness to modify them to fit our needs and to resolve problems quickly. Research was 

conducted under USFWS Permit Nos. MA220876-0, MA220876-1, and MA039386-2 and 

ADFG Animal Care and Use Protocol Nos. 2013-20, 2014-03, and 2015-25.

List of Project Reports, Presentations, and Products

Project update to EWC Executive Board, 28–29 September 2009 in Anchorage

Project update to EWC Full Board, October 2011 in Nome

Project update to EWC Full Board, November 2012 in Anchorage

Project update to EWC Full Board, December 2013 in Anchorage

Project update to EWC Full Board, December 2014 in Anchorage

Project update to EWC Full Board, December 2015 in Anchorage

Annual Research Permit Reports to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Garlich-Miller, J., W. Neakok, and R. Stimmelmayr. 2011. Field Report: walrus carcass survey, 

Point Lay Alaska, September 11–15, 2011. (Appendix F-3)

Quakenbush, L., J. Crawford, A. Bryan, M. Nelson. 2011. Results from village-based walrus 

studies in Alaska, 2010. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 17–21 January, Anchorage, 

AK. (Abstract and poster; Appendix F-2)

Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, M. A. Nelson, J. Garlich-Miller, and L. Quakenbush. 2012.

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2011. Alaska Marine Science 

Symposium, 16–20 January, Anchorage AK. (Abstract and poster; Appendix F-4)
63

Garlich-Miller, J. 2012. Adapting to climate change: a community workshop on the 

conservation and management of walruses on the Chukchi Sea coast. Feburary 24–24, 

Barrow, Workshop Proceedings prepared by USFWS, Anchorage, 41 pp.

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2012. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska. Report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 

11 pp. (Appendix G-1)

Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, M. A. Nelson, J. Garlich-Miller, and L. Quakenbush. 2013. 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2012. Alaska Marine Science 

Symposium, 21–25 January, Anchorage AK. (Abstract and poster; Appendix F-5)

Huntington, H. P., and L. T. Quakenbush. 2013. Traditional knowledge regarding walrus near 

Point Hope, Alaska. Report to the Native Village of Point Hope, Alaska and Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 9 pp. (Appendix G-2)

Crawford, J. A., L. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, P. Pungowiyi, W. Neakok, W. H. Lampe, and J. 

Garlich-Miller. 2014. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2013. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 20–24 January, Anchorage AK. (Abstract and 

poster; Appendix F-7)

Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, E. Noongwook, and J. Garlich-Miller. 2015. 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2014. Alaska Marine Science 

Symposium, 19–22 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster; Appendix F-9)

Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 2015. Using 

movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of foraging 

areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. 21th Biennial Conference on the Biology 

of Marine Mammals. 14–18 December, 2015. San Francisco, CA, USA. (Abstract and 

presentation; Appendix F-11)

Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 2016. Using 

movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of foraging 

areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 25–

29 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster; Appendix F-12)

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015a. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals near Barrow, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. (Appendix G-3)

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015b. Traditional knowledge regarding

ringed seals, bearded seals and walrus near Elim, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 
64

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 7 pp. (Appendix G-4)

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015c. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near St. Michael and Stebbins, Alaska. Final 

report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015. 7 pp. (Appendix G-5)

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016a. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kivalina, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. (Appendix G-6).

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016b. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska. Final report to the 

Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 11 pp. (Appendix G-8). 

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016c. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska. Final report to the 

Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp. (Appendix G-7). 

Literature Cited

Arsen'ev, V. K. 1927. The Pacific walrus. Knizhnoe Delo, Khabarvosk-Vladivostok. p. Transl. 

40 pp by F.H. Fay and B.A. Fay 1980.

Citta, J. J., P. L. Boveng, M. Cameron, F., J. A. Crawford, K. J. Frost, and e. al. In prep. Seasonal 

distribution and overlap of marine mammals in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort seas. 

Deep Sea Research Part II.

Estes, J. A., and V. N. Gol'tsev. 1984. Abundance and distribution of the Pacific walrus 

Odobenus rosmarus divergens: Results of the first Soviet-American joint aerial survey, 

autumn 1975. Pages 67–76 in F. H. Fay, and G. A. Fedoseev, eds. Soviet-American 

cooperative research on marine mammals. Vol 1—Pinnipeds. NOAA Technical Report 

NMFS 12.

Fay, F. H. 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens

Illiger.North American Fauna No. 74. 279 p.

Fedoseev, G. A. 1966. Aerial observations on marine mammals in the Bering and Chukchi seas. 

Izvestiya TINRO 58. (avail. NMFS, MML Seattle WA).
65

_____. 1981. Aerovisual survey of walrus and bowhead whales in the eastern Arctic and Bering 

Sea. Pages 25–37 in L. A. Popov, ed. Scientific investigational work on marine mammals 

in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean in 1980-81. All Union Scientific Investigational 

Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO), Moscow, USSR.

Fedoseev, G. A., and E. V. Razlivalov. 1986. The distribution and number of walruses in the 

eastern Arctic and Bering Sea in the autumn of 1985. Pages 93–98 in L. A. Popov, ed. 

Scientific-investigative work on marine mammals of the northern part of the Pacific 

Ocean in 1984/85. Vniro, Moscow, Russia. Transl. by F. H. Fay (avail. NMFS, MML 

Seattle WA).

Folkow, L. P., and A. S. Blix. 1999. Diving behaviour of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) in 

the Greenland and Norwegian seas. Polar Biology 22:61–74.

Folkow, L. P., E. S. Nordøy, and A. S. Blix. 2004. Distribution and diving behaviour of harp 

seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) from the Greenland Sea stock. Polar Biology 27:281–

298.

_____. 2010. Remarkable development of diving performance and migrations of hooded seals 

(Cystophora cristata) during their first year of life. Polar Biology 33:433–441.

Freitas, C., C. Lydersen, M. A. Fedak, and K. M. Kovacs. 2008. A simple new algorithm to filter 

marine mammal Argos locations. Marine Mammal Science 24:315–328.

Gilbert, J. R., G. A. Fedoseev, D. J. Seagars, E. V. Razlivalov, and A. Lachugin. 1992. Aerial 

census of Pacific walrus, 1990. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Administrative Report 

R7/MMM 92-1. 33 pp. (avail. USFWS, 1011 E. Tudor, Anchorage, AK 99503).

Gol'tsev, V. N. 1968. Dynamics of coastal herds of the walrus in connection with its distribution 

and numbers. Pages 205–215 in V. A. Arsen'ev, and K. I. Panin, eds. Pinnipeds of the 

North Pacific. Pishchevaya Promyshlennost', Moscow, USSR. (transl. from Russian).

Harris, R. B., S. G. Fancy, D. C. Douglas, G. W. Garner, S. C. Amstrup, T. R. McCabe, and L. F. 

Pank. 1990. Tracking wildlife by satellite: current systems and performance. .

Hastings, K. K., K. J. Frost, M. A. Simpkins, G. W. Pendleton, U. G. Swain, and R. J. Small. 

2004. Regional differences in diving behavior of harbor seals in the Gulf of Alaska. 

Canadian Journal of Zoology 82:1755–1773.

Huntington, H., L. Quakenbush, and M. Nelson. in press. Effects of changing sea ice on marine 

mammals and subsistence hunters in northern Alaska from traditional knowledge 

interviews. Biological Letters.

Huntington, H. P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51:237–242.

Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2012. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 
66

Commission and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027 

11 pp.

_____. 2015a. Traditional knowledge regarding walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals near 

Barrow, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, 

and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015 8 pp.

_____. 2015b. Traditional knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near 

Elim, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, 

and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015 7 pp.

_____. 2015c. Traditional knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near St. 

Michael and Stebbins, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice 

Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015 7 pp.

_____. 2016a. Traditional knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near 

Kivalina, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal 

Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015 8 

pp.

_____. 2016b. Traditional knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near 

Kotzebue, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal 

Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015 11 

pp.

_____. 2016c. Traditional knowledge regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near 

Shishmaref, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal 

Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015 8 

pp.

Huntington, H. P., and L. T. Quakenbush. 2013. Traditional knowledge regarding walrus near 

Point Hope, Alaska. Report to Native Village of Point Hope and Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M09PC00027 9 pp.

Jay, C. V., A. S. Fischbach, and A. A. Kochnev. 2012. Walrus areas of use in the Chukchi Sea 

during sparse sea ice cover. Marine Ecology Progress Series 468:1–13.

Johnson, D. S., J. M. London, M.-A. Lea, and J. W. Durban. 2008. Continuous-time correlated 

random walk model for animal telemetry data. Ecology 89:1208–1215.

Keating, K. A. 1994. An alternative index of satellite telemetry location error. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 58:414–421.

Monson, D. H., M. S. Udevitz, and C. V. Jay. 2013. Estimating age ratios and size of pacific 

walrus herds on coastal haulouts using video imaging. PLoS ONE 8:e69806. doi: 

10.1371/journal.pone.0069806.
67

Nikulin, P. G. 1941. The Chukchi walrus. Izvestiya TINRO 20:21–59. Transl by D. 

Wakhroucheff (avail. NMFS, MML Seattle WA).

Noongwook, G., Native Village of Savoonga, Native Village of Gambell, H. P. Huntington, and 

J. C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) 

around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 80:47–54.

Ovsyanikov, N. G., L. L. Bove, and A. A. Kochnev. 1994. Causes of mass mortality of walruses 

on coastal haulouts. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal 73:80–87. Transl. by M. Bell, Anchorage, 

AK marina@ak.net.

Tomilin, A. G., and A. A. Kibal'chich. 1975. Walruses of the Wrangel Island region. 

Zoologicheskii Zhurnal 54:266–272. Transl. from Russian. Fisheries and Marine Service 

Translation Series Canada No. 3721.

Udevitz, M. S., C. V. Jay, A. S. Fishbach, and J. L. Garlich-Miller. 2009. Modeling haul-out 

behavior of walruses in Bering Sea ice. Canadian Journal of Zoology 87:1111–1128.
ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE:

A COMMUNITY WORKSHOP ON THE 

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF 

WALRUSES ON

THE CHUKCHI SEA COAST 

FEBRUARY 23-24, 2012

IÑUPIAT HERITAGE CENTER

BARROW, ALASKA

Photo Credit: Bill Tracey Sr., Point Lay, Alaska

Appendix A. “A Community Workshop on the Conservation and Management of Walruses on 

the Chukchi Sea Coast” held in Barrow in 2012.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This workshop was organized and sponsored by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and the North Slope Borough 

Department of Wildlife Management. The workshop planning committee consisted of: Charles 

Brower, Joel Garlich-Miller, Vera Metcalf, Willard Neakok, Enoch Oktollik, Ronald Oviok, Sr., 

Leslie Pierce, and Lori Quakenbush. Alaska Summit Enterprises coordinated and facilitated the 

meeting; Cynthia Callivrourssi – project manager, Christine Celentano - meeting facilitator, 

Karen Morgan – recorder, and Joyce Winton – travel and logistics coordinator. Billy Adams, 

Michael Pederson, Joseph Sage, and Ernest Nageak provided logistical support and 

transportation to workshop participants while in Barrow. Funding for the workshop was provided 

by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 
ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE: 

A COMMUNITY WORKSHOP ON THE CONSERVATION AND 

MANAGEMENT OF WALRUSES ON

THE CHUKCHI SEA COAST 

FEBRUARY 23-24, 2012

IÑUPIAT HERITAGE CENTER

BARROW, ALASKA

SPONSORED BY: 

U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

ESKIMO WALRUS COMMISSION

ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

NORTH SLOPE BOROUGH DEPARTMENT OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

WORKSHOP PROCEEDINGS COMPILED AND EDITED BY: 

JOEL GARLICH-MILLER, USFWS

USFWS ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT, R7/MMM 12-1 

MARINE MAMMALS MANAGEMENT, U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE,

1011 EAST TUDOR ROAD, ANCHORAGE, ALASKA 99503

APRIL, 2012
WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

BARROW

Billy Adams, NSB-DWM

Charles Brower, EWC Chairman* 

Leandra de Sousa, NSB-DWM

George Edwardson, Community Elder and 

ICAS President

Taqulik Hepa, NSB-DWM

William Hopson, NSB Fish & Game 

Management Committee

Ernest Nageak, USFWS

Mike Pederson, NSB-DWM

Brian Person, NSB-DWM

Leslie Pierce, NSB-DWM* 

Joseph Sage, NVB 

Raphaela Stimmelmayr, NSB-DWM

POINT HOPE

Steve Oomittuk, Mayor 

Ronald Oviok, Sr., EWC*

POINT LAY

Warren Harding Lampe, NSB Fish & Game 

Management Committee

Willard Neakok, EWC* 

Bill Tracey, Sr., Director, North Slope 

Borough Fire Department

Marie Tracey, NSB Village Communication

Liaison

SAVOONGA

Perry Pungowiyi, Invited Guest Speaker

WAINWRIGHT

Enoch Oktollik, EWC*

Rossman Peetook, Community Elder

OTHER WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Rosemary Ahtuangaruak, Alaska Wilderness 

League

Joel Garlich-Miller, USFWS*

Henry Huntington, Consultant 

Patrick Lemons, USFWS 

Vera Metcalf, EWC Executive Director* 

Lori Quakenbush, ADFG* 

John Trent, USFWS 

WORKSHOP COORDINATORS

Alaska Summit Enterprises 

Christine Celentano, Meeting Facilitator

Joyce Winton, Logistics Coordinator 

Karen Morgan, Recorder

*Workshop Steering Committee Member

Photo Credit: Marie Tracey
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 1 

WORKSHOP OVERVIEW

The Arctic habitat of the walrus (Aiviq or Aghveq) is rapidly changing. In recent years, the 

Chukchi Sea has become sea ice-free in late summer forcing walruses to move to coastal areas 

(known as haulouts) to rest on land. As sea ice cover in the Chukchi Sea declines, human activity 

in the region is expanding, bringing humans and walruses into frequent contact. As walruses 

become increasingly dependent on coastal haulout areas, local conservation and management 

efforts are becoming increasingly important. The coastal communities of Alaska are first hand 

witnesses to the effects of climate change on walruses and are well positioned to take an active 

role in their management. 

This report is a summary of a community workshop on the conservation and management of 

Pacific walruses along the Chukchi Sea coast of Alaska. Workshop participants included 

community elders and subsistence walrus hunters from the coastal communities of Point Hope, 

Point Lay, Barrow, Wainwright and Savoonga, Alaska. The purpose of the workshop was to 

provide an opportunity for coastal communities and resource managers to exchange information 

and observations about the increase in use of coastal haulouts, and discuss ways to increase the 

involvement and participation of coastal communities in walrus research and management 

activities.

LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THE REPORT 

ADFG Alaska Department of Fish and Game

COB City of Barrow

EWC Eskimo Walrus Commission

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

ICAS Iñupiat Community of the Arctic Slope

IRA Indian Reorganization Act 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NSB-DWM North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management 

NVB Native Village of Barrow

OMB Office of Management and Budget

UAF University of Alaska, Fairbanks 

UIC Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation 

UME Unusual Mortality Event 

USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

USGS U.S. Geological Survey 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 2

OPENING REMARKS

Taqulik Hepa, Director, North Slope Borough - Department of Wildlife Management

Taqulik welcomed the Eskimo Walrus Commission (EWC) and community representatives to 

Barrow. She noted that many changes have occurred in the Arctic in recent years which are 

creating new wildlife management issues. She stressed the importance of working on wildlife 

management issues at the local level. She cited the community polar bear patrols in North Slope 

Borough (NSB) villages as a positive example of how local organizations have taken a 

leadership role in wildlife management, with federal and state agencies providing support. She 

recognized the village of Point Lay for taking on a leadership role with walrus haulout 

management issues, and thanked the community elders for participating in the meeting. Elders 

have a lot of knowledge and have watched and taken care of their resources for many years.

Joel Garlich-Miller, Wildlife Biologist-Walrus, US Fish and Wildlife Service

Joel thanked everyone for taking the time to come talk about walrus issues. He shares Taqulik’s 

view that the most effective management efforts are likely to occur at the local level. A fine 

example is the work that the community of Point Lay has accomplished to develop local 

programs that have been successful at reducing disturbance-related mortality at their haulout.

Charles Brower, Chair, Eskimo Walrus Commission

Charles welcomed workshop participants to Barrow. He noted that in 2008 the EWC adopted a 

resolution encouraging coastal communities to develop local ordinances concerning disturbances 

at coastal walrus haulout sites (Appendix A). This was a proactive step taken by the EWC to 

respond to the coastal walrus haulouts developing on the North Slope of Alaska. He expressed 

concern that walruses landing on Barrow area beaches might be considered a haulout. His 

personal opinion is that this level of use does not qualify as a haulout. It is his hope that one 

outcome from the workshop will be improved communication about walrus issues with coastal 

communities.

Vera Metcalf, Director, Eskimo Walrus Commission

Vera shared that the EWC mission statement is: “To encourage self-regulation of walrus hunting 

and management of walrus stock by Alaska Natives who use and need walrus to survive." In 

addition to the 2008 resolution encouraging local initiatives to minimize disturbances at walrus 

haulouts, the EWC has also worked with the communities of Saint Lawrence Island to develop 

local marine mammal ordinances. Other recent activities and priorities for the EWC include: 

building research capacity in the walrus hunting community, traditional knowledge studies about 

walruses in Chukotka, and the development of a marine mammal disease handbook for hunters. 

The EWC works closely with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) on co-management 

activities and has a good working relationship with the North Slope Borough Department of 

Wildlife Management (NSB-DWM). A EWC contact list was distributed to the group along with 

an offer to help identify funding sources to address community needs.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 3 

BACKGROUND PRESENTATIONS 

EMERGING WALRUS MANAGEMENT ISSUES ON THE CHUKCHI SEA COAST

Joel Garlich-Miller, Walrus Biologist, USFWS

Female walruses and their dependent young migrate north in spring following the receding pack 

ice to shallow productive feeding grounds in the Chukchi Sea. Broken sea ice provides a 

platform for resting within easy access of offshore feeding areas, isolation from terrestrial 

predators, and a sheltered environment for young animals against stormy seas. Traditionally, 

broken sea ice has persisted in offshore areas of the Chukchi Sea through the summer and 

walruses have remained offshore. In recent years, the Chukchi Sea shelf has become entirely icefree by late summer and periods without ice cover have ranged from a few weeks to three 

months. The recent trend of rapid sea ice retreat from continental shelf regions in July and 

August is expected to persist and perhaps accelerate in the future.

When sea ice retreats to waters too deep to feed, walruses abandon the ice and move to shore. 

Over the past decade, the number of walruses using haulouts along the Chukchi Sea coast has 

increased dramatically, and the season of use seems to increase with each coming year. Several 

tens of thousands of animals haul out in some locations in Chukotka, Russia. Up until a few 

years ago, the formation of coastal haulouts along the Chukchi Sea coast was primarily a Russian 

phenomenon; however, we are starting to see a similar pattern develop in Alaska. 

The most pressing conservation concern associated with large densely packed coastal haulouts is 

the potential for injuries and mortalities associated with stampedes caused by disturbance events. 

Several thousand walruses have perished along the Russian coastline in recent years as the result 

of disturbances at coastal haulouts. Young animals are particularly vulnerable to trampling 

injuries and mortality. Some stampedes are caused by human activities such as gunfire or aircraft 

over-flights, and others are caused by animals such as polar bears and feral dogs drawn to the 

haulout sites. Trampling mortalities at coastal haulouts in Alaska have also been observed ─ one 

disturbance event at Icy Cape in the fall of 2009 resulted in approximately 150 dead walruses. 

Some of the largest coastal walrus haulouts in Chukotka, Russia have formed near coastal 

villages. Several communities have developed local management programs to help reduce 

disturbances and mortalities. Efforts have included the establishment of “quiet zones” on beaches 

when walruses are present, tying up stray dogs, and keeping vehicles off the beach. To prevent 

disturbances, haulout visitors are accompanied by a community guide who keeps them at a safe 

distance and down-wind of the animals. Subsistence hunters have modified their hunting 

practices and are using spears instead of guns to take walruses near the haulout so they do not 

cause large disturbances. Some communities have appointed an elder as a haulout steward to

oversee hunting efforts and visitor programs. These efforts have been quite successful, and 

although some disturbances and mortalities still occur, the number of mortalities is down 

considerably from just a few years ago. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 4 

Photo Credit: Vladilen Kavriy, Walrus haulout near the village of Vankarem, Chukotka

Minimizing disturbances at coastal walrus haulouts along the Arctic coast of Alaska has also 

become important in recent years. Outreach efforts have included public service announcements, 

village visits, and posters to raise awareness of emerging haulout areas and the potential impacts 

of disturbances. The USFWS has also developed flight advisories and guidelines for local air 

carriers and pilots, and has worked with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to establish 

temporary flight restrictions over large haulout areas. It will be important to build flexibility into

response plans in case walruses begin to haulout in new locations. It will also be important to

establish a communication network along the coast to report haulouts when they develop so that 

management responses can be adapted. 

Some of the most important and effective efforts to minimize disturbance related mortalities at 

coastal haulouts in Alaska have occurred at the local level. A large coastal haulout, composed 

primarily of females and calves, has formed near the community of Point Lay in recent years. 

The community of Point Lay took an active and effective stewardship role and minimized human 

activities that could result in disturbance events at the haulout. The community worked with air

carriers to change flight routes into the community and made sure that visitors kept a respectful 

distance from the haulout. Hunters did not hunt the main herd despite its easy access. Efforts 

appear to be working – disturbance related mortalities at the Point Lay haulout have been 

remarkably low over the past two seasons. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 5

Photo Credit: NOAA. Coastal walrus haulout near the village of Point Lay, Alaska

As walruses become more dependent on coastal haulouts, local conservation and management 

efforts are going to become increasingly important. The coastal communities of Alaska are well 

positioned to take an active role in conserving and managing the species. This workshop is an 

opportunity for resource managers and subsistence users to exchange information, ideas, and 

observations about the haulouts, and to discuss ways to increase the involvement and 

participation of coastal communities in walrus research and management activities.

COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Comment: I am uncomfortable with climate models that project 50 years out – no one can 

predict that far into the future.

Response: We don’t need models to show the loss of sea ice that has already occurred –

walruses are already starting to occupy the coast. The models simply suggest that this is likely to 

continue to be the pattern in the coming years and we need to be prepared for increased use of 

coastal haulout areas.

Question: What about the walrus haulouts in the Bering Sea?

Response: Bering Sea summer haulouts are mostly used by adult males who don’t migrate north 

and instead, stay behind during the ice-free season. Females and young calves generally do not 

come to shore, and always choose sea ice to rest on when given the choice. In the summer, they 

follow the ice-pack north into the Chukchi Sea and only come to shore when there is the no more 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 6 

ice over the continental shelf. Females and young walruses appear to be more vulnerable to 

disturbance related mortalities than male walruses.

Comment: A suggestion was made to make the herd healthier by harvesting them rather than 

letting them trample each other on the coastal haulouts. 

Response: The clarification was made that no one is suggesting not hunting walruses – we are 

looking for suggestions to prevent unnecessary disturbances that can lead to the loss of calves, 

which can affect population size. There is a lot of traditional knowledge from hunters in Russia 

and Arctic Canada who live near coastal walrus haulouts to draw on regarding hunting 

techniques near haulouts without causing disturbance related mortalities or displacing animals 

away from hunting areas. 

Comment: Our (Alaskan) elders also have knowledge to share. Haulout hunting can result in 

unnecessary dispersal of animals and deaths and carcasses rotting near villages. There was a 

recommendation to hunt down the coast or on isolated beaches so that the main herd is not 

disturbed. It was also noted that many hunters preferred to hunt on ice because it is cleaner to 

butcher animals on sea ice versus a sandy beach.

Comment: Talking about hunting issues is a touchy subject and can bring up defenses in wanting 

to protect our Native food and tribal way of living in order to preserve these things for our 

children. Before statehood, our Alaska Native people knew how to deal with land and sea 

animals. The participant noted respect for Joel and where he stands on these issues. Native 

organizations don’t have enough financial resources to bring communities together, or to give 

presentations on how to protect their own subsistence resources. Getting this workshop funded 

allows us to interact as one large group. 

Comment: We need to think about what our elders have taught us about leaving animals alone to 

adapt and rest before they continue heading south. Reference was made to the long migration 

distances walruses had to make in 2007 (sea ice moved far north away from the coast that year). 

There was a recommendation to focus management efforts on where the haulouts form and 

communicate with hunters to stay away from the herd when they are resting on the beach. We 

should take advice from our elders to leave them alone.

Question: Is there some central information source about walruses? 

Response: There is a lot of information about walruses and management efforts available on the 

USFWS website (http://alaska.fws.gov/fisheries/mmm/walrus/wmain.htm). There are also links 

to scientific publications, federal regulations and other resources. If someone can’t find 

information there, USFWS staff can help you find it.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 7 

DISEASE SYMPTOMS SEEN AT THE POINT LAY HAULOUT– UPDATE ON CAUSE

Dr. Raphaela Stimmelmayr, Research Biologist and Wildlife Veterinarian, North Slope Borough 

Department of Wildlife Management 

In August and September 2011 some of the walruses hauled out on the barrier island near the 

community of Point Lay, Alaska were reported by hunters and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

biologists to have bleeding sores on their skin. In response, USFWS wildlife biologists, the NSBDWM wildlife veterinarian, and local hunters from Point Lay conducted two ground-based 

surveys near the haulout. Fifty-one carcasses were examined. The cause of death could not be 

determined for some carcasses, but many had injuries associated with trampling (i.e., bleeding 

from the nose, bruises, crushed chest, etc.). Many of the carcasses examined confirmed the 

presence of unusual round lesions (sores) on the skin of the face, body, and flippers. Calves and 

sub-adults were affected most often by these skin lesions. Several random surveys of the herd 

were conducted to estimate how many walruses were affected. Approximately six percent of the 

estimated 15,000-20,000 walruses hauled out on the barrier island appeared to have the skin 

condition. More sub-adults (65%) had sores than adults (35%). Live walruses with skin lesions 

generally appeared otherwise healthy and robust. One sub-adult male walrus was observed 

separated from the herd and was obviously sick; he had skin sores and blood was coming from 

the nose and mouth. This animal was put out of its misery and necropsied by the veterinarian to 

see if the cause of its illness could be determined. 

Two field necropsies were conducted at the haulout; one on a fresh, beach-cast carcass of a 

female calf, and one on the euthanized male sub-adult. Some common findings included bloodfilled lungs, soft discolored liver, smaller than normal thymus, and smaller than normal lymph 

nodes. Laboratory findings included inflammation of blood vessels in the skin, inflammation of 

the heart muscle, and inflammation of the liver (hepatitis). Preliminary laboratory findings were 

suggestive of a virus; however, despite exhaustive efforts, none have been identified. Several 

bacteria have also been found in the samples, but nothing unusual that could cause the observed 

symptoms. Preliminary testing for toxic algae, like paralytic shellfish poison, has been negative 

or at very low detectable levels. So far, the disease and where it came from remains unclear. 

However, a similar disease condition in young walruses at coastal haulouts has been observed in 

Chukotka, Russia. In Alaska, the skin condition in young walruses has only been observed at the 

Point Lay haulout; other Alaskan walrus hunting communities report healthy walruses. 

In December 2011, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) and USFWS 

declared an Unusual Mortality Event (UME) for ice seals and Pacific walrus (2011 Northern 

Pinniped UME). An investigative team made up of scientists from many institutions has been 

established. Further testing is underway for possible causes including factors such as diseases, 

man-made and natural bio-toxins, radiation, contaminants, and nutritional, hormonal and 

environmental factors. Although some similarities exist between the symptoms observed in ice 

seals and Pacific walruses, it is still unknown if the two are related. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 8 

Photo Credit: Anthony Fischbach, USGS. Walrus with skin lesions at the Point Lay walrus haulout, August, 2011

COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Comment: Saint Lawrence Island hunters have not encountered any sick walruses like this in our 

region. So far, the walruses seen this year have been healthy and fat. 

Comment: Elders talk about the health of animals over time. We have not seen animals as sick 

as they are now.

Comment: We rely on subsistence delicacies such as ugruk (bearded seal) and fermented walrus 

to build energy for our elders. We need to share this information with our people in order to 

protect our continued consumption of these foods. We have had other scares in the past; some 

people are still scared to eat duck and geese (avian influenza). We do not want to see that happen 

with our seals and walruses. Communicating the laboratory test results back to our communities 

is important.

Comment: We have not seen or heard of people or dogs getting sick from touching or eating 

affected seals or walruses. Human health experts do, however, recommend that people avoid 

touching or consuming them. If you see a sick animal, it is telling you — “don’t eat me.” Trust 

that your traditional practices will guide you. You do not need agencies to tell you if something 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 9

is safe to eat. The investigative team is trying to find out what is causing the illness and to get 

information out to the communities about the disease investigation. Communities that have 

questions and/or need clarification can contact the NSB-DWM for more information.

Comment: Perhaps the sores are a symptom of stress. When walruses are stressed, they hit each 

other with their tusks and drive weak ones away from the herd. The noise associated with 

seismic surveys in the Chukchi Sea could cause stress in walruses because the noise can travel 

for many miles.

Comment: There are several military radar sites along the North Slope as well as chemical 

dumps and we all know that walruses are bottom feeders. Walruses could be picking things up 

from the food they eat.

Comment: There is concern about the Red Dog zinc-lead mine near Kivalina because a line in 

the water can be seen drifting northward from the dock. These things (mining products) could 

affect fish and marine mammals.

Comment: Increasing water temperature could also be a factor and could facilitate bacterial 

growth.

Comment: A recommendation was made to test ballast water from ships that travel through the 

area because they could be carrying bacteria or contaminants.

Comment: The melting ice pack is releasing elements that we do not know about. We are also 

starting to see strange algae blooms in our region.

Comment: We also have concerns about possible offshore nuclear releases.

Comment: The USFWS hopes to visit Saint Lawrence Island this spring to collect baseline data 

from healthy animals to further the investigation. We would also like to work with the 

community of Point Lay to collect additional samples from carcasses at the haulout. There will 

also be meetings with Russian colleagues in March to find out about their observations from 

haulouts in Chukotka and discuss ways to jointly monitor for sick walruses at coastal haulouts.

Local observations are a very important part of the ongoing walrus and seal disease 

investigation. If people observe animals with unusual symptoms they are encouraged to contact 

local wildlife officials at the numbers below:

North Slope: North Slope Borough Department of Wildlife Management: 907-852-0350

Nome/Bering Strait: Eskimo Walrus Commission: 1-877-277-4392

Nome/Bering Strait: UAF Marine Advisory Program: 1-800-478-2202, or: 907-443-2397

Statewide: NOAA Alaska Marine Mammal Stranding Network: 1-877-925-7773
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 10 

WALRUS OBSERVATIONS FROM SAINT LAWRENCE ISLAND

Invited Guest Speaker Perry Pungowiyi, Traditional Hunter from Savoonga 

Perry shared a map of the walrus haulouts on Saint Lawrence Island (Appendix B), and noted 

that large mixed (both sexes) herds of walruses use the haulouts in the fall and early winter. 

Saint Lawrence Island is 100 miles long and its narrowest point is 25 miles wide. Its Siberian 

Yupik name is Sivuqaq which means “squeezed” – it looks like the island is being squeezed by 

the Creator. That is why Saint Lawrence Island is thinner in the middle. There are approximately 

800 people living in each of the villages of Gambell and Savoonga. 

In late spring, Savoonga hunters travel as much as 70 to 100 miles out to pursue walruses. 

Although they share hunting information with Gambell hunters, they try not to overlap hunting 

areas and speak on different radio channels. Some walruses do not migrate north in summer and 

remain near Saint Lawrence Island year round. A lot of clams wash up on the south side of the 

island when there is a southerly storm. Biologists and scientists say clams only grow in deep 

water, but this (shallow) area is rich in clams. When walruses are harvested in this region their 

stomachs are full of clams.

Some walruses are carnivorous and feed on seals. Seals are not part of the natural walrus diet, so 

the people of Saint Lawrence Island do not eat these seal-eating walruses. The elders say that 

these walruses must have lost their mothers when they were young and they were not taught to 

eat walrus food, so they started to eat fish and then seals instead. Their tusks are yellow and 

scarred from eating seals and their meat is very oily. 

Saint Lawrence Island walrus haulouts form in late October, November, and December. Large 

haulouts form on the Punuk Islands off the eastern end of Saint Lawrence Island. Every year 

hunters find dead walruses on the islands. Even though there are no people there, they trample 

each other. Community members have observed carcasses of aborted fetuses, calves, pregnant 

females and large bulls. Polar bears also use this area and know where to look for dead walruses. 

When Saint Lawrence Island hunters visit the Punuk Islands in the fall, the elders tell them to 

take only what is needed. Approaching from down-wind and hunting at the edges of the haulout 

are important to limit disturbances. Wind direction also determines whether Gambell or 

Savoonga hunters reach the haulout areas first. If hunters find dead walruses, they salvage the 

tusks and share the resource.

Walruses generally haul out onto sandy areas; they also haul out on one of the rocky islands. A 

haulout for spotted seals has also been observed near the island. There used to be thousands of

seals there; however, because of disturbances, the numbers are not as high as they used to be. In 

recent years, Gambell hunters have also seen a lot of sea lions on the west side of the island. 

Although it is unknown why they are hauling out there, Perry suggests they are probably 

following their food source. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 11 

Perry noted that the main migratory pathway for bowhead whales and other marine mammals is 

to the west (Russian) side of the Island. The community is concerned about increased shipping 

traffic in the area. If possible, they would like ships to pass on the east (U.S.) side of the island. 

They have also encountered fishing boats from Nome traveling to Saint Lawrence and the Punuk 

Islands to look for ivory. Perry wrote a letter to the Norton Sound Economic Development 

Corporation to protest the collection of walrus parts, bones, and tusks from the island (which is 

privately owned) but has not received a response. Fishing fleets from the south are also starting 

to move into the region. Perry notes concern about potential impacts because the region is such 

an important habitat for sea mammals and water fowl.

Occasionally, air traffic from Nome can disrupt hunting opportunities. When hunters see a plane, 

they call the USFWS agent in Nome and notify him that people are scaring walruses and 

interfering with the subsistence hunt. Perry noted that a few years ago researchers were studying

walruses from a U.S. Coast Guard ship. A camera crew used a helicopter to take video footage of 

some walruses, and even though they stayed one mile away from the herds, with the wind 

direction, the animals moved off the ice when they heard the helicopter. 

Saint Lawrence Island communities have recently adopted local hunting ordinances revived from 

the 1940s that limit the number of walruses taken per trip. This shows that they are able to 

manage their own resources. Although the ordinances focus on walrus trip limits right now, they 

may try to revive sea bird ordinances in the future. The IRA Councils worked with the EWC, 

Kawerak’s legal counsel, and the USFWS to develop these ordinances. The Native Villages of 

Savoonga and Gambell received funding through a tribal wildlife grant to implement the 

program and are currently working to form marine mammal councils in both communities. 

COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Comment: We have also seen a carnivorous walrus in Barrow. We were excited to get the 

animal and people ate it based on a first come/first served announcement made on the radio. 

Some light joking followed – now you know that if you eat meat from a carnivorous walrus, you 

will go bald (Joke). 

Comment: Generally, people try to stay away from larger walrus herds (on land or ice) and try to 

either pick smaller groups or hunt at the edges of the group. Large walrus groups are fearless and 

dangerous as they feel there is safety in numbers. 

Question: Does the vegetation grow back after walrus haul out on Saint Lawrence Island? 

Response: There is a tough sharp grass on the Punuk Island that grows back. 

Question: Have walruses been killed by ship traffic?

Response: We have no idea.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 12 

COMMUNITY OBSERVATIONS AND SHARED TRADITIONAL

KNOWLEDGE

WALRUS OBSERVATIONS FROM POINT LAY, ALASKA

Bill Tracey, Director, North Slope Borough Fire Department 

Bill shared that he is humbled to be a part of this process. He has been living on the North Slope 

for more than 40 years. His wife’s (Marie) parents and family shared their knowledge and taught 

him about the animals in the area. He has seen a lot of changes in his lifetime and suggests that 

people need to look at what humans are doing to the planet to cause these rapid changes. 

He recalled that years ago you could boat for days on the Chukchi Sea without encountering 

another person. Today, boats are encountered from Point Hope to the south and Wainwright to 

the north. Travel by boat from Barrow to Point Lay used to require the movement of ice to make 

head way; however, now there is open ocean and there is no ice for sea mammal or human 

protection. Smaller boats sometimes have to take shelter from large waves and storms. With the 

sea ice gone, walruses are starting to come on land because the beach is their only refuge. He 

also noted that some adaptation is taking place – he has seen some animals sleeping offshore in 

the open water. 

In his observations at the Point Lay haulout, he has noted that the animals seem to arrive in 

pulses. You can hear them arrive from the village. Some animals arriving at the haulout are 

extremely tired and cannot make it all the way out of the surf. Some of the animals have shown 

signs of sickness on their skin and respiratory distress, and he has noticed that there is a strong 

smell of ammonia at the haulout.

Community members can see and hear the walruses from their homes. Point Lay is on a shallow 

lagoon and belugas also like the shallow waters. Belugas, seals, and walruses all use the area and 

the community coexists with these animals on a daily basis.

The community issued an official statement to the media that due to the risk of disturbances, they 

do not want them to come into the community to film and report on the haulout. Instead, they 

have provided the media with pictures to use in their stories. The community of Point Lay did 

allow one media crew to conduct local interviews and arranged for photos to be taken at a 

distance from the haulout. This approach worked and people left the walruses alone. Locals have 

also changed boating habits along the lagoon and the barrier islands in order to avoid disturbing 

walruses at the haulout. 

Bill cautions that if communities take a “do-nothing” approach—someone or some other agency 

will step in. This is not the approach to take. Point Lay’s community motto is: "To live and let 

live." He recommends that we continue to non-invasively study these animals and use local 

community members who know the animals and the territory. He warns that helicopters should 

not be used near the haulout because they could cause a big disruption. 

Bill suggests we listen to the wisdom of the community elders because they know what to do. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 13 

Warren Harding Lampe, NSB Fish & Game Management Committee Member

Warren shared that he is originally from Barrow and was raised living a subsistence lifestyle by 

his grandparents. Point Lay is fortunate to have elders to guide them about appropriate behavior 

with respect to walruses coming on shore. The Point Lay community understands what it means 

to live and let live.

With respect to media interest, the Village and IRA Council decided that they do not want 

disturbances at the haulout and oppose outsiders coming in to either take pictures or just take a 

quick look. Disturbances by hunters are not seen as a big concern because they would rather hunt 

a fat caribou to the south instead of traveling north past the haulout. The boating channel is next 

to the haulout on the barrier island so there is a need to be careful to not disturb the walruses. 

Warren noted that he harvested a walrus the week before the main herd arrived; however, once 

the main herd got there, hunters left them alone. 

The people of Point Lay are capable of managing their community and know what and what not 

to do. Warren has worked with the USGS, USFWS, NSB-DWM, and ADFG on satellite tagging 

and collecting walrus samples from carcasses. He is grateful for the ongoing scientific research 

when done in consultation with the community. Warren recommends that if someone wants to 

work in the village, they should first come and explain what they are doing and keep 

disturbances to a minimum.

There have been efforts in Point Lay over the last two years to document subsistence use areas 

for oil and gas impact assessment. Steve Braund is leading the study, and has provided 

community hunters with GPS devices to mark traditional hunting areas by boat. Warren has 

taken coordinates in areas where he hunted with his grandparents and uncles when he was 

growing up. They are trying to get an additional two years of funding and would also like to 

include traditional land areas, but for now, work has focused on marine areas. He noted that the 

area of traditional subsistence use (both land and sea) is huge.

Photo Credit: Anthony Fischbach, USGS. Walruses at the Point Lay haulout
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 14

Marie Tracey, NSB Village Communications Liaison

Marie shared that there was a lot of sea ice during the summer months when she was growing up, 

but now there is hardly any. People now have to scramble to hunt ugruk (the skins are needed to 

cover their boats) and seals. The elders used to guide them in these activities; however, they are

now losing elders and have to grow into the role of community elders themselves.

They never saw walruses come to shore when she was growing up. When they hear that walruses 

are on the beach, they notify USFWS and ask them to close the airspace, and share the news with 

the community via radio. The walruses haul out onto a sandy beach with grassy areas at the top 

of the slope. Some walruses coming ashore look exhausted and tired; they appear to be sleeping 

in the waves. Some walruses weigh over a ton and have to stick their tusks in the sand to pull 

themselves up onto the beach.

Some of the walruses she observed at the haulout site last year were sick. It was hard to witness 

an old sick walrus that had lost weight and had parts of its tusks missing. Sick animals are not 

afraid of humans, they barely move when they are sick ─ they are at the end of their time. They 

counted 106 walrus carcasses and some juvenile seal carcasses along an 11 mile stretch of beach 

near the haulout this season. They also observed several carcasses that had lesions/sores. Most of 

the walruses they saw at the haulout were healthy and they were amazing to see.

When caribou are scarce, the Point Lay community turns to the ocean for their food supply. 

Different food groups are needed each season. Hunters harvest from smaller groups when they 

hunt for walruses. Point Lay hunters are not after ivory. They hunt for food ─ not tusks. The 

community of Point Lay primarily hunts beluga and seals and is looking at what can be done to 

preserve our hunting areas.

The people of Point Lay did not grow up vegetarian and the store is very expensive. The 

community wants their children and grandchildren to be able to provide for their families and to 

hunt like their ancestors and community elders did. Hunters now have to buy licenses to hunt 

subsistence food, which is something they never had to do before. The community does not want 

outsiders to control when to hunt this or that. Marie finds it disturbing that some community 

members are being arrested because they did not have a hunting license. They do not want to see 

a hunting ban for walruses ─ they just want people to be smart and hunt from smaller groups.

As the Village Communications Liaison, Marie receives a lot of phone requests from the media 

to come to Point Lay to take pictures of walruses. Her response is: “Sorry you are not going to 

be able to fly in and take pictures.” Some of them expect a waiting car and to be taken straight 

out to the haulout for pictures. Marie asked two rhetorical questions: “Do we want to see tourism 

or preserve our way of life? Do we want money or our way of life? — You choose.” The 

community does not want to see an invasion into the village. She shared that NBC news came to 

shoot a news story and agreed to the community’s requirements. NBC employed a local boat 

owner so that someone from the village could watch what was going on. The village allowed the 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 15 

visit and hosted a bonfire and cookout. Marie noted that the people of Point Lay want to take 

care of their land and wildlife just like their ancestors did.

The community has participated in tagging (tracking) studies for walrus and beluga. Tracking 

shows that they feed at Hanna Shoal which is where the oil companies want to drill. The question 

is: “Why not drill on land?” We need to preserve the lagoon for all wildlife. It is a sanctuary, 

and we want to be able to hunt and continue our subsistence way of life. 

Willard Neakok, IRA Council / EWC Commissioner 

Willard shared that he has lived in Point Lay since 1973. He remembers that there were very few 

walruses hauling out on shore in those days, but remembers hearing his uncles’ talk about 

walruses sometimes going ashore on the barrier islands to rest. The ocean has been changing for 

the past ten to twelve years: winters are milder, break up is earlier, sea ice is thinner, and things 

start growing earlier in the spring. Last summer they saw animals they had not seen before. They 

saw ribbon seals which are usually only seen in the Bering Sea, as well as black cormorants and 

other new birds. It was unusual for them to be found so far north. For the past two years, 

walruses have been congregating four miles north of the old village on the barrier island. He 

noted that it is good to see and hear the walruses before going to work in the morning but he did 

not enjoy the smell so much. Point Lay has been fortunate to have the help of USFWS, ADFG, 

and NSB-DWM to help protect and study their walrus haulout. 

Last year he noticed that calves were trampled by disturbances caused by planes flying overhead. 

They had a village meeting to inform the community on what needs to be done to protect the 

haulout. They asked hunters traveling north to idle their engine when they pass by the haulout so 

the herd is not disturbed. They are fortunate to see and learn from the haulout so they try to keep 

the noise down and enjoy the experience. Everyone realizes the importance of walruses to the 

community. Point Lay will have another village meeting in late August as a reminder to the 

community of what they can do to protect the walrus haulout. 

Point Lay would like to have contact information of who to call in order to restrict air space 

around the haulout. The last two years has been a learning experience of what needs to get done 

and who to call to establish protections. Willard shared his observations of a Lear jet flying 

towards the haulout and a sailboat sightseeing for approximately five to six hours. It is possible 

that barges may even start coming through to see the haulouts. Perhaps a maritime border should 

be considered. Willard would like to have a meeting before July or August to discuss what needs 

to get done. There is a need to do something to preserve the walruses for our great grandchildren. 

Willard was very pleased to be a part of the walrus carcass survey project. He saw approximately 

20,000 walruses on the beach and another 10,000 swimming and feeding. He and Joel traveled 

by boat as far north as Eleven Mile Inlet and walked the ocean side of the island to look for dead 

walruses. Dr. Raphaela Stimmelmayr was contacted to help conduct necropsies of fresh animals. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 16 

Photo Credit: Joel Garlich-Miller, USFWS. Willard Neakok examines a walrus carcass near Point Lay

One sick animal had to be put down. As Iñupiaq people, we have compassion for animals and 

put them out of their misery if they are suffering from injuries or sickness. Hopefully research 

will help find out what is going on with the walrus lesions. The information to not eat infected

walruses or ringed seals has been shared with the villagers. 

Walruses travel to Hanna Shoal to feed. This is a very important feeding area because the depth 

is just right for clams and mussels; however, it is also near where the oil companies will be 

drilling next summer. He is sad that they will be drilling right where walruses like to feed. 

Willard shared that he wrote an editorial to the Anchorage Daily News last year in opposition of 

exploratory drilling in the Chukchi Sea. His big concern is the potential for a blowout and noted 

the challenging conditions for oil recovery. An oil spill could affect all the migratory animals, 

bowhead/beluga whales, walruses, fish and birds. He wants his kids and grand-kids to continue 

to experience a subsistence lifestyle.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 17 

COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Comment: A tribal resolution was passed with respect to the discharge of oil drilling material

into the Chukchi Sea. It asks oil companies to haul out their drilling materials rather than 

discharging them into the ocean. The resolution was written because this is an important marine 

mammal feeding area. Salmon fingerlings can be found about 130 miles out which is where 

belugas feed.

Comment: There is high unemployment in our villages, so it is good that researchers are doing 

local hires.

Comment: A recommendation was made to share and build traditional knowledge with young 

hunters so that everyone in the community can stay healthy and become strengthened to deal 

with what is coming. Part of the communication should be to talk about ways to protect 

important habitat areas, restrict activities, and work on building a process of what needs to be 

done to preserve our traditional lifestyle.

Comment: Point Lay would like to speak just as strong as Barrow speaks. Our adult population

unemployment rate is at least 80%. If community members are not working or collecting 

unemployment, they are not counted by the federal government, but they still need to eat. These 

are the people we need to take care of.

Comment: Communication at the local, state, and national level is critical to our survival. Point 

Lay wants to create opportunities for communication, and encourages and invites anyone who 

wants to work and study in Point Lay to come and visit. Even though some in the community are 

not in favor of offshore drilling, we invite those involved to come to our village and

communicate with us so there is a two-way exchange of information.

Comment: Ocean transportation traffic has increased. In Wainwright, they have to remediate 

their beach due to erosion. 

Question: How much are you paid to do the walrus surveys?

Response: We received $250/day plus gas. We like the idea of more than one boat and made a 

recommendation to hire more people for 24 hour observations. We also noted the need for 

stronger spotting scopes in order to have accurate walrus counts ─ USFWS or ADFG may 

already have this type of equipment available.

Comment: USFWS has a tribal wildlife grant program that can help monitor and study haulout 

issues. (The Native Village of Barrow (NVB) received a grant to start an education program for 

young hunters.) 

Response: Point Lay will look into this as a funding source. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 18

WALRUS OBSERVATIONS FROM BARROW, ALASKA

Billy Adams, Subsistence Research Coordinator, NSB-DWM

Billy shared that the world could learn a lesson from the community of Point Lay. Pride is 

important — people are proud when they act responsibly. He also noted that the EWC resolution 

to promote local management to prevent disturbances was a step in the right direction.

Barrow is a big community and it sometimes seems like there are 9,000 people hunting along the 

coast. It is hard to manage so many people at one time. Barrow hunters mostly hunt walruses on 

the ice. Walruses start arriving in Barrow the first week in July — communities further south see 

them earlier. There have been a lot of changes in the past 10-15 years. In recent years, weather 

and ice patterns have affected animal distributions so that now people need to harvest walruses 

on the beach, and getting sand in your meat is an issue.

Billy stated that there is a place a little ways west of Barrow called Atuutigruaq that is filled with 

a lot of old walrus remains — which shows that walruses have hauled out in these areas in the 

past. There are also certain places the spotted seals like to go and they have probably done this 

for thousands of years.

In reference to Point Lay having a dependence on beluga, the same holds true for bowhead 

whales in Barrow. Barrow now shares a hunt with 10 whaling communities capable of landing 

bowhead whales. This is something to be proud of. He noted that every community is different;

Barrow hunts bowhead whales and Point Lay hunts beluga, walruses, and caribou.

Walruses need the ice so their young do not get trampled. Animals have to eat and then rest after 

eating. A stampede can be caused by anything — even a bee. He feels that it is important for 

communities to keep airplanes away from the haulouts. The FAA can reroute planes and ask 

pilots to fly at certain altitudes. Every year will be different, and communities need to act swiftly 

like Point Lay did when a large haulout forms.

One drawback about having a meeting like this is that some people may think we are law 

enforcement. It is important to say that coastal people are here, that we have been here for 

thousands of years, and that we are here to protect our way of life. Coastal people try to harvest 

in a responsible manner. We share a common goal of co-managing our resources. When law 

enforcement comes to the community it causes tension –something needs to be done to reduce 

the need for law enforcement presence in the villages.

Barrow primarily hunts walruses when the ice first goes offshore in the summer. People prefer to 

hunt on the ice but some also harvest animals on land. Walruses with calves are protected; lone 

walruses can be properly harvested. It is hard to say no to someone who wants to get a walrus on 

shore. They have to take what they need. Everyone scrambles for a piece of walrus meat. It is 

hard to cut up a walrus on the beach because sand gets on everything. People are going to have to 

learn to butcher on the beach.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 19 

The NSB-DWM is doing a good job gathering baseline health data for the disease investigation. 

The right people are doing the work and completing samples. It takes time to do research on 

what is causing the sickness. It was good that research started before the seal outbreak because 

we are getting closer to knowing what is causing it. Outreach is important so there is a need for 

increased communication with community members about management issues. It is important to 

do outreach and provide updates as soon as possible. The NSB has done some important radio 

shows that are going well. They have been asked to have longer shows (two hours vs. one hour).

William Hopson, Traditional Hunter from Barrow 

William shared that he was born and raised in Barrow and is a subsistence hunter. He has 

traditionally hunted walruses in July and August. Over the last five years, they have not seen any 

ice or walruses. To have a successful hunt today, it is necessary to go out right after the whaling 

season. Hunts have moved up a month or more from when they normally were in the past. There 

are a few haulouts to the west of town on the barrier islands. A few walruses haul out near 

Barrow, and people do try to hunt them because people need walrus meat. William stated he was 

glad everyone was here to discuss the issue. He wonders whether a look two or three years into 

the future will reveal a community hunt at haulouts with 20 boats participating in one hunt in 

order to reduce disturbances instead of 10 different hunts. He can see that way of hunting coming 

and thinks it is good to think about the future and adjust techniques with the changing times. 

William noted that people who do not know walruses well can be mistaken about illness. 

Walruses are born with red eyes and are dirty so the definition of a sick animals needs to be 

clarified because what an outsider may consider sick is a normal walrus to us. 

Photo Credit: Craig George, NSB-DWM. A bull walrus on the beach at Barrow Alaska
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 20 

COMMENTS AND QUESTIONS

Comment: In looking for solutions to help walruses — why not try artificial ice floes to see if 

they work? A suggestion to use dredge tubes to create offshore resting platforms was also made. 

California sea lions use docks — why not see if they can work for other species?

Comment: A baseline study needs to be done because the oil industry is trying to extract oil. A 

baseline study was not done in Prudhoe Bay. 

Comment: There is concern about how USFWS will use the information from this workshop. 

This information should not to be used by agencies to bring law enforcement into the villages. 

Response: This workshop is not about regulations or law enforcement, rather the purpose is to 

document community concerns, and come up with ideas for local management (promote local 

stewardship). We need to find ways that communities can address conservation concerns so that 

law enforcement efforts do not become necessary. The workshop report belongs to everyone 

participating in the workshop and their respective communities. You can use this information as 

a basis for developing local community initiatives.

Comment: There is a law enforcement expectation of how walruses are harvested. If a hunter 

does not take the proper amount from a walrus, they are subject to a fine and loss of their hunting 

equipment. Hunters never know when law enforcements are going to come because they

approach people when they beach up to check their equipment. It is important for USFWS to 

recognize that this is a touchy subject. There is a need for better outreach to communities about 

the rules so people do not get into trouble. 

Comment: In reference to EWC Resolution 2008-01: There is a need for each village to have 

their own emergency plan to address unwanted disturbances at haulouts. Tribal councils need to 

discuss and develop plans and villages need to take ownership with the understanding that 

agencies like the NSB-DWM, USFWS, and the ADFG can help protect our natural resources.

Comment: We have historically stored meat from harvested walruses and bowhead whales in ice 

cellars, and the meat would keep for two to three years. Today, ice cellars are affected by global 

warming. Ground thaw issues and human waste contamination of the water table is becoming a 

problem in larger villages like Barrow and Wainwright. Refrigerators are not adequate storage 

for walrus meat - so alternative systems to store and keep food safe are needed. Participants were 

asked to take back the message to your respective communities that we need to develop solutions 

to address this issue. Rossman Peetook added that whaling captains have a traditional practice to 

not harvest a whale if they do not have a way to protect and save the meat. Ice cellars are the 

traditional way to store the harvest for distribution to the community. The damaged ice cellars in 

the community need to be rebuilt – which will cost money. Compensation is not to an individual 

captain but to the community, because the harvest belongs to and is shared by the all. Money to 

rebuild could potentially come from federal funds or the agencies who build the utilidors.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 21 

WALRUS OBSERVATIONS FROM WAINWRIGHT, ALASKA

Rossman Peetook, Community Elder. Rossman shared his observations and thoughts in Iñupiaq 

with translation provided by Enoch Oktollik and Billy Adams. 

Rossman started hunting walruses in 1939. He was eight years old and his older brother wanted 

him to come along with the group. They went out on an old whaling boat towing a small skin 

boat. When they got near the walruses, they turned off the motor and gathered to pray. They got 

into the skin boat and paddled towards the walrus herd. This was his first experience and he was 

scared. He and his brother were left behind and he started to cry. He was so frightened when the 

walruses started to make a lot of grunting noises. He tried to hide behind his brother when they 

started to harvest the animals.

All animals have a cycle. Their movements have a pattern that is unique. The movements seen in 

the past are different from today’s movement patterns — the bowheads have started to migrate 

earlier; a big change. Now people only have a short window to hunt before the ice goes away. 

The weather has also changed dramatically. There has been a lot of thick snowfall in recent 

years, much more than in the past. Sometimes when rain follows a snowfall, a crust is created 

and prevents animals from getting to the grass or produces jagged edges that can cut up their 

legs. It can be a dangerous time to be an herbivore. There is sorrow for these animals because 

they are wounded and cannot get to the grass. There is a great love for these animals, so hunters 

do not want to see them suffer. His father taught him how to hunt. When he started to hunt on 

own, his father said to shoot the animal in the neck but to not injure them in the rump or guts. 

The animal has to be taken care of swiftly or it will get injured and run away. 

He has been working with the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission on conflict avoidance 

agreements with the oil and gas industry. Many years ago, hunters did not want any distractions 

or interference before they hunted. Dependent on weather, there are only a few days to get an 

animal as they migrate through. In the past, they had to hunt for their dogs as well. In those days, 

dog teams were used to travel, so they had to gather food for the whole winter for both 

themselves and their dogs. Nowadays, other means of travel are used so only enough walrus 

meat for people to eat is gathered.

The currents can be very dangerous — they can take people far away so they have to act fast to 

get food for their community. He shared that he once went to Point Franklin (30 miles out of 

Wainwright) on a hunt with his son and the current was so swift that when they were done 

butchering they were near Barrow.

He has seen how a walrus will separate from the herd when it is sick. When other walruses

approach a sick animal they can sense that the animal is different from the others and will leave 

it alone. Hunters feel sorrow for sick animals and put them out of their misery. 

Nowadays, when the ice comes from the south in June, it keeps traveling north. Walruses need 

the ice to rest and now they haul out on land because they are tired from being in the water. The 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 22 

season of travel and migration movements have really changed and have impacted a lot of 

people. Whether it is ugruk or walruses, we hunt these animals on the ice. When a lot of the 

walruses get on the ice, they can lower it so it looks level with the water. When spooked, they get 

off the ice which causes it to rise and makes it dangerous. He agrees with, and seconds the idea 

about making artificial ice bergs for walruses to rest on offshore. 

Oil and gas activities have impacted our hunting grounds and caused disturbances during the 

hunting season. We only have a short period of time to gather animals. Elders do not want any 

interference at all and are serious about getting food for survival. When they hunt, they work 

really hard and have to act swiftly after the animals are sighted. Our elders taught us to gather 

only what we need. In the past, the cycles were always predictable and now the movement of the 

animals has changed dramatically. He shared that he is humbled that others now know more than 

he knows. 

The unusual mortality of ringed seals this summer, along with their permanent hair loss, has been 

observed in his community. We do not know what the illness is. He wonders whether there will 

be any chemicals found in these animals that we should be looking at. He would be very happy if 

someone could tell him whether there are updates on ongoing investigations. 

Enoch Oktollik, City Mayor and EWC Commissioner 

Enoch shared that he grew up in Point Hope. Walrus hunting in Wainwright is different — they 

do not get the big bulls he saw in Point Hope. He remembers hunting out of Point Hope with 

Ronald Oviok, and seeing some very big bulls popping up out of the water. Wainwright hunters 

rarely see walruses with huge tusks —some of the walrus may be big, but their tusks are small. 

Enoch noted concern that human disturbances may be interrupting walrus migrations and haulout

use. Air traffic near walrus haulouts needs to be controlled and he recommends notifying pilots 

each year. Enoch noted that everyone impacts walruses in some way when they go out on the 

ocean. He feels that too many studies are being conducted on sea mammals in the name of 

education. University work can impact the Native and subsistence way of living. Communities 

know how to manage their resources — the animals should be left alone. 

Walruses know how to use the ocean and now they are being pushed onto land. He noted that he 

has seen walruses sleeping together offshore in open water creating their own haulout (with their 

bodies). He and his crew were amazed to see this, and they did not want to disturb them. 

Enoch noted that in Kaktovik, they put whale bone piles close to the islands and now polar bears 

are roaming around there. Now people want to go there to see the bears. He asks: “what is their 

motivation?” He feels that people should leave these animals alone. Animals that people have 

been eating all their life should not be used as a tool to attract people to come, take pictures, and 

make posters.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 23 

He recalls Joel bringing the people from Chukotka to Wainwright to share their approach to 

develop a local haulout management plan. It was a good visit, so Wainwright residents hosted a 

big community event. More community meetings like this one are needed to educate ourselves 

and talk about these issues. Law enforcement agents should also visit the village to let everyone 

know what the hunting rules are so that people do not get into trouble. 

WALRUS OBSERVATIONS FROM POINT HOPE, ALASKA

Ronald Oviok, Sr., City Councilman and EWC Commissioner 

Ronald shared that he grew up in Point Hope and learned to hunt from community elders. Point 

Hope used to be like a long straight finger, which is what its Iñupiaq name “Tikigaq” means, but 

is now more like a curved finger because of erosion. He was told by his elders that when 

walruses came to Point Hope in mid-fall (August and September) they would get five shooters 

from the community to harvest walruses when they came to shore (that was when ammunition 

was hard to get). When they harvest walruses they tell a story. “We are just like them, the walrus, 

when we talk about them, they listen and hear.” In the spring, the males come and are harvested 

but their meat and skin are hard. But in the fall, the females are tender and fat. Elders are always 

happy when walruses are tender and fat! 

In the fall, walruses come to shore at Cape Lisburne to rest in big groups and nobody bothers 

them. It is the same when thousands of walruses are resting on the ice — they are too dangerous 

to hunt so we leave them alone. We hunt along the coast like everyone else. When he was 

growing up, community elders were respected; however, times have changed, and our young 

hunters do not always listen to their elders. 

Ronald noted that the people of Point Hope are concerned about global warming. Sea ice 

conditions have changed — 20 years ago the ice was eight feet thick and now it is only 3-4 feet 

thick. The community is also concerned about the impact of disturbances of marine mammals 

from seismic activities. He noted that it is getting tough to find the animals we hunt. 

Steve Oomittuk, City Mayor

Steve shared that his people live in a cycle of life passed down from generations. Our knowledge 

is thousands of years old. We know when each animal is coming, how to prepare, and where to 

be. We are starting to see changes in the ocean. Animals are taking different migratory routes. 

We are seeing more traffic in our ocean. Not that long ago we lived in sod houses with no 

electricity. The ocean is our way of life — our garden. We want to make sure it is protected. 

Without animals, we have no identity and no food. We need to protect all the animals that 

migrate north — not just walruses but also the whale, the seal, and the duck. A lot of traditional 

knowledge is gained when you live a subsistence way of life. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 24 

WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations from workshop participants to address emerging conservation and 

management issues associated with the increased dependence of walruses on coastal haulout 

areas are summarized below. Community members also developed community-specific 

recommendations during community breakout sessions (Appendix C). 

REDUCING DISTURBANCES AT COASTAL HAULOUTS

Workshop participants agreed that efforts to address disturbance at coastal haulouts was needed 

to minimize mortality levels. Participants also noted that disturbances could lead to the 

accumulation of walrus carcasses near communities resulting in increased interactions with 

predators, and that disturbances could drive walruses away from subsistence hunting areas. 

Aircraft over-flights were identified as a primary source of disturbance to walrus herds along the 

coast. Aircraft noise in traditional hunting areas can also impact hunting opportunities and 

success. Recommendations to reduce disturbances at coastal haulouts from aircraft over-flights 

included education and outreach to pilots operating in the area, flight advisories with guidelines, 

and flight restrictions over haulout areas when walruses are present.

Boat traffic along the coast was also identified as a disturbance concern. Some of the issues and 

recommended solutions are site specific; for example, the travel corridor in the shallow waters of 

Kasegaluk Lagoon requires boaters to travel in close proximity to the coastal haulout site at Point 

Lay. The community of Point Lay has requested that boats slow to near idle and motor quietly 

past the haulout site when animals are present. Supply barges and sightseeing vessels operating 

near haulouts are also of concern. The development of education materials for marine vessels, 

and approach guidelines and restrictions for vessels operating near coastal haulouts was

recommended. There is also a desire to increase communication between communities and 

marine vessels to avoid interference with subsistence hunting activities. 

In order to reduce disturbances, the haulouts need to be identified and their locations 

communicated so that protection measures can be put in place. The coastal communities are 

important to the development of this process. There was a recommendation to develop a contact 

list and establish a communication network to exchange information about the haulouts during 

the active season so that site specific protection measures can quickly be established. 

Media interest in access to large walrus haulouts and people wanting to see walruses and take 

pictures at the haulout has put a lot of pressure on the small rural community of Point Lay. Point 

Lay has been very proactive in dealing with the media, and has limited access to the haulout to 

reduce the risk of disturbances. Their efforts have included a formal statement discouraging 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 25 

unnecessary visits to the haulout to reduce the risk of stampedes. They have provided their own 

photographs for media use rather than allowing them to take their own pictures. They encourage 

all visitors to the haulout area to travel with a local guide whose knowledge of the area and 

walrus behavior can help prevent disturbing the animals.

Hunting activities can also cause disturbances. The elders have knowledge to share regarding 

proper hunting techniques and this knowledge should be used to guide hunters on ways to reduce 

disturbance to walruses at coastal haulouts. Specific recommendations included:

• Avoid hunting large groups of walruses (on land or ice) – it can be dangerous.

• Hunt away from the main herd to minimize trampling mortalities.

• Target solitary or small groups of animals.

• Look for hunting opportunities before (or after) major concentrations form.

• Hunt walruses on sea ice (when available); this reduces the risk of trampling deaths and

also provides a clean surface for butchering (no sand in your meat).

• Take note of the wind direction when operating near haulouts and remain downwind

(walruses have a good sense of smell).

• Hold cultural exchanges and training on hunting techniques that are successful at other

coastal haulouts.

• Plan a community hunt rather than many individual hunts to avoid repeated disturbances

at haulouts.

Research activities can also cause disturbances at coastal walrus haulouts. Recommendations for 

walrus researchers to reduce disturbances included: 

• Researchers should work with knowledgeable locals who know the area and walrus

behavior to avoid disturbing animals.

• Researchers should consult with local communities about ways to minimize impacts to

walruses at the haulouts and prevent interference with subsistence hunting activities.

• Researchers should avoid using helicopters near coastal haulouts – there is a significant

danger in creating a disturbance.

• Researchers should evaluate whether their project is worth the risk and consequences of

disturbances - noting that the advice of the community elders is to not disturb the animals

resting on the coast.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 26 

DEVELOPING LOCAL MANAGEMENT AND RESPONSE PLANS

The EWC has encouraged coastal communities to work towards developing local ordinances and 

management plans to reduce disturbances to walruses resting on the coast. Workshop 

participants were supportive of this idea and recommended that communities interested in 

developing local ordinances work through their tribal governments. Community elders play an 

influential role in shaping community behavior and should be included in the process. Likewise, 

active hunters in the community who are most likely to be affected by community decisions 

should also be involved in the process to ensure that there is community buy in and support. 

Potential funding sources for developing and implementing local management programs include 

USFWS Tribal Wildlife Grants, and co-management funding under section 119 of the Marine 

Mammal Protection Act. It was also noted that that the Office of Management and Budget 

(OMB) has established a tribal liaison position in Kotzebue. The position’s focus is to find 

funding specifically for tribes to implement federal programs and laws such as the Marine 

Mammal Protection Act and Endangered Species Act. The EWC also offered support to help 

communities find funding to develop community-based programs.

It was noted that the community of Point Lay has already adopted many practical protection 

measures to reduce disturbances at their large haulout, and they have also taken an active role in 

walrus research and monitoring efforts. The community has been successful at preventing 

disturbance events and mortality at the haulout has been extremely low. Recommendations to 

improve response planning and preparedness included holding a community meeting prior to the 

haulout season to discuss protection measures and developing a communication plan with 

appropriate officials to get protection measures in place quickly when the haulouts form.

RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS

There was general interest among workshop participants to see increased involvement and 

participation of community members in walrus research and management efforts on the North 

Slope. Community members have great traditional and local knowledge of their territory and the 

behavior of animals which can contribute greatly to the success of research projects. There was a 

recommendation to consult with local communities prior to doing a research project at a coastal 

walrus haulout. The community can provide good advice about how to accomplish the work and 

prevent disturbances. It was also noted that compensating hunters fairly for their time and effort 

will help improve participation in biological sampling programs.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 27 

A number of recommendations regarding priorities for walrus research were generated at the 

workshop: 

• Explore the potential for developing offshore artificial platforms to serve as resting

habitat for walruses.

• Investigate the impacts of climate change and changing ice conditions on marine

mammals and subsistence hunters.

• Test the ballast water from ships that travel through the area for bacteria that might be

causing the observed disease symptoms in seals and walruses. Other possible causes of

the observed skin lesions include: environmental contaminants from mining operations

and military sites, compounds released from the melting polar ice pack, and new algal

blooms seen in the Arctic.

• Conduct baselines studies of important habitat areas prior to oil and gas development to

understand potential impacts.

• Identify impacts from oil and gas activities in hunting grounds and whether they cause

disturbances during the hunting season.

Workshop participants also recommended that resource management agencies invest in training 

for students and help them pursue careers in resource management. It was noted that there are 

some student scholarships available to students interested in biology including the Mathew Iya 

scholarship, established through the Pacific Walrus Conservation Fund (contact EWC, USFWS, 

or ADFG workshop participants for additional information). 

COMMUNICATION AND OUTREACH

Participants noted that communication and outreach in coastal communities on walrus 

conservation and management activities is critically important. In order to promote stewardship 

efforts, people need to understand the issues. Walrus managers, researchers, EWC 

representatives, and the NSB-DWM were encouraged to make regular visits to the communities 

to share information about ongoing walrus research and management issues, and to let 

communities know how they can become involved. People are very interested in hearing about 

walrus issues at all levels (local, regional, and international).
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 28

Workshop participants stressed the importance of sharing the traditional knowledge of 

community elders, both with scientists and within the community. The elders have great 

knowledge and experience with the animals and how to hunt them efficiently and sustainably.

Specific recommendations regarding communication and outreach include:

• Share the traditional knowledge of the elders with younger hunters. Part of the 

communication should be to talk about ways to protect haulout areas and provide 

guidance on responsible hunting techniques.

• Communicate safety concerns and risks to people’s health regarding sick seals/walruses 

as food and communicate the results of studies in a timely and culturally sensitive manner 

to avoid scaring people from eating their food.

• Communicate research and testing results back to the communities in a consistent and 

timely manner. Insure scientific terminology is translated into simple terms so all may 

understand and participate in the discussion.

• Radio talk shows are a good way to engage coastal communities on the North Slope on 

wildlife management issues.

• Visit participating workshop communities to share and discuss this report.

• Increase outreach and education in the communities regarding hunting rules and 

regulations so people can avoid trouble.

• Make use of the local (Barrow) USFWS liaison office for outreach.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 29 

APPENDIX A – EWC RESOLUTION 2008-01 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 30 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 31 

APPENDIX B – MAP OF COASTAL WALRUS HAULOUTS
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 32

APPENDIX C: COMMUNITY RECOMMENDATIONS

POINT LAY

Communication and coordination:

• Develop and distribute a contact list (including agency and community contacts) prior to 

the haulout season so that people know who to call when animals show up on the beach.

• Set up a teleconference with community and agency representatives (USFWS, NSB, 

FAA, and the U.S. Coast Guard) prior to the haulout season to get protective measures in 

place.

• Hold a community meeting prior to the haulout season to develop plans.

• Present information about walrus research and management efforts in the classrooms –

walrus researchers and NSB staff should plan on presenting information to students.

Haulout Studies:

• Continue to involve community members in walrus haulout monitoring projects.

• Consider establishing a base camp on the barrier island during the haulout season (noting 

the difficulty in crossing the lagoon during shallow water conditions).

• Explore the possibility of setting up observation towers equipped with web cameras at the 

haulout to allow remote monitoring of walruses and unwanted ships and planes.

Equipment and supplies needed to conduct haulout studies:

• Communication equipment: 150 watt VHF radios (recommendation to use a different 

frequency to avoid interference with village communications), Satellite phone for 

emergencies, fax machine for sending information to community communication centers.

• Shelter: Camouflage tents (2). It was noted that there is an old building built by students 

on the barrier island. Suggestion to talk to village council regarding its use during the 

field season. Blinds at haulouts are needed as a warm up place to get out of elements and 

to accomplish observations without scaring animals.

• Camp supplies: Stove, coffee pot, thermos, propane fuel (not gas, worried about smell 

causing stampede), water containers, emergency food (ready to eat), lanterns, bucket.

• Safety equipment: PLB or SPOT locators, flares, a shot gun with slugs and cracker shells 

to keep bears away, fire starter.

• Observation equipment: Two spotting scopes with built in cameras to allow zooming in 

for pictures of lesions or sick animals.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 33 

BARROW

Barrow does not have well developed haulouts near the community, but does get some animals 

showing up on local beaches. Minimizing public interactions with walruses on area beaches is 

the primary management issue at present.

Local control and management structure: 

• Recommendation for the Native Village of Barrow (NVB) to take the lead on local

walrus management issues – backed up by locals and the NSB-DWM.

• Recommendation to create a local task force to address walrus management issues in the

community – include the NVB, ICAS, UIC, COB, NSB, hunters, and Community elders.

• Consult local task force and the EWC regarding the development of local ordinances

(will not affect traditional hunt). Discuss issues and how to deal with them with elders

and active hunters and then take the information back to the community to share and seek

their approval and buy in. Put these guidelines in place before a situation arises.

• Develop a response plan that can be referred to clarify who will take the lead role.

• Develop a system to get air restrictions in place over haulouts.

Funding: 

• Work with the EWC to identify and pursue funding for local management programs.

Communication and coordination: 

• Increase communications among EWC, NVB, NSB, and USFWS on walrus issues.

• Barrow is a regional hub and can help facilitate communication with the other villages.

Outreach and education:

• Utilize local radio shows to raise awareness of walrus haulout issues on the North Slope.

• Utilize local USFWS liaison office in dealing with haulout issues.

• Develop educational videos.

• Develop school curriculum, and have elders share their knowledge and traditional ways.

Improve/reduce interactions with USFWS law enforcement:

• Recommendation to have the local USFWS community liaison evaluate situations before

law enforcement comes to the community.

• Work with the local task force to try to resolve law enforcement issues locally.

Hunting at haulouts: 

• If large haulouts form near the community like in Point Lay, and nutritional needs need to

be met, consider coordinating community hunting efforts to reduce disturbances. Invite

other hunters with experience hunting at coastal haulouts to share their experience.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 34 

POINT HOPE AND WAINWRIGHT

Representatives from Point Hope and Wainwright worked together to develop a list of 

recommendations for their communities:

• Develop awareness programs in the communities and educate young hunter about proper

walrus hunting techniques.

• Take what you can take from harvested walrus – do not waste.

• Remove unwanted carcasses away from the community to avoid predators.

• Encourage our children to pursue careers in wildlife management, and encourage the

USFWS and the State of Alaska to recruit our youth.

• Increase communication with marine vessels to avoid disturbances to subsistence

hunting.

• Invite the USFWS and other agencies to regularly visit communities and present

information about walrus issues. The visit by Chukotka hunters in 2009 was very

effective at raising awareness on these issues in the communities. It was noted that July

or August, after whaling, is a good time to visit the villages.

• Increase communication with law enforcement officers regarding wildlife regulations.

• Develop walrus haulout plans (local ordinances). Integrate Native language, culture, and

the wisdom of community elders into the process.

• Revisit old treaties and our native rights concerning subsistence hunting.

• Establish communication with neighboring communities regarding the migration of sea

mammals and birds.

• Integrate our native language into walrus issues and interpret the information from our

elders to our children.
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 35 

BERING STRAIT REGION

Regional experience sharing: 

• Promote hunter knowledge exchanges. Bering Strait participants would like to visit Point

Lay when walruses are there to observe what is being done (learn from each other). Note

the availability of a walrus hunting video that shares the traditional hunting practices of

Saint Lawrence Island hunters; you can contact the EWC for a copy of the video.

Research planning and approvals: 

• Increase community involvement in walrus research activities. Note that research results

are not always shared in a timely manner, and hunters need to be fairly compensated for

their sampling efforts. This would improve community participation in sampling projects.

• There is a need to study the impacts of climate change and changing sea ice conditions on

marine mammals and on subsistence hunters.

Harvest guidelines: 

• Hunters need to get better (clearer) directions on salvage requirements for harvested

walruses. Noted that parts of the current salvage guidelines are unclear and this has

caused confusion and problems for some hunters. Need to make the rules clear so hunters

are not fined.

Local hunting ordinances: 

• The reintroduction of local hunting ordinances on St Lawrence Island is moving forward.

Local advisory councils in Savoonga and Gambell will meet and review them.

Shipping traffic: 

• There is no mechanism in place to monitor real time vessel traffic through the Bering

Strait. There is a proposed workshop to discuss this issue in the fall of 2012.

• There is a need for a better understanding of the regulatory environment concerning

Arctic shipping. We need to have a close look at the federal regulations, and work closely

with the U.S. Coast Guard on shipping traffic issues.

• There is no voice speaking for subsistence users in the International Maritime

Organization which is a concern.

Participant Comment on increased shipping traffic: With the ice pack receding, Arctic shipping 

should be our number one focus as it can affect all the marine animals in the food chain. Native 

tribes need to come together and support one another on this issue as we all live off the same 

animals. We need to give these Native organizations our full support in dealing with traffic going 

through the Bering Straits to the Arctic. Marine mammals are our soul food, and we can’t get it 

anywhere else in the world. It is our responsibility to protect our resources for future use. 
Community Workshop ─ Walrus on the Chukchi Sea Coast 36 

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANT REFLECTIONS 

“I hope that a proclamation will result from this workshop for us to work together. We all need 

to work together to protect the Arctic Ocean for the greater good.” ─ Enoch Oktollik, EWC 

Commissioner Wainwright

“Thank you everyone for coming to Barrow, especially our elders. It was a heartfelt, productive, 

and humbling meeting. I will help carry this workshop information forward to other villages.” 

—Joe Sage, Wildlife Director, Native Village of Barrow 

“Deepest thanks to our elders for their wise words and the EWC and USFWS for organizing the 

meeting. A special thank you to Point Lay residents for leading the way on walrus issues on the 

coast. We need to continue dialogue with hunters, who have valuable information about climate 

change and wisdom and advice on how to adapt to changes.” ─ Taqulik Hepa, Director, NSBDWM

“It doesn’t matter who we are, we are all here to conserve our resources for a sustainable life in 

this harsh environment.” ─ Ernest Nageak, USFWS Tribal Liaison, Barrow

“Conservation and science work best together when local people take the lead and agencies step 

back and support their efforts.” ─ John Trent, Wildlife Biologist, USFWS
For a copy of this report contact: 

Marine Mammals Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

MS-341, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

1 (800) 362-5148 
Department of

Fish and Game

DIVISION OF WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

Interior/Northeast Region

1300 College Road

Fairbanks, Alaska 99701-1551

Main: 907.459.7213

Fax: 907.459.7332

23 December 2013 

Lisa Lierheimer, Chief

Division of Management Authority 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

4401 N. Fairfax Dr., Rm 212 

Arlington, VA 22203 

and

Deborah Pierce Williams, Chief

Marine Mammals Management

1011 East Tudor Road, MS-341 

Anchorage, AK 99503 

RE: Annual Report on Federal Fish and Wildlife Permit No. MA220876-1 

This report covers our research activities on walruses for the calendar year of 2013. 

Summary of research results – Prior to this reporting period we tagged two adult female walruses in 

September 2010; one with a calf and one without. Other attempts to tag from shore (Wales, Diomede, 

and Point Hope) were unsuccessful due to poor ice and weather conditions. During this reporting period 

we tagged 34 walruses (28 females and six males) as part of a joint walrus research cruise with U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Tags were deployed between 

6 and 27 June 2013 in several locations including east of St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea north to 

Pt. Lay in the Chukchi Sea. The satellite tags were active 6 June – 16 October, 2013 and transmitted for 

an average of 55 days (4 –124 days). No walrus skin biopsies were collected under this permit in 2013, 

however 23 of the 34 tagged walruses were biopsied. These biopsies were collected as part of the 

USFWS genetic mark recapture project and will be reported under their permit. 

We coordinated with the Eskimo Walrus Commission (EWC) representatives, USFWS, and USGS for 

the June tagging effort. 

Problems or complications – Although previous tagging efforts were unsuccessful because unsafe ice 

and weather conditions prevented shore-based tagging crews from boating, there were no problems or 

complications this year tagging from small boats launched from a ship in June. There were no injuries 

or mortalities to walruses related to our research activities.

Appendix B. Walrus Research Permit Report for 2013.
- 2 -

Table 1. Walruses tagged with satellite-linked transmitters in June 2013. 

Tag date Tag 

no.

Latitude

N 

Longitude

W Sex With Calf

Age class 

(yrs) Tag type TagMethod

Days 

transmitted

6/6/2013 93092 62.4168 -168.8274 Female Yes 6-9 Splash10 Crossbow 53

6/6/2013 93109 62.52 -168.7987 Female Yes 6-9 Splash10 Crossbow 34

6/13/2013 50679 68.228 -168.894 Female No 6-9 Splash10 Crossbow 51

6/13/2013 60009 68.226 -168.891 Female No > 15 Splash10 Crossbow 1

6/13/2013 60014 68.227 -168.895 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 34

6/13/2013 60015 68.226 -168.901 Female No 6-9 Splash10 Crossbow 45

6/13/2013 60018 68.225 -168.899 Female No 6-9 Splash10 Crossbow 4

6/13/2013 93090 68.217 -168.919 Female Yes > 15 Splash10 Crossbow 55

6/13/2013 93111 68.224 -168.89 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 49

6/13/2013 96418 68.278 -168.9088 Female No > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 88

6/13/2013 96421 68.223 -168.907 Female No > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 92

6/13/2013 96422 68.253 -168.9115 Female Yes 6-9 SPOT5 Crossbow 96

6/13/2013 96425 68.233 -168.888 Female No > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 26

6/13/2013 96427 68.241 -168.8893 Female No > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 124

6/13/2013 96431 68.234 -168.8931 Female Yes > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 44

6/14/2013 42522 68.259 -169.321 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 0

6/14/2013 50687 68.286 -169.086 Female Yes > 15 Splash10 Crossbow 56

6/14/2013 93110 68.286 -169.086 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 52

6/16/2013 60011 68.843 -167.461 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 50

6/16/2013 96430 68.828 -167.486 Male No 10-15 SPOT5 Crossbow 86

6/17/2013 50685 68.817 -167.201 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 49

6/17/2013 93080 68.811 -167.201 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 29

6/17/2013 93087 68.816 -167.2 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 31

6/17/2013 96417 68.824 -167.112 Male No 10-15 SPOT5 Crossbow 63

6/17/2013 96423 68.824 -167.112 Male No 10-15 SPOT5 Crossbow 56

6/17/2013 96428 68.825 -167.111 Male No > 15 SPOT5 Crossbow 0

6/19/2013 60013 69.662 -165.577 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Crossbow 50

6/21/2013 37286 69.44 -165.6 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Harpoon 56

6/21/2013 96426 69.438 -165.585 Male No 10-15 SPOT5 Crossbow 0

6/22/2013 96424 69.59 -164.964 Female No 6-9 SPOT5 Crossbow 115

6/25/2013 96420 69.424 -166.132 Male No 10-15 SPOT5 Crossbow 0

6/26/2013 37280 69.856 -165.891 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Harpoon1 50

6/26/2013 37288 69.861 -165.877 Female No 10-15 Splash10 Harpoon 19

6/27/2013 37283 70.246 -165.25 Female Yes 10-15 Splash10 Harpoon1 33

1

Tagged while swimming at the surface.
- 2 -

Summary of tagging – We tagged 32 walruses on the ice and two swimming at the surface. Sex, age, 

presence of calf, and type of tag deployed are presented in Table 1. Of the transmitters deployed, 21 

were Splash tags that provide both location and dive data and 13 were SPOT tags that record location 

and haulout behavior (i.e., time wet and dry). During previous tagging attempts we noticed that 

swimming walrus often presented the midline of their back before diving, which provides an additional 

opportunity to tag walruses not hauled-out on sea ice. In 2012, we received an amendment to our permit 

to deploy tags on swimming walruses using a harpoon pole deployment system. Two walruses were 

tagged with this harpoon method. 

Reactions of the target animals tagged on the ice included head lifting (two), getting up and facing the 

tagging boat (three), entering the water (25) and two had no noticeable reaction. Calves with females 

that were tagged reacted by getting up and facing the boat or by entering the water if their mothers did.

Reactions of the two target animals tagged in the water were to dive as the boat approached. As the 

animals dove they presented the mid-back for good tag placement. Both of these were females with 

calves and in both cases the boat approached on the females’ left with the calves on their right. As the 

boat approached, the females slowed down in defense of the calves who continued ahead following 

other animals in the group. Once the tags were deployed the boat was stopped. In both cases, the 

females joined the calves and they swam away together.

We lost three tags during tagging attempts when they detached from the deployment device prior to 

reaching the target animal and fell into the water. Once the tag detached, the deployment device 

changed direction and did not contact any walruses. We have included the disturbance to those animals 

in the numbers below. We fixed the problem by securing the tags to the deployment device with breakaway tape. 

Summary of disturbance to non-target walruses – During the tagging of the 34 tagged walruses, 160 

other walruses were disturbed (130 entered the water, 18 lifted their heads, six got up and faced the boat, 

and six that were in the water, dove). During five unsuccessful tag deployments another nine walruses 

were disturbed (the five target animals and four adjacent animals). Of the 13 adult females that had 

calves with them when they were tagged, 10 calves reacted to the tag deployment by entering the water 

with their mothers. All calves that left the ice with their mothers remained with them; there were no 

cases where calves were separated from their mothers (i.e., no interruption of pair-bonding). Although 

seals and birds were occasionally seen in the vicinity of walrus groups, none were encountered in the 

immediate area or disturbed during walrus tagging activities. No polar bears were disturbed during 

tagging activities. No Steller’s or spectacled eiders were seen during tagging activities.

Summary of disturbance related to haulout monitoring and carcass examinations – A relatively 

small haulout (1,500–4,000 walruses) that formed near Point Lay in mid-September 2013 and grew to 

~10,000 in late September was monitored. Local walrus hunters monitored the status of the haulout and 

for disturbances. They also documented the number and condition of carcasses accessible near the 

haulout, and traveled the coast looking for other haulouts and carcasses. They reported that there were 

no human-caused disturbances at the Point Lay haulout this year. During carcass surveys one calf, four 

yearlings and one subadult were found. All appeared to die from crushing-related trauma indicating that 

some sort of disturbance event occurred; possibly a grizzly bear. A local observer on Little Diomede 

Island periodically observed a known haulout there to document numbers and composition. 
- 2 -

Observations are conducted from the cliffs above and have not resulted in any disturbance. No walruses 

were disturbed during our shore-based activities this year. 

Evaluation of Progress – We were able to deploy 34 tags on walruses to track their movements, in 

general, and relative to oil and gas activities in the lease sale area in the Chukchi Sea. We were able to 

determine at the time of tagging if the tagged females had calves of the year or not. There may be 

important differences in distances moved and haulout patterns between adult females with and without 

calves. This information has not been available in other tagging datasets. It is important to know if 

females with calves haul out at certain times of day, or for longer or more often, as there are 

implications for other walrus studies such as age composition and aerial surveys. It is also important to 

know if distances traveled are shorter suggesting less sea ice may be a greater problem for females with 

calves than for females with older offspring. 

Although our original objectives were to only tag females we observed more adult males in the Chukchi 

Sea (i.e., farther north than we expected), as most adult males are known to summer in the Bering Sea. 

Therefore, we tagged six adult males to see if they remained with the females in the Chukchi Sea during 

the summer or if they went to the male haulouts in the Bering Sea (see Appendix A for a map of their 

movements). Interestingly, none of the walruses whose tags were still active in late September and early 

October used the Point Lay haulout. Tags lasted an average of 55 days and ranged from 4 to 124 days 

allowing us to track some individuals from June to October. We will be able to use the data collected by 

the tagged walruses to determine distances traveled, areas of use, haulout vs. feeding behavior, female 

with calf vs. female without calf behavior. 

Activities planned for 2014 – At this time, our research activities for 2014 include tagging from a ship 

in June on a similar research cruise to the one conducted in 2013. We will continue to look for 

opportunities to deploy tags at several locations including Little Diomede and Hooper Bay. We will

continue to work with walrus hunters to identify and monitor terrestrial haulouts, deploy tags, and 

document carcasses.

Research Findings – None of our findings have been published yet, however during this reporting 

period we provided weekly e-mailings of maps of the locations and movements of tagged walruses, a 

handout (Appendix A) and oral presentation to the EWC at their meeting in December 2013, and 

submitted an abstract for a poster to be presented at the Alaska Marine Science Symposium in January 

2014 (Appendix B). The abstract and last year’s poster are listed below and provided as appendices. 

Walrus location maps and information about our tagging efforts are also available on our website: 

http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=marinemammalprogram.walrustracking

We are currently preparing our annual report to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management who funds 

this project. We will make that report available in next year’s permit report.

Research Products – 

Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, M. A. Nelson, J. Garlich-Miller, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2013. Results 

from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2012. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 21–25 

January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).
- 2 -

Crawford, J.A., L. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, P. Pungowiyi, W. Neakok, W.H. Lampe, and J. GarlichMiller. 2014. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2013. Alaska Marine Science 

Symposium, 20–24 January, Anchorage AK (Abstract and poster). 

Submitted by: Lori Quakenbush 

Appendix A. Map of the movements of walruses tagged in June 2013, handout to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission December 2013 meeting. 

Appendix B. Abstract for 2014 Alaska Marine Science Symposium. 

Satellite-linked transmitters were deployed on walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas in June 2013. The tags 

transmitted for an average of 55 days, ranging from 4 to 124 days (~4 months). During this time walruses traveled, 

on average, a minimum distance of 1,118 miles, ranging from 158–2,765 miles. At a minimum, these walruses 

traveled, about 21.7 miles per day.

Tags were deployed on 34 walruses (15 females without calves, 13 females with calves and 6 males).

This tagging project is part of the Village-based Walrus Studies funded by BOEM. This funding supported

Clarence Irrigoo from Gambell and Perry Pungowiyi from Savoonga to participate in all of the activities on the 

walrus research cruise including the tagging. They tagged some of the walruses using a crossbow and some with a 

pole. They assisted Patrick Lemons in collecting biopsies, and they advised the researchers and small boat drivers

about how to approach walruses safely and effectively.

The information from these tagged walruses will be used to understand how much time walruses spend in the 

Chukchi Sea Lease Sale area and when. It also provides general walrus movement and haulout patterns.

Report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission presented on 10 December 2013 by Lori Quakenbush (907-459-7214).
Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2013 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Lori Quakenbush1, Clarence Irrigoo2, Perry Pungowiyi3, Willard 

Neakok4, Warren H. Lampe5, and Joel Garlich-Miller6

1 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2 Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska; 

3 Walrus hunter and resident of Savoonga, Alaska; 

4 Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska; 

5 Walrus hunter and resident of Point Lay, Alaska 

6 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 20–24 January 2014, Anchorage AK 

Pacific walruses winter in the Bering Sea, but females and young summer in the Chukchi 

Sea resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. 

The rapid retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and 

may be changing summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul 

out on land when ice is not available. The purpose of this project is to work with 

subsistence walrus hunters to conduct observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from 

coastal communities, deploy satellite-linked tags to monitor movements and feeding 

behavior, and to document local knowledge regarding terrestrial walrus haulouts. In 

preparation for a potential terrestrial haulout near Point Lay in 2013, local hunters 

assisted in the placement of camera towers. A relatively small haulout (1,500–4,000 

walruses) that formed near Point Lay in mid-September and grew to ~10,000 in late 

September was monitored. Skiff surveys were conducted to look for other haulouts and 

for carcasses, when possible and without disturbing the haulouts. Traditional and local 

knowledge interviews were conducted in Point Hope and final reports are now available 

for Point Hope and for Wainwright and Point Lay, jointly. In association with a multiagency walrus research cruise in June, walrus hunters from Saint Lawrence Island 

deployed 34 satellite-linked transmitters in the Bering and Chukchi seas. Of the 34 

tagged walruses, 28 were females, (13 of which were accompanied by calves of the year) 

and six were adult males. Preliminary data show the highest concentration of tagged 

walruses occurred in the Hanna Shoal area within Lease Sale 193 in the eastern Chukchi 

Sea during July and August, however areas north of Wrangel Island and along the 

northern Chukotka coast, Russia were also used. All tagged walruses left Hanna Shoal 

during the first week of September. None of the five tags still transmitting in September 

were located at the terrestrial haulout near Point Lay, although one female hauled out on 

the Chukotka coast near Vankarem, Russia. 

************************************************************************

Current word count = 334

Word max = 350 
Appendix C. Russia’s main oil and gas company, Rosneft, agreement with ExxonMobil to 

explore three areas for liquefied natural gas (LNG) reserves.

Found at: http://www.rosneft.com/news/pressrelease/130220133.html

Name of the license block Sea Acreage, sq.km* Acreage, acres* Water depth, m*

1. East Prinovozemelskiy-1

2. East Prinovozemelskiy-2

3. East Prinovozemelskiy-3

Kara 125,904 31.1 M 10-440

4. Severo-Karsky Kara 196,000 48.4 M 20-480

5. Ust’ Olenekskiy Laptev 64,103 15.8 19-90

6. Ust’ Lensky Laptev 46,851 11.6 15-90

7. Anisinsko Novosibirsky Laptev 140,981 34.8 20-2000

8. Severo-Vrangelevskiy-1

9. Severo-Vrangelevskiy-2

Chukchi 115,176 28.4 40-370

10. Yuzhno Chukotsky Chukchi 73,197 18.0 40-70

*estimated
February 13, 2013

Rosneft and ExxonMobil Expand Strategic Cooperation

• Companies to add seven Arctic license areas covering approximately 600,000

square kilometers (150 million acres) in the Chukchi, Laptev and Kara seas

• Rosneft is provided with an option to acquire a 25 percent interest in Point

Thomson natural gas and condensate project in Alaska operated by

ExxonMobil

• Companies to jointly study potential for LNG project in Russian Far East.

• Moscow, Russia – February 13, 2013. Rosneft and ExxonMobil have agreed to

expand their cooperation under their 2011 Strategic Cooperation Agreement to

include approximately additional 600,000 square kilometers (150 million acres)

of exploration acreage in the Russian Arctic, and potential participation by

Rosneft (or its affiliate) in the Point Thomson project in Alaska. They have also

agreed to conduct a joint study on a potential LNG project in the Russian Far

East.

• The agreements, which include plans to explore seven new blocks in the

Chukchi Sea, Laptev Sea and Kara Sea, were signed by Igor Sechin, president

of Rosneft and Stephen Greenlee, president of ExxonMobil Exploration

Company, in the presence of Russian President Vladimir Putin.

• The license blocks include Severo-Vrangelevsky-1, Severo-Vrangelevsky-2

and Yuzhno-Chukotsky blocks in Chukchi Sea, Ust’ Oleneksky, Ust’ Lensky

and Anisinsko-Novosibirsky blocks in Laptev Sea and Severo-Karsky block in

Kara Sea, which are among the most promising and least explored offshore

areas globally.

• A separate Heads of Agreement was signed providing Rosneft (or its affiliate)

with an opportunity to acquire a 25 percent interest in the Point Thomson Unit

which covers the project of developing a remote natural gas and condensate

field on Alaska’s North Slope. It is estimated that Point Thomson contains

approximately 25 percent of the known gas resource base in Alaska’s North

Slope.

• Rosneft and ExxonMobil also executed a Memorandum of Understanding to

jointly study the economic viability of an LNG development in the Russian Far

East, including the possible construction of an LNG facility. The companies

will form a joint working group which is expected to commence work in the

coming weeks to study the viability of an LNG project using available natural

gas resources.

Commenting on the agreements signed, Igor Sechin said, “The agreements

signed today bring the already unprecedented scale of Rosneft and ExxonMobil
partnership to a completely new level. The acreage in the Russian Arctic 

subject to geological exploration and subsequent development increased nearly 

six-fold. That means the enormous resource potential of Russian Arctic 

offshore fields will be explored and developed in the most efficient manner 

with the application of cutting-edge technologies and expertise of our strategic 

partner, ExxonMobil, using state-of-the-art environmental protection systems. 

Participation in the Point Thomson project will increase Rosneft’s access to the 

latest gas and condensate field development technologies used in harsh climatic 

conditions”.

• Greenlee said the agreement builds on the ongoing successful cooperation

between the companies.

“This expansion is an illustration of the strength of the partnership that exists

between ExxonMobil and Rosneft,” said Greenlee. “We look forward to

working together on these new projects.”

• The companies are committed to using global best practices and state-of-the-art

safety and environmental protection systems for the Arctic operations. The

work will be supported by the recently signed Declaration on the Russian

Arctic Shelf Environmental protection. Also, ExxonMobil and Rosneft will

work together through an Arctic Research Center to provide a full range of

research and design services to support their cooperation on Arctic projects.

• Rosneft and ExxonMobil continue to implement a program of staff exchanges

of technical and management employees to help strengthen relationships

between the companies.

• License areas factsheet

• Rosneft Information Division

Tel.: +7 (499) 517 88 97

Fax: +7 (495) 411 54 21

www.rosneft.com 

February 13, 2013

• These materials contain statements about future events and expectations that

are forward-looking in nature. Any statement in these materials that is not a

statement of historical fact is a forward-looking statement that involves known

and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors which may cause actual

results, performance or achievements expressed or implied by such forwardlooking statements to differ. We assume no obligations to update the forwardlooking statements contained herein to reflect actual results, changes in

assumptions or changes in factors affecting these statements.
Clear Form 

PACIFIC WALRUS MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY REPORT- LEVEL A DATA 

ANIMALm:PL-vJ-,lz{..:b\. DATE oF0BsrnvAT10N: lo 1LI- � 

LOCATION: fo,V\t:_(o._,� 60\�\l'l-f-f, \'i\WY\J

LAT. (dee. deg.): G9A&. t;:50 LONG. (dee. deg.):�l ��')"'--. 0___:1.c..:•_...(oLf]-1-, �-----

EXAMINER: bi� L

I

L r; .Jg M coNTAcT 1NFORMAT10N: ___________ _ 

REPfmffR: ------ CON=F ·-------------

GROUP EVENT? 0 YES dNo O UNKNOWN IF YES, NUMBER OF CARCASSES/SICK ANIMALS:_ {within 100 meters of each other) 

REPORT DETAILS:-(SITE SPECIFIC AND CIRCUMSTANTIAL INFORMATION)---------...,....----.------

Po i YI r L"1 SUV "'G 11 1. +,rq,,"' u:,cyt 'S} V\ ep,,J 4 (l'\t"t � pt1_ s .

(USE BACK OF FORM FOR ADDITIONAL REMARKS) 

ANIMAL STATUS: 0 INJURED OR SICK O FRESH DEAD O MODERATE DECOMPOSITION ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION 

0 MUMMIFIED/SKELETAL O CONDITION UNKNOWN 

GENDER: 0 MALE dFEMALE O UNKNOWN AGE: t1cALF O YEARLING O SUBADULT O ADULT O UNKNOWN 

BODY CONDITION: i NORMAL OR ROBUST O EMACIATED O UNKNOWN (if pelvic bones or rib cage are clearly visible -emaciated) 

STANDARD LENGTH (cm): ��CTUAL O ESTIMATED O UNKNOWN (straight line measurement -snout to tail) 

BLUBBER DEPTH AT STERNUM (cm): 

WOUNDS OR SIGNS OF TRAUMA? 

SKIN LESIONS ? 

OTHER TISSUE ABNORMALITES? 

BEHAVIOR ABNORMALITES? 

HUMAN INTERACTION? 

1 0 UNKNOWN (depth of blubber+ skin at sternum) 

0 YES O NO rs/ UNKNOWN IF YES, DESCRIBE BELOW 

0 YES O NO � UNKNOWN IF YES, DESCRIBE BELOW 

D YES D NO o/uNKNOWN IF YES, DESCRIBE BELOW 

0 YES O NO isl)JNKNOWN IF YES, DESCRIBE BELOW 

0 YES O NO [i1 UNKNOWN IF YES, CHOOSE ONE OR MORE: 

0 BOAT COLLISION O GUN SHOT/HARVEST O FISHERY INTERACTION O DISTURBANCE EVENT O OTHER: _______ _ 

PHOTOS? !iv Es o No ( coNTAcT /REFERENcE_,.,_l:�5i.u.e_:e:::..._r_L_:c:::;..:tc.;..� yv1_{)_y;._CA ___________ _ 

NECROPSY REPORT? DYES D NO (CONTACT/REFERENCE):. __________________ _ 

SAMPLES COLLECTED? DYES ONO (CONTACT/REFERENCE}: _____ .,,...----.,---,---------

IDENTIFICATION TAG? DYES D NO (TAG#, COLOR, PLACEMENT): y)h,1'h Hy:-f)f?-I &1\0 it Pl· 1,J - ) y - t) I

ANIMAL DETAILS: (ANIMAL SPECIFIC INFORMATION: DESCRIBE ANY INJURIES, LESIONS, ABNORMAL TISSUES OR BEHAVIOR) __ _ 

c. gvvi )l)c..,-<.,,J we� /.A./J.. ti.¢. t 0 (c�) II)\ s r \)P A,.f � htA.. H / rJ}\ r s i'-t ,

(USE BACK OF FORM FOR ADDITIONAL REMARKS) 

Appendix D. Sample datasheet for carcass surveys.

Adapting to climate change: 

Community dialog on the conservation 

and management of Pacific walruses in 

Alaska and Chukotka 

February 2-10, 2010, Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow Alaska 

“We have come to see how you live and to tell you about our work with walruses and polar 

bears.”- Vladilen Kaviry, setting the tone for the village meetings. 

Sponsored by: 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and World Wildlife Fund

1

Appendix E. Report of Chukchi hunters “Umpky Patrol” on walrus and polar bear Conservation.
Introduction 

The United States and Russia share many wildlife species in the rich marine area between Russia and 

Alaska. Walruses, polar bears, seals, whales, fish, and many species of birds are among the area’s 

biological treasures. Indigenous communities are an equally remarkable component of the Arctic 

ecosystem and they possess a wealth of unique cultural traditions. The participation of native 

communities in wildlife conservation is paramount for the sustainability of many important species in the 

Arctic. 

In February 2010, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) hosted 

an international exchange to allow native Chukchi representatives from Chukotka to visit a number of 

small Alaskan Arctic villages to share their traditional knowledge and practical experience with walrus 

and polar bear conservation, and to demonstrate the importance of local native communities’ involvement 

in conservation activities. Opportunities to directly share experiences and concerns are especially 

important, as indigenous communities throughout the Arctic have been observing significant changes in 

the distribution and behavior of wildlife from climate change-induced transformations of the Arctic. As 

such, this exchange was a great opportunity for Alaskans to learn from the Chukotka experience, and for 

the Chukotkans to learn from their Alaska neighbors. 

From February 2-10, 2010, the Chukotka team and their interpreters visited several predominantly Inupiat 

communities on Alaska’s North Slope– Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Barrow –to meet with 

community members and deliver presentations on their Russian walrus monitoring efforts, human-polar 

bear conflict prevention, and recent efforts to protect coastal walrus haul-outs. The information exchange 

between the native representatives across the Chukchi Sea proved to be very important for both sides of 

the border. Alaskan hosts and the Chukotkan visitors voiced that these encounters, though brief, helped 

to reveal the bigger picture of the status of transnational species such as Pacific walrus. 

Profiles of Russian Participants 

Sergey Kavriy, a long-time resident of Chukotka’s coastal region, resides in the village of Vankarem on 

the Arctic coast of Chukotka. He is also the local representative for the Russian Association of 

Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), one of the leading NGOs advocating for the involvement of 

Russian Native peoples in resource management and other civil society issues. Sergey serves as the 

indigenous representative for Russia on the U.S.-Russia Bilateral Polar Bear Treaty. 

Vladilen Kavriy, also a long-time resident of Chukotka’s coastal region, is a respected native hunter with 

extensive knowledge of the Arctic environment. Over the past 10 years, Vladilen has become an 

important partner for biologists, local officials, and the WWF, having participated in WWF’s “Climate 

Witness” project and organized two international expeditions for WWF to the Russian Arctic. He is also 

a leader of the newly created “Umky” (polar bear) patrol in Ryrkaipiy, Chukotka. 

Fedor Tymnetagin is a member of the Vankarem “Umky” patrol and a long-time resident of this Russian 

Arctic village. Fedor has actively participated in the community’s efforts to protect its large walrus haulout (an annual phenomenon), which over the last 10 years has brought more than 20,000 walruses ashore 

in search of a resting place while the winter ice freezes. Fedor is a subsistence hunter and the official 

steward of the Vankarem walrus haul-out. 

Anatoly Kochnev is a marine mammal biologist with the Chukotka branch of the Pacific Institute of 

Fisheries and Oceanography (ChukotTINRO). Anatoly, a long-time resident of Chukotka, has spent 
years studying walrus and polar bear populations in the eastern Russian Arctic. He participated in the 

2008 U.S.-Russian Survey of Pacific Walrus in the Chukchi Sea, and has been a member of additional 

bilateral research initiatives for decades. Anatoly is also an accomplished nature photographer. 

Presentations 

Below are transcribed notes from the presentations given by the Chukotka delegation at 

community meetings and school classrooms in Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright and Barrow 

Alaska. 

Anatoly Kochnev, Wildlife Biologist 

I have been a wildlife biologist for 30 years studying walrus and polar bear. I will set the stage 

by telling you about the changes that have been occurring in the Chukchi Sea and how they 

affect walruses and polar bears. My friends will tell you how they work as keepers of the walrus 

haulout and as polar bear patrollers. There have been big changes in the last 30 years. I started 

working in Chukotka in 1980. In the 1980s there was lots of sea ice and the population of 

walruses was increasing. Now the sea ice cover is decreasing and the ice edge is far from shore. 

From 1980 to 1989 most of the walrus hauled out at sea all summer. In Chukotka, haulouts on 

shore were only used late in the fall and for a short period of time. They were located on the 

western border of the Chukotka Peninsula near Bering Strait and on the southern border of the 

peninsula in the Bering Sea. From 2000–2009 the ice has been leaving the Chukchi Sea in 

summer and the walruses are forming large haulouts on shore on the northern Chukotka coast. 

The warming is causing less sea ice, big fall storms, and late formation of sea ice in the fall. All 

of this causes problems for walruses. Calves get separated from their mothers in storms and 

walruses spend more energy moving from the beach to feed and back to rest. When walruses 

could rest on the ice in summer, the ice took them over more of the Chukchi Sea for feeding and 

provided a resting place near the food without having to swim to shore. Now walruses are using 

coastal haulouts for more of summer and in greater numbers. Some coastal haulouts have as 

many as 50,000 walruses as one time. 

In 2007, the summer sea ice edge was a record distance away from shore (~1,200 km) in 

September. We put satellite transmitters on walruses in October 2007 and the locations from the 

transmitters showed us that walruses did not go far from shore to feed. Walruses did not go 

farther than 60 km from shore and most only went about 30 km. Without the ice for resting they 

cannot reach the central part of the Chukchi Sea for feeding and so the food supply near shore 

will soon be depleted. Some calves were observed in poor body condition and pregnant females 

sometimes aborted fetuses due to lack of nutrition and crowding on the beaches. We have also 

observed skin infections from tusk wounds and other injuries. Polar bears have always been 

predators of walrus on ice and on shore, but on shore there are other predators as well including 

brown bears, dogs, and wolverines. Predators, including humans can panic walruses and cause a 

stampede that tramples many calves and juveniles, crushing them to death. Airplanes and boats 

can also cause stampedes. In 2007 we observed the highest mortality and counted a minimum of 

3,000 carcasses; the actual number was probably more like 10,000. About 80% of the carcasses 

were calves. Cape Schmidt had the highest number of carcasses followed by Vankarem and then 

3
Kolyuchin Island. The number of carcasses is related to the number on the haulout; the larger 

the haulout the higher the mortality. This amount of mortality was not seen before 2000 because 

the sea ice was present and walruses did not haul out in such large numbers on land. Dead 

walruses attract polar bears and in 1990, 150 polar bears were counted at Cape Blossom, 

Wrangel Island in September. At first we thought this was very unusual but after 1990 we 

observed 50–150 polar bears there each year. After 2000, however fewer walruses hauled out at 

Wrangel Island and more began hauling out along the northern Chukotka coast. 

Warming causes problems for polar bears too. If they stay with the ice in summer as they used 

to do the ice takes them far to the north, over deep water, where few seals go so there is little 

food. If they stay on land they risk injury by hunting walruses. If pregnant females cannot find 

enough food they cannot produce cubs. Hungry bears cause problems for people and bears are 

killed too. I have a theory that many bears stayed with the ice at first, but after a few years when 

there was no food and they could not wait for 6 months to get to land on the ice, they left the sea 

ice and walked and swam to the closest land in Russia and maybe in Canada too. For a few 

years there were not many bears on land but after 2003 more bears began concentrating on the 

northern Chukotka coast. In 2006, more than 200 polar bears came to Vankarem and other 

villages on the northern Chukotka Peninsula and threatened people’s safety. Since 2000 there 

have been three incidents of polar bears killing people. This is when my friends started a polar 

bear patrol. 

There are not enough biologists to monitor the walrus haulouts, but there are hunters who can 

collect valuable information. Together scientists and hunters are monitoring seven haulouts. 

Some are monitored by hunters and biologists and some only by hunters. None of the hunters 

involved in this project could be here to tell you about it, so I will tell you. The objectives of this 

study are to 1) record the chronology of the haulout (i.e., when the haulout becomes active and 

how the walruses come and go), 2) keep track of the numbers and the sex and age composition, 

and 3) record the causes of the disturbances and the number and causes of mortality. There is a 

website for this project it is www.pacificwalrus.ru. 

Vladilen Kavriy and Fedor Tymnetagin, Walrus Haulout Keepers 

Our objectives as haulout keepers and polar bear patrollers are to conserve nature, show people 

how to live with polar bears, manage walrus haulouts, and help local people participate in 

science projects. This work started in Vankarem. We have the same marine mammals you have 

in Alaska. We have walruses, seals, bowhead whales, gray whales, and polar bears. Our villages 

have names that mean something. Vankarem means “people who live on the land shaped like a 

walrus tusk”. There are about 200 people living in Vankarem today, but people have lived there 

for 1,500 years. In 1996 there was an economic crisis in our region. We had no bullets, fuel, or 

motors for our boats so all we could do was watch the walruses swim by. We remembered the 

past when walruses used to haul out near our villages. So we decided to create a quiet zone 

where the haulout used to be. We tied up the dogs and kept the people away. And the walruses 

hauled out near our village in 1996 and have every year since then, sometimes in numbers 

>30,000 at a time. We had to set up rules to visit the haul out so that the walruses would not be

disturbed and stampede.

4
Polar bears also came and were scaring the walruses on the haulouts. At first we tried to keep 

the polar bears off of the haulouts. But when we chased them off the beach they came into our 

village so we gave up and let nature take its course. When the polar bears and other things scare 

the walruses and there are mortalities, we gather up the carcasses. If they are fresh sometimes 

people eat them or feed them to their dogs. 

People still needed to harvest walruses for food but, in order to minimize disturbances on the 

haulouts we decided to hunt our traditional way with spears instead of rifles. We appointed a 

steward of the haulout and re-initiated a spear hunt which was also the tradition. The hunters 

must have the steward’s approval before a spear hunt can begin. Once a hunt is approved the 

hunters conduct a ritual to feed the spirits. This ritual occurs the evening or morning before the 

hunt. 

We use two methods to conduct the spear hunt depending upon the terrain of the haulout. If the 

shoreline is complex and only a few walruses are visible, we walk slowly with our long spears. 

Once a walrus is speared the other walruses do not panic or go very far away. We use another 

method when the haulout area is flat and walruses can see us from a long way. In this situation, 

we walk very slowly and stop frequently. The walruses get used to us. When we get close 

enough we spear one and then back away. The walrus dies quickly (2–5 seconds). Later we go 

and get it. 

In October 2006, the people in Vankarem formed a nature monument of the walrus haulout area 

for the walruses, polar bears, and the archeological sites. In 2007, after a vote of the people it 

was approved by the government. 

Polar bears arrive in the late fall, attracted by the walrus carcasses, and some bears stay all 

winter. The bears migrate in from the northwest and migrate past the villages. In 2006, a girl 

was killed and we decided to start a polar bear patrol to protect the people. In 2007, we moved 

walrus carcasses to feeding spots for polar bears. The feeding spots were located away from the 

village so that polar bears could feed in a place safe for polar bears and for villagers. This 

worked well, and 90% of the bears (~200 bears) used the feeding spots and stayed out of our 

village and the villages nearby. The Umky Patrol does other things too. We talk to school 

classes about polar bear safety. We put up street lights near the school, and we remove some 

bears that come into the village. 

Ryrkaipiy is another village where we have a walrus haulout and a polar bear patrol. Ryrkaipiy 

means “the land that sticks out into the ocean and blocks the walrus migration”. There is a beach 

nearby where walruses used to haul out. An elder in the village, Grandfather Apo, said to go and 

get some rocks from Vankarem where the walruses are hauling out and bring them here. That 

same year Grandfather Apo died but the walruses hauled out for the first time and have come for 

three years in a row. Grandfather Apo may have given us too good a recipe for walruses because 

sometimes there are 70,000 to 80,000 walruses on the beach and any disturbance can cause many 

deaths. The walruses hauled out close to two villages of 1,700 people and the people want to 

come close and watch the walruses. We had to make rules for visiting the haulout so that people 

could watch the walruses without disturbing them. So visitors go with a haulout steward in 

groups of four. We do not allow activities that are loud, smell strongly, or show bright colors. 

5
So, there is no drinking, smoking, perfume, or bright colored clothing allowed. No airplanes, 

helicopters, or dogs are allowed near the haulout. People approach the haulout from downwind. 

We kept track of the number of walruses hauled out each year and the number of deaths. Small 

walruses are most susceptible and 80–90% of the deaths are young 0–1 year old walruses. When 

walruses hauled out on ice the mortality was very low, but now with large haulouts on shore we 

need to help reduce disturbances. We clean up the beaches after the walruses leave to control the 

polar bears and reduce diseases. 

Sergei Kavriy, Polar Bear Den Monitor 

The World Wildlife Fund and Marine Mammal Hunters work together to collect traditional 

knowledge, identify concentrated denning areas, and let people know about the results. We 

started in 2007 and surveyed 60 km west of Vankarem. We also worked 150 km of coastline 

around Kolychin Island. We start our den survey with the first thaw in spring. If we find a den 

and it is empty we look at tracks to see how many cubs there were. We also look at the tracks of 

the female to see how healthy she was. If her tracks are wide and deep we say she is healthy. If 

they are narrow and shallow she is probably skinny. We record the den location using GPS. In 

2008, we found 15 dens that produced 20 cubs. In 2009, we surveyed 300 km of coast. During 

the first year of den surveys we left seals near the dens for the bears to eat. But we worried that 

the seals would attract male polar bears that eat cubs so we did not do this again. In 2009 

although we surveyed more area we found only three dens. We are not sure why. A storm may 

have covered up the dens before we found them or the bears may have denned on the ice near 

shore or farther west then our survey area. 

Our work demonstrates how important it is for native people to work with scientists. Combining 

science with traditional knowledge has helped us learn more about polar bears. Scientists can 

teach us how to use new technologies. We would like to collaborate with native people in Alaska 

to study the polar bear population that we share. 

Community Dialog: 

Below are transcribed notes from community meetings in Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright 

and Barrow Alaska. 

Point Hope 

Q. What about human waste? Where does it go?

A. There are no sewage facilities in the villages.

Comment. Things have changed because there used to be more walruses in Alaska than Russia, 

but now there are more in Russia than Alaska. We can’t live without walruses. We should make 

a partnership with the Russians so we can have Eskimo food. 

Q. Are biologists from both sides working on those (Russian) haulouts?

A. Not yet, but we are starting to. US biologists have helped with satellite tagging and logistics.

6
Q. Are bears and walruses still being counted at Wrangel Island?

A. Wrangel Island is a park and they do get counted but the information is not available yet.

After 2000 fewer walruses hauled out at Wrangel Island.

Q. What do you do with the tusks?

A. The tusks get sold in the village of Uelen where there are carvers and some of the money

comes back to the village with the haulout.

Q. Is there a limit on the number of walruses you can hunt per year?

A. Yes, each village has a different quota that depends on the population of the village. The

number is higher than we usually get. Vankarem quota is 50 per year and so is Ryrkaipiy.

Q. What time of year do walruses haul out?

A. September and October. In June and July they haul out on the ice and we hunt them there.

Q. Do you have carvers?

A. Yes. There is one village (Uelen) that has carvers and sells the ivory.

Q. How do the animals taste now compared to the past?

A. All taste the same, except for gray whales which taste like medicine.

Q. How about for you in Pt. Hope?

A. We hear from Kivalina that their fish tastes different.

Q. How many hunters are in your village?

A. In Vankarem there are seven. In Ryrkaipiy there are six.

Q. How are the quotas set?

A. The villages request a harvest level based on traditional use levels, size of the community, and

other factors. The scientists come up with a recommendation based on the community requests

and the walrus population estimate. The harvest number leaves enough so the population can

grow. The suggested number is sent to Moscow for government approval. The government then

tells the region how many walruses they can hunt. The villages decide how to distribute the

quota.

Q. What happens when people violate the rules of the haulout?

A. They get a warning or a fine depending on the severity of the violation. The fine is related to

the number of walruses that are killed in the stampede that is caused.

Q. I notice that you are speaking Russian. Do any villages speak native languages as a first

language?

A. Vankarem is small and our school has only three grades. After that our children go to

boarding schools where they speak Russian. We are losing our native language. Our inland

reindeer communities are doing better at keeping their language.

7
Q. Do you have stores and eat white man food?

A. Yes, we have stores for food and other goods, but we mostly eat fish, seal, walrus, berries,

and whale.

Q. Do you hunt whales?

A. Yes we get 135 gray and 5 bowhead/year for all of Chukotka. Lorino, a town of 3,500

people, harvest 60-70 gray whales/year.

Q. What kind of boats do you use for whaling?

A. We use skin and wood boats.

Q. Is your native language similar to Siberian Yupik?

A. Coastal people speak Chukchi with different dialects, but Chukchi is not related to Siberian

Yupik.

Q. How do you celebrate a whale harvest and Christmas?

A. Vankarem only recently started hunting whales. There used to be too much ice. Before we

hunt we pray to our spirits and after a hunt we give thanks to our spirits. We give the tastiest part

of the whale, the tail, to the sea and have a big party. We do not celebrate Christmas, our main

celebration is New Years; sometimes we have fireworks.

Q. I have a question for Pt. Hope. Do you have projects like ours? Polar bear patrols? Haulout

monitoring?

A. On the North Slope we do polar bear patrols as needed. These have been funded by the North

Slope Borough, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. We use a vehicle and 12-ga shotguns

with cracker shells to deter bears and have a patrol during the week, before and after school. We

need authorization from USFWS to scare bears but if hunters want to kill them (for subsistence)

we don’t need permission.

Q. Another question for Pt. Hope. Do you hunt at land haulouts?

A. No, we hunt walruses on the ice or in the water.

Q. Is seismic testing a problem for you (In Russia)?

A. We don’t have it and don’t know its effects.

Q. We didn’t have any tom cod this year. Do you know what they are?

A. Yes, there was lots of tom cod last year, more than usual. It even washed ashore.

Q. What activities prevent walruses from coming ashore?

A. Vehicles are not allowed on the beach for 2 months (while walrus are there). Airplanes and

helicopters are not allowed to fly over the haulouts and barges agree not to use fog horns near

haulouts.

Q. People here have floated away on the ice. Do you know of anyone who has come there on the

ice from here?

A. No, I know of one person that went from Vankarem to Wrangel Island.

8
Q. Is the large number of walruses on the haulouts new or has is always been this way? 

A. We have always had haulouts but they were short term (a few weeks) and fewer animals when 

ice was present. But now there are more animals and they stay longer. 

Comment. So this is something we should be thinking about for the future on the Alaska side. 

Comment. A reporter announced that she was looking for stories, pictures, and video for a 

website where native people tell their own stories. 

Sergei responded. I understand that what you are asking for is not the same as filmmakers but 

they put video out that makes us look like bloody savages. We believe that if we take care of 

nature, nature will take care of us. 

Point Lay 

Q. Were the deaths from the polar bears because there were no rifles in the village? 

A. No, there were just too many bears and dumpsters near the houses and school. 

Comment. We had a similar incident here in 1994. Polar bears can surprise you. 

Q. Was the bear skinny? 

A. It was hungry but not starving. 

Q. What month was it? 

A. January. 

Q. When this happens here we check the bear to see if anything is wrong with it. Did you check? 

A. It was handled by police so we did not get that information. It would be better to do what you 

do. In 1993 there were three attacks on people in Chukotka. All of the bears involved were in 

good shape. One bear was a male, one a female, and the other was a 2 yr old cub. 

Q. What year were polar bears considered endangered in Russia? 

A. 1956. This was a mistake because it made all hunting of bears illegal and people poached and 

there was no reporting. 

Q. Do you see any bears inland in summer? 

A. A few. 

Comment. It was predicted by Wainwright elders that there would be less ice and now the time 

has come. 

Comment. We have had haulouts for the last few years near the old village (located on a barrier 

island near the present village of Point Lay). Airplanes have caused disturbances. 

Q. Do you look in their stomachs when you cut them open (referring to walruses)? 

A. They are usually young ones and we don’t eat their stomachs so we don’t look. Often they 

have been on the beach and not eaten for awhile, the stomachs are empty. 

9
Q. How many walrus do you harvest per year? Is that up to the steward?

A. Quota is 50/yr for Vankarem.

Q. What months do you hunt?

A. September and October on haulout also on ice in summer.

Q. During the spear hunt have any walruses tried to attack you.

A. They will try to catch you with their tusks but they don’t charge at us.

Q. For Pt. Lay: Do you hunt at haulouts?

A. We hunt on the ice and only if we don’t get any do we hunt on land.

Comment. In Alaska we don’t hunt for ourselves, we hunt for our community and the elders 

come first. 

Q. Are your ice cellars in the ground like here?

A. Yes, we use ice cellars dug into the ground and we have two modern freezers.

Q. In the fall before the ice comes do you get brown bears together with polar bears?

A. At the feeding spots, brown bears go to one and polar bears go to different one that is close to

shore. Polar bears feed during the day and brown bears at night. We do not see them together.

Comment. We work on teaching people what to do around bears. Someone from the audience 

said give them Coca Cola (referring to the television commercials where Coca Cola makes bears 

happy). Yes, Coca Cola funds our patrol. 

Q. What do you do with the ivory?

A. We remove it and send it to Uelen, a village with an art studio that sells the carvings. The

money is distributed among the villages.

Q. Are you paid for the polar bear patrol?

A. Yes.

Q. How? Money or something else?

A. We get paid slightly lower than a normal salary, but we also get equipment like satellite

phone, GPS and snow machines.

Q. How do you say Grandpa?

A. We say Apa.

Q. Why did so many (~70,000-80,000) walruses show up in 2007?

A. Because the ice receded very far north and there were heavy storms.

Q. Have you seen any satellite tags on any walruses? The Eskimo Walrus Commission tags

some and a few went there.

10
A. Not at Ryrkaipiy but Anatoly had a tagged walrus resting in his boat. It was a walrus tagged 

near Pt. Lay. It was your walrus (applause). The walrus sunk its tusks into my boat. He asked 

that Alaskans teach their walruses better manners. Vladilen said he thinks that Anatoly is hinting 

to EWC for compensation for his boat. Pt. Lay said no, ADF&G should compensate him for his 

boat. Lori Quakenbush joked that she was sorry but she did not hear any of that conversation. 

Q. How many families use an ice cellar? 

A. One. 

Q. Question for Point Lay: Do you do any monitoring in your village related to climate change? 

A. The temperatures in our ice cellars are monitored. We see warming from erosion, dips in the 

land that we never used to see. We tell people who ask and tell the North Slope Borough in 

Barrow. 

Q. Have you seen any collared bears? 

A. No but elders have seen bears with collars. 

Q. Do you use dogs when you look for dens? 

A. No. Anatoly used dogs on Wrangel Island until a dog killed a cub, then they stopped using 

them. Joel Garlich-Miller said that trained dogs are used in Alaska to find dens and also Forward 

looking Infra-red (FLIR) technology from airplanes. 

Q. Do you involve students in your study? 

A. No, because they are going to school then. Our older kids go to another village to study. 

Q. A question for Joel. What is the status of polar bears? 

A. They are listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. There is no change in their 

use for subsistence. Now critical habitat is being determined. 

Q. Do you have a website? 

A. Yes, www.pacificwalrus.ru and www.belyemedved.ru

Q. What will happen to the ice during the next 200 years? 

A. There are different theories. Walrus may become a coastal species like sea lions. 

Q. Can we do an exchange? We can go there and they can come here. 

A. Alaska could learn to use a spear for hunting and tagging. 

Q. Spectacled eiders are threatened here. What is there status there? 

A. Some studies are done in Russia sponsored by the U.S., but none of the Russians knew the 

status of eiders because they are not ornithologists. 

11
Wainwright 

Q. What was the population of polar bears in 1975 and in 2005?

A. I don’t know but there are fewer now than in 1975.

Q. Who funds the programs?

A. All of these projects are funded by WWF, Pacific Environment, and TINRO in Chukotka.

Q. Do you look inland for polar bear dens? Here polar bears den up inland.

A. We mostly look along the coast, because it is more likely and we have so much area to

survey.

Q. Do you radio-collar bears to keep track of them?

A. No.

Barrow 

Q. There is a higher mortality level on the Russian side than the Alaska side.

A. You are right. It is because of the larger haulouts in Russia. There have been some large

trampling events in Alaska, such as on St. Lawrence Island in the ‘50s and ‘70s.

Q. Have you tried tagging polar bears to see where they go? Do they come to Alaska?

A. No, we have not tagged in Chukotka. Bears have been tagged on Wrangel Island and in

Alaska.

Q. What year did population counts begin?

A. The first surveys were done in the 1930s and then from time to time until the 1980s when

regular counts began.

Q. Do you know of any that den far inland on the Russian side? We had one bear that went way

inland in Alaska.

A. Some bears in the Gulf of Anadyr in spring will cross the Chukotka Peninsula across the land

instead of following the coast.

Q. Do walrus and polar bear go farther west than what you show?

A. We do not know of any large haulouts farther west than Ryrkarpiy. We talk to hunters so we

would hear of any if they develop.

Q. Do you have a website with information that our region could see? Do you have anything

from the 1930s?

A. . Yes, www.pacificwalrus.ru and www.belyemedved.ru.  We don’t have anything from the

1930s but USFWS might.

Q. You mentioned illness and infections of walrus. If we run across sick walrus should we take

it home? Should we be worried about eating it?

12
A. We have not done those studies, so we don’t know about diseases, but I don’t think they are

dangerous to humans. Our hunters look for healthier ones, but may feed the sick ones to dogs.

In 2007 we took some samples but did not find any diseases harmful to humans.

Q. Could a sick walrus pass disease to other walrus or to humans?

A. It is possible, but we have not seen it. Some infections might be passes on to other walruses

on a crowded beach.

Q. Do you monitor all year or only part of the year?

A. We monitor 3-4 months when walruses are on the haulouts.

Comment. It is alarming what is happening in Russia. Walrus and polar bears are two species of 

a renewable resource that sustains Inupiat people. We are seeing changes in the ice. As a marine 

mammal hunter we should advocate protection. That is my request as an individual. 

Response. In Russia, we are working with the government to protect haulouts. Other species are 

important too, but walruses and polar bears are experiencing the greatest impacts currently. 

Q. What about hunting? Are you being asked not to hunt?

A. No, we hunt on haulouts, on the ice, and in the water.

Q. The village of Novo Chaplino was moved to a different location. Does the new location make

it harder to get to walrus hunting areas?

A. It is harder to get there but all of the coastal villages hunt walrus.

Q. Do they have to travel by boat?

A. Yes, there are no haulouts at Novo Chaplino so they use boats. Even villages that can hunt at

haulouts use boats and hunt on the ice in the spring.

Comment. I am worried about large number of carcasses and diseases that might transmit to 

villages. We don’t know when they will stop hauling out in large numbers. It may happen for 

some time. 

Response. We take the carcasses away from the village to keep the bears away and it should help 

with diseases too. In some years there are so many carcasses the bears don’t eat them all and 

they are still in the tundra 3 years later. 

Comment. Thank you for your presentation. Sustainable populations are important especially for 

the populations that we share. I am sure there will be cooperative projects for walruses and bears 

as there are for whales. It is hard to express the emotions that I am feeling. 

Q. What do the people in the villages think of your work?

A. Making the Nature Monument was not well received at first. People were concerned that they

would lose local rights. We had to explain many times that they would not lose the right to hunt.

Most of the regulations were on restricting the disturbances like airplanes and activities from

outside the village. Military airplanes caused a large trampling event. It is important to work

13
together with the government and others. Now we have agreements and the people want to take 

care of the haulouts. 

Q. We often wonder what is going on across the Chukchi Sea. Thank you for your presentations.

Are hunters paid? How is funding handled? Who owns the information you collect? Are reports

made make to you?

A. We get support from the government, a little less than a regular salary. The salary is small

and we rely mostly on subsistence. The projects are supported by WWF, US, and Russia. We

get computers and snow machines and other equipment. We would not be able to do this work

by dog team or on our old Russian snow machines. We suggest and discuss how to do things in

the community. The initiative for the projects came from the villages. We work closely with the

scientists and get advice from them. We share the information with biologists and the

communities. The information is important for everyone and we share it.

Q. Are communities Russian government or tourist or are they native villages.

A. Villages in Chukotka have several layers of government.

Q. How does the Russian government treat its First Nation people?

A. At first I talked about polar bears as a sacred animal but people thought I meant like sacred

cows in India, but they are not because we hunt them. We discuss with other communities our

needs for each species. The government understands our need and rights to harvest. We help

prepare the information to make the decisions.

Comment. The NSB and the Native Village of Barrow are going to meet with the Russian group 

to share how Alaska does polar bear patrols. In Alaska, we need to get authorization from 

USFWS to chase bears away and we need to report those activities. 

Q. We helped a lot with science through the years but don’t have the records. We should have

kept the information; we don’t know where it is. It could be at universities in the U.S. or China.

Do you have an archive?

A. Data collected by marine mammal hunters is shared. One copy goes to scientists one copy

goes to hunters. We don’t have an established way to exchange information. We want to work

on that.

Comment. I appreciate your presentations. To my knowledge I have never seen this kind of 

exchange. We should put together our information and take it to you in Russia. 

Comment. WWF collects a lot of money in their fund-raising. They should pay you more. 

Comment. We are worried about what the oil and gas industry is planning. They will be working 

hard in our Chukchi Sea. You many have some of this too. We had a trampling here too so it is 

happening on both sides. Industry makes lots of noise that can make walrus panic. We need to 

think about this carefully. 

Comment. We respect WWF but don’t take our hunting away. Please continue to show respect 

for our way of life now and in the future. 

14
15

Comment. I commend you on your identity. You have your language, diet, and identity. We are 

losing our language. Keep your language and identity. 

Post-Trip Activities 

Following their “Arctic tour”, Sergey Kavriy, Vladilen Kavriy and Anatoly Kochnev (Fedor Tymnetagin 

returned to his home in Chukotka following the Alaska village visits) spent three weeks in Anchorage, 

where they accomplished additional goals of their visit. In discussions with biologists from the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service and WWF-Alaska, they shared their experience and received feedback on their polar 

bear and walrus haul-out monitoring and management projects. The Chukotkan delegation also 

participated in the Annual meeting of Alaska’s Eskimo Walrus Commission, met with representatives 

from the Barrow and Kaktovik polar bear patrols, and participated in the Alaska Forum on the 

Environment’ssession on resource management and spatial planning using traditional knowledge. The 

group also participated in the first scientific working group meeting of the U.S.-Russia Bilateral Polar 

Bear Treaty, which occurred March 1-5, 2010, and during which concrete strategies for monitoring and 

managing the Chukotka-Alaska polar bear population were discussed by Russian and U.S. experts. 

For additional copies of this report, contact: 

Joel Garlich-Miller 

USFWS, Marine Mammals Management 

1011 East Tudor Road 

Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

(907) 786-3820

Joel_garlichmiller@fws.gov
Appendix F. Project abstracts, presentations, and reports listed chronologically.
Report submitted by: Lori Quakenbush

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Arctic Marine Mammal Program

Village-based Walrus Studies in the Chukchi Sea

Report to Eskimo Walrus Commission, 9 December 2010 

In early September we received reports from USFWS that walruses were hauled out on beaches near Pt. 

Lay and Corwin Bluffs, Alaska. We contacted Willard Neakok, the Eskimo Walrus Commissioner for 

Point Lay, who put together a crew to survey the beaches near Pt. Lay that were accessible without 

disturbing live walruses. The crew estimated 18 carcasses were visible and seven were accessible 

without disturbing the haulout. We prepared carcass survey datasheets, a camera, measuring tapes, and 

a GPS unit. Anna Bryan went to Pt. Lay to pass along the equipment, explain the datasheet, and answer 

any questions. Neakok’s crew accompanied by Bryan examined and measured seven carcasses. All 

seven were calves of the year that showed signs of being crushed; most likely by larger walruses. In 

addition to examining carcasses, the crew also recorded GPS locations for the north and south ends of 

the haulout and recorded the most recent haulout location boundaries. Neakok and his crew also 

traveled to Icy Cape on 24 September and reported that they did not see any walrus carcasses or live 

walruses on the beaches between Pt. Lay and Icy Cape, except for those still hauled out near the original 

location. 

We coordinated with USFWS, USGS, Alaska SeaLife Center (ASLC), the North Slope Borough (NSB) 

and Mr. Neakok in order to collect samples from the walrus carcasses and try to examine additional 

carcasses. The carcasses however were located near or within the active haulout and could not be 

accessed without disturbing the haulout and risking more calf fatalities. Kasegaluk Lagoon began to 

Appendix F-1. Project update to EWC for December 2010 meeting. 
Report submitted by: Lori Quakenbush

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Arctic Marine Mammal Program

freeze before the haulout dissipated so that boating to the carcasses was no longer an option. The NSB 

was willing to provide helicopter services to take personnel, including a veterinarian from the ASLC, to 

the carcasses. On 26 September, a storm caused waves to cover the haulout beach which drove the live 

walruses off the beach and washed the carcasses off the beach. Plans to examine carcasses were put on 

hold until an area with a concentration of carcasses could be identified. 

We worked with USGS to map the footprint of the haulout as accurately as possible in order to try to 

estimate the number of walruses that hauled out. Dr. Dan Monson (USGS) sent us composite 

photographs of the haulout taken by the COMIDA survey on 6 September and Dr. John Citta (ADF&G) 

worked with the photographs, ArcGIS, Google Earth and GPS locations from people on the ground to 

create a shapefile from which to calculate area covered. Using all of these tools the estimated area 

covered 48,822 m2

. The width of the beach was the most difficult to estimate and may have the largest 

effect on the accuracy of the estimated area. Although there is no significant tide in this area the 

direction and speed of the wind can narrow or widen the beach significantly. 

Justin Crawford and Mark Nelson (ADF&G) went to Cape Lisburne to see if they could access small 

haulouts there to deploy satellite tags without disturbance. Two satellite transmitters were deployed 

near Cape Lisburne; one on 17 and one on 19 September. Both tags were deployed on adult females 10-

15 years of age, one of which was accompanied by a calf of the year; the other female was alone. The 

tag on the female with the calf worked well and showed that the pair hauled out several times near Cape 

Lisburne prior to going to sea and hauling out on the Russian coast near Cape Serdse Kamen on 6 

October. The other tag appeared to deploy fine and was positioned well on the body, however it 

transmitted for only 2 days after deployment. 

OR10CL001

Adult female with calf
Appendix F-2. Quakenbush, L., W. Neakok, J. Crawford, A. Bryan, and M. Nelson. 2011. 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2010. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 

17–21 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster). 

Results from Village-Based Walrus Studies in Alaska, 2010 

Lori Quakenbush1, Willard Neakok2, Justin Crawford1, Anna Bryan1, and Mark Nelson1

1

Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK, Lori.Quakenbush@alaska.gov

2

Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, AK 

Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) winter in the Bering Sea, but females with young 

summer in the Chukchi Sea resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where 

they rest on land. The rapid retreat of sea ice is changing walrus summer habitat in the Chukchi 

Sea and may be changing summer distribution and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul 

out on land instead of ice. Oil and gas activity has increased, elevating the importance of 

understanding walrus movements, feeding behavior, and habitat requirements necessary to 

develop effective mitigation measures for conservation. In Alaska, some terrestrial haulouts are 

likely to be accessible from coastal communities. The purpose of this study is to work with 

subsistence walrus hunters to conduct observations, deploy satellite-linked tags to monitor 

movements and feeding behavior, and collect traditional and local knowledge on walruses in the 

Chukchi Sea. In September of 2010, a large haulout (10–20,000 walruses) formed near the 

village of Pt. Lay. Large haulouts are susceptible to stampedes, which cause calf mortality. 

Local walrus hunters documented the number and condition of carcasses accessible near the 

haulout, monitored the status of the haulout, and travelled the coast looking for other haulouts 

and carcasses. In addition, two tags were deployed on adult females near Cape Lisburne. One 

tag lasted a few days, but the other transmitted for 26 days, tracking a nine day crossing of the 

Chukchi Sea followed by a haul out period near Cape Serdse Kamen on the Chukotka Peninsula. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 18–22 January 2011, Anchorage AK 
Results from Village-based Walrus Studies in Alaska, 2010

Lori Quakenbush1, Willard Neakok2, Justin Crawford1, Anna Bryan1, and Mark Nelson1

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks AK, Lori.Quakenbush@alaska.gov 2Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay

Introduction. Walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) wintertogether in the Bering Sea, and most adult males remain

there where they rest on land. Females with young spend

the summer in the Chukchi Sea using sea ice for resting. The

rapid retreat of sea ice in summer is changing walrus habitatin the Chukchi Sea, which may require walruses to haul out

on land instead of ice, causing changes in summer

distribution and haulout behavior. Terrestrial haulouts alongthe Alaska coast are expected to occur more often, but their

locations are not predictable. It is likely, however, that someterrestrial haulouts will be accessible from coastal

communities (Fig. 1). If large haulouts are disturbed they

are susceptible to stampedes, which cause calf mortality.The purpose of this project is to prepare subsistence walrus

hunters to be the first responders to terrestrial haulouts by

minimizing disturbances, conducting observations, and

deploying satellite‐linked tags to monitor movements and

feeding behavior.

Methods. Local walrus hunters examine and documentwalrus carcasses (e.g., record length, age, sex, blubber

thickness, and take photographs) (Fig. 2). They also monitor

the status of haulouts, and deploy satellite‐linkedtransmitters.

Results. In September of 2010, a large haulo

village of Pt. Lay. Local walrus hunters docum

male) carcasses accessible near the haulout 

be reached without disturbance to the herd. 

showed signs of trauma due to trampling. O

also monitored the status of the haulout, an

and carcasses but did not find any.

A storm c

and washed away the unexamined carcasses

possible.Two satellite‐linked transmitters were deployOne tag lasted only a few days, but the other 

day crossing of the Chukchi Sea followed by a 

the Chukotka Peninsula.

Acknowledgements. This project was funded by the Minerals Management Service (now the Bureau of O

Enforcement). We appreciate the support and assistance of the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the U.S. Geol

Service (USFWS). Research on walruses was conducted under permit # MA220876‐0 issued to the Alaska 

USFWS and under an approved ADF&G Animal Care and Use Committee Protocol #2010‐13R.

As summer sea ice has

decreased in the Chukchi

Sea, oil and gas activityhas increased, elevatingthe importance of

understanding walrusmovements, feeding

behavior, and habitat

requirements.

Future Activities. We plan to continue preparing local teams to respond to

future haulouts. We will also visit villages this winter to document hunters’

experiences with walruses on terrestrial haulouts in the past, and we will

identify hunters interested in participating in Village‐Based Walrus Studies.

Figure 1. Locations of Alaskan communities along the Chukchi Sea coast near

walrus summer habitat.

Figure 2. Willard Neakok (on left) and crew examining a dead walrus calf.

Figure 4. Adult walrus tagged near Cape Lisburne.

Figure 5. Track of satellite‐lin

Sate

Figure 3. Chukchi Sea Lease SaleArea.
















Appendix F-4. Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, J. Garlich-Miller, M. A. Nelson, and L. T. 

Quakenbush. 2012. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2011. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 16–20 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster). 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2011 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Willard Neakok2, Mark A. Nelson1, Joel Garlich-Miller3, and Lori 

Quakenbush1

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska; 

3

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Pacific walruses winter in the Bering Sea, but females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea 

resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. The rapid 

retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and may be changing 

summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul out on land instead of 

ice. The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to conduct 

observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, deploy satellite-linked 

tags to monitor movements and feeding behavior, and to document local knowledge regarding 

walrus land haulouts. During fall 2011, a large haulout (20–25,000 walruses) formed near the 

village of Point Lay where residents minimized disturbances to the haulout by directing boat 

traffic and other potential human disturbances. Large haulouts are susceptible to stampedes, 

which can cause calf mortalities. Local hunters also documented the number and condition of 

carcasses near the haulout and, in doing so, observed skin lesions on several dead walruses. 

Samples were collected from potentially infected walruses for analysis. During spring 2011, 

efforts to tag walruses near Wales and Point Hope were unsuccessful due to unfavorable sea ice 

and weather conditions. We met with elders and walrus hunters in Wainwright and Point Lay to 

document historical terrestrial haulouts and walrus behavior. Future plans include deploying 

tags with local hunters near Little Diomede and meeting with elders at Barrow and Point Hope. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 16–20 January 2012, Anchorage AK 
Results from village‐based walrus studies in Alaska, 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

This project is funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. We appreciate the support and assistan

Geological Survey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Research on walruses was conducted und

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) by USFWS and under an approved ADF&G Animal Care and Use Com

RESULTS

During September of 2011 a large hauformed near the village of Point Lay; ito the haulout by directing boat traffic 

Local hunters also documented the co

and 5 unknown) during a 25 mile coas

68%) of the carcasses were calves or y

walruses were judged to be emaciated

while the rest of the carcasses could n

decomposition. Many of the carcasse

bodies, bleeding from the nose and m

trampling. Heavy surf prior to our sur

the beach and removed many unexam

therefore no estimate of total mortaliCrews conducting carcass surveys also 

walruses (See poster 127, Garlich‐Mill

haulout, Point Lay, Alaska, Autumn 20

walruses were collected for analysis.

During spring 2011, efforts to deploy sWales and Point Hope were unsuccess

conditions. We met with elders and wdocument historical terrestrial haulou

INTRODUCTION

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) winter in the Bering Sea, but

females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea resting on sea ice;most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land.

Over the past decade, sea ice in the Chukchi Sea has receded north

beyond the shallow continental shelf in late summer. The rapid

retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi

Sea and may be changing summer distributions and haulout

behavior, requiring walruses to haul out on land instead of ice. Large

terrestrial haulouts of walruses have formed along the Arctic coast of

Alaska in 4 of the past 5 years and are expected to occur more often.

Terrestrial haulouts are susceptible to disturbances which can causestampedes resulting in mortality due to trampling for young

walruses. Although haulout locations are not consistently used eachyear, some may be accessible from coastal villages (Fig. 1A).

The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus

hunters to conduct observations at terrestrial haulouts accessiblefrom coastal communities, deploy satellite‐linked transmitters to

monitor movements and feeding behavior, and to document local

knowledge regarding walrus terrestrial haulouts. As summer sea ice

has decreased in the Chukchi Sea, oil and gas activity has increased,

elevating the importance of understanding walrus movements,

feeding behavior, and habitat requirements.

FUTURE ACTIVITIES

We will continue to prepare loca

We will visit Barrow and Point Ho

with walruses on terrestrial haulo

participating in Village‐Based Wadeploying transmitters with local 

METHODS

Local walrus hunters examine and document walrus carcasses (e.g.,

record length, age, sex, blubber thickness, and take photographs;

Fig. 2). They also monitor the status of haulouts, deploy satellite‐

linked transmitters and help document local knowledge regarding

terrestrial haulouts.

Figure 2. Willard Neakok (on left) and crew examining a dead walrus calf.

Figure 3. Terrestrial haulout north of Point Lay, as observed from

the barrier island, facing southwest, September 2011.

Figure 4. Sub‐adult walrus with skin lesions

Justin A. Crawford1, Willard Neakok2, Mark A. Nelson1, Joel Garlich‐Miller3, and Lori T. Quakenbu

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

2Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska

3U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska

Figure 1. (A) Locations

of Alaskan communities

along the Chukchi Sea

coast near walrussummer habitat and theChukchi Sea Lease Sale

Area and (B) the 2011

walrus haulout near

Point Lay.

B.

A.
Appendix F-5. Crawford, J. A., W. Neakok, M. A. Nelson, J. Garlich-Miller, and L. T. 

Quakenbush. 2013. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2012. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 21–25 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster). 

Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2012 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Willard Neakok2, Mark A. Nelson1, Joel Garlich-Miller3, and Lori 

Quakenbush1

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska; 

3

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Pacific walruses winter in the Bering Sea, but females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea 

resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. The rapid 

retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and may be changing 

summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul out on land instead of 

ice. The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to conduct 

observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, deploy satellite-linked 

tags to monitor movements and feeding behavior, and to document local knowledge regarding 

terrestrial walrus haulouts. Local knowledge collected in Point Lay and Wainwright described 

historical occurrences of terrestrial walrus haulouts and detailed the steps taken by communities 

to minimize disturbances. In February, we co-sponsored a workshop on coastal walrus haulouts 

and provided travel to Barrow for several elders and walrus hunters to discuss walrus haulout 

issues with each other and management agencies. In May, we worked with hunters to deploy 

satellite tags on walruses near Little Diomede Island, but were unsuccessful due to unfavorable 

sea ice and weather conditions. During August and September, local hunters were prepared to 

monitor the haulouts from blinds using spotting scopes and they assisted in the construction of 

camera towers to potentially monitor walrus behavior near the previous haulout site. Sea ice, 

however, persisted in the northern Chukchi Sea and walruses did not haul out in large numbers 

along the Alaskan coast as they had in recent years (20,000–25,000 walruses in September 

2011). Also in August, residents of Little Diomede Island began to monitor terrestrial haulouts 

and causes of disturbance in the area. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 21–25 January 2013, Anchorage AK 
Results from village‐based walrus studies in Alaska, 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

This project is funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. We appreciate the support and assistan

Geological Survey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Research on walruses was conducted und

Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) by USFWS and under an approved ADF&G Animal Care and Use Com

RESULTS

• We finalized a report documenting 

Wainwright that described historic

and detailed the steps taken by co

• In February, we co‐sponsored a wo

provided travel to Barrow for seve

haulout issues with each other and 

• In May, we worked with hunters to 

walruses near Little Diomede Islan

sea ice and weather conditions.

• In August and September, we supp

haulouts from blinds using spottin

also assisted in the construction of 

behavior near the previous haulou

northern Chukchi Sea and walruse

Alaskan coast as they had in recen

2011, Fig. 5).

• Also in August, we supported effor

monitor walrus activity and causes 

INTRODUCTION

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) winter in the Bering Sea, but

females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea resting on sea ice; most

adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. Over the

past decade, sea ice in the Chukchi Sea has receded north beyond the

shallow continental shelf in late summer. The rapid retreat of sea ice is

changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and may be changing

summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring walruses to haulout on land instead of ice. Large terrestrial haulouts of walruses haveformed along the Arctic coast of Alaska in four of the past six years and

are expected to occur more often. Terrestrial haulouts are susceptible to

disturbances which can cause stampedes resulting in mortality due to

trampling of young walruses. Haulout locations are not consistently used

each year and some may be accessible from coastal villages (Fig. 1).

The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to

conduct observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal

communities, deploy satellite‐linked transmitters to monitor movements

and feeding behavior, and to document local knowledge regarding walrus

terrestrial haulouts. As summer sea ice has decreased in the Chukchi

Sea, oil and gas activity has increased, elevating the importance of

understanding walrus movements, feeding behavior, and habitat

requirements.

FUTURE ACTIVITIES

We will continue to prepare local 

near coastal villages, including Po

will visit Barrow and Point Hope to walruses on terrestrial haulouts a

participating in Village‐Based Walevaluate the success of deploying 

coastal villages in Spring.

METHODS

Local walrus hunters monitor the status of terrestrial haulouts, help

document local knowledge regarding terrestrial haulouts, and work with

biologists to deploy satellite‐linked transmitters (Fig. 2). They alsoexamine and document walrus carcasses (e.g., record length, age, sex,

blubber thickness, and take photographs).

Figure 5. Terrestrial haulout north island, facing southwest, Septemb

Justin A. Crawford1, Willard Neakok2, Mark A. Nelson1, Joel Garlich‐Miller3, and Lori T. Quakenbu

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

2Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska

3U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska

Figure 1. Locations of Alaskan communities near walrus summer habitat

and the Chukchi Sea Lease Sale Area.

Figure 3. Walrus and seal haulout sites as documented during

traditional knowledge interviews in Point Lay and Wainwright.

Figure 2. Thomas Killigvuk (on right) and crew surveying area forwalruses to tag near Point Hope, June 2010.

Figure 4. Workshop on coastal walrus haulouts in Barrow,

February 2012.
Walrus Movements: 6 June - 16 October, 2013

Walruses - Females with calf (13) - Females without calf (14)

Males (3)

Leases 

� OCS Leased Blocks 

0 75 150 

175°E 180° 175°W 170°W 165°W 

Walruses were tagged in the Bering and 

Chukchi seas, 6-27 June 2013. The last known 

locations for walruses are labeled with an 'X'. 

For more information visit: 

http://www.adfg.a la ska .gov/i ndex.cfm? 

adfg=marinemammalprogram.walrustracking 

160°W 1ss·w 1so·w 

70°N 

65°N 

Appendix F-6. Project 

update to Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, 

December 2013.
Satellite-linked transmitters were deployed on walruses in the Bering and Chukchi seas in June 2013. The tags 

transmitted for an average of 55 days, ranging from 4 to 124 days (~4 months). During this time walruses traveled, 

on average, a minimum distance of 1,118 miles, ranging from 158–2,765 miles. At a minimum, these walruses 

traveled, about 21.7 miles per day.

Tags were deployed on 34 walruses (15 females without calves, 13 females with calves and 6 males).

This tagging project is part of the Village-based Walrus Studies funded by BOEM. This funding supported

Clarence Irrigoo from Gambell and Perry Pungowiyi from Savoonga to participate in all of the activities on the 

walrus research cruise including the tagging. They tagged some of the walruses using a crossbow and some with a 

pole. They assisted Patrick Lemons in collecting biopsies, and they advised the researchers and small boat drivers

about how to approach walruses safely and effectively.

The information from these tagged walruses will be used to understand how much time walruses spend in the 

Chukchi Sea Lease Sale area and when. It also provides general walrus movement and haulout patterns.

Report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission presented on 10 December 2013 by Lori Quakenbush (907-459-7214).
Appendix F-7. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, P. Pungowyii, W. Neakok, and J. 

Garlich-Miller. 2014. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2013. Alaska Marine 

Science Symposium, 20–23 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster). 

Results from hunter-assisted walrus studies in Alaska, 2013 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Lori Quakenbush1, Clarence Irrigoo2, Perry Pungowiyi3, Willard Neakok4, 

and Joel Garlich-Miller5

 

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska; 

3

 Walrus hunter and resident of Savoonga, Alaska; 

4

 Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska; 

5

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Pacific walruses winter in the Bering Sea, but females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea 

resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. The rapid 

retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and may be changing 

summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul out on land instead of 

ice. The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to conduct 

observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, deploy satellite-linked 

tags to monitor movements and feeding behavior, and to document local knowledge regarding 

terrestrial walrus haulouts. In preparation for a potential terrestrial haulout near Point Lay in 

2013, local hunters assisted in the placement of camera towers. A relatively small (1,500–4,000 

walruses) haulout formed near Point Lay in September, 2013 and was monitored. Carcass 

surveys were conducted, when possible, without disturbance to the haulout. Traditional and 

local knowledge interviews were conducted in Point Hope and two final reports are now 

available= for Wainwright and Point Lay, jointly, and Point Hope. In association with a multiagency walrus research cruise in June, walrus hunters from Saint Lawrence Island deployed 34 

satellite-linked transmitters in the Bering and Chukchi seas. Of the 34 tagged walruses, 28 were 

females, (13 of which were accompanied by calves of the year) and six were adult males. 

Preliminary data show the highest concentration of tagged walruses occurred in the Hanna Shoal 

area within Lease Sale 193 in the eastern Chukchi Sea during July and August, however areas 

north of Wrangel Island and along the northern Chukotka coast were also used. All tagged 

walruses left Hanna Shoal during the first week of September. None of the five tags still 

transmitting in September were located at the terrestrial haulout near Point Lay, although one 

female hauled out on the Chukotka coast near Vankarem. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 20–24 January 2014, Anchorage AK 
Results from hunter‐assisted walrus studies in Alaska

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

This project is funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. We appreciate the sup

U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Research on walrus

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) by USFWS and under an approved ADF&G A

thank the captain and crew of the R/V Norseman II for their skill in accommodating our ch

RESULTS

• We have finalized reports doc

Wainwright, Point Lay, and Poterrestrial walrus haulouts and 

disturbances (Fig. 2).

• In association with a multi‐age

cruise in June, we worked with 

transmitters on walruses (28 

• Tags transmitted an averag• Walruses traveled an avera

(range: 254–4,457 km; Fig. 

• 18 walruses entered the Ch

average of 933 km and spe

• None of the tagged walrus

• 3 walruses used terrestrial 

• In September and October, we 

haulouts from blinds using spalso assisted in the placement 

behavior near the previous ha

INTRODUCTION

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) winter in the Bering Sea, but females with

young summer in the Chukchi Sea resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the

Bering Sea where they rest on land. Over the past decade, sea ice in the Chukchi

Sea has receded north beyond the shallow continental shelf in late summer. The

rapid retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and

may be changing summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring walruses to

haul out on land instead of ice. Large terrestrial haulouts of walruses have formed

along the Arctic coast of Alaska in 5 of the past 7 years and are expected to occur

more often. Terrestrial haulouts are susceptible to disturbances which can cause

stampedes resulting in mortality due to trampling of young walruses. Haulout

locations are not consistently used each year and some may be accessible from

coastal villages.The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to conduct

observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, deploy

satellite‐linked transmitters to monitor movements and habitat use, and to

document local knowledge regarding walrus movements and terrestrial haulouts.

As summer sea ice has decreased in the Chukchi Sea, oil and gas activity has

increased, elevating the importance of understanding walrus movements and

habitat use.

FUTURE ACTIVITIES

We will continue to prepare lo

coastal villages, including Poin

Barrow to document hunters’ haulouts and identify hunters Walrus Studies. Further, we p

villages in Spring to deploy m

METHODS

Local walrus hunters monitor the status of terrestrial haulouts, help document

local knowledge regarding walrus movements and terrestrial haulouts, prevent

disturbances at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, and

work with biologists to deploy satellite‐linked transmitters (Fig. 1). They also

examine and document walrus carcasses (e.g., record length, age, sex, blubber

thickness, and take photographs).

Justin A. Crawford1, Lori T. Quakenbush1, Clarence Irrigoo2, Perry Pungowiyi3, Willard Neakok4, and Joel Ga

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

2Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska, 3Walrus hunter and resident of Savoonga, Alaska

4Eskimo Walrus Commission and resident of Point Lay, Alaska, 5U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska

Figure 3. Movements of satellite‐tagged walruses, females with and without calves and males, from June–October, 2013.

Figure 2. Walrus and seal haulout sites as documented during

traditional knowledge interviews in Point Hope.

Figure 1. Clarence Irrigoo (left) and Perry Pungowiyi (right) tagging

walruses, June 2013.

JUNE JULY AUGUST 
2013

2014

Appendix F-8. Project update to Eskimo Walrus Commission, December 2014.
Satellite-linked transmitters were deployed on walruses in the Bering and Chukchi 

seas in June 2013 and 2014. 

In 2013, tags were deployed on 34 walruses (15 females without calves, 13 females 

with calves and 6 males). The tags transmitted for an average of 55 days, ranging 

from 4 to 124 days (~4 months). During this time walruses traveled, on average, a 

minimum distance of 1,118 miles, ranging from 158–2,765 miles. At a minimum, 

these walruses traveled about 21.7 miles per day.

In 2014, tags were deployed on 33 walruses (19 females without calves, 12 females 

with calves and 2 males). The tags transmitted for an average of 50 days, ranging 

from 7 to 105 days (~3.5 months). During this time walruses traveled, on average, 

a minimum distance of 1,100 miles, ranging from 108–2,568 miles. As in 2013, at 

a minimum, these walruses traveled about 21.7 miles per day.

This tagging project is part of the Village-based Walrus Study funded by BOEM. 

This funding supported Clarence Irrigoo (2013 and 2014) from Gambell and Perry 

Pungowiyi (2013) and Edwin Noongwook (2014) from Savoonga to participate in 

all of the activities on the walrus research cruise including the tagging. They 

tagged some of the walruses using a crossbow and some with a pole. They assisted 

Patrick Lemons (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) in collecting biopsies, and they 

advised the researchers and small boat drivers about how to approach walruses 

safely and effectively.

The information from these tagged walruses will be used to determine how much 

time walruses spend in the Chukchi Sea Lease Sale area and when. It also 

provides general walrus movement and haulout patterns.

Report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission presented December 2014 by Lori 

Quakenbush (907-459-7214).
Appendix F-9. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, C. Irrigoo, P. Pungowyii, E. Noongwook, and 

J. Garlich-Miller. 2015. Results from village-based walrus studies in Alaska, 2014. Alaska

Marine Science Symposium, 19–22 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster).

Results from hunter-assisted walrus studies in Alaska, 2014 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Lori Quakenbush1, Clarence Irrigoo2, Edwin Noongwook3, and Joel 

Garlich-Miller4

 

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska; 

3

 Walrus hunter and resident of Savoonga, Alaska;

4

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Pacific walruses winter in the Bering Sea, but females with young summer in the Chukchi Sea 

resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. The rapid 

retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and may be changing 

summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring that walruses haul out on land instead of 

ice. In September 2014, the minimum extent of Arctic sea ice was the sixth lowest since satellite 

records began in 1979. The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to 

conduct observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, train hunters to 

deploy satellite-linked tags to monitor movements and feeding behavior, and document local 

knowledge regarding walrus movements, behavior, and use of terrestrial haulouts. In preparation 

for a potential terrestrial haulout near Point Lay in 2014, local hunters assisted in the placement 

of camera towers. A large (35,000 walruses) haulout formed near Point Lay in September 2014 

and was monitored. Carcass surveys were conducted, when possible, without disturbance to the 

haulout. Two traditional and local knowledge reports for Wainwright and Point Lay, jointly, and 

Point Hope are now final and available. We worked with walrus hunters from Saint Lawrence 

Island to deploy 33 satellite-linked tags on walruses in the Chukchi Sea during a multi-agency 

walrus research cruise in June. Of the 33 tagged walruses, 31 were females, (12 of which were 

accompanied by calves of the year) and 2 were adult males. Preliminary data show the highest 

concentration of tagged walruses during July and August occurred in the Hanna Shoal area in the 

eastern Chukchi Sea, however areas north of Wrangel Island and along the Beaufort Sea coast of 

Alaska, and the northern coast of Chukotka were also used. Tagged walruses left Hanna Shoal 

from the last week of August through the third week of September. All four tags still 

transmitting in September were located at terrestrial haulouts near Point Lay, Cape Lisburne, or 

the Chukotka coast near Vankarem, Cape Schmidt or Cape Serdtse-Kamen for at least one day. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 19–22 January 2015, Anchorage AK 
Results from hunter‐assisted walrus studies in Alaska

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

This project is funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. We appreciate the sup

U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Research on walrus

Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) by USFWS and under an approved ADF&G A

the captain and crew of the R/V Norseman II for their skill in accommodating our challengi

RESULTS

• We have finalized reports doc

Wainwright, Point Lay, and Poterrestrial walrus haulouts and 

disturbances (Fig. 2).

• In association with a multi‐age

cruise in June, we worked with 

transmitters on adult walruse

• Tags transmitted an averag• Walruses traveled an avera

(range: 175–4,132 km; Fig. 

• 18 walruses entered the Ha

average of 873 km and spewalrus entered the area on 

• None of the tagged walrus

• 4 walruses used terrestrial 

• In September and October, Po

blinds using spotting scopes ain the placement of camera to

the previous haulout site.

INTRODUCTION

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) winter in the Bering Sea, but females with

young summer in the Chukchi Sea resting on sea ice; most adult males remain in the

Bering Sea where they rest on land. Over the past decade, sea ice in the Chukchi

Sea has receded north beyond the shallow continental shelf in late summer. The

rapid retreat of sea ice is changing summer walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and

may be changing summer distributions and haulout behavior, requiring walruses to

haul out on land instead of ice. Large terrestrial haulouts of walruses have formed

along the Arctic coast of Alaska in six of the last eight years and are expected to

occur more often. Terrestrial haulouts are susceptible to disturbances which can

cause stampedes resulting in mortality due to trampling of young walruses. Haulout

locations are not consistently used each year and some may be accessible from

coastal villages.The purpose of this project is to work with subsistence walrus hunters to conduct

observations at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, deploy

satellite‐linked transmitters to monitor walrus movements and habitat use, and to

document local knowledge regarding walrus movements and terrestrial haulouts.

As summer sea ice has decreased in the Chukchi Sea, oil and gas activity has

increased, elevating the importance of understanding walrus movements and

habitat use.

FUTURE ACTIVITIES

We will continue to prepare lo

coastal villages, including Poin

traditional knowledge of walrparticipating in Village‐Based 

local hunters near coastal villa

METHODS

Local walrus hunters monitor the status of terrestrial haulouts, help document

local knowledge regarding walrus movements and terrestrial haulouts, prevent

disturbances at terrestrial haulouts accessible from coastal communities, and

work with biologists to deploy satellite‐linked transmitters on adult walruses

(Fig. 1). They also examine and document walrus carcasses (e.g., record length,

age, sex, blubber thickness, and take photographs).

Justin A. Crawford1, Lori T. Quakenbush1, Clarence Irrigoo2, Edwin Noongwook3, and Joel Garlich‐M

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

2Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska, 3Walrus hunter and resident of Savoonga, Alaska

4U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska

Figure 3. Movements of satellite‐tagged walruses, females with and without calves and males, from June–October, 2014.

Figure 2. Warren Harding‐Lampe and Isaac Leavitt conducting

carcass surveys of walruses near Point Lay, October 2014.

Figure 1. Clarence Irrigoo (left) and Edwin Noongwook (right)tagging walruses, June 2014.

JUNE JULY AUGUST SEP

& O
Satellite-linked transmitters 

were deployed on walruses in 

the Bering and Chukchi seas 

in June 2013, 2014, and 2015. 

Appendix F-10. Project update to Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, December 2015.
Report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission

7 December 2015 presented by Lori Quakenbush (907-459-7214).

This tagging project is part of the Village-based Walrus Studies funded by BOEM. Funding supported Clarence Irrigoo 

(2013–2015) from Gambell, Perry Pungowiyi (2013), and Edwin Noongwook (2014) from Savoonga to participate in all 

of the activities on the walrus research cruises including tagging. They tagged some of the walruses using a crossbow 

and some with a harpoon-style pole. They assisted Patrick Lemons, USFWS, in collecting biopsies for population 

assessment, and they advised the researchers and small boat drivers about how to approach walruses safely and 

effectively.

In total, for all three years, 83 tags were deployed on walruses (43 females without calves, 34 females with calves, and 6 

males). 

In 2013, 30 tags were deployed (14 females without calves, 13 females with calves, and 3 males). The tags transmitted 

for an average of 55 days (maximum 124 days, ~4 months). Walruses traveled an average minimum distance of 1,120

miles, ranging from 160 to 2,760 miles, at a rate of 22 miles/day (range: 9–41 miles/day). 

In 2014, 33 tags were deployed on walruses (19 females without calves, 12 females with calves, and 2 males). The tags 

transmitted for an average of 50 days (maximum 105 days, ~3.5 months). Similar to 2013, tagged walruses traveled, on 

average, a minimum distance of 1,100 miles, ranging from 110–2,600 miles, at a rate of about 21.7 miles per day.

In 2015, 20 tags were deployed (10 on females without calves, 9 on females with calves, and 1 male). The tags 

transmitted for an average of 56 days (maximum 123 days, ~4 months). 

The information from these tagged walruses will be used to: 

• provide general walrus movement and haul out patterns,

• compare behavior of females with calves to females without calves to see, for example, if females with calves

spend more time resting than diving,

• understand how much time walruses spend in the Chukchi Sea Lease blocks and if the avoid drilling activity.
Appendix F-11. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 

2015. Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. 21th Biennial Conference on the 

Biology of Marine Mammals. 14–18 December, 2015. San Francisco, CA, USA. (Abstract and 

oral presentation). 

Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Lori T. Quakenbush1, John J. Citta1, Clarence Irrigoo Jr.2, and Patrick R. 

Lemons3 

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska; 

3

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503; 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Female Pacific walruses and their young summer in the Chukchi Sea, resting on sea ice between 

benthic feeding bouts, when sea ice is available. The rapid decrease of sea ice in summer is 

changing walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and consequently the Pacific walrus is being 

considered for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Knowing the location and use of 

foraging areas is important as industrial and shipping activities increase. Satellite-linked dive 

recorders were placed on >50 adult female walruses (with and without calves) and tracked for up 

to 124 days. We identified Hanna Shoal, a known foraging area for walruses, and Icy Cape as 

two areas within the Alaskan Chukchi Sea with a higher than average density of dives. To 

evaluate the relative importance of these areas for foraging, we compared diving and haul out 

behavior within these two areas with that found in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. Adult 

females (with and without calves) dove longer (6.2 vs. 4.5 min), made fewer dives (6.6 vs. 8.1 

dives/hour), and hauled out for a larger proportion of time (22.1 vs. 17.0 min/hr) at Hanna Shoal 

than the other two areas (P < 0.01). Icy cape and the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea did not 

differ statistically. Walruses in better quality habitat, with higher densities of prey, are expected 

to make fewer dives of longer duration and spend more time resting. As such, diving and haul 

out behavior indicated higher quality habitat near Hanna Shoal than Icy Cape and the rest of the 

Alaskan Chukchi Sea, which were similar to each other. Therefore, Icy Cape may not be higher 

quality foraging habitat than the Alaskan Chukchi Sea in general. 

Society for Marine Mammalogy, 13–18 December 2015, San Francisco, CA 
Appendix F-12. Crawford, J. A., L. T. Quakenbush, J. J. Citta, C. Irrigoo Jr. and P. R. Lemons. 

2016. Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 

25–29 January, Anchorage, AK. (Abstract and poster). 

Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify the relative importance of 

foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan Chukchi Sea 

Justin A. Crawford1*, Lori T. Quakenbush1, John J. Citta1, Clarence Irrigoo Jr.2, and Patrick R. 

Lemons3 

1

 Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701; 

2

 Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska;

3

 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska 99503; 

* Correspondence: Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

Female Pacific walruses and their young summer in the Chukchi Sea, resting on sea ice between 

benthic feeding bouts, when sea ice is available. The rapid decrease of sea ice in summer is 

changing walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and consequently the Pacific walrus is being 

considered for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Knowing the location and use of 

foraging areas is important as industrial and shipping activities increase. We worked with walrus 

hunters from Saint Lawrence Island to deploy 88 satellite-linked dive recorders on walruses in 

the Chukchi Sea during three multi-agency walrus research cruises in June of 2013–2015. Of the 

88 tagged walruses, 79 were females (34 of which were accompanied by calves of the year and 

45 were not) and 9 were adult males. Walruses were tracked for up to 124 days. Using data 

from 2013 and 2014, we identified Hanna Shoal, a known foraging area for walruses, and Icy 

Cape as two areas within the Alaskan Chukchi Sea with a higher than average density of dives. 

To evaluate the relative importance of these areas for foraging, we compared diving and haul out 

behavior within these two areas with that found in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea. Adult 

females (with and without calves) dove longer (6.2 vs. 4.5 min), made fewer dives (6.6 vs. 8.1 

dives/hour), and hauled out for a larger proportion of time (22.1 vs. 17.0 min/hr) at Hanna Shoal 

than the other two areas (P < 0.01). Icy cape and the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea did not 

differ statistically. Walruses in better quality habitat, with higher densities of prey, are expected 

to make fewer dives, dives of longer duration and spend more time resting. As such, diving and 

haul out behavior indicated higher quality habitat near Hanna Shoal than Icy Cape and the rest of 

the Alaskan Chukchi Sea, which were similar to each other. Therefore, Icy Cape may not be 

higher quality foraging habitat than the Alaskan Chukchi Sea in general. Here we update our 

2013 and 2014 results to include data from 2015. 

Alaska Marine Science Symposium, 25–29 January 2016, Anchorage AK 
Using movement, diving and haul out behavior to identify 

importance of foraging areas for walruses in the Alaskan C

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was primarily funded by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management with additional suppor

with the Endangered Species Act and marine mammals. We appreciate the support and assistance of t

Wildlife Service (USFWS), and the U.S. Geological Survey. Research on walruses was conducted under p

MA039386‐2 issued by USFWS and under ADF&G Animal Care and Use Permit #s: 2013‐20, 2014‐03, 20

R/V Norseman II and R/V Professor Multanovskiy for their skill in accommodating our challenging walru

RESULTS

• We deployed 80 satellite‐linked transmitters on adult walruses.

• 60 transmitters sent dive and/or haul out data (27 females with calves & 33 

• Tags transmitted an average of 53 days (range: 7–134 days).

• We identified Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape as two areas within the Alaskan Chukc

• Adult females (with & without calves) dove longer and made fewer dives at Ha

• Adult females (with & without calves) hauled out for a larger proportion of tim

• Adult females with calves hauled out longer than females without calves at Ha

INTRODUCTION

Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) winter in the Bering Sea. In spring, females move north with the

receding sea ice and summer in the Chukchi Sea, resting on sea ice between benthic feeding bouts; most adult

males remain in the Bering Sea where they rest on land. Over the past decade, sea ice in the Chukchi Sea has

receded north beyond the shallow continental shelf in late summer. The rapid retreat of sea ice in summer is

changing walrus habitat in the Chukchi Sea and, consequently, the Pacific walrus is being considered for listing

under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Knowing the location and use of foraging areas relative to industrial

activities and shipping traffic in the Chukchi Sea is important.

Justin A. Crawford1, Lori T. Quakenbush1, John J. Citta1, Clarence Irrigoo2, and Patrick R. Lemon

1Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Fairbanks, Alaska, Justin.Crawford@alaska.gov

2Walrus hunter and resident of Gambell, Alaska, 3U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska

Figure 3. Spatial representation, final model from model selection, and results from final m

by time are not shown but results reported do account for differences by time (time period 

Figure 1. Clarence Irrigoo tagging

walruses, June 2013.

SUMMARY

• Foraging habitat near Icy Cape appears to be of

lower quality than near Hanna Shoal.

• Activities associated with supporting a calf may

obligate females with calves to haul out longer

than females without calves.

Fewer dives of

longer duration

More dives of

shorter duration

DIVE RATES DIVE DURATIONS 

DIVE RATE ~ AREA × CALF DIVE DURATION ~ AREA + TIME PE

HANNA SHOAL

ICY CAPE

Figure 2. Kernel density estimates of dive locations

used to predict potentially important foraging areas.We identified two areas as potentially important,

Hanna Shoal and Icy Cape, and compared them to therest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea (“Other”).

BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS: In higher quality habitats, we expect walruses to:

Density of dive locations Dive durationDive rate Hauled out (resting time)

METHODS

• In association with a multi‐agency (ADF&G, USFWS, and USGS) walrus research cruise in May and June

of 2013–2015 we worked with hunters to deploy satellite‐linked transmitters on adult female

walruses in the Chukchi Sea (Fig. 1).

• We used a state‐space model to predict locations to match the date and time of dive and haulout data.

• We identified potentially important foraging areas based on kernel density estimates of dive

locations; high densities of dive locations suggest a higher quality foraging area (Fig. 2).

• To evaluate the relative importance of areas identified for foraging, we compared diving and haul out

behavior within areas identified with that found in the rest of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea (“Other”).

• We used a repeated‐measures mixed model to test for differences in:

• Dive rate

• Dive duration

• % of an hour hauled out

• Variables of interest included:

• Area of use: determined by kernel density estimates

• Calf: was the female with or without a calf of the year

• Time of day

• Models were fit using SAS software (PROCs MIXED and GLIMMIX) and the best model was

selected using AICc.

ALASKA

HANNA SHOAL

ICY CAPE

Study period prior to

coastal haulout

during all years.

Study period prior to

coastal haulout

during all years.
Appendix G. Traditional Knowledge reports listed chronologically. 
Traditional Knowledge Regarding Walrus 

near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska 

Appendix G-1. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2012. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska. Report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 11 pp. 
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Walrus 

near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska 

By: 

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska 

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson & Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska 

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report 

Approved December 2012 

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2012. Traditional knowledge 

regarding walrus near Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M09PC00027. 11pp. 
3 

Introduction 

Walrus are an important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat hunters in northern Alaska. 

They are also an iconic Arctic animal, and at risk from climate change. Increasing industrial 

activity in the Chukchi Sea is an additional potential stressor to walrus. The study of walrus 

distribution, behavior, and movements is an important contribution to monitoring the effects of 

a changing environment and the potential effects from industrial activity. Placing satellite 

transmitters on walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some behaviors 

of individual animals. Documenting traditional knowledge about walrus, through interviews 

with residents of coastal communities, provides complementary contemporaneous and historical 

information about general patterns in walrus distribution, movement, and behavior. 

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other knowledgeable residents in Point Lay and Wainwright, Alaska, in March 2011. This traditional 

knowledge project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et 

al. 2007). 

Methods 

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding 

in directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the associations s/he makes between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. In Point Lay, the interviews were conducted individually. In Wainwright, one group interview was conducted. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were: 

Walrus distribution and abundance near communities 

Distribution and sightings of walrus throughout the year 

Walrus haul-out patterns on land 

Sensitivity of walrus to various types of disturbance 

Haul-out patterns of other pinnipeds 

Changes over time for all of the topics 

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected 

and the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori 

Quakenbush is the project leader. 
4 

Point Lay 

In Point Lay, we interviewed five people individually: Leo P. Ferreira III, Willard Neakok, 

James Tazruk, and Bill Tracey Sr., and one person who chose to remain anonymous. The interviews were conducted on 15 and 16 March 2011, at various locations in Point Lay. 

Figure 1. Seal and walrus haulout sites as recorded during traditional knowledge interviews in 

Point Lay. 

Walrus 

Walrus are seen in the Point Lay area primarily in spring and fall. In May and early June, they 

are seen on sea ice, particularly during break-up when hunters are out hunting for bearded seals 

(ugruk) and walrus from boats. The walrus generally travel north with the ice, in groups of a 

few animals to a few dozen. Occasionally, walrus are seen feeding in the passes to Kasegaluk 

Lagoon, in the open water there at the start of break-up. A few stragglers are occasionally seen 

swimming north after the ice has gone. Lone walrus are not often seen, and may be sick or 

tired. One hunter reported seeing a walrus in an open lead one March near Wainwright, on a 

day when he also saw a huge bowhead whale in the lead. There was a large breathing hole nearby and it was speculated that the walrus spent part of the winter using this breathing hole. This 

was a one-time occurrence. 
5 

In late August and September, walrus are seen hauled out on land. Typically, a few walrus are 

seen at various locations along the barrier islands that form Kasegaluk Lagoon. They may also 

be seen farther south, at Cape Sabine and Cape Beaufort. Larger numbers are sometimes seen 

east of Icy Cape, at the entrances to Avvaq Bay, and between Utuqqaq Pass and Icy Cape. Elders who are no longer alive reported seeing large numbers of walrus hauled out between Point 

Lay and Wainwright in the 1950s, too. A few walrus may be seen in Kasegaluk Lagoon, but 

this is not common, and those walrus may not be healthy. 

In 2009 and 2010, however, much larger numbers of walrus hauled out on shore. In 2009, the 

main haul-out was near Icy Cape. In 2010, some 20,000 walrus hauled out on the barrier islands a mile or two north of Point Lay, and walrus were seen in the water all the way to Icy 

Cape. Although not the first time large haul-outs had been seen, this was the first time one had 

occurred so close to the community. Most of the walrus hauled out appeared to be juveniles and 

females. Few large bulls were seen. Large haulouts like this had been seen only occasionally 

previous to 2009, typically north of Point Lay near Icy Cape. 

Walrus on land are sensitive to smells, noises, and movements of other animals. Persons approaching from upwind who are wearing cologne, have been smoking, or have been drinking 

strong coffee will cause the walrus to take notice and, if the approach is close enough, to flee. 

Outboard motors and gunshots also cause walrus to flee. Boaters have to be especially careful 

in the vicinity of haul-outs, since many walrus are in the water and may attack a boat if provoked. Walrus may react more to persons whispering than to those talking in conversational 

tones, perhaps because they distinguish stalking and hunting behavior from non-threatening curiosity. The sight of a person approaching on foot, or the sight of a polar bear or brown bear, 

will also cause walrus to flee. Hunters approaching carefully, however, can get within a few 

yards without causing the walrus to react. 

In 2010, the walrus hauled out near Point Lay could be heard from the village, especially in the 

morning and evening. The walrus were constantly going to and from the haul-out, but may 

have been even more active in morning and evening. Community residents avoided the haulout, adjusted boating routes and behavior to avoid disturbing the walrus, and requested airplanes 

to stay at least 1500 feet above the haul-out. Planes landing at the Point Lay runway approached and took off from the inland end of the runway rather than over the lagoon and the 

haul-out. The community also regulated the presence of visitors, turning down most media requests to visit the haul-out. 

As a result, relatively few walrus were killed on the haul-out site. In previous years, a few walrus carcasses could usually be found between Cape Sabine and Icy Cape. In 2009 and to a lesser extent in 2010, more walrus carcasses have been found at the sites of the large haul-outs, 

most likely from stampedes caused by disturbance of one kind or another. The higher mortality 

in 2009 was likely due to greater disturbance, as there were more reports of brown bears and 

polar bears in the area that year. Most of these carcasses are younger walrus. Polar bears, wolverines, and gulls scavenge the carcasses. 

Apart from the recent changes in haul-out locations and the number of animals hauling out, 

Point Lay residents have seen few if any changes in walrus abundance, distribution, and behavior. 
6 

Very rarely, walrus have three or four tusks. One hunter reported seeing an albino walrus, with 

white skin and red eyes. 

Some walrus are seen with dark skin, the color of bearded seals. These are sometimes called the 

“kings of the walrus.” Large bulls may overwinter in the Chukchi Sea, too, maintaining breathing holes in the ice. 

Walrus are not seen during the time when the barges are delivering supplies to Point Lay. 

Whether the walrus have not yet returned from farther north and offshore, or whether the barges 

keep the walrus away, is not clear. The barge traffic is concentrated in a week or two in late 

summer. 

Walrus body condition appears to be good, with no change over time. 

Seals

Bearded seals and spotted seals are often seen hauled out on the barrier islands, particularly next 

to the passes into Kasegaluk Lagoon. Spotted seals are especially common on small islands on 

the north side of Utuqqaq Pass and also at the entrance to Avvaq Bay. A few dozen animals are 

seen at the former location, and several hundred may be seen at the latter. Bearded seals are 

seen at the entrances to other passes, and sometimes both bearded and spotted seals are seen 

hauled out together. On one occasion, a large number of bearded seals were seen hauled out on 

the mainland at Siniruruk Point just south of Point Lay, inside the Lagoon. More seals haul out 

north of Point Lay than to the south, perhaps because of more abundant fish. 

Ringed seals are rarely seen hauled out on land. When hunters have seen them, the ringed seals 

are alone, and hunters suspect they may be ill or exhausted. Unlike bearded and spotted seals, 

ringed seals on land do not flee the approach of hunters. 

Seals feed at the passes throughout the summer, and young bearded seals may be found up rivers chasing fish. 

On haulouts, seals are sensitive to noise, such as outboard engines or gunshots. 

Since the walrus have been hauling out near Point Lay, fewer seals have been seen because 

seals avoid walrus. 

In late spring, ringed and bearded seals can be seen on the ice, basking in the sun, as far as the 

eye can see. 

Other Information 

There is a north-running current about 10–15 miles offshore from Point Lay. In this area, seals 

and birds are often found, feeding on the plankton and fishes carried by the current. 

In 2010, some 200 porpoises (harbor porpoises, Phocoena phocoena) were seen swimming 

along the barrier islands near the walrus haul-out. There appeared to be no interaction between 

the walrus and the porpoises. Beluga whales, on the other hand, behave differently when there 

are walrus around, appearing more nervous and harder to herd and hunt. 
7 

Wainwright 

In Wainwright, we held one group interview with 13 people: Enoch Oktollik, Andrew Ekak, 

Leslie Segevan, Artie Kittick, Jack Oktollik, Edwin Tazruk, Edward Kagak, and six interviewees who chose to remain anonymous. These men ranged in age from about 30 to 70+, providing a wide range of experience over time. The group interview format also allowed a great deal 

of interaction among the participants, including sharing of information across generations. 

Figure 2. . Seal and walrus haulout sites as recorded during traditional knowledge interviews in 

Wainwright. 

Walrus

Walrus are seen in the Wainwright area primarily in spring and fall. In May, June, and July, 

they are seen on the ice moving northwards, though they are now rarely seen in July because the 

ice has started breaking up earlier. In the 1940s, 1950s, and into 1960s, walrus were brought 

near land by south winds in spring on ice floes right in front of the village; 1964 was the last 

time this happened. The ice floes would appear brown like land due to the number of walrus on 

them, and hunters would select smaller herds to hunt. Today, fewer walrus are seen hauled out 

on top of the ice. Hunters go far offshore in search of walrus after the ice breaks up. Formerly, 

the ice would leave shore but return at various times, each time bringing more seals and walrus 

back with it. Now, the ice leaves shore in June rather than July and does not return, making for 

a short 
8 

hunting season for ice-associated seals and walrus. Hunters have had to pursue walrus in the 

water rather than on the ice. In about 2008, no walrus were seen at all, having migrated past the 

Wainwright area before the shorefast ice broke up and boating was possible. Last year, hunters 

went 40 miles offshore but did not see walrus. 

In fall, a few walrus are seen hauled out on the beach in both directions from Wainwright, usually alone or in groups or two or three. Larger groups are occasionally seen hauled out on 

shore. In the late 1940s, a group of skinny, apparently ill walrus were seen on the Seahorse Islands in Peard Bay; these islands were a common haulout area during that time. About 40 years 

ago, ~3,000 walrus were seen hauled out at Cape Sabine. This was regarded as unusual. Near 

Point Franklin, 10 or so walrus hauled out in fall is a regular occurrence. In the late 1990s, 

some walrus occasionally hauled out at the western end of Peard Bay. More recently, hunters 

saw a lone, old, sick walrus there. In 2009, many walrus hauled out at Icy Cape, but this too 

was unusual, a response to lack of ice. A walrus was once seen in the Kuk River lagoon behind 

Wainwright. In fall, walrus are much more alert and wary than in spring, fleeing the hunters’ 

approach rather than just staying on the ice, making them harder to hunt. 

Walrus are seen in winter, though rarely. They maintain breathing holes like seals do. These 

walrus appear to be seal-eating walrus, living off of the seals that are also present all winter. 

Walrus in the water are dangerous to boaters, especially juvenile walrus. Larger herds are also 

more dangerous to people. Walrus are especially protective of their pups, so hunters are instructed by their elders to avoid hunting groups of females that might have pups with them. 

Hunters are also told not to hunt additional walrus after they have caught some already and are 

butchering those, or the other walrus may become aggressive and attack. When today’s elders 

were young, two of them shot at walrus while the older men were butchering walrus already. 

The other walrus surrounded the floe, putting their tusks up on the ice, threatening to start chipping the floe away. The older hunters admonished the younger men, and then spoke to the walrus in Iñupiaq, and the walrus went away. Wounded walrus may also attack hunters. 

A “dog” walrus is sometimes seen. This is a white walrus, with red eyes and a very long tail. It 

commands the other walrus, using its tail like a whip to control the others. It can give the signal 

to attack, so hunters are wary of the dog walrus. 

Walrus on land are sensitive to disturbance, so the community tries to avoid large haulouts. If a 

person approaches a large group on land, the walrus may stampede, possibly crushing younger 

animals. Wainwright residents admired Point Lay’s approach to managing access to the haulout 

there in the fall of 2010. 

In the 1940s and 1950s, when walrus would come close to the beach on the ice, the older hunters would tell everyone to keep quiet in the village, so as not to disturb the walrus. The older 

hunters emphasized respect for the animals, taking only what you would eat and not more. They 

were very strict in their teaching and their own behavior. Today’s hunters have a responsibility 

to pass those lessons and values on to the younger generations, to teach them how to care for 

the animals that have sustained the Iñupiat for thousands of years and which the elders and 

hunters hope will sustain people here for thousands more years. 
9 

Walrus today are in good physical shape, healthy and good to eat. Walrus that are hauled out 

alone or in small groups may be sick or tired, perhaps from having to swim so far from their 

feeding areas. This is especially hard for young walrus, whereas older adults can survive longer 

swims and longer periods without food. Mother walrus will sometimes carry their pups on their 

backs while swimming. 

In the early 1960s, hunters returning from taking walrus on the ice near Point Franklin encountered a long line of walrus feeding underwater on the seafloor. The hunters, knowing the walrus were dangerous, had to detour far offshore to get around the feeding walrus. 

Walrus usually have clams in their stomachs, but octopus and strips of ringed seal have been 

found, too. Walrus can rest in the water as well as on ice and on land. They inflate their throats 

with air, which keeps them floating with their nostrils above water, and they can sleep in the 

water. 

Hunting patterns have changed over the years, largely in response to larger boats and more 

powerful outboard motors. Hunters used to work together with several boats, but now it is 

common for boats to travel alone when hunting walrus in the ice. 

Seals

Seals haul out on land. They haul out all along the beach in both directions from Wainwright, 

sometimes going up on the bluff. Spotted and bearded seals have been seen hauled out near Icy 

Cape since at least the 1930s. In the summer of 2010, many young ringed seals were hauled out 

on the beach. Some died, some were just very tired. Perhaps this was due to the lack of ice. 

The cause of death was unclear, and seagull predation prevented the collection of fresh carcasses for further examination. 

 Bearded seals swim up rivers. 

Ringed and bearded seals have thinner blubber now than they used to. The blubber is also a 

different color, more yellow than it used to be. The taste of the meat has also changed, and this 

is true of many subsistence species, including marine mammals and waterfowl. 

Other Information 

Hunters are concerned about the possible impacts of offshore activity, including ship traffic and 

oil drilling. The activity may displace walrus and other animals, moving them farther from 

their feeding grounds. If the walrus are pushed away from shore, they will be even harder to 

hunt. If they are pushed closer to shore, they will have to swim a long way to feed. Changing 

sea ice is not the only thing affecting walrus. 

If animals are harder to hunt, people’s diets may change, too. Although there are concerns 

about contaminants in subsistence foods, hunters also like the taste of their traditional foods and 

know that those foods are nutritious, too. There were many concerns about the potential for 

radiation from the nuclear power plant disaster in Japan to reach Alaska and the animals people 

eat. 
10 

In the summer of 2010, there was a red tide algae bloom between Barrow and Wainwright. 

This was the first, or one of the first, times such an event was seen here. The hunters are concerned that the algae could affect mollusks, shrimp and krill, and the entire foodweb. 

There was also concern about the potential impacts of polar bears and other species being listed 

as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Hunters were concerned about 

the potential for regulation of subsistence hunting for marine mammals, and also about the effects of critical habitat designations on the community. 

The ice is thinner in recent years than it used to be. Formerly, large floes of multi-year ice 

would arrive in fall and serve as “anchors” to the newly forming ice, creating a solid shorefast 

ice zone and allowing the ice to grow thick. Now, the thinner ice can be carried away whenever 

the water rises. 

Killer whales will respond to calls for help from hunters. If walrus are threatening hunters, killer whales will come and scare the walrus away, allowing the hunters to return home safely. 

Animals understand when they are spoken to in Iñupiaq. 

Hunters are concerned about the state of their ice cellars, which are being affected by climate 

change. The City of Wainwright is considering purchasing some large freezers for community 

use, but these may not have the right temperature and variation in temperature to allow the 

foods to age properly to produce the delicacies that people greatly enjoy. 

Acknowledgements 

We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission for this project and 

are grateful to commissioners Willard Neakok, for identifying participants and 

helping to set up interviews in Pt. Lay, and Enoch Oktollik for similar assistance 

in Wainwright. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the 

work as part of BOEM AK-09-01 and we appreciate the support of Charles Monnett and Catherine Coon. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the interviews and the figures in this report. 
11 

References 

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Walrus 

near Point Hope, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

and

Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7214 

November 2013 

Appendix G-2. Huntington, H. P., and L. T. Quakenbush. 2013. Traditional knowledge regarding walrus near 

Point Hope, Alaska. Report to the Native Village of Point Hope, Alaska and Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M09PC00027. 9 pp. 
2 

This report is part of a project titled “Walrus Habitat Use in the Potential Drilling Area 

(Chukchi) - Village-Base Walrus Studies, contract #M09PC00027 funded by The Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and should be cited as follows: 

Huntington, H.P., and L.T. Quakenbush. 2013. Traditional knowledge regarding walrus near 

Point Hope, Alaska. Report to Native Village of Point Hope and Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M09PC00027. 9 pp. 
3

Traditional Knowledge of Walrus along the Northern Chukchi Sea Coast, Alaska: 

Point Hope

Introduction

Pacific walrus are an important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat hunters in northern 

Alaska. They are also an iconic Arctic animal, and at risk from climate change. Increasing 

industrial activity in the Chukchi Sea is an additional potential stressor to the walrus population. 

The study of walrus distribution, behavior, and movements is an important contribution to 

monitoring the effects of a changing environment and the potential effects from industrial 

activity. Placing satellite transmitters on walruses provides detailed information about how some 

individual animals are moving and behaving now. Documenting traditional knowledge about 

walrus, through interviews with residents of coastal communities, provides complementary 

information about general patterns in walrus distribution, movement, and behavior in the present 

and in addition provides a way to compare the present with the past.

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters in Point Hope, 

Alaska, in January 2013. This traditional knowledge project used the same approach that the 

Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting traditional knowledge about bowhead 

whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007).

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his or her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Walrus distribution and abundance near communities

Distribution and sightings of walrus throughout the year

Walrus haul-out patterns on land

Sensitivity of walrus to various types of disturbance

Haul-out patterns of other pinnipeds

Changes over time for all of the topics

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Lori Quakenbush. Lori 

Quakenbush is also the project leader. 
4 

Point Hope 

In Point Hope, we interviewed eight people during three interviews; one with two hunters, one 

with six hunters (including one of the two from the first interview), and one with one hunter. 

Hunters interviewed included Theodore Frankson, Jr., Isaac Killigvuk, Sr., Henry Koonook, 

Ronald Oviok, Sr., and four others who chose to remain anonymous. Interviews were conducted 

on 10 and 11 January 2013 at the Qalgi Center in Point Hope. Five hunters shared the number of 

years that they have been observing walrus; the average was 40 years with a range of 26 to 50+ 

years. 

Figure 1. Seal and walrus haulout sites and general walrus migratory routes as recorded during 

traditional knowledge interviews in Point Hope. Other marine mammals and birds are also 

noted. 

Walrus 

Walrus typically arrive in the Point Hope area in May, after whaling season. Sometimes a few 

walrus have been seen migrating past in early spring, before whaling. Oddities like this happen 

from time to time. June and July is when they really start coming, after the bowheads and 

belugas have gone past. Some walrus migrate close to the shore, coming from the southeast, 

either riding on ice floes or swimming in open leads or cracks in the ice close to shore. They can 

sometimes be heard well in advance of their arrival near the village. Most walrus arrive from the 
5

south or southwest, coming close to land only when they reach Point Hope itself. Hunters call 

them in by making sounds like a dog with a sore throat. Female walrus swim past Point Hope; 

there are also many seals here then, as long as there is still ice. Walrus are occasionally seen 

swimming south in spring. The spring migration includes walrus of all kinds: male, female, old, 

and young.

In the past five or so years, the walrus have not been coming as close to the point as usual, but 

appear to be traveling farther offshore as they pass Point Hope. Fewer males are seen in spring 

now, and fewer walrus overall. Thousands used to be seen, and now only a few hundred each 

year. Some hunters attributed this change to greater use of outboard engines as well as increased 

ship traffic in the region. The walrus are affected not just by the noise of the boats, but also by 

the smell of the fumes from the fuel and the engines. The shift in location also coincides with 

changes in sea ice, notably the loss of thick ice in winter (although the winter of 2011–2012 had 

thick ice as used to be the case every winter). Walrus may also be following the paths of ships 

that go through the ice in late spring. 

In late September and October, the walrus migrate from the north, past Cape Lisburne and Point 

Hope. At this time of year, most of the walrus seen are older males. Fewer walrus are seen in fall 

than in spring. Few walrus were seen in fall 2012, only a few groups of a few walrus. A “winter

walrus,” also known as an “aivialuq,” or as a “king walrus” is sometimes seen in the ice. These 

are very large animals. 

During the fall migration, many walrus haul out on land just to the east of Cape Lisburne. This is 

a regular haul-out, with perhaps dozens of animals on land at any given time. In recent years, 

there have been fewer walrus here, perhaps due to barge traffic. Barges occasionally wait at Cape 

Lisburne for weather or ice, and they can disturb the walrus and keep them away. 

Walrus occasionally haul out in similar numbers about halfway between Cape Lisburne and 

Point Hope, just to the north of Kilikralik Point. On at least one occasion in the 1940s, more than 

60 walrus hauled out at Point Hope itself. Many were hunted, and people ate walrus for 

breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Walrus have not hauled out at the point recently. Most of the walrus 

that haul out on land are males.

One or two walrus may haul out anywhere along the shore from Cape Thompson to Point Hope 

to Cape Lisburne. This also occurs east of Ayugataq Lagoon, to the east of Cape Lisburne.

Some of the individual walrus coming to shore are following small seals, which they kill and eat. 

Only older male walrus eat seals. Elders said that walrus would sometimes come out of the water 

onto the ice to take seals. A hunter was once charged by a walrus on the beach. The walrus came 

very close, but then turned and went back in the water. 

In the late 2000s, some people noticed yellow coloring on the flippers and around the mouths of 

a few walrus. Some of these drifted back in from the north side of Point Hope during the spring 

migration. This behavior was not unusual in itself, but due to the yellow coloring the elders said 

not to eat these animals. The yellow coloring has not been seen any other time. The Point Hope 

hunters who were interviewed have not seen walrus with green flippers or lips. 
6 

Hunters are seeing more skinny and sick walrus in spring in recent years. One male walrus taken 

in the fall of 2012 was ill. One walrus taken in spring 2012 had a hole in one side of its skull, 

although no obvious bullet hole in the hide. Its face was swollen and it smelled like a rotten tooth 

or worse. This animal was skinny. 

A walrus with a satellite transmitter was taken in fall 2011. The walrus was healthy, and there 

did not appear to be any problems at the place where the transmitter was attached to the walrus’s 

skin. 

People hunt whales and then bearded seals, for the skins to make umiaq covers, and then after 

getting the bearded seals they need, they start hunting walrus. 

People in Noorvik saw a walrus in the Kobuk River two or three years ago. Noorvik people said 

there was a monster in the river, as they were not used to seeing walrus.

Seals

In spring, seals and polar bears come to the Point Hope area before whaling season. They can be 

found in the Point Hope area during winter. 

Spotted seals haul out at the tip of Point Hope every year in the summer and mainly in the fall. 

The group is usually about 20–30 seals. Spotted seals are usually seen on the south side of the 

point. About fifteen years ago, hunters traveling by boat saw about 300 spotted seals hauled out 

on the ice on the north side of Point Hope. They had not seen such a large aggregation of spotted 

seals on the ice before.

Some hunters prefer the meat of ringed and bearded seals to that of spotted seals but they do use 

the skin and blubber of spotted seals. One hunter said he liked the meat of spotted seals better 

than ringed seals. Spotted seal meat has a very strong taste. Spotted seals are much smarter than 

other seals. Occasionally, a black spotted seal is seen. A group of spotted seals was once seen 

scaring a single walrus off the beach. 

Ringed seals sometimes haul out on the beach in summer. These are usually young seals. Ringed 

seals haul out on the ice all around the Point Hope area. 

Ringed seals may swim into Marryat Inlet and up the Kukpuk River, hauling out on the bank. 

Spotted seals have also been seen upriver. This is new behavior, going so far up the Kukpuk. 

In 2011, many small ringed seals were seen on the beaches near Point Hope, with sores around 

their eyes and mouths and on their tails. They were very skinny and did not move when people 

approached, unlike healthy seals. About half a dozen of these sick seals were seen in the fall of 

2012 as well. Hunters did not want to touch these sick seals. One hunter described the lesions on 

the seals as looking like “scratches” on the face and hind flippers. When hunters were taking 

seals in June and July, they noticed small, fast-moving bugs on the hind parts of the seals. This 

was new. A few sick seals and bearded seals are typically seen in early summer (late May 

through July). 
7

One hunter wondered if the hair loss on seals could be due in part to sun exposure. He said that 

the hairless areas appear to be the areas that would be in the sun when seals are hauled out on the 

ice in spring. He once saw a ribbon seal with hair loss. Another hunter was worried about the 

melting of the ice cap making the water more fresh and causing problems.

Seals seen in winter appeared healthy. Many ringed seals are being taken now (January 2013) 

from the ice edge. During south and east winds there is good winter seal hunting around Kowtuk 

Point. Ringed seals are abundant and healthy in the Point Hope area.

In March, ringed seals taste like stove oil, due to the rut. 

In the late 1960s, a hunter caught a pregnant female ringed seal that had a two-headed fetus.

According to the hunters who were interviewed, the women in Point Hope say that the seal oil is 

changing because the blubber has been getting darker in color, though it is still edible. The 

blubber is darker yellow or darker pink, and sometimes with some green color. This change, 

from orange-yellow blubber to a greener color, has been happening over the last five years or so.

Bearded seals have not been seen on the beach, but they do haul out on the ice in spring. Bearded 

seals are more commonly seen on ice to the north of Point Hope, but they are seen on ice to the 

south, too.

In the spring of 2012, two bearded seals were caught that were skinny, with yellow blubber. 

When hunters tried to move one of them, its whiskers pulled out by hand, instead of needing to 

be pulled out by pliers as is normal. 

Other Information

Point Hope is a good location for hunting because there is open water on the south side if the 

wind is from the north, and on the north side if the wind is from the south. Point Hope hunters 

are patient—they go out and wait for the animals to come. The past year, 2012, was a good year 

for hunting, in that the animals were healthy and edible. There was, however, much erosion 

along the shoreline.

In spring, all marine mammals come past Point Hope. Hunters let the first animals of each 

species go past, and then start hunting. This is similar to leaving a few eggs in nests when 

gathering eggs, to provide for the future.

Every summer, killer whales come past Point Hope, but they are not seen as much anymore. 

Hunters would talk with killer whales. One does not have to talk loudly. Sometimes people 

would give a piece of maktak or blubber to the killer whales, but otherwise people would not 

bother them. Killer whales eat other whales. People have seen killer whales attacking gray 

whales. On one occasion, two killer whales grabbed the gray whale’s flippers and pushed it to 

the beach, while a third killer whale ate the gray whale’s tongue. On one occasion, a bowhead 

whale carcass washed ashore on the north side of the point, with killer whale bite marks and no 

tongue. 
8 

A Steller sea lion was caught just north of Point Hope in the 1980s. 

A live elephant seal was seen at the point in the 1980s. 

A narwhal carcass was found washed up on the beach north of Point Hope in the 1970s. 

Two dead minke whales were found under the ice two to three years ago. 

In spring 2012, there were many polar bears on the ice during whaling season. One whaling 

captain saw 12 polar bears near his camp at one time. The bears were most large males, and 

appeared healthy. The ice that spring was thick and solid, the way it used to be every year. 

In spring 2012, hardly any fish came past Point Hope. People usually get salmon, but not in the 

summer of 2012. 

In October 2012, blue tomcod washed up on the north side of the point. They had not been seen 

for some time. These are the fish that seals eat. Many types of invertebrates also washed up, 

including clams and mussels. 

Point Hope used to catch small tomcod, but now they are getting larger ones, similar to those 

caught at Kotzebue. This change started a couple years ago. 

Recently, fish were seen acting oddly on the north side of the point. They were swimming 

ashore, trying to get out of the water. Some of them had lesions, like something was eating away 

the scales and flesh on their sides.

Once in a while, people see small, skinny trout coming by. These are believed to be from the 

rivers near Kivalina or from the Noatak. 

A live shark washed up on the south side of the village, near Beacon Hill. Another shark was 

found on the north beach. 

Caribou do not come as close to Point Hope as they used to. The caribou used to go all the way 

to the point, past the old village site. Hunters have seen a small plane scaring the caribou away. 

A recently installed U.S. Coast Guard navigational beacon at Beacon Hill also appears to prevent 

caribou from coming farther west. This station is about five miles east of Point Hope. It has a 

light on it, and the light appears to be responsible for scaring the caribou. 

In fall 2012, there were many wolves near Point Hope. One was taken in summer near the snow 

fence on the edge of the village.

Hunters are struggling now to get the animals they need. There is too much traffic in the air and 

on the sea. Too many ships travel close to the point, in the migratory path of marine mammals 

and where people hunt. This deflects the animals away from the point, making them harder to get 
9 

and requiring longer trips that use more gas and thus are more expensive. This is a big concern 

for Point Hope hunters. 

Sometime in the 1980s there was a really loud ship in the Point Hope area. Seismic testing 

between Point Hope and Cape Lisburne resulted in a loss of tomcod and clams in the Point Hope 

area, and created a wider environmental disturbance. Seals eat the tomcod, so the loss of fish 

affected the seals. Walrus eat clams, so the loss of clams affected the walrus. The walrus and 

seals appear to have moved to other places, since fewer are seen now. 

There was too much rain this summer; it was not a good berry year. 

In spring there is a very strong north current about 10–15 miles off Point Hope. Hunters try not 

to travel that far offshore, to avoid being carried north. 

The ice in the winter of 2012 was 5–7 feet thick, as it used to be before the ice started thinning. 

But it left in May and did not return. The ice used to come and go in summer, but now it leaves 

and is gone until fall.

Around 1970, there was a big surge of ice on the north side of the point, pushing ice as far as the 

ice cellars, which had not been seen for a very long time.

In 2011, after the tsunami in Japan, sea ice piled up on the beach on the south side, making 

pressure ridges that were 15–20 feet high. These were unusually far up the beach. 

Trash from Russia and Japan washed up near Point Hope. Russian water bottles have been seen 

on the north side of the point, and Japanese trash on the south side. They have seen gas cans and 

floats, including one float that was covered in sticky oil. 

Acknowledgements

We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission for this project and are grateful to 

Commissioner Ronald Oviok, Sr. and to Point Hope Mayor Steve Oomittuk and Teddy 

Frankson, Jr. of the Native Village of Point Hope for identifying participants and helping to set 

up interviews in Point Hope. We thank Teddy Frankson, Jr., Isaac Killigvuk, Sr., Henry 

Koonook, and Ronald Oviok, Sr. and four other hunters for sharing their knowledge and 

contributing to this report. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work 

as part of contract #M09PC00027 and we appreciate the support of Catherine Coon. Justin 

Crawford prepared the maps used during the interviews and the figure in this report. 

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Walrus, Ringed 

Seals, and Bearded Seals near Barrow, Alaska

Appendix G-3. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015a. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals near Barrow, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, 

the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Walrus, Ringed 

Seals, and Bearded Seals near Barrow, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved December 2015

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2015. Traditional knowledge regarding 

walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals near Barrow, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 8pp. 
3 

Introduction

Walrus, ringed seals, and bearded seals are important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat 

hunters in northern Alaska. They are also iconic Arctic marine mammals, and at risk from 

climate change. Increasing industrial activity in the Chukchi Sea is an additional potential 

stressor to walrus and seal populations. A satellite telemetry study of the distribution, behavior, 

and movements of walrus and seals is an important contribution to monitoring the effects of a 

changing environment and the potential effects from industrial activity. While placing satellite 

transmitters on walrus and seals provides detailed information about the movements and some 

behaviors of individual animals, documenting traditional knowledge about walrus and seals, 

through interviews with residents of coastal communities, provides valuable complementary 

contemporaneous and historical information about the general patterns of each species. 

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other 

knowledgeable residents in Barrow, Alaska, in January 2015. This traditional knowledge project 

used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting traditional 

knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007). 

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by persons being interviewed. 

In Barrow, we interviewed ten people: one group of four, two groups of two each, and two 

individually. Those interviewed were Ernest Nageak, Van Edwardsen, Ronald Uyeno, Jonah 

Leavitt, Willie Koonaloak, John Heffle, and four people who wished to remain anonymous. The 

interviews were conducted on January 29, at the Iñupiat Heritage Center. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haul-out patterns on land 

Observations of orphaned calves 

Timing and location of walrus and seal sightings 

Behavior of walrus and seals

Parts of walrus and seals eaten by humans

Changes over time for all topics

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 

Ringed and Bearded Seals 
4 

Ringed seals are generally found on the Chukchi Sea side of Point Barrow, including in front of 

the town of Barrow. They are usually found closer to shore and so are the first seals seen when 

boating out to hunt seals or walrus. When hunting from boats, Barrow hunters prefer to hunt 

bearded seals, passing ringed seals by, unless they are teaching a young hunter how to hunt for 

seals. When the ice is far out, seals may be found near river and creek mouths, where feeding is 

often good. 

In spring, many ringed seals haul out on the ice. Ringed seals may haul out on land to rest. This 

can be seen south of Barrow towards Peard Bay. It is less common near Barrow, where there is 

often a lot of four-wheeler traffic. Ringed seals with bald spots and sores, which were most 

common in the summer of 2011, hauled out more frequently on the beach than ringed seals 

usually do. Seals with these signs of disease have been seen in subsequent years, too, but less

often. The diseased seals are thin and do not flee an approaching person. Instead, it is possible 

to walk right up to them. Hunters avoid animals with signs of disease, so these animals were not 

hunted. Hunters also avoid ringed seals with black faces, as these seals taste like kerosene (Note: 

these are known to be adult males in rut, which develop a strong taste and smell). 

Bearded seals are generally found farther from shore. They used to be found closer to Barrow. 

In summer, they may be 20–30 miles north of Point Barrow, along the ice or where the Chukchi 

and Beaufort waters meet. They are often plentiful that far out, but not seen as often closer to 

shore. While bearded seals are often associated with ice, they will remain in ice-free waters, too. 

They can be seen in front of Barrow, and juveniles are often seen off Elson Lagoon. In summer 

when there is no ice, bearded seals can be found in the current about 7 miles from shore. 

Hunters are taught to go out to the current and drift along until they see seals. Sometimes fewer 

seals are seen later in the summer. In these conditions, many boats may compete while chasing 

the same seal, which is not the way it used to be. The best hunting time for bearded seals is in 

July when the ice is beginning to go out. 

Bearded seals can also sleep in open water. Hunters have come across bearded seals lying on the 

surface. When the seals are awakened by the boat, they react quickly, diving with a splash. 

Bearded seals swim up the rivers that flow into Admiralty Bay. Bearded seals of all ages have 

been seen to do this. The seals are probably eating whitefish in the rivers. This is not a common 

occurrence however, most young bearded seals are found around the barrier islands and outside 

Dease Inlet during the summer.

In recent years, bearded seals have had thinner blubber. Hunters need to get to a seal quickly 

before it sinks. The seal oil they produce is also different from the way seal oil used to be. 
5 

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of ringed seal, bearded seal, spotted seal, and walrus near 

Barrow as described during traditional knowledge interviews, January 2015. 

Walrus

Walrus are harvested in Barrow when they are accessible. Walrus hunting occurs in the Chukchi 

Sea, but not the Beaufort Sea. Hunters typically head west, or first go south to Peard Bay and 

then offshore. Access depends primarily on ice conditions and can vary greatly from year to 

year near Barrow. Some hunters have gone as far as 60 miles offshore, which is possible now 

due to the fuel efficiency of four-stroke engines. Traveling this far, however carries risks if the 

weather changes for the worse. Recent changes in sea ice distribution and thickness have been 

the dominant factor responsible for changes in walrus distribution and behavior in recent years. 

Walrus migrate north in spring, drifting with sea ice carried in the northbound currents of the 

Chukchi Sea. When shorefast ice breaks up, which is happening earlier and earlier, Barrow 

hunters are able to begin hunting by boat. East winds carry sea ice away from shore, making 

access difficult. West winds bring sea ice closer to the Barrow coast, bringing walrus and 

bearded seals with the ice. Walrus are typically carried north past the City of Barrow and 

onwards past Point Barrow. Only occasionally are walrus seen in the Beaufort Sea, to the east of 

Point Barrow. The eddies that form to the northeast of Point Barrow do attract beluga whales 
6 

and bearded seals, and may be responsible for walrus carcasses washing up on the barrier islands 

that border Elson Lagoon. Formerly, the ice would come and go during the summer as the winds 

shift, bringing ice and animals back several times, providing several hunting opportunities. In 

recent years, the ice usually does not return after it leaves the Barrow area and may leave faster 

when it goes out. The hunting season is thus shorter now, though still variable depending on the 

conditions of each year. 

Ice thickness plays a role, too. Formerly, walrus were found on large ice floes in herds of up to 

3,000 animals. Today, ice floes are smaller and thinner, so walrus are typically found in small 

groups (10–15 animals) or mid-size groups (50–100). Hunters could smell the large herds a long 

way away, but the smaller groups do not have as strong an odor. When walrus leave the ice 

floes, the floes rebound and rise higher out of the water. Thinner ice is noticeable at other times, 

too. During spring whaling, it is harder to find flat areas of ice that are thick enough to support a 

large bowhead whale for butchering. Formerly, any flat area was thick enough, but this is no 

longer the case.

Walrus are occasionally seen swimming in open water, presumably traveling from haulouts to 

feeding areas. This has been observed 4–5 miles offshore, with the walrus heading south, and no 

ice in sight. Individual walrus have been seen swimming along the shore in late August, with no 

ice in sight. Walrus can be hunted in open water, but it is much harder than hunting them when 

hauled out on ice floes, and they must be towed to ice or land for butchering. Walrus are also 

very dangerous when in the water. They can be aggressive and attack boats, and have been 

known to team up when doing so. This can occur when a walrus has been killed and the other 

walrus do not want to leave it. Dropping empty rifle shells into the water can scare walrus away, 

perhaps from the appearance or the sound. 

Occasionally a single walrus, and more rarely two walrus together, will haul out on shore in the 

Barrow area. This is more common to the south of Barrow, towards Nulavik and Skull Cliffs, 

but can also be seen towards Point Barrow. Hunters have not seen three or more walrus hauling 

out together in the Barrow area. Walrus that haul out near Barrow are usually hunted; they will 

be seen by people who travel up and down the coast by four-wheeler, a common summer 

activity. Once, a sick walrus went inland from Elson Lagoon behind the Naval Arctic Research 

Lab (NARL) hangars. Sick walrus and sick polar bears will take themselves off to die. There 

does not appear to be a change in hauling out behavior in the Barrow area, although it may be 

more common in the past decade or so. 

One hunter/carver recently saw a walrus skull that had many cavities in its teeth. He had not 

seen that before.

Orphaned calves are found occasionally in the Barrow area, but this is not common. It typically 

occurs after there has been a hunt. The last instance was three or more years prior to the 

interviews. When calves can be nursed to health, they are given to a zoo or other facility. There 

does not appear to be any trend in the frequency of orphaned calf sightings. 

Walrus have excellent hearing. They do not react to people speaking in normal voices. Instead, 

they become suspicious if people are whispering or otherwise trying to be quiet. Walrus are 
7

generally noisy animals, so the additional noise does not bother them. The same is sometimes 

true of other animals—they react more to people who are trying to sneak up to them or sneak 

past, than to those who show that they have seen the animals and are aware that the animals have 

seen or heard them. 

Offshore oil and gas activity could have impacts to walrus and walrus prey. This could have a 

bigger impact on walrus-dependent communities, especially Gambell and Savoonga.

Barrow residents eat the skin, blubber, meat, kidneys, and heart of walrus. They do not typically 

eat liver or intestines. All parts are equally likely to be eaten by anyone eating walrus; there are 

no parts that are given specially to people of different ages or gender. Some people like to eat 

clams from walrus stomachs, but recently the stomachs have been mostly empty.

Polar Bears

Polar bears occasionally swim ashore in summer, having come a long way from the ice. They 

are typically exhausted. Polar bear monitors let them rest, rather than scaring them back into the 

water right away. Elders also say to leave animals alone when they come to shore, to let them 

rest. One bear collapsed on reaching shore and slept for a day or two, before getting up and 

walking to the Barrow bone pile.

Other Observations

Many things are changing. Skin boats left in the open in summer will now discolor and turn 

dark. They need to be covered with a tarp, whereas before they could be left out and would 

bleach in the sun. 

Multi-year ice rarely shows up now, whereas it used to arrive reliably in October as the ocean 

began to freeze.

Traditional and Modern Knowledge and Ideas for Research

Younger hunters distinguished traditional knowledge from modern knowledge. The former is 

what can be learned from elders and others with long experience. Younger hunters have modern 

knowledge, having only hunted from motorboat and snowmachine, not with dog teams and other 

older equipment. They thus have different knowledge than their fathers and grandfathers, though 

they still have the skills to hunt effectively and to know how to interact with animals. The 

younger hunters are also well aware of how rapidly conditions are changing, and are able to

provide knowledge about recent changes in a way that elders who have not hunted for many 

years may not.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been paying more attention to traditional knowledge, 

which is a good thing and can be very helpful in many situations. At the same time, however, 

there are concerns about asking the same people the same kinds of questions over and over, or 

going to the same people to ask about different species but still taking up their time repeatedly. 

Better coordination in meetings and in research can help reduce the burden on the community, as 

it can on the ecosystem for field studies. Doing things once rather than several times would be 

better.
8 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is also good at circulating information about their polar bear 

surveys, including photos of the aircraft involved, and flight plans and dates. This lets people 

know what to expect and how to recognize the aircraft and personnel who are involved, instead 

of wondering who is doing what and what impact they are having on hunters and on animals. 

When walrus are being hunted from Barrow, there may be as many as 30–40 boats on the water. 

Finding ways to record the observations of these hunters could be a big contribution to walrus 

monitoring and research, and for other species, too. Hunters pay attention to oddities, such as 

unusual body condition or markings, and could take photos and bring this to the attention of 

biologists. Facebook might be a great way to organize hunters and report observations. 

Acknowledgements

We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal Committee for 

this project and are grateful to Joe Sage and Thomas Olemaun for identifying participants and 

helping to set up interviews. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the 

work as part of Contract Nos. M09PC00027 and M13PC00015 and we appreciate the support of 

Charles Monnett, Catherine Coon, and Dan Holiday. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used 

during the interviews and the figures in this report.

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Elim, Alaska

Appendix G-4. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015b. Traditional knowledge 

regarding ringed seals, bearded seals and walrus near Elim, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 7 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Elim, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved December 2015

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2015. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Elim, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 7pp. 
3 

Introduction

Ringed seals and bearded seals are important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat and 

Yup’ik hunters from Elim, in northern Norton Sound, in western Alaska. Walrus are found and 

hunted in this area, too. These marine mammals are iconic Arctic animals, and at risk from 

climate change. Increasing industrial activity in the Chukchi Sea, coastal development in the 

Norton Sound region, and shipping through the Bering Strait are additional potential stressors to 

seal and walrus populations. A satellite telemetry study of the distribution, behavior, and 

movements of seals and walrus is an important contribution to monitoring the effects of a 

changing environment and the potential effects from industrial activity. While placing satellite 

transmitters on seals and walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some 

behaviors of individual animals, documenting traditional knowledge about seals and walrus, 

through interviews with residents of coastal communities, provides valuable complementary 

contemporaneous and historical information about the general patterns of each species. 

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other 

knowledgeable residents in Elim, Alaska, in February 2015. This traditional knowledge project 

used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting traditional 

knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007). 

Previous projects on traditional knowledge of seals have been conducted, one under the ElimShaktoolik-Koyuk Marine Mammal Commission in 1999 (Huntington 2000) and another on 

walrus and ice seals conducted by Kawerak Inc., in 2010–2013 in communities throughout the 

Bering Strait region, including Elim (Kawerak, Inc., 2013). Except as noted below, the 

information presented here comes from our February 2015 interviews and not from either prior 

project. A compilation of results from all three projects may be carried out later, to document 

changes over time and other aspects of seals and walrus. 

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. 

In Elim, we interviewed eight people in one group. Those interviewed were Darlene Katchatag, 

Martin Murray, Charles Saccheus, and five others who wished to remain anonymous. The 

interview was conducted on February 3, at the Elim IRA Council office. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haulouts on land 

Overwintering areas and behavior

Use of lagoons and rivers 

Feeding patterns and prey
4 

Differences between ringed and bearded seals

Impacts from climate change

Parts of seals that people eat

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 

Ringed Seals 

In early spring, ringed seals will lie on the sea ice by the hundreds throughout Norton Bay and 

stay in the area until the ice starts to break up more in the later spring. A few areas hold higher 

numbers of seals throughout the year and especially during the spring; Besboro Island, Golovin 

Bay, upper Norton Bay, Rocky Point and around Cape Darby. There is a persistent pressure 

ridge that forms from Moses Point to Dexter Point during the winter and spring that also holds 

many ringed and bearded seals. The snow is not as deep now as it used to be and there are fewer 

seal dens on the ice because of it, but there are still lots of seal breathing holes noticed mostly by 

fishermen who go out on the ice to deploy their crab pots in spring between Elim and Cape 

Darby. Pressure ridges like the one from Moses Point to Dexter Point are important for 

breathing holes and denning habitat. Ringed and bearded seals have always wintered in Norton 

Bay, especially near the mouths of creeks where fish are plentiful.

Ringed seals are occasionally seen hauled out on the beach. Usually this is young seals in the 

spring. Ringed seals do not haul out in large groups like walrus and are much more solitary. 

Historically in the spring and summer seals were taken with nets for subsistence, but this is less 

common now with most hunters choosing to use a rifle and harpoon instead. When a ringed seal 

is caught alive they are generally easy to control as they do not bite people. They will use their 

powerful claws to scratch at a person though. 

Ringed seals feed on mostly fish such as herring, capelin, tomcod, skipjack (smelt, cisco?), and 

sometimes shrimp. Herring are found in large numbers along the pressure ridges especially 

between Moses Point and Dexter Point where they are sometimes pushed out onto the ice and 

preyed on by seagulls. 

Elim residents eat the blubber (oil), meat, heart, kidneys, liver, and intestines of ringed seals. 

Seal oil is very healthy, especially for brain development in children. Coastal residents trade seal 

oil with interior Indians. A seal taken in November yielded clear seal oil with little flavor, so salt 

had to be added to give it more flavor. 
5 

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of ringed seal, bearded seal, spotted seal, walrus, and beluga 

whales near Elim as described during traditional knowledge interviews, February 2015. 

Bearded Seals 

Bearded seals will haul out on the sea ice in spring, younger animals closer to shore on shorefast 

ice and older animals further out on the pack ice usually more than 15 miles from Elim. Youngof-the-year bearded seals will go up the Koyuk and Kwik Rivers in August and September. 

They eat clams, which can be found far upriver, and isopods. They are not found up the 

Tubutulik River, but can be seen in the lagoon at the mouth of the river. Adult bearded seals 

have been seen occasionally up the Kwik River, but not very often. 

Bearded seals are more sensitive to noise than ringed or ribbon seals for example; if a ribbon seal 

on an ice floe is approached by hunters in a boat, it will flee away from the hunters across the 

floe, even if there is open water right next to it in the direction of the boat but bearded seals will 

dive into the open water instead. Hunters say that this behavior shows that bearded seals are 

much smarter and more wary than ribbon seals. Young bearded seals will fight back when 

caught in a net. They have long claws and will try to scratch a person, but they do not bite. 
6 

Bearded seals have clams, shrimp, and isopods in their stomachs. They do not have fish in their 

stomachs except for young bearded seals in rivers, they feed on whitefish. Old bearded seals 

have teeth that are worn down to the gums. Their blubber is yellow and yields yellow seal oil.

Elim residents eat the blubber (oil), meat, heart, kidneys, liver, and outer covering of the 

intestines of bearded seals.

Walrus

Walrus haul out occasionally on the east side of Cape Darby. This happens when there is no ice 

in Norton Sound. The walrus do not haul out on the west side of the Cape. There may be 500 or 

more walrus hauled out at a time. When there is no more room for walrus to haul out, other 

walrus will inflate their necks and float as they sleep, drifting in the current. After they drift a 

mile or two, they swim back to the haulout and repeat this behavior. There are sometimes some 

baby walrus in the haulout, in June. Walrus also haul out, though less frequently, on Besboro 

Island, in similar numbers to those seen at Cape Darby. 

Walrus usually have clams in their stomachs. If the walrus has been on top of the ice for a while, 

the clams are partly digested. If the walrus has just hauled out on the ice after diving or still 

swimming, the clams will be fresh. These clams are ready to be cooked. Many people enjoy 

eating them.

Other Information 

Qairaliq seals are no longer seen. These were described in the 1999 project (Huntington 2000) 

as small seals seen in April, May, and June, with thin skin that was useful for many purposes. 

The 1999 study reported that qairaliq seals came to the area in great numbers in the 1980s, but 

fewer were seen by 1999. 

Elim hunters had no further information about iigliq seals, also reported in the 1999 study. 

A bearded seal was once taken that had metal in the muscle near its ribs.

Green algae grows on the bottom of the sea ice, attracting fish. This has always happened. 

In the summer of 2014 there were so many jellyfish they clogged fishing nets. The jellyfish were 

also larger than usual. Starfish taken in crab pots appeared to be eating jellyfish.

Small, pink krill are common throughout Norton Bay. They can be found under rocks and come 

to the surface with crab pots that are hauled up. 

A few years ago, orange foam was found on the beaches throughout the area. The cause of this 

was not known and it only happened the one time. 

Sea ice formed very late in the winter of 2014–15. There was a lot of open water near 

Unalakleet and even by Koyuk into December 2014. Beluga whales were seen swimming past 

Elim in January, being pursued by killer whales. It is very rare for belugas to be seen near Elim 

in January. 
7

Belugas prefer to eat tomcod and shrimp, even if there are herring in the area. They also like 

salmon, which they eat all summer. Silver salmon in September are a favorite food of belugas. 

Belugas chase salmon and, when they are right behind the fish, give a blast of sound that stuns 

the fish, so the fish turns belly up. Then the beluga swallows the salmon whole.

Belugas can drown in a net in 10 minutes or less. They struggle, which uses up their air quickly. 

The belugas are used for subsistence and the lungs used to be fed to dogs. They feel spongy and 

were not eaten by people.

Spotted seals haul out in groups in many locations, including Rocky Point and have teeth like 

dogs. Spotted seals will bite people.

Animals carry their history, like human beings, including their own lives and the lives of their 

parents and grandparents. Animals have brains and spirits. It is essential to keep the ocean free 

and clean so that the animals can flourish and live healthy lives. 

Concerns

Elim residents asked whether there have been any studies in the Nome area to determine if there 

are impacts from dredging and port construction. They expect more activity along the coastline 

of the region, and think it is important to learn what we can from the development that is 

occurring already. They pointed out that the dredging results in muddy water, which they expect 

affects marine mammals and other sea animals.

There is a lot more commercial crabbing in summer in the Norton Bay area now.

More hunters from other villages seem to be coming to the Norton Bay area to hunt.

Acknowledgements

We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal Committee for 

this project and are grateful to Charles Saccheus and Carol Nagaruk for helping to set up the 

group interview. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work as part of 

Contract Nos. M09PC00027 and M13PC00015 and we appreciate the support of Charles 

Monnett, Catherine Coon, and Dan Holiday. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the 

interviews and the figures in this report.

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242.

Huntington, H.P. 2000. Traditional ecological knowledge of seals in Norton Bay, Alaska. Report 

submitted to the Elim-Shaktoolik-Koyuk Marine Mammal Commission and the National 

Marine Fisheries Service. April 2000.

Kawerak, Inc. 2013. Seal and walrus harvest and habitat areas for nine Bering Strait Region 

communities. Nome, Alaska: Kawerak, Inc., Social Science Program.
8 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near St. Michael and 

Stebbins, Alaska

Appendix G-5. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2015c. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near St. Michael and Stebbins, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 7 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near St. Michael and 

Stebbins, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved December 2015

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2015. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near St. Michael and Stebbins, Alaska. Final report to the 

Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 7pp. 
3 

Introduction

Ringed seals and bearded seals are important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiaq and 

Yup’ik hunters from St. Michael and Stebbins in southern Norton Sound, Alaska. Walrus are 

found and hunted in this area, too. These marine mammals are iconic Arctic animals, and at risk 

from climate change. Increasing industrial activity in the Chukchi Sea, coastal development in 

the Norton Sound region, and shipping through the Bering Strait are additional potential stressors 

to seal and walrus populations. A satellite telemetry study of the distribution, behavior, and 

movements of seal and walrus is an important contribution to monitoring the effects of a 

changing environment and the potential effects from industrial activity. While placing satellite 

transmitters on seals and walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some 

behaviors of individual animals, documenting traditional knowledge about seals and walrus, 

through interviews with residents of coastal communities, provides valuable complementary 

contemporaneous and historical information about the general patterns of each species. 

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews held in St. Michael with hunters 

and other knowledgeable residents from St. Michael and Stebbins in February 2015. This 

traditional knowledge project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used 

when documenting traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island 

(Noongwook et al. 2007). 

A previous project on traditional knowledge of walrus and ice seals was conducted by Kawerak 

Inc., in 2010–2013 in communities throughout the Bering Strait region, including St. Michael 

and Stebbins (Kawerak, Inc., 2013). Except as noted below, the information presented here 

comes from our February 2015 interviews and not from the Kawerak project. A compilation of 

results from the two projects may be carried out later, to document changes over time and other 

aspects of seals and walrus. 

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. 

In St. Michael, we interviewed eight people in one group. Those interviewed from St. Michael 

were Charlie Fitka, Harold T. Kobuk, Nick Lupsin, Alexander Niksik Jr., and two others that 

wished to remain anonymous. Two people from Stebbins were interviewed who wished to 

remain anonymous. The interview was conducted on February 4, at the St. Michael IRA Council 

office. 
4 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haulouts on land 

Overwintering areas and behavior

Use of lagoons and rivers 

Feeding patterns and prey

Differences between ringed and bearded seals

Impacts from climate change

Parts of seals that people eat

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 

Ringed Seals 

During the winter and spring there are many ringed seals near Stebbins and St. Michael. They 

maintain breathing holes in the shorefast ice and in the drifting pack ice. When it is sunny there 

will by many ringed seals hauled out on the ice, occasionally they make enough noise that they

can be heard from town. Ringed seals start to leave when the ice diminishes in Norton Sound, 

but there are still a lot around during the herring runs in June. Ringed, bearded, and spotted seals 

all eat herring when they are spawning and their face and whiskers are sometimes covered with 

herring eggs when they surface to breath. Seals gain weight quickly during the herring run. 

Ringed seals also eat tomcod (i.e., saffron cod, Eleginus gracilis) and other fish, but also eat 

small shrimp, which are especially plentiful in the Golsovia area.

Ringed seals start sunning with the increasing light in February and by April have started 

pupping in their snow dens. The rutting males during this time have black faces, smell like 

gasoline, and are not hunted or eaten. These rutting males are called tiigaq. 

Residents of St. Michael and Stebbins eat seal meat, blubber (oil), heart, liver, kidneys, 

intestines, and the spinal cord of ringed and bearded seals. Some people like to eat aged seal 

flipper, but this is not common anymore. 

Some sick seals were seen in 2011, but not large numbers of them. One sick young ringed seal 

was seen on the beach in the summer of 2014. It did not flee when approached on a fourwheeler. A sick spotted seal was seen in the fall of 2014. 
5 

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of ringed seal, bearded seal, spotted seal and walrus near St. 

Michael and Stebbins as described during traditional knowledge interviews, February 2015. 

Bearded Seals 

Adult bearded seals are found farther away from the shore in winter and spring, than ringed 

seals. They are rarely seen near shore hauled out on shorefast ice, but are hunted around Whale 

Island. Young bearded seals are sometimes found up rivers, including the Yukon as well as 

smaller rivers around St. Michael and Stebbins. Older bearded seals and ringed seals are not 

seen in the rivers. Young bearded seals may haul out on riverbanks or mudflats but adult 

bearded seals are never seen on land. 

Ugruq is the term for adult bearded seals; this is an Iñupiaq word. Hunters here also use the 

Yup’ik word Omnigaq for adult bearded seals. The Yup’ik word maklak is used for young 

bearded seals.

The size of adult bearded seals has decreased in recent years. In the past, hunters would see very 

large bearded seals off of Stuart Island that are believed to have come from farther north. More 

recently, it is more common to find bearded seals that are a little smaller than these very large 

ones. 
6 

Bearded seals eat whatever they can find farther out in the ocean: shrimp, crab, clams, and fish 

such as flounder. Some of the shrimp found in bearded seal stomachs are large, the size of a 

person’s hand. When young bearded seals are in rivers they will eat whitefish and tomcod. 

One hunter reported harvesting an ugruq with a white tissue around its liver. They described it 

to be white as paper and did not eat the liver, but did eat the meat and blubber. 

Walrus

Walrus arrive in spring, hauled out on ice that is carried by currents. They are usually farther 

from shore, for example near Egg Island. The walrus include bulls, cows, and calves. Walrus 

are not often seen on land around Stebbins or St. Michael, but occasionally one or two will haul 

out on Egg Island and Whale Island; one of the small islands just north of St. Michael. One 

walrus swam up the Yukon River as far as Pilot Station (~120 miles) and stayed in the Pitka’s 

Point (~100 river miles from coast) area for a while. Other walrus have been seen near the 

mouth of the Yukon and also in St. Michael and Little St. Michael Canal in fall. Even though 

living walrus are not seen very often, dead walrus wash up on shore regularly in the spring when 

the currents are just right.

Walrus cows will search for their calves when they become separated. The cows can find the 

calves when this happens. 

St. Michael and Stebbins residents eat the meat, blubber, heart, and liver of walrus. They do not 

eat the kidney or intestines and only occasionally eat the clams from walrus stomachs.

Sea Ice

The ice has changed greatly and rapidly in the past two decades. In the 1970s and 1980s, the 

shorefast ice extended out to Egg Island. Hunters could travel over the ice to Egg Island or to 

Golsovia. Today the shorefast ice extends only a few miles from shore and it is not possible to 

travel that far on the ice. The ice is also thinner and breaks off more easily, making conditions 

more dangerous. The ice used to form large pans, but now it is more crumbled up. 

In the winter of 2014–15, the ice did not freeze near Stebbins until December. The ice was only 

a few inches thick when it went out again. There was rain in January, and the ice remains thin 

and unstable. 

Other Information 

There are fewer spotted seals in this area since the ice started changing in the 1990s and 2000s. 

Spotted seals may be seen on the ice near shore during the fall and spring. Steller sea lions, gray 

whales, and humpback whales are rare occurrences in the area and may scare away other animals 

when they are around. There used to be puffins in the St. Michael/Stebbins area, but they are no 

longer seen here.

There used to be commercial beach seiners operating in this area during herring season. They 

would sometimes snag buoys and anchors belonging to St. Michael and Stebbins residents, 

which was not popular. This fishery is no longer being conducted. 
7 

The water level is higher in summer now than it used to be. There is more algae, and the fish are 

changing, too. Some St. Michael residents caught what they thought were chum salmon, but 

which turned out to be another kind of fish. Another fisherman caught two chum salmon a 

couple years ago, but they smelled like gas when his wife cut their heads off. 

The old St. Michael village fuel tank farm may have affected seals. There are fewer seals around 

there now than there used to be. The tank farm has been moved to the west end of the village 

now. 

Acknowledgements

We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal Committee for 

this project and are grateful to Alexander Niksik Jr. for helping to set up the group interview. 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work as part of Contract Nos. 

M09PC00027 and M13PC00015 with the support of Charles Monnett, Catherine Coon, and Dan 

Holiday. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the interviews and the figure in this 

report.

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Kawerak, Inc. 2013. Seal and walrus harvest and habitat areas for nine Bering Strait Region 

communities. Nome, Alaska: Kawerak, Inc., Social Science Program.

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, Walrus, and Bowhead Whales near 

Kivalina, Alaska

Appendix G-6. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016a. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kivalina, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, 

the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, Walrus, and Bowhead Whales near 

Kivalina, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved July 2016

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2016. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, walrus, and bowhead whales near Kivalina, Alaska. Final report to 

the Eskimo Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management for contract #M13PC00015. 8pp. 
3 

Introduction

Ringed and bearded seals are important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat hunters from 

Kivalina (population 384), on the Chukchi Sea coast of northwestern Alaska. Walrus are found 

and hunted in this area, too. These Arctic marine mammal populations are at potential risk from 

climate change, increasing industrial activity, coastal development, and shipping through Bering 

Strait. Scientific studies of distribution, behavior, movements, and habitat use of seals and

walrus have made important contributions to understanding the effects of a changing 

environment and the potential effects from industrial activity. For example, placing satellite 

transmitters on seals and walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some 

behaviors of individual animals. Documenting traditional knowledge about seals and walrus, 

through interviews with residents of coastal communities, however, provides valuable 

complementary current and historical information about the general patterns of each species.

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other 

knowledgeable residents in Kivalina, Alaska, in January 2016. This traditional knowledge 

project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting 

traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007). 

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. 

In Kivalina, we interviewed five people. All those interviewed wished to remain anonymous. 

The interviews were conducted on January 7, 2016, at the Kivalina Tribal (IRA) Council office 

and in the homes of interviewees. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haulouts on land 

Overwintering areas and behavior

Use of lagoons and rivers 

Feeding patterns and prey

Differences between ringed and bearded seals 

Impacts from climate change

Parts of seals that people eat

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 
4 

General Information 

Marine mammals continue to be abundant in the Kivalina area. The migratory patterns remain 

largely the same, with variation in timing from year to year. The big change for hunters is that 

the ice is no longer a reliable platform for hunting, but is instead a dangerous place that prevents 

hunters from reaching marine mammals or limits the length of the hunting period. 

The number of marine mammals coming past Kivalina has decreased considerably since 

construction of the Red Dog Mine Port Site in the late 1980s. The noise from that facility 

deflects marine mammals migrating up the coast, pushing them offshore and out of reach of 

Kivalina hunters. For example, beluga whales used to be seen every summer, but after the 

construction of the Port Site, they do not come to Kivalina from the south any more. As a 

consequence, hunters from Kivalina now often travel northwest of the community towards Cape 

Thompson to go hunting. It is expensive to travel far to go hunting. Many hunters also go to the 

area of the north channel into the lagoon, where it is quieter. 

A great deal has changed in recent years, but hunters are adjusting to these changes. What used 

to take place is not what happens now. The availability of high-powered outboards and highpowered rifles has helped hunters adjust in ways that would not have been possible 50 or 100 

years ago. A boat trip to Point Hope now takes two hours, instead of all day. Hunters can make 

day trips from the village instead of having to camp out on the land or ice. People need to be 

thinking in new ways a lot now. 

Kivalina hunters do not pursue marine mammals in fall. They are hunting caribou at that time of 

year. Not many seals are seen in fall.

Bearded seals, caribou, and fish are the primary subsistence resources that sustain Kivalina. 

Other species, such as bowhead whales, beluga whales, and walrus are appreciated when they are 

available, but not essential to the community’s well-being. 

People eat the blubber (oil) and meat of bearded and ringed seals. They also eat many of the 

organs of both seals. Elders enjoy small seals of either species. Seals are fat in spring, and their 

blubber is good for seal oil. Fall seals are not as good for oil. In late spring, male ringed seals 

are darker and have a different taste “like kerosene” in the words of one hunter. Spotted seal 

meat is not eaten because it does not taste good, but spotted seal blubber may be used for oil if 

necessary. There has been no real change in the quality of seal meat or oil.

Sharing of seals and other animals is very important for Kivalina hunters. Hunters will take 

animals for their families, their relatives, elders, and others in the community. The first animal 

of the season is typically shared, so many people are excited when a hunter gets his or her first 

animal, knowing it will be distributed to others. People say that if you give first, more will 

come, so they do not like to keep their first catch. This practice applies to caribou and to marine 

mammals.

Shorefast ice does not stay as long as it used to. In some years, it starts to melt as early as 

March. The ice used to be thicker than it is now, and seems to be getting thinner. This year, in 

early January, there is open water to the beach. Last winter, 2015, the ice did not stay for good 
5 

until March. This winter may be similar. Shorefast ice used to form in early fall and stay until 

June, but this is no longer the case. 

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of bearded seals, spotted seals, ringed seals, walrus, beluga 

whales, and bowhead whales as described during traditional knowledge interviews, January 

2016. 
6 

Bearded Seals 

Bearded seals start to haul out on the ice in spring when the days get longer. Many seals are seen 

at this time of year.

They are usually not hunted until the bowhead and beluga hunt is over, so as not to scare off the 

whales. Bearded seal hunting takes place before it is too warm, so that the meat will not spoil or 

be affected by insects as it is drying on racks. 

In recent years, the thin ice has made it dangerous to go hunting for bearded seals on top of the 

ice. In 2015, the ice disappeared very quickly after break-up, so the opportunity for hunting 

bearded seals by boat was very short. In the late 1990s, hunters were caught by surprise one year 

when the hunting period was only a week long instead of several weeks. After that, they made 

sure to take advantage of the opportunity as soon as it came. That worked, until last year. In 

2015, however, the season was much shorter, again catching hunters by surprise. Offshore winds 

carried the ice out, but the ice did not come back in after the winds died, as it used to do. This 

happened once before, in the 1980s. Now hunters fear it will be the new pattern.

A few bearded seals remain in the area after the ice goes out. Bearded seals come through the 

channel into the lagoon in summer, following fish. Young bearded seals go up rivers in fall. 

Bearded seals start returning to the area in fall.

A few sick bearded seals have been seen in recent years, with large hairless areas. One young 

bearded seal taken last October in open water had about half its hair missing. It did not have 

sores on its skin, but it was skinny. Most seals are healthy, but it used to be very rare to 

encounter a sick seal.

Ringed Seals 

Some ringed seals stay all winter in the Kivalina area. In mid-winter, ringed seals are fat and in 

their prime. Hunters cannot get them now because the ice is thin or there is open water. 

Whereas hunting used to start in December or January, it is often not possible to hunt ringed 

seals until February or March. 

It is important to take ringed seal in winter to make bleached sealskin leather, which requires 

cold weather to cure properly. Bleached ringed sealskin is becoming a rare commodity in 

Kivalina.

Small, sickly ringed seals have been seen on the beach in the past few years. They do not move 

off when people approach. They are not common, only a few each year, but this is a new 

phenomenon. One hunter said the previous time he saw a sick seal was at least 30 years ago, in 

contrast to seeing at least one each year now.

Spotted Seals 

Spotted seals arrive after the ice leaves. Some pups can be seen on the beach all summer, going 

out to feed and coming back to rest and avoid danger. Spotted seals are seen all summer. Few 

people hunt spotted seals. Their skins are beautiful and warm, if tanned properly, but the meat is 

not wanted and the blubber is usually thin. People could get more spotted seals than ringed or 
7 

bearded seals these days. Spotted seals do not seem to be affected as much by changes in ice, as 

they come for the fish rather than the ice.

Walrus

Walrus come northwards past Kivalina in spring when the ice starts to break up, at the end of the 

bearded seal season. Walrus used to follow a path that brought them past Kivalina, but now 

seem to go straight from Shishmaref to Point Hope or Cape Thompson, which takes them 50 

miles away from Kivalina, too far to go in a boat in broken ice. 

Occasionally a walrus will be seen hauled out on the beach. They prefer ice, but will haul out on 

land if there is no ice.

Walrus are seen going south in fall. A few stray walrus are seen in summer, heading south. 

One hunter took a female walrus each of the past two summers, in July, but the blubber was thin 

and the meat was very dark and red and stinky. They were excited about getting a walrus, 

because that has become rare for Kivalina hunters, but they could not eat it. 

Women are not allowed to go walrus hunting because of stories from long ago of walrus chasing 

boats and even turning boats over. 

Bowhead and Beluga Whales 

Bowhead and beluga whales are normally hunted in spring as they migrate north through the 

leads in the ice. The whales continue to follow this pattern, but with more open water they can 

take a more direct route from Wales to Point Hope, bypassing Kivalina. When the ice is thick 

offshore, then bowheads and belugas are more likely to follow the leads along the shore in the 

Kivalina area. The whales that do come past Kivalina are typically 20 miles offshore. When 

there was stable shorefast ice in spring, hunters could go 20 miles out and camp at the ice edge to 

hunt whales. Now, it is too dangerous, so hunters do not have access to the whales. With the 

thin ice, Kivalina hunters would not be able to pull a large bowhead whale out of the water. 

There is still an opportunity, but it is shorter than it used to be. 

A few belugas will be seen in summer, usually coming from the north. They may be deflected 

offshore near the Red Dog Port Site, then return to the coast near Cape Seppings. Some come 

south to feed in the river mouths along the coast, which is why they stay close to shore at this 

time. Last summer (2015), killer whales kept the belugas in the shallow water close to shore, 

where hunters could get them. Hunters did not see the killer whales, but heard reports of killer 

whales from people in Point Hope. The belugas stayed in shallow water, avoiding killer whales 

even though it made them vulnerable to human hunters. This happens from time to time, but not 

consistently. Killer whales are doing what they have always done.

Other Information 

Gray whales come into the area at the end of summer. 
8 

Humpback whales were seen in front of Kivalina in July 2015, a time when there were lots of 

herring in the area. Humpbacks are seen every few years, usually in July when there are many 

chum salmon coming up the coast.

There are porpoises (harbor porpoises, Phocoena phocoena) in the Kivalina area in summer, but 

hunters do not pursue them. 

Polar bears still come to the Kivalina area, but would usually be encountered by hunters at the 

ice edge during whaling season. Now that hunters cannot go as far out on the shorefast ice, they 

see fewer polar bears. Two polar bears have made dens in the hills behind Kivalina this winter. 

One hunter found an eight-foot shark on the beach at the end of July one year. 

Crabbing is good at Kivalina, especially in fall. The crabs are plentiful in deeper water about 

five miles from shore.

Some shrimp wash up on the beach after fall storms, along with small fish known as akaluaq. 

Squid and unusual fishes have been washing up on the beach in recent years, which is odd. The 

squid, which are black and a few inches long, have not been seen before. Some people have also 

seen swimming worms in the ocean, up to a foot long, the thickness of a pencil. Smaller worms 

were seen last summer, in a school towards Cape Thompson, at a time when there were also 

three gray whales nearby. Someone saw a swimming octopus in one recent year. 

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the skill, expertise, and generosity of the five people who participated in the 

interviews. We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal 

Committee for this project and are grateful to Enoch Adams Jr. for helping to set up the 

interviews and to Stanley Hawley and the Kivalina IRA Council for use of their office space. 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work as part of Contract Nos. 

M09PC00027 and M13PC00015 and we appreciate the support of Charles Monnett, Catherine 

Coon, Dan Holiday, and Carol Fairfield. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the 

interviews and the figures in this report. 

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska

Appendix G-7. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016b. Traditional knowledge 

regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 11 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved July 2016

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2016. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Kotzebue, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo Walrus 

Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 11pp. 
3 

Introduction

Ringed seals and bearded seals are important species for subsistence harvests by Iñupiat hunters 

from Kotzebue (population 3,284), in northwestern Alaska. Walrus are found and hunted in this 

area, too. These Arctic marine mammal populations are at potential risk from climate change, 

increasing industrial activity, coastal development, and shipping through Bering Strait. 

Scientific studies of distribution, behavior, movements, and habitat use of seals and walrus have 

made important contributions to understanding the effects of a changing environment and the 

potential effects from industrial activity. For example, placing satellite transmitters on seals and 

walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some behaviors of individual 

animals. Documenting traditional knowledge about seals and walrus, through interviews with 

residents of coastal communities, however, provides valuable complementary current and 

historical information about the general patterns of each species.

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other 

knowledgeable residents in Kotzebue, Alaska, in January 2016. This traditional knowledge 

project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting 

traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007). 

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions 

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed. 

In Kotzebue, we interviewed six people individually. Those interviewed were John Goodwin, 

Cyrus Harris, Henry (Boyuk) Goodwin, and three others who wished to remain anonymous. The 

interviews were conducted on January 6 and 7, 2016, in the home of one interviewee, at the 

Kotzebue IRA Council office, at the Nullagvik Hotel, and, in one case, beginning at the Bering 

Air terminal, en route to Kivalina, at the Kivalina community center, and concluding at the 

Kivalina IRA Council office. 

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haulouts on land 

Overwintering areas and behavior

Use of lagoons and rivers 

Feeding patterns and prey

Differences between ringed and bearded seals

Impacts from climate change

Parts of seals that people eat

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 
4

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 

General Observations about Seals

Hunters on the coast would take seals for their own families and also for families that could not 

hunt for themselves, such as elders and widows. They would also take seals to trade with people 

from upriver, getting dried fish and furs in return.

People eat seal oil, meat, heart, kidneys, intestine, and liver of seals. Bearded seals are preferred, 

though all seals can be eaten. From spotted seals, hunters usually take the hide and blubber, as 

the meat is not regarded as tasty. Bearded seal flippers would be aged underground and eaten 

after a few weeks. In the old days, people would store seal and other foods in sealskin pokes in 

ice cellars. Today, they typically use electric freezers and modern containers.

Elders like young bearded seals, which produce nice, clear oil. Older male bearded seals yield 

oil that is yellow and less preferred.

By May, seals are making holes in the ice and coming out to lie on top of the ice. Historically, 

hunters would start hunting when the seals started hauling out atop the ice. Most of the seals 

seen at this time are adult seals, but hunters would also take young seals when they came out of 

their lairs. The skins were very desirable at that stage, soft and good for liners. The best hunting 

for pups was in years with little snow in early spring, which did not happen every year.

Soon after break-up, only bearded and ringed seals are around. Later on, while the ice is still 

there, spotted seals arrive and the bearded seals and most ringed seals leave. Spotted seals are 

aggressive and scare off the other seals. Once spotted seals are there, hunters either stop looking 

for bearded seals or look elsewhere for bearded seals. This is usually in June or July.

There are seals year round in Kotzebue Sound and along the coast. From satellite tagging, 

hunters now know that the juveniles travel far, even into the Bering Sea, whereas older seals tend 

to stay closer to Kotzebue Sound.

Hunters can get bearded, ringed, and spotted seals in fall, though the bearded seals are almost all 

juveniles.

The quality of seal and walrus meat, blubber, other foods, oil and hides has not changed. Seal 

behavior has not changed, either, despite changes to the ice. 

This past year, seals were fat and healthy, and there were many pups, despite the poor ice 

conditions for hunters. Hundreds if not thousands of seals were seen in Eschscholtz Bay in 2015.

Lots of seals were seen between Kotzebue and the Chamisso Islands, including seals sleeping on 

the water surface. The only big change is the loss of hunting opportunity due to poor ice and 

rapid disappearance of ice after break-up starts.
5 

When the snow melts early, there is no protection for seal pups from predators such as jaegers 

and ravens and foxes. The roof of the den collapses and the pup is exposed. Under the snow, 

seals move around and make escape routes from their dens. 

The smallest pups do not go into the water. 

There are as many or more seals now as there were in the past. There has never been a shortage 

of seals compared with people’s needs. There is not as much hunting, largely because there are 

fewer dogs to feed. Hunters also used to get seals to make sealskin pokes for storing oil and 

meat, but today there are other containers so no need to hunt seals for this purpose. 

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of bearded seals, spotted seals, ringed seals, walrus, and 

beluga whales as described during traditional knowledge interviews, January 2016. 

Seals and Disease 

It seems there may even be an overpopulation of seals, which could cause starvation if there is 

not enough food for all the seals. When animals starve, they can develop many different kinds of 

disease, which may help explain the skin sores and other problems hunters saw a few years ago. 
6 

Hair loss is normal in seals, and can be seen on bearded, ringed, and spotted seals. When seals 

were taken, hunters’ wives would pull on the hair to see if the hair was firmly attached or if the 

seal was in the middle of the molt. Seals that are molting or have lost hair are good for making 

leather, for ropes and mukluk soles and other purposes. Hairless seals would be fed to dogs, or if 

they seemed fat and healthy otherwise would be eaten by people. One hunter took a hairless 

ringed seal in winter, and his grandmother said he should burn it, so he did. People would say 

the seals did not spend enough time on top of the ice to molt fully. The hair loss may also have 

come from rubbing against the seabed. The loss of ice in recent years may mean the seals cannot 

spend as much time hauled out as they used to, which could affect the molt. Seals may have to 

learn to adapt, for example by hauling out on land instead of ice. 

The recent hair loss, accompanied by skin sores and other signs of ill health, is a new 

phenomenon. Hunters do not want to handle, much less eat, seals that show signs of poor health. 

In addition to the sores, the seals appear lethargic. Ringed seals hauled out on the beach do not 

flee, so would be easy to catch, but hunters do not want to approach them once they see they are 

sick. This illness occurred first in 2011, but seems mostly to have disappeared. Some hunters see 

it as nature’s way of dealing with overpopulation of seals. 

Bearded Seals 

In spring, bearded seals are the focus for hunting, getting food for spring and for the following 

winter. When the ice started to break up, hunters would go to Sealing Point (near Cape 

Krusenstern) to hunt bearded seals. In the days before outboard motors, hunters would use 

kayaks to go between floes and in the cracks in the ice to pursue bearded seals. 

The ice edge off Cape Krusenstern is a good place to hunt bearded seals, though the seals move 

around. Many may be seen one day, and none the next day, in the same spot. The waters about 

10 miles west of Cape Blossom are also rich with seals, but this is farther from shore and more 

dangerous to travel to. The waters north of Cape Krusenstern are also good for hunting, at 

Kiliqmiak, just south of Rabbit Creek. There are many creeks and other places on either side of 

Cape Krusenstern where hunters can find refuge in case of bad weather. There are fewer places 

to find refuge in southern Kotzebue Sound. 

It used to be that there were two or three weeks of good hunting conditions for bearded seals, as 

the ice broke up but before it was gone entirely. In spring 2015, there was only a week or less, 

because the ice disappeared very quickly after break-up. This is due in part to more east wind, 

blowing the ice out, and in part to thinner ice during the winter, making it easier to melt and 

move. The lack of ice also meant that waves could build up more in Kotzebue Sound, increasing 

the risk for hunters. Some ice remained towards Goodhope Bay, but it was dangerous to go that 

far in open water. Still, if hunters can find an ice floe, there are often bearded seals nearby, so 

the hunting can be good. With so little ice, the bearded seals have few options left, so are 

concentrated near the floes that remain. The risk of exposure to wind and waves is still higher 

for hunters with so little ice.

Bearded seals come in earlier than they used to, but often stay on thin ice where hunters cannot 

reach them. Thinner ice also makes it harder to hunt for bearded seals, as travel on top of the ice 

is more dangerous for hunters. Bearded seals can be hunted while they are swimming in open 
7

water, but hunters prefer to get them on the ice since hauling them in and out of the boat is 

difficult. The adult bearded seals come in earlier because the ice breaks up earlier, but they do 

not stay as long because the ice goes away quickly, leaving only swimming seals.

Bearded seals need white ice (thicker ice), but there is more and more black ice (thinner, younger 

ice) in Kotzebue Sound these days, which produces fewer pressure ridges and thus less denning 

habitat. The ice is no longer suitable for camping during the spring hunt. The ice that is left 

moves very quickly in the currents and can break up quickly, making it dangerous for camping.

Adult bearded seals in spring have thinner blubber than they did in the past, only an inch or an 

inch-and-a-half thick as opposed to three to four inches. 

Yearling bearded seals (ugruchiaq) return in September, before the ice starts to form. Many of 

these seals spend time up rivers, including the Ugrugvik Lakes, just north of the mouth of the 

Kobuk River. A bearded seal was seen close to Ambler on the Kobuk River in September 2015. 

There are often bearded and ringed seals up the Kobuk, and seemed to be even more this past fall 

(2015), well over a dozen. Some bearded and ringed seals also go up the Noatak River. There 

were more yearling bearded seals last fall (2015) than ever before. They appeared very healthy.

One hunter has checked the stomachs of three bearded seals in his lifetime. All were full of 

shrimp. The seals will feed throughout Kotzebue Sound, but a prime feeding area is off the 

Chamisso Islands. 

Ringed Seals

Some ringed seals will stay in Kotzebue Sound during summer, but most move away because 

they do not like to be around spotted seals. Ringed seals return in late summer. The juveniles 

come first, and the adults later in fall after the spotted seals have started to leave. Adult ringed 

seals will stay in Kotzebue Sound all winter. They make their dens in the pressure ridges. Large 

ridges used to form in the middle of Kotzebue Sound, but the ice today is thinner. Merging 

currents at Cape Blossom also created pressure ridges close to shore, but today this area is often 

open water even into winter, reducing denning habitat for ringed seals. In mid-winter, ringed 

seals are fat and healthy, at their most prime condition. They float very well at this time of year.

Spotted Seals

After the ice is gone in summer, spotted seals are the ones seen in the area until fall. They come 

to feed on the fish in Kotzebue Sound and in the rivers. Spotted seals are molting when they 

arrive. That is the time of year when everything is molting. Many spotted seals go up the 

Noatak River, to just below the hatchery, though they are generally in the lower part of the river. 

They also go into Hotham Inlet, Kobuk Lake, and Selawik Lake. They feed on fish in the 

freshwater areas. 

After the ice floes start to form in fall, spotted seals will haul out in the hundreds and ride the ice 

to the southwest when the wind blows from the northeast. In fall 2015, thousands of spotted 

seals were seen in front of Kotzebue. Buckland hunters took many spotted seals in Eschscholtz 

Bay, including by the mouth of the Buckland River.

Spotted seals may be arriving a little later than they used to, and are staying a lot longer in fall.
8 

Walrus

Walrus come into Kotzebue Sound in spring, and feed in the waters off the Chamisso Islands in 

southern Kotzebue Sound. They may have young there, too. They stay while there is still ice in 

the area. 

In fall, one or two walrus may haul out on the beach to the east of Cape Krusenstern. There are 

never many that do this. 

When there are walrus around, seals will not be seen. The seals stay away from walrus.

A walrus taken last summer had shrimp in its stomach. 

Beluga Whales 

Beluga whales will come into Kotzebue Sound when the ice starts to break up, coming in the 

cracks that form from Cape Espenberg and Cape Krusenstern. 

There has been a huge change in beluga whales in Kotzebue Sound. It is not even clear that 

there is a Kotzebue Sound population any more. People used to get them every year. Sisualiq is 

named for beluga whales (sisuaq), and there used to be drive hunts there every summer. The 

drive hunt used to be well organized and coordinated, but now people tend to go for themselves 

rather than as a group. Belugas do not go into Eschscholtz Bay the way they used to, either. The 

few sightings in recent years have been around the mouth of the Noatak River, with a few in 

Eschscholtz Bay, and one juvenile beluga as far upriver as Selawik Lake. One beluga was seen 

in the shallows between Kotzebue and Sisualiq, in only a few feet of water, during the tomcod 

run in October, which is very late for a beluga to be seen near Kotzebue.

There is a lot of boat traffic these days, especially hunters from Kotzebue going after bearded 

seals towards Cape Krusenstern or putting in crab pots north of Kotzebue. The noise may deter 

belugas from coming into the Sound. Elders said the belugas came in because it was quiet. 

When air traffic increased at Kotzebue, the belugas started to decline. The noise of jet planes 

can be heard even at Sisualiq. The conflict between Buckland and Kotzebue hunters over 

hunting in Eschscholtz Bay (Elephant Point), which was the last place belugas were plentiful in 

Kotzebue Sound, may also have contributed to the decline. The custom is to let the first animals 

pass, but these days there are no animals to follow the first ones. Today, though, hunters may 

pursue the first animals. Hunters no longer coordinate the hunt the way they used to. Most 

beluga hunting today is with nets. 

The ice entrapment of belugas in Russia in the mid-1980s seems the most likely explanation for 

their disappearance. There was a lot of harvest prior to that, but it seems hard to believe that 

overharvest is the explanation for the nearly complete disappearance of belugas from Kotzebue 

Sound. 

The belugas that came into Kotzebue Sound in large numbers in one year in the 1990s were 

thinner than the belugas Kotzebue hunters are used to taking. 
9 

A group of belugas came to the Sadie Creek area a few years ago. Hunters think killer whales 

chased them in, because the belugas nearly beached themselves in the shallows. 

One year, hunters found a king salmon in the stomach of a beluga whale. Two other belugas 

taken at the same time had only tomcod in their stomachs. A beluga taken in summer 2015 had a 

stomach full of crabs. Crabs are sometimes seen in beluga stomachs, but usually the stomachs 

are mostly full of fish. 

Killer whales

There are more killer whales than there used to be in the Kotzebue Sound area. This is known 

from observations and also from the results of acoustic monitoring done by the Kotzebue IRA 

Council. When they follow belugas, the belugas will stay very close to shore and even go into 

very shallow water. Killer whales stay where the water is deep. One hunter saw a killer whale 

kill a large male beluga by holding it under water until it died. After that, the killer whales tore 

the beluga apart.

Other Information 

Fewer ribbon seals are seen now than in the past. Hunters used to encounter them now and then, 

but hardly seem them now. People never ate them, but took the hides and fed the meat and 

blubber to dogs. One hunter saw many ribbon seals a few years ago, between Point Hope and 

Cape Lisburne.

A fur seal was once seen in Kotzebue Sound, many years ago. 

The waters between Cape Espenberg and Cape Krusenstern are very dynamic, with open water 

and moving ice in winter and spring, and an abundance of marine mammals. 

The southern end of Kotzebue Sound, including Eschscholtz Bay, has tides of about four feet. 

Boats hauled up at Cape Espenberg can be left high and dry at low tide if hunters are not paying 

attention. The northern end, including Kotzebue, does not. 

The water level in northern Kotzebue Sound, Hotham Inlet, Kobuk Lake, and Selawik Lake is 

controlled by wind. North and east winds cause the water level to drop; west and south winds 

cause it to rise, with the highest water coming from south winds. Fish movements are 

determined by the currents caused by the wind. There used to be little south wind in summer, 

but September would bring south winds, causing the water to rise. The prevailing wind in winter 

is from the east, lowering the water and preventing flooding. Today, there is more flooding due 

to changing wind patterns. 

An east wind opens the ice to the west of a line between Cape Espenberg and Cape Krusenstern. 

In the old days, hunters would travel to the ice edge by dog team when there was an east wind so 

they could hunt seals there. They would wait for the wind to calm down, so that the risk of being 

blown out to sea was less, and then have a day or two of seal hunting before the open water froze 

over again. Today, east winds may open the ice may well within Kotzebue Sound. While new 

ice may form on the open water, the ice still remains thin and does not have time to become 

thick. It seems that the east winds are stronger than they used to be. 
10 

In those days, the ice in Kotzebue Sound was five to six feet thick, and there was no moving ice 

inside of the Espenberg-Krusenstern line. There were more pressure ridges in Kotzebue Sound, 

including very large ones in the middle of the sound. Seals make their lairs in the pressure 

ridges, where the ice and snow provide good habitat. Today, the ice is thinner and flatter, though 

there are still some smaller pressure ridges, closer to shore, so there is still denning habitat for 

seals. The thinner ice is more dangerous for traveling, as it can open up or form cracks well into 

Kotzebue Sound. No longer can hunters travel straight from Kotzebue to Cape Espenberg—the 

ice is too unreliable. There is much less shorefast ice, since there are not large pressure ridges to 

hold the ice in place. There are fewer strong west winds to push the ice into Kotzebue Sound 

and build up those pressure ridges, and the ice is thinner. Hunters used to be able to camp on the 

ice past Cape Krusenstern, but today the ice is not reliable. 

While ice and weather conditions have always varied from year to year, the changes have really 

taken effect over the past fifteen years or so. In the 1980s, there was still ice for hunting bearded 

seals into July, but now the ice is gone in June. 

When the ice goes out in spring, Kotzebue Sound opens up a week or two after Kobuk and 

Selawik Lakes. The elders have always said it is dangerous to go out while there is still ice in 

Kobuk Lake and Hotham Inlet. In some years, the ice goes out quickly, and in other years it 

goes back and forth in Kotzebue Sound for some weeks. 

A strong current carries spring pack ice from Cape Espenberg northwards towards Cape 

Krusenstern. A current along the coast from Shishmaref merges with a current coming from 

Goodhope Bay and southern Kotzebue Sound to produce a stronger current going north. This 

current does not go into northern Kotzebue Sound, but goes north past Cape Krusenstern. 

There used to be more snow, on the ice and in town. 

The weather used to be easier to predict. Now it is hard to read. Clouds forming on the tops of 

mountains are a good indicator that winds are coming, as are the ways high clouds form or 

disappear in the sky. 

Hunters use satellite imagery of sea ice to plan boat travel in Kotzebue Sound, to help improve 

safety and efficiency as they will know where to find ice for hunting bearded seals. 

Concerns

Continued climate change, and subsequent changes, like more commercial shipping, remain a 

concern. If the ship traffic starts to occur when marine mammals are migrating, it could be a 

major conflict or impact. The Arctic Waterways Safety Committee is a good forum for 

discussing shipping. Having a shipping lane from Bering Strait to Canada would be a good way 

to reduce impacts and risks to hunters. 

The reports of dying murres and poor salmon returns from around the state raise concern about 

how much the ocean is changing and what that is likely to mean for people in Kotzebue, even if 

seals in Kotzebue Sound appear to be doing well so far.
11

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the skill, expertise, and generosity of the six hunters who participated in the 

interviews. We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal 

Committee for this project and are grateful to John Goodwin and Alex Whiting for helping to set 

up the interviews and to the Kotzebue IRA Council for providing space for interviews. The 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work as part of Contract Nos. 

M09PC00027 and M13PC00015 and we appreciate the support of Charles Monnett, Catherine 

Coon, Dan Holiday, and Carol Fairfield. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the 

interviews and the figure in this report.

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242.

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54.
1 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska

Appendix G-8. Huntington, H. P., M. Nelson, and L. T. Quakenbush. 2016c. Traditional knowledge 

regarding ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for contract 

#M13PC00015. 8 pp.
2 

Traditional Knowledge Regarding Ringed Seals, 

Bearded Seals, and Walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska

By:

Henry P. Huntington 

Huntington Consulting 

Eagle River, Alaska

hph@alaska.net

Ph: (907) 696-3564 

Mark Nelson and Lori T. Quakenbush 

Alaska Department of Fish and Game 

Fairbanks, Alaska

mark.nelson@alaska.gov, lori.quakenbush@alaska.gov

Ph: (907) 459-7374, (907) 459-7214 

Final Report

Approved July 2016

Final report should be cited as: 

Huntington, H.P., M. Nelson, and L.T. Quakenbush. 2016. Traditional knowledge regarding 

ringed seals, bearded seals, and walrus near Shishmaref, Alaska. Final report to the Eskimo 

Walrus Commission, the Ice Seal Committee, and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for 

contract #M13PC00015. 9pp. 
3

Introduction

Bearded seals, spotted seals, and ringed seals are important species for subsistence harvests by 

Iñupiat hunters from Shishmaref (population 579), on the northern coast of the Seward 

Peninsula, in the Chukchi Sea coast, just north of Bering Strait in Alaska. Walrus are found and 

hunted in this area, too. These Arctic marine mammal populations are at potential risk from 

climate change, increasing industrial activity, coastal development, and shipping through Bering.

Scientific studies of distribution, behavior, movements, and habitat use of seals and walrus have 

made important contributions to understanding the effects of a changing environment and the 

potential effects from industrial activity. For example, placing satellite transmitters on seals and 

walrus provides detailed information about the movements and some behaviors of individual 

animals. Documenting traditional knowledge about seals and walrus, through interviews with 

residents of coastal communities, however, provides valuable complementary current and 

historical information about the general patterns of each species.

This report summarizes information gathered from interviews with hunters and other 

knowledgeable residents in Shishmaref, Alaska, in January 2016. This traditional knowledge 

project used the same approach that the Native Village of Savoonga used when documenting 

traditional knowledge about bowhead whales on St. Lawrence Island (Noongwook et al. 2007).

Methods

We used the semi-directive interview method, in which the interviewers raise a number of topics 

with the person being interviewed, but do not rely solely on a formal list of questions

(Huntington 1998). Instead, the interview is closer to a discussion or conversation, proceeding in 

directions determined by the person being interviewed, reflecting his/her knowledge, the 

associations made between walrus and other parts of the environment, and so on. The 

interviewers use their list of topics to raise additional points for discussion, but do not curtail 

discussion of additional topics introduced by the person being interviewed.

In Shishmaref, we interviewed five people, three in one group and two individually. Those

interviewed were William Olanna, Bert Iyatunguk, Fred Weyiouanna, Morris Kiyutelluk, and 

one other who wished to remain anonymous. The interviews were conducted on January 4 and 

5, in the homes of the interviewees and at the Shishmaref IRA Council office.

The topics identified by the research team in advance of the interviewers were:

Haulouts on land

Overwintering areas and behavior

Use of lagoons and rivers

Feeding patterns and prey

Differences between ringed and bearded seals

Impacts from climate change

Parts of seals that people eat

The results are presented under different headings, reflecting the actual information collected and 

the fact that some of the subjects blend together, especially changes seen over time in regard to 
4 

all of the topics. The interviewers were Henry Huntington and Mark Nelson. Lori Quakenbush 

is the project leader. 

General Observations

In spring, bearded seals come first, followed by walrus, and then spotted seals. When the spotted 

seals are plentiful near Shishmaref, hunters know the bearded seal season is over, unless they go 

most of the way to Kotzebue to catch up to them. Today, the changing climate is shortening the 

time separating the migrations and they are blending together such that bearded seals and walrus 

may arrive at the same time.

Animals are arriving earlier in spring than they used to, and the spring season is over sooner. It 

used to be that duck hunting came before bearded seal hunting, but now bearded seal hunting 

takes place at the same time as duck hunting. Eggs and berries also come earlier than they used 

to. 

Seals are not common around Shishmaref in summer, from about July to September. They are at 

Cape Espenberg and in Kotzebue Sound. 

In fall, there are more seals in the Shishmaref area than there used to be.

Sea ice breaks up earlier than it used to and freezes much later. This winter (2015-16), there was 

open water on the ocean until Christmas, when it usually freezes by November. The ice is thin 

and dangerous much of the time, not solid and reliable as it once was in winter. There are no 

large pressure ridges to hold the ice in place, so in spring the ice will break up quickly and be 

dangerous to travel on. 

Seals feed on herring and salmon, which are plentiful in the Shishmaref area.
5

Figure 1. Movements and behavior of bearded seals, spotted seals, ringed seals, walrus, and 

beluga whales as described during traditional knowledge interviews, January 2016.

Bearded Seals

Bearded seals are the main source of food for Shishmaref residents. Bearded seal oil and meat 

are a typical winter meal. Bearded seals are hunted mainly in spring, from the shorefast ice or in 

the pack ice when boating is possible.

In spring, bearded seals migrate closer to the shore and the village than they used to. Hunters do 

not have to travel as far, unless they are held on shore because the sea ice is piled up against the 

land. In those years, hunters may have to travel very far, sometimes to northern Kotzebue 

Sound, in pursuit of bearded seals.

Young bearded seals (unmiaq) migrate north with the adults, but migrate back south slightly 

ahead of the adults. Unmiaq’s are also found up rivers in summer, especially the Serpentine 

River and occasionally in smaller rivers and tributaries. They are likely feeding on salmon.

Bearded seals return to the Shishmaref area in late fall, when slush ice starts to form on the 

ocean. In spring, the bearded seals surface often as they migrate past the village. In fall, they 

travel differently, surfacing infrequently and moving fast.
6 

One fall during the slush ice period, one hunter saw one pan of sea ice full of spotted seals and 

another pan nearby that was full of bearded seals.

In recent years, since the Fukushima nuclear reactor breach in 2011, hunters have seen many 

diseased animals, with sores around their flippers and back end, with white livers, and with bald 

spots or even with no hair at all. The hair can feel like sandpaper instead of being smooth, and in 

fall it may come out easily when it should be firmly attached to the skin. In 2015, there were 

more sick seals than in 2014. 

Hunters once found a worm in a bearded seal’s liver, most likely a liver fluke. The animal 

appeared healthy otherwise, though its blubber was yellow-orange.

In spring 2015, after the sea ice broke up, hunters caught a young bearded seals (unmiaq) but 

found that it was covered with white spots. This was something different from the hair loss 

hunters were familiar with. Hunters do not like to eat diseased animals. One hunter’s 

grandmother told him not to eat seals that have no hair where they are supposed to have hair. 

Many hunters do not even want to touch animals that appear severely ill. 

Bearded seals in fall also showed signs of disease. Diseased seals of all species are typically 

thin, with little blubber, and do not dive right away or stay down for long. One seal did not dive 

until three shots were fired at it. Healthy seals dive right away and can stay down for a long 

time.

People in Shishmaref eat the oil, meat, liver, intestines, kidneys, heart, and lungs of bearded 

seals. The blubber is rendered into oil. Meat is dried and stored in oil. Liver is cooked and then 

stored in oil. Intestines are dried, cooked, and stored in oil. Lungs are half-dried and then eaten. 

They can become hard as wood if left too long. Flippers are hung up with the drying meat until 

they become tasty. In the old days, seal oil and meat would be stored in sealskin pokes, in 

shallow holes in the ground, covered with wood. In fall, the ground would freeze and water in 

the hole would freeze, helping protect the pokes from bears and foxes. The quality of seal meat, 

seal oil, and seal hides does not appear to have changed. 

Some bearded seals have claw marks, probably from polar bears as the seals are hunted in spring. 

Albino bearded seals are seen, though rarely. 

Spotted Seals 

Spotted seals are typically hunted in fall when they return to the Shishmaref area from Cape 

Espenberg and Kotzebue Sound. They are the first seals seen in early fall before the ice starts to 

form.
7 

Spotted seals haul out in large numbers on small islands south of Cape Espenberg on the 

Kotzebue Sound side. They are also seen in large numbers in the mouth of the Lane River, 

farther south of Cape Espenberg on the same side, particularly in the deep water channel on the 

north side of the Lane estuary.

In fall 2015, hundreds of spotted seals were seen on top of ice in Shishmaref Lagoon near the 

mouth of the Serpentine River. During open water, spotted seals are abundant near the entrances 

to Shishmaref Lagoon likely eating fish because the fishing is poor. The fish arrive in higher 

numbers once the ice forms and the seals leave.

Spotted seals in recent years have been larger than they used to be. The spotted seals found near 

Cape Espenberg, at Singeak, and at Ikpek (southwest of Shishmaref) are all big. The spotted 

seals in Shishmaref Lagoon are only 4-5 feet long, not the big ones. 

Spotted seals also suffer from the disease that afflicts bearded seals, the one that causes hair loss. 

Ringed Seals 

Ringed seals, referred to as common seals, are typically hunted in fall, but can be hunted year 

round if they are available. 

Ringed seals return to the Shishmaref area in late fall, like bearded seals, when slush ice starts to 

form on the ocean. 

The harvest of ringed seals has declined due to the disease that has been seen on so many 

bearded, spotted, and ringed seals in the past five or so years. People do not want to hunt 

animals that may be sick. Some ringed seals and ringed seal pups are seen on the beach in 

summer, but people do not want to harvest them or touch them or even feed them to dogs 

because of the risk of disease.

Walrus

Walrus are hunted in spring as they migrate northwards with the retreating ice. Walrus migrate 

farther off shore now because the pack ice is less dense and more broken than in the past. 

Walrus are occasionally seen in fall, as lone animals swimming past. One was seen in 

Shishmaref Lagoon. Some individuals are seen hauled out on the beach, by themselves.

Walrus can be seen sometimes on very small ice floes, instead of in larger groups on larger ice 

pans the way they used to haul out. Sometimes only the small floes are available.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, some hunters went over 50 miles offshore on the ice by 

snowmachine to hunt walrus. In those days, the weather was cold and the sea ice was solid.

Today, walrus are sometimes hunted from the ice edge in May. They used to be hunted along 

the shore north and south of Shishmaref. In some years, hunters have to go as far as Kotzebue 

Sound and even close to Kivalina to pursue walrus as they migrate northwards. When they do 
8

so, hunters may go to Cape Espenberg and wait for good weather for traveling across Kotzebue 

Sound. Hunters have also gone as far south as Wales and Diomede to pursue animals.

Walrus appear healthy, with no sign of the disease afflicting seals. Some walrus are skinny, 

perhaps due to retreating sea ice and having to swim farther from their resting places atop the ice 

to their feeding areas.

Other Information

Ribbon seals are very skittish, diving off ice floes at the slightest sound or smell of people.

It is harder to find polar bears than it was 20 years ago. They are typically seen in spring when 

they go out with the sea ice. Nowadays, some get stranded on land. Some are seen swimming 

straight out to sea, presumably in search of sea ice. Hunters in Shishmaref do not believe the 

polar bears survive this attempt. Polar bears are seen more often inland than they used to be, 

usually in early spring before the ice goes out.

Steller sea lions are occasionally seen in the Shishmaref area. This is a relatively new 

phenomenon, but is still rare. 

The Lane River area is a good place to hunt belugas in late summer and fall.

In spring 2015, killer whales kept a gray whale cow and calf close to shore near Shishmaref. The 

killer whales may have taken the calf.

Hunters can push whales in the direction they want them to go by slapping the water with their 

paddles. This imitates the behavior of killer whales, which slap their tails and dorsal fin on the 

water to scare the whales and push them in the direction the killer whales want them to go. 

Whales have occasionally come into Shishmaref Lagoon, but this has not happened in recent 

years. The bones of a whale can be found a short distance upstream from the mouth of the 

Serpentine River, where hunters pursued it many years ago. It is not known what species of 

whale it was.

Shishmaref hunters took a bowhead whale once, when it came closer to the shorefast ice than 

usual.

Many more gray whale carcasses are seen along the coast near Shishmaref than there used to be. 

Bowhead whale carcasses remain rare.

Fish arrive in spring after the ice goes out.

There are more seabirds in the Shishmaref area now than there used to be. There are also 

different birds

There are different crabs in the Shishmaref area in recent years.

Some hunters will print satellite images of sea ice before going out on the shorefast ice in spring.
9 

The channels into Shishmaref Lagoon formed relatively recently. The one to the north of the 

village, for example, opened within the past two generations. The grandmother of one 

Shishmaref resident described jumping over the narrow channel when she was young, as it was 

forming. 

Caribou are found closer to the village recently than they have been for many years. The warmer 

weather may be an influence. The elders said the caribou would return to this area. They can be 

seen on the mainland not far from Shishmaref. It used to be that only a few caribou might be 

seen, but now there are hundreds if not thousands. Predators are closer, too, including wolves, 

wolverine, and brown bears. 

It used to be possible to predict good weather for a couple of days, so that hunters could cross 

Kotzebue Sound for example. Now, the winds and bad weather can come up very quickly. 

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the skill, expertise, and generosity of the five hunters who participated in the 

interviews. We appreciate the support of the Eskimo Walrus Commission and the Ice Seal 

Committee for this project and are grateful to Jane Kakoona, Karen Olanna, and Renee Kuzuguk 

from the Shishmaref IRA Council office for helping to set up the interviews. The Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) funded the work as part of Contract Nos. M09PC00027 

and M13PC00015 and we appreciate the support of Charles Monnett, Catherine Coon, Dan 

Holiday, and Carol Fairfield. Justin Crawford prepared the maps used during the interviews and 

the figure in this report.

References

Huntington, H.P. 1998. Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for 

documenting traditional ecological knowledge. Arctic 51(3):237-242. 

Noongwook, G., the Native Village of Gambell, the Native Village of Savoonga, H.P. 

Huntington, and J.C. George. 2007. Traditional knowledge of the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus) around St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Arctic 60(1):47–54. 
Technical Summary: BOEM Publication 2016-053

Study Title: Pinnipeds Movements and Foraging

Report Title: Village-Based Walrus Habitat Use Studies in the 

Chukchi Sea from 2009–2016

Contract Number: M09PC00027, BOEM Study Number: 2016-053

Sponsoring OCS Region: Alaska

Applicable Planning Areas: Chukchi

Fiscal Years of Project Funding: 2009–2016

Completion Date of Report: June 2016

Cost by fiscal year; FY 2009: $1,880; FY 2010: $238,017; FY 

2011: $128,276; FY 2012: $117,432; FY 2013: $272,520; FY 2014: 

$313,748; FY 2015: $441,256; FY 2016: $16,008

Cumulative Project Cost: $1,529,137

Project Manager: Lori Quakenbush

Affiliation: Alaska Department of Fish and Game

Address: 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK 99701

Principal Investigators: Lori Quakenbush 

Key Words: Pacific walrus, Chukchi Sea, Bering Sea, foraging, 

satellite telemetry, movements, migration, petroleum exploration

areas, traditional ecological knowledge, subsistence hunters

Background: Pacific walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) are highly

important due to their role in the nutritional and cultural 

health of coastal Alaska Natives of the Bering and Chukchi seas, 

and in the marine ecosystem, and because their range overlaps 

with areas identified for potential oil and gas development and 

shipping. Female and juvenile walruses prefer to haul out on ice 

in the Chukchi Sea in summer, however, when the ice edge 

retreats too far north of the continental shelf it is no longer 

suitable for resting between benthic feeding bouts because the 

water is too deep. Increasing our understanding of walrus

movements, habitat use, and haul out behavior will aid in 

resource management, spatial planning and walrus conservation

and is especially important with recent reductions in summer sea 

ice in the Chukchi Sea due to effects of climate change. 

Objectives: The overall objective of this study was to work with 

subsistence hunters to deploy satellite-linked transmitters on 

walruses, conduct observations on coastal haulouts, document 

traditional knowledge regarding walruses, and to integrate our 

findings with concurrent research on walruses and other marine 

mammals in the Chukchi Sea Lease Sale area. Specific objectives 

were to document 1) the pattern of movements, 2) changes in 

behavior relative to changes in sea ice, 3) use of terrestrial 
haulouts, and 4) collect traditional knowledge of walrus 

movements, behavior and habitat use. 

Description: We worked with Alaska Native walrus hunters to 

monitor coastal haulouts, conduct carcass surveys, collect 

traditional knowledge, and attach satellite transmitters to 

walruses to document movements, identify important habitats, and 

describe haul out behavior in the Chukchi Sea. 

Significant Conclusions: This project has contributed to a 

greater understanding of the distribution, movements, and 

habitat use of Pacific walruses by combining data collected by 

satellite transmitters with Traditional Ecological Knowledge. 

Specifically, we provided further documentation of spring, 

summer, and fall movements of walruses including migratory 

routes and use of the Chukchi oil and gas lease sale area. We 

compared three areas of use (Hanna Shoal, Icy Cape, and the rest 

of the Alaskan Chukchi Sea) and found Hanna Shoal likely to be 

the most important of these areas. Females with calves spent 

more time hauled out at Hanna Shoal than females with and 

without calves at other locations. Based on movements and 

behavior of tagged walruses from all years, the greatest 

potential for anthropogenic disturbances from industrial 

activities including local shipping occur near Hanna Shoal from 

June to September. Commercial ships traveling along the northern 

coast of Russia north of Bering Strait in October have the

potential for encountering walruses on their southern migration. 

The greatest potential for harm, however, occurs if the large 

coastal haulouts are disturbed by ships near the coast. 

Study Results: We worked with Alaska Native walrus hunters to 

attach 95 satellite transmitters to walruses in the Bering and 

Chukchi seas (39 on females with calves, 47 on females without 

calves and 9 on males). We combined information from all years

to document movements and feeding and haulout behavior. We 

compared the use of potential feeding areas and whether females 

with calves and females without calves used them differently. We 

conducted traditional knowledge interviews in nine villages and 

incorporated information collected into our final report. We 

estimated the amount of time walruses spent in the entire 

Chukchi Oil and Gas Lease Sale Area (and in the leased blocks

only) in Alaska, as well as in proposed lease areas of Russian 

waters. 

Study Products: We provided weekly updates of walrus movements 

by e-mailing maps and adding them to the State of Alaska 

website. Weekly maps of Lease Area 193 were also provided to 

BOEM. We made presentations to the Eskimo Walrus Commission, to
the hunters at their meetings in Gambell and Savoonga, and at 

scientific meetings including the Society for Marine Mammal 

Conference and the Alaska Marine Science Symposium. We 

conducted traditional knowledge interviews that included walrus 

behavior in nine villages. We produced annual project reports,

seven village specific traditional knowledge reports; one peerreviewed publication is in press, and another is being prepared.