OCS Study 

MMS 96-0050 

Mariculture Associated with 

Oil and Gas Structures : 

A Compendium 

U.S. Department of the Interior AM Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 
OCS Study 

MMS 96-0050 

Maricu Itu re Associated with 

Oil and Gas Structures : 

A Compendium 

14th Information Transfer Meeting 

Mariculture Sessions 

New Orleans, Louisiana 

November 17, 1994 

Compiled by 

Villere C . Reggio, Jr. 

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Published by 

U .S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service New Orleans 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region September 1996 
DISCLAIMER 

The opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this report are those of the 

authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Minerals Management Service (MMS) unless 

so designated by other authorized documents. 

The papers in this report were not subject to peer review, but were subjected to technical editing for 

publication by MMS and its contractor subsequent to the meeting. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Copies of this report may be obtained from the Public Information Office (Mail Stop 5034) at the 

following address: 

U.S . Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Public Information Office (MS 5034) 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard 

New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394 

Telephone: (504) 736-2519 or 

(800) 200-GULF 

CITATION 

Suggested citation : 

Reggio, V.C., Jr., comp. 1996. Mariculture associated with oil and gas structures : a compendium. 

In : Proceedings : Fourteenth Information Transfer Meeting, November 17, 1994, New 

Orleans, La. OCS Study MMS 96-0050. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, La. 32 pp . 

ABOUT THE COVER 

Thanks are extended to Mr. Steve Kolian of Tulane University for providing the cover photo. 

iii 
CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface vii 

Introduction : Mariculture Associated with Oil and Gas Structures 

Villere C. Reggio, Jr. 

Mariculture from Offshore Oil and Gas Leases 

John Mirabella 1 

Oil and Gas Views on Use and Reuse of Petroleum Structures 

for Mariculture 2 

David A. Dougall 

Mariculture in the Gulf of Mexico : Sea Pride Industries' Sea Trek and 

Sea Star Systems 

Edwin Cake, Jr. and John D . Ericsson 6 

The Engineering of Mariculture Pens in Association with Oil and Gas Structures 

Clifford A. Goudey 10 

Mariculture Potential, Problems & Perspective Nearshore & Offshore Texas and 

Throughout the Gulf of Mexico 

Tim Moore 16 

The Watermark Corporation 

Gregg Creppel 

High Seas Mariculture 

Michael C. Kacergis 

20 

22 

Open Ocean Mariculture and the Significance of Petroleum Structures to Fisheries 

Steve Kolian 27 

v 
PREFACE 

Interest and inquiries regarding the use of offshore oil and gas platforms for mariculture purposes 

have increased significantly in the last five years. Hence, in response to our customers, Minerals 

Management Service (MMS) has begun informal investigations into the legal and technical aspects 

of using active or obsolete petroleum structures for open ocean fish culture. Although MMS has no 

current authority to lease or regulate OCS lands or waters for mariculture, it is apparent that 

petroleum structures already in the marine environment present unique opportunities for fisheries 

enhancement and development, as was the case for converting obsolete structures for the creation 

of artificial reefs (Rigs to Reefs) . 

MMS is committed to the wise use and conservation of all marine resources and hopes the 

information shared with us through our Information Transfer Meeting in 1994 will assist others 

interested in capitalizing on the potential compatibility of petroleum development and fisheries 

development . The following publications are suggested for additional information on the problems, 

opportunities, and existing regulations pertaining to aquaculture and mariculture: 

Marine Law Institute . 1992. An assessment of the regulatory framework for finfish aquaculture in 

marine waters. University of Maine School of Law, Portland, Maine. Also available through 

the National Coastal Resources Research and Development Institute, Portland, Oregon 

(Publication No . NCRI-T-92-013). 

National Research Council. 1992. Marine aquaculture : opportunities for growth. Washington, DC: 

National Academy Press. 

Rubino, M.C. and C. Wilson. 1993 . Issues in aquaculture regulation. Available from Bluewaters, 

Inc., Bethesda, Maryland. 

U.S . Dept. of Agriculture. 1994. Resource guide to aquaculture information. National Agricultural 

Library, Beltsville, Maryland. 

vii 
MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH 

OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES 

Mr. Villere C. Reggio, Jr. 

Mr. Dave Moran 

U.S. Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico Region 

INTRODUCTION 

Increasing competition and regulation along with 

declining economic success of ocean capture fisheries 

portends increasing interest and opportunities for 

aquaculture and mariculture. Growing public demand 

for a consistent source of quality, healthful seafood 

has already stimulated offshore fish culture proposals 

in the quality, temperate offshore waters of the 

Central and Western Gulf. Notwithstanding the legal 

uncertainties of open ocean mariculture, researchers 

and entrepreneurs are keying on the potential 

availability of extant petroleum structures to test the 

feasibility and potential for fish husbandry in the 

Gulf of Mexico. 

In the spirit of reinvention MMS organized a session 

designed to bring together regulators, researchers, 

and aspiring offshore fish culturist to evaluate the potential and problems of dedicating offshore petroleum 

structures to growing fish for market . Buoyed by the 

long-term success of Ecomar's harvest of marketable 

shellfish from OCS structures in the Santa Barbara 

Channel, representatives from MMS, the oil and gas 

industry, academia, the fishing industry, and the 

private sector offered visionary concepts, thoughtful 

opinions, and serious constraints to extended 

economic development of ocean resources tied to the 

multiple use potential of offshore petroleum 

structures . The documentation that follows should 

serve as a useful source of information to all who can 

see the wisdom of developing fuel and fish from a 

common base of operations . 

Mr. Villere C. Reggio, Jr., is an Outdoor Recreation 

Planner with the Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. His responsibilities include 

assessment, research, and reporting on the 

interrelationship of the OCS oil and gas program 

with the recreational elements of the marine and 

coastal environment throughout the Gulf region. For 

the past 20 years Mr. Reggio has had a special 

interest in evaluating the fisheries value and potential 

of oil and gas structures . 

Mr. Dave Moran is a General Biologist under the 

Regional Supervisor for Leasing and Environment, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region . Dave's primary responsibility encompasses 

environmental assessment of offshore oil and gas 

operations . 

MARICULTURE FROM OFFSHORE 

OIL AND GAS LEASES 

Mr. John Mirabella 

U.S . Minerals Management Service Headquarters 

Herndon, Virginia 

Oil and gas operations have been occurring in 

offshore waters, bringing jobs to the area and oil and 

gas to the country. We have tended to ask the 

question, "Can we conduct oil and gas operations 

without interfering with other users of the offshore 

waters?" The parties involved have worked to solve 

most problems encountered, and, for the most part, 

the oil and gas companies have been good neighbors 

to the other offshore users. However, mariculture 

provides a new opportunity. We are now asking, 

"Can a functioning oil and gas facility provide an 

offshore platform for launching a new industry?" 

Rather than having oil and gas operations and 

mariculture activities just "not interfere" with each 

other, these two activities are looking to assist each 

other. If the expense of maintaining an offshore 

platform can be shared between two users-then 

maybe a mariculture enterprise that would otherwise 

be marginal can become profitable, and an oil and 

gas operation can continue production long after the 

field would have otherwise been abandoned. 

From the start, MMS believed this to be a worthwhile 

and interesting project and assembled aworkgroup to 

evaluate the potential project and determine what 

further information was needed . The MMS also 

facilitated communications with the National Marine 

Fisheries Service, the Department of Energy, the 

Corps of Engineers, the Environmental Protection 
2 

Agency, the oil and gas industry, and the Congress; 

all showed an interest . 

Much progress has been made-but questions remain 

concerning extra stress on platforms, the effect on 

current and future production from the platform, 

liability for damage and end-of-lease obligations, and 

involvement of other government agencies at the 

federal, state, and local levels . Some of these issues 

are straightforward. For example, MMS regulates the 

design, construction, and installation of all platforms 

in the OCS. If a new platform is to be built, MMS is 

prepared to work with the Corps of Engineers or 

other agencies to help develop and implement 

appropriate regulations. 

Once a platform is constructed, the lessee must 

perform periodic inspection and maintenance. With 

regard to some aspects of maintenance, annual costs 

are independent of the level of production . The MMS 

must ensure that if minimal production operations 

continue to prevent the lease from expiring, then 

maintenance and inspection also continue . 

Other agencies will also need to add their experience 

to facilitate the establishment of mariculture projects . 

The Corps of Engineers has responsibility for 

prevention of obstructions to navigation, and the U.S . 

Coast Guard has responsibility for ensuring that 

platforms and artificial islands are marked so as not 

to be a hazard to navigation . Marking may be more 

complex if large nets are placed adjacent to 

platforms. The Corps of Engineers and the U.S . 

Coast Guard have extensive experience with their 

respective areas and problems are not anticipated. 

Regulation of worker safety is less clear. The U.S . 

Coast Guard and the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration have a Memorandum of 

Understanding covering the working conditions for 

oil and gas activities . What happens when 

mariculture activity takes place on the same 

platform? This is an area the two agencies would 

need to work out. 

Consideration of end-of-lease obligations and 

bonding issues is important. In the event of a request 

for reassignment, MMS will evaluate the ability of 

the new company to satisfy all end-of-lease 

obligations. Just as with requests for assignment to 

oil and gas producing companies, MMS will 

cooperate with all parties to explore ways to protect 

the Government without undue burden on small 

companies. 

Where do we go from here? Clearly a number of 

questions still exist. The MMS will need to work 

within its governing laws and regulations to search 

for solutions. One important key will be 

communication. The MMS will work with other 

government agencies and mariculture companies; oil 

and gas companies will need to work with each other 

and with the government agencies . The meetings that 

have already occurred and this session are good 

starting points . 

OIL AND GAS VIEWS ON USE AND 

REUSE OF PETROLEUM 

STRUCTURES FOR MARICULTURE 

Mr. David A. Dougall 

Agip Petroleum Company 

INTRODUCTION 

Harvesting fish and shellfish has been a major source 

of food throughout the history of civilization . Recent 

over-harvest of our ocean resources has raised 

concern about the future of our fish stocks . In the 

United States, the authorities have evolved a system 

of allocating fisheries resources through a 

combination of seasonal closures, zone closures, and 

catch limits, administered by the National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS). 

Cultivating fish and shellfish has also been with us 

since long before Christ . Today, aquaculture is a 

major business . Farm raised trout, catfish, and 

crawfish are familiar to most of us. These 

commercial operations take place in ponds and 

raceways from the extremely large to the quite small. 

Within the last few years, considerations have been 

given to the use of oil and gas structures to aid in 

marine aquaculture-mariculture. This paper is 

provides an industry perspective on the opportunities 

and obstacles presented by the use of petroleum 

structures in mariculture operations . 
PERSPECTIVE 

This paper is prepared from the perspective of an 

offshore oil and gas operator . While the paper deals 

with fisheries issues, the author claims no fisheries 

expertise. Information presented herein is based upon 

limited literature review and discussion with other oil 

and gas operators. Views expressed in this paper are 

those of the author . 

OIL & GAS PLATFORMS 

There are nearly 4,000 oil and gas platforms in the 

Gulf of Mexico. These structures range in age from 

brand new to roughly 30 years old; in size from 

single well caissons to large, multi-pile ; in water 

depths from a few feet to over 1,000, and in distance 

from shoreline to more than 130 miles. Platforms 

consist of a supporting structure (jacket or caisson) 

and a topside structure (deck), which supports 

production, processing and safety equipment, 

quarters (if any), and helideck (if any) . 

Platforms present some obvious opportunities for 

mariculture operations : 

They would provide a more or less permanent, 

solid platform from which to conduct operations . 

The decks would provide a stable place for 

storage, feed delivery equipment, and utilities 

(power, navigation aids, communications, and 

environmental monitoring) . The structure would 

provide support for anchoring containment and 

winching systems. Further, the offshore oil 

service infrastructure (service boats, air 

transportation, and port facilities) offers an 

existing transportation system for personnel, 

supplies, and products . 

Platforms are well known as artificial reefs, 

providing healthy ecosystems which are major 

destinations for recreational fishing. This 

abundance of associated sea life suggests a 

healthy environment suitable for cultivation of 

fish and shellfish . 

The offshore location tends to moderate swings 

in water temperature, and water currents make 

the system essentially self-cleaning, providing 

new, oxygenated water and removing wastes 

from fish and feeding. 

PROJECTS 

A Santa Barbara, California firm, Ecomar, presents a 

real success story and an object lesson relevant to 

considering oil and gas structures for mariculture. 

Ecomar contracts with a number of oil and gas 

operators offshore of the California coast to remove 

what is considered biofouling by oil and gas 

operators from their platforms. The substantial 

buildup of sea life attached to the underwater support 

for the platforms causes enough wave and current 

drag to present structural concerns. To alleviate this 

problem, operators pay up to a few hundred thousand 

dollars every few years for divers to remove the 

growth . 

One man's biofouling is another's gourmet dinner, 

and Ecomar has for about ten years been separating, 

cleaning, and marketing mussels removed from 

platforms to an increasing list of restaurants. 

Two things to bear in mind about the Ecomar 

harvesting operation: 

Operators view this as a very good way to 

conduct essential platform maintenance. Because 

Ecomar is able to market the product, the 

operators get a cost break on the removal 

operation. An additional benefit is showcasing 

the healthy environment that surrounds these 

platforms. 

In spite of what should seem an obvious win-win 

proposal, it took Ecomar's owner, Bob Meek, 

the better part of ten years to sell the idea to the 

oil and gas operators and the regulatory 

authorities. Operators' reluctance can be 

summed up in two issues : liability and 

interference in operations . 

A related success story is the Rigs-to-Reefs Program 

in Texas and Louisiana. At the end of a platform's 

useful life, oil and gas operators are required to plug 

and abandon all the wells, sever all structures below 

the mud line, and physically remove the structure 

from the lease. Simply stated, the Rigs-to-Reefs 

Program offers an operator the opportunity to move 

the structure to a designated reef site rather than 

hauling it all the way to shore for scrap. 
4 

From the oil and gas operators' point of view, the 

Rigs-to-Reefs Program is highly successful for two 

very good reasons: 

1 . Liability: The Rigs-to-Reefs Program presents 

the operator with an opportunity to fulfill his 

responsibilities in clearing the oil and gas lease 

in such a way that long term liability for the 

structure is transferred to another financially 

responsible entity (i .e ., a government agency). 

2 . Economics: The cost to clear a platform from a 

lease can be anywhere from $1/z to $15 million 

or more, depending on water depth, location, 

condition and configuration of the structure, and 

salvage value of parts. This cost can sometimes 

be dramatically reduced by participation in the 

Rigs-to-Reefs Program. One-half of the 

estimated savings goes to the agency to pay for 

long-term maintenance of the reef and for 

accepting liability. 

Mariculture around oil and gas platforms in the Gulf 

of Mexico has been discussed and conceptualized for 

over 10 years. To date, only one mariculture project 

has been conducted in association with oil and gas 

platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. This project, funded 

by an oil company, in cooperation with Texas A&M, 

has been ongoing for several years. The project team 

has raised redfish, but not as a commercial success. 

The project bean on a producing platform and is 

now based on one that is no longer active . 

The operator of this project has indicated a number 

of obstacles, institutional as well as technical, which 

must be overcome before large-scale mariculture 

operations at offshore oil and gas platforms are likely 

to become a reality. The validity of these concerns 

was largely confirmed in discussions with other 

operators not presently involved in mariculture 

activities but with whom proponents would probably 

deal . 

INSTITUTIONAL OBSTACLES 

The following issues are of an institutional nature . 

Some should be addressed by the appropriate 

regulatory authorities; others should be considered by 

mariculture proponents when they are fashioning 

proposals. 

LIABILITY 

The greatest concern expressed by oil and gas 

operators is liability, liability for accidents and 

liability for lease abandonment. Whether mariculture 

operations are conducted on a producing or an 

inactive platform, the issue of liability for personal 

injury, property damage, and environmental damages 

must be resolved . Not only are authorized personnel 

working on and under the platform at risk, so are 

intruders, on and under the platform. Risk of injury, 

property and environmental damages from collision 

and natural disasters also must be resolved . 

The longer term and probably more difficult issue is 

liability for lease clearance. If an inactive platform is 

to be used for mariculture operations, somehow the 

ultimate fate of the structure and eventual cost for 

dealing with it must be resolved. 

In light of what most consider the "deep pockets" 

theory, the willingness of a somewhat tentatively 

financed entrepreneur to accept the liabilities 

associated with a platform-based mariculture 

operation is not likely to be adequate. Aquaculture in 

the United States has a history of failures . Companies 

that fail quite often file bankruptcy, in this case, 

possibly leaving the previous operator with the 

liabilities . Somehow, the oil and gas operator has to 

be relieved of liability as a previous owner. 

Finally, there are requirements for maintaining a 

platform . Navigation aids, cathodic protection, and 

minimal repair and upkeep of the structure are 

expense items which must be factored into the 

economics of such an operation. Together, these 

costs can exceed $10,000 per year. 

OPERATING PRIORITIES 

Another major concern is interference with the 

operations of the platform. Operations on these 

facilities are entirely focused on production of oil and 

gas. Any activities which do not fall within that focus 

will be met with reluctance unless they can be shown 

to be: (1) valuable and (2) conducted in a manner 

that will not be "under foot ." 

PERMITTING 

Oil and gas operators are accustomed to working 

within a tightly regulated environment. However, the 
5 

agencies with which we work generally have welldefined and understood areas of authority. 

Reportedly, working through the regulatory 

framework to obtain all the necessary authorizations 

to conduct a mariculture operation from an oil and 

gas platform can be a major challenge. Conflicts 

include overlapping areas of authority and standards 

to be applied to the operations . 

SPATIAL CONFLICTS 

in nearshore operations . Cage construction and 

anchoring/retrieval systems must be well-designed, 

adapted, and field tested for this environment. 

Target Species 

The high cost of marine farming in comparison with 

onshore aquaculture suggests that high dollar species 

must be cultivated to achieve the necessary profit 

margin . Successful spawning and stocking of high 

dollar species is reported to be a major problem. 

Oil and gas operators lease mineral rights from the 

U.S . or a state government and obtain authorization 

to temporarily place structures on those leases and 

produce the mineral resources. Conducting 

mariculture operations in association with oil and gas 

structures opens up new issues of private use of 

public resources. A new "user group" conflict may 

arise with commercial fishing operations and with 

recreational fishing and diving interests, all 

accustomed to benefitting from the presence of these 

structures . 

FINANCING 

Finally, there is an inclination on the part of 

proponents of projects relating in some way to oil 

and gas facilities to anticipate major investment, if 

not outright underwriting of the project, by the 

petroleum company involved. Oil companies, large 

and small, have been trimming budgets and focusing 

investments on core business . Project proponents 

should not make grand assumptions about financial 

participation on the part of the oil companies in these 

ventures . If companies do get involved, they will be 

likely to consider the platform infrastructure to be a 

major investment in itself. 

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Certainly, persons who have been engaged in 

research and applied aquaculture activities are the 

technical experts in this area. However, discussion 

with other operators suggested the following items in 

need of improvement. 

Cafe Construction 

A number of approaches have been designed for 

containment of fish in cages. However, placement of 

cages in association with oil and gas platforms 

presents current forces far beyond those experienced 

SOLUTIONS/SUGGESTIONS 

Ultimately, the obstacles enumerated above will be 

favorably resolved . From the perspective of an oil 

and gas operator, the following are some suggestions 

which, if implemented, would help move mariculture 

toward commercial reality. 

Relief from Lease Responsibilities 

Long term liabilities and lease clearance 

responsibilities area major obstacle to mariculture on 

oil and gas platforms. Proponents are most likely to 

be entrepreneurs without the financial backing to 

adequately take on these responsibilities ; at the same 

time, oil and gas operators will not be veiling to 

retain long term liabilities . A possibility to consider 

is a mechanism for site clearance to be funded up 

front and placed in an appointed trust and the oil and 

gas operator provided with a legally binding release 

from future liabilities . 

Streamline Permitting Requirements 

Some means of simplifying the permitting process is 

essential. Use a lead agency approach, and work 

between the agencies to clarify roles, eliminate 

overlap, and streamline the process. 

Grant Lease Rights to the 

Mariculture Operations 

Some means should be established to protect the 

mariculture operator from damages to his crop from 

other fishing and diving activities . Since a process 

exists to set zone and species closures, the NMFS 

should be able to create some sort of lease rights for 

the mariculture operation. 
6 

CONCLUSION 

Oil and gas operators consider offshore platforms to 

be sort of an idyllic microcosm of sea life . We 

provide structure where one did not previously exist, 

and sea life is attracted and thrives. It makes a great 

deal of sense that these circumstances should 

somehow be capitalized upon. The Rigs-to-Reefs 

Program is a positive step . Commercial farming in 

association with these structures appears to be an 

additional opportunity. Over time, the obstacles, both 

institutional and technological, will probably be 

resolved, and mariculture could evolve into a major 

business and a major food source contributor. 

Mr. David A. Dougall is Manager of Environmental 

Affairs & Safety for Agip Petroleum Company, with 

drilling and production operations in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Mr. Dougall's background includes 

consulting for Pilko & Associates, where he 

conducted environmental risk assessments, 

compliance audits and permitting activities. His 

background also includes corporate and field 

assignments for Phillips Petroleum Co., including 

several years coordinating Phillips' permitting and 

compliance efforts in California . He received his 

M.S . degree in Environmental Science and B.S . 

degree from the University of Oklahoma and is a 

registered professional engineer in Oklahoma and 

Arkansas . 

MARICULTURE IN THE GULF OF 

MEXICO: SEA PRIDE INDUSTRIES' 

SEA TREK AND SEA STAR 

SYSTEMS 

Dr. Edwin Cake, Jr., Chief Science Officer 

Mr. John D. Ericsson, Chief Executive Officer 

Sea Pride Industries, Inc. 

Gulf Breeze, Florida 

Sea Pride's innovative plans for mariculture in 

federal waters of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS) include (1) installation and operation of the 

Sea Trek Ocean Farming Systems for cage-culture of 

native finfishes in the open sea and (2) operation of 

the Sea Star Oyster Relaying System for cleansing 

and improving of oysters from inshore waters that 

may not meet federal water-quality criteria . Sea Pride 

has spent hundreds of thousands of dollars 

researching, designing, developing, and permitting 

these systems for use in the Gulf of Mexico. 

The patented Sea Trek System (Figure 413.1) will 

consist of a ballastab(e, concrete platform (similar to 

those already in use by the oil and gas industry on 

the Gulf of Mexico OCS) that rests on the sea floor 

and six ballastable, net-covered, barrel cages arrayed 

radially around the platform . "The inner end of the 

cages will be chained to the platform and the outer 

end will be anchored to the sea floor. The barrel 

cages will be ballasted vertically and/or rotated 

horizontally to facilitate fish harvesting, net 

cleansing, biofouling reduction, and storm protection . 

Systems for feeding, aeration, and vacuum transfer of 

the fishes will link each cage with the platform via an 

umbilical connection . 

The Sea Trek System will be located four miles 

southeast of the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama, in 

50 feet of water on the south-western corner of 

Exxon Energy Company's OSC Lease Block 827. 

The five-acre U .S . Army Corps of 

Engineers-permitted mariculture site will be 

surrounded by a floating AquaFenceO that encloses 

13 acres and reduces floating hazards and user 

conflicts. The Sea Trek System has been designed to 

rear up to three million pounds per year of native 

finfishes including red drum, red snapper, hybrid 

striped bass, and mahimahi (dolphin fish) and will be 

supported by a land-based or platform-based hatchery 

facility . The Sea Trek platform will be manned 24 

hours a day except during hurricane conditions when 

the cages will be ballasted to the sea floor and/or 

released on independent anchoring arrays for fish and 

cage protection . 

Sea Pride received its U.S . Army Corps of Engineers 

(USACOE) permit (#AL93-01004-M) under Section 

10 of the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act in October 

1993. Sea Pride received its U.S . Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA) Ocean Discharge Permit 

(#AL0067237) under Section 403 of the amended 

1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act on 20 

September 1994. To our knowledge, these are the 

first permits issued for mariculture operations and 

related ocean discharges anywhere in U.S . Federal 

OCS waters . 
Figure 4B.1 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Trek Ocean Fanning System O resting in 50 feet of water slowing the central 

platform and the six semisubmerged barrel cages. The cages will be 170 feet in length and 40 feet in diameter . The octagonal platform 

will be 112 feet in diameter and will rise 125 feet from the sea bed. 
The patent-pending, Sea Star Oyster Relaying System 

(Figure 413 .2) is a ballastable device for holding, 

deploying, cleansing, enhancing, and recovering 

oysters to be relaid from coastal waters that do not 

meet federal water-quality criteria for shellfish 

growing areas. Oysters that are relaid from 

contaminated coastal waters to "approved" waters of 

the open Gulf of Mexico will purge themselves of 

potentially-pathogenic bacteria and viruses during the 

required 14-day relaying periods. The oysters will 

also be enhanced by increasing their internal salt 

content (or "salty" flavor). 

Each Sea Star unit will hold approximately 60,000 

3-inch-plus oysters in 288 plastic trays. A fullyloaded unit will contain eight racks (two stacked 

racks per side x four sides), and each rack will 

contain 36 trays of 200+ oysters each . The Sea Star 

units will rest on the bottom near the Sea Trek site 

off Alabama and/or at an OCS site approximately 3 

miles south of Ship Island, Mississippi. As many as 

12 Sea Star units will be utilized at each site and will 

be deployed and recovered via jack-up vessels or 

other marine equipment. USACOE permits (Rivers & 

Harbors Act, Section 10) are pending for commercial 

oyster-relaying operations at the two OCS sites. 

Public notices were issued by the USACOE Mobile 

District on 6 February 1995, and the permits should 

be granted in March 1995 if no conflicts arise. 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the 

U.S . Department of the Interior facilitated Sea Pride's 

contacts with and ultimate "letter-of-agreement" from 

Exxon for the operation of the Sea Trek Ocean 

Farming System. At present, the MMS has no 

specific regulatory authority or policies relative to 

mariculture activities or operations on the OCS in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Between now and the year 2000 

hundreds of OCS platforms that will be abandoned in 

the nearshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico may be 

suitable for mariculture applications . The MMS will 

have an opportunity to facilitate additional 

mariculture ventures and may exert some regulatory 

authority over such ventures when the abandoned 

platforms are converted for mariculture rather than 

removed as required by current MMS regulations. 

Sea Pride Industries chose its permitted Sea Trek/Sea 

Star site off-Alabama for many reasons, including 

excellent prevailing water-quality conditions (high 

salinity and dissolved oxygen, low nutrient loading, 

acceptable current flows, lack of pollution sources, 

etc.), geological bottom stability, and close proximity 

of ports, infrastructure, and seafood processing 

facilities . Other positive aspects of the nearshore 

Alabama site included the "accepted" presence of 

natural gas exploration and production platforms, 

reduced user-conflict issues, and the pro-mariculture 

philosophy of the Alabama Marine Resources 

Division which operates the Claude Peteet 

Mariculture Center at nearby Gulf Shores. 

The acquisition of requisite USEPA and USACOE 

permits for Sea Pride's mariculture activities has 

been a long and cumbersome, yet successful process. 

At the outset, Sea Pride tried to anticipate the 

environmental information needs of the various 

federal and state regulatory agencies . Sea Pride 

prepared and submitted environmental assessments 

and monitoring proposals to the USEPA knowing 

that its Region-IV staff had never considered a 

permit for ocean discharges from a mariculture 

facility in federal waters . Sea Pride and the USEPA 

negotiated in good faith, and all permit issues were 

resolved satisfactorily . 

Sea Pride has designed and will operate 

environmentally-sound systems in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Sea Pride cannot afford to adversely impact 

the area's water quality because to do so would 

adversely affect the finfish and shellfish stocks that 

will be cultured and/or cleansed . 

The presence of the Sea Trek and Sea Star Systems 

will attract numerous commercially- and 

recreationally-important finfishes and shellfishes to 

the area. Those fishes will in turn attract sports 

fishermen and increase fish catches in the immediate 

vicinity of the platform . The aqueous finfish and 

shellfish wastes that will be diluted and disseminated 

by tidal currents will increase general primary 

production over adjacent areas of the OCS. 

Sea Pride recognizes the worldwide and areawide 

reductions of finfish and shellfish landings and is 

attempting to solve some of the fish shortage via 

mariculture. It has plans to fabricate and deploy Sea 

Trek Ocean Farming Systems in Micronesia and 

other international areas where native finfish 

populations are being depleted via overharvesting, or 

shellfish populations are being threatened by 

increasing human "pollution ." 
Figure 4B.2 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Star Oyster Relaying System showing 

eight oyster racks around the central ballast tank . The system size will approximate a 12-foot 

cube. 
10 

Finally, Sea Pride's believes that its Sea Trek and 

Sea Star operations in the Gulf of Mexico will start 

a new mariculture industry similar to the $75-

million-a-year salmon-culture industry in the U.S . 

Pacific Northwest. A successful Gulf of Mexico 

mariculture industry would reduce U.S . dependence 

on imported fishery products, thereby reducing the 

Federal deficit; increase the availability of highquality finfish and shellfish products ; increase job 

opportunities for underemployed or out-of-work 

fishermen and newly-trained mariculturists ; expand 

the market for regional grain products that will be 

needed for feed formulation; and develop new culture 

systems (platforms, cages, racks, etc.) that can be 

fabricated and serviced by existing industries along 

the Gulf coast, thereby boosting local economies . 

THE ENGINEERING OF 

MARICULTURE PENS IN 

ASSOCIATION WITH OIL AND GAS 

STRUCTURES 

Mr. Clifford A. Goudey 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Sea Grant College Program 

SUMMARY 

Many oil and gas structures in the Gulf of Mexico 

are no longer producing energy and present attractive 

sites for offshore mariculture. By incorporating the 

existing structure into a fish pen system, its removal 

cost can be avoided and the overall system cost can 

be reduced. However, the exposed locations of 

candidate structures are unlike anything experienced 

by conventional, sheltered-water mariculture 

operations and present new challenges . 

Techniques for the design and performance 

prediction of oil and gas structures are well 

established. The prediction of pen system behavior 

and the estimation of loads generated by waves, 

currents, and extreme events have only recently 

received attention. The flexible nature of most pen 

systems is essential to their survivability but it 

complicates their analysis since their geometry is 

variable . Of the many engineering issues confronting 

the mariculture system designer seeking to exploit an 

existing structure, predicting the loads imposed on 

the structure by the pen system is of prime 

importance . 

This presentation describes the use of scale models 

and wave basins as a means of both predicting loads 

and understanding the behavior of complex pen 

systems under simulated environmental exposure. 

MODEL TESTS OF MARICULTURE SYSTEMS 

Many of the practices that have been developed for 

the model testing of ships and structures can be 

applied directly to mariculture systems. The scaling 

of geometry, weight, speed, wave heights, and 

frequencies all follow rules established by Froude . As 

with most conventional model tests, attention to 

model details can be important and the use of as 

large a model as possible is always important. In 

addition, the netting and tension-member portions of 

a pen system require the use of modeling practices 

which have been developed in trawl net testing 

programs . Netting geometric parameters must be 

accounted for as well as the elastic moduli of 

materials used in the netting and load-bearing lines. 

Figure 413 .3 is an example of an experimental set-up 

in a circulating water channel aimed at predicting the 

resistance of a pen system in a current. It is important 

to note that the resistance determines the shape and 

the shape determines the resistance : these are highly 

non-linear systems. Such a test set-up is also useful 

in determining netting deformation, water flow, and 

feed pellet trajectories . 

A proper test protocol will call for the introduction of 

netting of several different blockage ratios . In this 

way the effects of biofouling on netting can be 

determined with respect to increased loads and 

reduced water flow. The latter factor can be 

important in determining stocking densities. 

The performance of a mariculture system in waves 

can be predicted through the use of a wave basin. 

Due to the dynamic nature of such tests, the 

contribution of all elements of the system must be 

included such as anchor lines. Figure 413 .4 is an 

example of a test setup in a wave basin of a pen 

designed for full ocean exposure. In such a test, load 

cells are places at a variety of locations within the 

system to determine wave-induced loads and help 
honeycomh two 1250 H .P . 

rigging bri~t:;f~ ` ~oservatio~ b~idge electric motors i 

width 22' 

00 0 . 

27' -~ 9~ 

.- .. ---

~ test section 

i l--- _----- 60' ---- -

variable pitch impeller) 

,corner guide vanes lower return duct 

I--- ~-~-- - - --- --- --- - 147' -- - - ---- 

Figure 4B3. Fish pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin circulating water channel. 
Rectangular Ocean Spar Buoy 

Surface float pen 

Regular waves ~ ['jam ~ /l 

Damper plate 

Tom weight 

Anchor Tank bottom 

"; ;;;;;, " , " ; " , " ;;, " ;," ; , 

N 

Figure 4B.4 . Ocean Spar pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin maneuvering and seakeeping basin. 
CARRIAGE 

DIRECTION 

WAVE 

DIRECTION 

---- - ,\ 

MODEL & CARRIAGE 

ELEVATION 

Figure 4B.5 . Combined wave and current tests at trhe David Taylor Model Basin maneuvering and seakeeping basin. 
14 

EXISTING OFFSHORE 

OIL RIG 

NET 12'ABOVE 

WATER LINE 

BOAT WARNING BUOYS 

W/CORKLINE 

SPECIAL BGA 7 ACCESS PANEL 

Water Depth 63 ft 

/,- 

20 TON ANCHOR 

/-ANCHOR PILING 

LEVATI ON 

Figure 4B.6 . The tent pen mariculture system. 
15 

identify areas where cyclic loading and snapping are 

potential problems . A test regimen of regular waves 

over a range of frequencies is useful in identifying 

resonant behaviors and associated peak loads. 

Breaking waves are useful in understanding the 

performance of the system under extreme conditions . 

In a unique series of tests further described below, 

the combined effects of current and waves were 

found to be different than the simple summation of 

current and wave results determined separately. This 

is attributable to the non-linearity of these flexible 

systems and provides a strong argument for doing 

combined tests . Figure 413.5 is the experimental 

set-up for a combined current/wave test where the 

entire model and a false bottom is suspended below 

the wave basin carriage to allow its movement 

through the water. 

AN OIL STRUCTURE BASED 

MARICULTURE SYSTEM 

In a collaborative effort by the author and NET 

Systems of Bainbridge Island, Washington, a 

mariculture system sited around an oil structure has 

been designed and evaluated at the model scale. This 

work, sponsored by an SBIR grant, explored a wide 

range of system geometries, finally focusing on a 

concept which offered unique economic appeal . 

An important measure of a pen system's merit is the 

cost of the system versus the enclosed growing 

volume. A further measure is the amount of growing 

volume that is away from the air/water interface and 

the associated wave-induced stress . From a simple 

geometric perspective the concept of a tent-shaped 

pen was quickly identified as attractive . An important 

feature of this concept was the utilization of the 

structure as the central support for the tent pen. It 

was critical, therefore, to determine the loads that 

would be generated by such an installation since that 

would ultimately determine the size and economy of 

the approach. 

A candidate design using a 45V angle for the netting 

was used as the basis for model testing. A 1/10 scale 

model of such a tent pen system surrounding a 

structure in 50 feet of water was evaluated. 

Figure 4B.6 shows the model configuration. Model 

wave frequencies ranked from 0.3 to 0.7 Hz in 0.1 

Hz intervals. Currents (carriage speeds) of 03, 0.5, 

0.7, and 1 .0 were used. These ranges correspond to 

ocean wave frequencies from 0.095 to 0.22 Hz. or 

wave periods from 10 .5 to 4.5 seconds. The 

corresponding full-scale currents range from 0.95 to 

3 .16 knots. 

Measurements of anchor loads and structure 

attachment loads were made at selected locations 

within the system. Load data was measured using 

small strain gage load cells and recorded on a 

PC-based data acquisition system. Angle 

measurements of structure attachment lines were 

made manually during each run. Data was analyzed 

and presented in terms of load verses speed or wave 

frequency. Wave data was normalized to a model 

wave height of one foot and presented in terms of 

both average values and amplitudes . 

From the model data, full-scale load predictions can 

be made. Tension members of the systems can be 

determined and anchors and attachment padeyes 

sized. In addition, structural attachment loads and 

their angles can be combined to determine the 

resultant load on the structure and its foundation 

pilings. Through these techniques it was determined 

that, depending on the adequacy of the candidate 

structure, the tent pen concept was both economically 

attractive and feasible from an engineering 

standpoint . 

The ultimate success of an offshore mariculture 

operation will depend on its ability to compete with 

existing sheltered-water operations and wild harvest 

fisheries. Offshore sites offer economies of scale but 

introduce challenges to the designer . Through the use 

of logical design, performance prediction through 

model tests, and the specification of components 

adequate for the task, a tent pen system has been 

introduced which will cost between $7 and $9 per 

cubic meter, including installation but exclusive of 

structure costs. This compared favorably with today's 

protected-water systems which are priced at $10 to 

$20 per cubic meter. 

Industry partners are currently being sought for the 

further development of the tent pen design . Systems 

can be engineered for structures in water depths from 

40 to 100 feet . Interested parties should contact the 

author or Gary Loverich at Net Systems. 
16 

MARICULTURE POTENTIAL, 

PROBLEMS & PERSPECTIVE 

NEARSHORE & OFFSHORE 

TEXAS AND THROUGHOUT THE 

GULF OF MEXICO 

Mr. Tim Moore 

Texas Aquaculture Association 

Gulf of Mexico offshore aquaculture is defined as the 

rearing of marine organisms under controlled 

conditions in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 

the United States ; that is, from the three mile 

territorial limit of the coastal states to 200 miles from 

shore. There currently is no federal policy with 

respect to regulating offshore aquaculture. 

While marine aquaculture has focused on the 

production of fish, shellfish and algae in recent years, 

it is the raising of aquatic animals for food that has 

seen the truly explosive growth in the last twenty 

years, with most of that growth taking place in the 

last ten years. 

Why this sudden interest in mariculture? The global 

catch of fish in 1990 was less than 100 million metric 

tons . This quantity is simply not adequate to meet the 

demand that exists today, let alone the demand that 

will exist in the future . 

And regretfully, the oceans of the world will 

probably never produce more fish than that 100 

million metric tons . If anything, a scenario of less 

and less appears likely . The Food and Agriculture 

Organization (FAO) has projected that the industrialized nations of the world will require an additional 22.5 million and the non-industrialized nations 

another 5.9 million metric tons of fish and seafood 

products by the year 2000. That's a total of 28 .4 million metric tons or nearly 60 billion pounds. If the 

oceans of the world are not going to produce more 

seafood in the years immediately ahead, that 60 billion pounds must come from aquaculture worldwide. 

As most of you are acutely aware, fish landings from 

the worlds' oceans have lagged far behind the 

population growth . So not only are we seeing the 

absolute demand of those in the market now pulling 

ahead of the supply but we're seeing an additional 

gap because population is growing much more 

rapidly than the industry is able to keep up with. 

We can simply no longer catch enough fish or 

aquatic animals to meet the demand of these 

products. With the population growth and changing 

diets of health-conscious consumers, aquaculture 

facilities have begun to respond by expanding to help 

fill the gap. 

Mariculture dwarfs the expectations for the future . 

Mariculture promises to become the dominant factor 

in the world seafood industry in the next twenty 

years but only if the capital necessary to ensure its 

growth becomes available. 

With all of that as background let's look a little more 

closely at some of the things occurring in the mariculture world and how they may impact on investments in mariculture. 

If current state and federal regulatory trends continue 

to dominate the environmental agendas, several 

trends are apparent . We are either going to grow 

marinefish on shore in systems that are environmentally correct, i .e ., those that emphasize water 

reuse and conservation, minimal impingement and 

negligible effluent impacts, and build facilities that 

fully consider competing users of the available 

resources, or we will grow marinefish offshore in 

open waters where potential impacts are less controversial and environmental impact statements and 

routine monitoring are not required . 

One thing is certain. World demand for seafood 

appears insatiable . We know that because what 

started in just a few countries is now truly worldwide 

and nearly every nation on earth, industrialized or 

third-world is not only participating in aquaculture 

but is increasing their annual production and their 

number of species produced. 

Along with globalization, we are seeing a gradual 

sorting out and relocation by species of aquaculture 

production areas. More and more aquaculture 

activities are closing down in geographic areas which 

are inhospitable for cultural, climactic or economic 

reasons and are moving closer and closer to more 

hospitable sites. Aquaculture now is beginning to 

migrate to places where greater opportunity for 

ongoing profitability exists, places with warmer 
17 

climate, inexpensive land, abundant water, minimal 

effluent discharge problems, low labor cost . 

The primary reasons for interest in offshore 

mariculture are 

" Existing structures such as drilling platforms can 

be used during and beyond their capable years of 

extracting oil and gas from the seabed below as 

growout sites. 

" Most pollution from sewage, pesticides, 

petroleum spills and industrial wastes that occur 

in coastal waters can generally be avoided in 

offshore sites. 

" Nutrient loading from waste feed and fecal 

material can be avoided in offshore areas where 

water volumes and movements will rapidly 

disperse the waste products . 

" Offshore water quality is traditionally more 

stable than inshore areas. These very enticing 

benefits are balanced and possibly overbalanced 

with serious constraints. 

" Offshore facilities must endure the harshness of 

the Gulf. Structures must be engineered to 

routinely withstand high winds and wave actions 

that peak at 15-20 feet . 

" Modeling structures for the Gulf of Mexico 

cannot be modeled in the David Taylor Wave 

Tank. Engineers that design projects for the Gulf 

cannot easily go from the toothpick model to a 

full scale ocean structure. Engineers have not 

been able to accurately predict the force of X 

height wave times the current when every ninth 

wave doubles or even quadruples in force. The 

base line data does not clearly indicate whether 

offshore structures like rigs should defy nature or 

work in some sort of unison with nature in the 

Gulf environment. 

Conventional wisdom says : 

" Eliminate anchors from the mooring system of 

any net pen design . They are expensive, 

unreliable and could interfere with shrimp 

trawling operations . 

" A reliable automated water flush feed delivery 

system which can be used on either active, 

unmanned platforms or non-producing rigs has 

been developed and tested with success. 

Containment nets should in fact not be netting 

but rather panels of molded fiberglass with 1-2" 

square grids standardized for all pens and easily 

replaced by divers as the material becomes 

biofouled. 

" Annual production for any cage system can be 

increased utilizing supplementing water 

circulation via a platform mounted pump during 

high DO demand (i .e ., adult fish, mid-summer). 

Every project that I am aware of in the Gulf of 

Mexico incorporating mariculture concludes that 

all viable future facilities must be built as much 

as 20 feet below the surface in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Conventional wisdom is that "Hostile 

Environment" only moderately describes the 

challenges presented mariculturists in Gulf of 

Mexico. 

If it is true that systems have had more success 

submerged, and thereby removed from the most 

extreme wave action, then the ability to raise and 

lower cages in the water for maintenance and harvest 

must become key components to any system. One of 

the most simplified versions utilized an exchange of 

air and water volume inside an octagon flotation 

collar attached to the pen. 

Submerged structures require automation to surface 

and harvest, requiring additional cost in construction . 

It appears beneficial to build pens outside the 

platform legs to allow for expansion of cage volume 

to an economically viable size . This outside the leg 

location eliminates the need for anchors, which have 

been problematic in many systems. The rigidity of 

units appears to allow for more simplified and 

reliable feed delivery system. 

Current U.S . and international law and offshore lease 

agreements require the complete removal within one 

year of offshore structures at the end of the intended 

useful life . In testimony to Congress, The Marine 

Board of the National Research Council projected 

that by the year 2000, two-thirds of the existing 

offshore structures will have become commercially 

unproductive and subject to removal and onshore 

disposal . 
18 

Let's be realistic and look at it from the oil and gas 

companies' perspective: 

In consideration of this time-line utilization of offshore structures, oil & gas companies find it nearly 

impossible and downright unattractive to contribute 

surplus equipment to anyone but an authorized 

artificial reef program, such as Louisiana's. Of course 

the same liability concerns combined with 

engineering and operational issues dissuade oil and 

gas companies from considering mariculture 

agreements involving active production structures . 

Other limitations to consider : 

" Federal oil and gas leases for the OCS do not 

authorize the conduct of any sort of commercial 

activities . e.g ., no casinos, no restaurants, no 

vendor warehousing and no mariculture. 

" Mariculture is not related to the core business of 

oil and gas production . Most oil and gas companies continue to divest non- core, non-strategic 

assets and activities to cope with increasing 

compliance costs and foreign competition. 

" Oil & gas companies are unwilling to increase 

their exposure to lawsuits stemming from ANY 

source . 

" Safety concerns discourage oil and gas 

companies from considering mariculture on 

active structures, and they are legally bound to 

remove inactive ones . 

" Oil and gas companies would never warrant the 

suitability or serviceability of offshore structures 

for uses other than their intended use. 

" If oil and gas companies were in a position to 

accommodate mariculture activities on offshore 

structures they would require the operator to post 

performance bonds for both installation and 

removal of equipment, maintain sufficient 

insurance to cover all foreseeable damages, and 

ensure that no structural modification could 

interfere with either normal or emergency oil and 

gas operations, including evacuations. 

These six major constraints must be overcome for 

ANY oil and gas company to participate in a 

mariculture project now or in the future . 

Offshore production activities require vastly different 

approaches and technologies from those utilized in 

coastal or inland waters . Currents in excess of seven 

knots, wave actions exceeding 15 feet and seasonal 

hurricanes dictate utilization of materials and 

engineering approaches that are inherently more 

expensive than those in protected waters . Information 

on engineering requirements for such facilities is 

developing but have not as yet proven economically 

competitive. 

Anti-fouling has not been comprehensively factored 

into design criteria materials. Fish biology and fish 

behavior in cage or net culture is only nominally 

understood. 

High-value species must be economically feasible in 

offshore culture. Species most favored for offshore 

production include yellowtail snapper, ling and mahi 

mahi. These species have achieved complete life 

cycles in captivity, and larval rearing techniques as 

well as prepared diets continue to improve. By its 

very nature, offshore cage culture and its appropriate 

technologies make it ahigh-risk high-cost production 

method. Marginally valued species simply are not 

cost effective. Some research indicates that until we 

in the United States adopt an Asian mindset that 

allows for an $8-9 dollar per pound average price, 

mariculture production models will fail to be 

sustainable and profitable . 

With the best technologies available to the industry, 

we must remember that the agriculture policy in this 

country has always supported a cheap and affordable 

food policy . 

The risk reward ratios for platform culture have not 

been fairly assessed . If pricey fish products prove to 

be the only viable species, we still haven't 

determined market demand for these products. 

As offshore cage culture commercial production of 

these high-priced fish increases, per unit cost will be 

driven downward. This forces us to produce more 

fish in the same systems to maintain profitability. 

We know that dolphins (mahi mahi) experience rapid 

growth on a cut fish and shrimp diet, but there is no 

known feed ingredient mix of like nutrition currently 

developed for open sea culture. Mahi Mahi are 

symptomatic with schooling behavior and experience 

less than desirable growth conversion rates when the 
19 

culture environment experiences rapid and fast 

current flows. Rapid flows force rapid swimming 

action in the culture species. This action always 

increases rapid oxygen intake and contributes to 

oxygen depletion. 

We know that in warm water culture, dissolved 

oxygen levels can and do fluctuate greatly in the hot 

summer months. We do not know optimal 

dimensions for cage culture for each species and in 

what densities. 

We do know that with maximum fish biomass there 

are many situations in the open seas where large fish 

in the middle of culture cages will demand 

supplemental aeration . Supplemental aeration 

requires additional pumps and energy and additional 

operational costs . 

We know that 70% of ail saltwater sportfishing trips 

made by coastal residents beyond three miles from 

shore made their trips to oil and gas structures . What 

does this mean for offshore mariculture? It probably 

means that fully automated, manned platforms will 

be required for security and economic reasons. 

Poaching and theft will demand unique and 

innovative solutions. The fact that these offshore 

structures lie in public U.S . waters makes them 

especially vulnerable and accessible . Video 

surveillance and utilization of alarm systems may be 

required as effective deterrents . Satellite 

communications to trigger patrols of the platforms 

will certainly be a necessary component of security . 

We know that the Gulf waters nearshore structures 

are threatened by increased nitrogen and phosphorus 

levels and more unstable salinity. Better culture 

waters appear to be outside the three-mile barrier. 

Most of the available rigs lie in the waters beyond 

three miles anyway. 

If the most desirable sites are beyond the three-mile 

boundary, then this culture methodology will develop 

on the most inaccessible, remote platforms that will 

require more costly maintenance from shore, more 

costly ingress and egress with personnel. 

On the positive side however, the more remote 

locations also offer less risk of winterkill, which is 

greatly reduced further offshore as oceanic water is 

not subject to rapid temperature change. 

We know that at an average cost of $10 to 15 million 

for existing construction and placement, industry 

cannot bear the cost of duplicating these structures 

for growout facilities . Existing structures must be 

utilized . A short window of opportunity exists for the 

development of offshore mariculture. 

It is highly unlikely that there will ever be 

coordination of mariculture activities with oil and gas 

operations on active platforms. However if oil and 

gas personnel and mariculture activities can utilize 

boats, helitransport services, decompression 

chambers, diving activities and the like, favorable 

cost controls for mariculture activities will be better 

achieved. Availability of decompression chambers, 

need for 110' utility boats to ferry out personnel and 

to deliver the structures themselves, feed, harvest 

equipment, use of trained divers for structural repairs 

can exceed $2,000 per day. These technologies do 

not come without serious ongoing operational costs 

that cannot easily be borne by mariculture activities 

alone. 

It will not be easy to make this culture concept 

viable, sustainable or profitable . High quality seafood 

demand will continue, regulatory pressure will 

continue to mount for land-based operations, 

platforms will continue to be chopped up and 

scrapped or donated to rig-to-reef programs . 

Mariculture has a short window of opportunity to 

make best use of these multi-million dollar structures . 

We need the fish they are capable of producing, we 

need the jobs they are capable of generating ; 

therefore, we will meet the demand for technology 

that makes these platforms viable. Profitability may 

well be the single most limiting factor in the 

consideration of the ocean giants for mariculture 

production . 

With roughly an eight-year window of opportunity, 

the most innovative and viable projects will compete 

for investment and venture capital dollars against 

other investment alternatives and possibly less risky 

ventures . Offshore projects will not enjoy a 

honeymoon with investor attitudes. This culture 

technique will not be capable of sustaining highly 

visible public losses and failures without an 

immediate erosion of investor confidence . We cannot 

afford to elephant hunt on the high seas . The most 

visible of projects in the next five years must show 

positive promising results. This means that 

collaborative government and private enterprise 
20 

projects must pave the future . Platform culture will 

not attract small investors. These projects are for the 

stout-hearted and will be funded by big business . 

They will succeed if they are designed around 

economies of scale or as supplemental income 

streams to other offshore integrated oil and gas 

activities . 

THE WATERMARK CORPORATION 

Mr. Greg Creppel 

Watermark Corporation 

Watermark is embarking upon a venture of 

attempting to couple offshore oil and gas production 

with operations designed to farm fish and shellfish in 

the offshore environment on deep water oil and gas 

platforms . Recognizing that natural resource 

management, energy production, and food 

availability will all become critical issues in the 

coming century, Watermark has developed a plant 

that will meet these needs (Figures 513.1 and 513.2). 

Oil and gas production and seafood farming are two 

industries that are viable for development in the Gulf 

of Mexico immediately and concurrently . 

Management believes that the success of combining 

these industries is built upon the premise that 

diversity in commercial operations will provide a 

shield from the risks associated with either operation 

by itself because of the "buffering" that one 

operation's revenue flow should offer to the other. 

Watermark's primary focus is to establish a 

mariculture (sea farming) operation that will utilize 

offshore oil and gas production platforms located in 

the clear, oceanic-quality, deep waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico, beyond near-shore land runoff and related 

pollution. Watermark has researched the global state 

of affairs with regard to inadequate food supplies for 

future generations and has selected mariculture as a 

business venture that will contribute to the solving of 

these global societal problems . Furthermore, 

Watermark has chosen to conduct this business in a 

way that can turn the liabilities of off-shore oil and 

gas platforms into assets . The company will seek to 

acquire platforms which still have hydrocarbon 

production in order to receive the benefit of the 

revenues generated from further oil and gas 

production . This income can create a positive cash 

flow for the company during the time in which the 

mariculture operation is being established and can 

enhance the overall corporate profitability thereafter . 

The demand for seafood significantly exceeds the 

ability for the countries of the world to supply 

seafood to consumers. Seafood shortages are related 

to the decline in natural fishery populations both 

from over-fishing and environmental degradation. 

With the anticipated continued decline in natural 

seafood supplies, mariculture is attracting wide 

interest from both the business community and 

governments around the world as a means to 

supplement dwindling natural fishery supplies and 

eventually could become a dominant source of 

seafood. 

Mariculture, the farming of marine organisms in a 

controlled aquatic environment, is an infant science 

with significant, although untested, potential. Well 

planned, efficiently managed mariculture operations 

can achieve goals of environmental protection and 

natural fishery stock preservation . The farming of 

marine species can reduce pressures on natural 

stocks, which in some instances are approaching 

extinction, and can provide economic stability to 

fishing communities by providing significant profitproducing food harvests for growing populations 

world-wide. As mariculture technology continues to 

develop, including the use of better environments, 

such as deep ocean water regions, and the continued 

improvement of caging methods and feeding of 

culture species, there is no doubt that the proportion 

of seafood provided through mariculture versus 

natural fished stocks will continue to increase . 

Watermark's goal is to supply a premium-priced 

species such as pompano to the seafood market . 

There are many economic advantages to cultivating 

a delicacy product such as pompano. This product 

can command a high price, eliminate the vagaries of 

commodity markets, and control market expansion by 

supply rather than demand. Presently, the pompano 

market (about one million pounds annually) is 

relatively small compared to other fishery products, 

due to a limited catch by fishermen. The market is 

also highly elastic and could be greatly expanded 

with little effect on its price. Pompano has an 

excellent name and reputation throughout the United 

States . No efforts have been made, however, to 
21 

i~. v th-W rep Owe oe roy.sA Pon 

~w w.l ~ Feed #iW t- 0-4 

l ~ ~ + Win h hOYKf 

.,i _-

_~ 

, . 

Wlnch 14+e# / 

Guy wires 

.Z 

IV Y" itK d' 

y`rY" 

15altmet tanks 

Peril . Aeration. Comprcfwd 

Air d Harvest tubes 

,.- fish pen 

RcLUm met , for 

cinch e 

Anchor piles \ 

! r 

Figure 5B.1 Surface view rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities . 

expand the pompano market because of its limited 

natural supply. 

The concept of utilizing offshore oil and gas 

production platforms for mariculture purposes is not 

new. It is only now, however, that the environmental, 

economic, and biotechnological components are 

coming together to facilitate this industry . The 

development of this proposed relationship provides 

a catalyst for a critical evolution in the way natural 

and man-made resources are utilized, as even the 

most bountiful of resources are finite . 

integration of several of the component services and 

products involved in mariculture. With as many as 

3,800 platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, there is the 

potential for the company to obtain a substantial 

number of producing platforms that will serve as 

mariculture facilities . As Watermark expands, it will 

also eventually be able to minimize the Company's 

dependence on commercial purveyors of feed 

products and processing facilities . This will result in 

enhanced profitability by incorporating value-added 

processing at all levels of production as well as 

through cost reduction. 

Watermark envisions rapid horizontal expansion to a 

number of platform facilities, followed by vertical 

Oil and gas platforms provide an excellent 

environment in which to grow enormous quantities of 
22 

BUOY 

INN 

& RATER UNE 

\\\ i 1K 

300' 

-300 

0 . 

A 

RR & FF EE EE DD MUO LINE ' & 

Y L 

Q 

t 

OFtrvERY F rVER LINES INES 

750' 

0 

e' ell 

Figure 513 .2 . Vertical cross-section rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities that 

shows the radial dimensions of the complex. 

high-value fish and shellfish worth many millions of 

dollars. The possibilities for growth and profits for 

Watermark through combining the business of oil 

and gas production with the business of mariculture 

are extensive, and Watermark has assembled the right 

management team with the expertise to get the job 

done. 

HIGH SEAS MARICULTURE 

Mr. Michael C. Kacergis 

Maryland Shrimp Company Inc. 

To most people the word aquaculture is either a 

foreign term or it invokes images of cutting edge 

technology and exotic gadgetry for rearing shellfish 

and finfish. While many believe that aquaculture is a 

new industry, the reality is that aquaculture dates 

back to the ancient Romans in the West and the 

Chinese in the East. Today, worldwide efforts in 
23 

aquaculture, especially mariculture or marine 

aquaculture, are expanding as traditional fishery 

stocks dwindle or collapse . 

The U.S . fishing industry is experiencing difficult 

times, as indicated by these headlines that paint a 

picture of a recently-unfolding crisis : 

Baltimore Sun: "Over Fishing Has Nearly 

Depleted World's Oceans" 

Boston Globe: "Fish: Greed, Pollution, 

Development Take Toll" 

Buffalo News: "The Worldwide Fishing Crisis" 

National Fisherman: "Disaster Relief Funding 

Sought To Keep Northeast Fishermen 

Afloat" 

The Economist: "The Tragedy Of The Oceans" 

(a possible allusion to G. Hardin's 1968 

article, The Tragedy of the Common, 

Science 162 :1243-1248.) 

In reality the decline of ground fish populations has 

been seen over many years. Georges Banks has 

experienced one remarkable shift in species biomass. 

Traditionally cod, haddock, and yellow tail flounder 

dominated this rich fishing ground . Today dogfish 

(shark) and skate account for 75% of the catch by 

weight (U.S. Department of Commerce 1992). 

In 1988, the United Nations Food and Agricultural 

Organization (FAO) reported that the world fish 

production accounted for approximately 98 million 

metric tons . This figure includes 14 million metric 

tons from aquacultural production (FAO 1991). 

According to dollar value statistics from the FAO, as 

of 1992 the United States ranked as the world's 

second largest importer of fishery products . Japan 

ranked first in fish imports. In 1993 U.S . imports of 

fishery products reached a record $10.6 billion while 

ow exports of fishery products accounted for only 

$6.9 billion. This resulted in a trade deficit of $3.7 

billion (U.S . Department of Commerce, 1994) . 

In general, the U.S . fishing industry appears plagued 

by catch reductions and closures due to diminished 

fish populations. Some examples include the west 

coast herring roe fishery now reduced from its 

historical significance to a season lasting all of 42 

minutes. The Alaskan halibut fishery is shifting from 

last year's pair of 24-hour "derbies" to a system of 

Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). (For an 

overview of ITQs, see D. Shaw. 1994. Halibut: 

Understanding ITQs: When youy buy, what you'll 

pay. In Seafood Leader, Vol. 14, pp. 106-114.) For 

the second time in 28 years Alaska is closing the 

Bristol Bay king crab fishery. On the east coast the 

New England Fishery Commission is proposing 

sweeping closures on Georges Bank to allow 

haddock stocks to regain strength. And in Gulf of 

Mexico waters, Florida just passed a referendum that 

essentially bans nets larger than 500 square feet of 

mesh from state waters . 

There are several measures that may ease fishing 

pressure and allow fish populations to regain 

strength . The implementation of bans and area 

closures represent the harshest restrictions to be 

endured by the fishing community. Individual 

transferable quotas, limited entry, area licensing, and 

sole ownership (Edwards et al. 1993) are additional 

measures that may aid in the recovery of fish 

populations. Mariculture, a truly renewable industry 

represents an alternative that would help mitigate 

heavy fishing pressures currently exerted on our 

living marine resources. By producing sufficient 

quantities of domesticated fish species, we would 

reduce our dependence on natural stocks, allowing 

them to regain historical levels . 

Maricuiture would also provide a means to reduce 

our dependence on imported fishery products. In 

1988 seafood product imports accounted for more 

than 25% of the dollar value of all food and live 

animal imports combined . The imported seafood 

products total for 1988, $5 .3 billion, was slightly 

greater than the total imports of meat products and 

live animals, $5.2 billion (National Research Council 

1992). In light of our dependence on imported 

seafood, the 1994 $3 .7 billion deficit, and declining 

fish populations, it would be prudent to explore the 

possibilities of large scale mariculture. 

In the Gulf of Mexico there exists a unique 

opportunity to link the oil and gas industries with 

mariculture operations . The petroleum industry on 

the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) began in 1947 

when the first well was drilled beyond the sight of 

land (Emmer et al. 1992). Since then the industry has 

experienced many lucrative years but today it finds 

itself in an economic slump. A new trend has 

recently appeared in the OCS where the petroleum 

industry began removing more production platforms 

than they were installing . (See Figure SB.3 for 
250 T-------------------- ---------------------- 

200 

0 150 

100 

50 

0 4-

83 84 85 86 87 88 89 

Year 

installation "0-- removal 

90 91 92 93 

N 

A 

Figure 513.3 . OCS Production Platform Installation vs . Removal. 
25 

additional detail .) Since 1987 and 1993 the number 

of platforms being removed jumped from 24 to 179 

respectively . This accounts for an 87% increase in 

platform removals over only six years (U.S . 

Department of the Interior 1994). These platforms, 

which have reached the end of their effective design 

life are viewed as a liability and not a valuable 

resource . The largest aspect of the liability is 

presumably the considerable cost of platform 

removal. One should note that many of these 

platforms are situated in waters highly suitable for 

raising a wide variety of marine finfish and shellfish. 

As each platform is removed, a potential opportunity 

to establish a mariculture site in the OCS is lost . 

Maryland Shrimp Company (MSC) feels that mariculture can intervene in several ways, providing 

financial incentives for both platform owners and for 

the Minerals Management Service. Platform owners 

will benefit from the additional revenue stream 

generated by a percentage of the sales of fish . This 

new revenue stream, which could effectively cover 

the debt service on the platform could transform a 

marginally producing platform into a profitable platform. A non-producing platform scheduled for removal would remain on station. This would postpone 

the costly removal and greatly increase the design 

life of the platform . Under MSC's program the platform would now serve as a support structure for 

mariculture operations whereby one platform will be 

associated with one netpen. Platforms or "Offshore 

Mariculture Infrastructure Stations" can now serve as 

housing for netpen attendants, storage for feed, and 

a site for energy generation required for the daily 

operation of the netpen. MMS would benefit from a 

royalty based on a percentage of the fish sales . 

Maryland Shrimp Company views the role of MMS 

in OCS mariculture as that of lead agency in regulatory oversight. MMS already regulates gas and oil 

operations in the Gulf of Mexico and has in place the 

necessary infrastructure to fill the position of lead 

agency . This infrastructure includes support systems, 

transportation, and the generation of data for the Gulf 

of Mexico. 

Netpens will not be attached directly to the platform 

for both engineering and safety considerations . The 

only direct connection between the netpen and the 

platform will be an umbilical that will provide power 

to both the winching system and surface lighting . In 

the event of catastrophic failure of the netpen the 

umbilical will have a breakaway connection, thus 

allowing the netpen to settle to the bottom and not 

affecting the structural integrity of the platform . The 

netpens are designed to allow remote adjustment of 

their height in the water column. This will permit 

netpen attendants on site to raise or lower the pen in 

varying weather conditions . 

Maryland Shrimp Company plans to raise a range of 

economically important finfish species. These species 

include: 

Tuna (Thunnus sp.) 

Mahi-mahi (Coryphaena sp.) 

Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) 

Snapper (Lutanus sp.) 

Grouper (Epinephelus sp., Mycteroperca sp .) 

Tilapia (Tilapia sp.) 

All species above were chosen for a variety of 

reasons. Economically, species appeal as a "white 

table cloth item" (a term used to describe high value, 

high priced items in the restaurant trade) implies high 

economic value on the retail market . This factor 

alone makes a species highly attractive for domestication . In the case of blue fin tuna, wholesale export 

prices can command as much as $35 .00 per pound. 

Growth rates and ease in spawning are other important considerations in the choice of a fish species 

targeted for domestication. Mahi mahi demonstrate 

high fecundity (many eggs from a single spawn) and 

tremendous growth rates in captivity where a 13 kg 

fish can be raised from the egg stage in approximately 130 days (Hagwood et al . 1981 ; Kraul 1993). 

Even though tilapia is a fine fish for human 

consumption, this species was chosen for several 

additional reasons. First, certain species of tilapia are 

filter feeders which means all their nutritional 

requirements can be derived from the surrounding 

water. This significantly reduces the quantity of food 

required to rear them. Full strength sea water is 

known to inhibit the spawning of tilapia. Even 

though there are reproducing populations of tilapia in 

the coastal brackish waters of Florida, Louisiana, and 

Texas, we are not aware of any reports of tilapia 

caught in deep waters of the OCS. In the event of 

escape, it is unlikely a tilapia would survive long . 

This species of fish is suited to the relatively shallow 

protected waters of rivers, ponds or estuaries. Their 

morphology allows the fish only short bursts of speed 

which will make them easy prey for the streamlined 
26 

pelagic predators which roam the Gulf of Mexico. 

Tilapia will provide both a protein source as feed 

required by the species of higher economic value as 

well as high quality white fish fillets for human 

consumption. 

There are several benefits the mariculture industry 

has to offer. One of the more obvious benefits is the 

creation of jobs in economically troubled regions. 

Many positions would be created including netpen 

attendants, fish processing, and transportation . 

Maryland Shrimp Company has a standing policy to 

set starting wages at $11 per hour. Unlike the 

traditional fisheries, mariculture is a truly renewable 

industry . Entire generations of fish are reared from 

larvae to adulthood supplied by eggs of captive brood 

stock. Another benefit is that fish farming offers 

relief from the heavy fishing pressures exerted on 

many fish populations. Markets can be supplied with 

farmed fish, thus reducing the dependence of wild 

stocks. Mariculture can also directly replenish 

depleted populations through a program of stock 

enhancement. Large quantities of larvae and juvenile 

fish can be released into specific areas where 

populations once flourished in the hope that a small 

percentage will survive to the age of reproduction . 

Last, unlike traditional fish harvest methods, there is 

no bycatch associated with mariculture. (Bycatch or 

incidental-catch is the taking of non-target species. 

Bycatch is usually discarded into the sea dead.) For 

a worst case scenario one need only examine the 

global shrimp industry's bycatch records to view 

discard rates as high as 1,100% (Warren 1994). 

Mariculture in federal waters has its share of 

difficulties, the largest being regulatory ambiguity 

specific to ownership of fish within a netpen. For 

example, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act, does not mention aquaculture or 

mariculture within its text . It does state however, 

" . . . the United States claims . . . sovereign rights 

and exclusive management authority over all fish, 

and all Continental Shelf fishery resources, within the 

exclusive economic zone." (For additional 

information, see Magnuson Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act, section 101 .00-627(a) .) This gives 

ownership of fish within a netpen to the Federal 

Government and eliminates private ownership. The 

Canadian Aquaculture Act (ascended to 8 December 

1988) on the other hand states in section 16(5), 

"All aquacultural produce of the species and 

strains specified in the aquaculture license, while 

constrained within the boundaries of the 

aquaculture site, are the exclusive personal 

property of the licensee until sold, transferred, or 

otherwise disposed of by the licensee ." 

For mariculture to exist in the OCS there must be a 

legal provision that specifies private ownership to 

fish within the netpen. Without such a provision, 

there is little incentive for private industry to invest 

under such financially risky circumstances. 

The oil and gas industry in the Gulf of Mexico's 

OCS is experiencing a dramatic shift toward 

increased production platform removals. These 

platforms should be considered a valuable asset 

rather than a financial liability. Mariculture offers a 

renewable industry and alternative revenue stream to 

the platform owner. By creating an industry in the 

OCS, mariculture will offer many jobs to 

communities burdened by high unemployment rates. 

Mariculture represents a viable alternative to the 

traditional methods of harvesting marine fish 

products . Finally, mariculture has the potential to 

satisfy many of the United States' seafood needs and 

offers relief to our increasing seafood import deficit. 

REFERENCES 

Edwards, F.H ., A. J. Bejda, and A. Richards. 1993. 

Sole Ownership of Living Marine Resources. 

U.S . Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, 

Massachusetts . 

Emmer, R.E ., A. Rheams, and F. Wagner. 1992. 

Offshore Petroleum Development and the 

Comprehensive Planning Process. Final report 

submitted to Minerals Management Service. 

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1991 . 

FAO Yearbook, Fisheries Statistics, Catches, and 

Landings. Vol. 68, 1989. 

Hagwood, R.W., G.N. Rothwell, M. Swafford, and 

M. Tosaki . 1981 . Preliminary report on the 

aquaculture development of the dolphin fish, 

Coryphaena hippurus (Linnaeus) . Journal of the 

World Aquaculture Society 12(1):135-139. 
27 

Kraul, S. 1993 . Larviculture of the mahi mahi, 

Coryphaena hippurus in Hawaii, USA. Journal 

of the World Aquaculture Society Vol. 24 , No. 

3 pp. 410-421 . 

Hardin, G. 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons 

Science 162:1243-1248. 

National Research Council. 1992 . Marine 

Aquaculture: Opportunities for Growth . 

Committee on Assessment of Technology and 

Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the 

United States . Washington D.C . : National 

Academy Press. p. 290. 

petroleum structures to the regional fisheries. The 

mariculture idea, called Hydro Wheel (Figure SB.4), 

is to submerge and organize several petroleum structures as artificial reefs inside a planning area . Then 

process fish above the reef configurations, sending 

the discards down to the reef fish . 

For example, if a trawler came up and unloaded his 

catch at the processor, the usable portion of the 

harvest would be channeled to the market and the 

discards would be sent down to the reef fish . His 

by-catch would be reduced to 1%, everything would 

go to the market or be utilized to feed the reef fish 

below. Commercial and recreational hook and liners 

would catch fish above the reefs. 

U.S . Department of Commerce. 1992. Status of 

Fishery Resources off the Northeastern United 

States for 1992. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 

U.S . Department of Commerce. 1994. Fisheries of 

the United States . National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C . 

U.S . Department of the Interior . 1994. Current Facts 

and Figures, Minerals Management Service, 

Offshore Oil and Gas Operations, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region, August 1994. 

Warren, B. 1994 . Major report points to many 

incidental-catch problems worldwide, but few 

solutions. In National Fisherman, Vol. 75, No. 1, 

pp. 16-17. 

OPEN OCEAN MARICULTURE AND 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF 

PETROLEUM STRUCTURES TO 

FISHERIES 

Mr. Steve Kolian 

Tulane University 

Discourse begins by introducing an open ocean mariculture concept and then moves on to address two 

case studies that examine the significance of 

More importantly, the fishermen will be doing the 

work for the fish . Most of his catch will be diffused 

through a pipe system distributing about 2,000 lbs. of 

fish offal a day. His trawls, his haul, his diesel 

engine, will help find the next meal for the fish. 

Much as in agriculture, where yield can be related to 

the input of subsidiary energy, i .e . machine, fertilizers, irrigation . Hydro Wheel production will be 

relative to the amount of food and habitat invested . 

The proposed system can be a platform for a succession of fisheries management strategies, including 

crab culture, lobster farming, brooding and stocking, 

etc. Fishermen will be transferred from predator 

methods to agrarian methods, lifted from one groove 

to be set in another. 

REEF HABITAT, RED SNAPPER, AND 

PETROLEUM STRUCTURES : CASE STUDY 

The Louisiana continental shelf is home to over 

3,000 oil and gas platforms. The base of a platform, 

called a jacket, forms a profile against ocean currents . 

Attaching organisms, including hermatypic coral and 

octocoral, colonize the substrate up and down the 

steel structures . The 3,000 oil and gas platforms 

peppered across the shelf constitute 90% of the reef 

habitat offshore of Louisiana (Scarborough-Bull 

1987). Otherwise, there would be virtually no reef 

habitat. Sedimentation from the Mississippi and the 

Atchafalaya smothers any natural reef development 

until a thin archipelago of coral reefs, about 100 

miles seaward from the coast (Figure SB.S). 

As the wells dry up, the structures are removed. 

Every year over 300 acres' of high-profile substrate 

disappears off the continental shelf (MMS platform 
28 

Figure 513.4 Hydro Wheel concept. 

removal schedule 1994). To reef fish such as red 

snapper, the ferrous profile of an oil and gas platform 

provides the same functions as the calcium profile of 

natural coral. They form grazing areas, respite from 

the current, nursery grounds, and protection from 

predators . They accommodate feeding mechanisms 

for numerous species at every trophic level. 

Due to their hydraulic morphology, artificial reefs 

have a much higher (10-15 times) carrying capacity 

than natural reefs . So the removal of petroleum 

structures, estimated to be 90% of the reef habitat 

along the Louisiana continental shelf, may be more 

significant than the figure above suggest (Figure 

513.6) 

Authorities are campaigning for the mandatory use of 

a Bycatch Reduction Device (BRDs) to protect red 

snapper from incidental catch by shrimp trawlers . 

Contrary to popular opinion, the BRDs are not being 

implemented to protect finfish in general; they will 

be required to protect red snapper. Ground fish are 

only being harvested at about 50% of their optimum 

yield (NMFS 1981). 
29 

Red snapper exhibit such a strong fidelity to 

structure, the developers of BRDs have encountered 

trouble designing a device that works. Red snapper 

have been observed to refuse to swim out of a net 

equipped with a cumbersome BRD (Atrand 1994). In 

another report, by-catch reduction devices where 

used on one side of a vessel and a normal net on the 

other. Researchers found that the nets without a BRD 

consistently had zero or very few snapper mortalities 

while the nets equipped with a BRD consistently 

contained larger snapper mortalities (Lirette 1994). 

This suggests that snapper are structure oriented . 

Most of the red snapper habitat ranges west of the 

Mississippi right where oil and gas structures 

compose the majority of reef habitat. If the bulk of 

the reef habitat disappears, the red snapper 

populations will decrease proportionally . There are 

approximately 18,000 licensed commercial shrimp 

operators in Louisiana alone (LDWF 1989). The 

BRDs will be enforced upon all the shrimpers in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Thousands of fishery jobs are in 

jeopardy due to the declining populations of red 

snapper. 

JAPANESE ARTIFICIAL REEFS AND 

PETROLEUM JACKETS 

Japan has experienced amazing success with their 

artificial reef program. They have invested $7 billion 

in their coastal program so far and continue to 

reinvest year after year (Nagahata 1991). Their aim 

is self reliance, to transform a national fleet that once 

pursued fish in distant seas to one that harvests fish 

in Japanese coastal waters . 

Their materials are usually reinforced cement blocks, 

and they are only about 2 by 2 meters, though some 

modules reach 10 meters in height (Sonue and Grove 

1985). Although they sometimes try other configurations, generally they drop cement blocks and pile 

them on top of each other (Figure SB .7). So the end 

result is not, by any means, as highly developed an 

engineering design as petroleum structures . 

The cost of Japanese installations vary from $60,000 

to $16,300,000 (Na~ahata 1991). An eight-tier 

petroleum jacket from a 120-foot depth composes 

Figure 513.5 . Tributary sedimentation prevents any natural reef development until a thin archipelago of reefs. 
30 

LOUISIANA 

MISSISSIPPI 

TEXAS 

a ~ Now Orleans 

. . 

Figure SB.6. Petroleum structures constitute 90% of the reef habitat along the Louisiana continental shelf. 

93,000 m' of volume with a footprint of 3,900 

meters' encompassing 3.5 acres' of substrate surface 

(Quigel and Thorton 1987) (Figure SB.8). A comparable Japanese cement reef of that size would cost 

$10,000,000 to build and install. 

Bonsack and Sutherland (1985) showed that Japanese 

artificial reefs offset their investment dollar in one 

year . If they spent $10 million to build and install 

93,000 m3 of reef habitat, the fishermen would catch 

$10 million worth of fish over the reef every year. 

They would spend about $45 billion on cement modules to build the equivalent amount of reef habitat 

presently available in our petroleum jackets. 

eliminates waste and transforms fishermen from 

predator methods to agrarian methods. It is crucial 

that parallels be drawn between snapper populations 

and petroleum structures as well as natural reef 

habitats and the ferrous profiles supporting the 

platforms. They constitute 90% of the reef habitat 

along the Louisiana continental shelf. Over three 

hundred acres' are being destroyed every year . 

REFERENCES 

Atrand, S. 1994. Mr. Atrand is a representative of 

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council . 

Information obtained by interview. 

CONCLUSION 

Man and marine life would mutually benefit by 

leaving the oil and gas structures in the water, 

particularly when you consider Japan has spent $7 

billion installing artificial reefs and our oil and gas 

companies will spend over $7 billion to remove them 

all (Reggio 1989). The obsolete oil and gas platforms 

could help develop a new fishery approach that 

Bonsack, J.A. and Sutherland, D.L . 1985 . Artificial 

reef research : a review with recommendations 

for future priorities . Bulletin of Marine Science, 

Vol. 37. 

Lirette, D.J . 1994. Mr. Lirette is a Fishery 

representative for the Tenebonne Fisherman's 

organization . Information obtained by interview. 
31 

Figure SB .7 . Japanese artificial reefs. 

H.i . J " 2 '" U' " 1555 vOYDRAS M.I, JIJ '" A"" 

I \ I 77 

/1 I !1 

MAGNITUDE OF SCALE 

-- 

-- 

F _` A 

\ / 

I ~ 

I l ; 

1 

r i 

JI q 

a ~1 

~ 

- 

~ ~ 

. . ~r ~ / \\ 

~~ ~l 1 

T 

I __ 

F 

~( 

/\ 

Figure SB.8 . Petroleum platform . 
32 

Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries. 1989. Number of 

Commercial Trawling Licenses issued in 1989 . 

Nagahata, Daishiro (ed.). 1994. Recent advances in 

aquatic habitat technology . Proceedings of the 

Japan-U.S . Symposium on Artificial Habitats for 

Fisheries, June 11-13, 1991, Nihon University 

Conference Hall, Tokyo, Japan. Rosemead : 

Southern California Edison Company. 

NMFS. 1981 . Draft Fishery Management Plan, 

Environmental Impact Statement and Regulatory 

Analysis for Groundfish in the Gulf of Mexico. 

National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Quigel J.C ., and Thorton W.L . 1987. Rigs to 

reefs-a case history. In Petroleum Structures as 

Artificial Reefs: A Compendium. Fourth 

International Conference on Artificial Habitats 

for Fisheries, Rigs-to-Reefs Special Session, 4 

November 1987, Miami, FL OCS Study/MMS 

89-0021 . 176 pp. 

Reggio, V.C ., Jr . (compiler) 1989. Petroleum 

Structures as Artificial Reefs: A Compendium. 

Fourth International Conference on Artificial 

Habitats for Fisheries, Rigs-to-Reefs Special 

Session, 4 November 1987, Miami, Fla. OCS 

Study/MMS 89-0021 . 176 pp. 

Scarborough-Bull, A. 1987. Some Comparisons 

Between Communities Beneath Petroleum 

Platforms Off California and in the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

Sonue C. J. and Grove R.S . 1985. Typical Japanese 

Reef Modules. Bulletin of Marine Science, Vol. 

37 . 

Mr. Steve Kolian grew up commercial fishing in the 

Gulf of Mexico from Brownsville to the Dry 

Tortugas with several years' experience in both the 

trawling and reef fishery. Mr. Kolian also worked on 

the railroad on lines across the Canadian Provinces 

and the U.S . Rockies as a gaudy dancer and as part 

of a section gang. He received his B.A . from 

Augsburg College and MSPH in Environmental 

Water Quality at Tulane University . 
NT F ~ y The Department of the Interior Mission 

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for 

most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use 

of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the 

_ A0 

, 9 

environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for the 

ACH 3 ~ enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major 

responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories 

under U.S. administration . 

The Minerals Management Service Mission 

` As a bureau of the Department of the Interior , the Minerals Management Service's (MMS) primary 

responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian lands, and distribute 

those revenues. 

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program 

administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally sound 

exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral resources. The 

MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities by ensuring the efficient, timely and 

accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and production due to Indian 

tribes and allottees, States and the U.S. Treasury . 

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being 

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially affected 

parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the quality of life for 

all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic development and environmental 

protection.