Borden Institute | Fort Detrick, Maryland

US Army Medical Department Center and School | Fort Sam Houston, Texas

Pau l Sto n e joined the staff of the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in 

June 2007. Prior to that he worked at 

the Offce of the Secretary of Defense 

Public Affairs in the Pentagon for seven 

years, where he served as a writer for the 

American Forces Press Service and a news 

coordinator for The Pentagon Channel, the 

Department of Defense’s news network. 

His career in military public affairs began 

in 1985 when he became the Media Relations Offcer for the 1st Infantry Division 

at Fort Riley, Kansas. Subsequent positions 

include service as the Deputy Public 

Affairs Offcer at the Army’s National 

Training Center, Fort Irwin, California; 

Public Affairs Offcer, Los Angeles Army 

Recruiting Battalion; Deputy Public 

Affairs Offcer, First US Army, Fort Meade, 

Maryland; and Editor, the Early Bird, a 

daily compilation of news affecting the 

Department of Defense. He holds a BA 

in journalism and mass communications 

and a BA in political science, both from 

Kansas State University. 

“For decades the AFIP has been the premier pathology institute in 

the world. . . . This did not occur by accident; rather it is the result 

of dedication, selfess service, and an unmatched commitment to 

excellence.” —Eric B Schoomaker, MD, PhD, The Surgeon General

AFIP_DJ.indd 1 
Legacy of Excellence

The Armed Forces Institute of Pat hology

1862–2011

Legacy of Excellence

The Armed Forces Institute of Pat hology

1862–2011

Paul Stone

Public Affairs Offcer | Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

Borden Institute

Fort Detrick, Maryland

US Army Medical Department Center and School

Fort Sam Houston, Texas
Martha K. Lenhart, MD, PhD | Colonel, MC, US Army | Director and Editor in Chief, Borden Institute

Christine Gamboa-Onrubia, MBA | Creative Director & Production Manager, Fineline Graphics, LLC

Joan Redding | Senior Production Editor, Borden Institute

Marcia A. Metzgar | Technical Editor, Borden Institute

The opinions or assertions contained herein are the personal views of the author and are not to be construed as doctrine of the 

Department of the Army of Department of Defense. Use of trade or brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by the Department of Defense.

CERTAIN PARTS OF THIS PUBLICATION PERTAIN TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

NO COPYRIGHTED PARTS OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY

MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL (INCLUDING PHOTOCO PY, RECORDING, OR ANY INFORMATION STORAGE AND

RETRIEVAL SYSTEM), WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHER OR COPYRIGHT OWNER.

Published by: Borden Institute, US Army Medical Department, Fort Detrick, Maryland, & Fort Sam Houston, Texas

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Stone, Paul, 1957–

Legacy of excellence : the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology,

1862–2011 / Paul Stone.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (U.S.)—History. 2. Army

Medical Museum (U.S.)—History. I. Title.

UH223.S76 2011

355.3’45—dc22

 2011000200

Printed in the United States of America

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

First Printing
 | v

Contributors | vii 

Preface | ix

Dedication | xi

Acknowledgments | xiii

Chapter 1 The Roots of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 1 

Chapter 2 New Horizons, 1883–1918 | 27

Chapter 3 Road to an Institute of Pat hology, 1919–1945 | 65

Chapter 4 Growt h and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 107

Chapter 5 Talent, Technology, and Transformation, 1976–2000 | 153

Chapter 6 Resolve and Perseverance, 2001–2011 | 199

Contents

 | vii

Contributors

Frank Avallone

Research Biologist | Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

Fran Card

Visual Information Specialist | Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

Dr. Adrienne Noe

Director | National Museum of Health and Medicine

Ridgely Rabold

Executive Assistant | Armed Forces Institute of Pathology

Michael Rhode

Chief Archivist | National Museum of Health and Medicine

Kathleen Stocker

Assistant Archivist | National Museum of Health and Medicine

 | ix

Preface

As I look back upon the history of the Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology, I cannot help but wonder what Brigadier General William Hammond, who frst envisioned a facility dedicated to the 

pathology of disease and injury to the body, would think today 

were he to spend but a single day wandering the halls and laboratories of the Institute.

Would he be amazed that the Institute’s National Museum of 

Health and Medicine still contains items collected when he founded 

it as the Army Medical Museum in 1862? Would he be impressed 

by the advances in technologies, and more importantly, the advances in life-saving diagnostic techniques developed by generations of 

world-class pathologists and scientists who devoted their lives to 

advancing the feld of pathology and eliminating disease? Would 

he be fascinated by the many and varied pathology branches, the 

thousands upon thousands of research protocols conducted over 

the years, the rapid rate that diagnoses are rendered, and the depth 

and breadth of the AFIP’s education and publication programs?

I believe the answer to all these questions is a resounding yes! But 

most of all, after surveying all that the AFIP has accomplished in 

its 149-year history, I think Hammond would be flled with pride. 

And as the Institute’s long and distinguished record of service to 

the military, nation, and worldwide medical community comes to 

a close, so too should all AFIP staff members be flled with pride 

—all of them have had one of those rare opportunities in life to be 

part of something truly unique and genuinely special. For decades 

the AFIP has been the premier pathology institute in the world, 

envied by medical centers and governments alike, and the model 

for others to emulate. This did not occur by accident; rather it is the 

result of dedication, selfess service, and an unmatched commitment to excellence. 

In a sense pathologists are the unsung heroes of military medicine. 

Despite the fact that their diagnoses and research often result in lifesaving treatments, most patients never know their names or where 

they work. So as you journey through this Institute’s rich and lasting legacy through the words and images presented here, join me in 

saluting its heroes, as I am sure General Hammond would. 

Eric B Schoomaker, MD, PhD

Lieutenant General, US Army 

The Surgeon General | Commanding General

US Army Medical Command

 

 | xi

Dedication

In 1862, the visionary Army Surgeon General Brigadier General 

William Hammond issued orders to establish the Army Medical 

Museum, for which medical offcers were directed to collect and 

document specimens of morbid anatomy and send them to the 

museum for further examination and research. By doing so, he 

put into motion efforts that would result in creation of the Army 

Institute of Pathology, which became the present day Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology—a veritable treasure house of medical 

knowledge and a vibrant center for consultation, research, and 

education on the effects of disease and injury upon the form and 

function of living cells.

What fows on the pages that follow is a narrative and pictorial history of how the Army Medical Museum was gradually transformed 

into the AFIP, and how the AFIP became one of the most respected 

and revered medical institutions in the world. This book does not 

attempt to completely document in detail every accomplishment, 

which would require volumes; rather, it seeks to highlight major 

victories in the conquest of disease and the men and women who 

made these accomplishments possible. In many ways this is a rich 

family album, flled with portraits of the greats in pathology consultation, education, and research during the past 149 years—all 

connected by history and all related by their professional DNA.

Because this is a work centered on celebrating advances in the feld 

of pathology, what is notably missing from the book are portraits 

of those who served in supporting roles, such as the Chief of Staff, 

Legal Advisor, and First Sergeant, as well as the staffs of the Business Offce, Legal Medicine, Safety, Scientifc Publications, Human

Resources, Personnel Management Division, Civilian Personnel 

Division, Information Management, and Logistics. But make no 

mistake about it, the achievements of the medical and scientifc 

staff would not have been possible without their dedication and 

support on a daily basis.

And so I dedicate this book to both the present day staff and those 

who paved the way before us. All have contributed to the legacy of 

excellence that is the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.

Florabel G Mullick, MD, ScD, FCAP

Senior Executive Service | The Director 

 | xiii

The images tracing the history of the Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology were compiled primarily from resources at the Institute’s 

National Museum of Health and Medicine, the editorial offce 

of the AFIP Newsletter and annual reports, and the AFIP Public 

Affairs Offce. The images presented were selected to highlight the 

Institute’s long and distinguished history. Although this book does 

not represent a comprehensive history of the AFIP or its personnel, 

we believe it does capture the heart and soul of the AFIP through 

each time period.

As with all publications, this book would not have been possible 

without the assistance of numerous contributors, and we are sincerely grateful to all who supported the overall effort. Dr. Florabel 

G. Mullick, Director, AFIP, proposed a narrative and photographic 

history of the AFIP to honor the Institute’s tremendous contributions to military medicine and guided the project from start to 

fnish. Michael Rhode, Chief Archivist for the National Museum 

of Health and Medicine, provided valuable input in reviewing the 

chapters, especially the early ones. And he, along with Assistant 

Archivist Kathleen Stocker, was particularly helpful in locating 

early photographs and illustrations. Dr. Adrienne Noe, Director, 

Acknowledgments

National Museum of Health and Medicine, carefully critiqued both 

the content and character of each chapter and offered much needed 

encouragement and motivation along the way. Ridge Rabold, 

Executive Assistant to the Director, reviewed every page, provided 

insights, and gently prodded me from time to time when I tarried 

a bit. Fran Card, Visual Information Specialist, was instrumental 

in ensuring that pictures and blocks of text were ordered properly, 

especially when numerous changes were made in the chapters. 

The recollections of Frank Avallone, research biologist and AFIP’s 

longest serving staff member, were a source of both inspiration 

and knowledge. Dr. Ann Nelson, Chair, Scientifc Laboratories, Dr. 

Isabell Sesterhenn, Chair, Department of Genitourinary Pathology, and Dr. Douglas Wear, Chair, Department of Environmental 

and Infectious Disease Sciences, were effective sounding boards for 

helping focus the concluding two chapters. Finally, numerous pathologists, scientists, and other staff members throughout the AFIP 

were both patient and helpful in locating literally dozens of images 

and assisting with caption information. 

Paul Stone | Public Affairs Offcer

Legacy of Excellence

The Armed Forces Institute of Pat hology

1862–2011
“Starting out as little more than three dried and varnished 

specimens placed on a shelf above an ink stand on a desk, the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, like most institutions 

that achieve excellence, was guided by a visionary—someone 

who saw a critical void to be flled . . .”
chapter 1
The Roots of Excellence, 1862–1882

[Opposite] Brigadier General William Alexander Hammond, 

surgeon general of the US Army, 1862–1864, founder of the Army 

Medical Museum, which became the Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology. Hammond was 33 years old at the time of his appointment. His selection over offcers who were his seniors in age, rank, 

and experience was due in large part to the recommendation 

and persistent pressure by offcials of the US Sanitary Commission (an unoffcial but government-sanctioned organization that 

functioned in much the same way as today’s American Red Cross), 

who were impressed by the tireless energy and administrative ability Hammond demonstrated in the organization and operation of 

hospitals in Maryland and Virginia. (MIS 61-4774)
 

| 3

SStarting out as little more than three dried and varnished specimens placed on a 

shelf above an ink stand on a desk, the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, like 

most institutions that achieve excellence, was guided by a visionary—someone 

who saw a critical void to be flled; someone committed to improving the health 

and well being of the nation’s military, and ultimately its civilian population as 

well; someone who could envision a future of life-saving discoveries based on 

detailed anatomical and disease research, and a centralized institution devoted to 

such research. The roots of the Institute, eventually a world leader in pathology 

consultation, education, and research, date to 

May 1862, when a visionary 

Army surgeon general, Brigadier General William Hammond, issued orders 

to establish the Army Medical Museum. The museum’s mission: to collect and 

properly catalog all specimens of morbid anatomy, both medical and surgical, that 

had accumulated since the commencement of the 

C

ivil War in the various US

hospitals, or that were retained by any of the medical offcers of the Army.

First located in a room in 

Hammond’s offce in Washington, DC, the museum 

moved three times in its frst 2 years of existence: frst to the old Riggs Bank 

Building at the corner of President Place (now Pennsylvania Avenue) and 15th Street NW, then to 180 Pennsylvania Avenue; and then to what was known as “Mr. Corcoran’s School House” at H Street NW between 13th and 14th Streets. 

There it stayed until 1866, when it moved to Ford’s Theatre, which had been 

renovated following President Lincoln’s assassination.
4 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The challenges of multiple moves were complicated by political struggles with Army and 

congressional leaders as the early curators were repeatedly forced to make the museum’s 

case for relevancy and funding. Indeed, differences between Surgeon General Hammond 

and the secretary of war threatened the museum’s continued existence. Major John Brinton, 

the frst curator, argued strongly for the museum’s value, writing to the acting surgeon 

general: “It is unnecessary for me to urge upon you the value of our National Medical 

Museum. Its claims to usefulness are recognized by the civil profession throughout the 

country and it is by them weekly and almost daily considered. The cabinet as it stands 

is not a mere Museum of curiosities. It is a collection which teaches. It is practical,” 

he continued, “and has already powerfully infuenced for the better treatment of the 

wounded soldier.”1(p21) Brinton’s arguments prevailed and the museum’s immediate future 

development and growth was secured.

As was common among museums in the 19th century, the Army Medical Museum 

functioned as a reference collection, with open storage on display. Groups of gunshotdamaged bones, arranged by body part, flled shelves of the exhibit cases like an array of 

books on a specifc theme. Specimen labeling was minimal, and printed catalogs were 

provided for consultation. Labels were written to be understandable by doctors. 

The material collected by the museum during the Civil War was primarily used to produce 

the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion.

2

 This project set the tone for 

the museum’s public and professional outreach for nearly 30 years. A systematic, statistical 

compilation of the types of injuries and diseases a military doctor could expect to treat, 

the multivolume history contained 6,000 pages, weighed 56 pounds, and took 26 years to 

fnish; the fnal part was published in 1888. Its publication flled a critical void in medical 

knowledge, and its painstaking attention to detail served as the standard for museum 

publications for decades to come. The specimens collected for the preparation of the 

history, whether shattered bones or diseased organs, were cataloged, studied, and displayed 

to the public in the Army Medical Museum. And the books purchased in support of the 

research formed the foundation for the Surgeon General’s Library, and eventually the 

National Library of Medicine. 
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 5

Opened to the public on April 16, 1867, the museum drew about 6,000 visitors by the end 

of the year. Mary Clemmer Ames, writing in a guidebook in 1874, felt, “It cannot fail to be 

one of the most absorbing spots on earth to the student of surgery or medicine; but to the 

unscientifc mind, especially to one still aching with the memories of war, it must remain a 

museum of horrors. No! The museum is very interesting, but can never be a popular place 

to visit.”3 In spite of Ames’s concerns, by 1874 the number of monthly visitors sometimes 

reached more than 2,600.

By 1876, the 10th year of the museum’s residency in Ford’s Theatre, the surgical collection 

contained 6,539 specimens; the medical section 1,279; the microscopical section 7,275; the 

human anatomical section 1,254; the comparative anatomical section 1,522; and the section 

for miscellaneous articles, 2,400.

The primary emphasis remained on preserving specimens illustrative of the wounds and 

diseases that produced death and disability in the military, with the purpose of reducing 

mortality and alleviating suffering among soldiers. But slowly and steadily, the museum’s 

curators and researchers had been moving beyond this collection mission. Pioneering 

work was performed in microscopy, resulting in the use of aniline dyes for staining 

microscopic slides, one of the most important basic techniques of the pathologist. This 

was complemented by groundbreaking work in photographing objects visible under the 

microscope—another indispensable tool of present day pathology.

As the museum neared its 20th year, General Hammond’s original vision of a museum 

collection that would “embrace all forms of injuries and diseases, so that eventually it would 

become a general pathological museum, accessible for study to all medical men who are 

prosecuting original inquiries,”1(p65) was becoming a reality. And by 1882, the Army Medical 

Museum—with its roots of excellence frmly established—was poised to pursue a path that 

led to the establishment of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. n
6 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

aS t h e Civi l War b e g an the need for creation of the Army Medical Museum 

was clear to General Hammond, who was keenly aware of the lack of knowledge on 

surgical and medical problems facing the US Army. As would be expected, at that 

time medicine was still what would now be considered primitive. The Union Army 

did not even have an ambulance, and it wasn’t until the second year of the war that 

Dr Jonathan Letterman developed a standard procedure for removing the wounded 

from the battlefeld. Most doctors trained by short apprenticeships, and medical 

schools consisted of two years of instruction that would now be undergraduate work. 

Bacteria and viruses were not recognized as the cause of disease, and vague particles 

called “formites,” which emanated from unhealthy areas or infected material, were 

thought to be the cause. Few sanitary measures were instituted, so camps were foul 

places. Blood typing and transfusions did not exist and the discovery of penicillin and 

antibiotics was 80 years away. Although surgical instruments did exist, they weren’t 

always available and doctors often had to resort to extracting bullets from wounds by 

reaching in with their fngers and cleaning out the bullet and any other loose material. 

They then wiped their hands on their clothes and went on to the next case.

[Opposite] Posed amputation scene depicting the 

use of anesthesia, the widespread use of which was 

documented in the Medical and Surgical History 

of the War of the Rebellion. (CP 1563)

[Top Left] Amputation of third, fourth, and ffth 

metacarpals: Private Robert Fyer, Company G, 52 

NY Infantry Regiment. (CP 1041)

[Bottom Right] Remains from amputations 

following a Civil War battle. (CP 1043, “Field Day,” 

cropped)
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 7
8 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 9

In this circular dated May 21, 

1862, Surgeon General Hammond 

announces his intention to establish the Army Medical Museum. 

(MIS 62-2214)

[Opposite] Ward in Armory 

Square Hospital, Washington, 

DC. (CP 2241)
10 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 11

Ear ly h o m e S of the Army Medical Museum. 

[Opposite] The frst home of the museum, Riggs Bank Building, Pennsylvania Ave. and 15th St, NW, 1862–1863. (Reeve 32783)

[Bottom Left] The second home of the museum, 180 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, 1863. (Reeve 32780)

[Bottom Center] The third home of the museum, Corcoran Schoolhouse, 1325 H St, NW, 1863–1866; 

engraving by HH Nichols, a member of the museum staff, circa 1863. (Reeve 32789)

[Bottom Right] The fourth home of the museum, Ford’s Theatre, 511 10th St, NW, 1866–1887. (Reeve 32782)
12 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] Major John Hill Brinton, US Volunteers, frst curator of the Army 

Medical Museum, 1862–1864. Most units during the Civil War consisted 

of volunteers from the individual states, but individuals who were brought 

into service at the federal level, such as Brinton, were referred to as “US 

Volunteers.” (MIS 63-85-2)

[Right] Major General Joseph K Barnes, surgeon general of Army for 18 

years, 1864–1882. General Barnes carried forward much of the program 

initiated by General Hammond. (MIS 53-14501-1)

[Opposite] This group of US Army medical offcers includes several who 

became prominent in the history of the Army Medical Museum and the 

Library of the Surgeon General. Standing (left to right): Lieutenant Colonel 

William G Spencer, Assistant Surgeon Alfred A Woodhull, Surgeon General 

Joseph K Barnes, Assistant Surgeon Edward Curtis. Seated (left to right): 

Assistant Surgeons George A Otis, Charles H Crane, John S Billings, and 

Joseph J Woodward. (Woodward 3944)

at t h e tim e of hi S appoin t m e n t as the museum’s frst curator, 

Major John Brinton had been a teacher of anatomy at the Jefferson 

Medical College in Philadelphia and had served with General Ulysses 

S Grant during the western campaign of the Civil War. Embracing his 

new duty of collecting specimens and diseased tissues for the museum, 

Brinton personally visited feld hospitals after the battles of Antietam, 

Sharpsburg, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg. He also issued detailed 

instructions to medical offcers for forwarding pathological objects to the 

museum, including bony specimens and wet tissue preparations following 

amputations or operations. Specimens were to be labeled, numbered, 

wrapped in cloth, and immersed in a keg or small cask of diluted alcohol 

or whiskey. When flled, the cask was to be forwarded to the Offce of the 

Surgeon General.
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 13
14 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The firSt catalo g of the museum was simply a 

numerical list of the objects in the collection, with no attempt 

to classify the various injuries or describe in detail the 

preparations included. Of the nearly 1,000 surgical specimens 

listed, all but a handful were the result of gunshot wounds, 

and the vast majority of these were caused by the conoidal 

bullets widely used by both sides in the Civil War. Egg-shaped 

with an indentation behind the penetrating head, designed to 

expand when the gunpowder combusted and engage the barrel 

rifing, these bullets were particularly accurate and lethal. Few 

American surgeons at the time had experience with gunshot 

wounds, and fewer still had seen wounds from conoidal bullets. 

The bullets themselves were also collected by the museum, 

eventually forming the largest collection of conoidal bullets in 

the world. Other categories of specimens included pathology 

caused by diseases such as typhoid fever and “Chickahominy 

diarrhea” (named after Chickamauga National Park, where 

60,000 soldiers were encamped in 1863 amid a high prevalence 

of camp fever). The catalog was highly illustrative of the effects 

of military action and camp conditions upon the life of soldiers 

during the Civil War. 
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 15

[Opposite] A collage of two images from the Catalogue of the United States 

Army Medical Museum (Washington, DC: Government Printing Offce, 

1866–1867), as printed in Henry RS, The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962 (Washington, DC: Offce of the Surgeon 

General, Department of the Army; 1964). The specimen shown is listed as 

No. 76 in the catalog. (MIS 62-733-4)

[Bottom] General Sickles and [Top] his leg bones. General Sickles, commanding 

general of the 3rd Army Corps, Army of the Potomac, was wounded at Gettysburg on July 2, 1863. As a result of the efforts of museum staff, specimens arrived 

regularly during the war, particularly after great battles, but this specimen arrived 

unsolicited. Packaged in a small, coffn-like box, and bearing the visiting card of 

the donor with the message, “With the compliments of Major General D.E.S.,” 

was the general’s amputated leg. This personal donation testifed to the growing reputation of the Army Medical Museum. The general’s bones are still on 

display in AFIP’s National Museum of Health and Medicine. (Woodward 6202; 

Woodward 3861)
16 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 17

[Opposite, Top and Bottom] Early “dry” exhibits in 

comparative anatomy, which included skeletal remains 

of various mammals, birds and reptiles, as well as “wet” 

specimens, which were preserved in liquid and enclosed 

in glass. By 1871, the surgical section of the museum 

consisted of about 6,000 mounted specimens, the medical 

section had 1,150 specimens, the microscopical section 

contained more than 4,000, and the anatomical section 

included nearly 1,000 human skulls and skeletons.The 

majority of the surgical specimens came from military 

surgery, although non-military surgical cases were also 

being added to the collection. (Woodward 1856-A; Woodward 1856-B; MIS 62-2966-1)
18 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

By the 1870S the MuSeum had not only become a major attraction in 

Washington, DC, it was also becoming a focus for the intellectual and scientifc life of 

the city. The fortnightly meetings of the city’s Philosophical Society, the oldest scientifc 

society in Washington, were held at the museum, and the charter meeting of the 

Cosmos Club was also held there. When the American Medical Association met in the 

capital in 1868, the museum was the scene of a reception hosted by the surgeon general. 

A similar courtesy was extended to members of the National Academy of Sciences in 

1870. 

The most melancholy mission assigned to the museum in its early years occurred when 

doctors Joseph Woodward and Edward Curtis were assigned to perform the autopsy 

on President Lincoln. The two pathologists were summoned to the White House at

11 am on April 15, 1865, with the task of removing the bullet fred into the president’s 

head by assassin John Wilkes Booth. After describing the condition of the wound and 

surrounding tissue, their report traced the course of the bullet, which entered through 

the occipital bone about an inch to the left of the median line, and just above the left 

lateral sinus, which it opened. It then penetrated the dura mater, passed through the left 

posterior lobe of the cerebrum, entered the left lateral ventricle and lodged in the white 

matter of the cerebrum just above the anterior portion of the left corpus striatum. Both 

orbital plates of the frontal bone were fractured, and the fragments pushed up toward 

the brain.

Museum pathologists also performed the autopsy on President James Garfeld when he 

was shot and fatally wounded in 1881. The autopsy disclosed the course and location 

of the fatal bullet, which had entered the president’s back about 4 inches to the right of 

his spine, broken the eleventh and twelfth ribs, passed through the frst lumbar vertebra, 

grazed the splenic artery, and stopped behind the pancreas, about 10 inches from the 

point of entrance. 

[Top and Opposite] Main exhibit hall, Ford’s Theatre 

building in the early 1870s. (Reeve 32786) 
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 19
20 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 21

[Opposite] This sketch, made by Hermann Faber immediately after the removal of 

President Lincoln’s body from the house in which he died, was approved for accuracy 

by Surgeon General Joseph K Barnes. Faber was a staff medical artist at the museum. 

(Accession no. 29719)

[Left] Bullet from the body of President Garfeld, located during autopsy. 

(Woodward 7082)

[Right] The bullet that ended President Lincoln’s life, the instrument used to locate it, 

and bone fragments that adhered to it. Both the bullet and instrument are on display 

today at AFIP’s National Museum of Health and Medicine. (MIS 62-1021)
22 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top Left] Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Woodward, Medical Corps, who had been hired by Brigadier General 

Hammond to work on the Medical and Surgical History, pioneered the use in the United States of aniline dyes 

for staining microscopic slides and creating photomicrographs, in the mid-1860s. During independent histological studies of fever and diarrhea among soldiers, Dr Woodward began using the newly discovered aniline dyes to 

stain tissue, so that certain parts became more visible under the microscope. While the idea of staining specimens 

to stand out was not new, the unstable nature and limited range of colors of most of the vegetable and animal dyes 

available had limited their use. In 1865 Woodward published a paper in the American Journal of the Medical 

Sciences called “On the Use of Aniline in Histological Researches With a Method of Investigating the Histology of 

the Human Intestine and Remarks on Some of the Points To Be Observed in the Study of the Diseased Intestine in 

Camp Fevers and Diarrheas.” Dr Woodward had identifed and developed one of the central techniques of modern 

pathology. (NCP 3608) 

[Top Right] Major Edward Curtis, US Volunteers, who collaborated with Dr Joseph Woodward in photomicrography in the mid–1860s. (Woodward 3659)

This Joseph Zentmayer microscope 

is one of those issued by the Surgeon General’s Offce at the time 

the Army Medical Museum was 

established, and used by Dr Woodward to make photomicrographs. 

The model was introduced in 1862 

for use by US Army hospitals and 

was produced until 1876. (MIS 

60-4713-76)
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 23

in t h e S e ear ly ph o to mic r o g raph y e xpe rim e n t S by Curtis and 

Woodward, the source of illumination was the sun itself, ingeniously harnessed to 

ensure a perfectly steady and intense light. The room in which the photography 

was to be taken—darkened so as to dispense with a light-tight bellows—became 

the “camera,” with a window facing south as the “shutter,” through which the direct 

rays of the sun, caught in the mirror of a heliostat mounted outside the window, 

were refected upon the plane mirror of a microscope mounted horizontally just 

inside the window. From the mirror, the refected rays of the sun were thrown 

upon the object to be photographed, placed upon the stage of the microscope. 

Light passed through the barrel of the microscope to the object-glass, where it 

was magnifed. The magnifed image was brought to a focus upon a sensitive 

photographic plate, mounted on a stand that was moved back and forth along 

a 10-foot track, which was provided with a scale for measurement of distances 

from the microscope. Pictures were taken by opening an aperture in the light-tight 

shield ftted on the window. These frst photomicrographs were nearly as accurate 

and detailed as those taken a hundred years later. Further experiments by the two 

doctors successfully employed electric lights and magnesium lamps.

References

1. Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. Washington, DC: 

Offce of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army; 1964.

2. Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion. Washington, DC: Offce of the Surgeon 

General, Department of the Army; 1870–1888.

3. Clemmer M. Ten Years in Washington: Life and Scenes in the National Capital as a Woman Sees 

Them. Hartford, CT: AD Worthington & Co; 1874: 477.

Lieutenant Colonel George A Otis, second curator of the 

Army Medical Museum, 1864 to 1881. Under Otis’s leadership, the stupendous task of compiling and writing the 

Medical and Surgical History came close to completion. In 

May 1877 Dr Otis suffered a stroke; he passed away 4 years 

later, at the age of 51. He was succeeded by Army Surgeon 

David Low Huntington, who served as the museum’s third 

curator, from 1881 to 1883. (MIS 05-6764-3)
24 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
The Ro otS of Excellence, 1862–1882 | 25

[Opposite | Top] A photograph and drawing of the equipment used in the Army Medical Museum’s pioneering photomicrography, mid-to-late 1860s. In these early photomicrography experiments by Curtis and Woodward, the source of illumination was the sun itself, ingeniously harnessed to insure a perfectly steady and intense light. The room in which 

the photography was to be taken—darkened so as to dispense with a light-tight bellows—became the “camera,” with a window facing south as the “shutter,” through which the direct 

rays of the sun, caught in the mirror of a heliostat mounted outside the window, were refected upon the plane mirror of a microscope mounted horizontally just inside the window. 

From the mirror, the refected rays of the sun were thrown upon the object to be photographed, placed upon the stage of the microscope. Light passed through the barrel of the microscope to the object-glass, where it was magnifed. The magnifed image was brought to a focus upon a sensitive photographic plate, mounted on a stand that was moved back and 

forth along a 10-foot track, which was provided with a scale for measurement of distances from the microscope. Pictures were taken by opening an aperture in the light-tight shield 

ftted on the window. These frst photomicrographs were nearly as accurate and detailed as those taken a hundred years later. Further experiments by the two doctors successfully 

employed electric lights and magnesium lamps. (Woodward 1580; Reeve 72508) 
“As the Army Medical Museum entered its third decade of 

service to the nation, its shelves, cases, and storage rooms 

housed an ever-expanding collection of skeletal remains, 

mounted surgical specimens, anatomical examples, medical 

instruments, and volumes upon volumes of literature.”
chapter 2
new horizons, 1883–1918
 | 29

AAs the Army Medical Museum entered its third decade of service to the nation, its 

shelves, cases, and storage rooms housed an ever-expanding collection of skeletal 

remains, mounted surgical specimens, anatomical examples, medical instruments, 

and volumes upon volumes of literature. To take advantage of the potential 

opportunities afforded by this expansion, the museum needed new leaders 

with inquisitive minds, innovative ideas, and the energy and enthusiasm to turn 

possibilities into reality. Enter Major John Shaw Billings and Major Walter Reed.

Dr Billings had served as librarian for the Offce of the Surgeon General for 

nearly 30 years before becoming the fourth curator of the museum in 1883. The 

library he had built became a new museum-library division. As the new curator, 

Billings continued the campaign for a new building. In what was typical 

Washington fashion even then, he identifed the most infuential congressmen 

and wrote to physicians in their districts, asking them to lobby for a new 

structure. By 1885 Congress had approved funding for the new landmark Army 

Medical Museum and Library building, to be erected at what is now 7th Street 

and Independence Avenue, SW, in Washington. Working with architect Adolph 

Cluss, Billings helped with plans and specifcations to ensure that the structure 

would fulfll his vision of a multifunctional facility that could incorporate 

exhibits, research, and education. By late 1887 the laborious process of moving 

into the new museum had begun. The building would eventually earn the 

affectionate title “Old Red Brick” by those who worked there during the next 

80 years. In 1888, shortly after the new museum was fully occupied, the initial 

Dr John Shaw Billings, famed librarian and fourth 

curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1883–1893. 

(MIS 60-5419-2)
30 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

rationale for the museum’s existence came to fruition when the sixth and fnal part of the monumental 

Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion was published. 

Once in the new building, Curator Billings changed the museum’s emphasis. While continuing to develop the 

comparative anatomy, human anatomy, and anthropological collections, Billings moved the museum into a 

more historical direction by collecting and exhibiting the material culture of medicine. Under his direction, 

the museum’s collection policy was infuenced by both American and European scientifc and scholarly 

trends, yet linked to the research strengths (microscopy and photomicrography) of the Surgeon General’s 

Offce. Billings’s collections encompassed human anatomy and embryology, pathology, numismatics, 

ethnography and physical anthropology, comparative anatomy, specimen preparation, and the further 

development of the microscope. On display in the new museum was a collection of microscopes started by 

Billings in 1884 with 17 instruments obtained in Europe. Toward the end of his tenure he collected medical 

instruments and military artifacts, including equipment and supplies, with the goal of building a national 

museum with a broad encyclopedic reach. But his clearest vision for the future was stated in the Medical 

News of Philadelphia in 1886:

1. To illustrate the effects, both immediate and remote of wounds and of the diseases that prevailed in the 

Army.

2. To illustrate the work of the Army Medical Department; models of transportation of sick and wounded, 

and of hospitals; medical supplies; instruments, etc.

3. To illustrate human anatomy and pathology of both sexes and of all ages.

4. To illustrate the morphological basis of ethnological classifcation, more especially of the native races of 

America; including anthropometry and craniology.

5. To illustrate the latest methods and apparatus for biological investigations and the various methods of 

preparing and mounting specimens.1(p84)

Billings further wrote that he envisioned an institute of pathology with “earnest and well-trained students” 

working with the museum’s collections to advance the feld. “Sooner or later we shall have half a dozen or 

more of specially trained men busy in the laboratories and work-rooms of the museum, each engaged on his 

own problems, and the whole for the common good.”1(p88)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 31

Billings’s collection policies and vision for the museum’s future paved the way for the next curator 

to explore even wider horizons. In 1893 Major Walter Reed became the ffth curator of the Army 

Medical Museum. Building on efforts begun by Billings, Reed organized and taught the frst class of 

the recently established Army Medical School—a 4-month course of instruction to be offered each 

year at the museum. At nearly the same time, Brigadier General George Sternberg, Surgeon General 

of the Army, published A Manual of Bacteriology,

2 the frst American textbook on the subject. Under 

Sternberg and Reed, the Army’s interest in pursuing bacteriology, epidemiology, and immunology 

grew, as did interest in new medical discoveries. Reed was particularly aggressive about obtaining 

an apparatus for and experimenting with X-rays following Wilhelm Roentgen’s discovery of the 

radiation in January 1896.

Reed is most famous for his achievements from 1898 to the end of 1900. During three tremendous 

years he wrote imperishable pages in the history of medicine. First, as president of an Army board 

of medical offcers set up to investigate the typhoid fever epidemic in camps within the United 

States, he helped broaden understanding about the ways in which typhoid spreads— an essential 

step in the eventual triumph over that disease in the next decade. Reed was then called upon to head 

another board to investigate infectious diseases in Cuba—a group of medical offcers who would 

discover and prove beyond a doubt the method of transmission of the most dreaded diseases of the 

tropics: yellow fever. And although Reed died suddenly in 1902 from appendicitis, his 10-year tenure 

as curator had permanently shaped the future course of the Army Medical Museum.

In 1910, the Army Medical School, which had increasingly encroached on space used for exhibits 

and research, moved out of the museum and into its own building on Louisiana Avenue, SW. By the 

time the United States entered World War I, the Army Medical Museum, although still a popular 

tourist and educational attraction, had become more of a research-focused entity, concentrating on 

pathology. The museum was reorganized into two main sections: the Pathology Department and the 

Instruction Laboratory. 

The Pathology Department was a new function, and the size and scope of World War I required 

that new procedures for collecting, preserving, and cataloging thousands of new specimens be 
32 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

established. Under the Instruction Laboratory were the departments of Motion Pictures, Still Photography, 

Wax Modeling, and Anatomical Art. 

Circular letters were sent to Army medical staff in both the United States and France requesting material. 

Circular No. 42, sent to the American Expeditionary Forces in France on July 27, 1918, requested “pathological 

specimens, bacteria, animal parasites, missiles, armor, instruments, apparatus, casts, models, paintings, 

drawings, diagrams, charts, statistical tables, cinema flms, photographs, lantern slides, and other things 

pertaining to the preservation of the health and the prevention and treatment of disease of United States 

soldiers, or the history of the Medical Department of the Army.”1(pp182,183) Also, seemingly for the frst time, the 

value of autopsies was recognized. Writing in 1918, the surgeon general said that an autopsy “almost invariably 

yields information which is instructive and of great value and importance in the treatment of the living,” 

and that “great good to the service and (to) medical science would result” if it were “practicable to hold postmortem examinations after all deaths.” While the number of actual autopsies performed was low, the military’s 

belief that such procedures could help fght disease was strengthened and solidifed in offcial documents.1(p162)

Unlike the Spanish-American War, which had yielded little in the way of specimens, World War I brought 

the museum 9,960 accessioned specimens, together with 12,700 autopsy protocols. The specimens included 

600 sections of lungs of soldiers who died from the 1918 Spanish infuenza—specimens used much later 

by an AFIP scientist, Jeffrey Taubenberger, who successfully unlocked the mysteries of that disease in 2005. 

Writing in 1919, Dr James Ewing, who served with the Army as a contract surgeon during the war, said of 

the museum: “The variety of diseases represented was surprising and the opportunity of illustrating the 

developmental stages of common and even of rare diseases, with their complications, was far greater than 

the writer has ever before enjoyed. Hence the value of an extensive museum collection was very completely 

demonstrated. . . . The value of a comprehensive pathological museum for teaching students, clinicians and 

pathologists, and for research in the etiology and pathogenesis of disease is probably underestimated even by 

most confrmed pathological anatomists.”3

Ewing’s assessment, as well as other records of the museum and Surgeon General’s Offce during the frst two 

decades of the new century, made it clear that by 1919 the stage had been set for the institution’s transformation 

from a traditional museum to a diagnostic facility concerned with patient care via pathology. n
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 33

Havin g wo r k e d aS a S u r g e o n during the Civil War, and then with the Surgeon General’s Offce as its librarian since 1865, Billings was an overwhelming favorite 

to take charge of the newly-merged Army Medical Museum and Library. He inherited 

an institution that had already enlarged its focus from collecting specimens of military medicine and surgery. Three initial collections (medical, surgical, and microscopical) had been reorganized and increased with sections for pathological, anatomical, 

and comparative anatomy specimens, as well as miscellaneous objects, such as instruments and equipment. Billings began increasing the museum’s collections with the 

same energy he had devoted to building the library’s holdings, founding an extensive 

collection of historical microscopes. In addition to collecting, Billings had 

the responsibility for running the museum, 

including exhibiting the collections 

and compiling a catalog. He also 

oversaw completion of the sixth and 

fnal section (which comprised two 

volumes) of the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion. 

Each of the six sections is massive in 

itself, averaging nearly 1,000 pages of 

text, with an average of 40 full-page 

plates, many in color, plus scores of 

black-and-white woodcuts. Perhaps 

most importantly, during his tenure 

Billings was able to convince Congress to 

fund construction of a new home for the 

museum, allowing the aggressive expansion of both collections and new research 

in science and medicine.

Pages from one of the six volumes of the 

Medical and Surgical History of the War 

of the Rebellion. (NCP 17026)
34 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

A page from the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion depicting gunshot scalp wounds and contusions of the skull. (MIS 62-1019-4)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 35

The “Evolution of the Microscope” exhibit at the Army Medical Museum. Several of the microscopes in the collection were obtained by Billings and are still on display at AFIP’s 

National Museum of Health and Medicine. (MIS 60-4223-11)
36 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

aft e r man y y ear S of wo r kin g in the cramped quarters of Ford’s Theater, in 1887 the 

staff of the Army Medical Museum began moving into a new, spacious and attractive building more suited to its expanding collections and missions. The structure consisted of a center 

building, measuring 112 by 55 feet, with two 60-by-131–ft wings. In the courtyard, a 52-by24–ft annex was connected with the rear of the center building by a covered passageway.

The central and western portions of the frst foor were mostly occupied by the clerks of the 

Surgeon General’s Offce Record and Pension Division, while the east wing was given over to 

functions of the museum: a dissecting room, an anatomist’s room, a darkroom, a room exhibiting the supplies and equipment for a post hospital, and a room for genitourinary specimens 

considered unsuitable for public display.

The east wing on the second foor stored more museum specimens, the west wing held library 

shelf stacks, and the central portion of the foor contained library offces and reading rooms. 

[Bottom] The ffth home of the Army 

Medical Museum, as depicted in architect 

Adolph Cluss’s plans. (MIS 61-6440)

[Opposite] A photograph of the museum 

building following completion in 1887. 

The building became known as the “Old 

Red Brick.” (AMM 740)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 37

The library and museum wings were built to form freproof 

compartments separated from the other parts of the building. 

Both were open from the second story to the roof, forming 

halls 31 feet high to the eaves and 47 feet to the ridge of lantern 

skylights. 

The third foor held offces, a microscopy room, and a room 

equipped for anthropometry. A fourth foor in the central 

building contained only the photographic gallery and several 

storerooms, two of which displayed examples of stretchers and 

other devices for transporting sick and wounded in combat. 

The anatomical and biological laboratory was located in the 

annex, which also contained the utilities and somewhat primitive sanitary facilities. This building would be home to the 

Army Medical Museum and its successors, the Army Institute 

of Pathology and the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, for 

nearly 80 years.

New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 39

[Opposite] The museum’s main hall. In addition to its own operations, the museum often hosted professional meetings. A famous 

gathering occurred in 1907 when renowned physician and pathologist Dr Maude Abbott held a meeting at the museum to lobby for 

establishment of the International Association of Medical Museums. Over the next several decades this organization would evolve 

into what is now the International Academy of Pathology. In 2008, AFIP Director Dr Florabel G Mullick was named president of the 

Academy. (Reeve 30328)

[Top] Movement to a larger facility meant more room for laboratories and research, including the “Histo-pathology Room,” shown 

here. (Reeve 30329)
40 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Front and [Inset] rear views of the Surgeon General’s Library. By the time the museum 

moved into the “Old Red Brick,” the library had grown to 115,000 bound volumes and 184,000 

unbound pamphlets and papers. (AMM 741; AMM 407)

[Opposite] Chemistry laboratory for the Army Medical School, which shared space with the 

museum until 1910. (AMM 1156)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 41
42 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Students of the Army Medical School, established in 1893, work in one of the many laboratories they shared with museum staff. (AMM 1155)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 43

[Left] Brigadier General George Sternberg, Surgeon General of the Army, 

1893–1902. During his tenure, the museum’s research efforts were directed 

toward bacteriology. Sternberg also secured authority for creation of the Army 

Medical School. Established as part of the Army Medical Museum, the school 

consisted of a 4-month course of instruction to train candidates for admission 

to the Army Medical Corps in their duties as medical offcers. (AMM 387)

[Right] Major Walter Reed, ffth curator of the museum, 1893–1902. Like 

Surgeon General Sternberg, Major Reed was greatly interested in bacteriology. 

Beginning in 1898, as president of the Army board of medical offcers set up to 

investigate the typhoid fever epidemic in Army camps in the United States, he 

helped broaden the understanding of how typhoid spreads. Reed then led the 

board of offcers investigating infectious diseases in Cuba, which discovered the 

transmission method of yellow fever. (MIS 05-6832-1)

In addition to his interest in bacteriology, 

Major Reed followed the latest advances 

in medical technology. Within 3 months 

of Wilhelm Roentgen’s discovery of X-rays 

in January 1896, Reed obtained an X-ray 

apparatus: (right) Roentgen ray tube. 

(left) An electrostatic generator. 

(MIS 62-1020; MIS 62-4101)
44 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Dr William Gray was the frst person on the Army Medical Museum’s staff to use the new X-ray technology in a clinical setting. Here he X-rays a patient on a hospital ship during 

the Spanish-American War in 1898. (AMM 2186)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 45

The typhoid team: (top) Major Frederick Russell, seventh curator of the museum, 1907–

1913, and (bottom) Lieutenant James Carroll, sixth curator of the Army Medical Museum, 

1902–1907. Carroll and Russell studied typhoid with Major Reed, initiating experiments 

with a vaccine and carrying out mass inoculations. (AMM 6090; NLM 61-167) 

Th e t yph oid b oar d, established in August 1898 by the Army Adjutant General’s 

Offce, consisted of Reed and subsequent museum curators Lieutenant James Carroll and 

Major Frederick Russell. The three doctors immediately went to work by inspecting military 

campsites throughout the eastern United States. By October the board was back in Washington studying the detailed medical records of 118 regiments. Over the next several years the 

board disproved the theory that typhoid was primarily a waterborne disease; rather, it is “disseminated by the transference of the excretions of an infected individual to alimentary canals 

of others.”1(p137) The board also concluded that typhoid was found in fies, which conveyed 

the infected organisms from their source to a person, and that men who ate in screened tents 

were less susceptible to typhoid than those whose mess tents were open to fies.

In the latter years of Lieutenant Carroll’s tenure as curator, he conducted an experiment 

in vaccination against typhoid, which, like Reed’s experiments with yellow fever in Cuba,

used human volunteers as subjects. After limited success with an oral vaccine, Carroll 

investigated vaccination by hypodermic injection. He also consulted with the British and 

German armies, which had achieved some success with vaccinations. After considerable 

study, by 1909 the board had determined that “the practice of anti-typhoid vaccination is 

both useful and harmless and that it offers a practicable means of diminishing the amount 

of typhoid in the Army both in times of peace and war.”1(p143) The board’s fndings were 

proven correct in March 1911, when an Army division was mobilized in Texas because 

of unrest on the Mexican border, with mandatory vaccination for military personnel. 

With more than 10,000 men in camp, the only death from typhoid was that of a civilian 

teamster who had refused vaccination.1(p1430) With this evidence, vaccination for typhoid 

was made compulsory for the entire Army on September 30. Typhoid vaccination did 

not originate in the United States, but the US Army was the frst to make vaccination a 

required prophylaxis against typhoid. n
46 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Major Russell (far right) vaccinating volunteers against typhoid during the experimental phase, circa 1910. (AMM 6093)

[Opposite] By 1917, with the United States about to enter World War I, typhoid vaccination scenes such as this were commonplace. (Reeve 36335)

48 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] The yellow fever team. In addition to Major Reed, the most prominent members 

of the yellow fever board included (left) Dr Jesse Lazear of Johns Hopkins, who lost 

his life in the experiments; (middle) Dr Aristides Agramonte, a Cuban member of 

the board; and (right) Dr Juan Carlos Finlay, who assisted Reed during research and 

testing. Even in death, Lazear proved to be an instrumental member of the team. Following his passing, a small notebook containing entries on his experiments was found. 

Reed analyzed the notes and realized they furnished the clue to the secret of mosquito 

transmission of yellow fever— namely, that it was a matter of the timing of the bites. 

Subsequent experiments by Reed and others identifed how many days a mosquito 

must have the illness before it could be successfully passed on by a bite. (MIS 61-6532-6; 

MIS 61-6532-16; Reeve 71133)

[Bottom] Expanded view of Camp Lazear, which demonstrates its distance from a 

populated area and shows the tents that housed both those running the experiments 

and the volunteers who took part in them. (Reeve 40732)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 49

So o n aft e r fi e l d wo r k waS c o mp l e t e d on typhoid, 

Major Reed was sent to Cuba in June 1900, joining other doctors 

focused on identifying the specifc agent of yellow fever, which had 

killed over 100,000 people in the United States from 1793 through 

1900. Reed relied heavily on Dr Juan Carlos Finlay, who had long 

been an advocate of the theory that yellow fever was transmitted by 

mosquitos.1(p118) The team’s biggest hurdle: humans were the only 

known animal subject to yellow fever. Permission was obtained 

to experiment on humans, which unfortunately resulted in four 

deaths, but provided support for the mosquito theory of yellow 

fever. More work was needed, and by November 1900, Reed had 

established Camp Lazear in Cuba, where tests of yellow fever transmission could be carried on under controlled conditions.

The distinguishing feature of Camp Lazear, located in a Havana 

suburb, was a pair of frame buildings located on opposite slopes 

of a small valley. One, the “Infected Mosquito Building,” was 

designed to test the mosquito theory; the other, the “Infected 

Clothing Building,” was designed to test the widely accepted theory 

of infection by contact with clothing, bedding, and other articles 

that had been in contact with yellow fever patients. By early 1901, 

through a series of highly controlled experiments using volunteers 

from both the US military and the Spanish immigrant population, Reed and the other investigators were able to prove that 

transmission by mosquito was the primary source of yellow fever, 

and that control of the mosquito population could signifcantly 

reduce the number of cases. At the same time, volunteers sleeping every night in the Infected Clothing Building—averaging 21 

nights amid the flthy garments—resulted in not one case of yellow fever, which put to rest beliefs that transmission was possible 

through such contact.1(pp125–128) While this pioneering research was 

vital in proving the disease’s method of transmission, it would be 

another quarter of a century before it was fnally established that 

the infecting agent of yellow fever is not a visible “parasite” such as 

Reed sought, but a virus that had not yet been trapped by flters or 

revealed by microscopes.

Camp Lazear in the Havana suburbs, where yellow fever research 

was conducted. Pictured here is 

the “Infected Clothing Building,” 

where it was proved that yellow 

fever could not be caught by contact with clothing or bedding from 

those already infected. (Reeve 

40731-2)
50 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

After 15 years of operation in the museum building, the Army Medical School moved in 1910 to rented quarters on Louisiana Avenue, SW. The school had originally occupied a 

mere two rooms in the museum when it opened in 1893, but as it grew it increasingly took over space that had been dedicated to exhibits. (Reeve 60542)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 51

[Top] Example of Lamb’s “Scheme of Classifcation for the Collections of the Army Medical Museum Surgeon General’s 

Offce.” (Reproduced from: Shufeldt RW. On the classifcation adopted for the material constituting the collections of the 

Army Medical Museum of the Surgeon General’s Offce at Washington. Medical Review of Reviews. 1918;24:12.)

[Botton] Dr Daniel Lamb, museum pathologist and custodian in the frst 2 decades of the 20th century. Dr Lamb designed and instituted a new classifcation system for the museum’s specimens. Under his system, specimens illustrating 

any one disease were collected in one place, with a subarrangement organized according to the organ involved. Under 

this plan, it had been possible, for example, to select in a few minutes specimens to be loaned to a meeting on tuberculosis in Baltimore without having to search for specimens in multiple locations. Dr Lamb also urged the museum to 

begin directing as many resources to pathology as it was investing in bacteriology at the time. (MIS 57-13237)
52 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 53

[Opposite Left and Right | Top] Anatomical models and pathological specimens on exhibit in the early part of the 20th century. (Reeve 30538; Reeve 30535; Reeve 30325)

[Opposite | Inset] Major Eugene Whitmore, eighth curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1913–1915. Although praising the museum’s work in the feld of bacteriology 

and immunology, Major Whitmore was critical of the ongoing shift away from the museum’s exhibit role. Under his leadership this mission was reenergized to present more 

focus on the collection, preparation, and exhibition of specimens illustrating medicine in all its branches.1(p150) (MIS 05-7110-1)
54 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Opposite] Osteology exhibit on display just prior to World 

War I. (Woodward 3833)

[Bottom] Exhibit detailing the historical development of microscopes and surgical instruments, circa 1918. (Reeve 30537) 

[Opposite | Top Far Right] Colonel William Owen, tenth 

curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1916–1919. During 

his tenure, Colonel Owen pushed for construction of a new, 

175,000-square-foot building to house the museum and 

library on the south side of the Mall, between 41⁄2 and 6th 

Streets, SW. The plan was endorsed by more than a score 

of medical college deans and faculties, as well as top leaders 

in the medical profession. Preliminary plans for the building were approved by the city’s Fine Arts Commission. But 

in the middle of a war, with Army money, materials, and 

manpower in short supply, the timing was not good and the 

project joined many other deferred plans of the time. Colonel 

Owen also envisioned an expanded role in pathology for the 

museum, writing: “I do not believe that a mere collection 

of anatomical and pathological curiosities for exhibit to the 

curious and the prurient should be permitted. A medical 

museum should be, in my judgment, a great library of history 

and pathology, where the student of medicine may come and 

study the history of disease and its pathology, for the beneft 

of himself, his patients and his nation.”1(p165, 168) A conference 

room named for Colonel Owen exists in AFIP’s headquarters 

today. (MIS 05-6766-1)

[Opposite Top]Front elevation of Colonel Owen’s proposed 

Army Medical Museum and Library. (Reproduced from: 

Owen W. The Army Medical Museum. New York Medical 

Journal. 1918; June: 4.)

[Opposite Bottom] Bird’s eye view of the Mall, Washington, 

DC, as planned by the Fine Arts Commission. The arrow 

points to the site proposed for the Army Medical Museum 

and Library. (Reproduced from: Owen W. The Army Medical 

Museum. New York Medical Journal. 1918; June: 3.)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 55
56 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Du rin g Wo r l d War i m u S e u m S taff established the Instruction Laboratory to create 

educational materials for military service members and document medical aspects of the war 

through motion pictures, photography, illustrations, and cast models. Altogether, 137 flms were 

produced and distributed for showing in camps and through civilian outlets. The flms’ subjects 

ranged from diagnosis of tuberculosis to handling the wounded on the battlefeld to training 

the new medical offcer. In one case, drawings detailing every step in an operation were used to 

create an instructional flm. The Instruction Laboratory’s most controversial production was a four-reeler called Fit to Fight, which dramatically focused on the 

moral, medical, and readiness issues related to venereal disease. Museum 

artists also created extensive illustrations for training camp lectures on 

medical topics. This attempt to add to the medical knowledge of 

offcers and enlisted personnel through anatomical medical art 

helped make the Army of 1917–1918 the frst in US history in 

which deaths from disease were fewer than those from 

battlefeld casualties. Meanwhile, museum teams were 

deployed to Europe to accurately document medical 

aspects of the war, including making wax models of 

soldiers’ injuries. Eventually museum staff photographed, captioned, fled, and cross-indexed about 

10,000 still photographs and turned out some 40,000 

feet of motion-picture flm showing medical and 

surgical activities at hospitals. In the same period the 

artists and modelers produced 35 casts of surgical 

subjects, about 200 drawings and paintings, and 

1,000 photographs of technical subjects.

References

1. Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. Washington, DC: Offce of the 

Surgeon General, Department of the Army; 1964.

2. Sternberg GM. A Manual of Bacteriology. New York, NY: Wood; 1892.

3. Rhode MG. The Army Medical Museum in World War I. Paper presented at: Annual Conference of the American 

Association for the History of Medicine; April 24, 2009; Cleveland, OH.

[Opposite] Art Department at the Army Medical 

Museum during World War 

I. (Reeve 309)

This slide warning about the 

dangers of alcohol was one of 

many produced by museum 

artist Sergeant Paul H Terry, 

who, upon his discharge after 

the war, originated the famous “Terrytoons,” which 

included the character 

Mighty Mouse. 

(MIS 06-03122)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 57
58 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Examples of lantern slides produced by the museum to warn of the 

dangers of promiscuous behaviors. (OHA 367: World War I Lantern Slide 

Training Sets)

[Bottom Right] Advertisement for one of the most controversial flms 

produced by the museum during World War I. (Reeve 895)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 59

[Left] Staff of the Instruction Laboratory arrange motion picture flm 

on drying racks inside their offce space at the Army Medical Museum. 

(Reeve 492-B)

[Right] Instruction Laboratory personnel going through the painstaking task of cutting and polishing motion-picture flm. (Reeve 491-B)
60 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 61

[Opposite Left] Much effort was expended to produce 

realistic models of medical problems during the war. 

Pictured here is (top) a trench foot model and (bottom) an 

X-ray burn of the chest; both produced by Captain James 

Frank Wallis, who led the museum’s modeling section. 

(M-550,10731; Reeve 36721)

[Opposite Right] Illustration of mustard gas burn by 

Brainerd. (OHA 229: Medical Art/Illustration Collection)

[Left] Nose reconstruction drawn by Lieutenant William 

Schwartz, who headed up the anatomical art service. (OHA 

229: Medical Art/Illustration Collection) 

[Right] Medical illustration by Summers of an unidentifed 

operation. (OHA 229: Medical Art/Illustration Collection)
62 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top Left] Camp Mills in Long Island, 

New York, one of many camps that had a 

high rate of infuenza cases. (OHA 308: 

Smith Scrapbook Flu #2) 

[Bottom Left] Eleanor Allen making wax 

models in France during the war. Allen had 

studied at the Chicago Art Institute and 

joined the museum staff in March 1918. 

(A022256 [formerly Reeve 17656], courtesy 

of National Library of Medicine)

Cross-section of trench foot. (Reeve 30610)
New HorizonS, 1883–1918 | 63

[Top Right] Dr James Ewing, who was highly infuential in collecting pathology specimens at camps during the war, 

including specimens from victims of the 1918 infuenza epidemic. (NCP 1288)

World War I-era infuenza-infected tissue on microscope slides (left) and in wax blocks (inset), which are still stored in 

AFIP’s massive Tissue Repository. Some of these specimens were used in 2005 by AFIP scientist Jeffrey Taubenberger to 

investigate the disease. (NCP 4198; NCP 17029)
“As World War I came to a close, the Army Medical 

Museum—already incorporating a progressive vision and 

performing leading-edge medical research—was poised for 

a long transition leading to the development of an institute 

of pathology.”
chapter 3
Road to an Institute of Pat hology, 

1919–1945

[Opposite] General Merritte W Ireland, surgeon general from 1918 to 

1931. Frustrated by the lack of trained pathologists at the end of World 

War I, he established the position of chief of laboratory service in Army 

hospitals, at the same level as chiefs of the medical and surgical services. 

The new position opened up the previously blocked path to promotion 

for pathology specialists. Ireland also made arrangements for instruction of medical offcers in pathology at the Government Hospital for the 

Insane (St Elizabeth’s), in Washington, DC; at the Brady Laboratories 

of the hospital in New Haven, Connecticut; and at the Army Medical 

Museum, where specialized instruction in neuropathology was already 

underway.1(p189) (NCP 3569)
 

| 67

AAs World War I came to a close, the Army 

Medical Museum—already incorporating a progressive vision and performing leading-edge medical research—was 

poised for a long transition leading to the development of an institute of pathology. Neither consistently orderly nor precise, the institution’s “forward march” 

was frequently replaced by a “half-step march” or “mark-time march”; even a “rear 

march” entered the picture on more than one occasion. But slowly and deliberately, 

between 1919 and 1945 the museum embarked on a transformation into an 

institute focused primarily on pathology. 

In his 1920 annual report, Surgeon General Merritte W Ireland described the 

Army M

edical 

Museum as a “very valuable connecting link between the M

edical 

Department of the 

United States Army and the general medical profession of the 

United 

States, from the standpoint of scientifc medicine and surgery.”1(p195) Ireland 

encouraged use of the museum’s collections by civilian pathologists, believing that 

“only in this way will the Museum fulfll its larger function of being not only a 

place for the exhibition of pathological and other material, but a great instruction 

center in pathology and epidemiology.”1(196) This view of the museum was not 

new; it was expressed by Surgeon General William Hammond at the time of the 

museum’s founding in 1862, and echoed by Colonel John Shaw Billings in his 

address to the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons meeting in 1888. 

But Ireland’s emphasis was based as much on practicality as on philosophy. In 

the previous year’s annual report, Ireland had written: “At no time during the war 

was there a suffcient number of trained pathologists in the service. Pathology is 
68 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

a subject in which a large experience is acquired slowly, and, in spite of efforts to train 

additional men by the arrangement of special courses of instruction, the number of 

trained pathologists could not be greatly increased during the war.”1(189)

The surgeon general’s view was complemented by the convergence of leaders at the 

museum interested in pursuing pathology. Two curators in particular can largely be 

credited with taking the museum in new directions: Major George R Callender, the 

12th and 14th curator (1919–1922 and 1924–1929), and Colonel James E Ash, the 15th 

and 20th curator (1929–1931 and 1937–1946) and frst director of the Army Institute 

of Pathology (1946–1947). 

Major Callender was the frst practicing pathologist to head the Army Medical 

Museum, which by 1920 had become the foremost institution in the nation in 

collecting, preserving, and exhibiting the raw materials of pathology. Under Callender’s 

leadership, the museum seized the opportunity to create what would be called the 

“registry movement.” In October 1921 Callender fnalized a cooperative agreement 

between the museum and the Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology to 

create what eventually became the Registry of Ophthalmic Pathology, the frst of the 

registries that would make up the American Registry of Pathology (ARP). Under this 

arrangement, the Academy’s members furnished pathological materials the museum 

lacked, while the museum supplied a home for the Academy’s collections. 

[Top] Colonel Charles F Craig, 11th curator of the Army Medical Museum, January–September 1919. Colonel 

Craig was highly respected for his distinguished studies of dengue fever, flariasis, the dysenteries, and most signifcantly, malaria and its control. Following his retirement from the Army, he became a professor and chairman of 

the Department of Tropical Medicine at Tulane University. (MIS 62-06205)

[Bottom] Major George R Callender, 12th and 14th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1919–1922 and 

1924–1929. A graduate of Tufts Medical College and the frst practicing pathologist to head the Army Medical 

Museum, Major Callender led the museum’s “registry movement,” working with several professional organizations to establish many of the museum’s dedicated registries in the 1920s. (Reeve 47580) 
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 69

This arrangement was strengthened by a gift from Dr James Moores Ball, a St Louis 

ophthalmologist, of his entire collection of historical and clinical ophthalmic materials. 

The Ball collection became a cornerstone in building the ARP. The collection’s 136 

items of historical value alone would have been a major donation to the museum, and 

the gift also included a varied collection of ophthalmic instruments, large numbers 

of microscopic slides, nearly 500 gross pathological specimens, and more than 1,000 

pictorial items. Another boost occurred in 1922, when the museum was designated 

as the location of the central exchange for pathology specimens of the American and 

Canadian sections of the International Association of Medical Museums, providing 

for the preservation of the medical research of these museums, including slides 

and specimens from original research. Callender also worked with the Society of 

American Bacteriologists to obtain its type cultures. Under an agreement that went 

into effect in 1922, the museum became the depository of the purebred strains of every 

differentiated bacterium of interest to medicine, from which subcultures of particular 

strains were supplied upon request.

 These developments were followed by creation of a registry in lymphatic tumors in 

1925, a registry in bladder tumors in 1927, and the formal establishment of the ARP 

in 1930. The Dental and Oral Pathology Registry was added in 1933, which served to 

reactivate an 1895 arrangement with the American Dental Association designating the 

museum as the national depository for the organization’s dental specimens. In 1935, 

the ear, nose, and throat cases in the originally combined ophthalmic and laryngic 

registry were separated out to become the Registry of Otolaryngic Pathology. Two more 

registries were added in 1937, for tumors and dermatology. 

During his second tour of duty at the museum, Colonel Ash became the principal 

protagonist for expanding the registry movement. Under his leadership, registries for 

kidney tumors, neuropathology, prostatic tumors, orthopaedic pathology, veterinary 

pathology, and gerontology were integrated into the ARP, which helped form a vital 

link between practitioners of the various medical specialties and museum staff. In 

all, within 30 years of Callender’s creation of the frst of the museum’s registries, 22 

registries had been established. 

Dr Howard T Karsner, a prominent pathologist, who, 

along with Major Callender, was infuential in forming 

the American Registry of Pathology in 1930. (MIS 

05-6519-2)
70 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

While the registry movement advanced, during the period 1919–1945 the Army Medical Museum continued 

to struggle with two issues that had plagued it since 1862: lack of trained staff and lack of space. The 

museum’s collections had more than doubled in World War I, increasing from approximately 48,000 to more 

than 100,000 specimens. Staff developed a new fling system in an attempt to connect each specimen with all 

available pertinent information, such as clinical histories, protocols of autopsies, photographs, X-ray plates, 

tissue blocks, microscopic slides, and anything else that might shed light on the pathological condition of 

the specimen. And all this was done by a small clerical staff that had been severely cut immediately after the 

war. Even more challenging was the problem of fnding space in an already overcrowded building for display 

or even storage of the infux of materials. No amount of reshuffing the exhibits in the 30-year-old building 

could produce enough space for either a proper display of all the exhibit materials or effective use of every 

study collection. 

The frst step toward acquiring additional space came in 1919 when Congress appropriated $350,000 for 

the purchase of land contiguous to Walter Reed General Hospital. This was followed by an additional grant 

in 1922 of $44,109. The concept was to create a great medical center, with the Army Medical School, the 

Surgeon General’s Library, the Museum, and the hospital collocated for mutual support—a plan that like 

so many others was never fulflled. The Army Medical School moved from its rented quarters on Louisiana 

Avenue to its new building on the outskirts of Washington in 1923; the Surgeon General’s Library, under its 

new name, the Army Medical Library, stayed on Independence Avenue for another decade before moving 

to the grounds of the National Institute of Health. By 1933 it was clear that a new museum building, for 

which a site had been purchased 11 years earlier, had become one of many victims of the Great Depression. 

Another attempt to obtain new and larger quarters was initiated in the late 1930s, and by 1940 the House

of Representatives’ appropriations committee approved $130,000 for drawing up plans and preparing 

specifcations. Acting under this authority, the secretary of war and the surgeon general selected the New 

York frm of Eggers and Higgins, whose works included National Gallery of Art, to design the new building. 

Preliminary plans were submitted by the frm in February 1941 and approved that August. Although many 

museum leaders favored a building next Walter Reed General Hospital, required involvement by the National 

Park and Planning Commission resulted in a location chosen just east of the Library of Congress. Work on 

plans continued until December 1941, when Pearl Harbor and the nation’s full-scale participation in World 

War II once again put on hold any immediate opportunities for the Army Medical Museum to fnd a new 

home. 
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 71

Throughout this period, the Army Medical Museum faced an identity crisis, as various surgeons general and 

curators debated whether the institution was still in fact a museum, as its name implied, or whether it had 

become and should remain an institute devoted mainly to medical research and pathology diagnostics. By 

the early 1930s, because of restricted space and reduced staff, the museum’s exhibit function had defnitely 

deteriorated. In a 1935 report, Brigadier General Raymond O Dart, the museum’s 18th curator, wrote: “It is 

an easily verifed fact that the Army Medical Museum has slipped steadily backward from the frst rank of 

medical museums which it occupied immediately after the World War until it is no longer regarded as an 

important place for the dissemination of information concerning museum technique and display. Meanwhile 

the very fundamentals of museum display have been changed and other institutions have assumed the 

leadership in this feld which was formerly held by the Army Medical Museum. The reasons for this state of 

affairs are quite obvious when one considers the history of the organization during the past few years.”1(p228)

Thanks in large part to General Dart, by 1938—when for the frst time museum visitors for the year surpassed 

the 100,000 mark—much ground had been gained in improving exhibits. Many items were put into storage 

to rid the exhibit hall of its overcrowded and confusing look. Old wooden exhibit cases were retired and new 

cases were built. Collections of microscopes, ophthalmoscopes, hearing aids, and stethoscopes, each collection 

as comprehensive as any to be found in the world at the time, were exhibited in attractive and meaningful 

arrangements. Although World War II accessions resulted in even less space for exhibits, during the war years 

the museum was kept open and updated, drawing visitors at the rate of 200,000 a year.

Although the transition into an institute of pathology was undoubtedly infuenced by the experiences of 

World War I and the subsequent registry movement, the museum’s World War II activities solidifed the 

new focus and made General Hammond’s 1862 vision a reality. The size of the military exploded during the 

frst year of US participation in the war, as did the amount of materials pouring into the museum. Unlike 

in World War I, when Army Regulation 40-410 “solicited” the submission of pathological materials, in 1942 

the regulation was updated and spoke in the imperative, saying that autopsy, biopsy, and specifed surgical 

materials “will be forwarded as directed.”1(pp245–246) Within a year the museum was receiving 3,500 to 4,000 

pathological specimens per month—as many as had been handled in a full year prior to the war. To deal with 

the infux of new cases, museum staff grew to 20 pathologists (from three before the war), about 60 civilians, 

and 30 enlisted men and members of the Women’s Army Corps. 
72 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Equally important, the museum established regional 

centers for histopathology in the laboratories of a 

network of hospitals throughout the country. Also, 

as US forces spread to theaters of operations around 

the world, a system of channeling pathological 

materials and information back to the museum 

went along. The system’s intent was to concentrate 

all signifcant data and material pertaining to 

pathologic processes occurring in the Army at the 

Medical Museum, where it would be available 

for current professional use and future scientifc 

investigations, as well as for teaching and 

historical purposes. Other important activities 

during World War II included research in both 

common and tropical diseases, the creation of 

study sets in major pathology specialties, and 

detailed work by the Army Medical Illustration 

Service, which produced graphic pathology representations. In addition to 

advances in the practice of military and battlefeld medicine in general, these 

developments prompted Colonel Ash to declare that the organization “suffered 

under the connotation museum, an institution thought of by many as a repository 

for bottled monsters and medical curiosities. To be sure, we have such specimens. 

As is required by law, we maintain an exhibit open to the public, but in war time, at 

least, the museum per se is the least of our functions, and we like to be thought of 

as the Army Institute of Pathology.”1(p250) This characterization, declared informally 

in the closing weeks of 1943, was refected in the January 1, 1944, Curator’s 

Offce Order No. 18. In the order, the “Army Institute of Pathology” appears as 

a subordinate division of the Army Medical Museum, a relationship that was 

reversed 2 years later when the Army Institute of Pathology became offcially and 

formally the general designation of the entire operations. n

The year 1929 was marked by the publication of volume 12 

of The Medical Department of the United States Army in 

the World War (the series eventually had 15 volumes). This 

volume dealt with two subjects judged as most important from 

a pathology standpoint: the frst section of the work, “Pathology of the Acute Respiratory Diseases,” was written by Major 

Callender; the second, “Pathology of Gas Gangrene Following War Wounds,” was written by Major Coupal. The richly 

illustrated volume made use of the photography and artwork 

produced by museum staff during the war. Pictured is the title 

page and frontispiece, showing the lung in a case of pneumonia following infuenza. (Reproduced from: The Medical 

Department of the United States Army in the World War.

Vol 12. Washington DC: Government Printing Offce; 1929).
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 73

s The American Registry of Pathology

Th e o b j e c tiv e of t h e am e rican Re g i S t ry of Pat h o lo g y (ARP), as 

outlined by Major Callender, was to “collect data and specimens from patients, 

especially those with tumors, with a view to accumulating a suffcient number 

of instances of each disease to determine its characteristic course, the criteria for 

diagnosis, and to evaluate methods of treatment.” Callender’s vision for the registry was 

supported and greatly assisted by pathologist Howard T Karsner. Both believed that the 

cases for the registry should be from patients living at the time of registration so they 

could be followed and their outcome ascertained. “The following up of these cases will 

constitute a considerable part of the Registry’s activities. Diagnosis in the early stages 

of disease offers the best chance of cure,” Callender wrote, “but early and accurate 

diagnosis is not possible in the absence of opportunity to observe enough cases to form 

a basis for reasonable judgments.” Except at large medical centers, too few cases of 

any one kind were available to afford such opportunity for study. By combining cases 

from the country as a whole, he observed, it would be possible to obtain considerable 

numbers of cases and specimens in a much shorter time. The registry was not intended 

to replace local pathologists; nor was it intended to serve a diagnostic laboratory, 

Callender said. Rather, it was to be a pathology clearinghouse collecting previously 

diagnosed cases as well as rare cases, about which more could be learned by obtaining 

the opinions of several pathologists.1(pp209–211)

Major James F Coupal, 13th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1922–1924. During Major Coupal’s tenure 

a start was made toward a reclassifcation of the museum’s holdings, using an adaptation of Dr Maude Abbott’s 

modifcation of the Wyatt-Johnson museum classifcation. Under the new system, the anatomical names of 

tumors and the pathological lesions that produced disease and death were listed, with a number assigned to each 

of the anatomical terms used. The numbers—listed in accordance with the International List of Causes of Death, 

a uniform system for reporting deaths—were used as a code. The code was cross-fled so that it was possible to 

locate specimens by their anatomical names, their pathological classifcations, and the names of their contributors. By 1924, the new system had been applied to 5,000 protocols, 4,000 gross pathological specimens, and 4,500 

miscellaneous items. (MIS 05-6194-1) 
74 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 75

[Opposite] A 1920 photograph of the museum’s gross pathological laboratory. (Reeve 30536)

[Top] Members of the Army Medical Museum’s Instruction Laboratory work on a motion picture printing machine. The extreme pressure to free up space for new activities meant 

that by 1920 this function—which had produced so many important educational flms during World War I, on such topics as venereal diseases, alcoholism and surgical procedures—was discontinued. This move, however, did not stop the circulation and showing of flms already made, both by the museum and the US Public Health Service. (Reeve 489)
[Left and Opposite] A corner of the 

pathological exhibits in Army Medical Museum in 1925, and (opposite) 

the main exhibit hall in the early 

1930s. During the 1920s, maintaining the museum’s exhibits was largely 

ignored as the focus on creating 

registries increased, and increasingly 

demanded more space. Thus, these 

crowded conditions continued and 

worsened throughout the decade 

and into the 1930s, a problem that 

was recognized but dismissed in the 

surgeon general’s 1929 annual report. 

“There is an enormous amount of 

work that should be done in rearranging exhibits and developing the 

material on hand,” the surgeon general wrote, “but it must be put aside 

for the more urgent current demands 

of consultation and diagnostic service, 

which, as the Museum’s most important function, has precedence over all 

other activities.”1(p216) This view and 

space limitations meant that less than 

half of the museum’s collection could 

be exhibited, with the rest stored in 

the basement. Items in storage were 

periodically examined, and those that 

had deteriorated or become useless 

were identifed and disposed of. 

(Reeve 040756; Reeve 73446-2)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 77
78 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] Major TC Jones, Veterinary 

Corps, registrar of the Registry 

of Veterinary Pathology, at work 

in what by 1945 had become the 

Army Institute of Pathology. The 

veterinary pathology registry was 

organized in 1944 in cooperation 

with the American Veterinary 

Medical Association. It was one of 

many registries organized during 

Colonel Ash’s tenure. (NCP 4193A) 

[Inset] Colonel James E Ash, 15th 

and 20th curator of the Army 

Medical Museum, 1929–1931 and 

1937–1946; and frst director of 

the Army Institute of Pathology, 

1946–1947. (MIS 80-4079-1)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 79

s The Infuence of Colonel James Ash

alt h o u g h k n own fo r ad vo catin g r e g i S t ri e S and creating the Army Institute of Pathology 

during his second term, during his frst term Colonel Ash focused on the staff’s greatly increased work in 

diagnosis and consultation, following the surgeon general’s Circular Letter No. 2 on February 12, 1929. The 

circular called to the attention of all Medical Department offcers the four-fold function of the museum 

regarding tissue pathology. These were “to obtain material for instruction and research; to preserve material 

permanently for reference purposes; to act as a consulting service; and to examine and diagnose surgical, 

biopsy, and autopsy materials for stations at which adequate laboratory facilities and personnel for such 

diagnostic work are not available.” The availability of this diagnostic service at the museum “apparently 

is not fully appreciated by the surgeons of all military hospitals,” the letter said. The letter also announced 

that certain hospitals had been designated as centers to which selected portions of tissue might be sent for 

emergency diagnosis, “when the best interests of the patient necessitate a microscopical diagnosis at the 

earliest possible moment.” Explicit instructions were given for preparation and shipment of specimens and 

for writing autopsy protocols, both of which were to enter the museum’s collection for fnal study, review, 

and preservation.1(pp214–216)

In addition to expanding the registries during his second term, Colonel Ash led efforts to produce atlases, 

which became one of the strongest ties between the pathologists of the armed services and the medical 

profession at large. Content of the atlases was similar to that of study sets (discussed below), but with more 

content, detail, and illustrations. The Atlas of Tumor Pathology2

 dealt with oncology and the diagnosis of 

malignant versus benign tumors; the Atlas of Angiocardiography3

 dealt with observation of the heart and 

great vessels after injection with an opaque liquid; and the Atlas of X-Ray Myelography 4

 dealt with X-ray 

examination of the spinal cord. Other ARP publications included syllabi on various disease conditions, 

issued in connection with courses of instruction.

In 1985 the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology started the James Earle Ash Lecture series in honor of 

Colonel Ash’s lifetime of contributions and achievements. Since that year, the institute has conducted 21 

James Earl Ash lectures featuring some of the top leaders in both military and civilian medicine.
80 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] Major Paul E McNabb, 16th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1931–1933. Major McNabb led an effort by the 

museum’s photographic section to develop techniques for color photography of both gross and microscopic specimens for display 

and for use in lantern-slide lectures. Earlier efforts had produced some effective results using accurate photographic prints colored 

by hand, with the resulting picture reproduced by lithography A 1932 experiment, carried on by museum photographer Roy Reeve 

and Joseph Carter of the US Department of Agriculture, built upon these earlier efforts and sought to secure correct coloring by using three-color separation negatives, from which prints were made in blue, red, and yellow. These prints were superimposed upon 

one another, checked for accurate registration and true color values, corrected by differential printing of the three images, and then 

mounted.1(p218) The Reeve-Carter process built and improved upon the early photomicrography efforts of Major Edward Curtis 

and Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Woodward (see chapter one), and proved to be a distinct advance in the development of future 

systems of producing color prints. (Reeve 49643)

[Right] Major Virgil H Cornell, 17th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 1933–1935. Major Cornell’s tenure as curator was 

highlighted by the establishment of the fourth of the registries and the frst to be set up as a part of the ARP: the Dental and Oral 

Pathology Registry, added in 1933. The 1933 designation produced a more active participation by the dental profession in the 

development of a full-fedged registry than the museum’s 1895 designation as the American Dental Association’s the national 

depository for dental and oral specimens, which had few results. (MIS 05-6191-1)

[Opposite | Top Left] Brigadier General Raymond O Dart, 18th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 

1935–1936; second director, Army Institute of Pathology, 1946–1949; and frst director of the Armed 

Forces Institute of Pathology, 1949–1950. During his tenure as curator, Dart 

sought to improve the deteriorating exhibits. Dart Auditorium in the present-day Armed Forces Institute 

of Pathology is dedicated to the memory of his 

many years of service to both the museum and the 

institute. (MIS 05-6214-1)

[Opposite | Top Right] Captain Hugh R Gilmore, 

19th curator of the Army Medical Museum, 

1936–1937. Captain Gilmore, who also served as acting curator for a few months in 1935 and 1936, shared 

Brigadier General Dart’s views on the deteriorating 

exhibit function, writing, “due to the decrease in civilian 

personnel the Museum exhibits have not been kept up to 

date. Instead of being a leader in its feld the Army Medical Museum is rapidly becoming nothing but a storehouse 

of poorly exhibited pathological specimens.”1(pp232–233) (MIS 

05-6358-1)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 81

[Bottom] Medical instruments on display in the Army 

Medical Museum, undated. (MIS 52-1290-1)
82 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 83

[Opposite] More medical instruments on display in the Army 

Medical Museum, undated. (MIS 52-1288-1)

[Top] Exhibit on general pathology shortly after World War I. 

(Reeve 30326)

[Bottom] Medical instruments on display in the Army Medical 

Museum, undated. (Reeve 30324)

[Opposite] Dental exhibit, circa 1940. 

(Reeve 70192)

[Left]1930 photograph of an exhibit case 

with models produced by the museum’s 

model-making staff. (Reeve 48762)

[Right] Gross specimen of a brain on 

exhibit in the museum, undated. Organs 

were often displayed to help educate visitors 

about the human body. (Reeve 68094)
86 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Architect’s drawing of a new home for the Army 

Medical Museum, authorized by Congress in September 

1941, just before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the nation’s subsequent full-scale involvement in World War II, 

events that brought an end to the plans for this building. 

(Reeve 72531)

[Bottom] Schematic diagram detailing the fow of pathological materials from histopathologic centers and Army 

hospitals to the Army Medical Museum during World 

War II. (Reeve 91539-2)

[Opposite] Schematic representation of the worldwide 

fow of pathological material to and from the museum 

during World War II. (Reeve 91539)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 87
88 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

s Pathology in World War II

Th e ar m y Me dical Mu S e u m likely would have been quickly overwhelmed during World War II 

if it did not already have a plan for decentralization of Army pathological facilities and activities; within 

4 days after Pearl Harbor this plan was put into place. Within the United States, 18 regional centers for 

histopathology were identifed, with one or more in each of the nine service commands of the time. Nearby 

posts and installations sent materials that required diagnostic assistance to these centers. After screening 

out cases with no diagnostic doubts or diffculties, the regional centers forwarded surgical cases that might 

have follow-up value to the museum, particularly tumors and other tissue requiring fnal or confrmatory 

diagnosis. All autopsy materials were also forwarded. The overseas histopathology centers had the same 

primary mission as those in the United States, but the museum also requested that they send in materials and 

information about disease encountered among local peoples, including tissues from surgery, insect species, 

and poisonous plants and snakes.1(pp246–247)

As materials and information poured into the museum, study sets were arranged and made available to 

all Army laboratories to keep medical offcers updated about the pathology of diseases prevalent during 

the war. The study sets consisted of slides for microscopic study, as well as printed syllabuses or atlases 

illustrated by photographs or photomicrographs. Larger sets covered the pathology of major specialties, such 

as otolaryngology, orthopaedic surgery, neurology, dermatology, gynecology, serology, and dental and oral 

surgery. Smaller sets focused mainly on specifc diseases, among them lesions of the lymph nodes, tumors of 

certain organs, viral pneumonia, and several diseases traceable to different forms of fungus. By 1945 nearly 

1,700 study sets were sent out on loan. 

With emphasis on the pathology of the soldier, the age group roughly defned as from 18 to 38 years old, 

Colonel Ash wrote, “Never before has there been an opportunity to learn so much about the pathology of 

this military age group; only now, as a result of the Army policy of centralization, have signifcant data been 

available to cover this presumably healthy span.”1(p258) The pathology fndings were sometimes surprising. 

For example, while it had long been known that the young sometimes experienced fatal coronary disease, 

the number of such fatalities during the war was unexpectedly large. Study of the frst 80 cases received at the 

museum showed that about one-third of these deaths were in men under 30, and that being overweight was a 

common factor among them. 
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 89

In addition to long-term studies, the museum also provided a prompt diagnostic and consultative service. 

For example, autopsy tissues received from a case of a soldier who had died unexpectedly and inexplicably 

while serving in Alaska revealed that death was due to inhalation of a toxic vapor. Further investigation 

revealed that the soldier had used a toxic cleaning fuid in a confned space. A directive was promptly issued 

to discontinue use of the fuid indoors, and pathologists in the feld were alerted to its dangers. This discovery 

and diagnosis subsequently helped pathologists explain previously undetermined causes of death among 

crews on submarines in the Pacifc. 

The museum’s 

receiving and 

accession room, 

circa 1944. 

(Reeve 88272)
90 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
[Opposite] Histology laboratory personnel at work, circa 1942. (Reeve 69429)

[Top] Museum staff performing administrative work during the war. (Reeve 

164-2)

[Bottom] Major General Norman T Kirk (left), surgeon general of the Army, 

presents the Legion of Merit to Colonel Balduin Lucké for distinguished service 

to the Army Medical Museum. Colonel Lucké’s research was key to proving 

that a suspected outbreak of yellow fever among troops in the summer of 1942 

was actually hepatitis, a far less deadly disease. He further documented how 

pathologists could easily recognize the difference between the two diseases 

under a microscope. Yellow fever was but one of the tropical diseases of concern 

to the Army during the war. As Colonel Ash wrote, tropical medicine “held 

a place of special importance, not only medical but military, with our troops 

stationed in all quarters of the globe. Almost overnight, the diseases of the tropics became an urgent specialty, where previously the general pathologist had 

occasion for no more than superfcial knowledge.”1(p254) (Reeve 95818-1)
92 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

s Illustrating the War

alt h o u g h t h e S t u d y of pat h o lo g y was the principal museum business during World War II, 

closely related was the graphic representation of such study through drawings and paintings, photography 

and photomicrography, and plastic medical art, performed by the museum’s Army Medical Illustration 

Service. At the start of the nation’s full-scale involvement in the war, these documentation functions were 

decentralized and scattered among various offces, such as the Training Division of the Surgeon General’s 

Offce, but by the mid-1940s all functions were both reporting to the Army Medical Museum and using 

the museum as a repository for their works. Late in the war the museum was handling an average of 5,000 

still prints per month submitted by 60 hospitals in the United States. Additionally, the Photographic 

Laboratory was churning out colored lantern slides, photostats, and offset prints at record 

rates. Illustrating medical aspects of the war on the home front was at times challenging, 

especially early in the war when few clinical photographers worked in hospitals. But 

even more challenging was the documentation of medical activities overseas, 

which was often performed in remote and dangerous locations. The teams 

deployed for these missions came to be known as the Museum and Medical 

Arts Section, or MAMAS.

References

1.Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. 

Washington, DC: Offce of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army; 1964.

2. Atlas of Tumor Pathology. Washington, DC: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 

Under the Auspices of the Subcommittee on Oncology of the Committee on Pathology 

of the National Research Council; 1949.

3. Robb GP. Atlas of Angiocardiography. Washington, DC: American Registry of 

Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; 1951.

4. Wood EH Jr. Atlas of X-Ray Myelography. Prepared for the Registry of Radiologic 

Pathology, American Registry of Pathology, National Research Council, from materials 

in the fles of the Neurological Institute of New York. Washington, DC: Registry Press; 

1948.

Drawing of a human 

skull by museum 

staff. (Reeve 226-1)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 93

[Top] Illustration depicting forward motion of the baby during childbirth. (Reeve 836-1) 

[Opposite Inset] Highly magnifed, top and bottom review of Pediculus corporis, more commonly known as 

lice or “cooties,” an often routine problem among deployed military personnel during the war. (Reeve 3151)
94 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top Left] Illustration of a forearm splint. (Reeve 1433-1)

[Bottom Left] Stratifed view of epithelium, which is tissue 

composed of cells that line the cavities and surfaces of structures 

throughout the body. (Reeve 33890)

[Right] Artwork depicting the physical anomaly of fused kidneys. 

(Reeve 76864)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 95

[Left] Medical illustration of a surgical procedure for shortening the humerus and 

repairing the radial nerve. (MAMAS CB45-22-1)

[Top Right and Inset] Instructional drawing of a hip procedure. (MAMAS CB45-21-3)

[Bottom Right] Illustration of the frst layer of muscle on the sole of the foot. 

(Reeve 2469)
96 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] Various moulages used during the war to train personnel about the 

types of wounds they might expect to see. (MAMAS 224)

[Right] When worn by soldiers in the feld, the moulages produced by the 

Medical Illustration Service were startlingly lifelike. (MAMAS 225)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 97

[Top Right] Personnel at work in the 3rd 

Medical Laboratory in the Philippines. 

(MAMAS D45-416-113-A)

[Top Left] Patient receiving treatment on 

an examination table at the Zamboanga 

School in the Philippines. 

(MAMAS D45-416-87-E)

[Bottom Right] Surgical procedure at 

Dulag, the Philippines. (MAMAS E44-123-6)

[Bottom Left] Personnel await instructions 

to pass supplies during a surgical procedure 

at Dulag, the Philippines. 

(MAMAS E44-123-5)

s MAMAS in the Pacifc Theater
98 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] A soldier receives treatment for gunshot wound received during 

fghting on Biak, a small island located just northwest of New Guinea. 

(MAMAS D44-292-3)

[Right] Flush control demonstration by 8th Medical Laboratory, Malaria 

Control School, Australia. (MAMAS D43-19-4)

[Opposite | Top and Bottom Left] View of latrines near the Preventive 

Medicine Department, Base K, Leyte, Philippines. (MAMAS H-134-1; 

MAMAS H-130-D)

[Opposite | Right] Allied former prisoners of war awaiting shower and 

delousing process at the 42nd General Hospital in Australia. (MAMAS 

D45-456-2-2)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 99
100 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

s MAMAS in Africa
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 101

[Opposite] A young girl in North Africa having her abdomen 

examined by an Army physician. (MAMAS C43-9-1)

[Left] Boys lined up at a table in North Africa, where soldiers 

drew blood to test for malaria. Helping with medical care for local 

populations was common throughout the theaters of operations. 

(MAMAS C43-9-12)

[Right] An Army physician provides emergency care to a girl in 

North Africa. (MAMAS C43-9-2)
102 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left} Care is provided at the American hospital for 

wounded Japanese prisoners captured on Luzon. 98th 

Evacuation Hospital, Tarlac, Philippine Islands. 

(MAMAS D45-416-12H)

{Top Right] Military personnel in North Africa providing 

routine medical screening. (MAMAS C43-9-7)

[Bottom Right} Medical assistance arriving at unknown 

location in Asia. (MAMAS D45-456-18-6)
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 103

“J-Day + 3. Casts are applied to 

patient from 163rd Infantry, a casualty from the Japanese landmine 

explosion. Operating room is at the 

8th Portable Surgical Hospital. Albee type orthopedic table was made 

by Technician 3rd Class Rudolph 

Henkel (right foreground), Surgical 

Technician from Baltimore, Maryland, out of Japanese pipe and ammunition rods, 1 piece from a stove 

pump, 1 piece from windshield of a 

Jeep.” (MAMAS D45-416-78B)

[Inset] A MAMAS photographer 

documents the diseased foot of a 

local on an unidentifed tropical 

island. (S 57-1 [cropped])
104 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

s MAMAS in Europe
Road to an inStitute of Patholo gy, 1919–1945 | 105

[Opposite] A wounded soldier receives treatment at a battalion aid station in Bologna, 

Italy. (MAMAS FD45-45-A)

[Left] Surgical procedure at a feld hospital in Italy. (MAMAS CA43-40-9)

[Right] US Army medic attending to patients at a feld hospital at an unidentifed 

location in France. (MAMAS C44-524-1)

[Bottom Right] Patients in ward at a feld hospital in southern France. 

(MAMAS C44-511-1)
“For nearly 30 years following the end of World War II, 

the institute was characterized by tremendous growth and 

maturity. . . . But before that growth and maturity could be 

realized, what had offcially become the Army Institute of 

Pathology by mid-1946 would need an even broader mandate 

and a new home.”
chapter 4
growt h and maturity, 1946–1975

[Opposite] Home sweet home. After decades of hope and promises 

followed by disappointment, in 1955 the AFIP fnally had a new, 

and this time permanent, home. The institute is pictured here 

just prior to dedication ceremonies formally opening the building. 

(NCP 17327)
 

| 109

FFor nearly 30 years following the end of World War II, the institute was char

-

acterized by tremendous growth and maturity: growth in terms of personnel, 

missions, departments, specialties, and subspecialties, and maturity in terms of 

how staff members interacted with each other, the military and civilian medi-

cal communities, other federal agencies, and medical professionals around the 

globe. But before that growth and maturity could be realized, what had off-

cially become the Army Institute of Pathology by mid-1946 would need an even 

broader mandate and a new home. Justifcation for the institute’s expansion was enthusiastically summarized in a 

research study requested by the surgeon general and conducted by the National 

Research 

Council. The council’s 1945 fnal report read: 

Today, the Army Institute of Pathology is truly the central laboratory of 

pathology and medical illustration for the entire United States Army. 

The extraordinary amount and variety of material at the disposal of the 

institute is unmatched elsewhere in the world. This material offers unlimited 

opportunities for the study of structural tissue changes and correlation 

with clinical observations. With proper development of facilities and 

personnel, the Army Institute of Pathology can become a guiding force in the 

furtherance of pathology in this country and the world.”1(p269) 
110 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 111

The council’s report also noted the antiquated, overcrowded conditions in the “Old Red 

Brick” and recommended construction of a new facility to allow the institute to expand 

activities and modernize operations.

The need for a new home was echoed and magnifed by Brigadier General Raymond O

Dart in his 1947 Annual Report of the Army Institute of Pathology: 

Research in morbid anatomy constitutes but one of the phases of pathologic 

investigation. If research problems in pathology are to be properly correlated with 

medical problems as a whole, laboratory investigation and animal experimentation 

are indispensable. These phases of investigation are not available to members of the 

staff on the present premises of the Army Institute of Pathology. This defciency is 

keenly felt by members of the professional staff who are trained to think and work 

in broader terms, but who cannot exercise their abilities and tendencies in this 

direction under the present circumstances.”1(pp282–283)

Between 1946 and 1950 much discussion took place among institute leaders, the Army 

Surgeon General’s Offce, and Congress about construction of a new home, including 

what components it should comprise, possible locations, and costs. During these 

years it became abundantly clear that the Old Red Brick could no longer support both 

the pathology function and museum activities. During World War II the amount of 

material examined by the Division of Pathology amounted to three-fourths as much 

as had been received by the museum during its entire previous existence. Additionally, 

more space was needed by the Army Illustration Service, which was receiving vast 

quantities of signifcant material. Consequently, the museum functions were moved 

out of Old Red Brick, across Independence Avenue, and into Chase Hall, a building 

that had served as a barracks for the women’s reserve contingent of the Coast Guard 

during the war. On May 7, 1947, the museum opened its doors to the public at its 

new location, where it remained until 1960, when yet another set of relocations would 

begin, ending with the museum physically rejoining the institute in 1971.1(p280)

[Opposite] Lack of space in the “Old Red Brick” 

led to the Army Medical Museum’s move into 

Chase Hall, where it would it remain until 1960. 

(NCP 2406)

[Top] Brigadier General Raymond O Dart, frst 

director of the AFIP, 1949–1950. (MIS 05-6214-1)
112 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

While building plans slowly progressed, two other key issues were resolved: the location for the building, 

and the broader concept of the place of the Army Institute of Pathology in the overall scheme of military 

medicine. In 1947 the Committee on Medical and Hospital Services of the Armed Forces—headed 

by Major General Paul RHawley, formerly chief surgeon of the European Theater of Operations, 

and known as the “Hawley Board”—was charged with conducting a thorough and objective study of 

military medical services. Early in the board’s deliberations Walter Reed General Hospital Reservation 

was chosen as the institute’s new location. And most importantly, the committee recommended that the 

institute become “the central laboratory of pathology for all of the Armed Forces, as well as the Veteran’s 

Administration, with the appropriate change of name to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.” In 

February 1949 these recommendations were approved by then Secretary of Defense James V Forrestal, 

and on July 6, 1949, the name change became offcial with the issuance of Department of the Army 

General Orders, Number 32. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) became a triservice 

organization under the command of the director, with administrative jurisdiction assigned to the Army 

surgeon general.1(pp284–285)

On July 10, 1951, preparation for the AFIP’s new site was started with traditional groundbreaking 

ceremonies. The outer walls of the building were halfway up when the cornerstone-laying ceremony 

was held on October 20, 1953. And by mid-February 1955, the institute began its move out of Old

Red Brick and into its new quarters on the Walter Reed campus. Finally, on May 26, 1955, the AFIP 

was offcially dedicated, featuring an address 

by President Dwight D Eisenhower before an 

audience of approximately 3,000 people, in 

which he said, “Some years ago those of us who 

were advocating unifcation of the services 

saw something of this kind in the offng, even 

though we were ignorant of the exact form 

these developments would take. For that reason 

I couldn’t be happier that three of the services 

are combined in this effort. And so I dedicate 

this building to the conquest of disease so that 

mankind, more safe and secure in body, may 

[Opposite] The Army Medical Museum’s 

main exhibit area in Chase Hall in 1948. 

Despite its physical separation from the institute, the museum’s popularity remained 

strong, attracting 8,500 visitors in its frst 

month at Chase Hall. In 1962, with the 

AFIP by then in its permanent home, the 

museum returned to Old Red Brick, where 

it stayed until 1968. (NCP 2598)

Scale model of the original design for the 

AFIP building. This design was abandoned 

after a short-lived presidential directive 

that certain federal buildings be blastresistant made the design too costly. The 

result was a sharp reduction in the size of 

the fnal building (see page 107), whose 

design would seal the institute’s place in 

architectural history. (NCP 2001) 
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 113
Major General George E Armstrong, the Army surgeon general, turns the sod at the AFIP 

groundbreaking ceremony on 

July 10, 1951. The ceremonial 

spade used in the event is still 

a part of the collection of 

AFIP’s National Museum of 

Health and Medicine. 

(MIS 21836-191133)

[Opposite] Construction 

photo circa early 1953. The 

new home takes shape. 

(MIS 53-23011)


Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 117

more securely advance to a widely shared prosperity and an enduring and just peace.”1(p310) With 

these words, and with new facilities to advance the feld of pathology, the institute was well on its 

way to replacing Germany and Austria as the global center of pathology.

Occupancy of the new building made it possible, 

for the frst time, to formulate and carry out a 

comprehensive program of pathology, which 

the institute lost no time in undertaking. 

The expansion of professional services 

was consistently focused on the institute’s 

Department of Pathology—the core of its 

operation, containing nearly two-thirds of the 

entire staff. Closely related to the Department of 

Pathology in the AFIP structure, even sharing 

staff, was the American Registry of Pathology 

(ARP). Several registrars of the individual 

registries that made up the ARP were senior 

pathologists who headed specifc branches and 

sections of Department of Pathology. At the time of occupancy of the new building there were 

22 individual registries, with a total of 119,000 cases in their fles; 7 years later the number of 

registries had grown to 27 and the number of cases to more than 200,000.

The number of cases coming into the AFIP between the mid-1950s and 1975 averaged 

between 50,000 and 70,000 per year. The number was limited by a June 1950 regulation 

requiring that only specimens derived from surgery on tumors or tumor-like conditions, as 

well as other surgical specimens requiring confrmatory diagnoses, be sent to the institute. 

Despite the regulation, cases continued to fow into the institute in high numbers through 

1952, when a high of 118,704 cases was reached before submissions gradually declined to a 

more manageable rate. But caseload fgures only scratch the surface of the development of 

AFIP’s consultative services.

[Opposite] Assistant Secretary of Defense 

for Health and Medicine Melvin Casberg 

spreads mortar for the cornerstone during 

the offcial cornerstone-laying ceremony on 

October 20, 1953. “As I spread the mortar 

which will unite the cornerstone with this 

building, it shall be my prayer that all our 

medical resources, civilian as well as military, 

similarly shall be cemented in a united fght 

against disease and for the preservation of 

our country,” he said during ceremonial 

remarks.1(p306) (MIS 53-22003-46)

[Top] President Eisenhower delivers his 

dedication speech during the ceremony.

(MIS 55-10841-6)
118 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The institute’s ability to handle a high volume of cases was enhanced by acquisition of 

new technologies such as the electron microscope and the ultracentrifuge, as well as 

new techniques using X-ray technology. At the same time, continuous and innovative 

development of new stains by AFIP histologists meant that pathologists had an evergrowing arsenal in the histopathology laboratories to help them diagnose cases. 

While remaining primarily focused on traditional pathology pursuits, the institute also 

broadened its breadth and scope during this period. Additions included a laboratory 

animals branch, a joint committee on aviation pathology, an aerospace pathology branch, 

a geographic pathology division, and a forensic pathology branch—a branch whose 

extensive expertise was regularly requested to assist with high profle autopsies, such as 

those of President John F Kennedy and Senator Robert Kennedy. 

As its pathology efforts expanded and matured, so too did the AFIP’s education function. 

Education programs in the late 1950s and early 1960s included postgraduate short 

courses, individual training on a residency or fellowship basis, lectures to and by staff 

members, seminars on pathology topics, and active duty training for reserve offcers. The 

institute’s global reputation meant that nearly 1,000 foreign nationals from more than 40 

countries attended AFIP courses during the frst 6 years in its new building. By 1970 the 

AFIP was conducting 19 postgraduate courses per year, and by 1975 that number grew to 

32, with a total attendance of 3,127. 

The AFIP’s research function exploded during this time. More than 200 investigations 

were carried out in the frst 5 years in the new building. In addition to the hundreds 

of thousands of neoplasms that were examined and diagnosed by AFIP doctors, staff 

conducted studies of the biological and biochemical effect of microwaves, the response 

of cells to acute radiation, the neuropathology of nuclear and cosmic radiation, the 

structure and functions of various tissues, and the effects of toxic agents on various 

organs. The new building also opened the door to expanded experimental pathology 

using animals. The Laboratory Animals Branch of the Department of Pathology had a 

dual mission of both caring for the animal population and consultation to staff members 

Brigadier General Elbert DeCoursey, second director of 

the AFIP, 1950–1955. General DeCoursey is credited for 

the successful transition from the Old Red Brick to the 

new AFIP headquarters with a minimum disruption of 

work. (MIS 55-14699)

[Opposite] More than 3,000 people gathered in front of 

the AFIP for the May 26, 1955, dedication ceremony and 

address by President Dwight D Eisenhower.

120 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

on experimental surgery. The average number of animals maintained in the 12 months of 

1960 was about 2,800 per month, including mice, hamsters, rats, rabbits, and guinea pigs. 

Other groundbreaking research efforts throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and into the ’70s included 

investigative studies into radiation injuries on the Japanese 

who died from atomic bomb blasts at the close of World 

War II, leprosy, malaria, tuberculosis, infectious hepatitis, 

underwater deaths involving scuba gear, tissue reactions 

to drugs, battered child syndrome, rabies encephalitis 

among service members, injury patterns in military aircraft 

accidents, wound ballistics, effects of prolonged immersion 

during hyperbaric exposure, and the role of dental 

identifcation in aircraft accidents.

Just as important to the institute’s maturation were 

collaborations by staff with each other and with outside 

agencies. In addition to establishing and maintaining 

relationships with the academic pathology community, 

the AFIP built enduring ties with such organizations as the American Medical Association, 

Food and Drug Administration, World Health Organization, National Institutes of Health,

Veterans Administration, National Air and Space Administration, Army Medical Research and 

Development Command, Army Materiel Command, National Academy of Sciences, and the 

Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park.

Within the institute, collegiality fourished during these years. With an infux of talent from 

around the world, pathologists were eager to learn from each other and seek other opinions 

on tough diagnoses. The design of the building’s interior and sharing of laboratory space 

were conducive to regular interaction and cross-fertilization between the various pathology 

divisions. As famed AFIP pathologist and former long-time chairman of the Department of 

Soft Tissue, Dr Franz Enzinger, once said about the early years of the institute, “Everything was 

available. There was no lack of equipment or even lack of support. The pathologists, clinical 

administration and the laboratory staffs functioned collaboratively and functioned extremely 

Plaque with a quote from 

President Eisenhower’s dedication remarks. The plaque 

is on display on the outside 

wall at the AFIP entrance. 

(MIS 09-10367-1)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 121

well. Even in the frst two or three years that I was here, I learned a great deal about other felds 

of pathology, as much or more than I would have learned in a very large hospital.”2

 Although 

this atmosphere of collegiality ebbed and fowed many times during the institute’s long history, 

from the 1940s through the mid-1970s it nurtured the AFIP through growing pains as the 

institute and the feld of pathology matured. n

s Form and Function

Th e aFiP’ S n ew e i g h t- S to ry, 70,000 square-foot, permanent home was constructed 

of heavily reinforced concrete throughout, including the transverse walls surrounding the 

double-corridor design of the interior. Openings in the outer walls of the central mass were 

ftted with blast-resistant doors. The heart of the building consisted of a central rectangular 

block of research laboratories, surrounded by passageways separating the laboratories from 

the offces located against the windowless walls. Running through the research laboratories 

was a 3-foot-wide mechanical core that supplied electricity, gas, and compressed air. At the 

ends of the building were four-story outer sections that did have windows and contained 

additional offce space.1(pp306–307)
122 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Opposite] Air Force Staff Sergeant Frank Avallone just 

prior to his assignment to AFIP in 1954, when it was still 

located in Old Red Brick. (NCP 17337) 

[Left] Now a research biologist, Frank Avallone examines 

a grossed whole prostate in April 2010. Avallone is the only 

remaining AFIP staff member who has worked for the institute since the building opened in 1955. (NCP 17329)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 123

s Frank Avallone on Day One in the AFIP’s New Home

“Ou t S id e , m y fir S t S i g h t of t h e b ui l din g was awesome—a huge concrete 

monolithic structure with no windows. The only windows I did see were located on 

the jutted out ends of the building, which I found out were referred to as blisters. I 

entered the building on the ground level at the south side. Once inside I saw that each 

of the blister areas was protected by two huge, metal blast doors that rode on a metal 

plate in the foor. In the event of a nuclear attack on the city, the blister areas were to 

be evacuated and the blast doors were to be closed and locked.

“I located the rooms I was assigned to near the histology laboratories on the second 

foor of the North Wing. I selected my work area and began to unpack and set up so 

that we could be a functional entity quickly. We had to set up everything—paraffn 

ovens, processors, staining areas and so forth. It was a whole new ballgame—a bit 

chaotic to say the least. But our supervisors had a good handle on everything and 

it all went smoothly. We all took some time during the frst day to walk around and 

familiarize ourselves with the different areas and to see where our friends were located. 

The laboratories themselves were very bright and spacious—the lighting was great and 

we had all metal, green cabinets with stone tops, as opposed to the wooden cabinetry 

at Old Red Brick. There were truly many neat things about the building and we were 

pleased with our new home. It had every amenity to make it a self-suffcient mini-city 

for at least a week or so in case of a nuclear attack. However, many of us missed two 

things—the lack of windows and being on the mall next to the Smithsonian.

“I have many great memories of that frst day. Everyone pitched in, helping wherever 

they could and assisting anyone who asked. AFIP was truly a family oriented 

organization, and the director, Brig Gen Decoursey, was truly a family oriented 

individual who treated both military and civilians like members of one family. A 

great place to work and great people to work with. In summary, the frst day was 

AWESOME!” (F Avallone, e-mail, 29 June 2010)
[Left] Herman Van Cott, chief of the AFIP’s 

Medical Illustration Service in the 1940s and 

1950s. (MIS 62-2108-3) 

[Top] The AFIP emblem designed by Van Cott in 

1952 is still in use today. 

[Opposite] Ham, the frst chimpanzee in space, 

is greeted by the recovery ship commander following his 1961 fight on NASA’s Mercury Redstone

rocket. By this time, AFIP veterinary pathologists 

had already established a strong relationship with 

NASA and its early experiments with various 

animals in the space program. As was the case 

with other space fights using animals, an AFIP 

veterinary pathologist was on board the recovery 

ship when Ham landed to conduct a post-fight 

health examination. Ham was found to be 

fatigued and slightly dehydrated, but otherwise 

in good shape. Ham lived until 1983. His skeletal 

remains are part of the collection in AFIP’s 

National Museum of Health and Medicine. The 

museum also is the home of the remains of Able, a 

rhesus monkey. Able and a squirrel monkey were 

the frst American mammals to survive a ride 

into space. (NASA fle photograph: Ham_

Retrieval_GPN-2000-001004)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 125

[Top] Navy Captain William M Silliphant, third director of the AFIP, 1955–

1959. Having previously spent 5 years as director of laboratories for the US 

Naval Medical School, National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, 

Silliphant was uniquely positioned to lead the institute during its frst years in 

the new building. (MIS 05-06934)

[Bottom] Dr Ernest W Goodpasture, the AFIP’s frst scientifc director, 

1955–1959. Considered one of pathology’s greats, Goodpasture was charged 

with completing the organization and staffng of the Department of Pathology, 

which previously had been limited to the Pathology Division. Under the new 

organization, the division was joined by the Basic Laboratories Division and 

the Dynamic Pathology Division to make up the new department. 

(MIS 59-01167)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 127

[Opposite] An animal care specialist looks after dogs in AFIP’s 5th foor animal housing room circa 1965. During the 1950s and 1960s the institute’s veterinary pathologists conducted extensive testing on the over 80 diseases that are communicable from animals to humans. As early as 1960 the Veterinary Pathology Division included 11 veterinarians, one of 

the largest aggregations of veterinary pathologists in the country at that time. (MIS 59-04678) 

[Left] Tissue specimens in storage in large, 20-gallon crock jars. (MIS 56-21661-9)

[Right] An AFIP staff member shows visitors specimens stored in sealed plastic bags containing a small amount of formalin, a method that superseded the crock jars in the late 1950s 

and early 1960s. The plastic bag storage system saved space, eased handling of specimens, and eliminated formalin fumes. At the same time, efforts were underway to fnd a closer 

location for storage of the remaining specimens, which were kept in a warehouse in Franconia, Virginia, 25 miles away. This effort eventually led to creation of a permanent tissue 

repository at Walter Reed’s Forest Glen Annex. (MIS 06-3048)
128 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Famed AFIP pathologist Dr Frank B Johnson (bottom right) with other AFIP staff members of the Histochemistry Branch at Old Red Brick in 1954. Johnson was chief of the section 

at the time. During his long and distinguished career with the institute, Dr Johnson served in many capacities, including chief of the Basic Sciences Division, chair of the Department 

of Chemical Pathology, and fnally, chief of the Division of Chemical Pathology, Department of Environmental and Toxicologic Pathology from 1990 until his retirement in 2004. 

Johnson was also the frst African-American pathologist appointed to the Senior Executive Service. His expertise in histochemistry and chemical pathology led to comprehensive research projects involving the identifcation of substances in tissue sections. In 1954 he coauthored a paper called “Chronic idiopathic jaundice with unidentifed pigment in liver cells,” 

a condition that came to be known as Dubin-Johnson syndrome.3

 (NCP 17338)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 129

Dr Johnson (right) and Dr Monroe E Freeman, director of the Scientifc Information Exchange of the Smithsonian Institute, discuss the benefts of AFIP’s 

electron microscope during Freeman’s visit to the AFIP in 1958. Dr Johnson was instrumental in acquiring AFIP’s frst electron microscope and ultracentrifuge 

in the mid-1950s. Use of the electron microscope, with a magnifying power on the order of 250,000 diameters, gave pathologists the ability to see farther into 

the interior cellular structure than was possible with the optical microscope. With such instrumentation and methodology, the pathology of diseases could be 

traced beyond the cell to the intracellular and molecular level.1(p350) The AFIP had acquired six electron microscopes by 1965. (NCP 17339)
[Top] Dr Kenneth Earle examines a case fle circa 1965. Serving as chief of neuropathology from 1962 to 1979, Dr Earle was 

instrumental in designing a course to prepare pathologists, neurologists, and neurosurgeons for specialty board certifcation. In 

February 2010, the AFIP conducted the 48th iteration of this 5-day course, now known as the Dr Kenneth M Earle Memorial 

Neuropathology Review. (MIS 09-10241-1)

[Inset] Air Force Colonel Frank M Townsend, fourth director of the AFIP, 1959–1963. (MIS 05-07036)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 131

[Top Left] Captain William Stahl, chief of forensic pathology, 

1965–1975. (MIS 05-6973-5-29533) 

[Top Right] Colonel Richard Froede, chief of the Department of 

Forensic Sciences, 1968–1976. (MIS 05-6340-6)

Drs Stahl and Froede played vital roles in solidifying the reputation of 

forensic pathology as a legitimate and valued feld within the military. 

Stahl developed an extensive education program not only for forensic 

pathologists, but also for military investigators, attorneys, and other 

offcers who might be involved in medico-legal death investigations. 

This program later evolved into a forensic sciences program at the 

master’s degree level in partnership with George Washington University. In 1968, Stahl and Froede also came up with the initial idea for 

what is now the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System. This plan 

came to fruition 20 years later when Froede returned to AFIP as the 

frst armed forces medical examiner, with the charge of establishing 

the medical examiner system as a separate entity within the institute 

(see page 141). 

Dr Vincent J Hyams preparing coursework in the early 1950s, when the 

institute was still occupying the Old Red Brick. In 1966, then a Navy captain, 

Hyams was assigned to the institute, where he became director of the Otolaryngic Pathology Branch, a position he held until his retirement from the 

Navy in 1984. Although highly respected for his breadth of knowledge and 

diagnostic skills, he is most remembered for his teaching abilities and efforts 

to gain interest in and an understanding of pathology within the surgical 

community. (NCP 3075)
132 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The expanded space of the AFIP’s new home meant increased opportunities for lectures to and by members of the institute staff, such as this one involving several departments in the 

Callender Teaching Laboratory, circa 1961. At around the same time the AFIP established weekly professional staff conferences for pathologists and scientists to share the results of 

their diagnostic, research, and investigative efforts with other members of the staff—a tradition that continues today. (MIS 56-5999)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 133

In addition to lectures involving large numbers of staff, opportunities for more intimate and intensive studies by smaller groups increased throughout the 1960s. (MIS 58-2917-5)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 135

[Opposite] Dr Lent Johnson (left) and Smithsonian anthropologist T Dale Stewart 

examine various bone sets during a visit to the AFIP by Stewart in 1954. Dr Johnson 

served as chairman of the Department of Orthopedic Pathology from 1946 to 1980, 

and then as chairman emeritus from 1980 to 1998. Considered one of the world’s 

leading orthopaedic pathologists, Johnson was responsible for establishing the Bone 

Sarcoma Registry at the institute, as well as a bone laboratory and X-ray registry. He 

also developed a 300-hour basic science course for all military orthopaedic residents, as 

well as a separate 80-hour special training program in orthopaedic pathology. Johnson 

also performed pioneering work with micro x-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared lights, and 

polarized light forms to further advance the study of bone sarcomas. (MIS 54-2848-K.)

[Inset] Dr Kamal Ishak, who joined the AFIP staff in 1963 and became chief of the Hepatic Pathology Branch in 1965. Although raised and educated primarily in Egypt, Dr 

Ishak—as well as other foreign-trained pathologists—was attracted by AFIP’s growing 

reputation as the world leader in pathology. Ishak became one of the foremost hepatic 

pathologists in the world, starting with a landmark 1967 paper on malignant liver tumors in children that defned hepatoblastoma as an entity distinct from hepatocelluar 

carcinoma. In 1981 he devised the frst version of the Histologic Activity Index (HAI) 

for evaluating biopsies from patients with chronic hepatitis. His further refnement of 

the HAI came to be known as the Ishak score. (NCP 17331)

[Top] Colonel TC Jones, chief of veterinary pathology, conducts a pathology session 

in the AFIP teaching lab in March 1956. The veterinary pathology sessions quickly 

became a weekly tradition named the “Wednesday slide conference.” Now entering 

its 58th year, the conference is a unique slide exchange program that provides classic 

veterinary pathology diagnostic training to a broad range of participants, and is an 

integral part of the core veterinary pathology training at more than 135 participating 

institutions throughout the world. (NCP 11426)

[Bottom] Dr Franz M Enzinger (at head of table) along with visiting pathologists from 

the First World Health Organization Committee for the Classifcation of Soft Tissue 

Tumors, circa 1961, which produced the frst classifcation system for soft tissue pathologists, a system that came to be known as the Enzinger classifcation system. Enzinger 

joined the AFIP staff in 1957 and became chairman of the Department of Soft Tissue in 

1960, a position he held until 1988. During a 1993 interview for the AFIP’s oral history 

program, Enzinger said the following about his decision to apply for a job at the institute: “At that time, it was considered the mecca of pathology . . . the staff was very well 

known. So it was a plum appointment to come to the AFIP . . . the AFIP was actually 

not only the center of pathology in this country, but in the world.” (NCP 17332)
136 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 137

[Opposite | Top Left] An AFIP histotechnologist cutting a ribbon of tissue on a microtome in preparation 

for staining, circa 1954. (MIS 219791-4-29-1)

[Opposite | Bottom Left] In this 1953 photo, a 

histotechnologist stains slides prior to review by a 

pathologist. (MIS 219816-22-4-1)

[Opposite | Top Right] A histotechnologist stains a 

section of tissue in a petri dish using a medium called 

cellodin, circa 1954. (MIS 219791-17-3-2) 

[Opposite | Bottom Left] A vacuum oven used in 

the 1950s and 1960s, which helped paraffn thoroughly infltrate a block of tissue, which in turn made 

the block easier to cut and preserve for future use. 

(MIS 219546-16041)

[Right] In this 1954 photograph, taken just prior to 

the move from the Old Red Brick, a histotechnologist prepares a tissue processor for operation. The 

machine sent wet tissue through a process using 

formalin, alcohol, and xyline, resulting in a paraffn 

block ready to be cut. It was often referred to as “the 

spider.” (MIS 219816-22-4-3)
138 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] During the 1950s and 1960s the AFIP became 

a world leader in histologic staining methods. Indeed, 

the 1968 edition of the Manual of Histologic Staining 

Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 

(pictured) by Lee Luna was the most widely used staining reference source in the world. (NCP 17328)

[Bottom] AFIP pathologists and offcials marvel at 

the technology of the AFIP Computer Center during its grand opening on May 26, 1967. Left to right: 

Dr Elson B Helwig, Captain Bruce H Smith, Major 

General Joseph Blumberg, Dr Fathollah K Mostof, and 

an identifed staff member. The institute was one of a 

small group of medical facilities to pioneer the use of 

computers devoted solely to medicine. At the time, the 

AFIP had 1.2 million cases on fle, which were used by 

staff members for diagnostic and research activities. The 

computer system made it possible for pathologists to access cases, which helped to diagnose new cases faster and 

with greater accuracy. (NCP 17334)

[Opposite | Top Left] The AFIP’s printing 

plant, which was included in the design of 

the new building. (MIS 62-2302-2) 

[Opposite | Bottom Left] Examples of early 

fascicles of the Atlas of Tumor Pathology. 

Popularity of the fascicles grew so quickly 

that by the early 1960s a nightshift had to be 

added to the printing plant to keep up with 

worldwide demand. (MIS 62-1976-4)
[Top Right] Luna, who served as chairman of the 

Department of Histopathology for 33 years, was 

frequently referred to as the “father of histology” by 

his peers. In 1965 he held the frst AFIP Symposium in Histotechnology, which later grew into 

the National Society for Histotechnology.4

 (MIS 

08-1321-298-625)

[Bottom Right] Brigadier General Joseph M 

Blumberg, ffth director of the AFIP, 1963–1967. 

During his tenure, Blumberg signifcantly expanded 

research, particularly in geographic pathology and 

in the basic sciences of immunology and veterinary 

surgery. He also led the effort to obtain emerging computer technology for the institute. (MIS 

05-06082)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 141

s The AFIP Crest: Symbolism and Historical Signifcance

“ad opt e d in 1964, t h e aFiP c r e S t, or blazon, contains a wealth of symbolism. 

The gold feld and green border of the shield are derived from the yellow guidon 

with green border, which marked the way to feld hospitals during the Civil War. The 

green stars in the feld are taken from the constellation microscopium, a symbol of 

investigation. The fve stars represent the investigative mission of the original Army 

Medical Museum: collection, preparation, illustration, procedures, and teaching. The 

canton is an augmentation to memorialize the great humanitarian service which the 

Army Medical Museum and the present day Armed Forces Institute of Pathology have 

rendered to the armed forces, the nation, and the world. Its green background is taken from the green robe of 

the ancient physician to represent the medical profession. The silver cross portrays the crusader spirit of the 

Hospitaler Orders of Knighthood, which dedicated themselves to the alleviation of suffering and lessening 

of mortality. The red lozenge is taken from the stone of the ring of the ancient physician, which symbolized 

protection from disease. The four sides of the lozenge allude to the ancient classifcation of the parts of man: 

head, chest, viscera, and limbs. The three conjoined bay leaves of the crest represent the armed forces of the 

United States: the Departments of the Army, Navy and the Air Force. The golden serpent symbolizes the 

cross-service medical services performed by the AFIP. Both the bay leaf and the serpent are ancient symbols 

of the science of pathology. Finally, the motto Consultatio Eruditio Investigatio refects the missions of the 

AFIP: Consultation, Education, and Research.”5

 (NCP 17335)

References

1. Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. Washington, DC: Offce of the Surgeon General, 

Department of the Army; 1964.

2. Enzinger Franz M (pathologist and chairman of the Department of Soft Tissue, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology). Interview 

by Charles Stuart Kennedy, AFIP Oral History Program. 12 May 1993. Available at: http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/

collections/archives/aproducts/aoralhistories/enzinger.pdf. Accessed 8 September 2010.

3. AFIP Letter. Vol 163, No. 3 (Fall 2005): 6–7. 

4. AFIP Letter. Vol 150, No. 2 (April 1992): 4. 

5. “Seal, AFIP” folder, AFIP Historical Files, Box 121, Otis Historical Archives.

6. AFIP Letter. Vol 129, No. 5 (June 1971): 2. 

7. Seldam REJ, Helwig EB. Histological Typing of Skin Tumours. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1974. 

International Classifcation of Tumours, No. 12.

[Opposite] Forensic pathologists 

preparing to conduct an autopsy 

in the AFIP’s autopsy suite. During the 1960s and into the 1970s 

the institute’s Military Environmental Pathology Division 

evolved into the Department of 

Forensic Sciences, which included 

forensic pathology, aerospace 

pathology, accident pathology, 

and legal medicine. A forensic fellowship program was developed, 

and educational programs were 

begun to train military investigators how to work with forensic 

pathologists. By the mid-1970s 

many of the most prominent 

forensic pathologists in the nation had trained or worked at 

the AFIP. These early programs 

paved the way for what would 

later become the Armed Forces 

Medical Examiner System (see 

page 131). (MIS 59-4678-124)
142 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
[Opposite] Dr William Manion, chief of the Cardiovascular Branch 

(right), discusses cases with visitors to the AFIP circa 1965. Manion joined 

the AFIP in 1953 and served as chief of the Cardiovascular Branch until 

1970. During that time he contributed greatly to the institute’s reputation 

as a world leader in cardiovascular pathology. (MIS 05-6629-A)

[Top Left] Furniture being moved out of the Old Red Brick in 1968. The 

historic building was subsequently demolished to make room for a new 

building that would house the Hirshhorn collection of modern art. 

(NCP 3889-2)

[Bottom Left] Workmen take down the sign from the Old Red Brick that 

referenced its 1964 designation as a national historic landmark by the Department of the Interior— a designation that was later interpreted as being 

applicable to the museum’s collections, not the building itself. The collections 

then went into storage while the new addition to the AFIP was being built. 

(NCP 3833)

[Inset] Captain Bruce H Smith, sixth director of the AFIP, 1967–1971. It 

was under Captain Smith’s watch that the Army Medical Museum moved 

out of the Old Red Brick, and a new addition to the AFIP was constructed 

to house the museum. (MIS 05-6949-10B) 
144 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 145

[Opposite] Captain Smith turns the sod at the March 22, 1968, 

groundbreaking ceremony for the new wing of the AFIP to house the 

museum and additional offce space. (MIS 68-2777-37)

[Top] Captain Smith makes welcoming remarks at the May 21, 

1971, opening of the Army Medical Museum at its new home. 

Featured at the ceremony was the surgeon general of the Army, 

Lieutenant General Hal B Jennings Jr, who observed: “What has 

been accomplished in the museum in the more than a century since 

its founding has been done in the interest of humanity. We have seen 

man’s ability to contribute to and control his physical surroundings 

as steps toward making the world a better place in which to live. So, 

as we now observe the museum’s reopening, and the continuation of 

its second century of service, it’s our earnest belief that the staff of experts in this superb facility will continue to meet the future challenges 

to medical science as they have in the past and they shall remain 

dedicated to the conquest of disease for the beneft of all mankind.”6

(MIS 71-6133-38)

[Bottom] Visitors tour the inside of the museum following opening 

ceremonies. The public part of the museum was divided into four 

specialized exhibit halls whose names honored infuential leaders in 

the museum’s long and distinguished history. The Hammond Hall 

of Pathology displayed plastic mounted tissues arranged in an organ 

system. The Brinton Hall of History portrayed the history of pathology. The Billings Hall of Instruments featured the “Evolution of the 

Microscope” exhibit. The Silliphant Hall of Current Events featured 

selected subjects of current research at the institute. 

(MIS 71-6133-94)
146 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Construction of the museum space nears completion in this September 2, 1970, photograph. Although different in style from the original, 

mostly windowless AFIP construction of the 1950s, the cube-like design on 

top was intended to help give the addition an integrated look. (NCP 2582)

[Bottom] Dr Lorenz Zimmerman addresses the International Course of 

Ophthalmology in May 1969 in Barcelona, Spain. Now recognized as the 

founder of modern ophthalmic pathology, Zimmerman joined the AFIP 

in 1952. Only 2 years later he became chairman of the Department of 

Ophthalmic Pathology, where he remained for nearly 50 years. During his 

long and distinguished career Zimmerman made important contributions 

to understanding the behavior of almost every neoplasm, infammation, 

degeneration, and developmental malformation that affects the eye. Indeed, 

even without the aid of modern immunohistochemistry, he was the frst 

person to describe phacomatous choristoma of the eyelid and identify this 

tumor as resulting from a malformation in the development of the crystalline lens of the eye. Many ophthalmic pathologists still refer to it as the 

“Zimmerman tumor.” (NCP 17333)

[Opposite] Dr Elson B Helwig receives the President’s Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service from President Lyndon B Johnson in 1966. 

At left is Dr Helwig’s wife, Mildred. Dr. Helwig, who joined the AFIP in 

1946, played an important role in elevating the institute to a position of 

world prominence. Although he served many roles during his more than 

50 years of service to the AFIP, he is best known for his pioneering work 

in dermatopathology. In addition to his own studies in the feld, Helwig 

offered a popular training program in dermapathology, shared his expertise 

through weekly slide conferences, and consulted on diffcult cases. He was 

also one of the most infuential members of the World Health Organization 

panel that produced the frst Histological Classifcation of Skin Tumors.

7

(NCP 17330)


Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 149

[Opposite] Dr Chapman Binford (at microscope) consults with Dr Helwig (left) and Dr Daniel Connor (right), circa 1975. Dr Binford served 

as chief of the Infectious Disease Branch from 1951 to 1956, and later as 

chief of the institute’s Special Mycobacterial Diseases Branch, from 1972 

to 1976. Binford was considered a world leader in the studies of leprosy 

and fungal diseases. Dr Connor joined the AFIP in 1960 and served as 

chairman of the Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases Pathology. In the early 1960s he spent 3 years in Uganda, where he diagnosed 

and studied infectious diseases that had previously been unknown to the 

Western scientifc community. (MIS 05-7267-3-36625)

[Left] Dr Florabel G Mullick with Julius Halsman, chief of the Photography Division, shortly after Dr Mullick’s arrival to the AFIP in 1970. 

(NCP 17340)

[Right] Army Colonel James L Hansen, eighth director of the AFIP, 

1973–1976. (MIS 05-6406-3C)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 151

[Opposite] Dr Mullick reviews case fles with her colleague and mentor, Dr Nelson Irey, chairman of the Department of 

Environmental and Toxicologic Pathology, in 1972. Dr Irey was not only considered a pioneer in environmental pathology, 

but by 1972 he was also recognized as the foremost environmental pathologist in the world. His mentorship helped Dr Mullick rise through the ranks of the AFIP to become associate director of the AFIP in 1987, director for the Center for Advanced 

Pathology in 1994, chair of the Department of Environmental and Infectious Diseases in 1996, the institute’s frst civilian 

principal deputy director in 1999, and its frst civilian director in June 2007. (NCP 17341)

[Top] Dr. Fathollah K Mostof (second from right) presides over a 1973 international meeting for standardizing the classifcation of testis tumors, held at the World Health Organization (WHO) headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Mostof 

was hired as AFIP’s chairman for the Department of Genitourinary Pathology in 1948, a position he held until his death in 

2003. He was infuential in accomplishing AFIP’s 1958 agreement with WHO and the National Research Council for the 

establishment of several international reference centers that collected tumors for evaluation by international panels to create 

standardized tumor classifcations. By 1973 Mostof had long been recognized as the foremost genitourinary pathologist in the 

world. Seated to his right is Dr Leslie Sobin, a WHO pathologist. In 1981 Sobin joined the AFIP staff, where he rose to chief of 

gastrointestinal pathology and director of scientifc publications. (NCP 17432)

[Inset] Air Force Colonel Robert W Morrissey, seventh director of the AFIP, 1971–1973. (MIS 05-6711-2)
“By the mid-1970s, having achieved an enviable level of growth 

and maturity, the AFIP was poised for the next chapter in 

its long and distinguished history—a chapter marked by a 

continued infusion of talent and the incorporation of rapidly 

evolving technological advances . . .”
chapter 5
talent, technology, and 

transformation, 1976–2000

[Opposite] Captain Elgin C Cowart, Jr, Medical 

Corps, US Navy, ninth director of the AFIP, 1976–1980. 

Cowart sought increased use of the case materials in the 

AFIP repository during his tenure. “Much of this vast 

resource lies dormant,” he wrote in his frst director’s 

message. “Its use must be encouraged, if not by our 

own staff, then by other authorized professionals.” 1

 In 

1980 Cowart became the third director of the American 

Registry of Pathology serving in that position until 1990. 

(MIS 09-08344)
 

| 155

BBy the mid-1970s, having achieved an enviable level of growth and maturity, the 

AFIP was poised for the next chapter in its long and distinguished history—a 

chapter marked by a continued infusion of talent and the incorporation of rapidly 

evolving technological advances, both of which ultimately transformed the 

institute’s service to the military and the worldwide medical community.

AFIP’s reputation as a world leader in pathology consultation, education, and 

research meant that leading pathologists and scientists, and those who eventually 

would earn worldwide notoriety in their respective felds, continued to fock to 

the institute throughout the late 1970s and next two decades. These included 

pathologists in the felds of soft tissue; gynecology and breast pathology; infectious 

and tropical diseases; dermatology; orthopaedics; pediatrics; hematopathology; 

genitourinary pathology; radiology; neuropathology; ophthalmic pathology; 

cardiovascular pathology; oral and maxillofacial pathology; veterinary 

pathology; endocrine pathology; acquired immunodefciency syndrome (AIDS); 

environmental pathology; pulmonary pathology; hematopathology; forensics; 

otolaryngic pathology; hepatic pathology; and gastrointestinal pathology.

Additionally, incentive to join the AFIP staff was strengthened in 1976 when Congress chartered the American Registry of Pathology, legislation sponsored 

by senators Ted Kennedy and Sam Nunn. This legislation gave ARP the ability 

to expand the scope of AFIP’s activities by acting as a principal liaison to the 

civilian medical community. Included in the charter was a cooperative enterprise 

Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 157

mechanism that allowed ARP to receive fees for education courses and consultations, as well as private 

grant funding that, in turn, was used to enhance the combined mission of both organizations. Since 1976, 

this arrangement has allowed continued civilian consultations in the diagnosis of malignant disease; 

helped fund equipment and technical support in diagnostic laboratories; boosted the continuing medical 

education program, both within the institute and at national and international sites; helped fund and 

expand research efforts and staff recruitment, most notably in the areas of DNA and telepathology; and 

allowed ARP to assume responsibility for printing and marketing publications, which created greater 

demand for tumor atlases, fascicles, and other publications.

With confdence that this new partnership would ensure recruitment and retention of the best and 

brightest in pathology, the AFIP turned its attention to identifying and incorporating emerging 

technologies, and developing techniques to advance pathology and research efforts.

Although the optical microscope continued to be pathology’s workhorse instrument, the acquisition of 

multihead microscopes in the late 1970s allowed several pathologists to view the same cases at the same 

time, speeding up the diagnostic process. Equally important, these microscopes became instrumental 

for teaching and staff development. Gas chromatography technology and specialized radioimmunoassay 

techniques enhanced the Division of Toxicology’s ability to support the Department of Defense (DoD) 

drug detection program. Within the Division of Chemical Pathology, incorporation of scanning electron 

microscopes in the latter part of the 1970s proved particularly useful in identifcation of asbestos fbers in 

lung tissue, as well as other health problems. 

The institute built a hypobaric (dive) chamber in the 1970s and a hyperbaric (altitude) chamber in 

the 1980s, both of which helped advance research on the effects of oxygen on cells at high and low 

atmospheric pressures, allowing for extensive study on the effectiveness of oxygen on wound healing and 

tissue repair. More powerful Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopes introduced in the mid1980s gave researchers the ability to identify foreign materials and some metabolic materials in tissue 

and other specimens. This was complemented by Raman microspectroscopy, which also was used to 

identify materials in tissue, but has the advantage of a laser light that provides superior spatial resolution. 

The technique also proved valuable in the study of microorganisms related to emerging infections and 

possible biological weapons. The ability to send the laser beam into sealed glass containers to analyze toxic 

[Opposite] In one of AFIP’s more 

iconic photos, four of the institute’s 

great pathologists discuss cases 

while gathered around a multihead 

microscope circa 1988. (Seated from 

left to right) Dr Nelson Irey, chair, 

Department of Environmental and 

Drug Induced Pathology; Dr Frank 

Johnson, chair, Department of 

Chemical Pathology; and Dr Elson 

Helwig, chair, Department of 

Gastrointestinal Pathology; 

(standing) Dr Henry Norris, chair, 

Department of Gynecologic and 

Breast Pathology. (NCP 17013)
158 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

specimens made this a safe procedure. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 

introduced in the late 1980s, proved to be especially useful in cardiovascular and 

ophthalmic pathology. Incorporating a confocal pinhole, CLSM is highly effcient 

at rejecting out-of-focus fuorescent light, providing the pathologist with a clean, 

3-dimensional image of the tissue under analysis. 

In 1991 the Department of Environmental and Toxicological Pathology acquired 

an atomic absorption spectrophotometer—then a state-of-the art instrument—for 

determining concentrations of metals in tissue samples, such as aluminum, mercury, 

silver, or arsenic. Also in 1991, AFIP became a leader in digital image processing with 

the opening of its own facility. Advanced techniques allowed for image processing, 

quantitative analysis, and computer-assisted image interpretation in anatomic 

pathology cases. Coupled with microscopy, digital image processing allowed for a 

3-dimensional rendering of tissues, resulting in more accurate interpretation of tissue 

features. 

A year later this technology, combined with advanced communications systems, was 

incorporated into a telepathology pilot study with Malcolm Grow Hospital at Andrews 

Air Force Base. In the study, the consulting pathologist prepared digitized images from 

a biopsy and transmitted the images to an AFIP pathologist, who could then resolve 

questions concerning the biopsy within a matter of hours, rather than days or weeks. 

Throughout the 1990s this program was expanded to include a network of hospitals in 

the United States, Europe, and Korea. At the same time, advances were being made in 

immunohistochemistry, which involves staining minute amounts of specifc structures 

in various cells based on an immune reaction. This made it possible to identify tiny 

amounts of specifc cellular products, making it easier to distinguish one type of tumor 

from another.

Complementary technologies included a 1977 microflming project that by year’s end 

resulted in more than 1.3 million case records in the AFIP repository being copied onto 

microfche masters, freeing up more than 5,000 square feet while providing easy access 

[Bottom] Donald West King, fourth executive 

director of the ARP. He served in the position 

from 1990 to 2002. (NCP 17382) 

[Opposite | Top] Dr Chapman H Binford, frst 

executive director of the ARP, 1976–1978. (MIS 

08-1087-1)

[Opposite | Bottom] Dr Kenneth Earle, second 

executive director of the ARP, 1978–1980. Dr 

Earle had also had a distinguished career in 

neuropathology with the AFIP. (NCP 17347)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 159

to records. In 1981 a computer-based system called the pathology case management 

system (PACMS) was put into operation, replacing the old case tracking system 

consisting of pencil, paper, and keypunch. The changeover allowed for online, real-time 

accessioning and tracking of cases. PACMS was augmented in 1985 with the acquisition 

of personal computers as tools to assist researchers with project development, database 

management, library research, word processing, and telecommunications. Throughout 

the 1990s the institute made all atlases of tumor pathology available in CD-ROM

format, giving the ARP a low-cost way to produce and sell the atlases, expanding their 

reach in the medical community.

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s forensic pathology and research expanded rapidly. 

An indoor ballistics testing range built in AFIP’s basement in the early 1980s was used 

to study wound effects with gelatin molds, which mimic human tissue. The gelatin 

molds allowed researchers to demonstrate specifc wound characteristics of various 

types of weapons, helping them to interpret data and injury patterns at autopsy. The 

range eventually included a high-speed camera to track the path of a fred round and 

create a chronograph, which provided an accurate computer readout of the entry, midrange, and exit speed of all rounds shot. By the mid-1980s, AFIP forensic pathologists 

were earning a reputation as experts in identifying disassociated remains, having 

participated in several high-profle investigations. 

At the same time, leaders within the DoD had come to recognize the potential 

of forensic pathology, especially after the 1985 development of the polymerase 

chain reaction (PCR) process, allowing for the identifcation of remains using 

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This powerful tool held the promise of never again 

leaving a service member unidentifed. In 1988, through a DoD directive, AFIP’s 

Department of Forensic Sciences became the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System 

(AFMES)—a move intended to create a centralized organization for medico-legal 

death investigations under military jurisdiction and mass casualty events. In 1991 the 

recently formed Armed Forces DNA Identifcation Laboratory (AFDIL) became part of 

the medical examiner system, quickly followed by establishment of the Armed Forces 
160 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Repository of Specimen Samples for the Identifcation 

of Remains (AFRSSIR), which began storing blood-spot 

cards on all military personnel that could be used to obtain 

DNA sequencing, if needed, to identify deceased service 

members. In 1998 a Medical Mortality Surveillance Division 

was added to the system. The division was tasked to rapidly 

detect mortality due to unexplained causes or infectious 

disease, and to analyze all active duty deaths for trends and 

preventable or modifable risk factors. DNA technology also 

paved the way for experimentation with and development of 

molecular biology and pathology.

During the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, all types of scientifc research 

benefted from the development of new technology. Research 

achievements during this period included groundbreaking 

investigations into the identifcation and eradication of 

leprosy, both overseas and in the southern United States; the 

etiology of cat-scratch fever and how to positively identify 

it compared to illnesses with similar symptoms; AIDS, and 

specifcally attempts to unravel the natural history of this 

retroviral infection, as well as vaccine development; isolating 

and identifying rickettsia, especially in Rocky Mountain

spotted fever cases; the microbiology of Buruli ulcers; 

causes, symptoms, and treatment for Legionnaire’s disease; 

the most effective treatments for certain kinds of leukemia; 

identifcation of proper and effective treatments for flariasis, 

a disease caused by parasitic roundworms; the causes and 

mechanisms of sudden coronary death; pathogenesis of 

liver diseases; recognition of the various entities that cause 

leukocoria and the management of ocular melanoma; 

and accurate testing for early identifcation of prostate 

Then Air Force Technical Sergeant Ridgely Rabold uses 

a newly installed computer system to operate the AFIP’s 

hypobaric chamber in 1980. Rabold was monitoring a 

human research subject performing a Choice Reaction 

Time Test at 25,000 feet, which measures the reaction 

time to a series of blinking lights. Rabold now serves as 

executive assistant to the director, AFIP. (NCP 17349) 

[Opposite] Air Force Major James Canik conducts a lung 

capacity test at 10,000 feet inside the hypobaric chamber 

in 1982. The chamber was also used for studies on wound 

healing, immune function, oxygen toxicity, altitude 

hypoxia, and sickle-cell trait at low atmospheric pressures. 

Canik now serves as the deputy director for administration, support and facilities, AFDIL. (NCP 17350)
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Air Force Staff Sergeant Dave Nelson prepares an animal isolation box for a simulated hypobaric dive in the early 1990s designed to test the effects of pressure and oxygen on the 

physiology of tissue repair. The animal isolation boxes, which were specially constructed for use at depth, permitted investigators to accompany animal models inside the chamber 

during testing without being exposed to the same breathing environment. (NCP 17351)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 163

cancer. These efforts complemented established registries used to track the health of service members, 

including the Registry for Former Prisoners of War, a database for anatomic pathology material from POWs,

predominantly those from World War II, the Korean War, and Vietnam; the Agent Orange Registry, which 

is being used to track the long-term health effects of exposure to agent orange on Vietnam veterans; and the 

Persian Gulf/Kuwait Registry, which consists of a repository of anatomic pathology specimens from 1990–

1991 Persian Gulf War veterans for research into possible future health issues. 

Education too fourished during this period, especially after the institute’s continuing medical education 

program became accredited in the mid-1970s. In 1976 the AFIP offered approximately 20 courses in the 

major areas of pathology. By 1980 the program had grown to 37 courses and continued expanding steadily 

throughout the next 20 years. By 2000, the institute had awarded approximately 1 million credit hours 

to hundreds of thousands of military and civilian medical professionals throughout the world. And this 

impressive fgure does not take into account the less formal education provided through the hundreds of 

lectures and presentations by AFIP pathologists and researchers at conferences, symposiums, and other 

such venues throughout the world every year. Nor does it take into account the learning that took place 

when staff members fanned out around the world during this period, assisting institutions and nations with 

investigations of viral infections, diseases, and other health challenges.

As the 1990s came to a close and the AFIP entered a new century of service to the nation, the institute had 

experienced a transformation from a primary focus on Brigadier General Dart’s vision of excellence in 

pathology, into one that also incorporated President Eisenhower’s vision of an institute dedicated “to the 

conquest of disease so that mankind, more safe and secure in body, may more securely advance to the widely 

shared prosperity and an enduring and just peace.”2 n

References

1. AFIP Annual Report. Washington, DC: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; 1976: 1.

2. Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. Washington, DC: Offce of the Surgeon General, 

Department of the Army; 1964.

 
[Top] Members of the 101st Airborne Division honor the remains of 

fellow soldiers during a December 16, 1985, ceremony at Dover Air 

Force Base in Delaware. Four days earlier, 248 members of the 101st 

were killed in a plane crash in Gander, Newfoundland. AFIP forensic 

pathologists were not expected to be able to identify all victims of the 

crash, but did so within 10 weeks, solidifying their growing national 

reputation as experts in identifcation of disassociated remains, and 

paving the way for establishment of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System. (Department of Defense photo; NCP 17352)

[Bottom Left] Colonel William R Cowan, Medical Corps, US Air 

Force, tenth director of the AFIP, 1980–1984. (MIS 05-06195)

[Bottom Middle] Colonel Robert R McMeekin, Medical Corps, US 

Army, eleventh director of the AFIP, 1984–1987. McMeekin was particularly interested in how applications using new technologies could 

help advance pathology consultation, education, and research. 

(MIS 05-6669-6)

[Bottom Right] Captain Robert F Karnei, Jr, Medical Corps, US Navy, 

twelfth director of the AFIP, 1987–1991. (MIS 05-06522-1)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 165

The space shuttle Challenger’s 

smoke plume after it exploded and 

broke apart 73 seconds into its fight 

on January 28, 1986, killing all 

seven crew members. Continuing 

its history of service to NASA, AFIP 

forensic pathologists identifed all 

victims. (NASA fle photo; NCP 

17353)
[Left] Captain Glenn Wagner, Medical Corps, US Navy, deputy 

medical examiner, performs an autopsy during an identifcation 

mission to Peru in 1989 following an aircraft crash that killed 

nine people, including an agent of the US Drug Enforcement 

Agency. By the late 1980s, other governmental agencies were 

regularly requesting AFIP forensic expertise to assist in death 

investigations. Wagner would later serve as the ffteenth director 

of the AFIP, 1999–2003. (NCP 00934) 

[Right] Captain Karnei performs an autopsy in AFIP’s McNabb 

Autopsy Suite during the mid-1980s. (NCP 00936)

[Opposite] (Left) Dr Daniel Connor, chief, Department of 

Infectious and Parasitic Disease; (middle) Ron Neafe, Division 

of Zoonotic Diseases; and (right) Dr Wayne M Meyers, chief, 

Division of Microbiology, in Zaire (now Democratic Republic of 

Congo) in 1977. The three, along with other colleagues pictured, 

were in Zaire studying cases of flarial diseases at Loko Hospital. 

(NCP 17354)
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[Top] Dr Ann Nelson (center), chief of AFIP’s Special Pathology 

Unit at the University of Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo; 

formerly, Zaire) circa 1988. To her left is Professor Raphael Kalengayi, 

chair of the university’s pathology department. Others in the photo 

are residents and pathology technicians. Dr Nelson was in Kinshasa as 

part of AFIP’s involvement with Project-SIDA, a multinational AIDS 

project that provided technical expertise and material for studying 

AIDS in Zaire, especially in the areas of perinatal and heterosexual 

transmission. The project also included studies on the pathology of 

HIV infection, as African countries, and others throughout the world, 

struggled to fnd answers to what had become a worldwide health 

crisis by the mid-1980s. Collaborators included the US Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention, US National Institutes of Health, 

and the Institute of Tropical Medicine in Antwerp, Belgium. (NCP 

17838)

[Bottom] Dr Max Robinowitz, associate chair, Department of Cardiovascular Pathology, examines a heart in the grossing laboratory in 

the late 1970s. Looking on are Audrey Tinker and Wayne Artis, both 

of the Materials Repository Division. (NCP 17384)

[Opposite] Dr Ann Nelson and Dr Florabel G Mullick examine perinatal HIV transmission cases as part of Project-SIDA at the University 

of Kinshasa, circa 1988. The cases became part of the AFIP’s HIV and 

AIDS Registry, which quickly grew into one of the largest registries of 

HIV and AIDS pathology in the world. (NCP 17385)
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Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 171

[Opposite] Colonel William Cowan, AFIP director, and Dr Paul Ivan Yakovlev examine brain sections from the Yakovlev Collection in the early 1980s. The Yakovlev Collection, 

which contains more than 1,500 specimens, consists primarily of whole-brain serial sections mounted on slides; also included are tissue blocks of fetal and neonatal organs. Each 

specimen has a case record. In addition to normative controls, specimens include examples of cerebrovascular disease, pathomorphic cerebra, neurosurgery for behavioral diseases, 

miscellaneous neuropathology, and experimental animals. Dr Yakovlev (1894–1983), a neurologist at several hospitals and Harvard Medical School, assembled the collection. In 

1974 he transferred the collection from Harvard to the AFIP, where it was managed by curator Mohamad Haleem until its transfer to the National Museum of Health and Medicine, a department of the AFIP. In 1994 it was renamed the Yakovlev-Haleem Collection.(NCP 17016)

[Top] In 1988 the institute’s Army Medical Museum was renamed the National Museum of Health and Medicine. The name was changed in recognition of the fact that since the 

Army Medical Museum’s founding in 1862, it had been the only federal museum in the country devoted exclusively to medicine. (NCP 3654)
172 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 173

[Opposite] Dr Adrienne Noe (right), then deputy director of the National Museum of Health 

and Medicine, and museum technician Laurie Carroll in 1991 with pieces from the Carnegie 

Human Embryology Collection. The museum’s Human Developmental Anatomy Center 

maintains and archives the largest collection of human and comparative developmental material in the world, and includes normal human embryos, abnormal specimens commonly used 

for nondestructive research, photographs, illustrations, and models. The core of the center is the 

world-renowned Carnegie collection, the most extensive collection of its kind. Dr Noe is currently the museum director. (NCP 01095)

[Left] A school group is seen here visiting a museum exhibit in the early 1990s. Docent Amy 

Simonsen with an audience at the Brain Discovery cart, in the National Museum of Health 

and Medicine. (NCP 17348) 

[Right] “Human Body, Human Being,” a signature exhibit opened in the mid-1990s, featured 

preserved specimens from the major body systems and explored how the human body functions 

in health and in sickness through the presentation of diagrams, medical instruments, and real 

body parts preserved for scientifc study. (NCP 17356)
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[Top] The remains of Air Force Lieutenant Michael J 

Blassie are carried into AFIP headquarters in 1998. In 

1984 Blassie’s remains, unidentifable at the time, were 

added to the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National 

Cemetery. In 1998, with some evidence indicating the 

remains could belong to Blassie, they were exhumed and 

positively identifed by AFDIL. (MIS 09-10183-1)

[Bottom] In June 1999, the museum unveiled a new 

exhibit highlighting the DNA research used by AFDIL to 

identify Blassie. The exhibit, “Naming the Vietnam Unknown: Michael Joseph Blassie Comes Home,” explained 

the science of mitochondrial DNA testing as well as 

Blassie’s story. The exhibit included artifacts that had been 

entombed with Blassie at Arlington National Cemetery. 

(NCP 03810)

[Opposite] Dr Wayne Meyers, circa 1999, with the shell of 

one of the hundreds of armadillos he studied at the AFIP 

throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Dr Meyers played a 

major role in the development of the concept of leprosy as 

a zoonosis involving transmission of the disease from direct 

or indirect exposure to armadillos, monkeys, or chimpanzees. He was also the principal investigator for the supply of 

leprosy bacillus for researchers around the world who were 

participating in a World Health Organization program to 

eliminate leprosy. (NCP 17355)
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[Top] Then Army Major Douglas Wear, Medical Corps, at far end of table, leads a slide 

conference in the Department of Geographic Pathology in 1985. (NCP 17357)

[Opposite] AFIP photographer Steve Ferendo meticulously photographs a brain in the 

specimen grossing room in the mid-1980s. (NCP 17358)
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Dr Yvonne Schulman and Captain 

Edward Dick, Veterinary Corps, 

US Army, perform a necropsy on a 

giraffe at the National Zoo in Washington DC in 1992. AFIP’s Department of Veterinary Pathology has 

had a consultative and educational 

relationship with the National Zoo 

since the 1950s and regularly assists 

with necropsies there. (NCP 17359)

[Opposite] Dr James Smirniotopoulos, chief of the Neuroradiology Department, and Lieutenant 

Colonel Michael McCarthy, Medical 

Corps, US Air Force, review radiographs of a chest tumor in the early 

1990s. (NCP 17360)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 179
[Left] An oil fre burns brightly in the Kuwaiti desert in 

1991. The invading Iraqi army set numerous oil wells 

on fre during their retreat, producing a potential health 

threat for US forces. In 1991, Dr Victor Kalasinsky, chief 

of AFIP’s Division of Environmental Toxicology, deployed to Kuwait to assist the US Army Environmental 

Hygiene Agency with testing air and soil samples near 

the oil fres. Those tests were then compared to blood 

and urine samples from US troops working in the area. 

(MIS 08-1122-1A) 

[Inset] A temporary addition to the Dover Port Mortuary stands ready for the arrival of equipment at Dover 

Air Force Base, Delaware, in 1990. The addition was 

erected to handle mass casualties from the Persian Gulf 

War. Desert Storm fatalities reinforced the need for the 

capability of DNA testing to help reassociate fragmented 

remains. DNA testing was used to establish identity in 

two Desert Storm cases. (MIS 08-1098-1)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 181

The original AFDIL DNA team in 1992. (From left to right) James Canik, program administrator; Demris 

Lee, chief DNA analyst, Nuclear Section; Deborah Fisher, senior DNA analyst, Nuclear Section; Jill Appleby, 

research associate; Dr Mitchell Holland, PhD, branch chief; Ann Davis, DNA technician; Dr James Watson, 

director of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, in Long Island, New York; R James Stavinoha, chief of repository 

operations; Rhonda Roby, chief DNA analyst, Mitochondrial DNA Section; James P Ross, DNA technician; and 

Major Victor W Weedn, Medical Corps, US Army, chief deputy medical examiner, DNA Registry. Dr Watson, 

one of the codiscoverers of the structure of DNA in the 1950s, was visiting the AFIP as a guest speaker for the 

Ash Lecture Series in 1993. The series, established in 1985, was named in honor of Colonel James Earle Ash, 

museum curator and frst director of the Army Institute of Pathology, and featured lectures by leaders in the 

felds of medicine and pathology. (NCP 17361) 

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[Opposite] Dr Wayne Meyers 

(in blue shirt) and two healthcare 

researchers meet with villagers in 

Togo, West Africa, 1995, during 

one of his many trips to the region 

to study Buruli ulcers. Dr Meyers, 

a revered fgure in the feld of 

infectious diseases, is considered 

a world expert on Buruli ulcers. 

(NCP 17362)

[Left] Dr Frank Johnson, chief, 

Division of Chemical Pathology, 

reviews case fles circa mid-1990s. 

(NCP 17363)
Doctors Charles Davis (left) and Isabell Sesterhenn (right), both of the Department of Genitourinary Pathology, review case slides with Dr Fathollah Mostof circa 1997. Dr 

Mostof was the chair of the department at that time. He was succeeded after his death by Dr Sesterhenn in 2004. Dr Sesterhenn became a prominent genitourinary pathologist in 

her own right and in 2010, she, along with other researchers developed a highly specifc assay for the detection of a protein associated with tumor formation that is present in more 

than half of all prostate cancers. This regeant has an unprecedented specifcity (99.9%) for detecting prostate tumor cells in pathologic specimens. (NCP 17364)

[Opposite] Lieutenant Colonel Ted Hadfeld, Medical Corps, US Air Force, chief, Division of Microbiology, and Lieutenant Commander John David, Medical Corps, US Navy, 

examine a bacterial growth culture as part of biodefense vaccine research in the mid-1990s. Hadfeld and David did extensive work to develop a vaccine against the infectious agent 

Brucella melitensis. B melitensis became a research priority during and after the Persian Gulf confict when the threat of biological weapons increased. (NCP 17365)
Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 185
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Dr Kamal Ishak, chair of Hepatic and Gastrointestinal Pathology (center), leads a weekly conference of liver cases in the early 1990s. A great believer in staff development and sharing of knowledge, Ishak opened these weekly sessions to all AFIP pathologists who wanted to attend, as well as clinicians from outside the institute. (NCP 17366)
[Left] Lieutenant Commander Lester Thompson, 

Medical Corps, US Navy, associate chair, Department of Scientifc Laboratories, and Anthony Shirley, 

photographer, Center for Medical Illustration, examine histopathology slides during a photomicroscopy 

session in the mid-1990s. (NCP 17367)

[Inset Bottom Left] Colonel Vernon W Armbrustmacher, Medical Corps, US Air Force, thirteenth 

director of the AFIP, 1991–1995. (MIS 08-1865-1)

[Inset | Bottom Right] Colonel Michael J Dickerson, 

Medical Corps, US Air Force, fourteenth director of 

the AFIP, 1995–1999. (MIS 05-06236-1)

Talent, Technolo gy, and TranSformation, 1976–2000 | 189

[Opposite] Dr Donald Sweet (right, in lab coat), chair, Department of Orthopedic Pathology, provides instruction on 

features of a bone biopsy. At right is Dr Tuyethoa Vinh, assistant chair of the department. (NCP 16737)

[Top] Members of the Armed Forces Repository of Specimens Samples for the Identifcation of Remains enter newly 

processed blood stain cards into the central database. All service members are required to have a card on fle. If necessary for identifcation purposes, a service member’s DNA sequence can be run using a small portion of the blood stain. 

In mid-2010 the repository accessioned its 6 millionth card. (NCP 17368)

[Inset] Dr Kathy Kalasinsky uses Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy in 1998 to study drug distribution in 

a hair from a drug abuser. Dr Kalasinsky’s work elucidated some of the mechanisms by which drugs become incorporated into hair, thus aiding the development of hair analysis for drug testing. She received national recognition for this 

work by winning the Irving Sunshine Award, given for outstanding research in forensic toxicology by the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences. (NCP 17371)
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[Right] Hospital Corpsman Second Class Tyrone Johnson, 

Division of Forensic Toxicology, performs a toxicology screening 

analysis on blood and tissue samples using gas chromatography/

mass spectrometry circa 1997. (NCP 17369)

[Left] (Back to front) Hospital Corpsman Third Class Robert Zanelli, Private First Class Richard Rosenbaum, and Staff 

Sergeant Andrea Falcher accession specimens in the Division of 

Forensic Toxicology in 1998. (NCP 17370)
In 1995 the AFDIL assisted the Russian government in confrming the identifcation of Czar Nicholas II, his wife, three of their children, and their servants. 

Identifcation of these old, highly degraded remains, as well as the identifcation of remains of US service members from past conficts, helped solidify AFDIL’s 

reputation as a world leader in DNA technology and techniques. Pictured here are the czar, his wife Alexandra (wearing crown), and their fve children in 

1914, four years before they were killed. (NCP 17372)
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[Opposite]DNA analyst Daniel Katz (left) and Demris Lee, 

technical leader, Nuclear DNA Section, load DNA samples onto 

an ABI 377 (Applied Biosystems, Life Technologies Corporation, 

Carslbad, CA) analyzer in 1997. (NCP 17373) 

[Top] (Left to right) Lieutenant Colonel Glenn Dickey, Medical 

Corps, US Air Force, chief, Division of Perinatal and Placental 

Pathology; Commander Eric Suarez, Medical Corps, US Navy; 

and Dr Shyh-Ching Lo review pediatric cases on a multihead 

microscope in 1997. (NCP 17374)

[Bottom] Commander Kelley Koeller, Medical Corps, US 

Navy, chief, Neuroradiology, reviews case slides submitted by a 

radiology student for the Radiological Pathology Course in 1999. 

(NCP 17375)

[Inset] Dr Markku Miettinen, chair, Department of Soft Tissue 

and Orthopedic Pathology (center), discusses research results 

with Dr Jersy Lasota, soft tissue pathologist, and Virginia Achstetter, a histotechnologist. (NCP 17376)
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[Top Left] Captain William Ross, Medical Corps, US Navy, chair, 

Department of Scientifc Laboratories; Lieutenant Commander Lester 

Thompson, Medical Corps, US Navy Reserve, associate chair; and Gayle 

Andre, histotechnologist, review laboratory results in 2000. (NCP 17377)

[Bottom Left] Captain Ross examines a kidney biopsy using an electron 

microscope and digital imaging circa 1999. (NCP 17378)

[Top Right] Captain Gary Warnock, Dental Corps, US Navy, and Captain Douglas Arendt, Dental Corps, US Navy, both of the Department 

of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, review materials for use in the 

popular Forensic Dental Identifcation Course in 1999. (NCP 17379)

[Opposite] Petty Offcer Second Class Thomas Pierce, course director, 

monitors work of histology school student in the school’s microtomy 

laboratory during the late 1990s. (NCP 17380)
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[Left](Back to front) Dr Bruce Williams, chair, Department of Telemedicine; Dr 

Mullick, then chair of the Department of Environmental and Infectious Disease 

Sciences; and Dr Ishak, chair of Hepatic and Gastrointestinal Pathology, analyzing 

case fles in the telemedicine suite in 1997. By then the telemedicine department had 

installed a BLISS WebSlide (Olympus, Center Valley, PA) workstation and server, 

giving the staff the ability to read digital slides submitted from contributors using 

similar systems in the United States and abroad. The system allowed scanning and 

digitization of entire histologic or cytologic slides—or particular regions of interest 

chosen by the contributor—for transmission to the AFIP for consultation, which in 

turn resulted in more defnitive diagnoses for electronic consultation. Although the 

AFIP formally initiated a telepathology program only in 1990, Dr Ishak had envisioned such a capability as early as the 1970s and helped lead the institute’s efforts to 

establish the program. (MIS 09-10620-1)
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[Left] Dr Jose Centeno, chief, Division of Biophysical Toxicology, use a laser Raman spectroscopy system in the Molecular Microspectroscopy and Chemical Imaging 

Laboratory to study foreign materials in tissue in 1999. (NCP 17381)

[Top] Dr Mullick, Dr Sweet (left), and Dr Wear (right), gathered in the deputy director’s conference room in 1999 in preparation for a staff conference. In 1999 

Dr Mullick became the AFIP’s principal deputy director. (NCP 17266)
“Between 2001 and 2011, two dates in particular put into 

motion a chain of events that tested the strength and character 

of AFIP staff. The frst occurred on September 11, 2001 when 

19 Al Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet 

airliners. . . . One week after 9/11, these horrifc events were 

followed by anthrax attacks that occurred over the course of 

several weeks.”
chapter 6
Resolve and Perseverance, 

2001–2011
 | 201

BBetween 2001 and 2011, two dates in particular put into motion a chain of 

events that tested the strength and character of AFIP staff. The frst occurred 

on September 11, 2001, when on a warm, sunny day, 19 Al Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial passenger jet airliners. Two of the airliners crashed into 

the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City; a third airliner 

crashed into the Pentagon; and a fourth plane crashed into a feld near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and fight crew attempted to 

retake control of the plane.

 

The AFIP immediately mobilized a multidisciplinary team of more than 50 

specialists, scientists, and support personnel to manage what would become 

one of the most comprehensive forensic investigations in US history. Tasked by 

federal authorities to identify the victims of both the Pentagon and Shanksville 

crashes, AFIP’s team spent almost 2 months at the Dover Air Force Base port 

mortuary in Delaware. The team included forensic pathologists, odontotologists, 

radiologists, a forensic anthropologist, DNA experts, and logistics personnel. 

Even histotechnicians from the institute’s Department of Scientifc Laboratories 

volunteered, serving as autopsy technicians and working hand-in-hand with the 

forensic pathologists, while logistics personnel created an effcient and timely 

pipeline for supplies. Given the degraded condition of remains from these 

particular crashes, most of which were disassociated, two groups in particular were 

key: forensic scientists from AFIP’s Armed Forces DNA Identifcation Laboratory 

(AFDIL), and oral pathologists from the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial 

A body from the Pentagon attack is passed through the explosive 

ordnance detector prior to being identifed at the Dover Air Force 

Base port mortuary. (NCP 17387)
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[Opposite] Thick smoke billows from the 

Pentagon within a few minutes of the 9/11 

attack on the Pentagon. (Department of 

Defense photo; NCP 17386)

[Top]A casualty from the Pentagon attack 

is radiographed during Dover port mortuary operations in the days immediately 

following. (NCP 17388)

[Bottom Left] Technicians examine 

radiographs at the Dover port mortuary 

to identify injuries and wound patterns of 

those killed in the Pentagon attack. 

(NCP 17389)

[Bottom Right] AFIP oral pathologist 

Colonel Steve Williams, Dental Corps, US 

Army (left), examines dental radiographs 

during 9/11 operations at the Dover port 

mortuary. (NCP 17390)
204 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Pathology. AFDIL scientists ensured that data systems and 

records were available to make DNA identifcations, while 

the oral pathology group created a triage area to conduct 

positive dental identifcations.

One week after 9/11, these horrifc events were followed 

by anthrax attacks that occurred over the course of several 

weeks. Letters containing anthrax spores were mailed to 

several media offces and two Democratic senators, killing 

5 people and infecting 17 others. Once again the AFIP’s 

expertise was summoned, this time staff of the institute’s 

Department of Environmental and Toxicological Pathology. 

US Army investigators at Fort Detrick, Maryland, 

examining anthrax found in a letter sent to Senator Tom 

Daschle, discovered highly refned spores (making them 

relatively easy to inhale) but could not determine the 

substance that made the spores so easily aerosolized. AFIP 

experts identifed the substance as silica, which prevents 

anthrax from aggregating and makes it easier to aerosolize.

As attention shifted from the events of 9/11 to the larger 

global war on terror, including Operation Enduring 

Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, time and again 

the AFIP demonstrated its ability to adapt and support 

these critical missions. Information on the pathogenesis, 

diagnosis, and treatment options for newly encountered 

diseases and conditions were posted on the AFIP Web site, 

providing healthcare workers worldwide access to highquality images and information as troops deployed to all 

parts of the globe. The Mortality Surveillance Division 

began collecting comprehensive data on all service 

[Top]An FBI fngerprint expert 

meticulously works to help identify a 

victim of the Pentagon attack during 

9/11 operations at the Dover port 

mortuary. (NCP 17391)

[Bottom] AFIP forensic pathologist 

Major Andrew Baker, US Air Force 

(in dark green scrubs), discusses a 

case in the Dover port mortuary 

autopsy suite during 9/11 operations. 

(NCP 17392)

[Opposite] Deputy Chief Medical 

Examiner William Rodriguez performs triage on disassociated remains 

during 9/11 operations at the Dover 

port mortuary. (NCP 17393)
ReSolve and PerSeverance, 2001–2011 | 205
206 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

members killed in the wars, which in turn resulted in improvements in 

protective gear and battlefeld medicine. The institute exercised its authority 

to conduct forensic autopsies on all casualties, both in the United States and 

in combat, for the frst time providing families with a full accounting of how 

their loved ones died. The only computer-tomography (CT) assisted autopsy 

program in the country went online at the AFIP, providing pathologists with 

detailed images of trauma injuries not previously possible. Also, the Division 

of Microbiology’s biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories ramped up efforts 

in support of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, serving as the primary 

strain repository for threat reduction initiatives, safely growing and preserving 

strains of biowarfare agents, and confrming diagnoses of suspected infection 

with these agents submitted by military hospitals.

These new activities were carried out in addition to the institute’s continued 

core missions of consultation, education, and research, including diagnoses 

in more than 50,000 diffcult (second-opinion) tumor cases each year, and 

more than 100,000 hours of continuing medical education (CME) credit 

coursework. At the same time, the AFIP continued to move forward with 

efforts to improve customer service and advance the feld of pathology. In 

2003 the Department of Veterinary Pathology developed AFIP Online Web 

Veterinary Systemic Pathology, a searchable database with full descriptions 

of more than 675 diseases. Also in 2003, the institute launched its Grand 

Rounds Videoteleconference program, designed to bring anatomic pathology 

CME credits to military pathologists and clinicians via Web-based 

education. The program was complemented 

by the opening of a state-of-the-art 

teleconference suite in 2005. In 2004 the 

Department of Scientifc Laboratories began 

a tissue microarray program, providing 

an innovative approach to the microscopic 

examination of tissue samples. Also, efforts 

[Left]Bob Veasey, AFMES chief of operational investigations, was key in managing the continuous fow of 

supplies and equipment used in the months’ long 9/11 

investigation and identifcation efforts. (NCP 17396)

[Inset] Air Force Colonel Ted Harcke briefs Air Force 

Surgeon General Paul Carlton Jr on radiology operations 

at Dover in the wake of 9/11. (NCP 17394)

[Opposite]AFIP’s Dave Boyer collects a DNA sample 

from a victim of the Shanksville, Pennsylvania, crash. 

(NCP 17395)

208 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Candy Moroz, fnance and logistics support offcer for AFIP’s Directorate of Advanced Pathology, works with a Dover staff member to assess supply requirements. (NCP 17397)
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Environmental Pathology staff in 2001 at the Hitachi S-3500N Scanning Electron Microscope (Hitachi Ltd, Tokyo, Japan) with the ThermoNoran energy dispersive x-ray accessory 

(Noran Instruments Inc, Fitchburg, WI) used to assist with the anthrax investigatory testing. From left: Marie Jenkins, histochemical technologist; Dr Florabel G Mullick, department chair; Dr Frank Johnson, chief of the Division of Chemical Pathology; and Victor Kalasinsky, PhD, chief of the Division of Environmental Toxicology. (NCP 17398)
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to digitize records in the central repository made great strides, with more than 

4.5 million paper records, photographic media, and glass slides converted to 

digital, searchable fles by the end of the year. 2005 saw the launch of AskAFIP, 

an online searchable database, making AFIP’s vast diagnostic and teaching 

resources available to all military physicians, whether halfway around the globe 

or a few miles away. Other 2005 achievements included successful completion of 

a decade-long quest to sequence the genetic code to the 1918 Spanish infuenza; 

and the Department of Veterinary Pathology’s Wednesday Slide Conference, 

having completed its 52nd year, became the world’s longest running slide 

conference, in addition to having earned honors as the world’s largest and most 

respected veterinary histopathology conference.

It was also in 2005 that the second course-changing date for the institution 

occurred: on November 9, 2005, the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure 

(BRAC) Act became law. The BRAC law mandated disestablishment of all 

[Opposite] Laboratory technician Wendell Thomas processes anthrax 

swabs in the BSL-3 laboratory in 2001. (NCP 17399)

[Top] DNA technicians Nicol Jimerson and Ryan Vachon transfer 

microplates from a plate holder to a liquid handling station on automated bloodstain processing equipment at AFIP’s AFDIL in 2002. The 

equipment was purchased to speed up processing of blood samples from 

relatives of missing service members from previous conficts, which 

were used to help identify remains from Southeast Asia, Korea, and 

World War II. (NCP 17400)

[Bottom] Enhanced magnetic resonance image of an embryo at 56 

days in the womb. In late 2002 AFIP’s National Museum of Health 

and Medicine opened a new exhibit called “Conception to Birth,” based 

on a book by visualization artist Alexander Tsiaras, which traced the 

growth and development of human life. Using new medical imaging 

technology Tsiaras was able to capture images of the developing baby 

from never-before-seen angles. (NCP 17401)
elements of the AFIP except the National Museum of Health and Medicine and the 

Tissue Repository; relocation of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System (AFMES), 

the DNA Registry, and the Accident Investigation unit to Dover Air Force Base; relocation of the Department of Legal Medicine to Bethesda, Maryland (joining the new 

Walter Reed National Military Medical Center); and relocation of the enlisted histology 

technician training program to Fort Sam Houston, Texas. 

The law also stated that any AFIP functions not specifcally mentioned in the BRAC

Act were to be reviewed for absorption elsewhere in the federal sector. Based on this 

stipulation, in November 2006 the Department of Defense (DoD) exercised its power 

to retain certain AFIP functions within the DoD healthcare system, including the 

Veterinary Pathology Residency Program, the Automated Central Tumor Registry, the 

Center for Clinical Laboratory Medicine, and the Patient Safety Center.

Faced with eventual cessation of operations, AFIP leaders drew strength and guidance 

from the institute’s long and distinguished history and remained committed to providing world-class consultation, education, and research for as long as possible while 

planning for BRAC implementation. In 2006 AFIP accessioned its 3 millionth case, 

refecting its continued role as a world leader in second-opinion consultation. Also 

in 2006, AskAFIP version 2.0 came online, which improved on the 2005 version by 

incorporating better search capabilities and providing access to even greater amounts 

of educational and diagnostic materials; an upgraded telemedicine system was installed 

in the 10th Command Support Hospital in Baghdad; and a Sexual Assault Response 

Team Training Program was unveiled, which only a year later was recognized as one 

of the best training opportunities available in the area of sexual assault and clinical 

forensics. The year 2007 was a period of reinvigoration for the AFIP. The Division of 

Molecular Pathology became an integrated service within the institute and received a $1 

million laboratory upgrade, giving it the ability to develop new molecular techniques 

for the surgical pathology departments and collaborate with pathologists and scientists. 

Additionally, the Clinical Initiatives Program was activated to move the science of 

pathology forward at a faster rate; initiatives included reaching out to the scientifc 

[Bottom]Who says scientists don’t have a sense of humor? 

Victor Kalasinsky, chief of the Division of Environmental 

Toxicology, is disguised as cartoon character Dilbert (United 

Feature Syndicate Inc, New York, NY) while performing 

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy in 2002. 

(NCP 17402)

[Opposite Left] Colonel Renata B Greenspan, Medical 

Corps, US Army, accepts the colors from Major General Kevin 

C Kiley, commanding general of Walter Reed Army Medical 

Center, during the May 2003 ceremony appointing her the 

16th director of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 

(NCP 17403)

[Opposite Right] In February 2003 NASA once again called 

upon the AFIP’s medical examiners, this time to identify 

the victims of the space shuttle Columbia, which broke up 

during re-entry, killing the seven astronauts aboard. AFMES 

personnel worked with NASA to help recover the astronauts’ 

remains and personal effects in what turned out to be a multistate debris feld. (NCP 17404)
ReSolve and PerSeverance, 2001–2011 | 213

community, academia, biotechnology companies, and the pharmaceutical industry to 

share information and capitalize on emerging trends and research, with the overall goal 

of developing technologies and techniques to help render faster, higher-quality diagnoses. 

If there was any question that the institute would continue on a path of excellence and 

innovation right to the end, it was put to rest when Dr Florabel G Mullick became the frstever civilian director of the AFIP in June 2007.

In one of her early messages to staff, Dr Mullick addressed the BRAC situation and her 

vision for the following few years, writing, “in the past there has been a tendency from 

some agencies facing BRAC actions to gradually assume an air of hopelessness or simply 

throw up their hands in despair, resulting in organizational paralysis. Let me assure you that 

will not be the case for the AFIP. We don’t shrug our shoulders, we shoulder the burden. 

We don’t hang our heads in frustration; we use our heads to rise above and beyond the 

challenges before us. Throwing up our hands in despair is not who we are; it is not a part of 

ReSolve and PerSeverance, 2001–2011 | 215

our professional DNA. Instead, we will follow the road less traveled under BRAC

by renewing and reinvigorating our commitment to innovation, world-class 

research and diagnoses, and by continuing to help save the lives of our military and 

civilian customers.”1

Accordingly, the institute moved forward in 

2008, establishing a Registry of Embedded 

Metal Fragments to track DoD personnel 

wounded with potentially hazardous metal 

fragments; completing the upgrade of the 

Division of Molecular Pathology; beginning 

renovation of the Department of Radiologic 

Pathology education facility; taking on the 

task of providing drug-training aids for 

the military working dog program; and 

transforming the Department of Scientifc 

Laboratories into an institute-wide research 

and development laboratory focused on 

exploring new procedures and new prognostic 

markers for infectious disease. The AFIP still attracted celebrated pathologists, 

including former staff such as Dr Vernon Armbrustmacher, who returned to 

lead a traumatic brain injury (TBI) project, and Dr Allen Burke, who returned 

to reestablish AFIP’s Division of Cardiovascular Pathology, as well as Dr John 

Cameron, who joined as head of the Department of Ophthalmic Pathology.

The years 2009 and 2010 saw increasingly diffcult challenges balanced by 

continued advances in education and research. In late 2009 the loss of a signifcant 

number of pathologists threatened to bring consultations in some areas to a 

close. But the institute’s reputation as a world leader in pathology consultation 

and a desire to serve attracted other leading pathologists to fll the void—a trend 

that continued into 2010 as pathologists in endocrine, pulmonary, ophthalmic, 

[Opposite] Commander James Caruso, Medical Corps, US Navy, 

makes notes during an autopsy on a service member killed in 

Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. A multidisciplinary team of 

more than 40 forensic scientists, specialists, and support personnel 

from AFIP deployed to the Dover port mortuary in March 2003 to 

help identify casualties following the start of combat operations in 

Iraq. (NCP 17405)

[Top] Captain Robert Foss, Dental Corps, US Navy, conducts a 

post mortem dental examination on a deceased service member 

at the Dover port mortuary, shortly after the start of combat 

operations in Iraq in 2003. Captain Foss was assigned to AFIP’s 

Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology at the time. He 

was appointed the department chair in 2004 and associate director, Navy, in 2006. (NCP 17407)
216 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

gynecological and breast, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary pathology; neuropathology; and 

nephropathology joined the AFIP family. 

In addition to maintaining a robust and responsive consultation service, the AFIP responded 

to the changing educational needs of its customers by offering such courses as “The Effects of 

Combat Injury on Children and Families,” “Suicide Assessment: Identifying and Managing Suicidal

Behavior,” and “Special Operations Medical Indoctrination.” Research efforts in 2009 and 2010 were 

equally impressive. A Division of Wound Biology and Translational Research was established and 

began developing molecular therapeutics and diagnostics to help improve outcomes for wounded 

service members. The division also became a testing site for human swine infuenza (H1N1) 

and quickly built a collection of more than 150 cases. Research into TBI advanced quickly when 

AFIP’s program expanded to include the newly formed Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative 

Medicine at the Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, which encouraged development 

of new technology and techniques to advance TBI treatment. Also, a major renovation project was 

begun to provide state-of-the-art storage for the institute’s stockpile of millions of paraffn blocks 

and case records. 

As spring 2010 turned into summer, and summer into fall, the AFIP began implementing the 

painful but necessary process of disestablishment, in accordance with BRAC law. The institute’s 

civilian consultation mission was discontinued effective September 30th, and its education function 

ceased on October 15th with completion of the fnal Radiologic Pathology Course. All research 

projects ceased in December 2010, and on April 1, 2011, the institute’s consultation mission came to 

a close. Almost as quickly as they occupied the building in 1955, scientists, pathologists, and support 

staff alike will leave the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology for the last time, but they will leave 

behind a legacy of excellence that will endure for generations to come. n

 
Commander Joe Hodge, Medical Corps, US Navy, examines a radiograph of a fallen service member in the spring of 2003 at the Dover port mortuary. (NCP 17406)
218 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

s Supporting Families and the Force

aft e r t h e S tart of c o m bat in Afghanistan and Iraq, the AFIP gave the AFMES

permission to exercise its authority to conduct forensic autopsies on all service members 

killed in the wars—a practice that had never been done before. During a 2009 interview 

medical examiner Captain Craig Mallak, Medical Corps, US Navy, explained his decision 

to move forward with the autopsies. “Families want a full accounting. During World War 

II and the Vietnam War families were simply told that their loved one had died in service 

of their country. Personally, I felt that families would no longer just accept that.”2

 As part 

of this process all families of deceased service members can receive a copy of their loved 

one’s autopsy report on request, and approximately 85% request them. Additionally, 

medical examiners are available anytime to discuss the reports with families and answer any 

questions they may have.

In 2004 the AFMES added CT scans to the autopsy process as part of a project sponsored 

by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Incorporating CT scans created a huge 

new database of information. The scans provided a minutely detailed and permanent 

3-dimensional record of combat injuries, giving the medical examiner system the ability to 

look for injury patterns and identify potential problems with personal protective gear.

References

1. AFIP Letter. Vol 166, No. 1 (Winter 2008): 2. 

2. Grady D. Autopsies of war dead reveal ways to save others. New York Times. May 25, 2009: 1A. 

3. AFIP Letter. Vol 165, No. 2 (Summer 2007): 1.

[Top] Then Commander Craig Mallak takes a moment to observe his forensic pathology team during a period of high 

operations tempo at the Dover port mortuary in 2003. Mallak was appointed an armed forces medical examiner in 

2002; he subsequently was appointed to a second term in 2006 and a third term in 2010. In addition to being responsible for day-to-day operations, Mallak is guiding the move of the AFMES to its new home at Dover Air Force Base in 

2011. (NCP 17408)

[Oppossite] Colonel Ted Harcke examines CT scan results as John Getz, project manager for the forensic CT scanner 

project, monitors the scanner in operation in 2004. In 2005 the frst ever CT scanner specifcally designed to augment 

the autopsy process was put into use by the AFMES. (NCP 17409)

220 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] As the global war on terror moved forward, the AFIP created a Web-based 

program known as “Hot Topics.” The site was designed to rapidly provide information 

about emerging diseases troops might encounter, including how to recognize, diagnose, 

and treat the associated illnesses or conditions, to military healthcare providers worldwide. (NCP 17410)

[Top Right] Lobby of the Charles C Carson Center for Mortuary Affairs, which opened 

in October 2003 at Dover Air Force Base. The new state-of-the art facility replaced the 

mortuary’s antiquated facilities, which had proved challenging during the 9/11 operations. (NCP 17411)

[Bottom Left] An AFMES staff member at work in 2003 at the new Carson Center, 

which included an autopsy suite with the latest technological advances, such as computer screens that could be used to view radiographs of the deceased. (NCP 17412)
[Left] Laboratory technician April Shea takes protective gear through its paces while working with a 

Raman imaging detector to analyze for the presence of biological agents, circa 2002. (NCP 17413)

[Top Right] AFIP veterinary pathologists Major Sarah Hale (left), and Major Gloria Marselas and 

Captain Kim Whitten (in blue-green aprons), perform a necropsy on a 9-year-old female pygmy hippopotamus at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo in 2003. (NCP 17414)

[Bottom Right] Major Brad Blankenship, 

Veterinary Corps, US Army, monitors the 

health of a dolphin during force protection 

training in San Diego, California, in 2003. 

Dolphins were trained to locate and mark 

underwater threats (swimmers, divers, and 

delivery vehicles) and were later deployed to 

Kuwait. Major Blankenship served on the AFIP 

veterinary staff just prior to participating in the 

dolphin training program. (NCP 17415)
222 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top]In 2004 the National Museum of Health and Medicine opened one of its most popular exhibits ever, “Battlefeld Surgery 101: From the Civil War to Vietnam.” 

Drawn from the museum’s historical archives, the exhibit depicts military surgical activities over a 140-year period. In this photograph a military surgeon performs an 

operation during the Korean War. (NCP 17416)

[Opposite]Dr Jeffrey Galvin, then chief of chest imaging, Department of Radiologic Pathology, and Dr Teri Franks, chair of the Department of Pulmonary and Mediastinal Pathology, select pathologic material for inclusion in AskAFIP, which debuted in 2005. A second version, AskAFIP 2.0, went online in 2006. (NCP 17419)


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[Opposite]Naval Criminal Investigative 

Service agent Jeanmarie Sentell (right) and an 

Army interpreter log evidence at a site in Iraq 

in 2004. Sentell, who was assigned to the AFIP’s 

AFMES at the time, was honored for her work 

in Iraq, where her often dangerous missions 

included retrieving the remains of US casualties, 

processing remains from car bomb explosions, 

and examining mass graves. (NCP 17418)

[Top] Dr Florabel G Mullick, chair of the 

Department of Environmental and Toxicologic 

Pathology (center), with colleagues during a 

group sign-out of cases in 2003. Dr Mullick was 

the frst pathologist to recognize and publish the 

causal relation between a number of therapeutic 

drugs and their adverse effect on humans, such 

as salicylates and Reye’s syndrome; hexachlorophene and brain toxicity in infants; and myocarditis associated with methyldopa therapy. 

(NCP 17417)

[Bottom]Armed forces medical examiner 

Captain Craig Mallak, and David McCallum, 

who portrays the medical examiner “Ducky” 

Mallard on the popular television series “NCIS,” 

during the 21st annual James Earle Ash Lecture 

in 2005. With insight, creativity, and a little 

humor, they illustrated the differences between 

forensic science on television and forensic science 

in the real world. (NCP 17420)

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[Opposite]Dr Jeffrey Taubenberger, chief of the Department of Molecular Pathology, examines a radiograph of 

1918 Spanish infuenza DNA with colleague David Evers. In 2005 a team of AFIP scientists lead by Taubenberger successfully completed a decade-long quest to sequence the genetic code to the 1918 fu, furthering understanding of why the lethal virus killed over 50 million people around the globe in less than a year. (NCP 17421)

[Top Left] Major Christine Christensen, Department of Veterinary Pathology, with sled dogs at a checkpoint 

during the 2006 Iditarod Dog Sled Race in Alaska. Christensen, along with Dr Michelle Fleetwood, performed 

physical examinations of the dogs and provided required treatments at one of the 20 checkpoints along the race. 

(NCP 17422)

[Top Right]Dan Butler, system administrator for the Department of Telemedicine, trains staff at the 10th Command Support Hospital in Baghdad on an upgraded telepathology system in 2006, after he installed a digital 

slide scanner at the hospital. (NCP 17423)

[Bottom Left]Dr Guanghua Wang, staff pathologist, and LeAnn Hodge, bioscientist, work on a new assay 

development with an ABI 3130xl Genetic Analyzer (Life Technologies Corporation, Carlsbad, CA) capillary 

electrophoresis machine in early 2007. (NCP 17424)
[Right] Dr Mullick (right) is congratulated by Acting 

Surgeon General Gale S Pollock following Dr Mullick’s 

transfer of responsibility ceremony in June 2007. The 

17th director of the AFIP, Dr Mullick was the frst civilian 

director since its founding in 1862. (NCP 17425)

[Inset] Dr Mullick addresses the audience during her 

transfer of responsibility ceremony, saying, “there is no 

question in my mind, nor in the minds of others, that 

this is a unique national and international institution of 

excellence. There is no place like AFIP in the world, or the 

caliber of the work.” 3

 (NCP 17426)
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[Left] Dr Ann Nelson; Master Sergeant Lisa Myers, superintendent of Scientifc Laboratories; and Debra McElroy, chief 

of Scientifc Laboratories, review workfow in the microtomy 

laboratory. (NCP 17429)

[Right]Dr Wei-Sing Chu, chief of the Hematopathology 

Laboratory, extracts RNA/DNA and protein from a single 

formalin-fxed, paraffn-embedded (FFPE) tissue section 

for subsequent immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization in 2008. FFPE tissue sections are valuable samples 

for examining the histology of biopsies for cancer detection. 

(NCP 17427)
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[Opposite | Left]Dr Guanghua Wang (right), chief of the Division of Molecular Pathology, and Dr Ann Nelson, 

chair of the Department of Scientifc Laboratories, discuss electropherograms generated by an ABI 3130xl Genetic 

Analyzer in upgraded molecular laboratory in 2008. (NCP 17428)

[Opposite | Right]Major Laura Regan, Medical Corps, US Air Force, deputy chief forensic anthropologist for the 

AFMES, examines human remains discovered beneath a road in the center of Cambridge, Maryland, in January 

2008 after they were unearthed by a crew working on a gas main repair. The state of Maryland requested AFMES’s 

expertise to help identify the remains, which turned out to be those of an African-American woman who was approximately 75 years old at the time of her death. It was believed that the remains were part of an unmarked public 

cemetery that had been paved over. (NCP 17430) 

[Left]Dr Michael Lewin-Smith, chief of the Division of Environmental Pathology, examines slides. In 2008 LewinSmith was tapped to help the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention unravel the mystery of a potentially 

emerging illness known as Morgellons. People with Morgellons reported a range of dermatologic symptoms, such as 

skin rashes and sores, associated with abnormal skin sensations, such as crawling, biting, and stinging. (NCP 17432)

[Right]AFIP Medical Education Department team, from left: Ricky Giles, Isaac Miller, Mark Hovland, Carlos 

Moran (seated), Lisa Holmes, Chritina McLean, and Joseph Frederick. In 2008 the AFIP’s CME program received 

a rare 6-year accreditation from the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), which 

also included four commendations. Only 8% of the hundreds of ACCME providers nationwide receive such an 

accreditation. (NCP 17431)
232 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left] The frst forensic CT scanner, which became operational at the Dover port mortuary 

in 2008, replaced the clinical CT scanner that had been in use since 2005. The scanner 

allowed for a 3-dimensional reconstruction of wounds and their pathways, resulting in a 

more effcient autopsy process. (NCP 17433)

[Right] Archie Fobbs, neuroanatomical collections manager for the 

National Museum of Health and Medicine, places a brain model atop 

a student’s head to demonstrate functional aspects of the brain during 

the museum’s 9th annual Brain Awareness Week observance in 2008. 

The program has been one of the most popular annual activities at 

the museum since its inception in 2000. (NCP 17435)

[Opposite] First year AFIP veterinary resident Captain Todd Bell, 

Veterinary Corps, US Army, treats sheep in southern Iraq prior 

to his time at the institute. Many AFIP veterinarians served in 

Operation Iraqi Freedom, where they helped care for military 

working dogs, conducted food inspections, and helped local 

populations with the health of their animals during civil affairs 

missions. (NCP 17434)

[Inset]Dr William Gardner, executive director of the American 

Registry of Pathology, 2002–2011. (NCP 17436)

[Top]Dr Brian Summers, a world-renowned veterinary neuropathologist from Cornell University’s College of Veterinary 

Medicine, reviews gross pathology of a canine brain as AFIP veterinary pathology residents look on in 2005. (NCP 17437)

[Inset]In 2008 AFDIL identifed the last two previously unidentifed family members of Czar Nicholas II. Over 10 years 

earlier AFDIL had identifed the remains of the czar, his wife, and three daughters. Pictured here is a bone sample used to 

help identify one of the last two children. (NCP 17439)
[Left] Dr Vernon Armbrustmacher, former director, returned to the 

AFIP staff in 2008, attracted by exciting new research the institute 

was conducting on traumatic brain injuries. (NCP 17438)

[Right]Dr Jose Centeno, chief of Biophysical Toxicology, uses Raman microspectroscopy to characterize foreign material in tissue 

from cases with embedded metal fragments. In 2008 the AFIP 

established the Registry of Embedded Metal Fragments to analyze 

and archive metal fragments removed from service members serving in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as to identify any potential 

long-term health concerns the metal fragments might present. 

(NCP 17440)
236 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] A dynamic new exhibit opened in 

2008 at the National Museum of Health and 

Medicine: “RESOLVED: Advances in Forensic 

Identifcation of US War Dead” highlights the 

underlying forensic sciences that have evolved 

to fulfll the nation’s commitment to the identifcation of US service members from past and 

present conficts. (NCP 17441)

[Bottom]Medical illustrator Aletta Ann Frazier, MD, works on refning some illustrations 

in 2008. Frazier’s complex anatomical artwork 

has been featured in exhibitions and AFIP’s 

education courses. (NCP 17442)
[Left]Commander Lisa Pearse, Medical Corps, 

US Navy, chief of epidemiology and surveillance, and Captain Joyce Cantrell review 

content on a poster featuring a CT scan imaging project in 2008. Cantrell replaced Pearse in 

her position that year. Also that year, Commander Pearse became the frst AFIP employee 

to be awarded the Frank Brown Berry Prize 

in Federal Healthcare. Pearse was recognized 

for turning the Medical Mortality Registry 

into a comprehensive database that multiple 

government agencies now rely on for invaluable 

information about active duty service member 

deaths from all causes, ranging from war to 

infectious disease. (NCP 17443)

[Inset]Dr Mullick enjoys a moment of celebration after becoming the new president of the 

International Academy of Pathology (IAP) 

during the academy’s international congress 

in Athens, Greece, in October 2008. At right 

is Dr Konrad Muller, outgoing IAP president, 

and at Dr Mullick’s left is Dr Kristine Henry, 

president-elect of the IAP. The IAP is dedicated 

to the advancement of educational exchanges in 

pathology worldwide. (NCP 17444)
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AFDIL DNA analyst Jessica Stevens enters information into a database that was used to track chain of custody for evidence and samples collected from the site of the crash of Continental Flight 3407 in February 2009 in Clarence Center, New York, killing all 50 people aboard. Stevens was part of the AFDIL team deployed to the Erie County, New York, Medical 

Examiner’s Offce in support of the National Transportation Safety Board’s investigation into the crash. (NCP 17445)
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Air Force Colonel Mark Mavity and Alan Hawk, 

historical collections manager for the National 

Museum of Health and Medicine, view the 

museum’s Balad exhibit in May of 2009. Called 

“Trauma Bay II, Balad, Iraq,” the exhibit features 

the foor of a trauma bay and equipment from the 

Balad feld hospital during the war. Trauma Bay 

II was where those with the most serious wounds 

were taken upon arrival at the hospital. 

(NCP 17448)

[Inset]Army Colonel Jo Lynne Raymond, chair 

of the Department of Veterinary Pathology, 

examines a slide. In 2008 Raymond became the 

frst female chair of the department. 

(NCP 17446)
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The Combat Wound Initiative Program leadership team, from left to right: Army Colonel Alexander Stojadinovic, MD, a surgeon at Walter Reed Army Medical Center; Dr Jose 

Centeno, chief of the Division of Biophysical Toxicology; Dr Florabel G Mullick, AFIP director; and Dr Mina Izadjoo, chief of the Division of Wound Biology and Translational 

Research. In 2009 AFIP’s Division of Microbiology was reorganized and renamed the Division of Wound Biology and Translational Research, tasked with conducting research and 

developing methods for reducing and preventing wound-related complications for troops severely injured in combat, with an ultimate goal of reducing the number of amputations. 

(NCP 17447)
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Members of a Navy honor guard carry the remains of Captain Michael Scott Speicher during memorial service ceremonies at Naval Air Station Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida, 

in August 2009. On the frst of that month, an AFIP oral pathologist positively identifed Speicher by comparing dental records with Speicher’s jawbone, which contained several 

teeth. Speicher had been missing since January 17, 1991, when his plane was shot down during the Persian Gulf War. A team of Marines found his remains after receiving a tip from 

local Iraqis. (NCP 17449)
242 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Left]Jennifer Engle, molecular biology research 

technician, reviews a polymerase chain reaction 

in swine infuenza assays in 2010. (NCP 17450)

[Inset] Lieutenant Colonel Lou Finelli, Medical Corps, US Army, director of the DoD DNA 

Registry, prepares a specimen for nuclear DNA 

testing during operations in 2010 at the AFDIL. 

Finelli became director of the registry in 2006. 

(NCP 17452)

[Opposite]Adrien Ravizee, research associate, 

pipeftting cells used to grow infuenza virus as 

virologists Dr Sue Cross (left) and Dr Huiling Hu 

observe in 2010. (NCP 17451)
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[Top] (Left to right) Major Hugh Darville, deputy district engineer, Baltimore District, US Army Corps of Engineers; Colonel Judith Robinson, garrison commander at Fort 

Detrick, Maryland; Dr Florabel G Mullick, AFIP director; Dr Adrienne Noe, director of the National Museum of Health and Medicine; and David Costello, president of 

Costello Construction (Columbia, MD), prepare to break ground May 21, 2010, on the museum’s new facility. Under BRAC, the museum will move to a new facility to be 

built at Fort Detrick’s Forest Glen Annex in Silver Spring, Maryland. (NCP 17453)

[Opposite] Artist’s rendering of the new National Museum of Health and Medicine, which is scheduled to open its doors to the public in September 2011. (NCP 17454)

246 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top]AFIP chief of staff James Affonco and Frank 

Roberts, associate chair of Repository and Research 

Services, review building renovation plans for the new 

DoD Pathology Repository in 2009. (NCP 17469)

[Bottom] Dr Mullick talks with Dr Russell Harley, 

chair of the Department of Pulmonary and Mediastinal 

Pathology, while touring the renovated DoD Pathology 

Repository in 2010. The repository was renovated to 

store the institute’s stockpile of 31 million accessioned 

paraffn blocks, its paper records, and 4.2 million items 

received from medical facilities being closed under 

BRAC in one centralized location. These materials were 

previously housed in several warehouses. (NCP 17455)
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[Top] Artist’s rendering of the new 

AFMES facility at Dover Air Force Base, 

which is scheduled for occupancy in the 

summer of 2011. (NCP 17458)

[Left] The US and POW/MIA fags fy 

stiffy in the breeze atop the frame of the 

new AFMES facility following a “topping off” ceremony in November 2010. 

In building construction, topping off is 

a ceremony held when the last beam is 

placed at the top of a building. Inclusion 

of the POW/MIA fag is symbolic of the 

AFMES’s role in helping identify deceased 

from past conficts. (NCP 17457)

[Right]View of the outside of the DoD 

Pathology Repository. Although the 

institute was ordered to disestablish under 

BRAC, its repository assets were retained 

for future study. (NCP 17456)
[Top]Dr Mina Izadjoo, chief of the Division of Wound Biology and Translational Research, and Dr Mohammad Alavi, research scientist, discuss bacterial genotyping results using 

a Sequenom (Sequenom Inc, Newton, MA) instrument in 2010. The instrument facilitates accurate identifcation of different infectious agents and different strains of specifc pathogens, such as Brucella. (NCP 17459)

[Opposite]Colonel Jo Lynne Raymond, chair of the Department of Veterinary Pathology, discusses microscopic lesions with a course participant at Mahboob College in Bangalore, 

India, in March 2010. AFIP veterinary staff traveled to Bangalore to teach a 5-day course on topics related to descriptive veterinary pathology to 70 residents and practicing pathologists, for the frst time extending their outreach program to India. (NCP 17460)

250 | armed ForceS inStitute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
ReSolve and PerSeverance, 2001–2011 | 251

[Opposite] Department of Veterinary Pathology staff and residents are gathered around the largest multihead microscope in the DoD during their daily 

sign-out of cases in November 2010. Purchased in December 2008, the multihead microscope accommodates up to 18 pathologists at a time, making it 

ideal for both clinical and teaching purposes. (NCP 17462)

[Left] Dr Jeffrey Mason, chief of the Division of Biophysics, and Dr Rahul Bhowmik of the Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center, observe a molecular simulation of how a blast wave interacts with myelin membranes during research in 2010. In 2009 the biophysics division teamed up with the Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center in an effort to identify the mechanism responsible for blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury. (NCP 17461)

[Right] Dr Antonio Llombart-Bosch, president of the Spanish chapter of the International Academy of Pathology (IAP), presents the academy’s gold 

medal to Dr Mullick, outgoing president of the IAP. Dr Mullick received the medal at the 18th congress of the IAP, held in Sao Paulo, Brazil, in October 

2010. This prestigious IAP award is reserved for outstanding members who have devoted many years of service to the organization and who have made 

signifcant contributions to the felds of science and academia. (NCP 17463)

Borden Institute | Fort Detrick, Maryland

US Army Medical Department Center and School | Fort Sam Houston, Texas

Pau l Sto n e joined the staff of the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in 

June 2007. Prior to that he worked at 

the Offce of the Secretary of Defense 

Public Affairs in the Pentagon for seven 

years, where he served as a writer for the 

American Forces Press Service and a news 

coordinator for The Pentagon Channel, the 

Department of Defense’s news network. 

His career in military public affairs began 

in 1985 when he became the Media Relations Offcer for the 1st Infantry Division 

at Fort Riley, Kansas. Subsequent positions 

include service as the Deputy Public 

Affairs Offcer at the Army’s National 

Training Center, Fort Irwin, California; 

Public Affairs Offcer, Los Angeles Army 

Recruiting Battalion; Deputy Public 

Affairs Offcer, First US Army, Fort Meade, 

Maryland; and Editor, the Early Bird, a 

daily compilation of news affecting the 

Department of Defense. He holds a BA 

in journalism and mass communications 

and a BA in political science, both from 

Kansas State University. 

“For decades the AFIP has been the premier pathology institute in 

the world. . . . This did not occur by accident; rather it is the result 

of dedication, selfess service, and an unmatched commitment to 

excellence.” —Eric B Schoomaker, MD, PhD, The Surgeon General

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