December 2008

Between 1979 and 2006, the number of school-age children 

(ages 5–17) who spoke a language other than English at home 

increased from 9 to 20 percent of the population in this age 

range (U.S. Department of Education 2008, indicator 7). Given 

the growing numbers of these children (language-minorities) 

within the nation’s schools, it is important to understand their 

educational achievement. This Issue Brief uses longitudinal 

data to examine the scores of public-school language-minority 

students on a mathematics assessment in 1st grade, as well as 

the gain in their scores between 1st and 5th grades.1,2 Scores 

are reported by three background characteristics—student’s 

race/ethnicity, poverty status,3

 and mother’s education—that 

have been found to be related to achievement (see Rathbun 

and West 2004). 

Data for this brief are drawn from the Early Childhood 

Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), 

conducted by the U.S. Department of Education’s National 

Center for Education Statistics. The ECLS-K uses a nationally 

representative sample of children who were kindergartners in the 

1998–99 school year. The analysis uses data from spring 2000 

(when most of the children were in 1st grade) and spring 2004 

(when most of the children were in 5th grade) and is restricted 

to children who were first-time kindergartners in 1998–99 and 

who attended public school in 2000 and 2004.4

For this Issue Brief, students are categorized by language 

background and English language proficiency into three 

groups: (1) language-minority, English Proficient students, 

(2) language-minority, English Language Learners, and 

(3) students whose primary home language is English.5

 The 

grouping of language-minority students into either English 

Proficient or English Language Learners is based on their 

score on a direct measure of oral English language proficiency 

in the fall of their kindergarten year.6

Characteristics of Language-Minority Students 

Of public school students who were first-time 

kindergartners in 1998–99, some 12 percent were languageminority students, equally divided between English Language 

Learners and those proficient in English (data not shown 

in tables). The remaining 88 percent were students whose 

primary home language was English. 

Most language-minority students were Hispanic (71 percent of 

English Proficient students and 92 percent of English Language 

Learners) (table 1). Asians were the second largest group, 

constituting 16 percent of English Proficient students and 

6 percent of English Language Learners. 

Approximately one-third of English Proficient students 

(32 percent) and one-half of English Language Learners 

(52 percent) lived in poverty. In contrast, 17 percent of students 

whose primary home language was English lived in poverty.7

Mathematics Achievement of LanguageMinority Students During the Elementary Years

U.S. Department of Education

NCES 2009–036

Issue

Brief

Almost half of all English Language Learners (49 percent) 

had a mother with less than a high school education. Higher 

percentages of English Language Learners and English 

Proficient students had a mother with this education level, 

compared to students whose primary home language was 

English (49 and 27 percent vs. 10 percent). 

Mathematics Achievement in 1st Grade

On a scale of 0 to 153, the overall mean 1st-grade (spring 2000) 

mathematics score for students whose primary home language 

was English (57 points) was higher than the score for English 

Proficient students (54 points) and English Language Learners 

(47 points) (table 2).8

 Among language-minority students, 

those proficient in English outperformed English Language 

Learners by 7 points, on average. The following sections 

provide information about student performance by various 

background characteristics.

Race/ethnicity. Regardless of race/ethnicity, English Language 

Learners generally scored lower than English Proficient 

students and students whose primary home language was 

English. Specifically, among Asian and Hispanic students, 

English Language Learners had lower scores (48 and 47 points, 

respectively) than their English Proficient peers (63 and 

52 points, respectively) and peers whose primary home language 

was English (61 and 56 points, respectively). 

Poverty status. While English Proficient students living at or 

above the poverty threshold had higher 1st-grade mathematics 

scores than their peers living in poverty (58 vs. 49 points), 

no measurable difference was observed between the scores of 

English Language Learners by poverty level.

The pattern of performance for students living at or above the 

poverty threshold was similar to the overall results: English 

Language Learners had lower scores than English Proficient 

students and students whose primary home language was 

English (48 vs. 58 and 60 points, respectively). Among students 

living in poverty, English Language Learners scored 3 points 

lower, on average, than English Proficient students (46 vs. 

49 points), but not measurably different than students whose 

primary home language was English (48 points).

Mother’s education. Among English Proficient students, those 

whose mothers had a bachelor’s degree or higher outscored 

students whose mothers had less than a high school education 

(61 vs. 51 points). A similar finding was observed for students 

whose primary home language was English (67 vs. 47 points). 

No measurable differences were found in scores by mother’s 

education level among English Language Learners.

Among students whose mothers had a bachelor’s degree or 

higher, English Proficient students (61 points) had lower 

scores than students whose primary home language was 

English (67 points).
2 NCES 2009-036 Issue Brief December 2008

Mathematics Gain Scores Between 1st and 5th 

Grades

Despite a 10-point spread in 1st-grade scores, no measurable 

differences were found among the three language groups in the 

total number of points that students gained in their mathematics 

score between 1st and 5th grades. Gain scores ranged from 

54 to 57 points. Differences were found within and between 

the language groups, however, when students’ background 

characteristics were examined. 

Race/ethnicity. In general, Asian language-minority students 

had larger gain scores than their Hispanic peers. For example, 

English Proficient Asians (62 points) made greater gains than 

English Proficient Hispanics (55 points). In addition, among 

English Language Learners, Asians made greater gains than 

Hispanics (62 vs. 54 points, respectively).

For both Asian and Hispanic students, no measurable 

differences were found among language groups. Gain scores 

for Asian students ranged from 61 points for students whose 

primary home language was English to 62 points each for 

English Proficient students and English Language Learners. 

Hispanic students’ gain scores ranged from 54 points for 

English Language Learners to 56 points for students whose 

primary home language was English.

Poverty status. Among students living in poverty, those 

proficient in English made greater gains than English Language 

Learners or students whose primary home language was English 

(58 vs. 53 and 50 points).

Mother’s education. Among students whose primary home 

language was English and English Proficient students, those 

whose mothers had a bachelor’s degree or higher made greater 

gains than their peers whose mothers had less than a high 

school education.

Among students whose mothers had less than a high school 

education, English Proficient students and English Language 

Learners had greater mathematics gains than their peers whose 

primary home language was English (57 and 53 vs. 49 points, 

respectively). Among students whose mothers had a high school 

diploma, English Proficient students made greater gains than 

English Language Learners and students whose primary home 

language was English (59 vs. 53 and 53 points, respectively).

Summary

Of first-time public school kindergarten students in 1998–99, 

some 12 percent were language-minority students, with an 

almost even split between English Proficient students and 

English Language Learners. The majority of language-minority 

students were Hispanic. Approximately half of all English 

Language Learners lived in poverty and had a mother with less 

than a high school education.

Overall, language-minority students scored lower on a 1st-grade 

mathematics assessment than did students whose primary home 

language was English. English Language Learners generally 

scored lower than English Proficient students and students 

whose primary home language was English. This was true for 

students overall, for Asian and Hispanic students, as well as for 

students who lived at or above the poverty threshold.

Between 1st and 5th grades, there was no measurable difference 

in gain scores on the mathematics assessment among the three 

language groups. However, differences within and between 

the language groups were found by student background 

characteristics. For example, Asian language-minority students 

made greater gains than their Hispanic peers. Among students 

living in poverty and students whose mothers had a high school 

diploma, English Proficient students made greater gains than 

English Language Learners and students whose primary home 

language was English. Finally, among students whose mothers 

had less than a high school education, language-minority 

students had larger gain scores than students whose primary 

home language was English.

References

Rathbun, A., and West, J. (2004). From Kindergarten Through Third 

Grade: Children’s Beginning School Experiences (NCES 2004-007). 

National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC. Retrieved 

October 3, 2007, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.

asp?pubid=2004007. 

Rock, D.A., and Pollack, J.M. (2002). Early Childhood Longitudinal StudyKindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), Psychometric Report for 

Kindergarten Through First Grade (NCES 2002-05). U.S. Department 

of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education 

Statistics Working Paper.

Table 1. Percentage distribution of first-time public school 

kindergartners in 1998–99, by language-minority status 

and selected characteristics: Spring 2000

Child’s characteristic

All 

students

Language-minority status1

Primary 

home 

language 

is English 

Language-minority

English 

proficient

English 

language 

learner

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Race/ethnicity2

Non-Hispanic

White 57.0 64.0 8.8 1.1!

Black 16.0 18.0 2.2! ‡

Asian 2.4 1.2 15.9 6.3

Other 4.7 5.2 2.1 0.8!

Hispanic 19.8 11.6 71.0 91.9

Poverty status, spring 20003

Below poverty threshold 19.8 16.9 31.5 51.7

At or above poverty threshold 74.0 77.3 54.3 42.6

Missing 6.3 5.7 14.2 5.7

Mother’s highest level of 

education, spring 2000

Less than high school 13.2 10.0 27.0 48.8

High school diploma or 

equivalent 27.9 27.9 27.6 28.4

Some college/vocational/ 

technical school 31.1 33.4 15.8 11.3

Bachelor’s degree or higher 19.3 20.7 13.0 5.2!

No mother in household 2.2 2.3 2.4! 0.6!

Missing 6.3 5.7 14.2 5.7

! Interpret data with caution. Standard error is more than 30 percent of estimate’s value.

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases). 

1

 Language-minority status was determined by parent’s report of primary language at 

home and Oral Language Development Scale (OLDS) results in 1998–99. Language-minority 

children were classified as English proficient or English language learners based on their 

score on the OLDS. The OLDS is an English language proficiency screener that measured 

children’s listening comprehension, vocabulary, and ability to understand and produce 

language. The range of possible scores was 0 to 60, and children who received scores 

higher than 36 were considered English proficient. 

2

 All race categories exclude Hispanic origin. “Other” includes Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, 

American Indian (including Alaska Native), and those reporting more than one race.

3

 The federal poverty level status composite variable is derived from household income and 

the total number of household members. Federal poverty thresholds are used to define 

households below the poverty level. Students living in households where the income fell 

below the appropriate threshold (based on Census information from 1999) were classified 

as living “below” the poverty threshold. 

NOTE: The sample is limited to children in kindergarten for the first time in 1998–99 who 

attended public schools in the spring of 1st grade and 5th grade. Detail may not sum to 

totals because of rounding. Estimates were weighted by C456CW0. Standard errors are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2009036. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early 

Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), Longitudinal 

Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Public-Use Child File.
NCES 2009-036 Issue Brief December 2008 3

The Issue Brief series presents information on education topics of current interest. All estimates shown are based on samples and are subject to sampling variability. All differences discussed are 

statistically significant at the .05 level as measured by two-tailed t tests; this means a difference is discussed only if the probability that it is due to chance (i.e., sampling variability) is less than 

1 in 20. No adjustments were made for multiple comparisons. In the design, conduct, and data processing of National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) surveys, efforts are made to minimize 

the effects of nonsampling errors, such as item nonresponse, measurement error, data processing error, or other systematic error. For more information on the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, 

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), visit http://nces.ed.gov/ecls.

This Issue Brief was prepared by Gillian Hampden-Thompson (American Institutes for Research) of the Education Statistics Services Institute (ESSI), Gail Mulligan (NCES), Akemi Kinukawa and 

Tamara Halle (Child Trends). For further information, contact Lisa Hudson, NCES, at 202-502-7358 or lisa.hudson@ed.gov. To order additional copies of this Issue Brief or other NCES publications, 

call 1-877-4ED-PUBS or visit http://www.edpubs.org. NCES publications are also available on the Internet at http://nces.ed.gov.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2008). 

The Condition of Education 2008 (NCES 2008-031). Washington, DC: 

U.S. Government Printing Office. 

Endnotes

1

 The mathematics assessment was one of the direct cognitive tests specifically 

designed for the ECLS-K to measure a child’s knowledge at a given point in 

time, as well as that child’s academic growth since kindergarten entry. In 

order to measure academic growth, overlapping items were included in at 

least two rounds of data collection.

2

 Mathematics achievement was chosen as the focus of this analysis because 

the mathematics assessment was conducted in both English and Spanish in 

first grade, while the reading assessment was conducted only in English. 

Therefore, the analytic sample from the mathematics assessment was more 

inclusive of the language-minority population.

3

 The poverty status variable is derived from household income and the total 

number of household members. Federal poverty thresholds are used to define 

households below the poverty level. Students living in households where the 

income fell below the appropriate threshold (based on Census information 

from 1999, see http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld/thresh99

.html) were classified as living in poverty. 

4

 The final analytic sample includes 7,130 students.

5

 Language-minority students are defined as those who speak a language other 

than English at home as reported by the parent. The language-minority categories 

are based on the student’s status upon kindergarten entry. 

6

 Language-minority children were classified as English Proficient or English 

Language Learners based on their score on the Oral Language Development 

Scale (OLDS). The OLDS is an English language proficiency screener that 

measured children’s listening comprehension, vocabulary, and ability to 

understand and produce language. The range of possible scores was 0 to 60, 

and children who received scores higher than 36 were considered English 

proficient and received the full English direct assessment. If a child scored 

36 or below on the language screener but spoke Spanish, he or she was 

administered a Spanish form of the mathematics assessment. Analyses 

indicate that the English and Spanish mathematics assessments function in 

a similar manner (Rock and Pollack 2002). In other words, there was no 

advantage or disadvantage to taking the assessment in Spanish.

7

 Based on household poverty status in spring 2000 (when most students 

were in 1st grade). 

8

 The original ECLS-K 1st grade overall mathematics scale score had a 

potential score range of 0 to 64. However, the score was reestimated to have 

the potential score range of 0 to 153, the same score range as the 5th grade 

scale score, allowing comparisons between the two grades.

Table 2. Mean mathematics scale scores at 1st and 5th grade and achievement gains for first-time public school kindergartners in 

1998–99, by language-minority status and selected characteristics: Spring 2000 and spring 2004

Child’s characteristic

Language-minority status1

Primary home language 

is English

Language-minority

English proficient English language learner

Spring 

1st grade

Spring 

5th grade

Total gain 

from spring 

1st grade 

to spring 

5th grade

Spring 

1st grade

Spring 

5th grade

Total gain 

from spring 

1st grade 

to spring 

5th grade

Spring 

1st grade

Spring 

5th grade

Total gain 

from spring 

1st grade 

to spring 

5th grade

Total 57.4 112.5 55.1 53.8 110.7 56.9 46.7 101.0 54.3

Race/ethnicity2

Non-Hispanic

White 60.8 117.3 56.5 59.8 120.2 60.4 ‡ ‡ ‡

Black 47.7 97.2 49.5 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Asian 61.1 121.6 60.5 62.9 124.7 61.8 47.9 110.1 62.3

Other 52.6 105.3 52.6 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Hispanic 55.5 111.7 56.2 51.5 106.9 55.4 46.8 100.3 53.5

Poverty status, spring 20003

Below poverty threshold 48.3 98.4 50.1 49.4 107.1 57.7 45.6 98.3 52.8

At or above poverty threshold 59.9 116.5 56.6 58.2 116.5 58.4 48.2 104.0 55.8

Missing 51.1 99.9 48.9 47.0 96.6 49.7 45.7 102.0 56.4

Mother’s highest level of education, spring 2000

Less than high school 47.2 95.8 48.6 51.4 108.0 56.6 45.7 98.8 53.1

High school diploma or equivalent 54.1 107.0 52.9 55.9 115.2 59.3 46.7 100.0 53.3

Some college/vocational/technical school 58.5 115.5 57.0 53.6 109.0 55.5 50.3 107.5 57.2

Bachelor’s degree or higher 66.9 126.5 59.6 60.9 125.8 64.9 ‡ ‡ ‡

No mother in household 57.3 113.1 55.8 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Missing 51.0 99.9 48.9 47.0 96.6 49.7 45.7 102.0 56.3

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases). 1

 Language-minority status was determined by parent’s report of primary language at home and Oral Language Development Scale (OLDS) results in 1998–99. Language-minority children 

were classified as English proficient or English language learners based on their score on the OLDS. The OLDS is an English language proficiency screener that measured 

children’s listening comprehension, vocabulary, and ability to understand and produce language. The range of possible scores was 0 to 60, and children who received scores higher than 

36 were considered English proficient. 

2

 All race categories exclude Hispanic origin. “Other” includes Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, American Indian (including Alaska Native), and those reporting more than one race.

3

 The federal poverty level status composite variable is derived from household income and the total number of household members. Federal poverty thresholds are used to define households 

below the poverty level. Students living in households where the income fell below the appropriate threshold (based on Census information from 1999) were classified as living “below” the 

poverty threshold. 

NOTE: The sample is limited to children in kindergarten for the first time in 1998–99 who attended public schools in the spring of 1st grade and 5th grades. The original ECLS-K 1st grade overall 

mathematics scale score had a potential score range of 0 to 64. However, the score was reestimated to have the potential score range of 0 to 153, the same score range as the 5th grade 

scale score, allowing comparisons between the two grades. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Estimates were weighted by C456CW0. Standard errors are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2009036. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), Longitudinal Kindergarten-Fifth 

Grade Public-Use Child File. 

 
Mathematics Achievement of LanguageMinority Students During the Elementary Years

U.S. Department of Education 

ED Pubs 

8242-B Sandy Court 

Jessup, MD 20794-1398

NCES 2009–036

The Issue Brief series presents information on education topics of current interest.

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