DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR

BULLETIN 537

THE

CLASSIFICATION OF THE 

PUBLIC LANDS

BY

GEORGE OTIS SMITH AND OTHERS

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1913

CONTENTS.

Page.

The purpose of land classification_______________________ 7

Development of the Survey's organization for land classification_____ 11

History and legal basis for land' classification_______________ 18

Introduction_________________________________ 18

Land laws_________________________'__________ 20

General divisions_____ _______________________ 20

Public-land laws _________________________-___ 20

Agricultural-land laws_______________________ 20

Purpose_____ _ __ -_ 20

Homesteads __ ____ ____ - 21

Forest homesteads.________________ .__ 21

Enlarged homesteads______________________ 22

Desert land_____________________ 22

Reclamation act- _ ______ 22

Isolated tracts_ __________ _______ 22

Timber and stone lands_____ _____ 23

Mineral-land laws _ _____ ______ 23

General provisions _________________ _ 23

Lodes ______ ______________ __ 24

Placers______ ________ _____ _ 25

Building stone_____________________-__ 25

Oil__________________________________ 26

Salines_______ _______________ ___ 26

Coal-land laws ____ _ 27

Laws relating to public and quasi-public uses________ 27

Railroads ___________________________ 27

Irrigation _________________________:___ 28

Power________________________________ 28

Mining and milling _____________________ 29

Municipal uses_ ______1_____________ 29

Land grants ________ _________________ 29

Grants to States___ ____________________ 29

In aid of schools and.State institutions_________ 29

In aid of internal improvements_____________ 30

Carey Act_ __ ___________________ 30

Railroad grants___ ___________________ 31

Necessity for land classification ___________________ 32

Agencies and methods of classification_________________ 3'3

Classification by affidavit of applicant ____________ 33

Classification by deputy surveyors_____1____________ -34

Classification by Land Office field service_____________ 34

Classification by the Geological Survey____________ 35

Historical sketch___ _ 35

Coal lands____________________________ 36

Oil lands __________________________ __ 38

Phosphate lands ___ 39

Potash lands _____ ___ __________ 40

Metalliferous-mineral lands 40
4 CONTENTS.

History and legal basis for land classification Continued. 

Agencies and methods of classification Continued.

Classification by the Geological Survey Continued. Page.

Water-power sites._________________________ 41

Reservoir sites__________ _________________ 42

Public water reserves______________________ 42

Withdrawal acts________________________..___ 43

Separation acts_____-______________________ 45

Desirable new legislation_______________________ 46

Classification of mineral lands_________________________ 50

Field methods_________________________________ 50

Development _______________________________ 50

Detailed survey____________________________ 53

Methods used when a topographic base is available_____ 53

Methods used when a base map must be prepared______ 54

Methods followed when the Land Office survey affords a

base map_____________________________ 58

Reconnaissance survey________________________ 60

Public-land surveys___________________________ 61

Preparation of data for classification___________________ 63

Coal lands _______________________________..___ 65

Purpose of classification_____"____________ . 65

Methods of classification____________________.___ 66

Principles involved. _____________________ 66

Factors involved__________________________ 67

Essentials of workability___________________ 67

Quality _____________________________ 68

Thickness ______________"_____________ 69

Depth_____________________________ 73

Classification by 40-acre tracts or lots_____________ 78

Outcrop coal and burned coal__________________ 78

Methods of valuation__________________________ 79

Cost of coal in the ground____________________ 79

Factors involved_________________________ 81

Effect of quality on price_____________________ 82

Effect of mining'cost on price__________________ 82

Value of thin coals_________________________ 83

Value of irregular beds_________ __________ 87

Value per acre___________________________ 90

Reduction for depth_____ ____________ 91

Allowance for faults__________.____________ 93

Effect of intrusions__________________________ 94

Allowance for other factors___________________ 94

Reduction for distance from railroad_____________ 95

Maximum price ____ _ ___ __ _ 95

Review of classification________________________ 95

Regulations for the classification and valuation of public coal

lands __________________________________ 96

Restoration_______________________________ 97

Field work on coal lands_______________________ 98

General nature of the work__________ _____ 98

Location ______________________________ 99

Stratigraphy ______________________________ 99

Extent and thickness of coal beds. _ ______ 100
CONTENTS. 5

Classification of mineral lands Continued. 

Coal lands Continued.

Field work on coal lands Continued. Page.

Attitude and depth of the coal_________________ 105

Quality of the coal________________________ 105

Preparation of material_________________________ 108

Procedure in classification and valuation_____________ 108

Progress in classification and valuation_______________ 111

Oil and gas lands______________________________ 111

Occurrence of oil and gas_______________________ 111

Classification of oil and gas land__________________ 117

Phosphate lands_______________________________ 123

Use of phosphate____________________________ 123

Lands containing phosphate_____________________ 124

Phosphate reserves___________________________ 325

Florida reserves__ _____________,________ 325

Western reserves____________________ 125

Summary of phosphate situation________.__________ 127

Classification of phosphate lands__________._______ 128

Factors involved_________________________ 128

Principles controlling classification______________ 129

Regulations_________________..__...______ 1.30

Progress in classification_____________________ 131

Lands bearing potash and related salines_______________ 134

Geologic occurrence of the deposits_________________ 134

Classification of potash-bearing lands________________ 137

Miscellaneous nonmetalliferous mineral lauds_____________ 138

Metalliferous mineral lands____.-_..___.___ ___ _ 142

Purpose of classification___________: ______ ___.. 142

Methods of classification__ ____________.__ ___ 145

Agencies employed _____ _______ _____. ___ __ 145

Problems involved____________________ ___ 145

Preliminary procedure _. ..__._____-__.._ 146

Field work _____________________________ 146

Location and topography_________________ 146

Investigation of placer deposits______________ 147

Geologic relations _____ ______________ 147

Testing __________________________ 147

Testimony of miners______________ ____ 147

(Investigation of lode deposits_____________ 148

Kinds of evidence available_________..__.. 148

General geology __________________ 148

Country rock ______ ________ ______ 149

Intrusions and metamorphism____..__...___.._.. 150

Structure _ - ___ ___ 151

Outcrops and float of lodes_______________ 151

Prospects and mines___!____ _________ 154

Samples and assays______ ___________ 154

History of the region__________________ 155

By-products of mineral-land classification_______________ 155

Value of collateral information obtained______________ 155

Data of direct interest to the public at large___________ 156

Data relating to prospecting and mining______________ 157

Scientific data___ __ ___ ______________ 158
6 CONTENTS.

	Page.

Classification in relation to water resources________________ 159

General principles of water utilization__.._____________ 159

Classification of water-power sites___________________. 161

Preliminary withdrawals_________________: _____ 161

Methods of field examination______ ______________ 167

Diversity of conditions______________________ 167

Reconnaissance examination __________________ 168

Detailed field Investigations__________________ 172

Compilation of results and revision of withdrawals_______ 174

Adverse claims______________________________ 175

Nonpower classification_______________________ 176

Additional requirements to make power classification effective_ 177

Classification of lands as regards irrigability_____________ 178

Field methods _____________________________ 178

General considerations_______ _______________ 178

Available water supply________ ___________ 181

Present utilization of water for irrigation__________ 182

Duty of water___________________________ 183

Character of lands to be irrigated_______________ 184

Character of irrigation works__ __ ___________ 185

Methods of classification_______________ ______________ 185

Procedure under the Carey Act______ _______ 185

Irrigation reservoir sites____ _ _____ _ 187

Procedure under the enlarged-homestead acts________ 187

Classification as regards domestic use___ __________ ___ 190

General principles 190

Farm water supply 190

Range water supply_ _ . __ 191

Municipal water supply.________ '._________ 192

Index________________________________________ _ 193

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page. 

FIGURE 1. Township map showing classification and valuation of coal

lands__________________ ___________ 63 

' 2. Diagram showing split or broken coal beds and their value

for classification ______ __ ___________ 71

3. Diagram showing depth limits of coals of different B. t. u.

and of different thicknesses under 6 feet___________ 76

4. Rates paid in the United States for mining coal of specified 

thicknesses, and curve showing average relation between 

mining rate and thickness____ ____ 85

5. Sketch map showing lines along which a coal bed is of equal 

thickness (isopachous lines), drawn for use in the valuation 

of coal land _ ________-______________ 89

6. Reduced copy of diagram used by the United States Geological

Survey in computing tonnage and value of coal per acre__ 92

7. Diagram showing depth to which phosphate deposits are classified under the regulations____ _______________ 131

8. Typical township card from survey records illustrating action

taken by the United States Geological Survey on power sites. 166
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

By GEORGE OTIS SMITH and others.

THE PURPOSE OF LAND CLASSIFICATION.

In the latter half of the nineteenth century the spirit of the publicland laws in the United States was settlement and development. 

With a public domain of one and a third billion acres, acquired in the 

preceding half century-^1803-1853 by purchase, discovery, exploration, and cession, and with another third of a billion acres in Alaska 

constituting a later purchase, the Nation felt that it could be lavish 

with its lands. The wilderness called for pioneers of every type, and 

large premiums were held out to capital enterprise and individual 

initiative. Development was desired whatever the cost in lands that 

were intrinsically of little value without settlement. The same century that saw the creation of this national domain an empire in 

itself also witnessed the distribution of more than one-half of its 

acreage. This shrinkage of the national domain has naturally been 

coincident with national development in all lines of industry. Western prairies have become the world's granary, and western mountains, once wholly in public ownership, are now, contributing to their 

private and corporate owners the profits on no small proportion of 

the world's output of metals and of mineral fuels.

With advancing years a wise nation, like a prudent man, learns 

to husband its resources. Land values are now recognized, the purpose in both legislation and administration has changed, and highest 

development alone is sought. With the most and the best of the 

Nation's land already alienated, the national duty is to put to its 

best use what remains.

Utilization of lands for their greatest value necessitates the determination of that value, which is, briefly, land classification; and, 

to be adequate, land classification must be, based upon first-hand 

acquaintance with the particular land under consideration. With a 

national estate including country ranging from salt-incrusted deserts 

to valleys knee-deep with nutritious grasses or giant forests almost 

impenetrable because of luxuriant undergrowth, no general statutes

7
8 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

that may be enacted can be made so definite as not to require the 

exercise of well-informed judgment in their execution. To this end 

examination and classification of the public lands constitute an initial 

step in their disposition for development and settlement. That a few 

decades ago settlement and development commonly outstripped classification and often far preceded even the legal disposition of the land 

itself is no good reason for failure to follow the more logical procedure now.

The principle of land classification is inherent in many of the 

public-land lawsj and classification of lands v has in late years been 

specifically recognized by Congress as a step indispensable to the administration of the national domain. This public estate is even now 

so extensive and valuable as to demand a business policy. Making 

allowance for the alienated lands included within the land units described in the various coal-land areas withdrawn by executive order 

for classification, and also estimating the expected reduction of these 

withdrawals by classification of parts of them as noncoal land, the 

people of the United States possess to-day 44,000,000 acres of coal 

lands, exclusive of the Alaskan coal fields. A large proportion of 

this acreage, however, is underlain by the lower-grade coals. In the 

almost equally important items of oil and phosphate rock the existing withdrawals indicate national ownership of over 2,000,000 acres 

of oil and gas lands and nearly 3,000,000 acres of lands which will 

furnish our agricultural regions their future supply of mineral phosphate. Nor have all the agricultural lands been alienated. Public 

and private irrigation projects will reclaim several millions of acres 

of arid land, and dry farming under the enlarged-homestead act will 

materially add to the area of farm lands.

To insure appropriate disposition and to secure highest use of 

the Nation's lands, scientific land classification by the United States 

Geological Survey has been made an integral part of public-land 

administration. Quantitative knowledge of the land and its resources is now made a preliminary, first, to disposition of lands 

under the various settlement and development laws; second, to reservation of lands from present acquisition pending the enactment of 

adequate legislation; and third, to valuation of lands under a 

statute which provides for their disposition at prices expressing 

known value.

The purpose of land classification, then, is highest utilization, and 

to attain this end it has been necessary to coordinate the work of 

scientific investigation with the administrative functions of the 

Department of the. Interior. The large participation of the Geological Survey in the public-land administration has naturally presented problems involving changes both in office and field organization and in executive and scientific methods. For these changes
PURPOSE OF LAND CLASSIFICATION. 9

there has been little or no precedent. Scientists and public men of 

older countries have been outspoken in their interest in this new 

application of science to governmental administration, and requests 

have been made for more detailed information on the subject than 

is available in the references appearing in administrative reports of 

the Secretary of the Interior and his subordinates.

A new application of any branch of science necessarily affects the 

science itself. New use involves added requirements and in turn may 

contribute in by-products even more than it demands. The general 

effect of this direct application of the Geological Survey's investigative work to large problems of public administration is believed to 

have been beneficial to science itself. It has broadened the outlook 

of the investigator, but especially it has demanded that results be 

sought which are quantitatively exact as well as qualitatively true.

A full statement of the policy of land classification and a detailed 

description of the procedure and methods so far found necessary to 

carry out that policy, in the stage of development already reached, 

are presented in this bulletin. This information is believed to be of 

value both to students of government and to geologists and engineers 

interested in the application of scientific investigation to practical 

business. The historical and legal phases of the discussion may be 

of greatest interest to the citizen concerned in his country's highest 

development, while the description of field methods should be of 

immediate value in indicating new requirements imposed upon scientific education, for details of this business policy of the Government are already being adopted in private and corporate land examinations.

This bulletin represents contributions by many authors members 

of the land-classification board and of the field branches of the Survey. The description of the development of the Survey's organization for land classification, which immediately follows this introduction, was written by W. C. Mendenhall, who as chief of the landclassification board has been directly responsible for the preparation 

of the bulletin. The discussion of the history and legal basis of 

classification was prepared by M. W. Ball, a geologist who has been 

identified with the work of land classification from its beginning and 

is now chairman of the oil section of the board.

The chapter on the classification and valuation of coal land was 

written by G. H. Ashley, until recently State geologist of Tennessee 

and now the chairman of the coal section of the land-classification 

board. At the time of his earlier connection with the Survey Mr. 

Ashley, who has made a special study of coal problems in both the 

eastern and the western fields of the United States, wrote the chapter 

on " The value of coal land " which appears in 'Survey Bulletin 424. 

In the preparation of the present paper Mr. Ashley has been most
10 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

efficiently assisted by C. E. Lesher, who is independently responsible 

for the short section on " The preparation of data for classification." 

Mr. Lesher should be credited with many of the office methods which 

facilitate the prompt and accurate handling of data contributed by 

the field men of the Survey.

Field methods are discussed by E. G. Woodruff, C. H. Wegemann, 

R. W. Richards, and F. R. Clark, all of whom are members of the 

geologic branch and have had wide experience in field work leading 

up to land classification. Under the topic " Oil and gas lands," J. D. 

Northrop, who has had experience in the California oil fields, and 

C. H. Wegemann, a geologist of broad experience in the Rocky 

Mountain fields, have collaborated in the discussion of the geologic 

occurrence of oil and gas, while Mr. Northrop has contributed the 

section on classification. In a similar way, under " Phosphate lands," 

A. R. Schultz and R. W. Richards, the former the chairman of the 

phosphate section in the land-classification board and the latter a 

geologist who has worked out with great thoroughness and detail 

the complicated structural problems of the phosphate fields in southeastern Idaho and adjacent parts of Wyoming, have collaborated in 

the general discussion of phosphate problems, Mr. Schultz being responsible for the section on classification. The description of potashbearing lands and their classification is the joint contribution of A. R. 

Schultz and H. S. Gale, Mr. Gale being the geologist in charge of 

the section of nonmetalliferous deposits of the geologic branch. E. H. 

Finch, of the land-classification board, who has been closely identified with the cooperative work between the Survey and the General 

Land Office, has contributed the section on " Miscellaneous nonmetalliferous lands," and F. C.- Calkins, one of the experienced economic 

geologists of the Survey, who has had much to do with the classification of the lands in the Northern Pacific grant, has written the 

discussion of metalliferous mineral lands and the problems involved 

in their classification. The section on " By-products of mineral-land 

classification " was written by G. S. Rogers, a geologist of the geologic branch, whose recent work has been done in the western coal 

fields.

The discussion of classification in relation to water resources has 

been prepared under the direction of N. C. Grover, chief engineer 

of the land-classification board, M. O. Leighton, Herman Stabler, 

E. C. La Rue, and W. B. Heroy collaborating. Messrs. Grover, 

Stabler, and Heroy have prepared the sections relating to classification and office procedure, while Mr. Leighton, as chief of the waterresources branch of the Survey, and Mr. La; Rue, one of the experienced field engineers of that branch, have cooperated in preparing the discussion of field methods.
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATION FOE LAND CLASSIFICATION. 11

It is noteworthy that the authors of the sections of this publication describing the procedure employed in the work have themselves 

originated for the most part the methods that are so essential to 

successful and authoritative land classification. Mention should also 

be made here, however, of the important part played by A. C. Veatch, 

the chairman of the land-classification board at the time of its organization, by C. Willard Hayes and Waldemar Lindgren, former chief 

geologists of the Survey, and by M. R. Campbell, who has been in 

charge of the geologic work in the western coal fields continuously 

since 1906 and has supervised the preparation of the sections on 

geologic field methods in this bulletin.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SURVEY'S ORGANIZATION FOR 

LAND CLASSIFICATION.

The report of the committee of the National Academy of Sciences 

on the surveys of the Territories, prepared in accordance with the 

terms of a clause in the sundry civil bill approved June 30, 1878 

(20 Stat., 206, 230), contains these statements indicating the opinion 

of the committee as to the land-classification functions of the bureaus 

whose organization its members were recommending:

The best interests of the public domain require, for the purposes of intelligent administration, a thorough knowledge of its geologic structure, natural 

resources, and products. The domain embraces a vast mineral wealth in its 

soils, metals, salines, stones, clays, etc. To meet the requirements of existing 

laws in the disposition of the agricultural, mineral, pastoral, timber, desert, 

and swamp lands, a thorough investigation and classification of the acreage of 

the public domain is imperatively demanded. * * *

The Land Office shall also call upon the United States Geological Survey for 

all information as to the value and classification of lands. * * *

The publications of the Geological Survey should consist of an annual report 

of operations, geological and economic maps illustrating the resources and classification of the lands, reports upon general and economic geology in all its 

branches, with the necessarily connected paleontology.

Maj. J. W. Powell, reporting to the Secretary of the Interior on 

November 1, 1878, in response to the request of the acting president 

of the National Academy of Sciences to transmit any information 

available in the Department of the Interior as to surveys then in 

existence, after listing the classes of lands recognized under the laws, 

adds the following comment:

An examination of the laws * * * will show that the classes of lands 

mentioned above are therein recognized, and in the administration of the laws 

relating to these lands those' belonging to each specific class must be determined ; but no adequate provision is made for securing an accurate classification, and to a large extent the laws are inoperative or practically void; for example, coal lands should be sold at $10 or $20 per acre, but, the department 

having no means of determining what lands belong to this class, titles to coal 

lands are usually obtained under the provisions of statutes that relate to lands
12 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

of other classes that is, by purchasing at $1.25 per acre, or by homestead or 

preemption entry. An examination of the laws will exhibit this fact that for 

the classification contemplated therein a thorough survey is necessary, embracing the geological and physical characteristics of the entire public domain.

After extended hearings before the House and Senate committees 

and the publication of many documents bearing upon the questions 

involved, Congress, in March, 1879, agreed upon a law which embodied the recommendations of the Academy of Sciences for the 

abolition of the Territorial surveys and the establishment of the 

United States Geological Survey but made no provision for the 

mensuration survey also recommended by the Academy.

Under the law approved March 3, 1879 (20 .Stat, 377, 394), establishing the office of Director of the Geological Survey, it is provided 

That this officer shall have the direction of the geological survey and the 

classification of the public lands and examination of the geological structure, 

mineral resources, and products of the national domain.

Clarence King, the first Director, who entered upon his duties 

May 24, 1879, discusses the functions of the then newly created 

organization in his first annual report to the Secretary of the Interior dated November 1, 1880. In this discussion he states that 

Two special and distinct branches of duty are imposed upon the Director of 

the Geological Survey (1) the classification of the public land and (2) the 

examination-of the geological structure and mineral resources.

As regards the classification of the public lands, the text of the law leaves 

an uncertainty whether this classification is intended to be a scientific exposition of the kinds of lands embraced in the national domain, such as arable, 

irrigable, timber, desert, mineral, coal, iron, showing the practical values and 

adaptabilities of the various classes or kinds of soil and surface, or whether, 

on the other hand, it was intended to furnish a basis of classification upon which 

the Government should part title to portions of the public domain. * * *

Upon examination of the existing land system, I have assumed that Congress, 

in directing me to make a classification of the public lands, could not have intended to .supersede the machinery of the Land Office and substitute a classification to be executed by another bureau of the Government without having 

distinctly provided for the necessary changes within the Land Office and adjustment of relations between the two bureaus. * * *

I have therefore concluded that the intention of Congress was to begin a 

rigid scientific classification of the lands of the national domain, not for purposes of aiding the machinery of the General Land Office by furnishing a 

basis of sale, but for the general information of the people of the country, and 

to produce a series of land maps which should show all those features upon 

which intelligent agriculturists, miners, engineers, and timbermen might hereafter base their operations, and which would obviously be of the highest value 

for all students of the political economy and resources of the United States. 

Studies of this sort, entirely aside from the administration of the Land Office, 

can be made of the highest practical value; and to this end a careful beginning 

has been made.
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATION FOE LAND CLASSIFICATION. 13

This interpretation by Director King of the duties imposed upon 

the new bureau by that clause in the organic act charging him with 

responsibility for the classification of the public lands prevailed in 

part until about 1906, when the pressing need of the Department of 

the Interior for an adequate classification of mineral lands for purposes of administration led to a revival of this suspended function 

of the Geological Survey, not, as Director King seemed to think 

necessary, by superseding the machinery of the General Land Office, 

but by cooperation, financial and administrative, between that bureau and the Survey and by a series of orders from the Secretary 

of the Interior, to whom both bureaus report. These orders so define the part that each is to bear in public-land administration as to 

make the Survey chiefly responsible for the physical classifications.

At first the work was concentrated largely on the classification and 

valuation of coal land, and this phase continues to be quantitatively 

the most important. In the Twenty-eighth Annual Keport of the 

Survey, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1907, in discussing the 

work on the coal lands Director Smith makes this statement:

Special investigations were conducted last year to determine the extent of 

the coal lands remaining in the possession of the Government and the quality 

and value of the coal deposits on these public lands. This work will be continued on a larger scale and under a more comprehensive plan. Special attention 

will be given to the classification and valuation of the coal lands and their 

prompt segregation from the noncoal lands. This work is to be provided for by 

a joint allotment from the appropriations for the geologic and topographic surveys and that for testing coals belonging to the Government, and the General 

Land Office is also cooperating.

The Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Survey, for the fiscal year 

ended June 30, 1908, includes with some matter on the special features of the work of the Survey a discussion of land classification, 

which contains the following statement:

In the last few years the Geological Survey has broadened the scope of its 

work in the classification of the mineral lands of the public domain. At the time 

of the organization of the Survey the classification intended by Congress was 

believed to be general in character and such as could be expressed on maps 

issued for the general information of the people. The present interpretation 

of the law is that the classification should be more definite, and therefore, 

during the last year, the Survey has continued its special field surveys of the 

coal lands belonging to the Government. * * *

Increased demands have also been made on the mining geologists of the 

Survey for assistance in determining the mineral or nonmineral character of 

land for which title from the Government is sought.

This work, which has become an increasingly important feature of 

the Survey's activities, was definitely recognized by the organization, 

in December, 1908, of a land-classification board as a section of the 

geologic branch, and by the reorganization of the board on May 1, 

1912, into a branch coordinate in rank with the other Survey branches.
14 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The Geological Survey has been in existence as a distinct organization for about 34 years. The organizations which it succeeded and 

whose functions it continued to perform and gradually to enlarge 

upon as new duties were given it by Congress collected engineering 

material that was epitomized in topographic maps and geologic material that appeared either as geologic maps, as reports on geologic 

.problems, or as data on the mineral resources of the Territories. 

Early in the Survey's history the necessities of its geologic work 

required the organization of a topographic branch for the preparation of base maps. Although these maps were intended to serve 

primarily as bases on which to delineate and present geologic material, they have proved to be of great value for other and wider uses. 

Not the least, of these uses is that to which they are put in land 

classification. The thousands of maps issued are graphic engineering reports on the physical and cultural features of the areas they 

represent. They are essential to the study of drainage areas, irrigability of lands, possible power development, and rights of way, and 

supplemental sheets now prepared give additional data on the distribution of timber and of springs, of desert and of grass land, and 

of cultivated and irrigated areas.

On March 20,1888, Congress, by joint resolution, directed the Secretary of the Interior, through the United States Geological Survey, 

to make a special investigation of the practicability of constructing 

reservoirs for the storage of water in the arid regions of the United 

States. This work was supported for a time by appropriations but 

was later discontinued by Congress after many reservoir sites had 

been examined and segregated and a number of reports valuable in 

the classification of the lands of the arid regions had been published.

After the irrigation survey was abolished the division of hydrography was organized within the Geological Survey, at first as 

a part of the topographic branch and later with special small appropriations, its purpose being to continue that part of the work of the 

irrigation survey that involved the study of the available water 

resources of the Western States and Territories. As the value of 

this work to reclamation became manifest, Congress responded by 

increasing the amount of the funds annually available for this purpose until in 1903 they reached the sum of $200,000 a year.

On June 17, 1902, the reclamation act (32 Stat., 388) was passed. 

This act represented the culmination toward which the work of the 

division of hydrography had up to that time been tending. That 

work gave definite information as to available supplies of water and 

the lands on which the water could be used. The reclamation act 

authorized the construction of works for the application of these 

waters and the reclamation of the tributary lands. But the reclamation fund is not available for general studies of water supplies j it can
DEVELOPMENT OP ORGANIZATION FOR LAND CLASSIFICATION. 15

be used only for studies of water available for use on specific projects. 

The work of the division of hydrography therefore did not cease with 

the organization of the Reclamation Service but has been continued 

in the Geological Survey by the water-resources branch.

Developments within the geologic branch since its organization 

have likewise marked a steady evolution from its original type. The 

branch has grown, its appropriations and its force have increased, 

and its work has been more closely subdivided and specialized and 

has attained greater refinement in all departments; and while this 

evolution has been taking place it has steadily accumulated a great 

mass of facts bearing on the geology and mineral resources of the 

United States.

The material accumulated since their organization by the field 

branches of the Survey the geologic branch, the topographic branch, 

the water-resources branch and its predecessors, the irrigation survey 

and the division of hydrography constitutes a vast body of information concerning the public domain its geology, its geography, 

and its water supplies and the engineering, features that control the 

distribution of these supplies. This store of information is by no 

means complete, for many problems are still untouched and many 

areas are unexamined, but nevertheless the archives of the bureau 

contain a greater mass of material of the kind required for classifying the remaining lands of the public domain into types that accord 

with their various uses than.exists anywhere else in the public records.

With the accumulation of the data indicated the Department of 

the Interior and its bureaus have become increasingly ready and willing to call on the Survey for assistance in that phase of public-land 

administration which requires as its basis a classification of the 

lands into the types recognized in the statutes.

The requests made by the department for information contained 

in the Survey's records were at first sporadic; later they became 

more frequent and numerous, so that it became necessary to create 

within the Survey itself an organization to assemble this information systematically and transmit it to the department and to other 

bureaus in the department in such form as would be most readily 

applicable to the solution of administrative problems. This organization was named the land-classification board and was first formed 

as a section of the geologic branch and finally made a branch of the 

Survey coordinate in functions and responsibility with the field 

branches whose evolution has been briefly outlined.

The Survey's organization for classifying the public lands consists, then, fundamentally and primarily, of three field branches 

geologic, topographic, and water resources and finally of the recently organized office branch known as the land-classification board,
16 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

with its staff of geologists and engineers, who analyze and translate 

into terms of public-land administration the data collected by the 

geologists and engineers of the field branches.

In its organization the land-classification board is in a sense a 

replica in miniature of the bureau of which it is a part. It consists 

of two divisions a division of mineral classification and a division 

of hydrographi^c classification. The first corresponds to the geologic 

branch and receives, digests, and issues as land-classification data 

the material collected by the field geologists; the second bears a corresponding relation to the topographic and water-resources branches 

 and similarly utilizes the engineering data gathered by the field force 

of those branches. Again, the division of mineral classification contains a number of sections which correspond closely with similar sections in the geologic branch. These sections, in the organization as 

it exists at present, are the coal section, the oil section, the phosphate 

section, and the metalliferous section, corresponding roughly to 

similar sections in the geologic branch as well as to the principal of 

the natural resources witl). which the board deals.

The work of the coal section, described elsewhere in detail, is 

to define the principles that shall control coal-land classification, to 

determine the character of the data necessary for this purpose, to 

receive these data as collected by the field geologists of the geologic 

branch, and to make and promulgate the classifications and valuations 

by the use of these data this in accordance with principles already 

carefully defined. The coal section consists of a chairman, who is 

a member of the land-classification board and one of the most experienced coal geologists of the Survey, and a number of additional 

members, who are familiar with coal problems and are chosen usually 

from the geologic branch, although some have been chosen from 

other sections of the board. The coal section thus organized holds 

frequent sessions, which are attended by coal geologists who have 

data to present for consideration. At these sessions the problems that 

have arisen in the field are discussed and solved in accordance with 

the established rules of the board. The form and the procedure for 

the submission of data, including data for classification and valuation, are prescribed, and after these data are received appropriate 

recommendations are made to the Director for withdrawals or restorations, and valuation plats are prepared for his approval and for 

promulgation by the Commissioner of the General Land Office.

Each step of these various processes is carefully recorded, in order 

that all evidence considered and all action taken may readily be 

reviewed at any future time should questions arise as to the correctness of the action or should new evidence be presented. Thereafter 

when reports on any subdivision classified are called for by any
DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATION FOE LAND. CLASSIFICATION. 17

Government department, by other bureaus, by public officials, or by 

. citizens, prompt response can be made in the light of all action theretofore taken affecting that subdivision.

Because the laws applicable to coal lands, unlike those providing 

for the disposal of lands containing other minerals, authorize not 

merely the classification of the public domain as coal or noncoal land 

but the valuation and sale of the coal land at prices to be fixed in 

accordance with the quantity, quality, and accessibility of the coal, 

more complete action is possible in dealing with coal lands than with 

others, and the very completeness of action required involves correspondingly difficult problems.

Similar sections have been organized within the division of mineral 

classification for dealing with lands that may contain oil and gas, 

phosphate, and other nonmetalliferous minerals and for such limited 

and special classifications of metalliferous land as are required by law. 

The organization of each of these sections is similar to that of the 

coal section, and the action taken by them follows similar lines. 

Members of the land-classification board act as chairmen of the oil 

and gas section, the phosphate section, and the metalliferous section. 

Other members of the sections are selected from geologists who are 

engaged in field work on the particular resource which is the subject 

matter of the board's action.

A similar but less formal organization has been effected for the 

division of hydrographic classification. This division deals with 

those phases of land classification that depend on water supply and 

that involve the solution of engineering problems. The division's 

chief task is the classification of lands according to their irrigability 

and their power value, but it also reports on various complex problems which are involved in the consideration of miscellaneous rights 

of way. This division is administered by the chief engineer of the. 

board. As occasion may demand, sections are organized within it 

for disposing of the various .problems that arise. At present (1913) 

there are two such sections, one dealing with water powers and the 

other with irrigation. Each section consists of a chairman and two 

or more additional members, usually chosen from the engineers or 

hydrographic geologists of the water-resources branch. The section 

thus constitutes a committee which, like the sections in the division 

of mineral classification, may give preliminary consideration to a 

problem of classification (under the enlarged-homestead act, for 

example), or it may prepare instructions for the guidance of the 

field engineer or geologist and later give consideration to the data 

that he has obtained and prepare appropriate recommendations. The 

field branch with which these sections necessarily maintain closest 

relations is the water-resources branch, although their relation with

78894° Bull. 537 13 2
18 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the topographic branch is but little less close. The graphic data 

on drainage areas, stream grades, reservoir sites, and general topographic features which result from the work of the topographic 

branch, when combined with the data on water supply assembled 

by the water-resources branch, furnish the basis for determining most 

irrigation and power problems.

In addition to the work done by these technical divisions and sections, certain miscellaneous duties are performed by means of a less 

well-defined administrative division of the board, whose functions 

are closely interwoven with those of the technical divisions and are 

participated in by some of the same officers. A committee, of which 

the secretary of the board is chairman, has charge of the filing and 

docketing system. The chairman of the oil section is responsible for 

the records in the division of mineral classification and for the details 

of cooperation with the Land Office and the Indian Office; the chairman of the water-power section is chiefly responsible for the records 

in the division of hydrographic classification.

The more important elements in the organization are set forth 

in the following outline:

LAND-CLASSIFICATION BOARD.

Aammistration.

Chief of board. 

Chief engineer. 

Secretary.

Division of mineral classification.

A geologist in charge. 

Coal section. 

Oil section. 

Phosphate section. 

Metalliferous section.

Division of hydrographic classification.

A chief engineer in charge. 

Water-power section. 

Irrigation section.

HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS FOB LAND CLASSIFICATION.

INTBODTJCTION.

Ever since the policy of selling the lands of the public domain as 

a source of national revenue was abandoned and the contrary policy 

of so disposing of them as to promote settlement and development 

was adopted, the administration of the land laws passed by Congress
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 19

has required a segregation of the lands into classes according with 

their character. It is apparent, although it has nowhere been expressly stated by Congress, that the fundamental principle guiding 

that body has been to dispose of each tract of the public domain for 

the use to which it is best adapted. Thus the laws have provided 

that agricultural entry should not be made upon valuable mineral 

lands, that lands containing deposits of coal should be sold only as 

coal lands, and so on for all other classes of lands. The underlying 

theory of devoting the public lands to their highest use and the 

consequent necessity for classification of uses may easily be recognized 

from a study of the brief outline of the more important existing land 

laws given on pages 20-32.

The same recognition by Congress of the necessity for land classification is shown by numerous acts calling for the classification of 

specific areas. Nearly every law providing for the opening of an 

Indian reservation has required the lands to be classified preliminary 

to their disposition. The act of February 26, 1895 (28 Stat., 683), 

provides and appropriates for a definite classification of lands within 

the limits of the Northern Pacific Railroad grant in portions of 

Montana and Idaho, and the sundry civil bill of June 25, 1910 (36 

Stat., 739), makes further appropriation for the same purpose. The 

act of October 2,1888 (25 Stat., 526), makes provision for a classification that was not necessary to the administration of the land laws 

then in force by appropriating $100,000 to the Geological Survey 

" for the purpose of investigating the extent to which the arid region 

of the United States can be redeemed by irrigation and the segregation of the irrigable lands in such arid region and for the selection 

of sites for reservoirs and other hydraulic works necessary for the 

storage and utilization of water for irrigation and the prevention of 

floods and overflows."

A relatively recent indication of Congressional belief in land 

classification is afforded by the two acts of June 25, 1910, providing 

for the withdrawal of lands from entry, the one of public lands, the 

other of lands in Indian reservations. As withdrawals constitute one 

step in the process of classifying the public domain, the passage of 

bills authorizing withdrawals clearly reaffirms the established policy 

of land classification. One of these acts (36 Stat., 847), in terms 

sanctions the classification of lands, providing 

That the President may at any time, in his discretion, temporarily withdraw 

from settlement, location, sale, or entry any of the public lands of the United 

States, including the District of Alaska, and reserve the same for water-power 

sites, irrigation, classification of lands, or other public purposes to be specified 

in the orders of withdrawals, and such withdrawals or reservations shall remain 

in force until revoked by him or by an act of Congress.
20 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The other (36 Stat.; 855) provides 

That the Secretary of the Interior be, and he is hereby, authorized, in his 

discretion, to reserve from location, entry, sale, allotment, or other appropriation any lauds within any Indian reservation, valuable for power or reservoir 

sites, or which may be necessary for use in connection with any irrigation 

project heretofore or hereafter to be authorized by Congress.

Thus the plain intention of Congress that the public lands shall 

be classified and that they shall be disposed of in accordance with 

their classification is shown by definite provisions for the classification 

of certain areas, by the authorization of land withdrawals, and by 

the creation of an organization the Geological Survey among 

whose prescribed duties the classification of the public lands is specifically stated. But were there none of these evidences the fact that 

Congress has consistently recognized the necessity for the classification of public lands would be established beyond question by a study 

of the land laws, which, as the following brief outline will show, 

could not be administered without some sort of segregation into 

classes. This outline does not purport to set forth in detail all the 

laws under which disposition is made of the public lands; it only 

sketches the principal features of the more important laws.

LAND LAWS. 

GENERAL DIVISIONS.

The land laws of the United States may be divided into two distinct classes public-land laws and land grants. The first are general 

laws providing for the disposition of lands to any duly. qualified 

person who may wish to avail himself of the prescribed conditions; 

the second are special laws granting certain areas to specified individuals, corporations, or State governments. The laws of each of 

these two classes may in turn be subdivided, the public-land laws 

falling loosely under the headings of agricultural, mineral, and coal 

land laws and laws relating to public and quasi-public uses, whereas 

land grants may be divided into grants made to States and grants 

made to railroads.

PUBLIC-LAND LAWS. 

AOBICTJIiTTTKAL-LAND LAWS.

Purpose. In general, the purpose of the laws relating to agricultural land is to promote the settlement of the public domain. 

The principal acts are those providing for homesteads, forest homesteads, enlarged homesteads, desert-land entries, entries under the 

reclamation act, the sale of isolated tracts, and timber and stone 

entries. Every tract of land to which these laws are applied must 

be nonmineral in character.
HISTOEY AND LEGAL BASIS. 21

Homesteads. The homestead act was passed by Congress in 1862 

and was approved by President Lincoln on May 20 of that year 

(Rev. Stat., 2289-2303). It marked the final abandonment of .the 

policy of disposing of the national domain as a means of providing 

public revenue. Until 1912 the homesteader was required to establish a residence on his land and to reside thereupon for a period of 

five years. No definite amount of cultivation was required, but the 

building of houses and barns and the cultivation of a part or all of 

the area were regarded as evidence of the good faith of the entryman 

in entering the land for the purpose of building a home for himself, 

this being the fundamental object of the homestead act. On June 

6, 1912 (37 Stat., 123), the law was amended by reducing the five 

years' residence theretofore required to a residence of three years. 

The requirement as to residence is modified by what is known as the 

"commutation clause" (Rev. Stat., 2301, as amended by the act of 

March 3, 1891, 26 Stat., 1098), which provides that after 14 months' 

residence and cultivation title may be obtained by paying a fixed 

price per acre, this price being either $2.50 or $1.25, the first if the 

land is within, the second if it is without the limits of a railroad grant. 

Homesteads reserving coal or oil and gas to the Government under 

the acts of June 22, 1910 (36 Stat,, 583), and August 24, 1912 (37 

Stat., 496), described later (p. 45), may not be commuted. The 

amendment of June 6, 1912, also provides that the entryman must 

cultivate " not less than one-sixteenth of the area of his entry beginning with the second year of the entry and not less than oneeighth beginning with the third year of the entry and until final 

proof." The homestead act contains the clause "nor shall any 

mineral lands be liable to entry and settlement." The area of the 

homestead is restricted to 160 acres.

Forest homesteads. Lands in national forests are not in general 

open to" agricultural entry, but under the act of June 11, 1906 (34 

Stat., 233), forest-reserve lands which are chiefly valuable for agriculture, which are not needed for public purposes, and which, in 

the opinion of the Secretary of Agriculture, may be occupied without injury to the forest, may be entered under the homestead laws. 

Application for a particular tract desired, which must not exceed 160 

acres in area nor 1 mile in length, must be made to the Secretary of 

Agriculture. The land is then examined by a field agent of the Forest 

Service, and if his report is favorable the land is listed to the Department of the Interior, where homestead entry is allowed. The entry 

thereafter proceeds as would any other entry under the homestead 

law, but no commutation is permitted. The law differs from all 

other agricultural-land laws in that the land must be chiefly valuable 

for agriculture and that the entry may be described by metes and 

bounds instead of by legal subdivisions of the public-land survey.
22 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Enlarged homesteads. An act known as the enlarged-homestead 

act, approved February 19, 1909 (35 Stat., 639), provides that in 

the States of Colorado, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, 

Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico a homestead entry may comprise 320 acres of nonmineral lands which have been designated by 

the Secretary of the Interior as not. susceptible of successful irrigation at a reasonable cost from any known source of water supply. 

On June 17,1910 (36 Stat., 531), a similar act was approved applying to Idaho, and on June 13, 1912 (37 Stat., 132), one applying to 

California and North Dakota. The requirements as to residence and 

cultivation on an "enlarged homestead " are, under the act of June 6, 

1912 (37 Stat., 123), the same as those for other homesteads, but 

enlarged-homestead entries may not be commuted by cash payment. 

The enlarged-homestead acts further provide that tracts in the States 

of Utah and Idaho which have not upon them " such a sufficient supply 

of water suitable for domestic purposes as would make continuous 

residence upon the lands possible " may be subject to entry without the 

necessity of residence, but one-eighth of the area of the entry must 

be cultivated from the beginning of the second year and not less than 

one-fourth from the beginning of the third year until final proof has 

been submitted.

Desert land. Under the desert-land acts entry may be made on 

lands which, by reason of lack of rainfall, will not produce native 

hay or other agricultural crops or trees without irrigation* Such 

lands may be entered by irrigating and producing crops on not 

less than one-eighth of the area. No residence is required. Any 

person duly qualified may enter an area not exceeding 320 acres of 

such lands. It should be noted, however, that this 320-acre area is 

limited by the fact that one person is not permitted to acquire more 

than 320 acres of land under the public-land laws, mineral entries 

not being taken into account. The entryman is given three years 

in which to reclaim his land, which must be nonmineral in character.

Reclamation act. Under the act of June 17, 1902 (32 Stat., 388), 

the Government is building great irrigation projects for the reclamation of arid and semiarid lands in the West. Lands thus reclaimed, 

which must be nonmineral in character, may be entered by any person 

qualified to make a homestead entry. The enterable area is not more 

than 160 acres but is different in the different projects and in different 

parts of the same project. No charge is made for the land, but the 

entryman must pay his proportional part of the cost of the project 

in ten yearly installments. Three years' residence on the land is required, as under other homestead laws, and at least one-half the area 

of the entry must be cultivated before title can be obtained.

Isolated tracts. Small tracts of public land surrounded by lands 

which have already been entered may be purchased as isolated tracts
filSTOBY AND LEGAL BASIS. 23

Under section 2455 of the Revised Statutes as amended by the act 

of June 27, 1906 (34 Stat, 517). Under the act of March 28, 1912 

(37 Stat., 77), mountainous tracts which are not isolated by entered 

land but which are unfit for cultivation may be purchased by the 

owner of adjoining land in the same manner as isolated tracts. A 

person desiring to purchase land in this manner files with the local 

land officers an application to purchase, whereupon, if the lands are 

nonmineral and are in fact isolated or mountainous, a public sale is 

advertised, at which the lands are sold to the highest bidder. No 

residence or cultivation is necessary, but the land must be nonmineral. 

Timber and stone lands. The foregoing five classes of laws constitute the principal types under which agricultural entry may be 

made. There remains a sixth class of considerable importance, which, 

while applying only to lands more valuable for other purposes than 

for agriculture, is nevertheless more nearly allied to the agricultural 

laws than to the laws relating to minerals, coal, or quasi-public uses. 

Under the act of June 3, 1878 (20 Stat., 89), and acts amendatory 

thereof nonmineral lands which are valuable chiefly for the timber 

and stone thereon and which are unfit for cultivation may be appraised and sold at not less than $2.50 per acre. Application to 

purchase is made in a manner similar to that required by the laws 

relating to isolated tracts, but there is no public sale. There is instead 

an appraisement of the value of the land by an appraiser designated 

by the Government, and the lands are purchased at the price so fixed.

MINERAL-LAND LAWS.

General provisions. The mineral-land laws were in the main formulated in the 10 years between 1865 and 1875. They are based 

largely on local mining customs which had attained the force of law 

in the mining camps on the public domain. Their constant purpose 

has been to promote mineral development. The act of May 10, 1872 

(Rev. Stat., 2319), provides that "all valuable mineral deposits in 

lands belonging to the United States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, 

are hereby declared to be free and open to exploration and purchase, 

* * * by citizens of the United States and those who have declared 

their intention to become such." No important amendment of the 

mining laws has been made since the date of this act. At that time 

the known deposits of importance on the public domain comprised 

only metalliferous minerals, and the laws were framed with such 

deposits in mind, provision being made for two classes of claims 

lode and placer. From time to time since the adoption of the mining 

laws one and another nonmetalliferous mineral has become important, 

and its entry under the placer law has been authorized by Congress, 

which has thus specially provided for the entry of lands that are 

chiefly valuable for petroleum, salines, and building stone.
24 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The general procedure under the mineral-land laws is the same 

for all classes of deposits. The person who desires to obtain mineral 

lands must first make a discovery of valuable mineral within the 

limits of the claim that he wishes to locate. This discovery, as interpreted by the Department of the Interior and the courts, must be 

such a showing of mineral as would warrant a man of ordinary prudence in expending his time and labor upon the claim in the reasonable hope and expectation of developing a paying mine thereon, 

or, as expressed in one of the latest decisions (40 L. D., 271) interpreting the lode law, " there must be actually physically exposed " 

within the limits of the .claim " a vein or lode of mineral-bearing 

rock in place, possessing in and of itself a present or prospective 

value for mining purposes." The method of location, the posting 

of location notices, and other similar matters are determined by the 

local customs or miners' rules of the district in which the claim is 

situated. In order to hold a claim against possible adverse claimants in other words, to prevent its being jumped at least $100 

worth of work, called " assessment work/' must be performed on it 

each year. After $500 worth of assessment work has been done and 

certain requirements as to recording and surveys have been met, the 

applicant, on payment of a fixed price per acre, is entitled to patent.

Lodes. Claims for veins of quartz or other rock in place are 

known as lode claims (Rev. Stat., 2320). Their size is governed by 

the rules of the mining district in which they are situated but must 

not exceed 600 feet in width and 1,500 feet in length. Claims need 

not conform to the public-land system of surveys and may be in almost any shape, provided only that the end lines of each claim shall 

be parallel to one another. When patent is sought, a purchase price 

of $5 an acre must be paid.

All veins that come to the surface within a given claim are the 

property of the owner of that claim through their entire depth 

(Rev. Stat., 2322) but only for such portion of their extent as lies 

between the end lines of the claim. Thus the owner of the outcrop 

or apex of a lode may follow it downward indefinitely so long as 

he stays within his end lines and may mine it without regard to the 

ownership of the land under which it passes. This provision, which 

is known as the "law of the apex," has unquestionably been more 

provocative of litigation than any other provision of American land 

law.

The lode law provides also for the discovery in driving tunnels 

of veins not outcropping on the surface and not previously known to 

exist. It grants to the discoverers the right to 1,500 feet of extent 

of each vein so discovered within 3,000 feet of the face of the tunnel, 

with the same apex right as if the discovery were made at the 

surface. Failure for six months to prosecute work on a tunnel acts
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 25

as an abandonment of the right to veins which may subsequently be 

encountered.

The number of claims which may be entered by one person under 

the lode law is unlimited, provided he does the necessary assessment 

work and otherwise complies with the law for each claim. Moreover, the owner of a group of claims may concentrate his assessment 

work on one claim of the group if such work tends to the development of every claim in the group.

Placers. The placer law, which was approved July 9, 1870 (16 

Stat., 217), was intended to apply to gold and silver distributed 

through deposits of sand and gravel. As at that date there were no 

known important mineral deposits except veins and placers, the law 

provides (Eev. Stat., 2329) that "placer" claims shall include "all 

forms of deposit, excepting veins of quartz or other rock in place," 

These placer claims are subject to entry and patent in a manner 

similar to lode claims, but where the lands have been surveyed the 

claim must conform to the legal subdivisions of the survey. The 

purchase price is $2.50 an acre. The maximum area that may be 

included in one claim by an individual is 20 acres, although, as in 

lode, claims, there is no limit to the number of claims that may be 

entered. An association may enter in one claim an area equal to 20 

acres for each member but not more than 160 acres. Only one discovery of mineral is required to support a placer location, whether 

it be of 20 acres by an individual or of 160 acres by an association. 

The applicant for a placer claim must make affidavit that there is 

not within the limits of the claim any valuable vein or lode and also 

that title is not sought in order to control watercourses or to obtain 

valuable timber. The assessment work on each claim, whether of 

20 or 160 acres, must amount to $100 a year and to $500 before patent 

may be issued. On placer as on lode claims annual assessment work 

to the amount of $100 for each claim in a group may be done on any 

one of the claims in the group, provided it tends to the exploration 

or development of all.

Building stone. -By the act of August 4, 1892 (27 Stat., 348), the 

placer law was extended to apply to lands chiefly valuable for building stone. The requirements as to discovery, assessment work, area, 

and price are the same as for other placers. It is to be noted that 

in this act the factor of relative value was for the first time specifically 

introduced into mineral-land law. The earlier laws provide for 

mineral entry on lands which are valuable for their mineral deposits. 

It has been argued that only lands whose mineral value is greater 

than their agricultural value are properly enterable as mineral land, 

and the decisions of the department and the courts can not be said 

to have settled the matter conclusively. In the building-stone and
26 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

subsequent extensions of the placer law, however, it is specifically 

stated that the lands must be chiefly valuable for the mineral upon 

whose discovery the claim is based.

This extension of the placer law to cover building stone neither 

repealed nor conflicts with the timber and stone act of June 3, 1878 

(20 Stat., 89), already discussed. Thus lands chiefly valuable for 

building stone may be purchased at an appraised value not less than 

$2.50 per acre or may be entered under the placer law and patented 

after the completion of the required amount of assessment work, on 

payment of $2.50 per acre.

Oil. About a quarter of a century after the passage of the placer 

law valuable deposits of petroleum were discovered on public lands. 

The discoverers, finding themselves without an appropriate law under which to apply for a patent, made application under the placer 

law not because it was fitted to the needs of the situation but because of its general provision that all forms of deposit excepting 

veins of quartz or other rock in place should be entered thereunder. 

The Department of the Interior, recognizing the undesirability of 

applying the placer law to oil and gas, refused to allow the applications. On an appeal to Congress for relief, the act of February 11, 

1897 (29 Stat., 526), was passed, providing that lands chiefly valuable 

for petroleum and other mineral oils should be enterable under the 

placer law. On February 12, 1903 (32 Stat., 825), specific authority 

was granted for doing assessment work on any one of a group of oil 

claims lying contiguous and owned by the same person or corporation, not exceeding five claims in all, provided that such assessment 

work tends to develop or determine the oil-bearing character of all 

the claims. The requirement of discovery of valuable minerals as a 

prerequisite to location a requirement reasonable enough when applied to veins outcropping at the surface or to gold placers is 

applied as rigidly to deposits of oil and gas, which, as a rule, can be 

discovered only after long and expensive exploration, as to other 

minerals. Lands included in petroleum placers, like those entered 

for building stone, must be chiefly valuable for the purpose for which 

they are claimed.

Salines. The act of January 31, 1901 (31 Stat., 745), extends 

the placer law to cover lands that contain salt springs or deposits 

of salt in any form and that are chiefly valuable therefor. This has 

been interpreted as including only sodium chloride, no specific provision having been made for other soluble salts. The requirements as 

to area, assessment work, and price are those contained in the original 

placer law, except that the same person may not locate or enter more 

than one claim. The consideration of relative worth is again introduced.
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS.

COAIXLAND LAWS.

The law under which disposition is made of coal differs so radically from the laws regarding other minerals that it is not ordinarily 

classed with the mineral-land laws. It was approved March 3, 1873 

(17 Stat, 607), and was incorporated into the Kevised Statutes as 

sections 2347 to 2352. Any qualified person may purchase an area 

of coal land not exceeding 160 acres on payment of not less than $10 

an acre if the land is more than 15 miles from a railroad and 

not less than $20 an acre if the land is within 15 miles of a railroad. 

An association of persons severally qualified may purchase 320 acres. 

An association of four or more persons who have opened and improved a coal mine upon the public lands and have expended not less 

than $5,000 in working and improving it may enter an area not exceeding 640 acres. No person may make more than one coal entry, 

either individually or as a, member of an association, and no association any member of which has previously exhausted his coal right 

may purchase coal land. A person or association opening a mine 

on the public lands is entitled to a preference right of entry for the 

lands on which the mine is situated, provided that a " coal declaratory statement" is filed within 60 days from the initial date of 

actual possession and the commencement of improvements upon the 

land. This preference right is good for one year only. The operation of the law is restricted to surveyed lands, which must not be 

valuable for their content of gold, silver, or copper.

For over 30 years after the passage of this law all coal lands were 

sold at the minimum prices of $10 and $20 an acre prescribed by the 

statute. Since 1907 the selling prices have been fixed by the Geological Survey and have ranged from the minimum prices up to $600 

an acre.

LAWS RELATING TO PUBLIC AND QUASI-PUBLIC USES.

The laws governing public and quasi-public uses of land differ 

from the other laws under discussion in that they provide for the 

use of rights of way for various specified purposes and do not contemplate the transfer to the beneficiaries thereunder of fee title to 

the land affected.

Railroads. By the act of March 3, 1875 (18 Stat., 482), Congress 

granted to railroad companies right of way to the extent of 100 feet 

on each side of the center line of a proposed railroad through the 

public lands, under prescribed conditions. Upon the approval by 

the Secretary of the Interior of the location map filed by any railroad company, the road as located is noted on the plats in the General and local land offices, and thereafter all public land over which 

such right of way passes is disposed of subject to such right of way. 

By act of March 2,1899 (3P Stat., 990), Congress provided for similar
28 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

rights of way across Indian reservations, and by the act of March 

3, 1899 (30 Stat, 1233), the Secretary of the Interior was authorized 

to approve rights of way for wagon road, railroad, or other highway 

across any forest reservation or reservoir site when in his judgment 

the public interest would not be injuriously affected thereby.

Irrigation. By act of March 3, 1891 (26 Stat., 1095), Congress 

granted to canal and ditch companies formed for the purpose of 

irrigation the right of way for canals, ditches, and reservoirs to the 

extent of the ground occupied and 50 feet on each side of the marginal limits thereof, across public lands and reservations, provided 

that no such right of way shall be so located as to interfere with the 

proper occupation by the Government of any such reservation and 

that all maps of location shall be subject to the approval of the 

department of the Government having jurisdiction over such reservation. Upon the approval by the Secretary of the Interior of the 

location map the right of way is noted on the plats in the General 

and local land offices and thereafter all public land over which the 

right of way passes is disposed of subject to such right of way. By 

act, of May 11, 1898 (30 Stat., 404), the use which may be made of 

the canals, ditches, and reservoirs for which right of way is secured 

under the act of 1891 was extended to include purposes of a public 

nature, water transportation, domestic purposes, and the development of power, as subsidiary to the main purpose of irrigation. The 

act of February 15, 1901 (31 Stat., 790), which provides for the 

issuance of revocable permits for the development of power, covers 

also canals, ditches, pipes and pipe lines, flumes, tunnels, or other 

water conduits and water plants, dams, and reservoirs used to promote irrigation.

Power. Power development on the public lands and reservations 

can at this time (February, 1913) be accomplished only under the 

act of February 15, 1901 (31 Stat., 790), except that power development subsidiary to the main purpose of irrigation may be made 

under the irrigation acts and that power development on national forests for mining, milling, and municipal purposes may be made under 

the act of February 1,1905 (33 Stat., 628). The act of February 15, 

1901, authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to issue revocable permits, under general regulations to be fixed by him, for rights of way 

for electrical plants, poles, and lines for the generation and distribution of electrical power to the extent of the ground occupied by 

the works and not to exceed 50 feet on each side of the marginal 

limits thereof. The law provides that permits issued under this act 

shall not be held to confer any right, easement, or interest in, to, or 

over any public land, reservation, or park. The act of March 4, 1911 

(36 Stat., 1253), authorizes the head of the department having 

jurisdiction over the lands to grant rights of way for a period not
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 29

exceeding 50 years upon the public lands, national forests, and reservations for poles and lines for the transmission and distribution of 

electrical power, to the extent of 20 feet on each side of the center 

line.

Mining and milling. The act of February 1, 1905 (33 Stat., 628), 

grants rights of way within or across national forests for dams, 

reservoirs, water plants, ditches, flumes, pipes, tunnels, and canals 

for mining purposes and for the purposes of the milling and reduction of ores. Outside of the national forests the use of similar rights 

of way for these purposes may be made only under revocable permit 

under the act of February 15,1901.

Municipal uses. Eights of way for municipal use for procuring 

water supply or for developing power may be obtained within a 

national forest under the act of February 1, 1905, and outside of the 

forests under the act of February 15, 1901.

LAND GRANTS. 

GRANTS TO STATES.

In aid of schools and State institutions. The Continental Congress, about the year 1785, declared that to each State created out of 

the public domain there should be given a certain portion of each 

township in the State, the proceeds derived therefrom to be used for 

public education. Accordingly, when the first State, Ohio, was admitted into the Union from the public domain, April 30, 1802 (2 

Stat., 173), sec. 16 of each township was granted for the establishment of a school fund. As other States have been admitted this 

practice has been deviated from only in adding to the acreage 

granted. Sec. 16 has been a school section in every public-land 

State; to this sec. 36 has been added oin many States, and in some 

States sees. 2, 32, and 36. The title of the State to these sections 

attaches immediately upon survey, unless the lands are at that date 

known to be mineral in character or are included in a valid settlement or other claim under the public-land laws or are within a forest, 

military, Indian, or other reservation. In any of these contingencies the State does not obtain title, but may select an equal area of 

nonmineral lands elsewhere. These are known as indemnity lands. 

As a rule they are not at once selected by the States but are selected 

only as the demand for specific lands arises.

In addition to granting school lands in place and their associated 

indemnity lands, Congress has made to certain States " quantity 

grants " that is, grants of specified quantities of nonmineral lands 

wherever the State may choose to select them in aid of State institutions, such, for example, as insane asylums.. Selection rights under 

these grants, like those under the indemnity lists, are as a rule exer-
30 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

cised by a State only when individuals or corporations purchase the 

right to select certain desired lands.

In aid of internal improvements. Iri the early days of the country's history the right of Congress to grant public lands in aid of 

internal improvements was bitterly contested. The first legislation 

of this character was contained in the enabling act of the State of 

Ohio, already cited, and provided that one-twentieth of the proceeds of the sale of public lands within the State should be given 

to the State to be used in establishing public roads. The first grant 

of specific lands in aid of internal improvements was not made until 

February 28, 1823 (3 Stat., 727). This grant also was made to the 

State of Ohio to aid in the construction of a wagon road. Since 

that time there have been ten other wagon-road grants, eight, canal 

grants, three river-improvement grants, and twenty railroad grants. 

The railroad grants to States alone approximate 40,000,000 acres. 

No grant to a State in aid* of internal improvements has been made 

since the grant to Oregon for the Coos Bay wagon road on March 3, 

1869 (15 Stat., 340). Although these grants were in terms-made to 

the States, most or all of them were in fact made through the 

States to corporations that carried out the improvements contemplated.

Garey Act. The act of August 18, 1894 (28 Stat., 372, 422), commonly known as the Carey Act, and amendments thereto, the purpose of which is to aid the public-land States in the reclamation of 

the desert lands therein and in the settlement, cultivation, and sale of 

such lands in small tracts to actual settlers, authorize 

(a) The temporary withdrawal of public lands from settlement or 

entry pending investigation and survey preliminary to the filing of 

an application for segregation, such withdrawn lands to be restored 

to settlement and entry at the end of one year from the date of withdrawal in case application for segregation is not theretofore made.

(b) The segregation of public lands by the Secretary of the Interior, contracts between the United States and any beneficiary State, 

and the reclamation of such lands by beneficiary States within 10 

years from the approval of the State's application (subject to an 

extension of 5 years). .

(c) The patenting to any beneficiary State of any tract of reclaimed land when satisfactory proof is made that an ample supply 

of water to reclaim it is actually furnished.

Other important provisions of the Carey Act are in brief as 

follows:

Prior to segregation of lands or execution of contract between the 

United States and any State, such State shall file a proper application and present satisfactory plans for the reclamation of the lands. 

Lands that are not desert, lands that are occupied by bona fide set-
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 31

tiers or under the mining laws, unsurveyed lands occupied with a 

view to entry under the desert-land laws, and lands containing valuable deposits of minerals other than coal are not subject to segregation. Coal lands (in Utah oil and gas lands also) may be segregated, but when patent is issued it must contain a reservation of these 

minerals to the United States.

The usual procedure under the Carey Act is about as follows: 

A corporation or individual applies to the State for the withdrawal of certain public lands proposed for irrigation. The State' 

thereupon submits to the Interior Department an application for 

their withdrawal. On the approval of this application the State is; 

allowed one year in which to investigate the project and prepare' 

satisfactory plans for reclamation. The proposing company conducts the investigations and if a project that is considered feasible 

is developed makes application to the State for the segregation of 

the irrigable lands and offers to contract with the State for their 

reclamation. The State thereupon applies to the Interior Department for the segregation of the lands under the terms of the Carey 

Act and its amendments. If the plan of irrigation is found to be 

feasible, the irrigation company responsible, and the available water 

supply adequate, the lands are segregated and the contract for their 

reclamation is entered into between the United States and the State. 

When the irrigation works are completed to the satisfaction of the 

Government, patent is issued to the State or to its assigns. The 

State receives payment for the lands from the settler, and the irrigation company, either directly or through the State, receives payment 

from each settler for his proportionate share of the irrigation works 

and water rights involved.

RAILROAD GRANTS.

As already indicated, most grants of public lands in aid of internal 

improvements have been made through the States. Eight grants, 

however, have been made by Congress directly to corporations, to encourage the building of railroads. Four of these grants, aggregating 

approximately 109,000,000 acres, were made to Federal corporations 

created by Congress for the purpose of building the roads subsidized, 

and four were made to State corporations. Of the four grants to State 

corporations, two were declared forfeited by Congress in 1874, the two 

remaining aggregating approximately 6,000,000 acres. The first of the 

grants made directly to corporations was the Pacific railroads bill of 

July 1, 1862 (12 Stat., 489), which provided for the building of the 

Union Pacific-Central Pacific line from Missouri Kiver to the Pacific coast. This act granted to the railroad every alternate section 

for 20 miles on either side of the right of way. The Northern Pacific grant of July 2, 1864 (13 Stat., 365), conveyed every alternate
32 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

section for 40 miles on either side of the right of way. Neither of 

these grants contained restrictions as to the use to be made of the 

lands, but certain of the later grants required the lands to be sold 

only to actual settlers at prices not to exceed $2.50 an acre. The last 

of the railroad grants was made to the Texas Pacific Railroad Co. 

on March 3, 1871 (16 Stat., 573). Since that time Congress has 

consistently refused to grant lands, either to States or to corporations, 

in aid of internal improvements.

All the railroad grants were restricted to lands containing no 

minerals except coal and iron. These two were given to the railroads because of their use in the construction and operation of 

the roads. In certain cases the railroads were permitted to select 

other lands in lieu of those which, normally constituting a 'part 

of the grant, proved to be valuable for minerals other than 

coal and iron or to be included within Indian or military reservations or national forests or to have been covered by valid settlement. The right to make these lieu selections is usually sold by the 

railroads in the form of "scrip," which may be filed on any vacant

unreserved nonmineral land.

\

NECESSITY FOB LAND CLASSIFICATION.

A study of the land laws shows the absolute necessity of some 

form of segregation of the lands into classes as a prerequisite to their 

disposition. Agricultural entry may not be.made on lands containing valuable minerals, nor coal entry on lands containing gold, silver, 

or copper; lands included in desert entries or selected under the Carey 

Act must be desert lands; enlarged-homestead lands must not be 

susceptible of successful irrigation; placer claims must not be taken 

for their timber value or their control of watercourses; and lands 

included in building-stone, petroleum, or salt placers must be more 

valuable for those minerals than for any other purpose. So through 

the whole scheme of American land laws runs the necessity for 

determining the use for which each tract is best fitted.

No specific financial provision has ever been made for a systematic 

classification of the entire public domain into classes representing 

the highest use for each area. Such a scheme, with proper provision 

for revisions whenever necessitated by changing conditions or increased knowledge, would be of immense value in the administration 

of the public domain, and if it had been initiated when the major 

portion of the public-land laws were in process of formation it would 

have saved to the public natural resources^of immense value. It can 

hardly be questioned that the National Academy of Sciences had in 

mind such a systematic classification of the entire public domain 

when it recommended the creation of the Geological Survey, but the
HISTOEY AND LEGAL BASIS. 33

new organization when created was not supplied with the funds to 

carry forward a work of such magnitude. The classification of coal 

lands and the segregation of lands valuable for oil, gas, phosphate, 

 potash, water power, and reservoir sites constitute a tardy and very 

meager attempt to meet the need for a universal classification.

In default of a classification of the entire national domain the 

land department early adopted the expedient of requiring a classification of each tract of land at the time of its disposition. These 

classifications in general originated from four sources first, from the 

applicant for the land; second, from deputy surveyors; third, from 

members of the Land Office field service; and fourth, from the 

Geological Survey. It is the present purpose to discuss the first 

three types of classification somewhat briefly and the last in considerable detail, and to show the weight given to each type and the results.

AGENCIES AND METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION.

CLASSIFICATION BY AFFIDAVIT OF APPLICANT.

Nearly every applicant for public land is required to submit an 

affidavit that the land desired is of a character properly subject to 

the proposed entry or selection. Every applicant under the agricultural laws must set forth by his own oath and that of two witnesses that the lands are nonmineral in character. The State in 

selecting indemnity or " quantity grant" lands must make affidavit 

to their nonmineral character. Mineral applicants must state under 

oath the discovery of valuable minerals, and similar affidavits are 

required of most if not all applicants.

Less and less weight has been given in recent years to classifications so made. It has been found that the affidavits of interested 

parties, whether furnished by individuals or submitted by sovereign 

States, do not furnish a reliable basis for the disposition of public 

lands. Furthermore, the determination of the mineral or nonmineral 

character of a particular tract may be too difficult and too complex 

a problem for solution by other than a special trained expert. At 

present all agricultural entries except homestead and desert-land 

entries on unwithdrawn lands are classified as to mineral character 

and power-site or reservoir value either by examination on the 

ground by the Land Office field service or by the Geological Survey 

from-information contained in its records or procured by special examination. Thus, although the affidavit of the applicant has not been 

abandoned, it is of little importance. Similarly mineral claims in 

national forests are subjected to examination before the applicant's 

affidavit of discovery is accepted, and all along the line classification 

by the entryman or selector is being replaced by classifications made 

by the Government.

78894° Bull. 537 13 3
34 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. 

CLASSIFICATION BY DEPUTY SURVEYORS.

The regulations for the survey of public lands require the deputy 

surveyor to note and report all occurrences of mineral. These requirements have varied from time to time. In certain periods the 

deputy surveyor has reported a somewhat detailed classification of 

the lands surveyed into first-class agricultural, second-class agricultural, grazing, mineral, timber, etc. At one time all lands reported by deputy surveyors to be mineral in .character were withheld from agricultural entry, but the inaccuracy of the segregations 

and the magnitude of the areas involved led to a general order throwing all such lands open to all forms of entry. The only present 

result of a report by a deputy surveyor that land is mineral is to subject agricultural entries to a more careful scrutiny than would otherwise be made.

CLASSIFICATION BY LAND OFFICE FIELD SERVICE.

The General Land Office has a well-organized field service engaged in the examination of entries and selections of public, lands. 

All agricultural entries or selections, including State selections.and 

railroad lieu selections but excepting homestead and desert-land entries on unwithdrawn lands, are examined by this field service as to 

their mineral character and power-site or reservoir values, unless the 

Geological Survey is able from its records to make a classification 

of the lands. Formerly the reports of the members of the field service were accepted as final without review outside of the Land Office 

and the Secretary's office, and, as a result, some classifications by the 

Geological Survey were overruled by the Land Office. The resulting 

confusion led to the adoption of cooperative agreements between the 

two organizations, whereby the information gathered by each is made 

fully available to the other. The first of these agreements was entered into July 10, 1910. It has been replaced by a more comprehensive and more systematic agreement adopted March 5, 1912. Under this agreement all entries, selections, or applications except metalliferous mineral entries, coal applications, and homestead and desert 

entries on unwithdrawn lands are referred by the General Land Office 

to the Geological Survey. The Survey thereupon renders to the Land 

Office a report on each case, classifying the land involved. If the 

Survey classifies the land as having no mineral, power, or reservoir 

value, questions concerning these values are considered as settled and 

the case goes forward if it is otherwise regular. If in a given case 

the Survey reports that the lands are mineral or that they have 

power or reservoir value the applicant is given 60 days within 

which to prove that the land is not of the character claimed by the 

Geological Survey but that it is in fact of the character originally 

claimed by him. If he fails so to prove, his application is canceled.
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 35

If the Geological Survey reports that it has not sufficient information to make a definite classification it furnishes to the Land Office 

whatever data it may have, which are placed in the hands of a member of the field service for field investigation and report. The report 

rendered is forwarded to the Geological Survey for further consideration, and a classification based upon it and other facts at hand 

is reported to the General Land Office. Under this agreement the 

records of the Survey are enriched by the data gathered by the 

Land Office field service and, on the other hand, the great amount' 

of valuable information regarding the public lands on file in the 

Survey is made available to the Land Office in its administration of 

the land laws.

CLASSIFICATION BY THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH..

Although the act organizing the Geological Survey definitely imposed upon the Director the duty of classifying the public lands, it 

was many years before the records of the organization contained a 

sufficient fund of information to be of great use in public-land 

administration. During its first quarter of a century the Survey 

devoted its energies almost entirely to gathering scientific data regarding the whole of the United States,-and only within the last 

six or seven years has the immense fund of information so gathered 

been applied in a systematic way to the solution of public-land 

problems. During the early period there were perhaps but two 

practical applications of the Survey's work to land classification. 

The result of the first application was the segregation of reservoir 

sites under the act of October 2, 1888 (25 Stat., 527), to which reference has already been made. Congress in 1891 restored all the 

lands that had been segregated under this act except the areas 

actually needed for the construction of reservoirs, which .still remain segregated as reservoir sites and are not subject to entry. The 

second application was connected with the administration of the 

reclamation act by the Geological Survey. Many withdrawals of 

lands to be included in reclamation projects were made by the Survey prior to the separation from it of the Eeclamation Service. With 

these two exceptions the Geological Survey devoted its energies to 

gathering data rather than to applying the data gathered to the 

classification of public lands until the year 1906. Since that date 

the Survey has been actively engaged in land-classification work. 

The cooperative agreement whereby certain types of information are 

made available to the Land Office in its administration of individual
36 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

entries and selections has already been described. In addition coal 

lands are being classified and valued as rapidly as the funds at the 

disposal of the Survey will permit, and oil, gas, phosphate, and 

potash lands and lands valuable for water-power and reservoir sites 

are being withdrawn from entry as rapidly as information regarding them is obtained. It is proposed to explain here briefly the 

history of the classification undertaken with respect to each of these 

resources.

COAL LANDS.

In the years 1905 and 1906 the general public began to realize that 

large areas of valuable coal lands in the West had been obtained from 

the Government by means of agricultural entries. The frauds thus 

perpetrated were so great as to shock the public mind and to call 

for some immediate action to prevent further similar looting. Accordingly the President, on June 29, 1906, directed the Secretary of 

the Interior to withdraw from entry all valuable coal lands. The 

Survey had previously been making special studies of certain western 

coal fields and its geologists had assisted in unearthing some of the 

coal frauds. It was therefore prepared to submit a list of lands 

which should be withdrawn from entry, and on July 26, 1906, the 

Acting Secretary of the Interior withdrew from all forms of entry 

all the lands on the list submitted by the Survey. Other lists for 

withdrawal were prepared by the Survey during the summer and 

fall of 1906, and one very excellent list, was prepared by the Forest 

Service. These withdrawals, being intended to prevent acquisition 

of coal lands under agricultural entry, were made in such terms as 

to prevent all forms of entry. However, on December 17, 1906, the 

form of all outstanding orders of withdrawal was modified to apply 

to coal entries only, so that the withdrawn lands became again subject to agricultural entries but were not subject to coal entry. Thus 

fraudulent acquisition again became possible and was prevented only 

by the activity of the field service of the General Land Office. On the 

other hand, purchase of withdrawn lands as coal land became impossible until after classification and valuation. From time to time 

other withdrawals from coal entry were made until the spring of 

1909, when many of the outstanding withdrawals were restored to 

their original form and made effective against all forms of entry. 

Soon thereafter Congress passed the withdrawal act of June 25, 

1910 (36 Stat., 847), and since that date coal withdrawals have prohibited all forms of entry except entries on certain classes of land 

which are exempted from withdrawal by that act and agricultural 

entries for surface rights only. The policy throughout has been to 

withdraw all lands on which there is a reasonable probability of the 

occurrence of coal, to examine these lands as rapidly as the funds
HISTOKY AND LEGAL BASIS. 37

available will permit, and on the information gathered to base classifications, the lands.found to be noncoal land being restored to entry 

and those found to contain workable coal being appraised at prices 

not less than the minimum prices prescribed by the statute.

For a time the withdrawals worked great hardship. The greater 

part of the lands thus withheld were not good agricultural lands, but 

the total acreage suitable for agricultural development was large. 

The situation was finally relieved by the passage of three acts providing for agricultural entry upon lands withdrawn or classified as 

coal lands, the Government retaining title to the coal deposits and 

the right to prospect for and remove them. These three acts are 

more fully discussed below under the heading " Separation acts " 

(p. 45).

The first regulations prescribing criteria for the classification and 

valuation of coal lands were approved by Secretary of the Interior 

Garfield on April 8, 1907. They provided for a maximum workable 

depth of 1,500 feet and a minimum workable thickness of 2 feet, all 

lands underlain by coals of less thickness or at greater depth being 

classified as noncoal land. New regulations were adopted February 

19, 1908, and these were in turn superseded by those of April 15, 

1908, under which, although the minimum thickness remained unchanged, high-grade coals were classified as workable to a depth of 

3,000 feet and certain thicknesses of low-grade bituminous and subbituminous coals to a depth of 2,000 feet. Under all these regulations valuations were based on an estimate in which the number of 

beds, the thickness of the beds, and the depth of the beds below the 

surface were taken into account; but the methods of computing prices 

were such that, for example, a 20-foot bed was valued at no higher 

price than an 8-foot bed. On April 10, 1909, Secretary Ballinger 

approved a new set of regulations, drawn on entirely different principles. The minimum thickness was fixed at 14 inches and a more 

important change computations of value were based on the tonnage 

of coal in the land rather than on the number of beds. The maximum 

depth was retained at 3,000 feet. These regulations, while far in 

advance of those preceding, were nevertheless open to criticism because they took little account of certain economic and mining engineering features, such, for example, as the relations between lift and 

haul, between thickness and mining cost, and between minimum 

thickness and workable depth. A new set of regulations has just 

been made effective in which these features have been taken into 

account and the maximum depth for the highest-grade coals has been 

increased to 5,000 feet. The prices are based on tonnage, heat value, 

depth, and thickness. These regulations are given in detail elsewhere in this bulletin (pp. 96-97).
38 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

OIL LANDS.

The earliest withdrawals of lands containing oil and gas were 

made in order to protect oil operators from agricultural entrymen. 

In 1900 certain lands in Wyoming and California were withdrawn 

from agricultural entry on representations made by citizens of those 

States that the lands contained valuable deposits of oil and gas 

and should be withheld from agricultural entry pending a determination as to their content of oil. These orders and others of similar 

character were from time to time issued by the General Land Office. 

The first withdrawal recommended by the Geological Survey was 

made in 1907. For years the Survey had been doing geologic work 

in the oil fields of California. Its geologists, studying the conditions 

of the oil industry as well as the geology arid occurrence of oil, 

early became convinced that unless preventive steps were taken a 

great amount of fraud would be perpetrated and oil development 

would be seriously hindered by attempts to obtain oil lands through 

nonmineral entries. The withdrawal of* certain lands was accordingly recommended,, and on August 15, 1907, the Acting Secretary 

of the Interior approved the recommendation and the withdrawal 

became effective. In 1908 several withdrawals were made in California for the same purpose, and a withdrawal was also made in the 

Caddo field of Louisiana pending an investigation as to possible 

means of preventing the enormous waste of natural gas then taking 

place in that field.

Within a short time it became apparent that the situation was only 

partly covered by withdrawing oil lands from agricultural entry. 

The inadequacy of the placer law and its inapplicability to oil lands 

was clearly recognized. The law was framed to apply to solid minerals; when applied to fluids, such as oil and gas, it at once led to 

many abuses. Drilling along the boundaries of one claim in order 

to draw off oil or gas beneath a neighboring claim forced activity in 

drilling which resulted in production far greater than the demands 

of the market. The requirement of discovery as a prerequisite to 

title also forced development and overproduction. It became more 

and more apparent that oil and gas should be disposed of in terms of 

barrels or cubic feet rather than in terms of acres. These considerations, together with the advisability of retaining a supply of fuel 

oil for the use of the Navy, caused the Geological Survey to urge the 

suspension of all forms of entry on Government oil lands pending 

the enactment of new legislation by Congress. In consequence Secretary of the Interior Ballinger on September 27, 1909, withdrew 

from all forms of entry, location, or disposition all public lands 

believed to contain valuable deposits of oil or gas. As information 

has since been obtained indicating other public lands to be valuable 

for these minerals, they also have been withdrawn from all forms of
HISTOEY AKD LEGAL BASIS. ' 39

disposition under the mineral or nonmineral land laws. Field examination has shown that certain lands so withdrawn are not valuable for their oil or gas deposits, and they have been promptly 

restored to public entry. In one State, Utah, the surface of the 

lands so withdrawn is open to agricultural entry.

A number of bills providing for the disposal of oil and gas deposits 

have been introduced in Congress, but none have yet been enacted 

into law, so that the petroleum withdrawals continue in force and 

new ones are being made as occasion arises. The need of the Navy 

for a supply of fuel oil has recently been more strongly recognized, 

the battleships last authorized being designed to burn oil exclusively. 

Fully to insure the Nation an adequate supply of fuel oil two naval 

petroleum reserves aggregating 68,249 acres and estimated to contain 

at least 250,000,000 barrels of oil have been created in the San Joaquin 

Valley fields of California, one under date of September 2, 1912, and 

the second under date of December 13, 1912.

PHOSPHATE LANDS.

Phosphate lands, like oil lands, are withdrawn because of the inadequacy of existing law to dispose of phosphate. Only within 

comparatively recent years has it been known that important phosphate deposits exist on the public domain, but as soon as such deposits were discovered conflicts arose between entrymen under the 

placer law and entrymen under the lode law. As a matter of fact 

neither lode law nor placer law is fitted to phosphate deposits, which 

occur as sedimentary beds interstratified with barren rocks in a 

manner identical with that in which coal occurs. The placer law 

provides for the disposition of all forms of deposit except rock in 

place. The western phosphate deposits are clearly rock in place. 

Moreover, some of them lie at great depth and are as difficult to mine 

as coal or any other solid mineral. It is clear that the placer law is 

not logically applicable to these deposits. Under the lode law a vein 

which outcrops within the limits of a claim may be followed to indefinite depths and distances so long as the end lines of the claim are 

not crossed. A phosphate deposit is essentially an interstratified 

bed, some deposits extending for many miles and being involved in 

great folds and undulations. The application of the apex law to 

such deposits would assuredly result in great confusion. For instance, if two sets or series of lode claims are located along the outcrop of a bed of phosphate that occupies a geologic basin and 

outcrops around its margin, one set of claimants on one side, the other 

on the opposite side, each set of claimants might be entitled to the 

bed throughout its extent from outcrop to outcrop. Thus the same 

property might be disposed of to two separate claimants, each of 

whom would have a good title. It is obvious that the lode law, under
40 ' CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

which such a condition is possible, is not suited to the disposition of 

phosphate deposits.

Still another consideration led to the withdrawal of phosphate 

lands. Agriculture in the United States is comparatively young, so 

that the exhaustion of lands from long-continued use has not yet 

begun to be generally felt. In a large part of Europe, however, phosphate fertilization has become an economic necessity, and as a result 

the greater part of the phosphate mined in this country is being exported. It has seemed to many students of the situation that the 

United States should not part with a deposit so vital to its agricultural future. Pending consideration of this question by Congress, as 

well as the enactment of laws more applicable than the lode and placer 

laws, the first phosphate withdrawal was made by the Department 

of the Interior on December 9, 1908. Other withdrawals have been 

made from time to time as additional valuable deposits of phosphate 

have been discovered. Since the first withdrawal the known area of 

phosphate lands has been greatly increased by the explorations of 

the Geological Survey, and the reserves now include lands in Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Montana, and Florida.

POTASH LANDS.

The agricultural industry of the United States has begun to feel 

the need for the rejuvenation of lands by the application of potash. 

All of this mineral heretofore used, in manufacturing as well as 

in agriculture, has been imported from Germany. A threatened 

termination of the supply from that source by the German Government lent acute interest to the question whether or not potash 

deposits are to be found in the United States, and on March 4,1911, 

Congress appropriated $20,000 for research and exploration for potash deposits by the Geological Survey. This appropriation was renewed the following year. Promising indications have been discovered, exploration work is being actively continued, and three areas 

have been found where the existence of potash salts warrants withdrawal of the lands. The first potash withdrawal covered one of 

these areas and was made on January 16, 1913. It is the present 

intention to recommend the withdrawal of all. valuable deposits 

found and all lands in which there is a reasonable probability of the 

occurrence of valuable potash, these withdrawals to remain in force 

until Congress has provided more appropriate legislation than the 

existing placer law.

METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS.

An unusual type of withdrawal, designated'" Mineral-land withdrawal No. 1," was made in Arizona by the President on September 

23,1912. It covers an area in which investigations made by the Geo-
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 41

logical Survey show geologic conditions favorable to the occurrence 

of deep-seated deposits of copper. The deposits in this district are 

of such nature that no surface discovery, such as is required by the 

lode law, can be made. As a result valid locations can not be made 

upon the lands until valuable minerals have been discovered therein, 

either by deep drilling or deep shafting. There was danger that 

before either of these types of prospecting could be completed attempts would be made to obtain title to the lands by means of State 

selections or other nonmineral entries. Accordingly the President 

directed that the area be included in a withdrawal. By the terms of 

the withdrawal act the withdrawn lands are open to exploration and 

purchase under the mining laws, so far as they apply to metalliferous minerals. Thus the lands are reserved for exploration as to 

their metalliferous value but are not open to other forms of entry.

WATEBrPOWEB SITES.

In messages to Congress during 1908 and 1909 President Roosevelt called attention to the danger of an uncontrolled monopoly of 

water-power development and to the desirability of preventing 

power sites on the public domain from falling into the hands of 

speculators and monopolists. As early as February 26, 1908, in a 

message transmitting a report of the Inland Waterwaj^s Commission, he advocated legislation providing for the leasing of such sites 

rather than their alienation. The report of the Inland Waterways 

Commission contains the following statement:

Wherever water is now or will hereafter become the chief source of power, 

the monopolization of electricity from running streams involves monopoly of 

power for the transportation of freight and passengers, for manufacturing, 

nnd for supplying light, heat, and other domestic, agricultural, and municipal 

necessities to such an extent that unless regulated it will entail monopolistic 

control of the daily life of our people in an unprecedented degree.

Since that time President Taft, Senator Burton, Secretaries Garfield, Fisher, and Stimson, and many others have advocated a revision of the laws pertaining to lands valuable for water powers and 

have especially urged the retention of their control by the United 

States.

In the winter of 1908 and 1909, under the direction of President 

Roosevelt and Secretary Garfield, a number of withdrawals were 

made covering streams in the Eocky Mountain and Pacific coast 

States on recommendation of the Reclamation Service. These orders 

of withdrawal covered wide areas, and as the best agricultural lands 

in the West are in the vicinity of streams, a great deal of popular 

discontent and criticism followed. Secretary Ballinger, soon after 

his appointment, ordered the restoration of all the withdrawn lands, 

and many such restorations were made, mainly in the latter part of
42 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

March and the early part of April, 1909. On April 23, 1909, Secretary Ballinger directed the Geological Survey to make an investigation of water-power sites on the public domain and to recommend as 

early as possible any withdrawals necessary to protect them pending 

the enactment of legislation to be recommended bv^ the President. 

The first withdrawal under this order was recommended by the 

Survey on May 3, 1909, and approved by Secretary Ballinger on the 

following day. Since then many such power-site withdrawals have 

been made, so that at the present time it is believed that the greater 

number of the valuable power sites on. the public domain are withdrawn from entry pending legislation by Congress for their appropriate disposal. The available information does not indicate that 

there is now in existence any all-inclusive, nation-wide water-power 

trust such as has been feared by students of the situation. Certain 

powerful and far-sighted interests have, however, made very determined attempts to acquire control .of valuable sites in advance of 

the possibility of developing a market for the power that might be 

produced. The passing of these strategic points from public ownership would seriously impair the control by public authority of waterpower operations, which are inherently monopolistic. As soon as 

the Survey obtains knowledge of such sites their withdrawal is recommended. Field examinations have shown that certain areas withdrawn were not so valuable as had at first been supposed and these 

have been promptly restored.

RESERVOIR SITES.

Eeference has already been made to the act of 1888- (25 Stat., 527) 

and to the fact that certain tracts specially valuable for the construction of reservoirs were segregated under that act and still remain withdrawn pending their restoration by Congress. In its study 

of the water resources of the public domain the Survey found that 

attempts were being made to obtain possession of advantageous reservoir sites, not for the purpose of development but for some inferior 

use or for speculation. Pending legislation by Congress which would 

make such acquisition impossible a number of reservoir-site withdrawals have been made, the first one having been recommended by 

the Survey on January 13, 1911, and approved by President Taft on 

January IT, 1911.

PUBLIC WATER RESERVES.

In the great semiarid grazing areas of the West watering places 

are few and the range is, in places, monopolized by control of the 

water holes. It has been common practice for a stock owner to file 

some form of land scrip or State selection upon all the springs in a 

district and thereby to exclude all other stock owners from the dis-
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 43

trict as effectually as if he owned every acre of it. In most places 

the public range of the West is greatly overcrowded and the competition for possession of the water holes has been exceedingly 

bitter, with the advantage in favor of the large owner, on account 

of his greater ability to purchase land scrip. Exclusion from the 

watering places has ruined more than one stock grower and violence has not infrequently accompanied the struggle for their pos-' 

session. This condition of affairs led members of the Land Office 

and of the Survey to urge that the watering places on the public 

range be retained in Government ownership and thrown open to 

the use of all comers. The possibility of the passage by Congress 

of a grazing law added to the advisability of such withdrawals. 

The present conditions on the public range are by no means satisfactory. They give undue advantage to the large stock raiser 

and are resulting in the deterioration and in many areas the ruin 

of the range. Several bills have been introduced in Congress providing for Government supervision of grazing under a leasing system. If such a law is passed it is highly important that a sufficient 

number of watering places to permit the administration of leases 

should remain in Government ownership. On March 29, 1912, public water reserve No. 1 was recommended by the Survey and approved 

by the President. Other public water reserves are being created as 

rapidly as field data can be considered.

WITHDRAWAL ACTS.

The early coal, oil, phosphate, and power-site withdrawals were 

made by the Secretary of the Interior in the exercise of his executive 

discretion and without specific authority granted by Congress. The 

right of the Executive Department to make land withdrawals has 

been established by numerous court decisions relating to withdrawals 

covering small areas, but as soon as general withdrawals of large 

areas were made interested parties began to question their validity. 

Many claimants asserted their belief in the department's lack of 

authority by proceeding in disregard and contravention of the withdrawals. This type of action was especially frequent in the oil 

fields of California and it early became apparent that, unless the 

validity of the withdrawals was clearly established, millions of 

barrels of oil would be taken from withdrawn lands while a decision 

was being obtained from the courts. Accordingly, Congress was 

urged to pass an act confirming the. power of the Executive to withdraw public lands, and on June 25, 1910, a law was approved entitled "An act to authorize the President of the United States to 

make withdrawals of public lands in certain cases" (36 Stat., 847). 

That this act was merely confirmatory of powers already reposing in
44 CLASSIFICATION OF THE 'PUBLIC LANDS.

the President and his cabinet is shown by the report of the Senate 

Committee on Public Lands, from which the following is quoted:

The power conferred upon the President by the proposed substitute is a 

power that he has possessed and exercised almost from the inception of our 

public-land system and is a power that he still possesses and exercises.

The power of the President to reserve public lands from sale and entry 

rests upon various statutes, upon numerous decisions of the courts, and upon

long-established 

*******

and long-recognized usage.

It is only lately that this power has been doubted and questioned, and the 

object of the proposed substitute is to make it definite and clear beyond all 

dispute that the President possesses this power of withdrawal.

Immediately after the passage of the act of June 25, 1910, Executive orders were issued by the President ratifying, confirming, and 

continuing in full force and effect all outstanding orders of withdrawal. Since that date all new withdrawals" have been made in 

accordance with the provisions of this act and have-been approved 

by the President.

The act of June 25, 1910, contains several provisions modifying 

preexisting practice. In the first place, it provides that lands which 

are embraced in lawful homestead or desert-land entries made prior 

to the date of withdrawal or on which valid settlement has been made 

and maintained shall be excepted from the force and effect of the 

Avithdrawal order so long as the entryman or settler continues to 

comply with the law. Thus the effect of an order of withdrawal 

on a preexisting homestead or desert-land entry depends on the 

initial and continued good faith of the entryman, rather than on 

the value of his land for purposes other than that under which 

his entry was made. The second important provision is that the 

rights of any person who at the date of a withdrawal order is a 

bona fide occupant or claimant of oil or gas bearing lands and who 

at that date is in diligent prosecution of work leading to the discovery of oil or gas shall not be affected or impaired by the order 

so long as diligent prosecution of the work is continued. It is to 

be noted that this provision makes the critical date that of the withdrawal order, even though that order was made before the passage 

of the withdrawal act. The department has held that what constitutes diligent prosecution of work leading to the discovery of oil 

or gas must be decided upon the facts in each case. It is safe to 

assume, however, that many of the subterfuges that have been commonly practiced for the purpose of holding claims will not be considered effective against the withdrawal orders.

Section 2 of the act provided that withdrawn lands should " be open 

to exploration, discovery, occupation, and purchase under the mining 

laws of the United States so far as the same apply to minerals other
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 45

than coal, oil, gas, and phosphates." There were two serious faults 

in this provision. For one thing, it did not permit the withdrawal 

of lands valuable for other minerals than the four enumerated. 

Thus, when interest in the potash situation became general and the 

desirability of reserving potash lands from entry was perceived it 

was not possible to make the desired withdrawals because of this 

provision in the withdrawal act. Furthermore, advantage was taken 

of this clause to locate valuable power sites as building-stone placers 

and to include oil lands of great value in placer claims located ron 

comparatively worthless deposits of gypsum. These conditions led 

the President to urge upon Congress the amendment of the section 

by providing that withdrawn lands should be open to exploration 

and purchase under the mining laws for metalliferous minerals only, 

and on August 24,1912, Congress so amended the original withdrawal 

act (37 Stat., 497). Public-land'withdrawals now segregate lands 

from all forms .of entry, location, or disposition except metalliferous 

mineral claims, preexisting homestead and desert-land entries and 

valid settlements, and oil placers on which work is being diligently 

prosecuted at the date of withdrawal.

SEPARATION ACTS.

The carrying out of the withdrawal policy for protecting the mineral and water resources of the public domain is in many cases rendered difficult and embarrassing by the agricultural value of the land 

withdrawn. If valuable water-power or reservoir sites were invariably valueless for farming, or if mineral and agricultural values 

could not coexist, no hardship would be imposed by and no retardation of development would result from the making of withdrawals. 

But some of the best farming lands in the West are underlain by 

coal or phosphate, and some are so situated as to be of strategic 

importance in power development. Any hindrance to bona fide home 

building or other agricultural development of the public domain is 

indeed unfortunate, but in order to protect the public's natural resources withdrawals resulting in such hindrance have been necessary. For certain lands the situation has been relieved by the passage 

of acts separating the surface right from the right to the underlying 

minerals. The first of these acts was that of March 3,1909 (35 Stat., 

644), which provides that persons who have entered or selected under 

the nonmineral laws lands subsequently classified, claimed, or reported as being valuable for coal may elect to receive patent to their 

lands by reserving to the United States the coal deposits and the right 

to prospect for and mine them. The act contains a provision for the 

indemnification of the surface owner for damages to his estate by 

prospecting or mining and a further provision that the owner of the
46 CLASSIFICATION" OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

surface patent shall have the right to mine coal for his own use prior 

to the disposal of the coal deposits by the United States. This act 

granted relief only for entries or selections antedating withdrawal. 

The act of June 22,1910 (36 Stat., 583), goes a step further with regard to coal lands and provides that homestead entries, desert-land 

entries, and Carey Act selections may be made on lands withdrawn 

or classified as coal whenever it is stated in the application that the 

entry is made to obtain title containing a reservation of the coal to 

the United States. In this, as in the previous act, provision is made 

for damages to the surface estate by prospecting or mining. The 

act of April 30,1912 (37 Stat., 105), extends the act of June 22,1910, 

to include State selections and isolated tracts.

An act approved August 24, 1912 (37 Stat., 496), provides for the 

entry or selection of withdrawn or classified oil and gas lands in the 

State of Utah, with a reservation to the United States of the oil or 

gas. The provisions of the act are similar to those of the coal act 

of June 22, 1910, and the classes of entries and selections permitted 

are the same as those in that act as amended by the act of April 30, 

1912.

DESIRABLE NEW LEGISLATION.

In carrying out its function of classifying the public lands and in 

making its fund of information available in the administration of 

the existing land laws the Geological Survey has become acutely cognizant of the need for certain new legislation. The-laws desired are 

primarily of two types and embody two fundamental necessities 

first, the extension of the principle of the separation of estates, and 

second, the application of the leasing principle to the disposition of 

natural resources.

As has already been pointed out, the public lands can not be 

divided into classes each of which is valuable for one purpose only. 

Instead, the same tract of land may be valuable for two or more 

resources. In one tract for example, agricultural land that is underlain by coal both resources may be utilized at the same time 

without interfering with each other. In another tract for example, 

agricultural land within a reservoir site the land may be valuable 

for one resource only until it is utilized for another. In the first 

case the problem is so to frame the laws that no resource will be 

forced to await the development of the other. In the second case the 

problem is to permit the use of the land for one purpose pending its 

use for another without losing public control of the development of 

the second. In both cases the answer is found in a separation of 

estates. The extension of this principle, now applied to coal, to 

withdrawn and classified minerals and to the uses of water resources 

would permit the retention of the mineral deposits and power and
HISTOKY AND LEGAL BASIS. 47

reservoir sites in public ownership pending appropriate legislation 

by Congress without in any way retarding agricultural development. 

Bills have .already been introduced applying this principle to oil in 

other States than Utah and to phosphate in the State of Idaho. It 

is to be hoped that such bills will be passed and approved, or, better 

still, that a comprehensive act providing for the-separation of the 

various estates will be introduced and enacted.

Nearly every student of the situation is agreed that the leasing 

system is far better than any other for disposing of natural resources. This conclusion is based partly on the logic of theoretical 

considerations, partly on the experience of other countries, such as 

the Australasian States, and partly on the fact that the leasing system 

is rapidly replacing all others in commercial practice in the United 

States. A single instance may be cited: Over 90 per cent of the oil 

production of the United States in 1911 came from leased lands. In 

the public interest leasing is to be preferred to sale for several reasons. 

In the first place, the sale of mineral lands at appraised values 

per acre presents problems of great difficulty and of uncertain solution, because of the number of factors involved. For example, in 

valuing coal lands under the present coal-land law or in valuing 

phosphate lands, should a similar law be enacted for that mineral, 

the items bearing on the value which should be fixed are so numerous, so difficult to estimate, and so variable that it is well-nigh impossible to arrive at conclusions which give the proper weight to all 

the factors involved. In valuing coal lands the end striven for has 

been to fix prices which shall be low enough to permit purchases for 

immediate development but which shall be high enough to prohibit 

speculative purchases or long-term investments. However, the 

proper consideration of transportation charges, market conditions, 

competing supply, and cost of labor is affected by so much uncertainty 

that it is difficult to fix a thoroughly satisfactory price for which 

lands should now be sold. When it is considered that the lands are to 

be sold in the indefinite future at the prices fixed nowj the difficulties 

of the task become apparent. None of these difficulties would attend 

in the same degree the administration of a lease law under which 

the coal or phosphate would be paid for at a royalty per ton as 

mined. The fixing of the royalty would be very much simpler than 

the present task.

Attention has already been called to the inapprppriateness of selling oil and gag by the acre. The distance within which oil and gas 

may be drawn'off by a single well is not definitely known and is, of 

course, variable, but it is at least certain that a well drilled close to 

a property line will draw these minerals from immediately adjoining 

portions of neighboring tracts. Under a leasing law the person required to pay 'for deposits of these minerals would not be the person
48 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

under whose land they originally occurred but the person from whose 

land they were produced, and the price would be fixed by unit of 

quantity. The fairness of this plan is obvious.

The uncertainties as to market value of potash and other nonmetals except coal, oil, gas, and phosphate make the payment of 

a sale price undesirable and the payment for the minerals as mined 

much more advantageous to the producer. In fact, one of the 

main arguments for the leasing as opposed to the sale system, not 

only for potash but for coal, oil, gas, and phosphate as well, is 

that instead of being required to advance the entire price of the land 

at the outset, the payments are made only as the mineral is produced, thus enabling the operator to begin operations with a much 

smaller initial investment. This is certainly advantageous to the 

small operator. Moreover, under a lease law the many uncertainties 

which enter into the fixing of sale prices would be eliminated, since 

only the quantity produced would be paid for.

Probably the present mineral laws are more satisfactory when 

applied to the metals than to the other minerals. Without doubt even 

here a lease law would effect a marked improvement on present practice, but if they were modified in three features the laws applicable 

to metalliferous lands would be reasonably satisfactory to the miner 

and to the public at large. In any event, the law of the apex should 

be abolished, the provisions regarding discovery should be modified, 

and the period for which a claim may be held without patenting 

should be limited. Eegarding the first of these points there is little 

need for argument. Mining congresses and bar associations have 

alike recommended the repeal of the apex provision and shown conclusively the detriment which it is and has been to the mining industry. That it is possible to do away with it without resultant confusion is shown by the experience of British Columbia. One point, 

however, should not be overlooked if the law of the apex is abolished the width of the claim should be increased in order to assure 

sufficient values to warrant the opening of a mine.

The requirement that mineral shall be discovered as a prerequisite 

to location is one that works undue hardship to those exploiting deepseated deposits that do not crop out at the surface, such as those 

included in the mineral-land withdrawal in Arizona. Such deposits 

are by no means rare in certain mining districts of the West, and 

the law should be so modified as to provide either for some adequately safeguarded substitute for discovery or for the protection 

of the miner during the long and expensive prospecting which he 

must carry on before minerals can be discovered. Such protection 

would be best afforded by a provision for a prospecting permit of 

limited duration, to be granted only if the geologic conditions are at 

least moderately favorable for the occurrence of the mineral sought.
HISTORY AND LEGAL BASIS. 49

Under the law as it now stands a claim may be held indefinitely 

without an attempt to obtain patent, and so long as the annual assessment work is performed the claim is secure against adverse 

claimants. Until patent is issued no taxes are assessable by the 

State, and many producing mines refrain from patenting in order 

to avoid taxation. A limit to the number of years that a claim may 

be held pending the institution of patent proceedings would correct 

this abuse.

It is not only with relation to mineral deposits nor by comparison 

with a sale system that a leasing system is advocated. Leasing 

should replace the present permit system, under which rights of way 

across the public domain are granted for reservoir sites, power development and transmission, and irrigation works. Under the existing 

laws "the right of way granted is either in perpetuity or is revocable 

in the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior. Both of these 

conditions are undesirable the first because the resource passes forever beyond the direct control of the public, which thus becomes 

powerless to guard against, misuse, disuse, or monopoly; the second 

because the capital which is required in the construction of such enterprises is not sufficiently protected. Between the grant in perpetuity, which inadequately protects the public, and the revocable 

permit, which inadequately protects the capital invested, lies the 

lease, which adequately protects both. By leasing rights of way for 

a fixed period of years absolute control would periodically return to 

the public, while the investor would be secure for a period long 

enough for his investment to return a profit.

If a lease law is to be adopted certain provisions should be incorporated in it, whether it is for a single resource or for all. In the 

first place the end to be attained is not revenue for the Government 

but is rather the retention of control in the public. It would be a 

long step backward to return to the early policy of using the public 

lands as a means of Federal revenue, and any lease law enacted 

should be so framed as to encourage development, prohibit speculation, and add nothing to the cost of the resource to the consumer. 

The States in which the lands are situated should be compensated 

for the loss of taxes which they would suffer from the permanent retention of the fee to natural resources in the National Government. 

Doubtless the simplest way to accomplish this is to provide that a 

certain percentage of net receipts from leasing shall go to the State 

in which the lands are situated. The term of a lease should be long 

enough to permit profitable investment and development. It should 

not be longer than is necessary to furnish an adequate return on the 

amount invested.

Whatever action Congress may decide to take regarding the natural 

resources now in public ownership should not be much longer de78894° Bull. 537 13 4
50 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

layed. The present withdrawals are a temporary expedient whose 

employment should be rendered unnecessary as soon as possible. It 

can not be economically advantageous to the country to have millions of acres of lands; valuable for petroleum, phosphate, or potash 

or for power or reservoir sites, absolutely segregated from all forms 

of disposal for an indefinite period. Some of the lands have already 

been so withdrawn for nearly four years. Congress should be fully 

informed concerning all the factors to be considered, but it should 

also act promptly.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS.

FIELD METHODS. 

DEVELOPMENT.

Since the United States Geological Survey was organized the 

methods it employs in its diverse field investigations have gradually 

become more refined and more precise. If a topographic map made 

by the Survey 20 years ago is compared with one of its recent maps 

the difference will be patent even to the untechnical critic, yet many 

of the important improvements adopted during that period do not 

appear on the map. The closer and more accurate triangulation 

net, the great increase in the numbers of intersected points and of 

level lines, and the general completeness of both vertical and horizontal control are not directly reproduced on the completed sheet, 

but they have been used in its preparation and give it far greater 

accuracy and expressiveness than the earlier maps. The methods 

employed by the engineers of the water-resources branch and by 

the geologists of the geologic branch have likewise undergone steady 

and consistent development.

Perhaps nothing in recent years has so directly stimulated the employment of more precise methods in field work than the requirements of land classification, and the development here is well exemplified in the work done by the coal geologists. The law under 

which coal land is classified, unlike the laws controlling the classification of lands containing other mineral resources, requires a valuation of the land. It is therefore especially necessary to trace the 

outcrops of coal beds with exactness and to fix their relations to the 

units of the public-land surveys by precise methods. This has led 

to the introduction of refinements that are not generally considered 

necessary in preparing a geologic folio or in determining the general 

relations of the formations in any region. It is perhaps worth while 

to trace a part of this development of the field methods employed in 

the classification of coal lands, as an example of a general improvement and as an introduction to a discussion of the methods now
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 51

generally used by the geologist in the solution of problems of classification.

The acts separating the mineral and agricultural estates of coal 

lands were not passed until 1909 and 1910, so that the withdrawals 

of coal land promulgated prior to that time prevented the initiation of both homestead rights and coal entry on the same tract. In 

order that this interference with agricultural development might be 

reduced to a minimum, the first examinations were directed toward 

the correction of the withdrawals by the prompt elimination from 

them of the noncoal land. The methods first used, therefore, were 

planned with the idea of covering large areas quickly and did not 

involve a marked departure from reconnaissance methods already in 

vogue, except that it became necessary to tie the investigations as 

closely as possible to such cadastral surveys as existed. One of the 

first methods employed at the beginning of the work of coal-land 

classification in 1906 and 1907 was that of retracing land lines. In 

doing this work the field men rode along the section lines established 

by the General Land Office, using the pocket compass to determine 

direction and horse pacing to measure distance. Coal outcrops along 

the section lines were mapped, the geology was studied in a general 

way, and a sketch of the topography was made.

In areas in which the absence of satisfactory land corners made it 

necessary to construct a map independently of the Land Office surveys a different method was adopted. By the use of a 15-inch plane 

table and an open-sight alidade a main or control traverse was run, 

completing a circuit of the field, distances being measured by intersections from points previously located and altitudes determined with 

an aneroid barometer.. The topography and geology were mapped 

by means of a network of secondary traverse lines tied to the primary 

traverse. As the work progressed a more or less complete system of 

triangulation was established which could be used in adjusting the 

main plane-table traverse, and in turn the plane-table traverse served 

to check meander traverse. In running these meander traverses a 

pocket compass was used for obtaining directions, distances were 

measured by pacing, and elevations were determined by aneroid. 

The meander-traverse lines were plotted in the field as the work advanced, a small celluloid protractor being used for laying off angles 

and a scale graduated to correspond to the scale of the township 

plats being used for measuring horizontal distances. During the 

field work especial care was taken to locate whatever land corners 

existed, in the hope that these corners would serve as a basis for 

later adjustment of the township and section lines on the map.

These two methods probably represent, fairly the general field 

methods in use during 1906 and 1907, in connection with classification of coal land. ; Some idea as to the speed attained in this work
52 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS. .

may be formed from the statement that on an average a township 

(36 square miles) was completed by one man in four days. The following figures will also give some idea of the effectiveness of these 

methods for the purpose which they were designed to accomplish.

During the last six months of 1906 the total area withdrawn for 

examination was approximately 66,000,000 acres, and by the close 

of that year, as a result of the field examinations, approximately 

2,000,000 acres had been restored to public entry. During 1907 there 

was an additional preliminary withdrawal of approximately 2,000,000 

acres and by the end of the same year about 34,000,000 acres had been 

added to the restorations. Thus, of the 68,000,000 acres withdrawn 

during the first two years about 36,000,000 acres were restored as 

noncoal land as a result of the rapid methods then used. Had the 

Survey attempted a detailed study of these lands from the beginning, 

there would have been much undesirable delay in the restoration of 

large bodies of noncoal lands to entry. These early relatively inexact 

methods were therefore well adapted to the ends they were designed 

to accomplish.

The principal areas of coal land having been outlined by reconnaissance surveys, attention was next turned to more improved methods of field work to meet the constantly growing need for better and 

more detailed classification. The reconnaissance method was then 

replaced by that in which plane table and telescopic alidade are employed. The most satisfactory alidade, which was designed by one 

of the geologists engaged in the classification work, is a small instrument carrying a telescope fitted with cross wires for stadia work and 

a vertical arc for determining differences of altitude.

The details of method used in plane-table mapping are varied 

according to the topography and the forest conditions of the area 

mapped, as well as according to the condition of the land survey. 

In an area where there have been no land surveys or where those that 

have been made are very poor, the triangulation or station method 

is preferred, but stadia work only is practicable in certain areas 

for example, heavily wooded districts or regions cut by deep, narrow 

canyons. Either method, however, gives excellent results, for by 

either the coal outcrop is actually traced in the field and the exact 

horizontal and vertical positions are determined for every observation. In connection with these precise locations full data are procured on the character of the coal. If the region is undeveloped and 

no coal mines or prospect pits are available for examination, openings are made and sections are measured wherever such work is necessary to give adequate data for classification.

Perhaps the most detailed work that is now being done in the 

coal areas is that carried on in those districts, where the geologist 

works in conjunction with the topographer. This method results in
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 53

a reduced cost of the work and a great degree of accuracy in location. 

In work of this kind the geologist usually examines the territory in 

advance of the topographer, prospecting the coal bed and carefully 

marking by means of flags all prospects and coal outcrops which he 

desires the topographer to locate. The topographer, in the course of 

his mapping, determines both the horizontal and the vertical positions 

of all points flagged by the geologist. This work is done instrumentally and with great accuracy, the probable limit of error in 

the horizontal location of any point being less than 20 feet and 

in the vertical location less than 5 feet. With many points on the 

outcrop thus accurately located, underground structure can be determined with a degree of accuracy that has seldom been attained in 

geologic work.

With this preliminary statement, it is proposed to set forth briefly 

some of the methods now in use under the various conditions that 

confront the geologist who is assigned to the task of making a mineral 

classification of a specific area.

A. If he is required to make a detailed survey, he will find one of 

the following conditions existing:

(a) A topographic base is available.

(&) A base map is not available but must be made.

(c) A topographic base is not available and is not essential, the 

land survey sufficing as a base map.

B. If he is making a preliminary survey only he will use reconnaissance methods.

DETAILED SUBVEY. 

METHODS USED WHEN" A TOPOGRAPHIC BASE IS AVAILABLE.

It is desirable that the examination of the mineral deposits in 

regions of especial economic importance be based on an accurate 

topographic map prepared in advance of the geologic examination. 

Such a map, on which are shown the relief by contours of appropriate intervals, the position and character of the drainageways, and the 

location of land corners, roads, houses, and the bench marks and triangulation stations established by the topographers, enables the geologist to determine by surveyor's methods the location of the numerous 

points at which he makes observations, with a minimum expenditure 

of time and with a degree of precision adequate to the scale of the 

map and the work in hand. The scales which are generally used by 

the Geological Survey in work of this character are about 1£ or 2 

inches to the mile, with contour intervals of 10, 20, or 50 feet. The 

degree of accuracy attained in work on such maps is represented by 

the width of a carefully drawn pencil line, or less than 20 feet for locations where refined plane-table methods are employed for example, 

along the outcrop of the coal, oil sand, or phosphate bed and by a
54 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LA^DS.

somewhat variable larger figure for locations requiring a less degree 

of accuracy and made with less precise'instruments. The actual elevation of observations along the outcrop of the valuable bed is determined with surveying instruments, so that the error is rarely in excess 

of 5 feet, an amount which is practically negligible in mountainous 

regions. In special cases, however, a higher degree of precision is 

attained.

The information collected by the geologist in the field relates to 

the quality and thickness of the economic deposit, the position of its 

outcrop relative to legal subdivisions, and its depth and accessibility 

where covered. He maps the actual position of the outcrop of the 

coal bed, oil sand, or phosphate bed by making careful locations at 

many points, as described above, and where possible determines the 

attitude of the bed by many careful dip readings with a clinometer 

or by computation from its elevation at several points. He also maps 

the position of the top and bottom of the overlying and underlying 

beds, so that the completed map shows the actual area covered by the 

outcrop of beds of sandstone, limestone, conglomerate; shale, or such 

other rocks as may be present in the region. He further determines 

the attitude of these rocks and collects typical samples and fossils 

which serve to determine their relative age. Part of this information 

is represented on the map by symbols whose significance is expressed 

in the accompanying legend, and part is recorded in suitable notebooks for use in the preparation of reports. This information is put 

together in a tabular form showing the normal arrangement of the 

beds, which is technically spoken of as a columnar section. Such a 

section shows the normal distance through the strata from the economic 

bed to the top or bottom of any one of the constantly related overlying 

or underlying beds, and it is used in combination with the data on the 

outcrop of the overlying rocks in working out the theoretical underground position of the bed. The methods of making the computation 

are explained in detail in the following discussion of the examination 

of areas for which a topographic base is not available.

The deposits of present economic importance or of promise for the 

future are sampled at many points where the natural exposures are 

favorable and in other places by means, of pits, trenches, or drill holes. 

All the samples from any one deposit are taken by a uniform method 

designed for that kind of material.

METHODS USED WHEN A BASE MAP MUST BE PREPARED.

In the detailed geologic study of an area it is usually necessary to 

construct a map which shall place before the eye of the geologist all 

the available information concerning the area in such space that it 

can be viewed as a whole and the correct relations of details comprehended as they could not be on the ground. Such a map to be of
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 55

the greatest value should show not only geology but surface relief 

and the positions of streams, roads, and houses, with the legal subdivisions of the public-land surveys^ in order that the geology may 

appear in its true relation to surface features. The construction of a 

map giving such details is, strictly speaking, the work of the topographer rather than of the geologist, but the latter may be called upon 

to examine an area for which no adequate base map has been prepared 

and he is therefore obliged to construct a map, either contoured or 

plain, on which to record the geology. Such a map may be made by 

the use of various instruments, perhaps the most satisfactory in both 

accuracy and speed being the plane table and the telescopic alidade. 

These instruments used with a system of triangulation are particularly adapted to open country in which signals can be seen for considerable distances. In areas where, for various reasons, it is impossible to sight distant signals the method of stadia traverse is employed, 

the same instruments being used in conjunction with the stadia rod.

In constructing a map by a system of triangulation, the procedure 

is briefly as follows:

A base line is measured and the plane table is set up at one end of it 

and properly adjusted so that one edge of the table lies in a northsouth line. The base line is then plotted on a selected scale, usually 

from 1 to 4 inches to the mile, and sights are taken and lines drawn 

in the direction of monuments on prominent hilltops. The plane 

table is then transferred to the other end of the base line and correctly oriented by back sight. Sights are then taken and lines 

drawn in the direction of the monuments sighted from the first station. The intersection of the two lines drawn in the direction of 

each monument establishes its location in relation to the base line as 

indicated on the map. After the various signals are located in a 

certain area the plane table may be set up at any point whose location is not known, and after it is approximately oriented by compass 

sights may be taken to the points already located and the position of 

the instrument determined by lines drawn from the locations of 

these signals on the map. These lines should exactly meet at a point. 

If they do not so meet there is some inaccuracy either in the previous work or in the orientation of the plane table. It is thus possible to keep a close check on the work and points may be located 

as accurately as the scale of the map allows.

On a scale of 2 inches to the mile a distance of 10 feet would be 

represented by the width of a fine pencil line, and it is not possible 

to plot a distance of, say, 5 feet. A distance of 10 or 15 feet, however, is perceptible, and locations may be accurately made within 

such distances. If the scale is increased to 4 inches to the mile the 

error in the location of a point should not exceed 10 feet. After 

the primary signals are established over the township the base map
56 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

and the geologic map may be constructed simultaneously that is, 

in tracing the exposures of some particular bed, such as a coal or 

phosphate bed or an oil sand, the geologist may sketch in the roads 

or streams or topographic features near which his instrument happens 

to be set.

In mapping a particular area geologically as many points are 

located as are necessary for the degree of accuracy desired on the 

map. In critical parts of an oil field, where all dip readings are 

located by the plane table, observations may be taken every 400 or 

500 feet, but in parts of the area outside of the probable extent of 

the oil pool dip readings taken every mile may be amply sufficient if 

the dip is regular. Places at which fossils are collected are marked 

on the map and also places at which rock specimens and coal, phosphate, or oil samples are taken, as well as localities where sections 

of the beds or other geologic observations are made. In the construction of such a map any land corners that may be found are 

located from the signals previously established, just as rock outcrops and other features of interest are located. The land net is 

afterward drawn in from the corners which have been found, and 

any inaccuracies and irregularities in the old surveys will thus be 

detected. In land classification the tracts are always described with 

reference to these surveys, so it is very essential to locate as many of 

the corners as possible in order that the position of the land lines 

may be accurately known. The time required to construct a map 

of this kind varies greatly with the nature of the country and the 

character of the geology. One man can, as a rule, establish primary 

control over a township in one to three days, the time required being 

dependent entirely on the number of locations made and the nature 

of the country traversed.

The method of locating important rock outcrops by stadia traverse 

may be successfully employed in conjunction with location by triangulation, or it may be used alone without triangulation. In running 

a traverse with stadia the instrument man can riot work alone but 

must employ the services of a rodman. The plane table is set at some 

known point, the stadia rod is held on the point whose location is desired, and the direction from the point occupied to the other point is 

drawn on the map by means of the alidade. The distance is read by 

means of the stadia and platted on the map by the use of a scale, 

in the direction already recorded; this locates the second point. The 

instrument is then transferred to a third point, the location of which 

is determined by a reversal of the method used in locating the second. 

The rod is then moved ahead and the process is repeated. Such 

a method is most useful when a coal or phosphate bed or an oil sand 

is to be outlined in great detail or when the work is done in deep
CLASSIFICATION OF MINEBAL LANDS. - 57

valleys or canyons from which it is difficult to sight triangulation 

signals.

In the above description no mention has been made of the method 

of determining elevations, which in much of the work are of great 

importance. With a telescopic alidade the angle of elevation or depression from one point to another can be accurately determined. 

This angle being known and the distance between the two points being measured with a scale from the locations of the points on the map 

or by reading a stadia rod, the problem resolves itself into the solution of a right-angle triangle in which one side and one of the acute 

angles are known, the side to be determined representing the vertical 

distance between the two points, or, in other words, the difference of 

elevation between them. The altitude of a starting point being 

known or assumed, it is possible to calculate the altitude of any number of points in any direction from it. Elevations determined by this 

method are not absolutely exact but are of sufficient accuracy for 

most purposes of geologic mapping. In ordinary practice they are 

correct within 5 or 6 feet, but with certain refinements of work the 

error can be reduced to 1 foot or even less.

It is advantageous to represent on a map in some manner the form 

of the rock folds, which may or may not correspond to the surface relief. Ordinarily surface relief is represented on a contour map by lines 

drawn to indicate definite elevations above sea level, one line, for example, at 4,000 feet, the next at 4,100 feet, the next at 4,200 feet, and 

so on. These lines not only show the configuration of the surface but 

also give approximately the elevation of any point within the area 

thus mapped. It is possible to contour in the same way the surface 

of an oil-bearing sandstone or a coal or phosphate bed which has 

been bent into a fold. Such contours are known as structure contours. They bear no necessary relation to surface relief. In fact, 

a valley may occupy the axis of an anticline or a ridge the axis of a 

syncline.

Sedimentary beds deposited one above another during a period in 

which there has been no earth movement are parallel that is, if 

one sandstone so deposited is 2,000 feet above another at one place 

it is probably 2,000 feet above the other 1 mile or 5 miles away. If 

since their deposition the beds have been tilted from the horizontal, 

the dip of a bed at the surface in general represents the dip of the 

beds below it. If a certain oil-bearing sandstone dips 5° E. where 

it appears at the surface and overlying beds of the same formation 

outcropping east of the exposure of the first bed also dip 5° in the 

same direction, it is probable that the first bed and all intermediate 

beds have the same dip in this area also. A dip of 1° is equivalent 

to about 92 feet in a mile, and a dip of 5° to about 460 feet in a mile.
58 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Therefore a bed that dips 5° E. under a horizontal plain is 460 feet 

beneath the surface at a point 1 mile east of the outcrop.

If it appears from surface exposures of the overlying rocks that 

the dip is not constant, allowance must be made for the variations 

in the calculation. In areas in which drilling has been carried on 

the records of the wells are invaluable as giving accurately the depths 

of beds beneath the surface, thus checking the deductions from surface evidence.

The locations of structure contours are based on a variety of data. 

If a well whose altitude at the surface is 4,000 feet strikes an oil sand, 

for example, at a depth of 1,000 feet, it is evident that the 3,000-foot 

contour on the oil sand passes through the location of this well on 

the map. If the rocks dip toward the east and a sandstone known 

to be 2,000 feet above the oil sand outcrops half a mile east of the 

well at an altitude of 4,500 feet, the oil sand should be at this point 

2,500 feet above the sea, or, in other words, the 2,500-foot contour 

should pass through the location of this sandstone outcrop on the 

map. If the dip of the .rocks exposed at the surface is constant- between the mouth of the well and the outcrop of the sandstone it indicates that probably the oil sand dips regularly to the east between 

these points, and the contours of 2,600, 2,700, 2,800, and 2,900 feet 

may be spaced evenly between the 2,500-foot contour at the sandstone 

outcrop and the 3,000-foot contour at the well. Should the dip, as 

indicated by the surface exposures, be irregular between the two 

points, the contours are spaced accordingly, being placed nearest 

together where the dip is greatest and farthest apart where the dip 

is least.

After a structure-contour map is completed it is possible to estimate from it the depth of a bed of economic importance at any 

required point, if the surface altitude of the point is known.

METHODS FOLLOWED WHEN THE LAND OFFICE STHIVET AFFORDS A BASE MAP.

More than half of the coal land still owned by the Government 

lies in the rather sparsely settled plains region which has not been 

mapped topographically but has been covered by the cadastral surveys of the General Land Office. For such land, a topographic map 

not being essential, a method of survey different in some ways from 

those described above has been adopted. Plane table, telescopic 

alidade, and stadia rod are used as in the other work, but the results 

of the surveys made by the General Land Office are used as a base 

for the work, and the township forms a unit, the results being sufficiently detailed and accurate to permit classification by legal subdivisions. As previously stated, some of these surveys are not accurate, but they are official and in general they provide a suitable base
CLASSIFICATION OF MINEBAL LANDS. 59

for the survey. Locations and measurements are therefore accepted 

as recorded on the Land Office plats unless the field work proves 

them to be in error.

If a preliminary examination of the township to be surveyed 

shows that it contains only a few isolated outcrops of coal beds and 

no continuous exposures, the geologist locates the outcrops by triangulation .and sketches their inferred locations. For the triangulatipn two convenient land corners are selected from which to begin 

work, and for a base line the distance given on the land plats is used, 

it being assumed that this distance has been correctly determined 

in the land surveys. The corners thus selected are located on a 

plane-table sheet, and from them other triangulation stations are 

established over the field and their elevations determined by vertical 

angles, as already described. After enough points to control the 

work in the township have been established the geologist makes a 

detailed examination of the coal. He goes to each outcrop and digs 

or bores through the bed to learn the thickness of each bench of 

coal and of each parting and to obtain samples of the coal for study 

or analysis.

After the bed has been examined and the dip of the strata has been 

measured the position of the outcrop is located on the plane-table, 

sheet and the elevation determined.

The examination of the coal bed is most important. It must be 

made carefully and accurately. Each geologist who surveys coal 

land is told that " every inch of the bed must be critically examined." 

If the inspection shows that the coal may contain more than the 

normal percentage of impurities a representative sample is selected 

and taken to camp, where an ash test is made with-a small portable 

chemical outfit. If there are mines in the area a sample is procured 

according to the prescribed method (see p. 106) and is sent to the 

chemical laboratory for analysis. The strata in which the coal is 

found are also carefully examined to obtain any additional information they may give concerning the depth and continuity of the 

coal beds where they are covered.

The triangulation method of location described above suffices in 

areas where there are only a few small outcrops of coal beds, but in 

townships which contain more than a few outcrops or in which the 

beds can be traced the outcrops must be accurately located by stadia 

traverse in addition to the triangulation. If the triangulation and 

stadia work are done properly, locations should be correct within 20 

feet and elevations within 5. feet.

In work of this kind the surveyor traverses the outcrop of the coal 

bed and with the-aid of an assistant and instruments he locates 

points at short intervals along the line of outcrop and sketches its 

position between these points. All such locations are tied to land
60 CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLIC LANDS.

corners accurately with instruments, and the elevation of each point 

is ascertained, so that the underground relations of the bed can be 

determined.

The number of sections measured along the outcrop of the bed depends on the local conditions. If the bed is variable it must be examined at short intervals, but if it is regular the measurements may 

be made farther apart. Some records show measurements only 50 

feet apart, whereas others are half a mile or more, though a shorter 

distance is recommended. There is no definite number of measurements to the township. In some townships few are made, whereas 

in others there are as many as a hundred.

At the same time that the geologist is examining the field he procures any information which may have been obtained by miners, prospectors, well drillers, or others making excavations. Such information ordinarily consists of records of wells, drill holes, and mine 

shafts, mine maps, both exterior and interior, records of production 

and use, etc., and is of great value in the proper classification of the 

land.

This method may be applied equally well to materials other than 

coal if they occur in or in a definite relation to stratified beds, and 

with modifications it may be and is adapted to less regular deposits 

of metalliferous minerals. Its chief application, however, in actual 

Survey practice is in the coal fields of the plains region, where the 

recent and more accurate Land Office plats are available as bases.

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY.

Eeconnaissance surveys are ordinarily only preliminary and those 

made for purposes of classification ace intended to determine the 

general distribution of the mineral deposits in areas which have not 

been described by geologists or which may have been examined only 

casually or with some other problem in mind than that of discovering minerals of economic value. If no reliable information is 

at hand concerning an area containing public land, a geologist makes 

a reconnaissance to determine the best method of work to be followed 

if minerals are found.

The method of reconnaissance varies with the character of the 

country to be examined. If the country is suitable for the use of the 

plane-table method of surveying, the geologist uses that method. He 

proceeds in the manner already described but on a smaller scale and 

with less detail. If the country can be readily crossed and little accuracy is required, the geologist starts with an assistant and travels'by 

buggy to the points to be examined. He determines his location from 

traverses based on hand-compass readings to give direction and on 

counted revolutions of the buggy wheel to give distance. These 

traverses are tied to known points wherever possible, and the inter-
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 61

mediate locations are adjusted from them. If the country can not be 

crossed in a vehicle, the geologist goes on horseback or on' foot and 

determines direction as before and distance by counting the number 

of paces taken by horse or man. This method gives considerable 

accuracy in location and provides an adequate basis for determining 

the general mineral or nonmineral character of an area.

State or county maps furnish locations for the geologist on some 

reconnaissance trips. When working with such a map he starts 

from a town, post office, or some point shown on the map and proceeds 

toward some other point also shown. To obtain his location at intermediate points he estimates distance and direction and records his 

observations with regard to the estimated locations. This method is 

seldom used, because of its inaccuracy, and it is never used to procure 

final data for land classification. It was found applicable to conditions in one of the Western States where large areas were withdrawn 

on the basis of a report that later proved to be erroneous. In this 

State the general reconnaissance proved the area to contain no coal 

of value; hence no careful examination was required.

PUBLIC-LAND SURVEYS.

Public-land surveys made by the General Land Office result in the 

official township maps which are the basis of all land titles and to 

which, therefore, all data on land classification must finally be adjusted. The system now in use was adopted in essentially its present 

form in 1785. Under this system a certain initial point is first selected through which a north-south line, called a principal meridian, 

and an east-west line, called a base line, are run. At successive intervals, usually 24 miles, north and south of the base line standard 

parallels or correction lines are established parallel to the base, and 

similarly at intervals east and west of the principal meridian guide 

meridians are established. Because of the convergence of meridians 

toward the poles these guide meridians are not parallel to the principal meridian but approach it toward the north. In order to 

correct this narrowing the guide meridians are offset at each standard parallel and started anew northward at their original distance apart. The quadrilateral thus defined is subdivided into 

townships, each approximately 6 miles square, and each township in 

turn is divided into 36 sections 1 mile square. Each section is further subdivided into quarters, and each of these is held to contain 

four 40-acre tracts, or quarter-quarters, the smallest commonly recognized legal subdivision of 'the public-land system. Appropriately 

marked monuments are set at all township and section corners and at 

the middle points of the side lines of sections, thus indicating the 

limits of the quarter sections. Posts indicating the quarter-quarters 

are not set? but this unit, and indeed in special cases smaller units of
62 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

10-acre or even 2^-acre tracts, may be recognized in land classification.

This general plan, where properly carried out, is simple and effective and has furnished a satisfactory basis for land records and titles 

for more than a century and a quarter. Its execution, however, has 

not in all localities been satisfactory. 'For a great many years the 

work was done by contract under State surveyors general, despite 

the repeated and urgent requests of many Commissioners of the General Land Office for authority to do the work directly. In earlier 

years the contracts were sometimes distributed as rewards for political services, and the inspections were not always of a character 

to guard against the acceptance of inadequate surveys. Some of the 

contracts were obtained by honest men who did their work well, but 

others fell to inefficient or dishonest contractors who made poor surveys or none at all, although they prepared township plats which 

were submitted under oath as to their accuracy and which were accepted. In the older fraudulent surveys of this type all sorts of 

errors and omissions are encountered. In certain localities no monuments can be found and there is every reason to believe that the lines 

were never run. In other localities the work was done so carelessly 

that the corner posts are found far from the proper locations. The 

General Land Office, under the contract system, required that monuments were to be made of stone wherever it could be procured, but 

the use of wooden posts was permitted in other places. In some localities where advantage was taken of this permission the stakes set 

were so small or so poorly fixed in position as to constitute merely a 

nominal observance of the requirements, and many of the stakes thus 

set have disappeared.

Within recent years the Land Office has adopted the plan of marking corners permanently by deep-set iron posts and has been authorized by Congress to make surveys directly instead of by contract. 

These modern surveys provide a highly satisfactory basis for land 

titles, and some of the special surveys made on the Indian reservations by a combination of cadastral and topographic methods are 

models of complete and satisfactory base mapping.

For purposes of land classification it is imperative that the data 

procured by the geologist shall be tied to the land net because his 

classifications must be expressed in terms of the public-land surveys. 

Furthermore, these identifications must be exact, because it may occasionally be necessary to estimate values of the public lands in tracts 

of 40 acres, 10 acres, or even 2£ acres. It is obvious that in such cases 

the land lines must have been accurately run and the corners sufficiently-well established to permit undoubted identification. In a few 

places classification has been impossible because the land lines could 

not be found and the official surveys could therefore not be identified.
CLASSIFICATION OP MINERAL LANDS. 63

PREPARATION OF DATA FOR CLASSIFICATION.

The, geologist, on returning to the office from a field examination of land for the purpose of classification, informally presents to 

the appropriate section of the board a general outline of his work, 

the area covered, and the problems met. Thereupon the section decides the particular form of map and report desired. The essential 

factor in determining in just what form the data shall be submitted 

is the requirement that all pertinent facts determined by the field 

investigator shall be recorded and that the finished report shall be 

as accurate as the field work in location and interpretation. The 

importance of accuracy and completeness becomes apparent when it 

is realized that the record once submitted must form the basis not

Resurvey T. 19 N., R. 105 W. of the Sixth P.M., Wyoming

Coaf land price 

not fixed because 

General Land Office 

records show it to he 

jn private ownership

Replacing plat 

transmitted by 

6eo/ogical 5urvey 

September 8, tOOQ

Large f/'gures 

give price in 

do/lars per acre

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Acres 

Coal, priced 13.819 

Coal, not priced 6,634 

Hon. coal 2,775

Total 23.208

As given $1,773,289 

Minimum. £76,381

.1 classify and 

price the land 

In this township 

afi shown ppreon

&#Z&t*yp*>*<£k*..

/dl RECTOR

U.S. Geological Survey 

May- 28, 1910

FIGDKB 1, Township map showing classification and valuation of coal lands.

only for the classification of the land as mineral or nonmineral, a 

classification which may affect the interests of a large number of 

people, but also, in the case of coal land, for valuations aggregating 

millions of dollars. As an example, a copy of a township classificar 

tion and valuation plat as transmitted to the General Land Office is 

given in figure 1. In June, 1912, private individuals purchased from 

the Government sec. 12 of this township, for which they paid the 

classified price as shown, amounting to over a quarter of a million 

dollars.

In general the data are compiled by the field geologist from his 

original maps and notes in two forms. The first consists of a smallscale map with an .accompanying general report presenting the results of a study of the whole field. In this report the geologist discusses the stratigraphy and structure of the field as well as the oc-
64 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

currence of economically important minerals. On the map accompanying this report most of the finer details are omitted and only 

geologic formations and the outcrops of coal, phosphate, or oil sands 

are shown. The general report on a field contains a description of 

all that is known of the physical and chemical properties of the 

minerals occurring in that field. This report then serves as a basis for 

a set of general minutes, in which the appropriate section of the board 

outlines the application of the regulations governing the classification of lands containing those minerals to that particular field. 

After the general report has been considered by the proper section 

and the general minutes have been written, the field geologist prepares the classification data and in the case of coal land makes the 

valuation, under the immediate supervision and with the assistance 

of some member of the coal section of the board. Later the record 

is reviewed and passed on in detail by the entire section. Each 40- 

acre tract, and sometimes even each 2^-acre tract, is considered individually and all facts affecting its classification as mineral or nonmineral are weighed. A report of the proceedings of the section for 

each township is prepared, giving in detail the result of the classification and the reasons therefor. This report becomes part of the 

permanent records of the land-classification board.

Detailed reports on each township examined, with accompanying 

large-scale maps, constitute the second form of data. These are prepared in addition to the general report for all areas on which the 

smaller-scale map will not suffice for classification. On these largescale township maps every feature that- is possible of cartographic 

portrayal is represented the outcrops, dips, and measured thicknesses of all coal or phosphate beds or oil sands, all mines, prospects, 

or. lodes, the location of these features with respect to established 

land lines, and, if essential, the topography of the surface. Each 

map is supplemented by a description which gives the dates and 

methods of field work, the condition of land surveys, the proximity 

to railroads, and a discussion of the geology. In the valuation of 

coal land all calculations by which the price per acre for each tract 

has been derived are given in detail.

These reports and maps are all permanently mounted, arranged 

in order of State, range, and township in loose-leaf locking binders, 

and filed in fireproof steel cases. As new information is acquired, 

from whatever source, with regard to the mineral character of any 

township, it is added in its proper place in the binder. Such information consists of reports from field agents of the General Land 

Office, data obtained by members of the Geological Survey on -subsequent examinations, affidavits of public-land claimants, and other 

matter, The original field sheets and notebooks are likewise de-
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 65

posited in the files of the land-classification board and are always 

readily available for use. Card indexes are maintained covering 

both sets of files.

,COAL LANDS. 

PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION.

By act of March 3, 1873, Congress provided for the sale of coal 

lands belonging to the United States, specifying the conditions of 

sale and the minimum prices. To carry out the act it is necessary 

to determine, firstj what lands are coal lands (classification), and 

second, at what price they shall be sold (valuation). To give uniformity to Executive action in this work certain rules have been 

prepared by the Geological Survey and approved by the Secretary 

of the Interior under the title " Regulations for the classification 

and valuation of coal lands." These regulations provide exclusively 

for the classification and valuation of coal lands and are not to be 

confused with the regulations providing for the disposition of coal 

lands issued by the Land Office under the title " Coal-land laws and 

regulations thereunder." It is the province of the Geological Survey to determine what lands are underlain by coal within the limits 

set by the classification regulations, and to it has also been assigned 

the work of valuing the lands classified as coal land. Classification 

and valuation must follow three antecedent steps (1) the adoption 

of regulations formulating the principles and practice which are 

to govern classification and valuation; (2) the field examination to 

determine the presence, position, quality, and other features of the 

coal in the land; (3) the assembling of the field data in such form 

as to facilitate the work of classification and valuation by making 

possible the simultaneous consideration of all the facts. Finally, 

classification and valuation involve a consideration of all the known 

facts to determine what legal subdivisions of land are coal lands 

under the regulations and at what price they shall be sold.

Preliminary to the detailed consideration either in the field or 

office of any area believed to contain valuable coals the lands 

are withdrawn from entry under the authority of the act of June 

25, 1910 (36 Stat, 847), as amended by the act of August 24, 1912 

(37 Stat., 497). A typical coal-land withdrawal order is appended 

with the accompanying letter of transmittal:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEBIOB,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, January 21, 19IS. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR: Information on file in the Survey indicates that the land listed below 

contains valuable deposits of coal, and I therefore recommend the submission to 

78894 "--Bull. 537 13 5
66 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the President for appropriate action of the following order of withdrawal, 

involving 1,600 acres.

Very respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

JANUAKY 28, 1913.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

SAMUEL ADAMS,

Acting Secretary. 

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL.

Coal-land withdrawal Montana No. 10.

Under and pursuant to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 

25, 1910 (36 Stat, 847), entitled "An act to authorize the President of the 

United States to make withdrawals of public lands in certain cases," as amended 

by act of Congress approved August 24, 1912 (Public No. 316), and subject to 

the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 22, 1910, entitled "An act 

to provide for agricultural entries on coal lands," as amended by the act of 

Congress approved April 30, 1912 (Public No. 141), it is hereby ordered that 

the following-described lands be, and the same are hereby, withdrawn from 

settlement, location, sale, or entry and reserved for classification with respect to 

coal values:

Montana meridian.

T. 3 N., R. 3 E., sec. 25, NE. i, Si; 

sec. 26, SE. i; 

sec. 35, E. $; 

sec. 36, all.

WM. H. TAFT,

President. 

JANUARY 29, 1913.

METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION. 

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED.

In preparing the regulations for classification three principles are 

paramount: (1) The regulations must be based on demonstrated 

facts or on well-founded and generally accepted inferences; (2) they 

must be based on all the stable, permanent factors involved; (3) 

they must be as definite yet withal as simple as possible. Ideally the 

regulations should be so simple that anyone at all acquainted with 

the subject could correctly apply them, and they should be so definite 

as to admit of little or no disagreement in interpretation. Neither 

of these ideal requirements can be realized.

The workability of coal at a given point to-day depends on factors 

of two types. Those of the first type such as quality, thickness, 

and depth are intrinsic; those of the second type such as railroad transportation and markets are extrinsic. To-day the extrinsic factors may determine absolutely the commercial workability of 

a bed of coal at any locality. A coal bed 75 miles from a railroad 

and 50 miles from the nearest town, no matter how valuable it may 

be some day, has to-day a value that is purely prospective, depending on an unknown factor the time when transportation shall
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 67

reach it. A new railroad may "make" a coal-mining district by 

opening new markets or may " break " it by bringing in competition 

that it can not meet. To be stable, therefore, the regulations must 

be based directly on the intrinsic factors involved. Tracts classified 

as noncoal land are disposed of as such without further question as 

to their content of coal. Classification should therefore anticipate 

and assume the ultimate coming of conditions favorable for mining 

and marketing any coal if the coal is otherwise workable.

If an 18-inch coal of a certain grade occurring under certain conditions is workable in Missouri to-day, hundreds of thousands of 

tons being mined yearly, it would appear to be a reasonable assumption that a coal of like thickness and quality occurring under similar 

conditions elsewhere will be workable some day and should therefore be classed as a workable coal; especially does this assumption appear reasonable when it is considered that everywhere the 

tendency is to extend the limits of workability. Coal mining 

has nearly always been conducted on a very close margin. In any 

new field and most of the coal fields of the West to-day are 

new -only the most accessible, thickest, and best of the coal beds 

can be worked at a profit. Twenty years hence the most accessible 

coal will have been largely mined out and mining will be done on 

coal that is a little less accessible and that costs a little more to 

mine and that necessarily will sell at a little higher price. This 

higher price will permit the mining of other coal a little thinner 

and a little poorer which could not be mined profitably to-day, and 

the process will continue until all coal within minable limits is exhausted. The regulations attempt to define what these minable limits 

are, not in view of the conditions that may exist as the coal supply 

approaches absolute exhaustion, but in view of actual practice today under favorable conditions of transportation and of market.

PACTOBS INVOLVED. 

ESSENTIALS OF WORKABILITY.

The workability of any coal will ultimately be determined by two 

off setting-factors (1) its character and heat-giving quality, whence 

comes its value, and (2) its accessibility, quantity, thickness, depth, 

and other conditions that affect the cost of its extraction. It must 

be considered .a workable coal if its value, as determined by its character and heat-giving quality, exceeds the cost of extraction, either 

as judged by actual experience at the point where it is found or as 

judged by actual experience on similar coals similarly situated elsewhere. There are no absolute limits to any of the factors. The mining of 1 inch of coal that may involve the mining of 3 feet of rock is 

physically possible but would not pay. Most unworkable coal beds
68 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

lack one or more of three things quality, thickness, accessibility 

that is, they are too poor, too thin, or too deep. .Other things such 

as poor roof, gas, water, faults, pitch, and lack of timber may 

render mining difficult and temporarily unprofitable, but most or all 

of them are subject to engineering control. They may depreciate 

the value of the coal and defer its mining but may not make it 

unworkable.

QUALITY.

Coal is essentially a fuel. The heat afforded by burning coal is 

derived mainly from its carbon and the hydrogen that is free to 

burn. Associated with these are oxygen, nitrogen, water, and ash. 

A pound of the best coal, which contains about 90 per cent of carbon 

and " available " hydrogen and 10 per cent of the other ingredients, 

will yield from 14,000 to 15,500 British thermal units. A British 

thermal unit ("B. t. u.") is the amount of heat required to raise the 

temperature of 1 pound of water 1° F. under certain standard conditions. Poorer coals contain larger percentages of noncombustible 

constituents and correspondingly less carbon and available hydrogen, 

and their heating value (in British thermal units or other units of 

measurement) is reduced in much the same ratio. On analysis some 

coals show a content of all impurities that is in excess of the average; 

others show an excess of ash or water only; but whether the increase 

is in ash or water, or both, its effect is to decrease the heating value 

of the coal as expressed in B. t. u. Instead, therefore, of specifying 

the maximum quantity of ash or water allowable in a commercial or 

salable coal the regulations fix a minimum value in B. t. u. which will 

 cover either one, or any combination of these two or any other impurities. The limit of allowable impurity in a salable coal is affected by 

the facts that very wet coals may be improved by air drying and that 

coals which are very high in ash may usually be improved by washing 

or may, perhaps, be used in a producer-gas plant The possibility that 

improvements may be devised in the utilization of coal such as its 

entire utilization at the mine for producing electric power makes the 

determination of the powest limit of usable quality of coal difficult and very uncertain. Again, in a study of the B. t. u. value 

of low-grade coals that are now worked, difficulty is encountered in 

the fact that many of the earlier samples taken were weathered coal. 

On account of the possible improvement of the quality of the coal 

by drying or by washing, the lowest limit of usable quality is fixed 

by analysis of an air-dried sample, and if the coal as obtained in the 

mine contains a very high percentage of ash the possibility of its 

being washed is considered. Analyses of samples of coal cut in the 

mine from unweathered coal, according to the practice of the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines, indicate that any coal mined
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 69

commercially in the United States to-day will yield, after being 

washed or air dried, at least 8,000 B. t. u. This figure has therefore 

been fixed as the minimum B. t. u. value of any coal that shall be considered workable. In practice the washed product of any coal subject to washing must have* at least 50 per cent of the weight of the 

unwashed coal. The washability of any coal is determined on a 

sample of one-quarter inch size by a float and sink test, the liquid 

used having a specific gravity of 1.5. Even if its workability is thus 

indicated in the laboratory it can not be considered workable unless 

there is sufficient water in the field for washing it.

THICKNESS.

More coal is unworkable because it is too thin than for any other 

reason. The result of a study of the relative cost of mining in 

relation to the thickness of beds is given on pages 83-86.

For the purpose of classification a careful study was made of the 

thicknesses of coals that are actually mined in a large commercial 

way. Many of the facts disclosed by this study have been published. 1 

By platting these with reference to the B. t. u. content of the coal it 

became evident that in actual practice coals yielding 10,000 B. t. u. are 

worked with profit down to a thickness of 18 or 19 inches, that coals 

yielding 12,000 B. t. u. are worked down to 14 or 15 inches, and that 

better coals are mined from beds still thinner. Some coals of the qualities mentioned are mined from beds that are thinner than those noted 

above, but under very exceptional conditions. In considering the lowgrade coals three special factors must be noted: (1) Most of them 

occur in rocks of more recent age than the others, which have been 

less affected by mountain-making forces and are therefore less indurated. On this account it is thought that future extensive mining 

may show the frequent necessity of leaving some of the coal for 

roof and of leaving larger pillars. (2) Owing to the air-dry ing loss 

in very wet coals they are likely to shrink considerably before they 

are marketed. (3) If the low B. t. u. value of these coals is due .to 

their high content of ash an allowance should be made for loss in 

washing. For these reasons the minimum thickness for beds of the 

low-grade coals is set much higher in proportion to B. t. u. value than 

for beds of coals of higher grade.

The minimum minable thickness of bed is fixed at 14 inches for all 

coals having more than 12,000 B. t. u. For coals having less than 

12,000 B. t. u. the minimum minable thickness increases at the rate 

of one-tenth inch for each decrease of 100 B. t. u. down to 11,000, 

then at the rate of one-tenth inch for each 50 B. t. u. down to 10,500, 

then at the rate of one-tenth inch for each 25 B. t. u. from 10,500

1 Fisher, C. A., Depth and minimum thickness of coal beds as limiting factors in valuation of coal lands: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 424, 1910, pp. 56-62.
70 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

down to 10,000. The increase for coals yielding less than 10,000 

B t. u. is at the rate of one-tenth inch for each decrease of 10 B. t. u. 

in the coal. The following table gives the thicknesses for B. t. u. of 

even five hundreds:

Minimum thicknesses for even five hundreds B. t. u.

B. t. u.

15,000

14,500 

J4,000

13,500

13,000

Inches.

14

14 

14

14

14

B. t. u.

'12,500

12,000 

11,500

11,000

10,500

Inches.

14

14

15

16

B. t. u.

10,000

9,500 

9,000

8,500

8,000

Inches.

18

23 

28

33

38

An important question that frequently arises is, What value, in 

relation to thickness, shall be given to split or broken beds? The 

general practice of the United States Geological Survey in classifying 

coals has been to give a split bed the value of an unbroken bed with 

which it can fairly be compared. It is evident that a solid 3-foot bed 

is worth more than two 18-inch benches separated by 6 inches of clay 

or shale. After careful study the Survey adopted the simple expedient of prescribing that any parting or bench of bone or impure coal 

included in a bed injured the value of the coal of the bed in amount 

equal to the thickness of the parting. Thus the split bed just cited, 

with its 6-inch parting, is regarded as equivalent to a solid bed 30 

inches thick (36 inches of coal minus 6 inches of parting equals 30 

inches). If the benches on either side of the parting are not of the 

same thickness the thickness of the parting is deducted from the 

thickness of the thinner bench. It is not necessary to consider the 

whole thickness of a coal bed. It is the practice of the Survey to 

start with the best bench, if in itself not of workable thickness, and 

to add the thickness of the next bench above or below after deducting 

the thickness of the intermediate parting. If the whole bed thus 

included is still not of workable thickness and more benches exist 

above or below, the thickness of these benches is added, after subtracting the thickness of the parting between them and the principal 

bench. If a parting is thicker than the thinner adjoining coal 

bench, that bench is considered as having no value. This practice is 

best illustrated by a group of concrete examples. (See fig. 2.)

As a matter of practice two coal layers, each workable, are 

treated as parts of a single bed if the two layers both exceed in thickness the parting between them and the parting does not exceed 3£ 

feet. In general two layers of coal are treated as two beds if the 

parting between them exceeds either one in thickness, and their workability is determined on that basis.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 71

a~b a "b a "b a"b a"b

I'2" I'

2" 

I'2" l'2"f

6"n

I'' 5"!

T?

10"

I'10" l'8" 

2"

2/11" 2»,,«

2'I" I' 2"

5'9'

6" 5" I"

./' I II 11"

2" 

I'4" I'4"

V\" II-'

4" 

I'2" 10" (

~4V

4'

I' 3" 

9"

2'2

2'6" 2V

3'4"

 2V 2'5"

4" 

2/ 3 // .,/ //)

i'I'D" i'a" 

2"

I'6" I'4"

2" 

l'4" 7"

2' 2'

ab a"b a"b a~b

10"

2'6'

I'6" I'4" 

2"

10"

9" 

6" 

7"

2' 2' 3'9" 3'!

4' 4'

9" 

I'3"

I'7" 3

FIGURE 2. Diagram showing split or broken beds and their value for classification : a, 

measured thickness; b, equivalent thickness used in classification and valuation.
72 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The criteria given in the preceding paragraphs are intended to 

determine the workability or nonworkability of a coal measured at 

any given point. The most difficult problem in classification is the 

determination of the probable limits of workability of an irregular 

coal. Coal occurs in beds ranging in thickness from a fraction of 

an inch to 100 feet or more and in areal extent from a few square feet 

to thousands of square miles. Some beds maintain a nearly uniform 

thickness over hundreds of square miles. Others may be traced at 

the same geologic horizon over hundreds or thousands of square 

miles but vary greatly in thickness, ranging from a few inches to 

several feet or back again within a quarter of a mile. Every grade of 

regularity or irregularity between these extremes is found, and it is 

possible to determine the " habit" of some beds as regards regularity.

The simplest problem is that in which two unequal measurements 

on a single bed, taken at different places, are available. All such 

beds are assumed to grade uniformly in thickness from the thicker 

measurement to or through the thinner measurement, and a limit 

to the workable coal is thus fixed that, while it may or may not agree 

with the unknown facts, is the most probable limit. In general, a coal 

bed that can be traced continuously along the face of a cliff, as can 

many beds in the West, has usually been assumed to extend under 

the land back from the cliff at least one-half the length of the cliff 

outcrop, the lens or bed having the shape of a half-circle, the length 

of the cliff outcrop being the diameter of the circle. Obviously, if, 

the outcrop runs along the cliff for many miles, the extension of the 

coal back from the outcrop may be modified by many other factors, 

such as limit of depth, or outcrop on the opposite side of the hill. 

If the bed outcrops along the cliff with irregular thickness, only a 

moderate extension of the bed behind the cliff is assumed, the estimate being based on the character of the irregularities shown by 

measurements made along the cliff, or by a general knowledge of the 

extent of the lenses of that particular coal or of coals of that group, 

and depending on the general " habit" of the bed, if known, and 

also taking into account all local features. If the exposed outcrop 

does not extend in a straight line, but, as is more common, runs in 

and out of ravines, careful note is made of the thickening or thinning of the coal between one point of measurement and another in 

order to detect, if possible, any general tendency of the bed to thicken 

or thin in any direction, and all these measurements and tendencies 

are taken into account in determining the probable extent of the 

lens in any direction.

Many beds studied are known to be of less than workable thickness in larger or smaller part, and any measurement showing a workable thickness on such a bed must usually be considered as a measure taken at the center of a small lens of workable coal. A discovery
CLASSIFICATION OP MINERAL LANDS. 73

or measurement of a coal bed by a well, or by drilling, will have the 

same value as an isolated measurement on the outcrop. The content 

and shape to be assigned to any lens must depend on conditions and 

are largely matters of judgment, and such assignments or determinations especially require a wide knowledge of coals and of the particular group of coals to which the bed under consideration may 

belong. To insure uniformity in treating the thousands of questions of this kind that may arise for nearly every field involves 

some, and many fields involve a great number the Geological Survey has gradually established a series of precedents, and in every 

question the attempt is made to reach conclusions by means of mathematical calculation. The limits of this bulletin will not allow the 

consideration of these methods here.

DEPTH.

* 

Some of the facts about the deep mining of coal in this country

and abroad have been presented and discussed in an earlier bulletin 

of the Survey.1 Not many years ago it was the common opinion 

and practice in parts of the West to consider as coal land only land 

on which coal actually cropped out, and requests are still occasionally 

sent to the Geological Survey asking the reclassification of certain 

land that had been previously classified as coal land, the writers 

contending, and supporting their contention by abundant affidavits, 

that the land is noncoal, because no coal shows at the surface and 

none has been found on it in wells. If such land should be considered noncoal land, however, most of the coal now mined in Illinois, 

Indiana, western Kentucky, Michigan, Kansas, and some other States 

comes from noncoal land, for most of the mines in those States are 

on lands where the coal mined does not crop out but is reached by 

shafts. The actual outcrop of most of the coal mined in these States 

is from 5 to 75 miles away from the shafts.

Two questions are here involved: (1) How deep can coal be mined ? 

(2) Can all coals be mined to the same depth? Coal is now being 

mined to a depth of practically 4,000 feet (3,937 feet), and many 

shafts in England, Belgium, France, and Germany go deeper than 

3,000 feet. Moreover, a consideration of the still greater depths to 

which substances other than coal are being successfully mined and 

a study of the deepest coal mines have convinced many of the best 

engineers of England and Europe that coal mining will be extended 

to 5,000 feet.2 The fact .also that some of the largest coal companies of this country have purchased as coal land certain tracts 

under which the coal is believed to lie at depths of 5,000 to 6,000 feet

1 Fisher, C. A., Depth and minimum thickness of beds as limiting factors in valuation 

of coal lands : Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 424, 191.0, pp. 48 et seq. 

3 Idem, p. 51.
74 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

shows that some American engineers believe that coal mining will 

be carried to those depths.

Although, without regard to profit, there may be a physical limit 

to the depth that coal can ultimately be mined, in general the depth 

of mining must be determined by its cost. Given a steady market 

the depth to which coal can be mined is a question that involves 

diminishing profits; every added foot of depth adds to the time required to lift the coal, thus reducing the possible output of the mine, 

to the cost of the lift, to the initial capital required and the interest on 

that capital, to the size of pillars, and to other factors. Where coal is 

mined at a certain depth with a narrow margin of profit, obviously 

mining at a much greater depth will extinguish that margin and render that coal unworkable until markets are better. Of two coals at 

the same depth, of the same thickness, and in other ways equal but 

of different quality, one, the better coal, may yield a profit and the 

other may not. A similar inequality of profit may exist between two 

coals of the same quality but of different thickness. The thicker 

coal, which can be mined at a less cost, may be minable at a profit, 

while the thinner may not. In brief, the depth to which any coal 

can be worked depends, on the one hand, on its quality, which determines the profits where the cost of working is the same, and, on 

the other hand, on the cost of mining, which, omitting differences 

due to depth, is in general proportional to the thickness of the coal. 

Therefore, given a certain grade of coal which sells on the market 

at a certain price the profit will be in inverse ratio to the cost of 

mining, and hence, other things being equal, the depth to which that 

coal can be mined will differ for different thicknesses of coal and is 

assumed to vary in direct proportion to the value of the coal as computed from the cost of mining.

The depth to which any coal can be mined is therefore assumed to 

be directly proportional to the B. t. u. value of the coal and inversely 

proportional to the cost of mining for different thicknesses. Thus 

below the adopted minimum depth of 500 feet, a 10,000 B. t. u. coal 

can be mined to only two-thirds the depth of a 15,000 B. t. u. coal, 

and an 8,000 B. t. u. coal to two-thirds the depth of a 12,000 B. t, u. 

coal of the same thickness. If 5,000 feet is assumed as the maximum 

possible depth at which any coal can be mined, it is also assumed to 

apply only to coal of the highest grade and to the thickness costing 

the least to mine in other words, to a 15,000 B. t. u. coal 6 feet or 

more thick. By this assumption a 6-foot ;coal of 12,000 B. t. u. is 

considered as workable to only 4,000 feet or a 6-foot coal of 10,000 

B. t, u. to only 3,333 feet.

Elsewhere in this bulletin it is pointed out that the cost of mining 

a ton of coal is much higher for thin beds than for thick beds. There 

is no great difference in the cost of mining coals between 6 and 10
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 75

feet thick, but, especially in the West, the cost of mining coals less 

than 6 feet thick increases as the thickness decreases. It has therefore been assumed that a coal of the minimum thickness for its grade 

is workable to a depth of not more than 500 feet; that a coal 6 feet 

or more thick is workable to a depth of 100 feet for each 300 B. t. u. it 

contains; and that a coal between its minimum thickness and 6 feet is 

workable to a depth between 500 feet and the maximum depth limit 

for that coal proportional to the thickness above the minimum. 

Thus, a 12,000 B. t. u. coal 6 feet or more thick has a maximum depth 

limit of 4,000 feet and an assumed minimum thickness of 14 inches; 

a bed of 12,000 B. t. u. coal 4 feet thick is workable to a depth determined by the rule above given as follows: 72 14:48 14:: 4,000 

500:a?/a?=2,050, which added to 500, the depth limit for a bed of the 

minimum thickness, gives 2,550 as the depth limit for the bed under 

consideration.

The accompanying chart (fig. 3) is copied from part of a largescale diagram used by the Geological Survey in classifying coal land. 

It is arranged to show the depth limit fixed for a coal of any B. t. u. 

value of any thickness under 6 feet.

For convenience the readings for the even feet and for the even 

thousand B. t. u. are given in the following table:

Limits of minable depth of coal of various thicknesses and various heating

values in B. t. u.

Thickness, in feet: 

1J..................... ...........

2.................................

3.................................

4.................................

5.................................

6.................................

15,000

811

1,275

2,200

3,140

4,070

5,000

14,000

787

1,217

2,075

2,940

3,800

4.666

13,000

764

1,160

1,950

2,740

3,540

4,330

12,000

751

1,100

1,830

2,550

3,270

4,000

11 000

665

1 000

1^665

2,340

3,000

3,660

10 000

w\

825

1 440

2,075

2,700

3,330

9,000

Gen

1,650

2,330

3,000

8,000

1.920

2,660

In general the limit of depth at which a coal bed may be profitably 

mined depends entirely upon the thickness of the bed and the quality 

of the coal. If, however, a thin but workable bed that lies below 

its ordinary minable depth is overlain by a thicker bed that lies 

within its own minable depth, the lower thin bed may, perhaps, be 

profitably worked by extending downward1 the shaft sunk to the 

higher, thicker coal, whereas the thinner bed could not have been 

profitably mined alone. A single shaft may also give access to all 

the coals of a group, and, though the cost of raising all the coal will 

be the same as if the coal were taken from a single bed, the cost of 

the shaft and the interest on that cost will be borne by the proceeds of 

a larger product. In some places the whole cost of a shaft may be 

borne by the coal of a thick bed that underlies several thinner beds
76 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

or that lies in the middle of a group of thinner beds. It is clear 

that no two shafts that penetrate groups of coal beds will present

Thickness 

2345

of coal bed in feet.

0 

500 

1,000 

.1,500 

2,000 

02,500

<D ifc

_c 3,000 -P

Q_ 

CD 

Q

3,500 

4,000 

4,500 

5,000

\ XX

%

^

\

Xs

W

W

4

11

\

sXkxX ^

...^\\

K

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- 8,000 

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Thickness of coal bed in feet

FIGURE 3. Diagram showing depth limits of coals of different B. t. u. and of different

thicknesses under 6 feet.

similar conditions. The coals of such groups will vary in number 

from two to twenty or more and may be included in an interval
CLASSIFICATION" OF MINEEAL LANDS. 77

of 50 to 500 feet or more. Every case involving such conditions 

must be considered on its merits, and here again the Geological 

Survey has found it necessary to establish a series of general precedents in order to make its treatment of such cases reasonably 

uniform. In some places it has been found possible to treat a 

group of coal beds as if they were all gathered at a " center of 

weight" that is, at a point determined by multiplying the computed thickness of each bed by its depth from the surface and 

dividing the sum of the products by the sum of the compensated 

thicknesses, the thicknesses of the various beds being reduced for 

partings in the manner already described.

The determination of the limit m depth at which a coal bed can 

be mined may be complicated by the fact that in a region of very 

rugged topography the coal gets below minable limit in passing 

under some high ridge or peak but is within the minable limit under 

a valley on the other side. Again, in some places the coal outcrops 

near the foot of a great cliff, such as commonly flanks a high plateau 

in the West, and it goes below minable depth within a short distance 

from its outcrop. In order to cover all the different occurrences of 

this kind the regulations provide that tracts underlain by horizontal 

beds of coal that lie at depths below the minable limit may under certain conditions be classified as coal land. Horizontal beds of coal may 

be mined to a distance back from their outcrop equal to 10 times the 

depth limit for coal of that particular grade and thickness. It is evident that, to be commercially minable at a certain depth, a coal bed 

must be minable for a reasonable distance from the foot of a shaft 

sunk to it, in order to pay the cost of the shaft. It is also evident 

that if it is profitable to sink a shaft to the depth limit for a given 

coal and then mine out horizontally by drift a certain distance from 

the foot of the shaft, it would be profitable to mine farther from the 

foot of the shaft if it were not so deep. The relative values involved 

in shaft and drift can be easily calculated if unit values are fixed 

for the horizontal and vertical components. For purposes of classification and valuation it has been assumed that 1 foot of vertical shaft 

in rock involves as much expense in its construction and maintenance 

and in the removal of the coal as 7.5 feet of horizontal drift in coal. 

For this reason the horizontal distance to which the drift can be 

carried will be no more than the prescribed limit for mining from 

the outcrop (in this case set at 10 times the vertical limit) minus 

7.5 times the depth of the shaft. Thus if the minable depth of a certain coal bed is 2,000 feet, but that bed is horizontal and crops out 

in a cliff, the area underlain by it is classified as coal land for a distance of 10 times 2,000, or 20,000 feet, back from the outcrop. If the 

bed is horizontal but lies at a depth of 700 feet, it is assumed that the 

coal can be mined back 20,000 minus (700X7.5) =14,750 feet from the
78 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

foot of a shaft of that depth, even if, away from the foot of the 

shaft, the coal is more than 2,000 feet below the surface. If the 

shaft is 1,200 feet deep the coal can be mined back 20,000 minus 

(1,200X7-5) =11,000 feet. If the coal is at the depth limit at the 

foot of the shaft it can be mined back 20,000 minus (2,000X7.5) = 

5,000 feet, or approximately 1 mile in any direction.

CLASSIFICATION BY 4O-ACRE TRACTS OB LOTS.

In ordinary practice coal land is disposed of by parcels composed 

of " smallest legal subdivisions," which are ordinarily quarter-quarter 

sections, or 40 acres, except along the north and west sides of townships and in areas bordering meandered rivers or lakes, where the 

tracts are usually irregular in size and shape and are called lots.

The price of a tract that is wholly underlain by coal is the price 

per acre multiplied by the number of acres. The price of a tract 

that is only in part underlain by coal is the price of the coal per acre 

multiplied by the number of acres it underlies. To obtain the sale 

price per acre of the 40- acre tract or lot, the amount obtained by the 

above computation is divided by 40 or by a figure representing the 

actual acreage, but no land must be appraised at a price below the 

minimum fixed by law. Thus if 24 acres of a 40-acre tract is underlain by coal valued at $50 an acre the price of the " forty " is 24 times 

$50=$1,200, or $30 an acre ($l,200-HtO=$30). The value of the coal 

in some lands, however, is so small that to charge even the minimum 

price for them would make the price of the coal abnormally high. For 

example, to take an actual case: Five acres of a 40-acre tract is underlain by coal 2 feet thick, the total value of which under the regulations 

is about $100. The tract is within 15 miles of a railroad, and therefore if it is all sold as coal land it- must be sold at the rate of $20 an 

acre that is, the whole tract must be sold for $800. The coal land 

in the forty is therefore segregated from the agricultural land, the line 

of division following the 10 or 2£ acre subdivision. The two portions of the forty thus segregated are treated as separate lots. The 5 

acres of coal land is. sold for $100, its value, and the noncoal tract is 

subject to disposal as nonmineral land. Such a division of the forty 

into two lots, one coal and the other noncoal, is made only along the 

outcrop of the coal and only within so short a distance from known 

corners that, little doubt can arise as to the exact position of the 

outcrop.

OUTCROP COAX AND BTTKNED COAL. >

In coal-mining practice it has been found that the coal along the 

outcrop and for a distance back of it ranging from 30 to 100 feet or 

more, the distance depending on the amount of cover, is more or less 

influenced by weathering, which materially decreases its value. Diffi-
CLASSIFICATION OP MINEBAL LANDS. 79

culty due to the thin and weak roof is also encountered in mining on 

the outcrop. If only a thin edge or corner of coal extends into a forty 

it may be neglected, as it will give the tract no value as coal land. If 

the coal outcrops in bluffs or steep hillsides or has a high dip weathering may be neglected.- If the coal outcrops at the top of a mesa or 

on the face of a long, gentle 'slope an allowance is made for thinness 

of cover. The possibility of mining outcrop coal by stripping with 

steam shovel or otherwise is generally considered, as such a method of 

coal mining has in many places proved highly successful.

In many areas of the West the coal beds have been burned along 

the outcrop. In some places one or more or all of the beds have been 

burned not only along an outcrop over a whole field but under the 

flat tops of mesas where the coal is close to the surface. In a few 

places mining has shown that this burning extends back 1,000 feet 

or more and lies many hundred feet under cover. In general, however, the coal does not appear to have burned back more than a 

few rods. All places where coal has been burned are indicated on 

the field maps. In classifying the land in these places the edge of 

the coal is fixed along a line drawn back of the outcrop, only slightly 

back of it where the line crosses ravines, but to a considerable distance back of it where it crosses projecting divides, especially if the 

coal is under light cover.

METHODS OF VALUATION.1 

COST Or COAIj IN THE GROUND.

The total cost of coal in the ground consists of the original purchase price, interest on investment, amortization charges, taxes, and, 

if the coal is leased, the cost of inspection and of collecting royalties. 

The following table shows the amortization and ultimate cost of coal 

in the ground per dollar of investment for periods ranging from 20 

to 40 years, at 5 and 6 per cent interest.

Ultimate cost of coal per dollar of purchase price.

Amortization period in years.

20.......................................

30.......................................

40.......................................

Rate of 

interest.

Per cent.

5

6

5

6

5

6

Annual 

interest.

$0.05

.06

.05

.06

.05

.06

Annual 

taxes at 

1 per cent.

80.01

.01

.01

.01

.01

.01

Annual 

amortization 

charge.

SO. 03

.027

.015

.0125

.008

.006

Total 

annual 

cost.

SO. 09

.097

.075

.0825

.068

.076

Total cost

per dollar 

of purchase 

price at 

end of 

amortization period.

$1.80

1.94

2.25

2.475

2.88

1 For a more detailed account of the principles of valuation of public coal land see 

Survey Bulletin 424, on the valuation of public coal lands.
80 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

It is generally agreed that the price paid for coal in the ground 

should be recovered by the investor during the early years of the 

mining, when the cost is lowest. Otherwise it must be recovered 

when the inevitable increase in the cost of working the mine has reduced the profits and the business has reached a condition that is the 

bane of the eastern coal-mining industry to-day. The initial investment should invariably be refunded within the first 20 years of the 

life of the mine. The above table shows that if the mine is opened 

and operated immediately and continuously after purchase the total 

cost of the coal in the ground will be about two 'dollars for each 

dollar of the purchase price. The value of coal in the ground at 

the time of its extraction is measured by the current royalty rate in 

the region where the coal is situated. Its value at the time the mine 

is opened is, then, approximately one-half the royalty rate, as has 

been indicated. Were it possible to know in advance the exact number of tons that would be recovered 'from any acre of land, the value 

of that acre at the beginning of mining would be one-half the 

royalty rate per ton multiplied by the tonnage recovered. If the 

royalty rate is 10 cents a ton, the value of coal per ton in the ground 

when a mine is opened is at least 5 cents. To insure profit and safety, 

however, the purchaser of coal land, as a rule, in buying demands a 

margin on the estimated tonnage value (1) as a consideration for 

the risk of the investment, (2) to offset possible delays in the mining 

of the coal, and (3) as a contingent against an overestimate of the 

recoverable tonnage. If this margin is fixed at one-half the estimated value, the coal should have a sale value of 2-| cents a ton if 

the royalty is 10 cents a ton. Royalties on bituminous coals in the 

, United States range from about 3 to the equivalent of 35 cents a ton. 

A comparison of royalties paid in the United States, some of which 

are given in Survey Bulletin 424 (p. 10) shows that 10 cents a ton 

is not far from the average royalty paid under private leases somewhat less in the East, somewhat more in the West. Therefore 2-| 

cents a ton is a fair sale price for unmined coal that is to be mined 

immediately, where 10 cents a ton is the prevailing royalty. As a 

matter of fact, where the character and tonnage of the coal are well 

known to both buyer and seller prices often range from one-quarter 

the royalty rate almost or quite to the royalty rate. For example, 

the Pittsburgh coal, in southwestern Pennsylvania, is worked to a 

thickness of about 1 feet. On an estimate of 1,200 tons recovery per 

acre-foot this bed should yield 8,400 tons an acre; yet it is reported 

that 99 separate transfers were made in W^estmoreland County between 1901 and 1910 at an average price of $1,102.70 an acre over 

13 cents a ton and many of .these sales were made at a price much 

higher than this average. Occasionally the sale price for small tracts 

adjacent to operating mines may reach the royalty rate.
CLASSIFICATION OP MINEEAL LANDS. ' 81

The general impression that coal lands are sold at low prices is 

due largely to the fact that in the past most of the sellers had bought 

their land as farm land, knowing little or nothing of its coal content 

or value, and had regarded the coal as a little overmeasure on the part 

of nature for which they were willing to take anything that was 

offered or that looked good to them. As a result a large number of 

the recorded sales of coal land have been made at prices that have 

had little relation to "the value of the coal, and in the past a large 

percentage of the total acreage has been sold at such prices. A recent 

review of coal-land sales for one year, as recorded in one of the most 

reliable of the coal journals, excluding all sales of tracts containing 

over 10,000 acres, which were obviously bought for holding or speculation, showed 40 sales, representing a total of 95,218 acres, at an 

average price of $209 per acre. This average price for a year's sales 

shows the great extent to which coal lands have passed out of their 

original farmer ownership. Grouped according to prices, it is found 

that that year's sales as thus recorded ran as follows:

Prices of coal lands sold in one year.

Price per acre.

8600 to 3800.. ..........................................................................

$400 to 8600... : ........................................................................

$200 to 8400- ... .......................................................................

8100 to $200 ...........................................................................

Sales.

3

2

3

8

10

14

Acres.

10,198

1,633

417

14,046

26,097

32,817

In other words, 65 per cent of the sales and the acreage were at 

$100 an acre or more and 40 per cent of the sales were at $200 an acre 

or more.

It is evident that a large share of these were sales of lands not 

purchased for immediate development. Sixteen of these sales, conveying 74,633 acres, covered tracts containing more than 1,500 acres, 

an area generally admitted to be as large as can be economically mined 

from one plant in present-day practice.

In order to give the prospective buyer an ample margin of safety, 

the basing prices of the Government coal lands are fixed at only 40 

per cent of the value (2^ cents per ton) named in a preceding paragraph, or at 1 cent per ton for a coal of good average quality say 

12,500 B. t. u. equivalent to one-tenth of a cent for each 1,250 B. t. u. 

of the coal. This price, is one-tenth the assumed average royalty 

rate.

FAOTOBS

The valuation indicated, however 1 cent per ton for coal in the 

ground is not put on all coals indiscriminately. Though the value 

of any coal is most readily obtained by taking the royalty rate, 

78894° Bull. 537 13 6
82 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the royalty rate itself is based on the average difference between the 

cost price of the coal.ready for sale and the sale price that is, on 

the profit. If competition is keen and the profit is low, these facts 

are reflected in a low royalty rate. Whatever affects the profits 

affects the royalty rate and correspondingly the value. Other things 

being equal, the lower the grade of coal the less readily it sells and the 

less the profit, the royalty, and the value. On the other hand, the 

more expensive the coal is to mine the less the profit, the royalty, and 

the value. The Government valuations can not take account of 

changes in competition, markets, transportation facilities, or freight 

rates, or other factors that affect the profit, but it can and does take 

account of the quality and character of the coal, both chemically and 

physically, which affect the sale price and so the profit and value, 

and of those natural factors that affect the mining cost. The most 

important of these factors are thickness and accessibility.

EFFECT OF QUAIjITY ON PRICE. ,

One cent per ton is therefore the price put on a good average coal 

a. noncoking bituminous coal of 12,500 B. t. u. heat value, 6 to 10 feet 

thick, and at the surface. For coals of other B. t. u. value the same 

rate of one-tenth cent for each 1,250 B. t. u. is applied, and provision 

is made for increasing this value (not to exceed 100 per cent) for 

coking coal or coal that has special qualities which enhance its value 

in the market, the percentage of increase depending on the quality 

of the coke it yields or the extent to which its special qualities enhance its value; and on the other hand provision is made for reducing the appraised value because of special impurities, such as sulphur, or because of physical defects that obviously detract from the 

market value.

EFFECT OF MUTING- COST ON PRICE.

The cost of mining coal is affected by many factors such as cost of 

prospecting, shaft sinking, or other mine opening, surface and underground plant, perhaps community plant, water, supplies, timber, 

feed, and insurance all of which vary from place to place or in 

accordance with the method of working the mine. Within the mine 

the main factors are mining rate, thickness, depth, and dip or pitch 

of bed, variations or irreguarity in thickness, partings, " sulphur " or 

other impurities that must be removed, kind of roof or floor, presence 

of gas or water, provision for drainage and ventilation, haulage and 

hoisting, faults, and igneous intrusions. Many of these factors 

give rise to problems for the engineer; others definitely affect the 

value of the land for coal mining. One of the factors of the latter 

class thickness has so definite and constant a relation to the cost 

of mining that it must be taken into account in determining the value 

of all coal land.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 83

VAIATE OF THXN" GOALS.

The cost of mining thin coals increases rapidly with the decrease 

in their thickness, for the following reasons: The rate paid for mining the coal increases with the thinning of the bed, as do the amount 

of dead work per unit of output, the cost of trackage, ties, rails, haulage, and ventilation, and, for the very thin coals, the cost of taking 

up floor or brushing down roof to obtain height.

H. M. Chance 1 has prepared curves expressing the relations 

between mining cost and thickness for anthracite coal. The figures 

showing Chance's determinations are given in column 2 of the table 

on page 84. Similar figures (column 3) were obtained by the Survey 

for bituminous coals. Detailed cost sheets of mines working coals of 

different thicknesses were taken and the costs were separated into 

four items (a) capital cost (interest, etc.); (b) mining rate; (c) 

tonnage cost (proportional to output, tipple, office, etc.); (d) acreage 

cost (proportional to acreage mined out, dead work, hauling, etc.). 

Obviously, if the recovery per acre-foot is the same, the last item 

would be double for a 5-foot coal bed what it would be for a 10-foot 

bed yielding the same output and would be inversely proportional 

to the thickness of the bed. Though the tonnage recovered is greater 

per acre-foot from thin than from thick beds, yet the recovery 

varies so greatly from mine to mine and from time to time that an 

absolutely invariable recovery from a bed of a given thickness can 

not be assumed. Therefore, in reaching the results now to be stated, 

differences in recovery from beds of different thickness have not 

been considered. As in all studies of coal mining made by the 

Geological Survey the obtainable figures relating to any particular 

factor were, if possible, gathered together and platted graphically on 

a chart, by which it has usually been practicable to show certain 

definite averages or curves expressing the relation sought. Whenever 

possible, these curves have been reduced to mathematical formulas, 

A concrete example is a curve showing the relation between the mining rate and thickness of bed, a relation which it was necessary to determine in working out the total cost of mining beds of different 

thicknesses. In making this diagram the mining rates at different 

places in the United States were platted on cross-section paper as 

shown in figure 4 (p. 85), on which the curve A-B was drawn to express the average relation between these two factors, a relation which 

was used in later computations.

1 Chance, H. M., The cost of mining coal: Eng. and Min. Jour., May 29, 1909, pp. 

1099-1101.
84 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The following table gives the derivation of the formula showing 

the relation of the thickness to value of bed, uniform recovery being 

assumed:

Table showing derivation of formula for relation of thickness to value of bed.

Thickness of

bed in 

feet

(0.

1

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Average cost.

Anthra-

/»jffl v/IiC

(Chance).

2

1.00

1.01

1.045

1.10

1.18

1.35

1.65

2.13

3.36

Bituminous.

3

1.00

1.03

1.075

1.126

1.20

1.30

1.45-1.55

2.00

3.00

Approximate

combination 

cost.

4

1.00

1.02

1.05

1.10

1.20

1.33

. 1.50

2.00

3.00

Value by inversion.

5

1.00

.97

.95

.91

.83

.75

.66

.50

.33

Difierence=

10

minus 

thickness 

in feet.

6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Square

of

amount 

in column 6.

7

0

1

4

9

16

25

36

49

64

100

minus

amount 

in column 7.

8

100

99

96

91

84

75

64

51

36

The first column in the table gives the thickness of the bed in 

feet ; the second the average cost of mining anthracite at these thicknesses, according to Chance (not including breakerage charges) ; 

the third column, the computed relative cost for bituminous coal; 

the fourth column, the approximate combination of the two; the 

fifth column, the relative values of beds of the same quality of coal 

of different thickness, obtained by dividing 100 by the cost, given in 

column 4; the sixth column, the difference in feet between 10 and 

the particular thickness given; the seventh column, the square of 

the numbers in column 6; the eighth column, the result of subtracting from 100 the square of the difference between 10 and the 

thickness in feet. By comparing columns 5 and 8, column 8 is seen to 

give a close approximation to the computed figures in column 5, and as 

the figures in column 5 are by no means absolute and fixed the figures 

in column 8 have been taken as fairly expressing the relative value of 

different thicknesses of the same coal ; but this is found by subtracting 

from 100 per cent a percentage equal to the square, of the difference between 10 and the thickness, or -

The value per ton of a bed less than 10 feet thick of a given grade of 

coal may therefore be found by multiplying the normal value per ton

/10 1\2 for a 10-foot bed of coal of that grade by (1 1 j ).

In valuing land by the acre-foot, however, an additional factor 

must be considered, namely, that a larger recovery of coal per acrefoot is possible from thin beds than from thick beds. This difference 

offsets in a measure the rapid increase in mining cost with thinning 

of beds. Thus 1,000 tons an acre-foot for a 10-foot bed and 1,200
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 85

tons an acre-foot for a 6-foot bed are considered fair recoveries. But 

1,000 tons of coal at 1 cent a ton is $10, and 1,200 tons at 0.84 cent'a 

ton (84 per cent being the corresponding value of a 6-foot bed) is 

$10.08. It is then practically immaterial whether land containing a 

6-foot bed is valued at 84 per cent of the normal value of land containing a 10-foot bed of coal of a certain grade and an assumed 

recovery of 1,200 tons an acre-foot or whether the same value per 

ton and the same recovery per acre-foot are assumed as with the 

10-foot bed. As the latter treatment is the simpler it has therefore

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 .85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 

Mining rate in cents per ton for bituminous coal

FIGURE 4. Rates paid in the United States for mining coal of specified thicknesses and 

curve (A-B) showing average relation between mining rate and thickness. 1, 2, 3, 

Wyoming, southern fields, run of mine, agreements of 1912. 4, 5, Colorado, 'northeastern coal fields, run of mine, agreements of 1912. 6, Montana, Red Lodge field, run 

of mine. 7, Indiana, miscellaneous agreements, run of mine. 8, Indiana, block coal 

agreements, screened. 9, Michigan, summary of agreements of 1910. 10, Missouri, 

summary of agreements, run of mine. 31, Missouri, Bates and Vernon counties, run of 

mine, agreements of 1908. 12, West Virginia, summary of agreements, screened. 13, 

Kentucky-Tennessee, Jelllco mining district, screened. 14, Tennessee, Durham Coal & 

Iron Co., run of mine. 15, Tennessee, summary of agreements, run of mine.

been adopted and the value of a ton of any coal in the ground is 

taken as constant for thicknesses between 6 and 10 feet.

The rate of increase in cost of mining a bed less than 6 feet thick, 

however, is too great to be compensated for by the greater recovery 

per acre-foot. After making various assumptions as to fair average 

acre-foot recovery for thin coals assumptions based on known recoveries and after computing the value of the coal in thin beds, accord-
86 CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLIC- LANDS.

ing to the formula given on page 84, it was decided to avoid a 

sliding scale both in value and recovery by reducing the value of beds 

less than 6 feet thick 10 per cent for each foot below 6 until the 

minimum for that coal is reached. Thus the coal in a 5-foot 

bed is computed at 90 per cent of the value per ton of the coal 

in a 6-foot bed, the coal in a-3-foot bed at 70 per cent of the value 

per ton of the coal in a 6-foot bed, and so on. This reduction for the 

value of the coal in beds less than 6 feet thick is readily computed by

4 + £ multiplying the normal value per ton by -TJ- , where t is the thickness

in. feet. Figures showing the results obtained by multiplying the 

relative value of coal in thin beds, given in column 8 of the preceding 

table, by various assumed rates of recovery were plotted on crosssection paper and an arbitrary line was drawn through the middle 

of the group of lines so obtained. This line is practically a straight 

line, giving a reduction in value of 10 per cent for each 1-foot reduction in thickness, and was accepted as representing fair average 

relative values.

Sufficient data were not at hand on the relative cost of mining coals 

more than 10 feet thick to lead to definite figures, or figures having 

more than approximately authoritative value. It is, however, generally recognized that the cost of working coals does not continue to 

decrease indefinitely as the beds increase in thickness, for the increased cost of timbering and increases due to other practical difficulties gradually overcome the gain due to smaller acreage, and increases for the thick coals in general probably entirely offset that 

gain. From beds more than 10 feet thick, other things being equal, 

the recovery per acre-foot decreases with increase in thickness, owing 

to the necessity of leaving larger pillars and the difficulty of reaching 

all the coal. It has therefore been assumed that the recovery diminishes on each additional foot above 10. Thus a 16-foot bed takes first 

the normal value on 10 feet; next the eleventh foot is valued at only 

99 per cent of the value fixed for the tenth foot, the twelfth foot at 

98 per cent, and so on, the sixteenth foot having a value of only 94 

per cent of the value fixed for the tenth foot.

In computing acre values on beds over 10 feet thick it has been 

found best to use the normal basing value in cents per ton of a 10- 

foot bed and assume the same recovery per acre-foot and then compute the thickness (tf ) of a bed that without deduction will yield 

the same acreage recovery as the bed in question. Where the thickness in feet (t) is more than 10 the equivalent thickness (£') is expressed by the following formula: £' = 9+-^ (2 ~ ).

a \ 100 /
CLASSIFICATION OP MINERAL LANDS. 87

Summarizing the above: The Government price per ton for a' 

bed 6 to 10 feet thick will range from 6.4 mills (0.64 cent) for an 

8,000 B. t. u. coal to 1.2 cents for a 15,000 B. t. u. coal, but if a coal is 

of coking quality its price may be increased to a maximum of 2.4 

cents, or if its quality is low it may be decreased to one-tenth cent 

or less.

In computing the thickness of a split or broken bed for valuation 

the same allowance is made as in considering classification.

The following table gives the computed value per acre of ordinary 

coal beds of different B. t. u. and different thickness :

Normal price per acre of coal land containing one bed of coal id-th heat values 

from 10,000 to 15,000 B. t. u. and thickness from 1 foot 6 inches to 50 feet.

Actual 

thickness.

Ft. in.

1 6

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

20

30

40

SO

Equivalent 

computed 

thickness.

Ft. in.

8 .

1 2

2 1

3 2

4 6

6

7

8

9

10

19 5

27 10

35 4

46 9

Price per acre.

10,000 

B. t. u.;

0.8 cent

per ton.

086.60

Q9.60

ol6.80

'25.60

36.00

48.00

56.00

64.00

72.00

80.00

155. 60

223.40

282.70

374. 80

11,000 

B. t. u.;

0.88 cent

per ton.

087.25

olQ.56

018.50

28.16

39.60

52.80

61.60

70.40

79.20

88.00

171.20

245.60

311.00

412. 00

12,000 

B. t. u.;

0.96 cent

per ton;

o$7.93

all.52

20.15

30.75

43.20

57.60

67.20

76.80

86.40

96.00

186. 72

268.00

338.30

449. 00

13,000 

B. t. u.;

1.04 cents

per ton.

o$8.58

a 12. 48

21.85

33.30

46.75

62.40

72.80

83.20

93.60

104.00

201. 94

290.00

367.50

486. 50

14,000 

B. t. u.;

1.12 cents

per ton.

089.25

o 13. 44

23.50

35.80

50.40

67.20

78.40

89.60

100. 80

112.00

218. 00

312.50

395.00

525.00

15,000 

B. t. u.;

1.20 cents

per ton.

a 89. 90

a 14. 40

25.20

38.40

54.00

72.00

84.00

96.00

108.00

120.00

233.30

334.80

423.00

562.00

Tons per 

acre at 

1,750 

tonsper

acre-foot.

2,625

3,500

5,250

7,000

8,750

10,500

12,250

14,000

15,750

17,500

35,000

52,500

70,000

87,500

a Where the computed value Is less than $20 the minimum prescribed by law is placed on the land820 If the lands lie within 15 miles of a railroad and 810 if more than 15 miles from a railroad.

VA1AJE OF IRKEGTJI-AB BEDS.

If the calculated thickness of any coal bed or group of beds shows 

a considerable variation in thickness and shows that this variation 

is not regular, it must be recognized that on any 40 acres concerning 

which no data are available the coal may be as thick or as thin as 

the maximum or minimum measured in adjacent areas. Because 

of the limited acreage that one purchaser may now legally buy and 

because he may not exchange his land for other land if it proves 

not to be underlain by as much coal as had been estimated in determining its price, an allowance should in fairness be made to him 

for possible local thinning.

If any regularity is shown in the changing thickness of the coal, 

the practice is adopted of drawing lines of equal thickness, a feature
88 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

best illustrated by giving a concrete case, such as is represented in 

figure 5.

On this map lines were drawn from the position of one measurement to the position of each adjacent measurement and the thickness was assumed to grade uniformly from one to each of the other 

points. Valuation is then based on the average thickness thus found 

for each forty that is being valued. If the measurements do not 

show any regularity in the change of thickness, the Survey has 

adopted a method of computing thickness that permits the thickness 

of the coal under any tract of land to be considered as less than the 

average of the measurements, in order to favor the buyer, for the 

reasons already stated. For while the coal is as likely to be above 

the average as below and, mathematically, is more likely to be just 

the average thickness than any other, yet a cautious buyer bargaining for coal would always want to discount the probability a little, 

as a matter of safety. If all the measurements on a bed indicate the 

same thickness, that thickness may be safely taken as the thickness 

of the coal under any land included by the measurements. If the 

measurements vary but slightly from the average, the thickness under the land where no measurements are obtained is not likely to be 

much below the average. If, however, the variation is large, the 

coal in some places may be even thinner than the smallest measurement ; yet to assume that the coal under all the land where no actual 

measurements were made is as thin as the thinnest measurements 

obtained would be overcautious. A more probable thickness is obSD tained by multiplying the average of the measurements by (1 -),

in which S is the sum of all the measurements and SD is the sum of the 

numbers obtained by subtracting from the average each measurement 

below it or subtracting the average from each measurement above 

it. For example, if the measurements on a given bed in a certain 

area are 4 feet, 5 feet, 7 feet, 3 feet, 4 feet, 8 feet, 5 feet, 2 feet, 4 feet, 

2 feet, 6 feet, and 10 feet, the average of all the measurements is 

5 feet; the sum of the measurements is 60 feet; the difference between the several measurements and the average 5 feet is 1 foot, 

0, 2 feet, 2 feet, 1 foot, 3 feet, 0, 3 feet, 1 foot, 3 feet. 1 foot, 

5 feet, which added together give 21 feet; so 21 feet divided by 60 

has been called the " modulus of irregularity " and has been adopted

21 

as a factor of safety; 1 or 100 per cent 35 per cent = 65 per

cent; 65 per cent of 5 feet = 3£ feet; therefore 3£ feet is taken as a 

safe average thickness on which to sell the coal in other words, 

the thickness which it is highly probable will be reached or exceeded 

by the coal under any of the land within the area of the measure-
CLASSIFICATION OP MINERAL LANDS. 89

/so ^

Bore hole and 

well Records

FIGURE 5. Sketch map showing lines along 

(isopachous lines), drawn for use

which a coal bed is of equal thickness 

in the valuation of coal land.
90 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

ments given. In this, of course, the' Government is favoring the 

buyer to the extent that the computed safe average is below the 

actual average of measurement; but, on the other hand, it is believed 

that this is no more than would properly be demanded by the average purchaser of private coal lands who, knowing the measurements 

of thickness on the land to be purchased, wishes to safeguard himself 

against the possibility that the measurements will prove to be above 

the average of all of the coal. This safeguard is, of course, in addition to the allowance for such a possibility in the purchase price.

VAXTTE PER, ACRE.

The Government prices for coal land are based on an assumed 

possible recovery of 1,000 tons per acre-foot. As an acre of coal a 

foot thick contains 1,750 to 1,800 tons, this recovery represents about 

60 per cent of the coal in the ground. This percentage was long 

used in commercial estimates, though at present it is usually much 

exceeded by the percentage actually recovered in all good coal mining, especially in the bituminous fields of western Pennsylvania and 

in many regions in the Central West where the longwall method of 

mining has been practiced, by which the recovery in many places is 

estimated at 90 per cent or more.

Although a recovery of 1,000 tons per acre-foot is fixed in the regulations and is used in all computations, the value per ton assumed for 

coals thinner than 6 feet or thicker than 10 feet recognizes the recovery of more than 1,000 tons per acre-foot for coal in thin beds and 

of less than 1,000 tons per acre-foot for coal in very thick beds, thus 

avoiding the use of a variable recovery factor in making individual 

computations.

If more than one bed underlies a tract of land the early rule in 

valuing was to take the normal value of the bed likely to be worked 

first, 60 per cent of the value of the bed next worked, 40 per cent 

of the value of the next, and 30 per cent of the value of any others, 

the reduction being made on the beds not worked at first to allow for 

interest on the investment for the long period during which they remained in the ground. Fuller consideration of this subject, however, and closer study of the operation of many mines that work 

several beds simultaneously or one immediately after the other and 

of the practical advantages of using the same plant for working beds 

either simultaneously or successively have led to the belief that these 

advantages more than outweigh the added interest that accrues during the longer period of holding.

Accordingly, under the regulations now in force, consideration is 

had only of the total quantity of coal in the ground, no reduction 

being made for interest on the investment if, after allowance for
CLASSIFICATION OF MINEKAL LANDS. 91

the reduced value of the thin beds, the sum of the thicknesses of the 

beds does not exceed 10 feet. If the total thickness of the coal under 

a tract of land, after reduction for thin beds and for partings, is 

more than 10 feet, the' total value of the coal is computed by the 

formula previously given for computing the value of thick beds.

SEDUCTION FOB DEPTH.

It has been pointed out that the determination of the depth to 

which a coal may be profitably mined is a problem involving the 

consideration of diminishing profits. If a coal that is being mined 

near the surface is yielding a net profit of 25 cents a ton and if the 

cost of mining it increases 1 cent a ton for every 100 feet of increase 

in depth (purely an assumption), it is evident that- the profits 

will disappear when the mine has reached a depth of 2,500 feet, so 

that the coal becomes unminable at a reasonable profit at some point 

of less depth, say 2,000 feet. Obviously anything that increase's the 

profits such as a gain in quality will increase the depth of profitable mining, and'anything that decreases the profits such as an increase in the cost of mining will decrease the depth of profitable 

mining.

If depth limits are assumed for coals of different grades and different thicknesses, it may also be assumed that the cost of mining increases uniformly with increase of depth, though it is strongly suspected that the cost of mining increases at an accelerating rate as 

the depth increases, but as sufficient data to prove this are not available a uniform rate of increase has been assumed.

If a certain coal has a normal value at any depth within 500 feet 

of the surface its value has been assumed to reach zero at 

its depth limit, and its price has been decreased uniformly from a 

point where it goes below the 500-foot depth down to its depth limit. 

If, for example, a bed has a value of $60 an acre at the depth of 500 

feet and its depth limit is 2,500 feet, and if it reaches its depth limit 

3 miles beyond the point where it lies at a depth of 500 feet, its dip 

remaining constant, it loses a value of $60 in crossing twelve 40-acre 

tracts, or $5 for each forty. The successive forties underlain by this 

coal would therefore be valued at $55, $50, $45, $40, $35, $30, $25, and 

thence to the depth limit at $20.

Ordinarily the depth of a bed does not increase uniformly to its 

limit, but its steepest pitch or dip is at its outcrop and its dip gradually lessens toward the center of the basin in which it lies. Its 

depth at all places is indicated on the field sheets by contour lines 

representing uniform elevations above sea level. From these contour 

lines it is possible to compute the average depth of the bed under 

any 40-acre tract, and, the rate of diminishing value having been
92 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

established by dividing the difference between the depth limit and 

500 feet by the normal value at the surface, each 40 acres can be

DOLLARS PER ACRE

valued accordingly. The average depth of coal in a forty that is 

crossed at an angle by the outcrop or the depth-contour lines is the 

depth'at the geometrical center of the area underlain.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 93

If the dip of the coal bed whose value is given above had not 

been regular the rate of its diminishing value would have been

25006~ 500 =$1 for each 33& feet, so that if the depth under a given

forty averaged 1,600 feet, the value of the forty would be

1600-500

If more than one bed of coal underlies a 40-acre tract and the beds 

are not close together each one is valued independently and the value 

of the forty is taken as the sum of the value of the independent beds. 

If several beds occur in a group a normal value is figured out for 

the group and this value is reduced according to the depth. In fixing 

the value of a group of dipping beds allowance is made for the 

change in the value of the group due to the, lower beds passing below 

the 500-foot line before the higher beds and reaching the depth limit 

before they do.

Formulas have been worked out to facilitate the calculation of the 

Value of beds involved in some 'of the more common types of 

computations in these cases are read directly from large diagrams. 

These diagrams contain so much matter that a reproduction of one 

of them (fig. 6) on the reduced scale necessary for publication in 

this bulletin does little more than give a general idea of their character, particularly as they are too involved to permit their description in a bulletin that is not intended to set forth details of classification.

ALLOWANCE FOR FAXJI/ES.

Faults that is, breaks in the rocks involving a movement of beds 

on either side of the break occurring in a coal field depreciate the 

value of the coal for mining and in places may render it entirely 

unworkable. Small faults may be disregarded unless they are so 

numerous as to render the coal expensive or difficult to mine. If, 

however, the throw of the fault is large that is, if the edges of 

the beds that are broken have been so far separated by movement 

at an angle to the bedding that entries can not handily be driven from 

the coal on one side of the fault to the coal on the other the value 

of the land is clearly less than that in which there is no fault, its 

smaller value being due both to the extra cost of recovery and to 

possible crushing of the coal along the fault planes. The price of 

coal in such places is determined by considering the two parts of 

any forty traversed by the fault separately, and giving the normal 

price to the part having the higher value and 40 to 95 per cent of 

the normal price to the part having the lower value. From the total 

thus obtained 5 to 15 per cent may be deducted to allow for crushing 

along the fault plane.
94 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

EFFECT OF INTRUSIONS.

Intrusions of igneous rock may affect a coal bed favorably, as 

where they occur in sheets close above or below the coal and have 

had the effect of changing it from a bituminous or lower grade of 

coaj. to an anthracite. The physical character and B. t. u. value 

of such coals reflect amply the favorable results of the intrusion. 

More often the intruded masses of igneous rock are in the form of 

more or less vertical dikes that cut the bed in various directions. 

Obviously these dikes detract from the value of the bed by increasing 

the cost of mining, and an allowance is made in the final price in 

accordance with their character and extent.

AI,IiOWANOE FOB OTHEB FACTOBS.

In addition to the factors that have been specifically considered, 

many other factors are taken into account in valuing the land in 

any field. Of these the one for which the largest allowance is likely 

to be made is that of uncertainty. In some fields it has been possible 

to obtain measurements on the coal along its outcrop at points a 

quarter of a mile or less apart, and some of these measurements 

are supplemented by others made in drillings at points " back " from 

the outcrop, so that in such places it is possible to determine the 

" habit" of the bed with some degree of certainty. In other places, 

especially in coal fields covered with a blanket of glacial deposits, 

or in broad valleys where the coals are under an alluvial cover, or 

in other fields where, owing to almost continuous burning along 

the outcrops, it is difficult to get accurate information as to the thickness of the beds, an allowance is made for uncertainty an allowance that may take the form of a greatly reduced estimated thickness 

of the bed or, as is more common, of a restriction of the assumed 

urea of workable coal. It has been found that the coal of certain 

fields was originally deposited with more regularity in some belts 

and areas than in others, and in many places the coal was deposited 

with great regularity around the edge of a basin but not in its 

center. Allowance is made for the possible thinning of the coal in all 

such places if exact data are not at hand, and the tract is classed 

either as noncoal land or as coal land of the minimum value. Many 

other factors are taken into account, such as known poor roof or 

floor, which may seriously affect the cost of-mining and the value 

of the coal in place. Allowance is made for the extra cost of mining 

beds that include partings by making deductions for partings, it 

being assumed that the extra cost due to the partings eats up the 

profits on an equal thickness of coal.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 95 

SEDUCTION FOB DISTANCE FROM BATLBOAD.

Distance from railroads very largely affects the value of coal land. 

In fixing the value of Government coal land, however, distance from 

railroads is not taken into account, their value being based on that 

of the coal itself, but, in accordance with the law, the price so fixed is 

automatically reduced one-half for all lands lying more than 15 miles 

from a railroad in operation. Some land that contains coal beds, 

though within 15 miles of a railroad, can not be reached by a railroad switch without going either around or over a high mountain, so that by either route its distance from the railroad practically 

exceeds the 15-mile limit. Such land is treated as if it were beyond 

the 15-mile limit and its price is reduced one-half, though not below 

the legal minimum $20 an acre.

MAXIMUM PBIOB.

In view of the uncertainty that may exist concerning many features 

of an undeveloped coal field, even if the evidence seems conclusive 

that it contains a large volume of coal, the maximum price of coal 

land is fixed by the regulations at $300 a nacre, except that if the field 

in which the land is situated contains very large mines, and if the 

coal is well known in the market and its adaptability to different 

uses has been demonstrated, the price of the land is computed from 

the value of the coal it contains, whether it exceeds $300 an acre 

or not.

REVIEW OF CLASSIFICATION.

According to the regulations the classification of any land as coal 

land is subject to review by the Secretary of the Interior, but the 

person making the application for review must present facts that 

show clearly and specifically that the land is not coal bearing in the 

sense of that term as -it is defined in the regulations. The facts set 

forth in nearly all applications for review and reclassification of coal 

land simply show that no coal can be seen outcropping on or close to 

the land and that no coal has been found in drilling wells for water 

on or near the land. Before such applications are filed request should 

be made of the Geological Survey to state the basis of the classification, for a large percentage of the coal land has been classified as 

such because it is underlain by coal at depths of 500 feet or more, 

whereas the rocks at the surface contain no coal and may be of entirely 

different age from the underlying coal-bearing rocks. Data presented 

in a request for reclassification have determinative value only if they 

differ from data already in the records of the Geological Survey.
96 CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLIC LANDS.

REGULATIONS FOR THE CLASSIFICATION AND VALUATION OF .PUBLIC COAL

LANDS.

The following regulations were approved February 20, 1913, by 

Secretary of the Interior Fisher:

IX. CLASSIFICATION.

. 1. Land shall be classified as coal land if it contains coal having 

(a) A heat value of not less than 8,000 B. t. u. on an air-dried,

unwashed or washed, unweathered mine sample. 

(6) A thickness of or equivalent to 14 inches for coals having a 

heat value of 12,000 B. t. u. or more, increasing 1 inch for a decrease from 12,000 to 11,000 B. t. u., 1 inch for a decrease from 

11,000 to 10,500 B. t. u., 1 inch for each decrease of 250 B. t. u. 

from 10,500 to 10,000, and 1 inch for each decrease of 100 B. t. u. 

below 10,000.

(c) A depth below the surface for a bed of coal 6 feet or more 

thick of not more than 100 feet for each 300 B. t. u. or major 

fraction thereof, and for a bed of minimum thickness for that 

coal a depth of not more than 500 feet, and for beds of any thickness between the minimum and 6 feet a depth directly proportional to that thickness within these limits, provided that, if the 

coal lies below the depth limit but within a horizontal distance 

from the surface not exceeding 10 times the depth limit, or if its 

horizontal distance from the foot of a possible shaft (not deeper 

than the depth limit) plus 7.5 times the depth of such shaft does 

not exceed 10 times the depth limit, the land shall be classified as 

coal land; provided, further, that the depth limit shall be computed for each individual bed, except that where two or more beds 

occur in such relations that they may be mined from the same 

opening the depth limit may be determined on the group as a 

unit, being fixed at the center of weight of the group, no coal 

that is below the depth limit thus determined to be considered.

2. Classification shall be made by quarter-quarter sections or surveyed lots, 

except that for good reason classification may be made by 2^-acre tracts or 

multiples thereof described as minor subdivisions of quarter-quarter sections or 

rectangular lotted tracts.

II. VALUATION.

3. For purposes of valuation the price per ton for a noncoking, nonanthracite 

coal 6 to 10 feet thick shall be one-tenth of a cent for each 1,250 B. t. u.:

(a) Provided that the price per ton may be increased by not more 

than 100 per cent if the coal is coking, smokeless, or anthracitic 

or has other enhancing qualities; or it may be decreased for high 

sulphur or ash, friability, or nonstocking or other qualities that 

reduce the value; and

(6) Provided, further, that if the coal in one bed is over 10 feet 

thick the price on each foot above 10 feet shall be reduced 1 per 

cent for each such foot (thus the reduction will be 1 per cent on 

the eleventh foot, 2 per cent on the twelfth foot, and so on) ; or 

if the coal is less than 6 feet thick the price shall be reduced by
CLASSIFICATION OF MINEKAL LANDS.

44-i multiplying the normal value by --T -, where t equals thickness

in feet; and

(c) Provided that where the thickness of any bed varies irregularly its computed thickness (CT) over any area shall be equal 

to the average of the measurements (AM) less the sum of the 

differences between each measurement and the average of the 

measurements (SD) divided by the sum of the measurements (S) :

4. The value of any acre within 15 miles of a railroad in operation shall be 

determined at the rate per ton prescribed above on an estimated recoverable 

tonnage of 1,000 tons to the acre-foot :

Provided that if the coal is in several beds having an aggregate 

thickness of more than 10 feet if beds less than 6 feet thick are 

considered at the reduced thickness as prescribed above, the 

value due to each foot above 10 feet shall be reduced 1 per cent 

for each such foot (as in computing the price per ton on a single 

thick bed) up to a thickness of 80 feet, above which any additional thickness shall be valued at 30 per cent of the normal 

value.

5. This price shall be decreased one-half if the land is more than 15 miles 

from a railroad in operation, or if it is within that limit but inaccessible owing 

to topographic conditions ; but no land shall be valued at less than: the legal 

minimum price, nor shall the price of any land exceed $300 an acre except in 

districts which contain large coal mines and where the character and extent of 

the coal are well known.

6. Within ttie above restrictions a graded allowance shall be made for increasing depth, and allowance may be made for any special conditions enhancing or 

diminishing the value of the land for coal mining.

7. If only a part of a smallest legal subdivision is underlain by coal the price 

per acre shall be fixed by dividing the total estimated coal values by the number 

of acres in the subdivision, but this price shall not be less than the minimum 

provided by law.

8. When lands which were at the time of classification more than 15 miles 

from a railroad are brought within the 15-mile limit by the beginning of operation of a new road, all values given in the original classification shall be doubled 

by the register and receiver.

9. Review of classification or valuation may be had only on application therefor to the Secretary, accompanied by a clear and specific statement of conditions 

not existing or not known to exist at the time of examination.

RESTORATION.

After the classifications and valuations are completed the lands are 

restored to entry. Those that contain no coal resume the status that 

they had prior to the withdrawal. The coal lands, after restoration, 

may be acquired under the coal-land laws at the valuation prices, 

surface entry under the agricultural-land laws and the State selection

78894° Bull. 537 13 7
98 CLASSIFICATION" OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

acts being permitted at any time prior to their alienation under the 

coal-land laws. A typical order of restoration is given below.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, February 12, 1913. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR: The classification of the lands listed below, which are included in an 

existing withdrawal, has been completed and reported to the Land Office, and I 

therefore recommend the submission to the President, for appropriate action, of 

the following order of restoration, involving 264,009 acres, all noncoal. These 

lands are.not included in,petroleum or phosphate reserves or in national forests, 

but part are within a power-site reserve.

Very respectfully, GEO.'OTIS SMITH,

Director.

FEBRUARY 18, 1913.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary.

ORDER OF RESTORATION. 

Coal-land restoration Idaho No. .10.

So much of the order of withdrawal made heretofore for the purpose of coalland classification, namely, Idaho No. 1, as affects the lands hereinafter described 

is hereby revoked for the reason that the Director of the Geological Survey has 

classified these lands. This revocation does not affect withdrawals or reservations other than as above set forth.

Boise meridian.

T. 35 N., R. 1 E., all of township.

[Here follows the remainder of the land description.]

WM. H. TAFT,

President. 

FEBRUARY 18, 1913.

FIELD WORK ON COAL LANDS. 

GENERAL NATURE OF THE WORK.

The second general step in the process of classification is to obtain 

in the field the information there available that is necessary for t'he 

classification. Field work that is done expressly for the classification of coal land involves all research that is made in general geologic 

field work but gives special weight to certain factors. The information needed for classifying coal land relates to (1) location, (2) 

stratigraphy, (3) horizontal extent and thickness of coal beds, (4) 

vertical position, and (5) quality of the coal. These may be taken 

up in turn.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINEEAL LANDS. 99

LOCATION.

In work done for classification all the points or features concerning which information is obtained in the field must be accurately 

located with reference to the land lines, for if locations are not 

exactly specified the information is of little value. For example, a 

geologist may study an outcrop of a 30-foot bed of coal, measure its 

sections, photograph it, and sample and analyze the coal to determine 

its quality or test it in any other way, but if, when he has done all 

these things, he can not tell whether the outcrop is in sec. 31 or sec. 

32 of a given township, the information he has gathered is entirely 

valueless for purposes of classification. It is therefore necessary 

that all the features to which his information relates be accurately 

located on his field maps, with special reference to township and 

range lines, section lines, and quarter-section lines, and even accurately within the 40-acre tracts, as it is desirable to know exactly 

how many acres of the forty are underlain by coal in order to 

determine the value of that particular forty. The methods of survey 

by which the geology is tied as accurately as possible to the publicland net have been described in a preceding chapter.

STRATIGBAPHY.

The first purpose of gaining a thorough knowledge of the stratigraphy is to be able to recognize groups of rocks that are coal bearing elsewhere or to recognize other rocks that the wide experience 

and knowledge now available concerning the geology of the 

Western States have shown not to be coal bearing. The second 

purpose is to determine, from such data as may be obtained on the 

surface, the "lay" or structure of the coal-bearing formation and 

the groups of coal beds it contains.

Just as in the Eastern States it has been found that workable 

coal beds are confined to a particular part of one large group of rocks, 

which has long been designated the " coal measures," so in the West 

it has been found that workable coal beds are confined to relatively 

few groups of rocks, which are separated usually by great thicknesses 

of other rocks that are nowhere known to contain workable coal beds. 

As the sedimentary rocks of the West consist mainly of sandstones, 

shales, and limestones, those of like lithologic character being similar to one another in general appearance, the particular sandstones and shales with which the coal beds are associated can 

as a rule be distinguished only by means of the fossil plants or 

animals that are associated with them. Thus it has been found 

necessary to employ the services of several experienced paleontologists to examine the fossils associated with the rocks and from 

these fossils to determine the age of coal-bearing formations.
100 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The first step of the geologist who has been sent into a field or 

area that is known or has been reported to contain workable coals is 

usually to determine what groups of rocks occur in that region and 

then, knowing the groups of rocks that contain workable coal beds in 

other places, to concentrate his attention on those groups, hunting for 

coals in them. Having found the coals his next work is to determine 

the number of groups of coals, as the same territory may contain 

two or three or even more coal-bearing formations, though usually 

they occur in different parts of the same field. His next step is to 

examine the several coal-bearing formations in order to determine, 

if possible, the number of coal beds in each. This work naturally 

leads to the determination of the areal extent and thickness of the 

beds.

EXTENT AND THICKNESS OF COAL BEDS.

Coal is a rock that has been formed from vegetal matter. The 

vegetation may have grown where the coal bed is now found, much 

as it grows in the great peat bogs of Europe or some of the large 

swamp areas of this country, or it may have been washed or drifted 

from the place where it grew to the place where it now occurs as coal: 

In changing from a mass of decaying vegetal matter to a bed of 

coal its volume has decreased and its weight per cubic foot has greatly 

increased. It has also lost many of the elements of the0 plants, especially the moisture they contained, and if during its formation 

the coal bed was inundated by muddy waters its vegetal matter 

may have been overlain or intermingled with sand or mud. This 

material may have been added in small quantities at frequent intervals, simply rendering the coal " dirty," or it may have come in at 

long intervals and then in large quantity so as to form a blanket 

of mud or sand, which, being covered by renewed accumulations of 

vegetal matter, becomes a parting of clay or sandstone in the coal 

bed. In a few places a single coal bed has been deposited in a 

formation, and thousands of feet of other rocks have been laid down 

beneath and above it, no other coals having been formed. More frequently, however, where coal-forming conditions have existed they 

seem to have recurred in such a way that a succession or series of 

coal beds are laid down in the same area. In one region most of the 

coals in a group deposited in that way may be thicker in the same 

general area, and all the beds may tend to thin away from that area. 

In another region one bed of a group may be thicker in one locality 

and a higher bed of the same group may be thicker in another locality.

Coal beds vary greatly in extent, ranging from pothole fillings 

having about the shape though not the size of a kettle to flatlying beds thousands of square miles in extent. In Missouri a number of coal beds have a thickness in places of 90 feet or more and
CLASSIFICATION OP MINERAL LANDS. 101

an areal extent of only a few hundred feet or less, being simply 

fillings of deep holes in the rock, similar in shape to the "po.tholes" that are so abundant around some waterfalls. In other 

places, as in the Sharon field of Ohio, the coal bed has the shape 

of a valley, with branches where side streams have come in, and 

a single mine may follow one of these valleys for some distance, 

the coal being confined to a width of perhaps a few hundred yards 

but extending indefinitely up and down the valley, which in some 

places winds tortuously. In still other places, as in the Block 

coal field of Indiana, the coal occurs in a succession of shallow 

basins, the beds having a thickness of 3 to 5 feet in each basin and 

thinning out to a few inches between the basins. The bottoms of 

the basins lie 20 to 30 feet below their rims. Some of these basins 

are so small and so close together that the coal from* several of them 

is extracted by a single mine, the entries being cut through the rock 

0 from the lower level of one basin" to the lower level of the next 

basin. Other basins have a length of 2 or 3 miles in a northwestsoutheast direction and a width of one-half mile or more. Some of 

the individual beds can be traced from basin to basin and clearly 

recognized by peculiarities in the coal. In other fields the coal appears to have been deposited unevenly in little depressions that are 

scattered irregularly over a large territory and lie at various levels, 

so that it is not possible to trace a bed from* one point to another, 

and each little basin must be considered as a unit. From these types 

of irregular and narrowly limited coal beds every gradation may be 

found to some of the relatively even and continuous beds of the 

West, the extensive beds of the central interior coal fields, or the 

Pittsburgh and other beds of the East, which have an outcrop line 

hundreds or even thousands of miles in extent and were laid down in 

a more or less continuous sheet, many of them -covering thousands of 

square miles. Thus the Pittsburgh bed has a known extent of over 

6.000 square miles and is found in isolated areas beyond the limits of 

the main bed. Other Appalachian coal beds are of much greater 

extent, some of them, as the Lower Kittanning, having many times 

the areal extent of the Pittsburgh bed, though not its regularity.

Certain coal beds in the Illinois fields have been traced without 

question as to their identification over a large part of that State, 

through a portion of western Kentucky, and through the entire 

length of the Indiana coal field. It is believed that many of the coal 

beds of the Western States are also traceable over large areas. Most 

of these widely extended coal beds have certain slight but definite 

features or peculiarities or are associated with other rocks of distinctive character, so that it is possible to recognize them at any 

point. The peculiarity of a bed may consist of some particular type 

of parting or arrangement of partings which may hold for long dis-
102 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

tances, or it may consist of the presence just above or below the bed of 

a stratum that has easily recognizable characteristics. In order to 

trace and identify some coal beds it is necessary to( study their relations to one another. One of the main reasons for studying the 

stratigraphy is to identify if possible at the outset the group of coals 

studied, and in this work note should be taken of the determinations 

reached by the wide study of the same formations in previous seasons. 

For example, in the great coal field that covers much of western North 

Dakota and part of South Dakota, all of southeastern Montana and 

the great Powder Eiver field of Wyoming, there are two coalbearing formations the Fort Union above, named from its early 

recognition at Fort Union in North Dakota, and the Lance formation below, named from the occurrence of those rocks on Lance 

Creek in Wyoming. The Fort Union coals are as a rule persistent; 

they have local thicknesses of 10 to 30 feet or more, and some of 

them can be traced for hundreds of miles along their outcrop, and 

individual beds can be recognized from point to point. On the other 

hand, the Lance coals occur as a rule in small lenses, most of them 

a fraction of a mile or a very few miles in extent. The coal in these 

lenses ordinarily is but little above the minimum workable limit and 

thins rapidly to nonworkable thickness in all directions. If the 

geologist knows that the coals in any particular area are in the Fort 

Union or Lance formation he knows what to expect concerning them, 

for if he finds that they are of Lance age and he is studying at the 

moment the coal at a point-where it is workable, he is careful to 

trace it if possible in order to see how far it may extend before it 

becomes unworkable, so as to determine as closely as practicable the 

extent of that particular lens. If, on the other hand, he knows 

that the coal before him is of Fort Union age he attempts to determine, if possible, what particular coal bed in the Fort Union it 

is, and, assuming that he will find that same bed in a large part of the 

country ahead of him and that he will judge of its thickness by combining a great number of measurements made over a large territory, 

he does not with the same attention attempt to discover whether the 

coal pinches out a short distance on either side of the point where he is 

standing. In all of this work it is, of course, not safe to assume too 

much, for toward the south end of the Powder River field the beds of 

coal in the Lance formation increase in extent and thickness^ so that 

they more nearly resemble those of the Fort Union formation, farther 

north.

It is not advisable to assume absolutely that, because in some area 

already examined a coal bed is very extensive and keeps the same 

thickness with great regularity, it will continue to be extensive and 

regular in territory that may be studied later. For example, the 

Pittsburgh bed, which maintains a very uniform thickness over a
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 103

large area in western Pennsylvania, becomes very irregular in southern Ohio, so much so that it has been wrongly identified, and it is 

only within a few years that the bed there identified as the Pittsburgh has been shown to be another coal higher in the series. Likewise, in the Illinois-Indiana field coal V, which is probably the most 

persistent bed in that field and can be traced along its outcrdp for 

thousands of miles with great regularity, pinches out in parts of 

Greene County, Ind., close to other localities where it shows its 

greatest thickness; and, again, in Warrick County it loses its usual 

characteristic roof and is split into two distinct beds. In the same 

way many of the coals in the West that on casual scrutiny appear to 

be persistent prove, when studied in detail, especially in connection 

with mining operations or where close prospecting has been done 

with a drill, to vary considerably both in thickness and in distance 

apart. For example, at Castlegate, Utah, four beds are at one 

point separated by 50 feet, 20 feet, and 14 feet of strata, whereas a 

short distance away these intervening rocks pinch out and the four 

beds, which separately are on the average only about 3 feet thick, 

come together to make a single bed 12 feet thick. Drilling in that 

field has shown that all the beds tend to be very irregular, splitting 

and combining again and changing in thickness, so that in tracing 

them from drilling to drilling it may be found that though each core 

shows certain workable beds, yet a bed that is thick at one point is 

thin at the next. Detailed work in many of the eastern fields where 

extensive mining operations have afforded minute data in regard to 

the coal, or where thousands of dollars have been expended in 

drilling, has shown that even the most persistent of the beds are subject to variations, so that a bed which can be traced from one mine 

to another over a whole county and which* may show a variation 

of only a few inches from mine to mine may suddenly, in mining 

parlance, " go to pieces." It is therefore the special work of the 

field geologist not only to locate the coal ©n the ground but to make 

as detailed a study as possible of its thickness and extent in order 

to learn just how far it maintains a workable thickness, how persistently it maintains a given thickness, and whether it is likely to 

vary greatly from point to point and also to determine, so far as he 

can, any or all of its features. Space does not permit the detailed description here of all the possible irregularities that may occur in a coal 

bed, for which the field geologist must be on the lookout.

In some fields the coal beds are exposed in cliffs or steep slopes in 

such a way that the coal may be seen almost continuously for many 

miles. In such places the geologist takes the opportunity to make 

n careful study of the regularity or irregularity of the coal beds with 

reference both to their thickness and to the variability or regularity
104 CLASSIFICATION" OP THE PUBLIC LANDS.

in thickness and in character of the intervening rocks and of the 

spaces between the beds. In regions in which the beds are not well 

exposed it may be possible, from a knowledge of the position of a 

bed with reference to other rocks which show on the surface, to 

determine exactly the position of the particular coal under consideration and, by means of a very small amount of digging, to expose the 

bed so that its thickness and partings can be measured. In some 

coal fields hundreds of such openings have been made in the study 

of the bed. In other fields the beds occur in rocks that weather down 

to soils rapidly, and it may be only where a coal bed crosses a stream 

or is otherwise exposed that it can be located or seen. It may be 

difficult to trace such a bed from point to point, and in some places 

where exposures are several miles apart it may be difficult or impossible to determine exactly its position. In other places beds may be 

traced readily, but the fact that they have been burned continuously 

along their outcrops makes it difficult to get accurate information 

concerning their character and thickness. It is of course possible to 

map the position of the coal bed in such places and it is then necessary, from such information as can be obtained concerning the thickness and character of the coal, to infer its character at points between 

these places. It is especially in such areas that a general knowledge 

of the " habits " of the bed or group of beds assists in their classification, for if it is known that a particular bed, whose burned outcrop 

has been traced with detailed measurements perhaps at only one or 

two places in a township, occurs at a certain horizon in a certain 

formation, it is possible to surmise whether it is regular or irregular in the broad area between these exposures, where no information 

on the bed itself can be obtained. Again, it may be possible, by making a careful study of a coal in a mining region, to apply the information to a wide area where but scanty information on the coal 

itself .can be obtained. Wherever the coal is exposed the field man 

makes careful examination and measurement of every possible section, measuring down to the fraction of an inch, even though, where 

the bed is irregular, it is recognized that another measurement made 

a, short distance away may be quite different. Where a bed is irregular special effort is made to obtain as many measurements as 

possible, in order to obtain average figures for use in the classification 

and valuation of the land underlain by that bed. In some places 

where the data are very meager, as in regions where the rocks crumble to soil and the land is largely meadow land, considerable time 

has been given to making openings on the coal because of the necessity of having actual information and measurements as a basis for 

classification.
CLASSIFICATION Of MittfiftAL LANDS. 105

ATTITUDE AND DEPTH OF THE COAL.

As already stated, the coal throughout wide areas lies entirely 

below the level of drainage in places hundreds or even thousands 

of feet below and the outcrops of the particular coal beds on which 

land is classified as coal land may be scores of miles away. It therefore becomes necessary for the field man. to determine as accurately 

as possible not only the position of the coal outcrop with reference 

to the land lines and the thickness of the coal as exposed along the 

outcrop or the extent of the lenses, but also the depth of the bed 

beneath the surface and its attitude as it dips into the basin. He 

does this, first, by studying the inclination of the coal beds where 

they dip into the ground and, next, by studying the inclination and 

thickness of the other rocks that overlie them. As coal beds lie 

more or less nearly parallel with layers of sandstone, shale, and 

limestone, one of his duties is to determine how nearly the coal beds 

are parallel with these other rock layers. If he finds by observation 

at many points that there is very little variation in the interval, say 

300 feet, between a limestone bed above and the coal bed that he is 

studying, he may assume that the dip of that limestone bed measured 

possibly at a point a mile back from the outcrop of the coal indicates the dip of the coal beneath that point at a level 300 feet below 

the surface. If, again, he finds that some other rock bed a thousand 

feet above the coal bed is parallel to it, he may assume that a measurement of the dip of that bed taken 5 or 10 miles back from the coal 

outcrop may indicate rather closely the dip of the coal bed itself 

1,000 feet below. Hence the field geologist must not only study th$ 

details of the coal bed along its outcrop, but must also study the 

geology of the area back of that outcrop, especially with reference 

to the dip of the rocks. If, as sometimes happens, he finds that 

the space between a coal bed and the overlying rocks is variable, he 

can not compute the depth of the coal bed so closely. In some places all 

the rocks associated with certain coal beds, having the same great folds 

and basins, have been overspread by a blanket of other rocks that 

do not have the same structure. Such a blanket may completely hide 

not only the coal-bearing formation but the other formations that are 

associated with it and that have been folded in the same way. In 

such places it is only possible to infer from broad general knowledge 

of the field how deep the coals may lie below the surface.

QUALITY OF THE COAL.

The character and quality of a coal can be determined in part by 

a simple examination of the coal bed. Thus it is possible in most 

examinations to determine whether a coal is a lignite, a subbitumi-
106 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

nous coal, a bituminous, a cannel, or an anthracite coal. It may also 

be possible to estimate rather closely whether or not a coal contains 

a large amount of ash. Where small mines or prospects have been 

opened it may be possible, by studying the coal on the dump, to 

determine whether the coal can be shipped or stocked, or the extent 

to which it tends to crumble under the action of the atmosphere.

The final tests, however, are the chemical test, consisting of an 

analysis of the coal, which shows fully its percentage of the various 

heat-giving elements and of the ash and other elements that do not 

yield heat but detract from its value, and the test of its heat-giving 

value in the calorimeter. Experience has shown that coal of certain 

kinds especially low-grade coal changes in chemical composition 

very rapidly when exposed to the weather, so that in getting samples 

for analysis it has been found necessary, in order that the "samples 

may be fairly compared and may form the basis of a uniform system 

of classification and valuation, that they be taken with great care 

in a uniform manner and that the treatment of each sample from 

the time it is taken until it is analyzed shall follow certain standards. 

To this end certain regulations have been prepared in regard to the 

method of obtaining coal samples for analysis and are consistently 

enforced. These regulations in brief are as follows:

1. Select a fresh face of unweathered coal at the point where the sample is 

to be obtained and clean it of all powder stains and other impurities.

2. Spread a piece of oilcloth or rubber cloth on the floor so as to catch the 

particles of coal as they are cut and to keep out impurities and excessive moisture where the floor is wet. Such a cloth should be about 1$ by 2 yards in size 

and should be so spread as to catch all the material composing the sample.

3. Cut a channel perpendicularly across the face of the coal bed from roof to 

floor, with the exceptions noted in paragraph 4, of such size as to yield at least 

6 pounds of coal per foot of thickness of coal bed; that is, 6 pounds for a bed 1 

foot thick,' 12 pounds for a bed 2 feet thick, 24 pounds for a bed 4 feet thick, etc.

4. All material encountered in such a cut should be included in the sample, 

except partings or binders more than three-eighths inch in thickness and lenses 

or concretions of " sulphur" or other impurities greater than 2 inches in 

maximum diameter and one-half inch in thickness.

5. If the sample is wet, it should be taken out of the mine and dried until 

all sensible moisture has been driven off.

6. If the coal is not visibly moist, it should be pulverized and quartered down 

inside the mine to avoid changes in moisture, which take place rapidly when 

fine coal is exposed to different atmospheric conditions. The coal should be pulverized until it will pass through a sieve with one-half inch mesh, and then, after 

thorough mixing, it should be divided into quarters and opposite quarters rejected. The operation of mixing and quartering should be repeated until a 

sample of the desired size is obtained. When the work has been properly done 

a quart sample is sufficient to send for chemical analysis. This sample should 

be sealed in either a glass jar or a screw-top can with adhesive tape over the 

joint and sent to the chemical laboratory for analysis.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 107-

Since the value of the land varies with the quality of the coal as 

determined by the chemist, his methods are briefly described here.1 

Immediately after the sample is received at the laboratory it is 

weighed and placed in a shallow tin pan in a large drying oven, in 

which a temperature of 30° to 35° C. is maintained. The sample 

remains exposed to currents of warm air in the oven until the loss 

between two successive weighings made six to eight hours apart does 

not vary more than 0.2 per cent. The loss of weight in the oven is 

called air-drying loss.

After being air dried the sample is crushed to a fine powder and 

thoroughly mixed. To determine the amount of moisture remaining 

in the coal after air drying, a 1-gram sample is heated for an hour 

at 105° C. and then cooled in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. The 

moisture in the sample is thus driven off, hence the percentage of 

loss represents the percentage of moisture in the coal. The remaining part of the sample is next used to determine the amount of ash 

in the coal. This determination is made, by slowly heating the 

sample in a muffle furnace until all of the combustible matter is 

burned off. The remainder is ash. The volatile matter is determined from a fresh 1-gram sample in a 30-gram platinum crucible, 

with a close-fitting cover, heated for seven minutes over a Bunsen 

flame 20 centimeters high. The loss in weight minus the moisture at 

105° C. is the weight of the volatile combustible matter. The sulphur 

is determined on a separate example by what is known as the Eschka 

method. The percentage of fixed carbon given in the analysis is the 

difference between 100 per cent and the sum of moisture, volatile 

combustible matter, and ash.

The calorific value of a coal, or the amount of heat that can be 

obtained from it, is the most important factor in classification and 

valuation.

The calorific value of coal is determined with a bomb calorimeter. 

The following is a brief description of the details of operation:

A 1-gram sample of coal (60-mesh) in a platinum tray is placed 

in the bomb and the lid is screwed down tightly against a lead 

.gasket. Oxygen is forced into the bomb until the pressure is 18 to 

20 atmospheres. The bomb, filled with oxygen, is placed in a brass 

bucket containing distilled water, the bucket having been previously 

placed in an insulated jacket.

The coal is ignited by electric current and is burned at once. The 

heat of combustion is transmitted thrcfugh the walls of the bomb and 

is manifested in a rise in the temperature of the water. This rise 

in temperature is measured by a very delicate thermometer. The

1 The methods of analyzing coal and coke are fully described in Technical Paper No. 8, 

Bureau of Mines, by Frederick M. Stanton and Arno C. Fieldner. The method outlined 

here is summarized from that paper.
108 . CLASSIFICATION otf THE PUBLIC LANDS.

quantity of heat given off by the burning of the coal is determined 

by multiplying the product of the weights of the metal and water 

in the apparatus and their respective specific heats by the rise in 

temperature. The result thus obtained is calculated into terms of 

calories and British thermal units.

PREPARATION OF MATERIAL.

The preparation of material by the field man, so that it may be 

considered to the best advantage in the work of classification and 

valuation, has already been considered in the chapter entitled " Preparation of data for classification," immediately preceding the discussion of the classification of coal lands.

PROCEDURE IN CLASSIFICATION AND VALUATION.

In the actual work of classification of coal lands each .area under 

consideration must be treated individually, yet in general a definite 

line of procedure is followed.

The first step is to assemble ,all the available data, including not only 

the maps and reports of the geologists who may have made a special 

examination of the field, but the reports of any special agents of the 

Land Office who have been in that field, as well as all reports of 

geologists who may have visited the field at some earlier time (probably for some other purpose) and all other available information 

concerning the land or the coal it may contain. The land-classification board has a system of graphic records which show at once the 

existence of any reports on the field and give references to them, so 

that when the case is taken up all the data available are at hand. As 

a matter of fact the field man will usually have familiarized himself 

with all these earlier data and will be prepared to present them as 

may be necessary.

The second step is to scrutinize carefully all these data, and by their 

aid to take the action or to obtain the information listed under the 

following heads:

1. The number, names, character, and other features of the coalbearing formations are determined. As most of these formations 

extend over large areas, some of them crossing several States, a general knowledge of the formations at once suggests the probable conditions to be found in the field studied, and that general knowledge 

may strongly affect the action to be taken in classification and 

valuation.

2. The number of coal horizons or groups of horizons is 

ascertained.

3. The thickness of each coal bed over the field is determined, if 

it can be traced. If each bed can not be traced the group of coals
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL LANDS. 109

is studied as a whole to determine from point to point the number 

of beds and their aggregate thickness and value.

4. The basing value per ton of the coal is computed by comparing 

its analyses and its obvious character with the standard scale. An 

average B. t. u. value having been fixed for the coals of the field 

or for the different groups of coals, the other qualities of the coal 

such as its adaptability to coking or to stocking are studied to determine whether they enhance that value or detract from it, and the 

price is raised or lowered accordingly.

5. If the field is small and the data are scattered the field may be 

studied as a unit. If the data are abundant in any township the 

coals in that township are studied by themselves, and, exceptionally, 

the variation in thickness may make it necessary to divide a township into belts or areas, in each of which a basing value of the 

groups is determined.

6. All sections of the coal are examined, and if the coal beds are 

split the equivalent thickness of a solid bed is computed and a- memorandum of the results is placed beside the drawn section. Then 

further reduction is made for the reduced value of the bed, if it is 

less than 6 or more than 10 feet thick. If a bed is variable in thickness but varies so regularly that lines of equal thickness can be drawn 

on a map of the field these lines are so redrawn as to indicate the 

reduced thickness determined by allowance for their reduced value 

if the thickness is less than 6 or more than 10 feet. If the beds are 

of irregular thickness the average of the measurements taken is obtained, and by the use of the " modulus of irregularity " a computed 

average thickness is obtained for use in valuation.

7. The outcrops of the coals are examined to determine which are 

workable coals and especially to make note of the outcrop of the 

lowest bed or the bed covering the largest area. Where the coal lies 

in one or more lenses a computation of its gradation in thickness is 

made between points at one of which the coal is below the minimum 

thickness and at the other is above, to determine the position of the 

minimum. The limits of workable coal having been determined for 

certain points, the limits of the lenses of the coal are drawn on the 

maps. For isolated measurements at points where the bed is above 

the minimum limit the extent and character of the several lenses 

measured are determined, special formulas being applied where 

possible.

8. If the coal passes below the depth limit of workable coal the 

position of that limit is determined and indicated on the map.

9. The limit of workable coal having now been determined, a line 

is drawn on a plat along the 40-acre lines, or, where necessary, along 

the 10, 5, or 2^ acre lines in the forty, to separate the area that con-
110 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

tains workable coal from the area that does not contain workable 

coal. The latter area is then plainly marked "noncoal," and if the 

land is only to be classified and not valued a copy of the plat is made 

on a blank township sheet to show accurately the coal land and the 

noncoal land. This copy, after checking and proper designation, is 

dated and signed by the members of the coal section of the board. 

Its later history is the same as if valuation had been made.

10. The tract or township may now be valued. The particular 

steps at this point may vary greatly, depending on the complications 

involved in the valuation. It may be that the coals are of a grade 

so low that, like the low-grade lignites, regardless of their thickness, 

they will be valued only at the minimum. Or it may be that the 

tract contains only one thin bed that lies flat and at slight depth, so 

that the land may be valued at the minimum or perhaps at a uniform price. From these simple conditions there will be conditions 

grading in complexity all the way to those found in such fields as, for 

example, the Rock Springs field of Wyoming, where there are three 

groups of beds of coal of different age, character, and quality, each 

group containing from six to eighteen coal beds, and where each coal 

bed has been accurately traced by means of hundreds 'of measurements made on the coal in each township, both along the outcrop and in 

mines and drillings. Owing to differences in quality and thickness 

coals have different depth limits. They may also vary in dip and may 

be locally broken by faulting or by igneous intrusions. The value 

of the land that is involved in these complications is computed by 

using printed blanks that contain columns arranged to show not only 

the observed data on each bed in each 40-acre tract, but also the computed values of each bed, ending with the computed value of the 40 

acres. This completed blank becomes part of the permanent record, 

so that, if additional data are obtained or if for any reason the valuation should be reviewed, it shows not only the field data but the steps 

that have led to the final result. As values are determined they are 

recorded on a blank township sheet and if the data are abundant and 

complicated the coal boundaries may be drawn on transparent oversheets, on which the computed valuation, prices are placed. This 

sheet is properly labeled, dated, and signed by the members of the 

coal section.

11. As the land in a township is classified and valued memoranda 

are prepared to show the basis for any criteria used, and all these 

memoranda, with blank forms showing the computations and allowances, are retained as " minutes " and, when reviewed and signed by 

the members of the coal section, form a part of the permanent record.
OIL AND GAS LANDS. Ill 

PROGRESS IN CLASSIFICATION AND VALUATION.

The following statement shows the status of the work of classification on January 1, 1913:

Progress of coal-land classification to January 1, 1918. 

Total withdrawals________________acres 128,147,312

Area classified and valued as coal land____do__ 16,433,817

Area classified as coal land, price not fixed_do__ 841,706

Area classified as noncoal land________do__ 42, 244,682

Restored without classification________do__ 2,717,395

Total restorations_____________do__ 62,237,600

Total withdrawals less total restorations (total outstanding withdrawals)______.____acres 65,909,712 

Value of coal land at classified price_________ $702,157,268 

Value at minimum price_______._______ $279,122,661

OIL AND GAS LANDS. 

OCCURRENCE OF OIL AND GAS.

To the minds of many people who find little difficulty in comprehending a classification of lands containing deposits of coal or phosphate the possibility of applying a similar classification to lands 

containing oil and gas, especially in advance of actual drilling, 

appears uncertain, to say the least, and, according to the nature arid 

experience of the individual critic, such a classification is looked upon 

either as a more or less scientific guess or as evidence of the possession 

of supernatural powers by the classifier. The classification of oil and 

gas lands, however, calls for the use of no mysterious or haphazard 

methods but is based on detailed field examinations, followed by 

careful consideration of all the available facts, geologic and economic, 

in their relation to one another and to the known principles of the 

occurrence of oil, which have been proved again and again in the 

development of oil fields throughout the world. Although the ultimate test of the presence of oil in commercial quantities is made with 

the drill, it is nevertheless a fact that the intelligent application of 

the principles of oil accumulation to the geologic facts observed will 

indicate at least the areas where no oil will be found and will go far 

toward delimiting the areas where production is reasonably certain. 

To the classifier of oil lands, as to the oil-well driller, the theories 

proposed to account for the origin of oil and gas are of only incidental interest; the problem of prime importance to him comprises 

the assignment of proper values to the many factors which influence 

accumulation and the determination therefrom of the present position and extent of the deposits.
112 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Oil and gas are composed for the most part of carbon and hydrogen, but they vary greatly in the proportions of these elements and 

in the way in which they are combined. The petroleum oils range 

from low-grade heavy oils containing much asphalt to high-grade 

light oils which contain a large percentage of paraffin and volatile" 

constituents and little or no asphalt. The heaviest oil is chiefly valuable as fuel, for which it is used in its crude state. Progressively 

lighter oils are used less and less for fuel and more and iriore for the 

other products that are obtained from them. There is a general 

opinion that weight for weight the fuel value of light and heavy oils 

is about equal, but because of the value of the distillates from, the 

lighter oils it may be stated in general that the lighter the oil the 

greater its value.

In classifying lands as to their probable content of oil and gas it 

must be borne in mind that oil and gas are mobile substances and 

that, owing to their mobility and to the resulting increased importance of gravitation, temperature, hydrostatic pressure, and capillarity, it is necessary to make certain variations from the type of 

procedure employed in classifying lands containing coal, phosphate, 

or other stable minerals. The mobility of oil and gas has, in many 

regions, permitted their migration through varying thicknesses of 

pervious strata to their present places of accumulation,- so that the 

problem is not to discover where the hydrocarbons originated but 

rather where they have accumulated.

The present position of these accumulations depends mainly on 

the character of the strata, the attitude of the strata (commonly 

spoken of as the rock structure), the presence or absence of water, and 

the character and specific gravity of the oil. The fluid hydrocarbons 

do not, as is supposed by some, occupy underground lakes or reservoirs surrounded by walls of rock. Instead they saturate porous 

rocks in places where the geologic structure, the conditions with 

regard to underground water, and the succession of strata are such 

that the accumulations are sealed by relatively impervious beds. 

Thus, although the accumulations of oil or gas are called "pools," 

they are not to be confused with such, pools as are formed by the 

collection of liquids upon the surface of the ground. The porous 

stratum in which the hydrocarbon collects is often spoken of as an 

oil or gas "sand," although it may in reality be sandstone, gravel, 

limestone, or a zone of fractured rock. Into this " sand " the hydrocarbon comes from* one or another* source, but if there is to be an 

accumulation of importance the migration of the oil or gas along 

this pervious bed must be stopped by a change in dip or by some 

other obstacle to continued progress, and, in addition, the reservoir 

thus formed must be sealed by strata that are relatively imperviQus,
OIL AND GAS LANDS. 113

such as compact shales, clays, or fine-grained sandy beds saturated 

with water.

The accumulations within the United States may be divided 

roughly into three classes, as indicated below.

1. Those occurring in strata of sandstone or limestone bounded 

above and below by rocks comparatively impervious to oil. The 

sandstone or limestone may be of broad or of very narrow extent, 

in some places comprising merely small lenses of porous material 

embedded in relatively impervious rocks, in others underlying hundreds of square miles of territory in comparatively regular beds. 

To this class belong the greater number of oil accumulations of this 

country.

2. Those occurring in porous strata, apparently lenticular, associated with the " salt domes " of the Gulf Coastal Plain.

3. Those occurring in fissures in shale, as in the Florence field of 

Colorado. The fracturing of other rocks, such as limestone and 

sandstone, affords favorable conditions for the accumulation of oil; 

but sandstone and, under certain conditions, limestone are capable 

of storing oil without fracturing, the fracturing merely increasing 

their capacity. A fine-grained shale, on the contrary, although 

capable of containing oil, does not permit its migration through the 

rock mass with sufficient rapidity for collection in wells unless the 

shale is broken by fissures, which serve as channels or reservoirs for 

the slowly migrating oil.

It may be stated as a fundamental principle that important accumulations of petroleum and natural gas are to be found only in 

stratified or sedimentary rocks. Regions in which the strata have 

been greatly disturbed or altered by intrusions of igneous rock are, 

as a rule, unfavorable to the accumulation of petroleum, because the 

attendant heat and fracturing would as a rule have had disastrous 

effects on volatile substances of this character. An interesting apparent exception has been noted in Ventura County, CaL, where oil to the 

extent of 5 or 6 barrels a day has been obtained from wells drilled 

in close-textured crystalline schist. Although the schist is underlain 

by granite, it is overlain at a distance of only a few hundred feet 

from the wells by Tertiary rocks which in the same general region 

are petroleum bearing. These relations suggest that the presence of 

the oil in the schist is due to infiltration from the Tertiary sediments 

through fractured zones rather than to origin in the sediments that 

were metamorphosed to form the schist.

In general, then, oil is found in sedimentary strata of greater or 

less extent and regularity. These strata were originally deposited 

by water in the ocean, in fresh-water lakes, or on great deltas practically at sea level. The beds were therefore horizontal, or nearly

7S894 0 Bull, 537 13 8
114 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

horizontal, as first laid down, and where a series of beds was deposited one above another, there being no earth movement during 

the deposition, the several beds were parallel. After the beds of 

sand, mud, and marl were deposited and hardened into the resulting 

sandstone, shale, and limestone, they were in certain areas bent by 

earth movements into folds of various shapes, and it is about these 

folds that the accumulations of oil are found. The attitude in which 

the rocks lie, the shape of the folds, and the presence of faults or 

breaks in the strata constitute the rock structure.

In any consideration of the factors which control the accumulation of oil or gas the importance of the part played by the structure 

can hardly be overestimated. The fluid contents of porous beds obey 

the laws of gravitation and capillarity, separating and distributing 

themselves in the main in accordance with their specific gravities. 

If water, petroleum, and gas are, as is usual, present in petroliferous 

beds, the gas would as much as possible disengage itself from the 

fluid and rise to the highest point in the fold, while the water would 

endeavor to- displace the petroleum and find a resting place as low 

down as possible. If the bed of rock is inclined and the water is 

under artesian pressure, it will be forced upward along the bed, the 

oil remaining above the water because of the difference in specific 

gravity. If the porous bed is continuous in dip to the outcrop, the 

gas and oil are likely to exhaust themselves at the outcrop in the 

form of seeps. If, however, the progress of the hydrocarbons up 

the dip is stopped by a fold in the bed, or by a fault which seals instead of opening the stratum, or by saturation of the bed with water, 

an accumulation takes place, the oil and gas remaining between the 

water down the dip and whatever has impeded their progress up the 

dip. This theory, which is known as the anticlinal theory, is in some 

form now accepted by practically all geologists, not as indicating 

absolutely the limitations of the occurrence of oil and gas but as expressing the general relations of their occurrence to geologic structure, subject to various modifying conditions. Other factors less well 

understood enter into the problem, such as the difference in the capillary attraction exerted between water and the rock particles and between oil and the rock particles and the differences in friction experienced by the two fluids in passing through the rock. There is much 

to be learned concerning the whole problem, but enough is known to 

make the study of any oil field of economic as well as scientific value.

If the rock containing the oil does not also carry water there is no 

force to impel the oil into the upfold or anticline. On the contrary, 

gravity tends to pull it downward and it collects in the adjoining 

downfold or syncline. This condition is found in some of the Pennsylvania fields.
OIL AND GAS LANDS. 115

Where the migration of oil is due to the pressure of dissolved or 

occluded gas in the absence of water saturation the oil will move in 

all directions until it is stopped by some impervious stratum, where 

accumulation takes place in apparent disregard of structure.

The simplest structure favorable to the accumulation of oil and gas 

is that of a symmetrical anticline having little or no pitch of the axisand moderately dipping flanks. If the requisite condition of porous 

oil-bearing rock adequately sealed by impervious beds is fulfilled and 

the strata are impregnated with water under moderate hydrostatic 

pressure, the hydrocarbons will, under ideal conditions, segregate in 

the axis of the fold and extend down the flanks a distance dependent 

on the quantity present. Farther down the flanks and in the troughs 

of the corresponding synclines water will as a rule be found. It is 

evident that, other things being equal, the extent of the productive 

area controlled by anticlinal structure is greater where the fold is 

broad and the dip of the strata on the flanks relatively low than where 

the fold is narrow and has steep flanks, for in the former case the 

gathering ground for oil and gas is much greater than in the latter. 

From the simple symmetrical anticline there are gradations on the 

one hand into domes pitching away from a central point and on the 

other hand through unsymmetrical folds to an extreme type in which 

one flank is vertical or overturned. In every symmetrical fold the 

boundary between an oil pool lying at the top of a fold and extending 

part way down the sides of the fold and the water saturating the 

rocks farther down is an approximately horizontal line, because as 

long as the fold is regular the water tends to rise to the same level 

all along it. If, however, there are minor irregularities on the 

sides of the fold these have their effect on the distribution of the oil, 

making the margin of the pool irregular or causing small pools to 

collect along the slope.

Structural features of other types are under certain conditions 

favorable for the accumulation of petroleum and natural gas. Among 

these may be mentioned monoclines, which present conditions favorable for the concentration of oil wherever there is a change in the rate 

of dip or an abrupt change in the strike of the rocks, shallow synclines where water is absent from the oil-bearing zone, and synclines 

where the oil and water are of nearly the same gravity. Unconformities where steeply dipping petroliferous strata are overlain by relatively impervious horizontal or nearly horizontal beds are also favorable. Faults are usually considered wholly unfavorable to the accumulation of oil and gas, and for areas where the dislocations are many 

and extensive this view is undoubtedly correct. However, in many 

places faults have quite the contrary effect. For instance, strike 

faults may cause a greater concentration of petroleum toward the 

crest of a fold, and dip faults in a series where there are many oil
116 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

sands may bring about communication between the different sands 

and have a notable effect on local production. In a series of uniformly dipping beds an oil sand which would normally crop out at 

the surface may be cut off by a strike fault and sealed beneath impervious beds and thus retain oil which would otherwise migrate to the 

 surface and be dispelled. Moreover, faulting may produce fractured 

zones along which the oil or gas can migrate and in which it may 

collect. In a number of localities, as in some of the fields in Mexico, 

where intrusive dikes have pierced oil-bearing strata and consequently arrested the movement of the oil in certain directions, the 

petroleum has accumulated in apparent disregard of the structural 

features of the sedimentary series.

In many fields there is little or nothing-at the surface to indicate 

the presence of valuable hydrocarbons below, but in many other fields 

there is ample indication of oil at the surface. The oil-bearing 

stratum itself may crop out and the oil ooze from it, giving to the 

rock a dark, greasy appearance and the odor of petroleum, or the oil 

may find its way to the surface from the oil pool below through 

some fracture of the overlying rock. Water charged with various 

salts or with sulphur may rise with the oil, so that a spring is formed, 

the oil floating as a brown scum on the surface of the water or in 

smaller quantity producing the brilliant iridescent sheen characteristic of petroleum. Gas may find its way to the surface and appear 

in " gas springs " or under certain conditions may produce the phenomenon of mud volcanoes. The place at which oil has come to the 

surface and evaporated through long periods of time may be marked 

by a deposit of asphaltum. In certain localities oil-bearing shales 

have been burnt to a pink or deep brick-red color or altered to a 

hard vesicular rock resembling scoriaceous lava. This metamorphism is due to the burning of the hydrocarbons that have impregnated the rock, and the presence of such rock therefore becomes an 

important surface indication of petroleum.

The stratigraphic occurrence of hydrocarbon minerals in the United 

States is by no means limited; on the contrary, petroleum in the 

solid, liquid, or gaseous form is found in greater or less quantity 

throughout the range of strata from the Cambrian to the younger 

members of the Tertiary series.

In general the commercially important accumulations of oil throughout the central and eastern portions of the United States are found 

in strata belonging to the Paleozoic era. In the great Appalachian 

field, which extends from the southern portion of New York along 

the western slope of the Allegheny Mountains to northern Tennessee, 

the accumulations of oil occur in strata ranging in age from early 

Devonian to late Carboniferous. In Ohio and Indiana petroleum is 

derived chiefly from rocks of Ordovician age, and in Indiana mainly
OIL AND GAS LANDS. 117

from Carboniferous strata. In the Mid-Continent field, which embraces Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, the petroleum has accumulated in rocks of the Pennsylvanian and Permian series. In the Gulf 

field, which includes the Coastal Plain of Louisiana and Texas, the 

petroleum-yielding rocks are Mesozoic and Cenozoic in age, being 

assigned in part to Cretaceous and in part to Tertiary formations.

In the Rocky Mountain fields the productive formations range in 

age from late Paleozoic to late Mesozoic. The Wyoming fields present perhaps the greatest range of occurrence, yielding oil from strata 

belonging to the Carboniferous, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous 

systems. The Colorado and New Mexico fields thus far developed 

obtain their oil from strata included entirely within the Cretaceous, 

and the small quantity of oil produced in Utah is derived from rocks 

assigned to the Carboniferous system, although indications of oil are 

found at certain localities in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks.

In the Pacific coast region the important accumulations of oil are 

found chiefly in Cenozoic rocks, although in certain fields an output of local importance is obtained from late Mesozoic rocks. In 

Ventura County, CaL, the principal oil-yielding formations are 

classed as Tertiary and range in age from Miocene to Pliocene. 

Along the west side of the San Joaquin Valley the range is greater, 

the oil extending downward into the upper members of the Cretaceous 

system. In the Kern River field, on the east side of the San Joaquin 

Valley in Kern County, oil is obtained from rocks of late Miocene or 

Pliocene age. In Santa Barbara County the oil is derived chiefly 

from early Miocene rocks. In portions of Oregon and Washington 

small amounts of oil and gas have been obtained from rocks assigned 

to the Eocene and Miocene series.

Despite this wide distribution of fluid hydrocarbons the conclusion 

does not necessarily follow that accumulations of asphaltum, oil, or 

natural gas may be found in any area of sedimentary rocks, for such 

accumulations take place only where all the essential conditions governing origin, adequate storage facilities, and favorable structure are 

fulfilled.

CLASSIFICATION OF OIL AND GAS LANDS.

The immediate purpose of the classification of oil and gas land 

is to withhold from entry all lands containing valuable deposits of. 

fluid hydrocarbons pending the enactment of adequate legislation 

providing for their disposition. The ultimate purpose of the classification is to determine the position and extent of the areas whose 

value for their deposits of oil or gas, whether proved by actual 

drilling or indicated by favorable geologic conditions, is greater than 

their value for agriculture or other purposes and to provide for a 

disposition of the deposits in accordance with this greater value.
118 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Classifications are made by the oil section of the land-classification 

board. This section consists of three geologists, in addition to the 

chief of the board. Each classification is based on data submitted 

by a field geologist, who is called into consultation at the meeting 

at which his data are considered. Other geologists having special 

knowledge of the area under consideration may also be consulted. 

The factors observed by the field geologist are reviewed in detail, and 

his inferences and conclusions are subjected to the severest tests of 

experience and theory. Each factor which can be conceived as having 

a bearing on the accumulation and present distribution of oil within 

the area under discussion is carefully considered in all its relations 

before an attempt at classification is made.

The record data submitted by the field geologists consist primarily 

of a map or maps showing the facts observed in the field. On these 

maps surface contours and drainage are indicated and the details of 

the areal geology of the region are clearly shown. The position of all 

petroleum seepages and indications is recorded, as well as the location, 

by appropriate legend showing the results obtained, of each well 

drilled within the area examined. All determinations of dip and 

strike are shown, also the axial lines of all anticlines and synclines, 

with the direction and amount of pitch of each fold. The location of 

all land corners found is likewise noted, in order that the classification may conform to the established system of land surveys. Structure sections are necessary to explain complicated structural conditions and indicate the relative thicknesses of the formations and 

the position of the productive zones. Underground structure contours must be drawn to show the relative position of the principal 

oil-yielding zones above or below sea level, in order that the approximate depth of the oil zone beneath any desired point in the field may 

be readily determined when the elevation of the point above sea level 

is known. In a field where considerable development work has been 

done the preparation of the data should include the plotting of all 

available well records and the correlation, if possible, of the several 

oil-yielding zones.

The principal factors considered by the board in determining the 

classification of an area are the stratigraphy, the structure, the 

continuity and character of the oil sands, the quality of the oil, and 

the presence or absence of water. In many fields the productive 

sands are confined to a single geologic unit, the formations above and 

below being uniformly barren. It is therefore necessary to know not 

only the number and relation of the productive zones in a particular 

succession of strata but also the geologic system or series and, if 

possible, the formation or group to which these zones belong. The 

assignment of productive zones to a definite formation or group outside of which the strata are known to be barren constitutes an im-
OIL AND GAS LANDS. 119

portant step in the classification, the productive portions of the field 

being thus limited to the areas underlain by the petroliferous units 

and the areas not so underlain being at once disregarded as having no 

prospective value for oil.

As it is the structure of the petroliferous strata which largely determines the place of accumulation of oil and gas, it is apparent that 

a detailed knowledge of the structural conditions is absolutely essential to classification. In the classification of areas whose structure 

is anticlinal all lands are classified as oil bearing which lie along the 

axes of the anticlines or which are so located on the flanks that the 

oil sand underlies them within an arbitrarily chosen limit of depth. 

This limit may be the depth below which it is estimated that drilling 

can not be profitably carried because of mechanical difficulties, or it 

may represent the distance from the axis beyond which it is considered improbable that oil or gas in valuable quantities have accumulated. In monoclines similar considerations limit the distance down 

the dip to which classifications as oil land are carried. In the rarer 

synclinal accumulations the width of the zone classified as oil bearing depends mainly on what is known regarding the quantity of oil 

present.

The thickness and porosity of the reservoir rock are important factors to be considered with regard to the production and life of the 

wells, but their bearing on classification is subordinate, for classification 

is concerned with the boundaries of productive areas rather than with 

estimates of probable production. The continuity of the oil-bearing 

zone is, however, an important factor in classification, though, unfortunately, it is one whose exact value can rarely be determined, 

because of the difficulty of obtaining adequate data on the subject. 

In many areas of Tertiary rocks, where lateral variations in lithologic character within short distances are to be considered the rule 

and not the exception, changes in the thickness and extent of the oilbearing zones must be expected, and although field examination may 

show the general trend of the variations in a certain region, local 

variations can seldom be predicted in advance of drilling. A factor 

of uncertainty is thus introduced, which may now and then result in 

an erroneous conclusion and give rise not only to adverse criticism 

of a particular classification but even to sweeping and unjust condemnation of the entire method of procedure.

The quality of the oil obtained in a given field is considered in classification mainly with regard to its bearing on distribution. In 

general the greater the specific gravity of the oil the slower will be 

its migration, the less complete its separation from the associated 

water, and the lower down on the flanks of the folds its resting place; 

and, conversely, the less the specific gravity the more rapid the rate 

of migration, the more complete the segregation, and the higher in
120 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the folds the ultimate place of accumulation. Experience has shown 

that only under exceptional conditions may considerable accumulations of light paraffin-base oils be expected in monoclines, although 

in many places the monoclinal structure lends itself to the accumulation of heavy asphaltum-base oils.

The presence or absence of water in the formations of an oil-bear- 

. ing region is a factor in the classification only as it affects the accumulation of the hydrocarbons, determining very largely their relation 

to the structure, as already explained. Whether or not it is present 

in the petroliferous strata must be known before a satisfactory classification can be made.

The maximum depth at which accumulations of oil or gas will 

warrant the classification of an area as oil land is a matter that demands careful consideration for each field. The factors that determine this depth limit are primarily the richness and the continuity 

of the oil-bearing zones, secondary consideration being given to the 

quality of the oil, present market conditions, and transportation 

facilities. Thus in certain areas where production is large and the 

oil-yielding zones are believed to continue productive to considerable 

depth, lands beneath which the productive zone lies at a computed 

depth of 5,500 feet have been classified as oil lands. On the other 

hand, in areas where the geologic conditions preclude a large accumulation of oil and indicate a doubtful continuity of the oil-bearing 

zones, depth limits as low as 3,000 feet have been fixed. That quality, 

market, and transportation facilities should receive only incidental 

consideration becomes evident when it is realized that'deposits of 

low-grade oils that can not now be commercially exploited may, in the 

not distant future, as a result of improvements in methods of drilling 

and refining, become important contributors to the Nation's fuel 

supply; that the use of oil is practically just beginning, and it appears certain to build for itself a market far greater than it at 

present commands; and that with the advance of settlement or the 

beginning of production transportation facilities will be provided for 

fields now remote and essentially undeveloped. To many persons a 

maximum depth limit of 5,500 feet appears excessive, but to one 

who has acquainted himself with the rapid progress in well-drilling 

methods and machinery during the last decade this limit is'far from 

unreasonable. In many of the California fields wells drilled to 

depths of 3,500 or 4,000 feet are by no means uncommon, and in foreign countries and at a few localities in the United States wells 

more than 5,000 feet .deep have been drilled. In the Kern River oil 

field, California, one well has a depth of 5,135 feet; in the Midway 

field of the same State a well whose depth is slightly more than 

5,000 feet is reported; and in the vicinity of Los Angeles a well was
OIL AND GAS LANDS. 121

recently completed at a depth of approximately 5,200 feet. In western Pennsylvania one well more than 5,500 feet in depth has been 

drilled, and another, not yet completed, has been sunk to a depth of 

more than 6,000 feet. The effect of a few more years of improvement in drilling methods on the development of deep-lying oil deposits can be inferred only from the history of the past, but in land 

classification, which seeks in a measure to foresee and provide for 

future conditions, this progress can not be ignored.

When a conclusion has been reached by the board as to the portions 

of the field presenting conditions favorable for oil and gas accumulation, when a depth limit of profitable extraction has been fixed, 

and when the boundaries of the favorable and unfavorable areas 

have been determined and translated into terms of legal subdivisions 

of the land surveys, withdrawal or restoration orders are prepared 

and forwarded by the Director through the Secretary of the Interior 

to the President for final action. Two general types of withdrawals 

are made first, preliminary withdrawals, based on more or less 

meager information, and, second, withdrawals made after field examination.

The usual type of oil-land withdrawal order, based on field examination, closely resembles that used in the withdrawal from public entry of lands valuable for their phosphate content. An example 

of an order of withdrawal of phosphate lands is given on page 133. 

Two 'special petroleum reserves have been created in the State of 

California in order to retain in Government control bodies of oilbearing lands containing what are believed to be sufficently large reserves of fuel oil to provide for the future needs of the United States 

Navy. An example of an order creating a naval petroleum reserve 

is appended

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, August 8, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF T.HE INTERIOR.

SIR: In accordance with your instructions to recommend for inclusion in a 

special reserve a compact body of public lands containing an ample supply of 

fuel oil for the use of the United States Navy, I have prepared and recommend 

for submission to the President the following order of withdrawal, involving 

approximately 38,068 acres in the Elk Hills, Kern County, Gal. 

Very respectfully,

GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

AUGUST 10, 1912.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary.
122 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL. 

Naval petroleum reserve No. 1.

It is hereby ordered that all lands included in the following list and heretofore forming a part of petroleum reserve No. 2, California No. 1, withdrawn on 

July 2, 1910, from settlement, location, sale, or entry, and reserved for classification and in aid of legislation under the authority of the act of Congress 

entitled "An act to authorize the President of the United States to make 

withdrawals of public lands in certain cases" (36 Stat, 847), shall hereafter, 

subject to valid existing rights, constitute naval petroleum reserve No. 1, and 

shall be held for the exclusive use or benefit of the United States Navy until 

this order is revoked by the President or by act of Congress. To this end and 

for this public purpose the order of July 2,1910, is modified and the withdrawal 

of that date is continued arid extended in so far as it affects these lands.

Mount Diablo meridian.

T. 30 S., R. 22 E., sec. 24, all. 

[Here follows the remainder of land description.]

WM. H. TAFT, 

SEPTEMBER 2, 1912. * President.

The preliminary withdrawals are made as a first step in classification and are based on recommendations of Survey geologists or 

of field agents of the General Land Office. A few such withdrawals 

have been based on petitions filed by residents of the community in 

which the occurrence of oil is suspected. The purpose of the withdrawals is primarily to withhold the lands from disposition pending their examination and classification. Because of the lack of 

definite geologic data most of the preliminary withdrawals of necessity embrace areas larger than those ultimately found to be valuable.

As soon as practicable after preliminary withdrawal the lands are 

examined geologically, and from the data* obtained in this examination, presented and considered as already described, decisions as to 

the probable productive and nonproductive portions of the area are 

made. The areas classified as nonoil land are promptly restored and 

become subject to entry and disposition as if no withdrawal had been 

made.

The following order illustrates the form in which such restorations

are made:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, September 9, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR: Field investigation by the Geological Survey indicates that the lands 

listed below do not contain deposits of oil or gas. The following order of 

restoration, which involves 133,626 acres, is therefore recommended for submission to the President for appropriate action. A small part of these lands is
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 123

within national forests, but none are included in public water reserves, coal, 

phosphate, or power-site withdrawals.

Very respectfully, GEO. H. ASHLEY,

Acting Director.

SEPTEMBER 21, 1912.

Respectfully referred to the President, with favorable recommendation.

SAMUEL ADAMS, 

Acting Secretary.

ORDER OP RESTORATION. 

Petroleum restoration No. 12 California No. 7.

So much of the orders of withdrawal made heretofore for classification 

and in aid of legislation affecting the use and disposition of petroleum lands, 

namely, reserves No. 2, No. 18, and No. 20, as affects the lands hereinafter described is hereby revoked, for the reason that .the Director of the Geological 

Survey reports that the lands are not valuable, for the purpose for which 

withdrawn.

And it is further ordered that all such lands not otherwise reserved or withdrawn are hereby restored to the public domain and shall become subject to 

disposition under the laws applicable thereto upon such date and after such 

notice as may be determined upon by the Secretary of the Interior.

Mount Diablo meridian.

T. 16 S., R. 11 E., sec. 21, N. j of SW. i, SE. i of SW. i, S. i of SE. J. 

[Here follows the remainder of the land description.]

WM. H. TAFT, 

SEPTEMBER 23, 1912. President.

The areas classified as oil land remain withdrawn pending the 

enactment by Congress of appropriate legislation for the disposition 

of oil and gas deposits.

PHOSPHATE LANDS. 

USE OF PHOSPHATE.

Phosphorus is one of the mineral elements that are essential to 

plant growth and therefore necessaiy to make soils productive, and 

it is one of the three most likely to become exhausted by continued 

removal in crops taken from the soil. Work at the agricultural 

experiment stations in Illinois, Ohio, and Wisconsin has shown that 

lands under cultivation in these States during the last half century 

have been depleted of one-third of their original content of phosphoric acid. This depletion per acre annually is equivalent to the
124 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

phosphoric acid contained in 60 pounds of high-grade phosphate 

rock. At this rate 12,000,000 tons of high-grade phosphate rock, approximately four times the production in 1911, or one-third the total 

marketed production in the United States from 1867 to 1911, would 

be required each year simply to offset the depletion of the 400,000,000 

acres of cultivated land in the United States, the question of increasing the present agricultural yield not being considered.

Phosphate or rock phosphate is a mineral substance made up of 

lime and phosphoric acid and is the principal source of the phosphate 

of commerce. Its value is becoming more apparent and more clearly 

recognized in the United States, not only through the decreasing 

yield per acre of cultivated lands but also through the discovery of 

the fact that some virgin lands are deficient in this essential to plant 

growth. The marketed production of phosphate rock in the United 

States increased from 448,567 long tons in 1888 to 11,900,693 long 

tons in 1911. The rock phosphate is used as raw rock flour (or 

"floats") or in the form of a superphosphate, which is made by 

treating the rock with sulphuric acid.

LANDS CONTAINING PHOSPHATE.

The commercially available phosphate deposits of the pwblic domain are those in Florida and those of the western fields, which, so 

far as investigated at present, are confined to the States of Idaho, 

Montana, Wyoming, and Utah.

Deposits of phosphate in the Rocky Mountain States were first 

discovered in northeastern Utah and southeastern Idaho, in the 

vicinity of the Idaho-Utah-Wyoming line: From this locality 

the deposits have been traced south, east, and west halfway across 

the States of Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming and northward to the vicinity of Helena, in west-central Montana, so that the phosphate beds 

now known cover an area extending about 220 miles from east 

to west and 420 miles from north to south. Of course only a small 

part of this territory is underlain by deposits that are commercially 

valuable.

Deposits of phosphate rock exist also in Tennessee, South Carolina, 

and Arkansas, but these deposits are on lands that have passed into 

priv.ate ownership. The production of Tennessee is increasing, that 

of Florida appears to have about reached its maximum, the South 

Carolina output is diminishing, and the Arkansas deposits are of 

low grade. For these reasons the largest future production must 

come from the western fields, where the deposits are chiefly on the 

public lands, although Florida, will remain an important factor in 

production for many years to come.
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 125 

PHOSPHATE RESERVES.

In order to prevent the alienation of the phosphate deposits on 

the public lands until Congress shall provide a law for their disposition that will encourage development under conditions favorable to 

the public interests, the known phosphate lands remaining in Government ownership have been temporarily withdrawn from entry. 

The reserves thus created embrace lands in the phosphate belt of 

Florida and in Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana.

FLORIDA RESERVES.

The deposits in the Florida reserves include two important kinds of 

phosphate the hard rock and the land pebble; the latter doubtless 

was derived from the former. Deposits of both these types are found 

near the surface and are mined after removal of the soil cover or overburden. The pebble deposits are fairly regular in thickness, but the 

hard rock occurs in irregular pockets in the limestone of which it is 

supposed to be a residual product. The pebble deposits cover a large 

area, mainly in southwest-central Florida; the hard-rock deposits 

are distributed through the northwestern part of the State.

The hard-rock phosphate is sold on a guaranty of 77 per cent of 

tricalcium phosphate (the bone phosphate of commerce) and the 

pebble phosphate on guaranties of 60 to 75 per cent.

The prospecting or geologic mapping of these practically flat deposits in a region of slight relief is in most places complicated by 

the presence of overburden, so that any investigation of undeveloped 

portions is conducted principally by systematic drilling.

WESTERN RESERVES.

The phosphate deposits in the western reserves consist of rock 

phosphate occurring in beds interstratified with other rocks, in 

much the same way as coal occurs. The beds over 4 feet thick containing 70 per cent of tricalcium phosphate are from one to three in 

number in different places. These are interbedded with yellowish 

to brown phosphatic sandstone and shale and here, and there with 

thin beds of dark limestone. The shale contains from 25 to 60 

per cent of tricalcium phosphate and is doubtless of future economic 

importance. The phosphatic series ranges from less than 6 feet 

to about 180 feet in thickness and usually lies between a lightcolored sandy limestone of variable thickness and a white, brown, 

yellow, or dull-black cherty limestone averaging 225 feet in thickness. The chert overlies the phosphatic beds where the strata are 

in normal order, but in places the beds have been turned completely
126 CLASSIFICATION" OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

over in the intense folding that has occurred. The phosphate 

deposits therefore not only lie flat but stand at various inclinations, 

and they lie at great depth except where the long-continued action 

of the elements has worn away parts of the rock folds. These folds 

are of two principal types upfolds, or anticlines, and downfolds, 

or synclines. In some places the folding has been moderate in 

amount and the 'folds are long, regular wrinkles. In other places 

the folding was so intense and the wrinkles were so sharp and 

extensive that the beds are broken or " faulted " and come together 

in irregular order. Faults may and in many places do sharply 

separate phosphate from nonphosphate land, and where such faults 

are concealed by later deposits, such as gravels, they may lead to an 

apparently unwarranted difference in the classification of adjoining and seemingly similar tracts. Two 40-acre tracts in a section 

may in reality be underlain by phosphate and the remaining tracts 

may be barren, although the surface character of all may be exactly 

similar, so that it is necessary that the field examinations, the nature 

of which is more fully explained elsewhere, should involve more than 

a study of specific tracts.

The phosphatic series is composed of rocks which wear away 

easily under the action of the elements, and its outcrop is therefore 

inconspicuous; but the rocks immediately above and below it are 

resistant and in many places stand out in ledges that are easily 

traced. The field surveys on which the classification of the lands 

is based are made with sufficient detail and accuracy to determine 

the distribution of phosphatic beds relative to 40-acre tracts or other 

legal subdivisions, the thickness and character of cover, and the 

quality and thickness of rock phosphate. The determination of the 

factors last named has in places involved the actual prospecting of 

the deposits by deep trenches, the longest of which was over 400 feet 

long. Certain other preliminary surveys of a reconnaissance nature 

have been made in order to acquire data for withdrawals and preliminary modifications of the reserve' boundaries.

The estimated quantity of high-grade rock (containing TO per cent 

or more of tricalcium phosphate) included in the area surveyed in detail to date is more than 3,000,000,000 long tons, yet it is possible that 

such an estimate, based solely on information collected along the 

outcrop of the beds, may be excessive. Below the surface the brown 

phosphate of Tennessee rapidly becomes lean and grades into the 

phosphatic limestone from which the phosphate is supposed to have 

been concentrated by weathering. The phosphate deposits of the 

western reserves may ultimately be found to show a similar change, 

although they do not exhibit clear evidence of such concentration
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 127

but in the main have the characteristics of original bedded deposits, 

probably in part of purely chemical and in part of organic origin. 

They have therefore been inferred to have practically the same richness underground that they show at the outcrop. However, in view 

of the unproved value of the deeper portions of the phosphate beds it 

is advisable that they be sampled by deep prospecting before any 

plan for the final disposal of the lands is adopted. If such prospecting shows that the greater part of the rock included in the estimates is relatively of low grade it will be self-evident that the exhaustion of the phosphate resources is not so distant as it now 

appears and that the value of the outcropping portions that are now 

known to include high-grade phosphate rock is much greater than is 

at present suspected.

SUMMARY Or PHOSPHATE SITUATION.

The question of the future adequacy of our phosphate resources 

for our own needs had been mentioned by several authorities prior 

to the conference of the governors in 1908, in which the discussion 

of this and kindred topics drew public attention to the situation. 

At this conference the possibility that foreign investors might acquire 

the better-known and supposedly richer portions of our deposits 

was suggested, the wisdom of permitting the exportation of so essential a quasi-public commodity was questioned, and the desirability 

of an early examination of the available supplies was emphasized. 

In part as a result of these indications of public interest, in part 

as a continuation of the policy already adopted in reference to 

coal lands, and in part because of the legal dilemma existing in the 

western fields through the inadequacy of the laws governing the 

disposal of mineral land the Secretary of the Interior, on December 

10,1908, withdrew from entry about 7,000 square miles of public land 

in Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming, pending an examination of their 

phosphate resources. In the following summer the United States 

Geological Survey began the examination of these lands and the 

.investigation has been continued up to the present time, some 4,000 

square miles having been examined in a preliminary way and about 

2,500 square miles surveyed in detail.

The first withdrawal was based partly on information collected by 

the Hayden Survey in 1877 and partly on later detailed and reconnaissance examinations made by the United States Geological Survey. Field work done subsequent to this withdrawal revealed the 

regularity and the character of the phosphate deposits, so that it has 

been possible not only to revise the estimates of the reserves in the 

area actually examined since the first withdrawal but also to make 

a closer interpretation of the information gathered by the earlier
128 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

surveys. These facts and relations are brought out in the following 

table:

Approximate area of phosphate lands, in square miles.

Year.

1908. ................................................

1909.................................................

1910.................................................

1911.................................................

1912.................................................

Reconnaissance 

surveys.

i,666

1,400

1,200

400

4,000

Detail 

surveys.

800

' 500

son

400

2,500

Total.

1,800

1,900

2,000

800

6,500

Withdrawn.

7,000

600

65

55

1,890

9,610

Restored.

75

S ftftfl

90

237

495

4,497

CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHATE LANDS.

FACTORS HTVOI/VED.

As the phosphate deposits on the public domain exist as stratiform 

sedimentary beds or as residual deposits of the placer type, they are, 

as a rule, readily found and their extent may be determined by the 

ordinary methods of areal geologic mapping. In examining deposits 

of this type the geologic problems involved are chiefly structural. The 

purely economic considerations of accessibility, means of transportation, and nearness to market are highly important in the problem 

of establishing a commercial mine but are not involved in the classification of the land as phosphate or nonphosphate land.

The classification of a given tract as phosphate land is governed 

by the facts observed in the course of a field examination. A 

knowledge of the general geology of the region tells the examiner 

in what geologic environment the deposits may be expected, and a 

knowledge of the local succession of the beds tells him at what horizons and at what depths such deposits may be found in the tract 

examined. Before making a mineral or nonmineral classification of 

withdrawn phosphate lands it is essential to know exactly the distribution of the valuable deposits and to ascertain their relation to 

the legal subdivisions, so that the lands may be correctly described 

and classified. In making a classification it is also necessary to know 

the thickness and the number of the phosphate beds; the proportion 

of phosphoric acid (P2 05 ), or its equivalent expressed as tricalcium 

phosphate, that they contain; and the depths below the surface at 

which they occur.

The facts determined and recorded in the course of a field examination are shown on the township maps submitted by the field geologists 

to the land-classification board. If any of the data collected can not 

be represented on the maps they are supplied in the form of descriptive notes. One of the most essential factors to consider in the classi-
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 120

fication of any tract is the relation of the bed and its outcrop to that 

tract. If the rocks are in normal position that is, if they have not 

been overturned or greatly disturbed by faulting all the area underlain by rocks stratigraphically below the outcropping bed and therefore not underlain by the phosphate bed may at once be classified as 

nonphosphate. In order to determine what lands are underlain by 

phosphate deposits it is necessary to work out from the recorded dips 

and strikes the structure of the field and to ascertain in what 

position "and at what depth the phosphate beds lie. When these factors have been duly considered and the position of the phosphatic 

layer has been determined, it is necessary to know the regularity of 

the phosphate content of the bed, its variation in thickness, and the 

uniformity of its chemical composition from point to point in order to 

determine whether or not the tract contains a sufficient amount of 

phosphate to justify its classification as phosphate land.

Frequently in considering these factors it is desirable to make use 

of data of a confidential character which may have been procured in 

the course of the field examination. Such data, although used in determining the classification of the land, never appear on the map that 

is filed, but for all confidential sections, drill records, or other data 

only the location is indicated on the map and the material itself is 

kept separate from the general description and is not. open to public 

inspection.

PRINCIPLES CONTROLLING THE CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHATE LAND.

Lands that have been included within phosphate reserves because 

preliminary examinations indicated that parts of them at least 

contain valuable deposits of phosphate whose exact distribution 

could not at that time be ascertained are further examined as soon as 

practicable and all lands barren of phosphate are recommended for 

restoration. In order to determine what lands should be so recommended and what lands should be retained in the phosphate reserve 

pending legislation providing for the disposition of phosphate 

deposits, it is necessary to determine what is and what is not to be 

regarded as phosphate land. It is very evident that lands which contain phosphate beds only an inch or two in thickness or with a content of tricalcium phosphate that is only 2 or 3 per cent of the entire 

mass or lands beneath which the phosphate beds lie at depths so great 

that they can not be commercially mined should be considered nonphosphate land.

REGULATIONS FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHATK LANDS.

In order that the restorations and withdrawals may conform as 

nearly as possible to the factors that are involved in determining 

78894° Bull. 537 13 9
130 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

"whether a given bed of phosphate possesses any actual or prospective 

lvalue as a source of commercial phosphate, the following regulations 

Tvere framed and have been applied in the classification of phosphate 

lands.

The principles incorporated in these regulations are to be used 

primarily for guidance in determining what lands will be recommended for reservation and what lands will be restored or excluded 

from future reserves. These principles, however, are based on a 

careful consideration of the factors which affect phosphate values 

and which may be involved when provision has been made for the 

disposition of the phosphate lands or of the deposits themselves. 

Furthermore, due regard has been given to such future developments 

as can be anticipated from present conditions.

Phosphate deposits shall be classified according to their thickness, their depth 

"fcelow the surface, and their calculated tricalcium phosphate determined from 

phosphoric acid content.

Lands underlain by beds of .phosphate less than 1 foot in thickness or containing less than 30 per cent tricalcium phosphate or lying at a depth greater 

than 5,000 feet below the surface shall be considered nonphosphate lands, except 

as hereinafter provided.

A. Lands underlain by beds of phosphate 6 feet or more in thickness and

 containing 70 per cent or more of calculated tricalcium phosphate shall be

-considered phosphate lands if the beds do not lie more thau 5,000 feet below 

the surface. The depth limit for beds containing 70 per cent of calculated 

±ricalcium phosphate shall vary from 0 to 5,000 feet in direct ratio to the 

tvariation of thickness of bed from 1 foot to 6 feet. For beds containing less 

than 70 per cent tricalcium phosphate the depth limit shall vary from zero 

to the depth of a 70 per cent bed of any given thickness in direct ratio to the 

variation in tricalcium phosphate content from 30 to 70 per cent.

tB, Lands underlain at depths greater than the depth limit given in "A" 

Iby horizontal beds of phosphate 6 feet or more in thickness and containing 

'70 per cent or more of calculated tricalcium phosphate shall be considered 

I'hosphate lands to a distance of 10 miles from the outcrop or point of accessibility from which they can be reached by a horizontal tunnel, which distance 

.shall be decreased to 0 in direct ratio as the thickness decreases to 1 foot. 

.For beds containing less than 70 per cent calculated tricalcium phosphate 

.the maximum distance for any given thickness of phosphate bed shall be 

{decreased to zero in direct ratio as the percentage of tricalcium phosphate 

{decreases from 70 to 30 per cent. If the phosphate beds dip toward the 

tioutcrop or lie above the point of accessibility, they shall be included under 

ihis paragraph.

C. The maximum horizontal distance for any given thickness of phosphate 

"bed shall be decreased from that given in " B " to one-fourth that distance in 

idirect ratio as the depth below the outcrop or point of accessibility increases 

.from zero to the limiting value given in "A." This limiting horizontal distance applies both to horizontal and to dipping beds, but in no case shall 

land be classified as phosphate land where the bed lies at a depth below the 

gioint of accessibility greater than that given in "A" or where the amount 

»f barren tunnel and shaft work required to reach the phosphate bed would
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 131

be more than three-fourths of the total tunnel and shaft work required to 

mine the bed, 1 foot of lift being considered equivalent to 7.92 feet of haul.

D. Where the phosphate bed occurs at or near the surface so that the 

deposits may be readily mined by open-cut or stripping methods, the minimum 

thickness of a phosphate bed containing 70 per cent or more of tricalcium 

phosphate shall be 3 inches. For beds containing less than 70 per cent 

tricalcium phosphate the minimum thickness shall increase to 1 foot as the 

percentage of tricalcium phosphate decreases from 70 to 30 per cent.

DEPTH IN FEET

Example: 4-foot phosphate bed

-60 per cent tricalcium 'phosphate 

Maximum depth limit-2,?50feet,

FIGURE 7. Diagram showing depth to which phosphate deposits are classified under 

article A of the regulations.

PROGRESS IN CLASSIFICATION.

Classifications of the phosphate lands that have been examined 

are made according to articles A and D of the regulations. Kecent 

field work in the closely folded phosphate region in the Western 

States and in the comparatively shallow deposits of Florida has 

shown that the attitude of the beds in these localities is such that it 

is not necessary to make use of articles 13 and C in classifying the 

lands. The classifications that are made according to the regula-
132 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

tions outlined in article D are comparatively simple, but those 

made under article A are much more complex and require considerable computation. In order to reduce to a minimum the computations involved in determining the maximum depth a given phosphate bed of known thickness and content of tricalcium phosphate 

may attain for the land to be classified as phosphate land, the accompanying diagram (fig. 7) has been constructed, by which each 

individual problem falling under article A can be readily solved.

All beds 6 feet or more in thickness are computed as 6-foot beds, 

and all beds having a content of tricalcium phosphate greater than 

70 per cent are computed as 70 per cent beds. In order to determine 

from the diagram to what depth any phosphate bed whose thickness 

and content of tricalcium phosphate are known should be considered 

workable, the vertical line in the diagram that represents the thickness of the bed is selected and followed to its intersection with the 

diagonal line representing the percentage of tricalcium phosphate the 

bed contains. From this point of intersection the actual or constructed 

diagonal line is followed to the top of the diagram, where the maximum depth limit is given. Every 40-acre tract between the outcrop 

of the phosphate bed and the line where the bed reaches this depth 

limit should be classified as phosphate land.

Where the phosphate rock occurs in several thin beds or groups of 

beds sufficiently close together to be mined as a unit but with different percentages of phosphoric acid, all the material that can be 

mined as one bed should be taken, or in case part of it consists of 

barren rock that portion of the group that can be mined as a unit 

and will give the greatest amount of phosphate rock should be considered. Where more than one bed exists that can be mined separately without destroying the value of the other beds the land should 

be classified on the basis of each bed separately, all the lands being 

classified as phosphate land that can be so classified with reference to 

any one of the beds. This method of calculation gives the maximum 

amount of phosphate that can be obtained from the bed or group of 

beds and is the method used in determining what lands should be 

classified as phosphate land.

As a result of action of this type, based on field examinations made 

by the geologists of the geologic branch, withdrawals and restorations have been recommended from time to time.

Examples of withdrawal and restoration orders are given below:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, January 25, 1918.

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR : Investigations by the Geological Survey in the Florida phosphate region 

indicate that the lands listed below lie within the phosphate area and prob-
PHOSPHATE LANDS. 133

ably contain valuable deposits of phosphate. These lands were reported by 

the General Land Office in a letter, dated January 15, 1913, as vacant Government lands, or as unapproved State or railroad selections. Their withdrawal 

is in accordance with the procedure outlined and advocated in my letter of 

August 16, 1912. I therefore recommend the submission to the President of 

the following order of withdrawal, involving 75,851 acres. 

Very respectfully,

GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

FEBRUABY 3, 1913.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary.

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL. 

Phosphate reserve No. 16 Florida No. 5.

Under and pursuant to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 

25, 1910 (36 Stat., 847), entitled "An act to authorize the -President of the 

United States to make withdrawals of public lands in certain cases," as 

amended by act of Congress approved August 24, 1912 (Public No. 316), it is 

hereby ordered that the following described lands be, and the same are hereby, 

withdrawn from settlement, location, sale, or entry and reserved for public use.

Tallahassee meridian.

T. 2 N.t R. 1 E., sec. 6, E. } of SW. i 

[Here follows the remainder of the land description.]

WM. H. TAFT, 

FEBRUARY 3, 1913. President.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, August 8, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIB: Field investigation by the Geological Survey indicates that the lands 

listed below do not contain deposits of phosphate. The following order of 

restoration, which involves 67,557 acres, is therefore recommended for submission to the President for appropriate action. Part of these lands are within 

coal withdrawals, but none are included in national forests, power-site or 

petroleum reserves.

Very respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

AUGUST 17, 1912.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary.
134 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

OEDER OF RESTORATION.

Phosphate restoration No. 6 Wyoming No. 2.

So much of the order of withdrawal made heretofore for classification and 

in aid of legislation affecting the use and disposition of phosphate lands, namely, 

reserve No. 4, as affects the lands hereinafter described is hereby revoked, for 

the reason that the Director of the Geological Survey reports that the lands are 

not valuable for the purpose for which withdrawn.

And it is further ordered that all such lands not otherwise reserved or 

withdrawn are hereby restored to the public domain and shall become subject 

to disposition under the laws applicable thereto upon such date and after such 

notice as may be determined upon by the Secretary of the Interior.

Sixth principal meridian.

T. 23 N., R. 119 W., sees. 5 to 7, inclusive; 

sec. 18, all; 

sec. 19, all; 

sec. 30, all; 

sec. 31, all. 

[Here follows the remainder of the land description.]

AUGUST 17, 1912.

WM. H. TAFT,

President.

As a result of these orders, 3,291,527 acres of lands were included 

in phosphate reserves on January 1, 1913. The areas involved in 

these recommendations are indicated in the following table:

Phosphate land loithdrawn, restored, and outstanding on January 1, 1913.

State.

Florida. .................'...........................................

Montana. ............................................................

Utah...............................................................

Total withdrawals.

Acres. 

45,979

2,215,834

274,861

581,039

3,060,098

6,177,811

Restorations.

Acres. 

2,199

1,157,778

473,294

1,253,013

.2,886,284

Outstanding withdrawals.

Acres.

43 78O

1,058,056

274,861

107,745

1,807,085

3,291,527

LANDS BEARING POTASH AND RELATED SALINES. 

GEOLOGIC OCCURRENCE OF THE DEPOSITS.

No potash deposits of proved commercial value are yet known in 

the United States. Indeed, large deposits of potash salts are rare 

anywhere. Much the greater part of the world's supply is obtained 

from deposits in central Germany, first known from their discovery 

near Stassfurt. The only other noteworthy deposit in the world is 

said to be that at Kalusz, Galicia, in northern Austria. Deposits of 

the Stassfurt type may eventually be found in the United States, but
LANDS BEARING POTASH AND RELATED SALINES. 13 5

the chances are perhaps greater that potassium-rich saline deposits in 

this country will vary widely from the German type in the character 

of the salts and in their mutual associations. It appears, therefore,, 

that a discussion of the geologic occurrence of potash based on the 

Stassfurt type alone would be inadequate if intended to apply to> 

possible deposits in the United States.

Potash in its soluble or most useful forms is almost universally 

associated with other soluble salts. Therefore it is to the natural 

saline residues and natural or artificial brines and bitterns that attention is directed in an exploration for soluble potash.

Great deposits of salines, especially those composed of sodiuirt 

chloride or common salt, occur in many parts of the United States^ 

but so far as known none of the important deposits now worked for 

salt contain an important percentage of potash salts. Saline beds 

occur at the surface in the arid regions of the West more abundantly 

than elsewhere. These occurrences include at least two types of deposits the bedded salines included in stratified formations, which 

have commonly been tilted and otherwise displaced since their deposition, and the more recent saline deposits, which are to be found in 

the undrained playas and salt marshes of the Great Basin region.

The manner of formation of these more recent saline deposits is: 

clearly revealed by the geologic record of the events that led to their 

accumulation and deposition. These events are so recent that the 

changes which are constantly taking place on the earth's surface have-^ 

not yet obliterated or seriously obscured the evidence. This clearnessand completeness of the geologic record justifies confidence in the= 

correctness of the hypotheses concerning the manner of origin of 

saline deposits of this form.

Saline deposits in the Great Basin region, as elsewhere, are formed 

by the accumulation of the water-soluble constituents of the surface 

rocks of the earth's crust set free by that form of dissolution generally referred to as weathering. These salts thus freed are taken 

into solution by the rainfall and the ground waters and are gradually removed by the streams from the soils where they originateAYhere these streams flow into inclosed basins with no outlet to the; 

ocean, as is the rule in the Great Basin region, the dissolved salts are* 

carried to the lowest part of the drainage area, where they accumulate. In the past, presumably because of greater precipitation than at present, these waters formed large lakes, which? 

have since wholly or in part disappeared, and in the evaporation of 

these lake waters the salts have been deposited. Examples of saline 

deposits that have originated in this way in the low parts or so-called' 

sinks of the inclosed drainage areas are common.

Saline deposits derived from the wash of continental areas normally contain among other constituents a certain proportion of
136 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

potash salts. As a whole, the quantity of potash associated with the 

sodium and other bases is so small only 2 or 3 per cent of the 

whole that the potash can not be recovered profitably for commercial use. However, as the potassium salts are somewhat more soluble than most of the other constituents of natural saline solutions, it 

is believed that they are generally among the last to be deposited 

when those solutions are evaporated. Owing to this selective'action 

of evaporation it is probable that somewhere in the saline residues of 

completely desiccated lakes the potassium compounds will be segregated in much richer concentrations than elsewhere. This condition 

might not exist in natural saline deposits if the deposition of the 

salines were interrupted by some event which permitted the escape of 

the residual brines before all their constituents or final products were 

deposited. But apparently in the playas of the Great Basin no such 

event has interposed; hence all the constituents of the accumulated 

brines must still remain, and it is believed that in certain favorable 

places rich potassium-bearing salts exist.

Most of the lakes that formerly existed in the Great Basin have 

completely disappeared by evaporation. Vast quantities of saline 

residues must have been deposited by the final drying up of these 

lakes, but for the most part such deposits are not now seen at the 

surface. It is believed that the greater part of the salines deposited 

simultaneously with the disappearance of the lakes has since been 

buried by sediments carried into these basins by streams and deposited as alluvial wash or in later lakes that have occupied the original 

depressions. Older saline deposits elsewhere have been formed in a 

similar way.

If this hypothesis is sound, it follows that the probability of encountering saline deposits by drilling in the bottom of the desiccated 

lake basins is very great and that under favorable conditions potassium-rich salines will be among those encountered. It is hoped that 

such buried salines may not in all places be so deep as to be 

inaccessible.

Field work undertaken by the Government in the search for potash has heretofore been largely of an exploratory character and has 

not followed any general or established rule of procedure. A systematic study of brines, bitterns, and rock-salt deposit in all parts of 

the United States is included in the general plan. The Geological 

Survey has drilled a well approximately 1,000 feet deep near the 

center of the Carson Desert, in northern Nevada. This test is not 

regarded as completed. Elsewhere in Nevada and in California a 

number of shallow drill holes have been sunk in other ancient lake 

basins. Some of these experiments are yielding significant and 

possibly important results.
LANDS BEABING POTASH AND BELATED SALINES. 137 

CLASSIFICATION OF POTASH-BEARING LANDS.

Congress, responding to the urgent recommendation of the President, has so amended the withdrawal act (p. 43) that deposits of 

potassium-rich minerals may be included in reserves until an appropriate law for their disposition is enacted. In view of the variety of 

such deposits in commercially available form and of their importance in industry, it is doubtless the intention of Congress, if the 

present search is successful, to make appropriate provision for their 

development and disposal. Meanwhile, as investigation by the 

scientists of the Government bureaus reveals promising localities, 

these localities, if they involve public lands, will be withdrawn from 

entry until their value as sources of potash can be demonstrated or 

disproved. If they prove to contain rich deposits the withdrawals 

will be maintained until Congress can act. Three reserves of this 

type have already been created by the President. They include 

133,829 acres in Nevada and California.

The order of withdrawal by which potash reserve No. 2 was created 

is given herewith as an example of this type of action.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, February 20, 1913.

The honoviiblc the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR : Investigations by the Geological Survey in the State of California indicate that the lands listed below, which lie within a dry lake known as Searles 

Lake, probably contain valuable deposits of potash. I therefore recommend the 

submission to the President of the following order of withdrawal, which involves 

69,840 acres.

Very respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

FEBRUARY 20, 1913.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary. 

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL.

Potash reserve No. 2 California No. 1.

Under and pursuant to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 

25, 1910 (36 Stat, 847), entitled "An act to authorize the President of the 

United States to make withdrawals of public lands in certain cases," as 

amended by act of Congress approved August 24, 1912 (Public No. 316), it is 

hereby ordered that the following described lands be, and the same are hereby, 

withdrawn from settlement, location, sale, or entry and reserved for classification and in aid of legislation affecting nonmetalliferous mineral deposits:

Mount Diablo meridian, California..

T, 24 S., R. 43 E., sec. 32, SE. J of SB \; 

sec. 33, S. i;

sec. 34, SW. i, W. } of SE. i, SE. i of SE. J; 

sec. 35, S. \ of SW. J.
138 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

AJQ area bounded as follows: Beginning at the southeast corner of sec. 31, 

T. 24 S., R. 43 E.; thence west 2 miles; thence south 12 miles; thence east 9 

miles; thence north 12 miles; thence west 2£ miles, more or less, to the south 

quarter corner of sec. 36, T. 24 S., R. 43 E.; thence west 4£ miles, more or less, 

along the south line of T. 24 S., R. 43 E., to point of beginning.

This withdrawal is made subject to all rights lawfully initiated under any 

valid mining locations made upon said lands so long as such rights are maintained in full compliance with law.

WM. H. TAFT,

FEBBUARY 21, 1913. President.

As the geologic conditions under which potassium deposits are 

formed differ from those required for the deposition of the other 

nonmetalliferous minerals, except the related .salines, special field 

methods have been used for their discovery. The steps to be taken in 

classifying lands as potash-bearing or potash-free subsequent to field 

examination are, however, identical with those followed in the classification of lands with regard to such other resources as phosphate 

and petroleum. The present laws do not provide for appraisal and 

sale, as in the case of coal lands, nor for lease.

MISCELLANEOUS NONMETALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS.

Some of the important minerals besides those already discussed 

are limestone, building and ornamental stones, cement materials, 

sJates, glass sand, gravel, volcanic ash, diatomaceous earth, kaolin 

and other clays, fuller's earth, gypsum, borax, salt, sulphur, monazite, 

talc, soapstone, quartz, feldspar, cryolite, mica, gems and precious 

stones, strontium compounds, fluorspar, barytes, pyrite, graphite, 

asbestos, magnesite, abrasives, asphalt and other hydrocarbons such 

as gilsonite and ozokerite, mineral waters, mineral paints, and bromine, as well as guano and peat.

A great many of the so-called nonmetalliferous minerals contain 

metallic elements which either can not be extracted commercially or 

are regarded'as of little or no value as metals but which by their 

union with nonmetallic elements from substances that are sought 

because of their nonmetallic properties. This is true of such minerals 

as corundum, an oxide of the metal aluminum, and gypsum, a sulphate of the metal calcium. Monazite is sought as the chief source 

of oxides of several rare metals. There are, however, so-called nonmetalliferous minerals whose metallic content is high and which 

may under certain conditions be regarded also as metallic minerals. 

A notable example is pyrite, a sulphide of iron, which is extensively 

employed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid because of its high 

content of sulphur. With advancement in industrial chemistry some 

minerals now classed as nonmetalliferous may be placed in the category of those which yield valuable metals and others now used, may 

be discarded.
MISCELLANEOUS NONMETALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 139

The geologic occurrence of the minerals named in the foregoing 

list is very diverse and the characteristics of the deposits containing 

them will therefore be referred to but briefly. Many of them exist 

in stratified or bedded form. Limestone, building stones, some 

cement materials, and some ornamental stones occur as sedimentary 

or metamorphic rocks. Slates are obtained usually from beds and are 

quarried in much the same manner as other building stone. Some 

glass sand is made by crushing a loosely consolidated sandstone or is 

obtained from beds of loose sand. Gravel is usually found in more or 

less bedded form in so-called " gravel banks." Volcanic ash and 

diatomaceous earth are ordinarily found in stratified deposits or 

beds. Clays, including kaolin and fuller's earth, result from the 

accumulation of the less soluble residues of the decomposition of preexisting rocks and minerals and are obtained almost entirely from 

bedded deposits. Some clays are obtained by dredging the bottoms 

of streams or lakes. Kaolin in its purest form results from the residual decomposition of pegmatitic feldspar in place.

Gypsum, borax, and halite, or common salt, are found in deposits 

that are related with respect to the manner of their geologic occurrence. They are found most abundantly in association with stratified 

rocks and are regarded as chemical deposits resulting from the evaporation of waters of inland seas and lakes. Some deposits of borax 

and halite occur in more or less stratified form in the beds of presentday salt lakes or marshes. Sulphur deposits large enough to be of 

economic importance occur as products of volcanic activity and are 

found near volcanic craters and also near some hot springs, either 

active or extinct.

Monazite, owing to its minute crystalline form and great weight, 

occurs in greatest quantity where it has been concentrated in placer 

deposits.

Talc and soapstone are very soft minerals which have presumably 

resulted from the alteration of other minerals. Soapstone, a talc 

schist, occurs with other rocks of various kinds, usually crystalline or 

metamorphic; talc occurs in beds intercalated in schistose limestone 

and in lenses or pockets in certain intrusive rocks.

Many minerals exist in 'veins or in the form of lode deposits. 

Quartz, feldspar, cryolite, mica, and some gems are found in veins 

in crystalline rocks. The strontium minerals occur principally in 

lenses, in granular and columnar masses, in bedded deposits, and 

in crystals that form nests and geodes in limestone. Fluorspar is 

found, as a rule, in veins in limestone, gneiss, schist, and sandstone. 

It is a common gangue of metallic ores, particularly those of lead, 

zinc, and tin. Barytes occurs in veins and beds associated with other 

ores, as well as in veins and masses in limestone.
140 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANJDS.

Pyrite is found in fissure veins and along the bedding planes of 

sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It occurs in various other 

forms in rocks of practically all kinds and ages. Graphite is found 

mainly in the older crystalline metamorphic rocks in embedded masses 

and veins, although in some places it occurs in beds.

Asbestos is an alteration product found in veins in older crystalline rocks. Magnesite is also generally regarded as an alteration 

product and is found in veins as well as in bedlike masses. Some 

abrasives, like corundum, emery, and garnet, occur in small crystals, 

principally in veins in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Some asphalt impregnates sands, sandstones, and limestones and 

occurs in veins in these rocks. Other hydrocarbons, such as gilsonite 

and ozokerite, are found in veins or fissures, usually in sandstones.

Mineral waters are, of course, obtained from springs; and some 

common salt and sulphur, as well as the materials of some mineral 

paints, are obtained from deposits formed by the evaporation of 

spring water. Bromine is found in natural brines and bitterns.

Guano occurs in massive deposits, which in some regions are of 

considerable thickness. It is usually found in caves or other protected places. Peat results from the accumulation in bogs of plant 

remains that have undergone slight modification at the top, although 

if the deposit is thick its lower portion may have been reduced to a 

mass somewhat resembling lignite.

Sections 2320 to 2325, inclusive, of the Revised Statutes prescribe 

certain rules and regulations to govern the location and patenting of 

" mining claims upon veins or lodes of quartz or other rock in place 

bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, copper, or other valuable 

deposits." Section 2329 provides for "claims usually called 'placers,' 

including all forms of deposit, excepting veins of quartz or other 

rock in place." Thus, although the minerals in the foregoing list 

exist in nature in beds, in veins, in massive form, or as liquids, or 

even in more than one of these forms, the law divides them into only 

two great classes those which occur in veins or lodes of quartz or 

other rock in place and those usually called placers, including all 

other forms of deposits. The distinctions as to mode of occurrence 

of these minerals in nature are considered in classifying as mineral or 

nonmineral the lands containing them; such distinctions are the 

primary factors that under the present mining laws must always be 

considered in determining the law under which the deposits may be 

acquired.

A large part of the information heretofore obtained by the Geological Survey regarding these minerals has been gathered in reconnaissance examinations and in connection with reports on mineral resources, with the result that in most of the areas examined much 

geologic information that would be necessary for land classification
MISCELLANEOUS NONMETALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 141

has not been obtained, although, the data gathered are entirely adequate for the purposes for which they have been sought.

No particular method is at present followed in the field examination of deposits of these minerals, and there is no necessity for 

methods materially different from those pursued in detailed work 

on other metalliferous or nonmetalliferous deposits. Nor do the 

requirements as to the data to be gathered and the form in which they 

should be assembled differ essentially from those for other minerals. 

In addition to the location, a brief description of the nature and geologic structure of the rocks in which the deposits occur, with data 

regarding the thickness and succession of the rocks, their dip and 

strike, the extent of the deposits, and analyses of the material, are 

all important in the examination of bedded deposits. In the consideration of vein deposits data regarding the character of the vein, 

the systems and directions of joints, fissures, and fractures which may 

have formed the ore cavities, the dip and strike of the veins, the 

nature of the gangue material, and the wall rock are equally important. Statements of production are always desirable. The question of relative value that is, of mineral value as compared with 

agricultural, power, or other values must be considered in the classification of some lands because of the fact that the laws governing the 

disposition of certain minerals refer specifically to lands that are 

" chiefly valuable " therefor. Other factors, some or all of which are 

in many cases to be considered in judging the relative value of a 

mineral deposit, are the following:

1. Demand for the mineral, both present and future.

2. Character of the deposit; chemical and physical properties and extent.

3. Location with reference to market and in some cases to fuel supply.

4. Transportation facilities and rates.

5. Market price of the product.

6. Whether or not the particular deposit possesses other peculiar advantages 

rendering it more valuable than like deposits in the region and elsewhere.

The character of the deposits, their location, and the transportation facilities influence the cost of production by their effect on the 

cost of working the deposits, the cost of the plant, and in some 

places the co'st of the fuel used in the manufacture of the product. 

These factors may also exert a most important influence on the selling price of the output by their effect on the cost of placing it in the 

market.

If the earlier geologic examinations nad been made with a view 

to classification more precise instrumental work and a record of all 

the factors outlined as having a bearing on the deposits would have 

been required. No attempt has yet been made .to systemize for 

purposes of land classification the available data regarding these 

minerals, and although the Geological Survey has prepared and sub-
142 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

mitted to the General Land Office many reports that have been a 

guide to action by that office and have been equivalent in many 

cases to nonmineral classification and in a few cases to mineral 

classification, no withdrawals and no formal classifications of lands 

because of their content of any of these minerals have been made. 

Although such minerals are useful and valuable, they are not iri 

general of so great present or prospective use or value as coal and 

certain other nonmetalliferous minerals contained in lands for whose 

classification more specific provision has been made. Practically all 

minerals are of some value, but those of greatest value are naturally 

those which have the greatest present or future use and which are 

at the same time most easily or profitably marketable. Sand, for 

example, is of great use, but it is so common that in most localities 

it has almost no market value. Therefore, although the lands containing the nonmetalliferous minerals here discussed are, at the discretion of the President, subject to withdrawal and classification 

under the act of June 25, 1910, as amended by the act of August 

24, 1912, there is no such public need for segregating these lands 

as there is for segregating lands containing deposits of such minerals as coal, oil, potash, and phosphate. Nevertheless, should it be 

deemed by the President to be in the public interest to withdraw or 

to classify as mineral land an area containing any of these deposits, 

because of a public need for a present or a future reserve supply, 

or with a view to preventing alienation of the mineral deposits under 

laws relating to nonmineral land, or as an aid to future disposition, 

his action would be based on a question of fact which it is the province of the Geological Survey to determine. So long as such withdrawal or classification is not deemed to be in the public interest, 

however, the land will remain open to exploration, discovery, occupation, and purchase under the mining laws unless Congress shall 

otherwise provide.

METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 

PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION.

The usual object in view in a consideration of the classification of 

nonmetalliferous lands as mineral land is to obtain, their temporary 

withdrawal from entry, either to permit their appraisal, as in the 

case of coal land, or to await protective legislation, as in the case of 

potash or phosphate land. But metalliferous lands, as such, are not 

subject to withdrawal, and their classification is directed to other 

objects, which will be indicated by a brief account of some cases that 

have been considered by the Geological Survey..
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 143

Perhaps the most important case yet considered is that relating to 

the Northern Pacific land grant. Every alternate section in a strip 

extending 40 miles on each side of the right of way was granted to 

the Northern Pacific Eailroad Co. to assist it in constructing a transcontinental line, but the act provided that the railroad company 

should not receive any lands that were valuable by reason of their 

content of mineral deposits other than coal and iron. It therefore 

became necessary to classify the entire grant with respect to its 

value for such deposits, and in practice the chief problem of this 

classification has been to determine the presence or absence of valuable metalliferous deposits. A great part of this classification was 

accomplished by specially appointed commissioners, and the Geological Survey had no part in the work until 1905. In that year a 

Survey geologist, accompanied by a field agent of the Land Office, 

examined a large portion of the grant lying in Idaho and Montana 

in order to obtain information supplementary to that on which the 

special commissioners had recommended a mineral classification of 

the greater part of this tract. The Survey, however, took no further 

action regarding that particular examination. The greater part of 

the tract was classified as mineral land as the result of a hearing 

before the register and receiver at Cosur d'Alene, Idaho, but this 

classification was set aside by the Commissioner of the General Land 

Office on petition of the Northern Pacific Railway, on the ground 

that it was based on insufficient field work. In 1910, therefore, an 

appropriation was made by Congress (act of June 25,,1910; 36 Stat., 

703, 739) for a new and much more thorough examination, for making which the Commissioner of the General Land Office requested the 

services of members of the Geological Survey. Four parties, each 

comprising a geologist, a geologic assistant, and the necessary 

camp hands, devoted the field season of 1910 to the work, which was 

completed in the season of 1911 by three similar parties. The resulting classification, however, was not sufficient to decide the status of 

all the lands in controversy. The railway company had the right to 

contest classifications adverse to its interests and exercised this right 

as to many of the lands which, because they were classified as mineral, would be excluded from the railroad grant. Hearings on the 

contested classifications are held before the registers and receivers of 

the appropriate land districts. An appeal can be taken from the 

decision of these officers to the Commissionjer, and from him to the 

Secretary. No final decision has yet (February 28, 1913) been rendered concerning any of the classifications of the Survey that are 

under contest.

The Survey has also been required to classify several Indian 

reservations, in whole or in part, either before or after the reservations were opened to settlement, the question in the one case being
144 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

whether or not the lands shall be allotted to the Indians, in the 

other what kind of entry or settlement on them shall be permitted. 

Lands valuable for minerals are withheld from allotment to Indians, as they are from the Northern Pacific Eailroad grant, although 

for Indian lands no exception of coal and iron is made. A Survey 

geologist was engaged during the summer of 1912 in classifying the 

Flathead Reservation in Montana for the purpose of determining 

the mineral character of certain lands and their availability for allotment to the Indians, and many other classifications, both of individual allotments and of entire reservations, have been reported to the 

Indian Office.

Before Indian lands are thrown open to settlement it is desirable 

to know what parts of them contain valuable mineral deposits, 

in order that these parts may not be alienated as agricultural land. 

Failure to classify the lands in advance of the opening of the1 reservations is likely to result in conflict between agricultural and mineral 

claimants. This has occurred, for example, in the northern part of 

the Colville Reservation, which was thrown open to prospectors in 

1898 and to agricultural claimants later. Numerous protests made 

by mineral claimants in this region against the issuance of patents 

to agricultural claimants have1 aroused the bitter resentment of the 

ranchers, who have been prevented by these protests from getting 

final patents. An examination of these lands for the purpose of determining whether the mineral claims showed deposits sufficiently 

valuable to entitle the claimants to mineral patents or whether these 

claimants were acting in bad faith, as alleged by some of the ranchers, was accordingly made by a geologist of the Survey in the season 

of 1912; and during the same season the unallotted part of the Colville Reservation was examined for the purpose of settling conflicts 

between mineral claimants and Indian allottees and of classifying 

the remaining unallotted lands.

Another type of classification has arisen of late, in which the Survey has been required to pass upon many and varied individual 

cases in which the propriety of granting patent to claimants was in 

doubt. It is sometimes suspected that attempt is being made to obtain valuable agricultural or timber land or strategic points for 

power development by the subterfuge of a mining claim on land 

where in reality no mineral deposit of substantial value has been 

found. On the other hand, there is sometimes) danger lest a' valuable lode or placer deposit be covered by some form of nonmineral 

entry. If these cases are important the department may call upon 

the Survey for any information that it may possess concerning a 

certain tract, or it may even direct that a geologist be detailed to 

make a special examination. One case of this type, of interest as 

one of the earliest examples of land classification by the Geological
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 145

Survey, was the determination of the nonmineral character of a 

" school section " on the edge of the city of Tacoma, Wash. This 

detailed examination was made in 1895 and resulted in the defeat of 

the mineral claimant, who had attempted to obtain under the placer 

law nonmineral land possessing large suburban value. As a result 

of the decision the1 title to this land passed to the State of Washington.

METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION. 

AGENCIES EMPLOYED.

Classifications promulgated by the Survey are made by the metalliferous section of the land-classification board and are based on 

data gathered by the field geologist and by him presented to the 

section. Other geologists having special knowledge of the area or 

type of deposits under consideration may be called in, so that each 

classification represents the best scientific and technical judgment of 

the Survey.

PROBLEMS INVOLVED.

Each classification of metalliferous land involves one or both of the 

following problems: (1) Whether an alleged "discovery" of mineral constitutes valid ground for issuing a mining patent; (2) whether 

certain lands are without value for their metalliferous minerals and 

may therefore be patented under the laws relating to nonmineral 

land. The first problem is typically presented where the propriety of 

issuing patent to a mineral claimant is in question; a typical example 

of the second problem is that presented by the Northern Pacific land 

grant.

Evidently the first problem is the more concrete and the more 

readily solved. In order to determine the validity of a specific mineral claim all that is necessary may be to find and identify the claim 

and to estimate the value of the lode by sampling. The most difficult 

cases, on the other hand, are probably those that involve the classification of large areas in which little prospecting has been done. In 

order to reach an intelligent conclusion in such a case evidence of 

many kinds must be obtained, the gathering and effective presentation 

of which may involve the making of a fairly complete topographic 

and geologic map, a task which only a geologist can effectively 

perform.

In actual practice few cases present only one of the problems stated. 

Even if the main problem is the first one it is usually desirable that 

the examiner should learn something of the general geology of the 

district; and if, on the other hand, the main problem is the second 

the apparent value of particular claims is an important part of the 

evidence. It is not necessary or practicable, therefore, to separate

78894° Bull. 537 13 10
146 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the two main groups of cases in the detailed account of field methods 

that follows, .despite their clearly distinct legal status. In most of 

the cases considered nearly all the kinds of information to be eniimer- 

.ated are used to a greater or less extent, and a geologic map of some 

kind invariably forms a part of the record.

The metalliferous deposits examined or looked for in most of the 

investigations preceding classification are veins, magmatic ore bodies, 

contact-metamorphic deposits, and bodies formed by replacement. In 

mining law these deposits are usually comprised in the term-"lodes," 

and they may conveniently be so designated here. Some cases have 

to do with placer deposits, which are easier to examine and classify 

than lodes.

PEEIiIMINABY PKOCEDUBE.

As in the classification of nonmetalliferous lands and geologic 

(field work in general, it is the duty of the geologist, before he takes 

the field, to gather information about the geology of the .region to be 

examined and to provide himself with a base map. Other information that is especially desirable for work of this class relates to the location and status of the mining claims in the region. This is the 

only matter that requires further notice here, for the subject of base 

maps has been discussed elsewhere and the utility of geologic information is self-evident.

Plats and descriptions of patented mining claims are on file in the 

offices of the surveyors general of the several States and in the 

General Land Office at Washington. These show accurately the position of the claims with reference to land lines or location monuments. 

Provided with copies of these records, the examiner is able readily 

to find the patented .claims. Less complete and accurate descriptions 

of the .unpatented claims are filed in the offices of county clerks 

with the first records of location and the affidavits on assessment 

work.

FIELD WOKK. 

LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY.

The methods of location used in classification of this kind may 

.be any of those described on pages 53-61. Some of the conditions of 

classifying metalliferous land, however, influence the selection of 

methods. The minute accuracy that characterizes much of the work 

on coal land is not often necessary in work on metalliferous deposits, 

and it is therefore feasible to use comparatively rough methods like 

that of the pacing traverse, which has been employed to a considerable extent. Another influential fact is that metalliferous land is 

more likely than nonmetalliferous land to be situated in mountainous 

territory. This is not obvious at first glance, but as metalliferous
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 147

deposits are most common where the geologic structure is complex, 

and as mountains are regions of upheaval and disturbance, the connection between topography and mineral wealth is real. The rugge$- 

ness of the areas in which the greater part of the work of classifying 

metalliferous land is done precludes the use of some methods that 

are especially adapted to wrork in a flat country, such as that in which 

distance is measured by the paces of a horse. The plane table is 

much used in open country, and stadia traverses of roads or streams 

are sometimes made for purposes of control.

INVESTIGATION OF PLA.CEB DEPOSITS.

Geologic relations. Although theory is not so important in relation to placer deposits as in relation to lodes, the physiographic history of the region may afford some guidance in the search for valuable placer ground, as the following1 considerations will show.

The most important geologic principle relating to placers is that 

concentration sufficient to make a valuable deposit has usually been 

the result of long and perhaps repeated working over of the gravels 

by streams. Therefore, other things being equal, well-washed deposits consisting in part of reworked older gravels would seem most 

likely to be rich in gold. Moraines, on the other hand, or glaciofluviatile deposits .close to the place of their origin are unlikely to 

contain gold in sufficient concentration to be extracted with profit.

With respect to the distance of the gravels from their source, however, a happy medium is favorable. Too great proximity is inconsistent with efficient concentration, but the gold, except in extremely 

fine division, is not carried so far as the gravels, and too great remoteness from the source is therefore also unfavorable. Gold-bearing 

placers are likely to show a definite relation to such areas of auriferous bedrock as can be outlined; they are partly within those areas 

but extend beyond their borders as a sort of fringe.

Testing. Although a knowledge of the general geology and physiography of the region may be a guide in the search for placers, the 

classification of land as valuable placer ground is always supported 

by more direct evidence, for the reason that the extent and value of a 

placer deposit can be determined much more closely than those of .a 

lode. The examiner is expected to pan the gravels of all important 

streams in the area classified in order to obtain evidence regarding 

their possible value as placers and, incidentally, evidence regarding 

the gold content of the bedrock from which the placers have been 

derived.

Testimony of miners. Owing to their necessary limitations, the 

tests made by the examiner must be supplemented as fully as possible 

 by the testimony .of miners and prospectors. From these the .ex-
148 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

aminer may learn the tenor of the gravels, the probable extent of the 

pay dirt, and whether mining has been profitable. This testimony 

may be taken under oath, if the examiner has power to administer it. 

and should be corroborated, so far as possible, by assay certificates 

and other evidence. A geologist is able also to criticize the testimony 

in the light of geologic facts and would perceive, for instance, that 

an assertion that morainal gravels had been worked with profit would 

be in especial need of corroboration.

INVESTIGATION OF LODE DEPOSITS.

Kinds of evidence available. The evidence which must determine 

whether land is to be classified as mineral because of lode deposits 

may be subdivided as follows: (1) General geology; (2) occurrence 

of valuable minerals or gangue minerals, disseminated or in veins, 

found in outcrops or float; (3) prospects and mines; (4) assays; (5) 

history of the region. Evidence of the first two classes is especially 

important in regions that have not been thoroughly prospected.

General geology. Certain geologic conditions, such as fissuring of 

the rocks, are generally recognized as favorable to the deposition of 

ore bodies; others, such as lack of deformation and very young 

country rock, are unfavorable. But ore deposits are the result of a 

happjr combination of several factors, and it may be difficult to consider these factors separately and determine their relative weight. 

Of two districts geologically similar, one may be rich and the other 

poor in ore deposits, because of some difference not readily perceived. 

The most general cause of such differences, perhaps, is the variation 

in what Chamberlin and Salisbury call the " diffuse regional concentration " of the several metals, whether in sediments or magmas, 

which is presumably the cause of metallogenic provinces.

Now, it is evident that geologic conditions, including obscure conditions that may be largely determinative, are more likely to be 

similar in neighboring than in widely separated areas. Neighboring 

districts are the more likely, for one thing, to be in the same metallogenic province. Therefore, in judging whether a given geologic 

condition is favorable or not, the investigator should especially inquire whether it seems to favor the deposition of ores in the vicinity 

of the area to be classified. For example, if ore bodies are known in 

one locality at the contact of a batholithic intrusion with a certain 

limestone formation, it is probable that they will be found at the 

contact of the same rocks in neighboring localities.

This reasoning by analogy may form one of the arguments in support of a mineral classification, but it can rarely be made the sole 

ground for such classification of a large area, which can hardly be 

successfully defended against a contest unless it is supported by some 

definite discoveries of mineral, made by prospectors or by the geolo-
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 149

gist himself. In fact, such concrete occurrences of mineral are likely 

to have even more weight in a contest than strictly geologic evidence. 

It may pertinently be asked, then, what special qualification for 

gathering the evidence required is possessed by a geologist compared 

with a prospector or any other intelligent observer.

The geologist would perhaps have no special advantage if unlimited 

time were allowed for the examination. In f act; however, the time is 

limited, it may.be all too strictly. It is impossible within the time 

allowed to explore every square foot of the area, and therefore observation must be concentrated where deposits are most likely to be 

found. Now, in determining what places are best worth examination 

the geologist finds abundant practical use for his knowledge both of 

general and of local geology. His general knowledge teaches him 

that some geologic conditions are more favorable than others to the 

formation of valuable deposits, and he distributes his attention accordingly. He does not, for example, waste his time in looking for quartz 

veins in undisturbed rocks, knowing as he does that deformation and 

fissuring are necessary to the formation of veins. The special knowledge of the region which he may already have or Avhich he is prepared 

by training to assimilate rapidly will enable him to recognize in the 

geologic environment of the ore deposits that have been found the 

details that are significant. If, for example, most of the known 

deposits of a district are the result of interaction between a limestone 

and an igneous intrusive, the geologist will presumably be quicker 

than a layman to recognize this fact and will explore with especial 

care the contacts between these rocks in areas near those which have 

proved productive. The geologist, in short: is better prepared than 

the layman to follow clues.

The shorter the time allowed for the examination the more decided 

the advantage of the geologist over the man without geologic training. 

An exploration sufficiently thorough to discover even a large proportion of the valuable deposits in the region to be classified is rarely 

possible, and the value of many of the deposits found must be doubtful 

before they are thoroughly explored. It is correspondingly important, then, that the fullest and most reliable inferences be drawn from 

the data, obtained in the field.

The following paragraphs are intended to show what kind of 

geologic evidence the examiner seeks.

Country rock. The broadest generalizations that can be made 

regarding the influence of country rock, as indeed regarding other 

geologic factors, are of negative character. It is safe to say that very 

young unaltered volcanic rocks or imperfectly consolidated sediments 

are unlikely to contain metalliferous lodes. Further than this, however, the probable richness of a formation bears no direct relation to
150 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

its age, for valuable deposits are found in rocks of all ages, from the 

Tertiary to the most remote.

In a particular district, however, the ores may show a preference 

for certain rocks. The favorable rocks may be those that contain 

minerals in a finely disseminated condition which may be valuable if 

they are anywhere sufficiently concentrated. Copper, for example, 

seems to be a constituent of some basic igneous rocks. Ready replaceability, or the power of reacting vigorously with mineralizing solutions, may be the determining favorable factor; and where the typical 

deposits of a district are replacements or contact-metamorphic deposits calcareous sediments are usually more favorable than others. 

Again, the presence of some constituent which acts as a precipitant 

may determine the concentration of a valuable mineral; organic matter probably precipitates gold under some conditions, and carbonaceous slates appear to be a common country rock of gold deposits. 

Finally, some purely physical feature may be determinative. The 

hard rocks of a district may be fissured to form breccias in which the 

ore-bearing solutions can circulate and deposit, while fissures in soft 

rocks would be clogged with impermeable gouge; and fissures which 

are large and persistent in massive rocks might ramify, on entering 

fissile rocks, into a multitude of small slips parallel to the bedding or 

cleavage.

Intrusions and metamorphism. Although the nature and degree 

of the relation between igneous intrusion and ore deposition are still 

moot points, it is an established fact that ore deposits are especially 

abundant in the vicinity of intrusive contacts. Apart from stratiform deposits such, for example, as those of iron oxide ore bodies 

so remote from intrusive rocks as the lead and zinc deposits of the 

Mississippi Basin are rather exceptional, though not so exceptional 

as to make absence of intrusives a sufficient ground for classification 

of land as nonmineral. The general similarity in the distribution 

of ore deposits and of igneous rocks is particularly notable in the 

Western States. The presence of igneous intrusions must therefore 

be considered favorable, in general, to the deposition of ores.

Ore bodies related to intrusion are found both in the intrusive 

rock itself and in the surrounding sedimentary rocks. Those which 

are not contact-metamorphic deposits in the strict sense are not more 

likely to be at the immediate contact than at a considerable distance 

from it. The central portion of a very large batholith is likely to 

be barren, but the peripheral portion is commonly ore bearing, and 

all of the denuded portion.of a small batholith or stock is likely to 

contain ore deposits, for none of it is far from the contact. Large 

dikes also form the country rock of many ore deposits. The ores are 

formed in the rocks cut by the intrusive, not only within but beyond 

the zone of contact metamorphism.
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 151

Structure. The geologic structure of most mining districts is 

complex, and in regions of nearly horizontal unfaulted strata metalliferous lodes are scarce. Deformation, by giving rise to fault fissures and openings along bedding planes, probably determines tlie 

location of most lodes and is therefore favorable, in general, to 

the deposition of metalliferous ores.

Faulting is of greater importance in the formation of lodes than 

folding. Some faulting is doubtless a prerequisite to the formation 

of fissures transverse to the bedding, although fault fissures along 

which great displacement has been effected are not commonly filled 

with veins of commercial importance, for, inasmuch as they are 

likely to be choked with gouge and subject to repeated movement, 

they are less likely to be ore bearing than fissures along which the 

displacement has been slight or even imperceptible. Veins are 

accordingly looked for near and parallel to faults of large throw 

rather than along those faults themselves. That sort of .faulting 

which gives rise to a rather coarse breccia is perhaps most favorable. 

At any rate, zones of brecciation afford the best clue for the tracing 

of small faults and are likely to be mineralized. They are therefore 

looked for and examined with especial care.

Folding, as well as faulting, may give rise to openings in whicB 

ores may be deposited. Saddle reefs constitute the most common 

type of deposits in openings thus formed.

Outcrops and -float of lodes. Outcrops of lodes afford the most 

direct evidence of mineral value that can be observed in the field 

apart from actual development, and they are therefore located and 

described with as great care as is practicable. If the deposits are 

veins, the direction and degree of persistence are determined if possible ; this determination is particularly important if the classification 

must be close in the matter of location, but it is also important if in a 

neighboring region veins of a certain direction are known to be especially rich. Size and composition are other features noted. Size 

affects, of course, the degree of value, but the mineral content is of 

more immediate interest to the examiner.

In order to recognize lodes of probable value, the examiner endeavors to learn as much as possible concerning the appearance of the outcrops of lodes containing valuable minerals and familiarizes himself 

with the minerals likely to occur in the extremely oxidized portions' 

of such lodes. Details regarding the surface indications along veins 

of proved importance in the region examined are sometimes obtained' 

from prospectors and miners. The importance of these indications 

may be very great, for the minerals that make the lode valuable may 

not appear at the surface. More commonly than not the primary 

sulphides are represented at the surface by oxides or carbonates. 

The thoroughly weathered portion of a rich lode may even contain no
152 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

compounds of the valuable metals. This is especially likely to be 

true of copper deposits, whose upper portions are commonly transformed to rusty porous masses containing quartz, iron oxide, and 

other substances that resist the action of the weather. This material, 

which is known as iron capping or gossan, may contain small 

amounts of the bright blue and green copper carbonates, but on the 

other hand it may be wholly devoid of copper minerals. Many lodes 

that weather to a gossan and others that are composed largely of" 

easily weathered minerals do not project above the surface and are 

therefore likely to be overlooked. If a lode is about as hard as the 

country rock its outcrop is nearly level with the general surface, and 

the position of a lode composed of soft, easily weathered material may 

be marked by a trench instead of a ridge. Many veins, again, have 

no outcrop; they are covered with soil, and their position is indicated 

only by float. It is therefore evident that both careful observation 

and intelligent inference are required to find the lodes and judge 

whether or not they are likely to prove valuable.

The proximity of lodes containing minerals in sufficient concentration to be commercially valuable may be indicated by the presence of 

such minerals or of gangue minerals associated with them, disseminated through the country rock or in the form of narrow stringers. 

Some minerals commonly so found are calcite, pyrite, siderite, and 

chalcopyrite. The more easily weathered minerals are likely to be 

represented by their oxidation products. Siderite, for example, is 

usually and pyrite commonly represented by pseudomorphs of hydrated ferric oxide. Extensive rusty staining of the country rock 

therefore causes the examiner to look for more specific evidence of 

mineralization. Other characteristic alterations of the country rock, 

such as leaching, chloritization, and sericitization, commonly occur 

along the walls of lodes and are therefore useful as clues.

Probably the great majority of prospectors' discoveries are made 

by following float 1 to its source, and mineral classification likewise 

may r.est in large measure upon the evidence afforded by float. Time 

will not always permit the tracing of float to its source, and the examiner must then be content with inferences drawn from the character and situation of the float as he finds it. In any case the first 

step is to consider how the float probably reached its actual position. 

It may have done so by either (1) hill creep, (2) water transportation, or (3) ice transportation, or by a combination of any of these 

agencies.

1. Most float has been transported to its present position by hill 

creep, which is constantly active on every slope. Angular float, without 

marks of attrition, which does not lie in an actual or former stream

1 This term is commonly applied by prospectors to nil fragments of lode matter not 

in place, however transported; it will be used in this sense here.
METALLIFEROUS MINERAL LANDS. 153

channel or in a glaciated area has presumably come to its place by hill 

creep, and its source should be looked for, after the method of prospectors, by following it straight uphill. Normally the parent lode 

will be found somewhere between the point where the float was discovered and the top of the slope. If a search is impracticable the 

probable souf-ce may perhaps be inferred, on the same principle, 

within narrow limits, especially if a good topographic map is available; the source may thus be assigned to a particular section or even 

to a smaller subdivision. Moreover, the probable source can often be 

judged within narrower limits than those set by the distance from 

the point of discovery and the top of the slope. The small fragments 

of vein quartz, mingled with soil, which may be found almost anywhere in a region of deformed rocks, are likely to have crept downhill for a long distance; but large blocks of quartz thickly strewn 

over a small and fairly well defined area, especially an elongated 

area on a moderate slope, may reasonably be presumed to have come 

but a short distance from a vein. It is evidently necessar}^, then, to 

note fully, on the spot, the size and character of the float fragments 

as a help in judging the source; and their size may also roughly indicate the thickness of the parent lode.

2. Rounded fragments or bowlders of float, especially if in a stream 

channel in an unglaciated area, may be presumed to have been transported by water. Float of this character is also frequently followed 

by prospectors up the streams and slopes to its source. This process is 

too slow and difficult to be employed often b\^ the examiner. But 

stream-transported float may ordinarily be assumed to have originated in the drainage basin where it is found, and scrutiny of the 

stream gravels may tell the examiner what to look for in a particular 

basin.

3. Float that has been transported by glaciers is subject to much 

the same conditions as water-transported float. It is usually to be 

recognized by its association with moraines and glacial sculpture but 

may sometimes be confused with float of the other two kinds. It is 

less feasible to find its source by systematic tracing than to find that 

of other float, but where the glaciation is local the parent ledge is 

likely to be near by and well exposed.

As placer deposits are really one form of float in the broadest sense, 

this may be the appropriate place to point out their value as indicating the auriferous character of the country rock of the drainage 

basin in Avhich they are found.

It may be remarked, finally, that exceptionally, owing to migration 

of divides or their transgression by glaciers, float is found outside of 

the drainage basin in which it originated. This is most likely to be 

true of old stream gravels.
154 CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Prospects and mines. An important part of the examining geologist's work is to note the location of all prospects and mines and to 

examine all of them, with the possible exception of those that are 

well known as producers. The most obviously useful data to be obtained from mining properties concern the value and visible quantity 

of the'ore and the production if the property is producing. The 

examiner checks one against another his own observations, the information given by assay certificates and smelter returns, and the testimony of owners or mine officials, which may be in the form of an 

affidavit if it is thought desirable by an examiner who is empowered 

to administer an oath.

The information gathered from a prospect or mine may do much 

more than indicate the mineral or nonmineral character of the claim 

on which it is located and that of a little land in its immediate 

vicinity. The most useful clues may be obtained in openings which 

permit comparison between the appearance of a lode underground 

and that of its outcrop.. By making these comparisons the examiner 

is much aided in recognizing the outcrops of important lodes that 

have not been opened, and by study of the geologic environment of 

prospected deposits he may form an opinion as to where others are 

most likely to be found.

Samples and assays. Ore samples and assays showing their value 

give the most concrete evidence and have great weight at public hearings. To obtain abundant samples and assays, therefore, is one of 

the examiner's chief duties, and quantity of material is not more 

important than full information indicating its value as evidence. 

Samples collected by biased persons are taken only too often either 

from the best part of a lode or from the worst part, or even from 

the wall rocks; and the procuring of truly representative samples 

requires both judgment and honesty on the part of the examiner. 

Full records regarding the collection of the samples are indispensable. Even after every precaution is taken in the matter of collecting and record there may be much room for inference, for the weathered, superficial portion of a lode, which alone may be accessible, is 

sure to differ in tenor from the unweathered portion from which the 

valuable metals are partly or chiefly to be won. Where ores of the 

base metals are concerned, values may sometimes be estimated by 

inspection closely enough to dispense with assays. Usually, however, and especially if values in gold and silver are to be found, the 

classification of any large tract calls for many assays, and material 

to be assayed for precious metals must be collected with special precautions. Each sample must be large enough to suffice for several 

assays, so that any result whose accuracy is doubted may be checked, 

and the material must be broken up and well mixed to insure its 

homogeneity before it is divided into portions.
BY-PRODUCTS OF MINERAL-LAND CLASSIFICATION. 155

The Geological Survey does not make assays, not being provided 

with the proper equipment or a sufficient force. Its assay work is 

therefore done by custom assayers of established reputation.

History of the region. The question sometimes arises whether the 

mining possibilities of a region are fairly represented by the extent 

to which it is developed. If a region contains few prospects and no 

mines, or if many of its prospects have been abandoned, is it or is it 

not because valuable metalliferous deposits are really absent? Some 

light may be shed upon this problem by the history of the region.

If the region has long been accessible and is known to have oeen 

well prospected, lack of development should have some weight against 

classification of land as mineral. It must be considered, on the other 

hand, whether local prejudice against some kind of country rock or 

gangue material may not have lessened the value of prospecting, or 

whether the region may not contain deposits of a kind that has not 

been looked for.

Abandonment of prospects may not always indicate the worthlessness of the lodes; it is sometimes due to the miner's failure to recognize 

valuable ores. Many metal prospectors have little knowledge of the 

appearance of ores other than those of gold, silver, copper, and lead 

and do not always recognize the secondary ores of copper, lead, and 

zinc. For this reason the dumps of abandoned mines may reveal 

ores of rarer metals or others not formerly used or commonly searched 

for by prospectors.

Mining methods and facilities often, of course, determine the success or failure of a mine, and it is proper to consider in every case 

whether abandonment may not have been caused by inefficient mining, 

crudity of methods, or difficulty of transportation. The transportation problem may be largely disregarded, for if a region develops 

good metalliferous deposits transportation is pretty certain to be 

provided in time, but the presence or absence of roads and trails has 

an important bearing on the accessibility of the region, which in 

turn is a factor of prime importance in deciding whether the absence 

of prospecting indicates the absence of valuable deposits.

BY-PRODUCTS OF MINERAL-LAND CLASSIFICATION. 

VALUE OF COLLATERAL INFORMATION OBTAINED.

The process of classifying the public lands as to their mineral character involves the gathering of a large amount of information which 

is not only essential to the classification but valuable for other reasons. Furthermore, the accuracy and completeness of field observation necessary for classification afford an opportunity to record many 

facts which are entirely extraneous to the classification itself but
156 CLASSIFICATION' OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

which may be now or at some later time of interest and value in other 

ways. These " by-products " of the process of land classification are 

of many kinds. Some are of value to home seekers and the public at 

large, others directly concern engineers and mining men, and still 

others are of present interest chiefly to scientists.

DATA OF DIRECT INTEREST TO THE PUBUC AT LARGE.

While all information obtainable concerning the'public domain is 

of ulterior interest to the people, information relating to such matters 

as the surface features, water supply, and character of the soil of a 

piece of land may prove to be of vital importance to the present or 

prospective settler. It is not practicable for the Geological Survey 

to make an exhaustive study of these features, but in the work of 

classification a certain amount of such information is always recorded. 

Thus, a map, supplemented by a written description, of each township examined for its mineral content is placed in the Survey files, 

showing in a rough way the agricultural character of the country. 

From these records it is possible to tell whether a section of land is 

suitable for dry farming or is adapted only to grazing, to obtain some 

idea of the number and size of the trees upon it, or to prepare a preliminary report as to its irrigability.

The field men engaged in work relating to land classification also 

record the position and size of all springs and water holes which they 

may find. This information is of direct value to the settler, but it 

also has another more general use. The more valuable agricultural 

lands of the public domain are rapidly passing into private ownership under the various settlement laws. It is recognized that most of 

the lands remaining are chiefly valuable for grazing or other uses not 

dependent on tillage, although the present laws do not adequately 

provide for their acquisition for these other uses. Congress has 

already given consideration to this problem and will doubtless reach 

a solution of it within the next few years. One of the most important 

factors to be considered in arriving at that solution will be the relation of the watering places to the range lands, for such lands can not 

be used without an accessible water supply. The accumulation of 

these data, therefore, in addition to being immediately useful to 

settlers and others, will be valuable in solving one of the public-land 

problems now confronting our lawmakers.

In studying and mapping a coal or phosphate bed it is necessary 

also to observe rather closely the geologic structure or attitude of 

the inclosing rocks. In some areas structure may have no bearing 

on mineral-land classification and yet may be valuable in determining the probability of obtaining a good well or of striking 

artesian water. The principles governing the flow of underground
BY-PEODUCTS OF MINERAL-LAND CLASSIFICATION. 157

water, though not generally understood by the layman, are yet comparatively simple, and a glance at the geologic map of a region may 

indicate at once the most favorable locality for sinking a well. As 

a minor illustration of the value of such information may be mentioned the fact that one of the geologists of the Survey had occasion 

during the summer of 1912 to advise two newly arrived settlers in 

the ceded lands of the Crow Indian Reservation, Mont., to sink 

<bheir wells on the east side of a ridge rather than on the west side, 

as they had intended, because of the simple geologic fact that the 

rocks dip slightly to the east and the water follows down the dip, 

as is proved by the numerous springs on the east side and the few 

on the west. Such information is, of course, only of local application, but as the western country becomes more thickly settled and 

questions relating to city water supply arise, information of this 

kind gathered for the primary purpose of land classification may 

prove to be of considerable value.

Miscellaneous data of these types are utilized in various ways. 

Such of them as can with propriety be so used may be published in 

the bulletins in. which the geologic material assembled in the course 

of land classification is made available for public use. Others, although not published and not used in mineral-land classification, 

are of the greatest value to the department in administering laws 

relating to nonmineral land, like the enlarged-homestead act, the 

desert-land law, or the Carey acts. Still others represent merely the 

accumulation of data likely to be needed if certain moot questions 

concerning public lands are to be decided by future legislation. All 

these actual or prospective uses, however, either directly or indirectly 

concern the public at large.

DATA RELATING TO PROSPECTING AND MINING.

Information regarding the character, location, and extent of each 

stratum of economic importance in the area examined forms a large 

part of the data on which classification is based. This information 

is published by the Survey in special bulletins or in the annual 

" Contributions to economic geology." A study of the map and 

of the plates of sections taken on the coal beds in any field, for example, will indicate to the prospective operator the most favorable 

location for a mine, and the text includes observations concerning 

the cover of the bed, the character of the roof and floor rocks, and 

the general structure, including faulting, of the inclosing strata.

Aside from the local and particular facts recorded for each area, 

as this work progresses the extent and character of each of the great 

mineral-bearing provinces are being accurately determined and more 

and more comprehensive and definite data concerning the mineral 

wealth available for the Nation's use are being gathered.
158 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The study of the rock structure in an area is valuable not only 

in relation to its water supply, as has been indicated, but also as 

'bearing on the occurrence of oil. The accumulation of oil and gas 

in the strata is governed by laws which are probably akin to those, 

which direct the movement of water, and a knowledge of the rock 

structure is therefore, as a rule", of great assistance in the location 

of an oil well. Some new oil fields have been prospected and opened 

almost entirely on geologic evidence of this kind. It has also happened that the details of rock structure observed in a field examined 

merely for coal have been found to have an entirely new application and significance in subsequent prospecting for oil. In view of 

this close interrelation of geologic phenomena, therefore, the field 

geologist carefully records all the facts he observes in the course 

of his work, even though they appear to have no present bearing 

on the subject of land classification.

SCIENTIFIC DATA.

Data of interest at the present time chiefly to the scientist form 

another important " by-product" of the process of land classification. It is difficult, however, to select any group of facts as being 

of strictly scientific value alone, for new discoveries may at any time 

enlarge their significance and impart to them an unexpected economic 

importance. Many facts are, moreover, of equal interest to the 

pure scientist and to the engineer or the layman, so that while a 

great amount of scientific information has been collected in the work 

of land classification during the last six years, the purely economic 

value of much of it has already warranted the necessary expense.

Many data concerning the areal extent of different geologic formations have been gathered in the last few years and will be of use 

in connection with the geologic map of the United States which the 

Survey is now engaged in constructing. The stratigraphic relations 

of the formations, their .composition, and their fossils constitute the 

only chronicle of conditions which have, at different times and divers 

places, existed on the earth. From this record some idea can be 

gained of the former geography of the country, of the great earth 

movements such as culminated in the formation of the Kocky Mountains, of the climatic conditions which formerly existed, and of the 

ancient plants and animals. These matters are at present chiefly 

of philosophic interest, but it has been by the accumulation of such 

facts in the past that science has been enabled to render valuable 

aid to mining and other industries. Furthermore, information of 

this kind, while perhaps of little present interest to the average layman, is .of vital importance to the teachers of science in the universities of the country. As a case in point may be mentioned the recent 

discovery, by a Survey geologist engaged in the classification of coal
CLASSIFICATION IN EELATION TO WATER EESOURCES. 159

lands in New Mexico, of a great unconformity which separates into 

two formations a great thickness of strata that had hitherto been 

considered as a unit. This discovery is important not only on account 

of its strictly scientific bearing, but because it indicates that highgrade coking coal occurs in rocks of comparatively recent (Eocene) 

age.

It therefore appears that much important and diversified information is obtained in this way. Science is continually garnering facts 

against the time when tfreir economic importance will appear, or 

when they may be correlated with other facts to furnish a broad 

hypothesis which may profoundly affect methods of prospecting or 

developing some mineral, such as oil. In addition, much local information of direct and immediate value to the mine operator or prospector is so gathered; Finally, 'the best obtainable record of the 

topography, water resources, and soils of the area examined is 

officially made. While the classification of public land is the immediate object of the work described in this bulletin, it is evident 

that such work, because of its exacting requirements as to accuracy 

;and thoroughness, furnishes the best possible basis for valuable scientific generalizations.

CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WATER UTILIZATION.

One of the most important factors in the development and use of 

the remaining public lands within the United States is water supply. 

The development of power, the extension of agriculture and grazing, 

the growth of mineral industries, transportation, and various other 

activities depend directly on the quantity and quality of the underground and surface waters in what is, generally speaking, an arid 

region. To dispose of or to administer the remaining public lands 

without reference to their water supply is to ignore that natural 

resource which will, perhaps more than any other, affect their future 

utilization.

Water is unique among the mineral resources of the earth in that, 

within natural limits, its supply is continually replenished and is therefore, in a large way, inexhaustible. That is to say, within the limits 

of the natural yield of a basin a certain minimum quantity of water 

will be available year after year in any river channel for irrigation, 

for city supply, or for power, as may be required. Aside from the 

inherent value of the water, the ownership of an important source 

of water supply becomes of the greatest consequence; for such ownership carries with it a measure of control, for an indefinite time, of 

all industries dependent on that Darticular source.
160 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

Statutes and court decisions both recognize that water should be 

devoted to its highest use, and the laws of many States provide for 

the condemnation of an inferior use in the interest of a higher one. 

Such laws generally recognize a municipal or domestic use of water 

as the highest which may be made, because of its necessity in the support of life. Next in order comes the use of water in agriculture for 

irrigation, whereby the available food supply is affected. The use of 

water for power, though important and valuable, is inferior to either 

municipal use or use for irrigation and may, in general, be condemned if necessary to insure higher,utilization. The greatest value 

of a source of water supply at any particular time will depend, however, on the demands for domestic or municipal use, on the proximity 

of a tract of arable land adapted to agriculture, and on the quantity 

of power that may be developed and the availability of a market 

for it. Such value may change with the development of the country, 

making necessary the abandonment of established industries in order 

that the water may be available to supply a greater need. Changes in 

use will, however, follow the economic law; as the damage to established industries must be paid for, and to that extent the cost of the 

water for other use will be enhanced.

Important conditions are inherent in the use of water for various 

purposes. Its use for power affects neither its quality nor its quantity, but its use for irrigation depletes its quantity and its municipal 

or domestic use not only depletes its quantity but impairs its quality. 

Various uses may be and in many places are compatible with one 

another. In other places the conflict in use may be only partial. 

Many of the most advantageous sites for developing power, which, under conditions of modern long-distance transmission, are not dependent on a near-by power market for their value, are located in the upper 

portions of river basins, where the slopes are steepest and where 

demands for other use are not likely to be made. Under such conditions the water may be utilized in a power plant or a series of power 

plants and still be available for other purposes by the sacrifice of 

only so much of the power head as may be necessary to obtain adequate pressure in the pipes of the city water mains or to maintain the 

elevation of canals required to cover irrigable lands. In similar 

manner water that has been used for a municipal supply may still 

be available, as sewage, for a certain amount of irrigation. The 

equalization of the stream flow in order to insure a continuous output 

of power will in general increase the value of the stream for municipal use. The use of water for irrigation, on .the other hand, is limited 

to the growing season and requires the concentration of flow in accordance with the needs of crops during that season. The complete 

utilization for irrigation of a stream whose flow has been equalized 

for power will make necessary storage below the power plant of the
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 161

flow of the nonirrigation season in order to render it available 'for 

the irrigation of crops in the following growing season. The practicability of such storage and redistribution of flow will depend on 

local topography and must be determined for each locality. The conditions which affect the present and future practicable utilization of 

water are therefore very complicated, and the classification of land 

as regards its water resources is correspondingly difficult.

In general the development and use of valuable power sites involves 

the construction of expensive systems for transmitting the power to 

distant markets and distributing it among small customers. A waterpower development can be most fully utilized and therefore has its 

greatest value when connected into a system containing other hydroelectric or steam-power plants, because a large system will generally 

have relatively uniform power requirements on account of the varied 

use of the power and also a relatively flexible power output on account of the steam plants and of the storage capacity which may be 

available in connection with some or all of the water-power plants. 

In view of these conditions the combination of power plants into big 

systems is natural and tends to more economical and more complete 

utilization of the power resources. As a duplication of such a power 

system in any territory is uneconomical and in general is impracticable, a monopoly of the power market results, and such monopoly, if 

subject to proper public control, should be encouraged. Monopolistic 

tendencies in the control of water resources entail difficulties and dangers that have been recognized by Congress, as manifested by the 

laws governing rights of way, especially for the purpose of developing and transmitting power, on or across the public lands.

The protection of the people against the possible bad effects of 

monopoly and the retention of control of the use of this important 

source of power, which may be expected to increase in value with the 

decrease in available fuels, is at present accomplished by the United 

States through ownership of the land which is required for the use 

of the water resources. Congress has provided no means for the 

alienation of power lands as such and has sanctioned their use for 

commercial purposes only under a limited permit revocable by the 

secretary of the department having jurisdiction. It provided for 

rights of way for power-transmission lines under the same law but 

by a later act has authorized a fixed tenure for a period not exceeding 50 years.

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER-POWER SITES. 

PRELIMINARY WITHDRAWALS.

The classification of lands as water-power sites and their reservation under the acts authorizing withdrawals is in general first made 

in the absence of detailed examination to determine power value and 

78894° Bull. 537 13 11
162 CLASSIFICATION OF THE^fUBLIC LANDS.

is of a preliminary or tentative character. Examination in the field 

provides a satisfactory basis for final classification and adjustment of 

withdrawals. The following paragraphs relate more particularly 

to preliminary classification and withdrawal but describe also the 

routine procedure followed and records prepared in all withdrawals 

for power-site purposes.

The principal steps taken in connection with the making of powersite and reservoir withdrawals are as follows:

1. Initiation of search for possible power or reservoir sites. The 

possibility of the existence of valuable power resources is brought 

to the attention of those charged with the duty of recommending 

withdrawals through general probability that such sites may exist, 

through requests for report on the possibility of there being such 

sites, or through information as to the possible existence of such sites 

derived from reports of field employees of the Geological Survey or 

other offices, from news items, from newly published maps, from the 

filing of applications for rights of way, and from other sources.

In general the initiative in the premises is taken by the Geological 

Survey, but it not infrequently occurs that some power company 

intending to make surveys for a hydro-electric development in 

new territory requests the withdrawal of the lands likely to be 

occupied. The purpose served by withdrawal of such lands is twofold. The valuable power sites that might otherwise be alienated 

as nonmetalliferous claims, timber and stone entries, agricultural 

entries, or for some other purpose, are retained in public ownership, 

and the company or person eventually developing the resource, presumably but by no means necessarily the one 'Who requested the 

withdrawal, is protected from the intervention of other rights and 

has merely to acquire the necessary rights from the United States 

instead of from the United States and a host of persons who might 

otherwise have succeeded to ownership of the land.

2. Estimation of character and value of probable development and 

approximate description of the lands under consideration. This step 

involves an examination of existing data on stream flow and rainfall, 

as well as of maps, engineering reports, and all other available sources 

of information. In some cases information definite and conclusive 

in character may be brought to light. On the other hand, it frequently happens that estimates of stream flow must be based on 

nothing more reliable than conditions of run-off in basins many miles 

distant and that estimates of available head for power development 

must be derived from elevations at scattered points culled from railroad folders and similar data of doubtful applicability.

3. Examination of status of lands and definite description of lands 

to be included in the order of withdrawal. The lands presumed to 

be valuable for power or reservoir sites are platted on township plats,
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 163

of the public survey or tracings of them, and the status of the lands 

as to ownership is ascertained by examination of the records of the 

General Land Office and indicated on the township plats or tracings. 

All patented lands are eliminated from, further consideration. Lands 

which are covered by location or entry but title to which still remains 

in the United States are included in withdrawals to the end that the 

order of withdrawal may become effective if for any reason the lands 

do not proceed to patent. Such withdrawal in no way affects the 

rights of an entryman who. proceeds with the acquisition of his claim 

in accordance with the law, but it immediately becomes operative in 

case the claim is abandoned or for any reason .becomes invalid.

Definite description of the surveyed lands to be withdrawn is made 

by legal subdivisions in conformity with the official survey. Unsurveyed lands are described by townships and some lands in townships that are partly surveyed by sections, in accordance with the 

probable protraction of the public survey; also by distance from the 

stream or streams having value as a source of power, in some such 

phrase as " all land within half a mile of Snake River."

All withdrawals are so made as to include the least area that will 

effectively protect the resources involved. Where data are meager or 

defective the withdrawals are at first necessarily of relatively great 

extent but are eventually reduced as more definite and reliable data 

are acquired. The area of the land to be withdrawn in each township is compiled from the plats of the public survey, or estimated for 

unsurveyed lands, and the total area of the withdrawal is computed.

4. Preparation of order of withdrawal. The draft of a formal 

order of withdrawal is next prepared, together with a letter to the 

Secretary of the Interior transmitting the order and recommending 

its approval. On approval by the Secretary of the Interior orders 

of withdrawal are transmitted to the President for his consideration 

and become effective on his approval. The following order is typical 

of the present form of withdrawals under the acts of June 25, 1910 

(36 Stat., 847), and August 24,1912 (37 Stat, 497):

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

October 12, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR : In accordance with your general instruction, I recommend the withdrawal for water-power sites of the following areas, involving 240 acres. This 

order of withdrawal includes no lands covered by enlarged-homestead designations.

Very respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

OCTOBER 19, 1912.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation. 

 SAMUEL ADAMS,

Acting Secretary.
164 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL.

Power-Site Reserve No. 299.

Mill Creek, California.

Under and pursuant to the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 

25, 1910 (36 Stat, 847), entitled "An act to authorize the President of the 

United States to make withdrawals of public lands in certain cases," as amended 

by the act of Congress approved August 24, 1912 (37 Stat., 497), it is hereby 

ordered that the following described lands be, and the same are hereby, withdrawn from settlement, location, sale, or entry and. reserved for water-power 

sites:

Mount Diablo meridian.

T. 26 N., R. 1 W., sec. 24, SB. i of SE. \ ;

sec. 26, SE. J of NE. J, SW. J of NW. i, NW. i of SW. \ ; 

sec. 32, S. i of SW. \.

WM. H. TAFT, 

OCTOBER IS, 1912. n President.

(.;

Orders of withdrawal affecting lands within Indian reservations, 

made under sections 13 and 14 of the act of June 25, 1910 (36 Stat., 

855, 858), are forwarded to the Secretary of the Interior through the 

Office of Indian Affairs. The following order illustrates the form in 

which such withdrawals are now made:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, May 23, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR

(through the Commissioner of Indian Affairs).

SIR: In accordance with your general instructions, I recommend the withdrawal for water-power sites of the following areas, involving approximately 

6,817 acres (in the Blackfeet Indian Eeservation).

Very respectfully, H. C. RIZER,

Acting Director.

JUNE 18, 1912. 

I concur in the above recommendation.

R. G. VALENTINE, 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

ORDER OF WITHDRAWAL.

Power-Site Reserve No. 275.

St. Mary River Tributaries, Montana.

It is hereby ordered that the following described lands, ^valuable for power 

sites, be, and the same are hereby, reserved from location, entry, sale, allotment, or other appropriation in accordance with the provisions of the act approved June 25, 1910 (36 Stat., 855), and that no trust or fee-simple patent be 

issued as regards these lands until further orders:
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 165 

Montana meridian.

[Description of lands.]

SAMUEL ADAMS, 

JUNE 22, 1912. First Assistant Secretary.

Withdrawals of this form receive the concurrence of the Commissioner of Indiafl Affairs before being forwarded to the Secretary of 

the Interior and become effective on approval by the Secretary, no 

action by the President being contemplated by the law.

Copies of approved orders of withdrawal are furnished to the 

Geological Survey, to the Office of Indian'Affairs if affecting Indian 

lands, and to the General Land Office, and notification thereof is sent 

to the local land office of each district in which the reserved lands are 

located. Notation of the withdrawal is thereupon made on the tract 

records of the General and local land offices. Thereafter entries 

inconsistent with the purpose of the withdrawal, except under the 

mining laws pertaining to metalliferous minerals, are rejected. Modifications of a withdrawal may, however, be made to permit the allowance of an application that will subserve the purpose of the withdrawal or that involves a more beneficial use of the land than could 

be had under the purpose of the withdrawal. Withdrawals therefore 

in no way interfere with the proper development of the resources 

involved but tend toward their most complete and beneficial 

utilization.

5. Preparation of minutes. At the time each order of withdrawal 

is prepared minutes are written setting forth the object sought to be 

attained by the withdrawal, the extent and value of the resources 

involved, the data on which the withdrawal, is based, and other pertinent facts. Orders of withdrawal are numbered consecutively in 

chronologic order, and successive withdrawals on any stream are also 

given consecutive numbers in connection with the stream name. The 

various sets of minutes for withdrawals on any stream therefore constitute a concise statement of its value for power or reservoir sites 

and of the data relating thereto.

6. Office records. When notice of the approval of an order of withdrawal is received at the Survey, the withdrawn area is plotted and 

numbered on a General Land Office State map. A township card is 

prepared for each township affected, showing the location of the 

stream and indicating the legal subdivisions withdrawn and the 

number of the withdrawal. If more than one withdrawal is made in 

a township, the card is prepared so as to show the withdrawals separately and constitutes a graphic record of all withdrawals and restorations of withdrawn lands. The numbers and dates of recommendation and approval of all power-site withdrawals and restorations
166 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

involved are tabulated on the back of the card. The front of a typical 

township card is shown in figure 8.

In a ledger kept for withdrawals and restorations are noted, when 

the order is prepared, the number and area of the withdrawal or 

restoration and the date of the recommendation of the Geological 

Survey. The date of approval -is also noted in the ledger when the 

copy of the approved order is received.

T.RS.withdrawal No.77 

P. $. reserve No.77

^.S-restoration No.23

FIGURE 8. Typical township card illustrating action taken by United States Geological

Survey on power sites.

The complete record of the Survey relating to a power-site withdrawal consists of the following items:

(a) Order of withdrawal, filed by withdrawal number and therefore chronologically.

(&) Minutes, filed by number of withdrawal and therefore chronologically.

(c) Township plats showing status of lands as to ownership, filed in binders 

by number of withdrawal and arranged by principal meridian, range, and 

township.
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 167

(d) Township cards showing the extent and date of withdrawals and restorations, filed by States and arranged by principal meridian, range, and township.

(e) Mounted State map on which withdrawals and restorations are platted.

(/) Withdrawal ledger in which is kept a chronologic record of withdrawals 

and restorations showing the number, area, date of recommendation, and date 

of approval.

METHODS OF FIELD EXAMINATION. 

DIVERSITY OF CONDITIONS.

The examination of lands and conditions along any stream for the 

purpose of locating a feasible power site is a fairly common and 

well-defined engineering operation. The examination of lands and 

conditions for the purpose of classifying the lands according to 

" power value," as the expression is interpreted in this bulletin, is 

quite another matter. In the first case, the effort is made to locate 

one or more sites that appear best adapted for development under 

the prescribed conditions of cost and prospective market which 

prevail at that particular time. -The study is concentrated on the 

lands that will be involved in that particular development. 1 In the 

second case, all the lands in public ownership adjoining or near the 

stream are presented for consideration, and the problem is to determine whether any or all of these lands could be used in the develop^ 

ment of any feasible power site. Moreover, the feasibility can not 

be settled on the basis of present limitations of development but 

must be determined according to what are believed to be the limitations of a future day, when water power will be a more vital factor 

in our economy than it is now and when, by reason of increased 

demand, a development whose unit cost would now be too great 

would become thoroughly practicable. Power sites are classified 

according to their future possible utility as well as according to 

their present value.

There are other features which still further broaden the scope of 

an investigation of the kind here described. It is necessary to determine whether the lands examined may not be more beneficially 

devoted to the use of water for domestic supply or for irrigation 

than for power, and whether their use for power may not be prejudicial to the other uses at the site in question or at some other site 

more or less remote.

It must also be determined in many cases whether the land itself, 

irrespective of any distant lands which may be served, is of more 

value for agriculture or as a town or manufacturing site than as a 

power site. Such a consideration applies especially to lands that 

may be suitable for storage reservoirs. Usually the civic, industrial, 

or rural improvements that have previously been made in a reservoir 

site largely control the decision on this point, but the cases in which 

such influences are absent are still relatively frequent. Therefore
168 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

the field of investigation again spreads beyond the actualities of the 

present and an estimate of prospective events must be made.

Finally, it must not be forgotten that human activities are not 

confined to the utilization of water that a community which produces must, if its products are of value, have suitable means of 

transportation. Therefore it frequently occurs that consideration 

must be given to the relative usefulness of a piece of land as a power 

site or as a right of way for a railroad. In some places the bottom 

of a canyon that is suitable for power development or a basin that 

is suitable for a reservoir is also an advantageous railroad route. 

Although it is usually possible to locate an alternate railroad route, 

the cost of utilizing it may be so great as to outweigh the advantages 

that may accrue from development of power along the stream. It 

is thus necessary to appraise the relative values and comparative 

costs and choose the course that is or is likely to become of the 

highest human benefit.

The classification of lands for water-power sites therefore requires 

a broad perspective, and it comprehends the study of so many variable 

conditions and prospective changes in public demand that mistakes 

are easily made and mature consideration is always necessary. Field 

examination naturally falls into two classes. The first is reconnaissance, made in response to urgency. The second is final and detailed and involves all the precision of instrumental work and the 

careful deductions made possible thereby.

RECONNAISSANCE EXAMINATION.

A suitable report on a water-power site classification should cover 

as many of the subjects listed in the following syllabus as may be 

' relevant:

I. Sources of data used in report:

1. Personal examination route followed aud time consumed.

2. Water-supply papers.

3. Maps.

4. Reports of engineers.

5. Miscellaneous.

II. General introductory description, including location as to State, rivers, 

cities, township, and range. ,

III. Description of the power developments and possibilities on the river, 

showing by sketch on best available maps location of dams, power 

canals, and power houses already constructed and possible location of 

these essential features for other power developments. Ownership 

of plants already constructed and use made of the power.

IV. Physical characteristics:

1. Topography at dam site.

2. Relation of tract to a possible power development described under 

III above.

3. Head available, how secured, whether by dam or by dam and canal.

4. Character of dam sites, holding ground for canals, and site for power 

house.
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 169

V. Water supply:

1. General description of drainage area.

2. Actual records if available, showing maximum, minimum, and mean 

discharge for each month, also absolute seven-day minimum for 

the year.

3. Storage already developed.

4. Storage possibilities:

(a) Location of reservoir sites.

(6) Height of dam.

(c) Capacity of reservoir.

5. Prior water rights above and below power site.

6. Ice conditions during winter months: 

(a) Without storage. 

(6) With storage.

VI. Possible power development:

1. Horsepower at wheel shaft (without storage).

2. Horsepower at wheel shaft (with storage).

VII. Cost of power development:

1. Cost of diversion or forebay dam.

2. Cost of canals.

3. Approximate cost of complete installation per horsepower developed:

(a) Without storage. 

(6) With storage. 

VIII. Market for power:

1. Present.

2. Future.

3. Length of transmission lines, etc.

IX. Suggestions and recommendations:

1. Relative to lands withdrawn.

2. Relative to other public land which has or may have value for development or transmission of power.

X. Appendixes:

1. Water-supply records.

2. Maps.

3. Pictures.

Before entering upon field work the hydraulic engineer should 

collect all available topographic and hydrometric data relating to 

the stream under investigation. For many streams the topographic 

data may be obtained from the United States Geological Survey 

topographic sheets, the United States Land Office township plats, 

county and other maps, or railroad location surveys and profiles. 

Study should also be made of the precipitation records collected by the 

United States Weather Bureau and the river-discharge records made 

by the United States Geological Survey and by private citizens. 

After obtaining in advance as much information as may be available, 

the engineer proceeds to the field. His instrumental equipment 

usually consists of hand level, steel tape, aneroid barometer, compass with sight alidade, and camera. In some investigations it is necessary to carry a current meter. These instruments and the notes, 

maps, and other data procured in advance, together with a map or de-
170 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

scription of the locations of the public land along the stream valley, 

constitute the working equipment. The engineer travels by wagon, 

on horseback with pack outfit, by boat, or on foot, as the conditions 

may require, and his personal equipment is made appropriate to 

the conditions.

The engineer, after examining all the lands in the stream valley 

and studying the relation of the critical features to the public lands, 

constructs what may be called a "mental picture of the situation in 

its most productive condition of water-power development. He also 

works out the variations which might be made in his plan of development, knowing well that no other engineer covering the same 

ground independently would conceive the identical plan of development that he would. It is even necessary for the engineer to consider plans and possibilities that may appear to him impracticable 

or fantastic, for the serious proposal of such plans is a frequent 

occurrence in the routine experience of the department, and a relatively superficial glance over the country gives evidence that many 

such plans have been put into effect. Especially is it necessary for 

the engineer to gather local information concerning proposed developments of all kinds and to obtain as many working details of 

such developments as may be possible. To this end it is frequently 

essential to follow up rumors of prospective development. Although 

most of these rumors may prove inconsequential, they now and then 

lead to information whose importance fully compensates for the 

time spent on rumors that have no basis in fact.

If the engineer's investigations show that the slope of a river 

along a certain section affords a working head which, in connection 

with the known or supposed flow of the stream, indicates the possibility of a power site, he determines in a rough way the method or 

methods by which that site may be utilized. It is unnecessary for 

him to make final location surveys, because the fact that the power 

site exists is usually sufficient for the purposes at hand. The 

particular method of development will eventually be determined 

largely by the state of the science at the time the development is to 

be made. It is recognized that the details of location and'equipment 

depend on the progress attained at the time of construction. We 

know, for example, of many old developments which if constructed 

to-day would be of an entirely different type.

The standards of capacity which warrant the withdrawal of public 

lands for power sites vary with the location, and in many cases the 

decision rests largely on the abundance of power sites in the immediate region. A stretch of river having a'fall of 10 feet to the mile 

may, in regions where power sites are not abundant, be worthy of 

withdrawal, whereas a similar stretch in a region abundantly supplied with sites of greater capacity may not be of sufficient im-
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 171

portance 'for departmental action. The determination of the proper 

course is difficult, for the question of feasibility must be partly answered with regard to future conditions. All the factors discussed 

in the beginning of this section, such as domestic water supply, irrigation, and transportation, must be borne in mind, and it is imperative that the engineer remember the fact that Government control of 

a small amount of land may be quite as effectual in the ultimate 

control of the development at the power site as if every element of 

that site were in public ownership. A small tract of land, even a 

fractional subdivision, located within a storage-reservoir site or 

along a diversion right of way has been sufficient to determine the 

control of the development. Having reached a decision on all the 

points above discussed, the engineer makes appropriate report.

Detailed surveys arfe not attempted in reconnaissance work. Approximate cross sections are taken at possible dam sites and, after 

the most feasible height of the dam is determined, a rough estimate 

of the area that would be submerged is made by means of the hand 

level. Where no profile of the stream channel is available, the fall 

over a short distance is determined with an aneroid barometer. This 

instrument, however, must be used with caution, especially during 

changeable weather. Photographs of all the critical points are 

taken. The possible dam sites suitable for storage or for diversion 

having been located and the type of development roughly determined, 

it is then necessary to consider the run-off. If the problem is one of 

storage, it will be sufficient to know the approximate mean annual 

run-off; the height of the storage dam can then be so fixed that the 

capacity of the reservoir may, as nearly as practicable, be sufficient 

to afford complete control. Of course, as a rule, sufficient storage 

capacity is not available, yet on the other hand there are situations 

in which the dam might be raised to a height that would give greater 

storage capacity than is necessary. In case no storage is to be provided, the mean daily flow of the stream must, if possible, be determined in order that the primary power capacity of the site may be 

appraised. If the available site is located in a canyon, it becomes 

necessary to determine within reasonable limits whether the maximum fall may be secured by a low diversion dam and conduits or 

whether it would be more economical to obtain the necessary height 

by the construction of a high dam.

Much of the land along the streams of the West has passed into 

private ownership, and where good facilities exist for the development of water power or the diversion of water for irrigation private 

interests may have established rights to the use of the water. Another complication on many streams consists in the location of railroad rights of way. Thus the problem of land classification may be
172 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

greatly complicated, and considerable thought and good judgment 

are required to determine on a plan whereby the stream may be utilized to a reasonable capacity and the vested rights already acquired 

by private owners may not be violated. Many of the power plants 

already installed use only a small percentage of the maximum available power. In such cases either the plans for ultimate maximum 

power development involve the utilization and enlargement or improvement of such plants or they are omitted from consideration, it 

being assumed that when the demand for power increases to a certain 

point ordinary commercial procedure will settle all questions relative 

to the destiny of power plants in operation.

In case a railroad is already constructed parallel to the stream, 

plans for immediate development must avoid any interference with 

the railroad rights. Few plans that would require relocation of railroads are feasible under present market conditions, but the future 

demand for power will probably change the aspect of the case, and 

on this account the problem is treated as if the railroad did not exist, 

it being assumed that whenever the demand for power is sufficient to 

justify the expense of railroad relocation the power will be developed. It is quite as desirable to provide means for future control 

by the Government in such an event as it is to provide such control 

in situations where no complications of this kind exist. Therefore, 

an important part of the field work consists in the determination of 

possible relocations, so that in fixing the value of any land reserved 

for a power site the department may have information whereby it 

can render an opinion as to the possibility and cost of relocating such 

lines as are already constructed or as to the feasibility of requiring 

the relocation of rights of way for which application may subsequently be made.

DETAILED FIELD INVESTIGATIONS.

Investigations of detailed character are made to obtain data for 

final departmental action. The statements in the preceding section 

indicate that the chief object of the reconnaissance work is to locate 

lands suitable for power sites. The capacity of the power sites is 

determined in connection with such work largely for the purpose 

of justifying the preliminary withdrawal of the lands from entry. 

Incidental information of a more or less final character is collected 

during the reconnaissance examination, for the most part with a 

view to convenience and economy in the final detailed surveys. The 

withdrawals of lands for power sites on the basis of a reconnaissance 

examination are usually made liberal in extent, the purpose being to 

restore to entry any of the legal subdivisions which on detailed survey prove to be of no value in connection with the plans finally
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 173

adopted. The detailed investigation consists of surveys to determine 

river profiles, surveys of reservoir site, soundings at dam sites and 

other places, and a more or less careful examination of the character of the underlying formations that must serve as foundations, 

especially for dams. In addition, it is necessary to establish river 

gaging stations, if none have already been established, for the purpose of determining, with a high degree of accuracy, the amount of 

Avater discharged by the river, so that the economic capacity of the 

reservoirs and power plants may be determined.

The gaging stations are selected, equipped, and maintained according to the standard methods followed by the United States 

Geological Survey in its regular hydrometric work. The processes 

are fully described in the annual progress reports on investigations 

of stream flow published by the Survey.

The investigation of dam sites for the purpose of determining 

the security of the underlying formations that must serve as foundations has, up to the present time, been based largely on general geologic information concerning the holding qualities of the formations known to exist in the localities examined. Final work of this 

character, none of which, has been attempted in connection with the 

classification of water-power sites, will consist of the usual soundings 

and borings to determine the depth of the holding material, its 

permeability, its strength, and all the other factors that enter into 

its suitability for foundations.

Special river surveys delineating the alinement and water-surface 

contours of streams and the topography of the adjacent land are 

made on a scale of 2 inches to the mile by the plane-table and stadia 

method. The survey maps are accompanied by profiles showing 

clearly the stream gradient. The contour interval on water surfaces 

is usually taken as 5 feet but may be increased to 25 or even to 100 

feet for sections of steep slope where the delineation of a lesser interval could not be clearly made. The topography of the land adjacent to the stream is shown by a contour interval of 25 feet and in 

general is carried to an elevation 100 feet above the stream by survey 

and an additional 100 feet by sketching. 'General features of culture, gaging stations, existing hydraulic works, all lines of land subdivisions, by public survey, and other relevant data are shown on 

these maps. Promising reservoir and dam sites are shown with contour intervals of 5 feet to an elevation equal to the height of the 

possible dam.

Engineers executing these surveys are instructed to obtain and 

furnish to the Washington office all available data as to the water 

resources involved, supplementing the data shown on the maps by 

detailed description of existing or proposed developments.
174 CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLIC LANDS.

COMPILATION OF RESULTS AND REVISION OF WITHDRAWALS.

When results of field investigation are available, much the same 

procedure is followed in the office in revising withdrawals as in 

making the preliminary withdrawals. The problem at this stage 

becomes one of limiting the withdrawals to the least possible area. 

Careful scrutiny of plans and profiles of the streams makes it possible to determine the power value of each smallest legal subdivision, 

and withdrawn areas containing no sites that are or may be valuable 

for the development of power are restored to the public domain. If 

the stream is of relatively flat gradient, where power development 

must be restricted to the low-head type and the construction will 

consist of power houses in conjunction with dams developing the 

available head, it is possible in many cases to locate definitely the 

favorable dam sites and divide the stream into successive units of 

probable development, from which no very great departure in construction is likely. On such streams the power-site reserves can be 

defined with a high degree of accuracy, and the use of each tract, 

whether for dam site, power-house site, flowage, or other purpose, 

can be forecast with considerable assurance. A minimum area of 

land is retained in power-site reserves on-such streams. If the 

stream has a relatively steep gradient, however, where the natural 

development for power will consist of a low diversion dam and a 

long conduit leading to a power house perhaps several miles below 

and developing a high effective head, there can be a wide range of 

selection for the units of a comprehensive power project. On such 

a stream no specially favorable dam site is necessary, and relative 

expense of construction is generally the factor determining a choice 

among several different locations for the conduit. A definite use for 

any particular tract can seldom be assigned with development of this 

type, and the power-site reserve must be maintained so as to include 

all possible conduit locations if it. is to be effective. A final revision 

of withdrawals along such, a stream must be made as the power sites 

are developed. Even in such cases, however, restorations are frequently possible as soon as field examinations are made.

Eestorations are.recommended by the Survey and recorded in the 

Survey files in much the same way as withdrawals. The usual form 

of power-site restoration is as follows:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, November 12, 1912. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR: Investigation of lands included in power-site reserve No. 117, Snake 

River, Idaho, indicates that the portion of the lands included therein described 

|n the following order of restoration is not valuable for the conservation of
CLASSIFICATION IN- BELATION TO WATEE RESOURCES. 175

water power, and I therefore recommend that the said order of restoration be 

submitted to the President for appropriate action. The area involved in this 

restoration is 85.7 acres.

Very respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

DECEMBER 3, 1912.

Respectfully referred to the President with favorable recommendation.

WALTER L. FISHER,

Secretary.

ORDER OF RESTORATION No. 82. 

Snake River, Idaho.

So aauch of the orders of withdrawal made heretofore for the purpose of reserving water-power sites as affects the lands hereinafter described is hereby 

revoked.

And it is further ordered that all of such lands not otherwise reserved or 

withdrawn are hereby restored to the public domain and shall become subject to 

settlement and entry under the laws applicable thereto upon such date and 

after such notice as may be determined upon by the Secretary of the Interior.

Boise meridian.

T. 5 S., R. 4 E., sec. 30, lot 6;

sec. 32, lots 7 and 8.

WM. H. TAFT, 

DECEMBER 3, 1912. President.

ADVERSE CLAIMS.

In many cases there is a conflict between the purposes of a powersite reserve and of some other claim to or proposed use of the lands 

affected. There is at present no satisfactory law under which land 

withdrawn for power purposes under the acts of June 25, 1910 (36 

Stat,, 847), and August 24, 1912 (37 Stat, 497), can be used for 

other purposes without jeopardizing the interest of the United States 

in the power possibilities. Under the acts relating to rights' of way 

title to land by legal subdivisions is not granted and, as described 

elsewhere (p. 28), the interest of the United States may be preserved, 

finder the laws relating to agricultural land and mining, however, 

title to the land embraced in entries or claims passes from the United 

States and there appears to be no way in which the power estate may 

be satisfactorily reserved. Relative priority of reserve and claim, 

special exceptions, and relative value are the principles that govern 

in adjudicating the conflict. A power-site withdrawal is of no 

effect as against bona fide metalliferous mineral claims, without regard to priority of initiation. A power-site withdrawal is without 

effect as against a prior occupant or claimant of oil or gas lands who 

is diligently prosecuting work leading to discovery, but it becomes 

immediately effective against such occupant or claimant if diligent
176 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

prosecution of work leading to discovery is discontinued. A powereite withdrawal is without effect as against a valid subsisting homestead or desert-land entry or claim of valid settlement so long as it is 

maintained and perfected pursuant to law, but the withdrawal becomes effective whenever the entryman or settler no longer continues 

to comply with the law under which the entry or settlement was 

made. With the foregoing exceptions, a power-site withdrawal 

under the acts of June 25, 1910, and August 24, 1912, is effective 

against all claims or entries on which rights have not vested prior to 

the date of the withdrawal.

, Withdrawn lands having valuable possibilities for the development of power'are alienated in the usual way if they are included 

in the excepted classes described above, although possibly the claims 

for such lands are subjected to a more careful scrutiny. If it appears that the claimant is attempting to obtain title to land because 

of its value for power, and if its power value is greater than its 

value for the alleged purpose of the claim, patent may be refused 

and the entry canceled. Cases of this nature arise most frequently 

in connection with metalliferous mineral entries, although not a 

few power sites have been homesteaded or acquired under the timber 

and stone law.

In the case of claims against which a power-site withdrawal is 

effective, a most unfortunate situation occasionally arises. For example, title to land may be sought by the application of scrip, and 

the claim may be initiated in advance of a power-site withdrawal. 

The claimant may have expended considerable sums in improvement and cultivation and have proceeded throughout in good faith. 

Nevertheless, the land sought to be acquired may be worth for power 

many times its agricultural value, and when this dominant power 

value is ascertained the land is naturally included in a power-site 

reserve. In such cases it is always a grave question whether the 

public interest is best served by. the defeat or confirmation of the 

claim. Under the strict rule of the law the claimant has no rights 

in the case. No provision of law makes it possible to give him 

agricultural rights and reserve to the United States the rights of 

power development. Unless, therefore, the value of the land for 

the development of power is so great as to demand reservation for 

that purpose, public interest appears to sanction the claim of the 

individual as against that of the Nation, and elimination of the land 

from the power-site reserve is recommended

NONPOWER CLASSIFICATION.

In connection with the office studies incident to the report on the 

power-site possibilities of lands embraced in subsisting claims and 

with the juyestigation of power sites a mass of information, is,
CLASSIFICATION IN EELATION TO WATEB RESOURCES. 177

gradually being accumulated. This information is of negative as 

well as of positive character and shows where power sites are not 

located as well as where they are located. For convenience in making later reports on adjacent areas, this information is summarized 

from time to time and State maps are prepared showing the lands 

that are of no value for power development. This essentially constitutes a negative power classification and the use of such maps 

greatly facilitates the future work. In connection with these maps 

minutes are prepared in which are set forth the data on which the 

classification is based and the conclusions drawn therefrom.

ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS TO MAKE POWER CLASSIFICATION EFFECTIVE.

In order that the classification of land as chiefly valuable for 

the development of power may be made effective, it appears desirable 

that there be additional legislation providing for the control and 

utilization of land so classified under such conditions and regulations as Congress may decide to be necessary and for the proper 

administration of such land if, as now seems desirable, the title is 

to be retained in the United States.

As a feature, or perhaps as a preliminary step in such legislation, 

a " separation act" would be desirable, providing for the disposition 

of power and agricultural estates independently of each other in a 

manner similar to that now provided for coal land and for oil and 

gas land in Utah. Such independent disposition of these estates is 

believed to be entirely feasible, because, except where reservoirs are 

provided, the land actually occupied by a power plant constitutes 

only a small part of the legal subdivisions on which the dam, flowage, 

water conduits, power house, and transmission lines are located. The 

bulk of the land is available for agricultural or other use and may be 

largely so utilized without detriment to the power development.

The alienation of the agricultural estate and the retention of the 

water-power estate in any land, with provision for payment of 

proper damages to the agricultural estate when the power is developed, appears to be practicable and desirable in the interest of the 

orderly development of the natural resources involved. In fact, a 

separation of estates and a disposition of each estate as such appear 

to be desirable, even though it may be decided not to retain control 

by the United States of the water-power estate.

Whether or not a law providing for separation of the power estate 

is enacted, laws providing for the development of power on public 

land under such conditions that the industry would be materially 

encouraged and capital attracted would be most beneficial. The true 

purpose of power-site withdrawals is the use of valuable power lands 

primarily for developing power, not the withholding of such lands 

7$894° Bull. 537 13 12
178 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

from any use. It is true that withdrawn lands are now available 

for use under the right of way acts, but they can be used for power development only under a permit revocable at will. Such a method is 

hopelessly inadequate and tends to discourage development. Kecommendations for additional legislation have been repeatedly made by 

the department, and several very satisfactory bills have been introduced in Congress, but so far no suitable laws have been enacted.

CLASSIFICATION OF LANDS AS REGARDS IRRIGABILITY.

FIELD METHODS. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The general considerations and particular features already discussed under " Classification of power sites" apply to the classification with respect to irrigability. They include determination of 

the relative value of water in its different uses and, in the case of 

reservoirs and headworks, the value of the land for other purposes. 

The field of investigation must be quite as broad and comprehensive 

for this purpose as for the classification of water-power sites. The 

engineer who performs the investigation is required to equip himself with the preliminary facts available in the office, such as maps 

and records of stream flow, and his instrumental equipment is practically the same as that already described:

A suitable report on the classification of lands as regards irrigability should cover as many of the subjects listed in the following 

syllabus as may be relevant:

I. Sources of data used in report:

1. Personal examination; route followed and time consumed.

2. Water-supply papers.

3. Maps.

4. Reports of engineers.

5. Miscellaneous.

II. General introductory description:

1. Name of project.

2. Where located.

3. When started.

4. Estimated time of completion.

5. Concise description of project, including 

(a) Area involved. 

(&) Source of water supply.

(c) Outline of irrigation system.

(d) Important or critical structures involved.

6..Nature and extent of control of the lands: 

(a) Carey Act. 

(6) Municipal district, 

(c) Ownership by developing company. 

(eZ) Contracts with land owners.

(e) Contracts with desert-land or homestead entrymen who have 

no titles.

7. Railroad and other transportation facilities.
CLASSIFICATION IN BELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 179

III. Rights of way:

1. Ownership and extent of those already secured.

2. Applicants for those pending.

3. Additional, across public lands, needed for the complete project

IV. The lands:

1. Topography.

2. Geology.

3. Vegetation.

4. Soil:

(a) Soil analysis. 

(&) Depth of soil. 

(c) Depth to impervious strata.

5. Drainage. 

V. Climatology:

1. Temperature.

2. Precipitation.

VI. Crops:

1. Kind of crops.

2. Probable markets.

3. Transportation to markets.

VII. Value of lauds:

1. Without irrigation.

2. Unimproved, but under ditch.

3. Improved and irrigated. 

VIII. Water supply:

1. Source of supply:

(a) Discussion of stream.

(&) Discussion of drainage basin.

(c) Stream-flow measurements. \

(d) Storage already developed.

(e) Other storage possibilities,

2. Rights in water:

(a) Amount and date of water filing.

(6) Prior rights, adjudicated and unadjudicated.

3. Amount of water available for project. 

' 4. Duty of water.

5. Amount of land that can be irrigated. 

IX. Character of irrigation works:

1. Storage dam.

2. Location.

3. General description.

4. Type of dam, material, etc.

5. Outlet tunnel.

6. Area of reservoir.

7. Capacity of reservoir in acre-feet.

8. Diversion dam: 

(a) Location.

(6) Type of dam, material, etc. 

(c) Size of dam.

9. Pumping:

(a) Source, kind, and cost of power. 

(6) Lift.
180 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

(c) Motors:

(a) Number and kind.

(b) Capacity of each, 

(tf) Pumps: 

, (a) Number and kind.

(b) Capacity of each, 

(e) Station equipment. 

(/) Transmission line, 

(fir) Buildings. 

(h) Pipe lines:

(a) Kind, size, and capacity.

(b) Thickness of material.

(c) Length. 

(*) Receiving basins. 

X. Canals:

1. Size.

2. Grade.

3. Capacity.

4. Slopes.

5. Wasteways.

6. Drops.

7. Lateral systems.

8. Flumes:

(a) Kind (wood, metal, or concrete). 

(6) Size.

(c) Grade.

(d) Capacity.

(e) Carrier. ,

(/) Foundation.

(g) Description of construction.

9. Tunnels:

(a) Length. 

(&) Size.

10. Pipes:

(a) Kind (wood, metal, or concrete). 

(&) Size.

(c) Length.

(d) Grade.

(e) Capacity.

(/) Pressure boxes.

11. Gates:

(a) Headgates:

(a) Kind.

(b) Size.

(c) Capacity.

(d) Number.

(e) Controlling device. 

(6) Lateral gates: Kind, etc.

12. Miscellaneous: 

(a) Bridges. 

(6) Trestles.

(c) Riprapping.

(d) Protection.
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 181

XI. Cost of construction:

1. Detailed estimate.

2. Bases for estimate.

XII. Present status of project: 

1. Work completed: 

(a) Amount. 

(&) Character, 

(c) Criticisms.

XIII. Revenue:

1. Water rights.

2. Number of acres covered.

3. Number of acres sold.

4. Town sites.

5. State contract.

6. Settlers' contract.

XIV. Appendixes:

1. Maps.

2. Geologic sheets.

3. Photographs.

4. Precipitation records.

5. Stream-flow records. 

XV. Suggestions.

Recommendations.

Conclusions.

Extensions.

To determine whether or not an area of land is commercially 

feasible of reclamation by irrigation the following matters require 

especially careful study:

Available water supply.

Present utilization of water for irrigation.

Duty of water.

Character of lands to be irrigated.

Crops.

Character of irrigation works.

AVAILABLE WATER SUPPLY.

To determine the available water supply a careful investigation 

is made of the streams from which the water is to be diverted. A 

study is made of all stream-flow measurements, and if records of 

daily discharge are available for a number of years, hydrographs 

are prepared showing graphically the daily fluctuations of the 

stream. On these hydrographs a line may be drawn representing 

the equivalent of prior rights. This done, the unutilized flow may 

be readily determined. Where irrigation has been practiced for a 

number of years, these hydrographs may show clearly that the normal 

flow during the irrigation season is already appropriated and that 

the unutilized flow occurs during the winter and during flood stages. 

To utilize fully the run-off from the streams under such conditions 

reservoirs must be constructed to store the water that is now wasted.
182 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

The study of available water supply therefore involves an investigation of the possibilities of storage. Unless information is available 

from private surveys, a reconnaissance examination is made of the 

drainage area for the purpose of locating storage sites. The methods 

followed are merely approximate and do not differ from those used 

in reconnaissance power surveys.

If no actual records are available showing the discharge of the 

stream, it is necessary to establish gaging stations at once and 'make 

a careful study of the drainage area and records of precipitation. 

If reliable maps are available from which the area of the drainage 

basin can be measured, and records are available showing the average 

precipitation on the basin, it is then possible to figure roughly the 

probable run-off. This method of determining the available water 

supply is unsafe and is used only where no records of discharge are 

available.

After determining the gross run-off from the basin the unutilized 

flow or the water available for the reclamation of new lands is determined by deducting the amount of water required to satisfy prior 

appropriators.

PRESENT TTTTLIZATION OF WATEB FOB IRRIGATION.

Mention has already been made of the necessity for allowing for 

prior water rights in determining the amount of land that can be 

successfully irrigated from any stream. Irrigation systems already 

installed at the time of the examination furnish one of the most 

troublesome problems the engineer has to investigate. Under the law, 

as usually interpreted in the West, the water is public property, 

.permission for its use being granted by the State, and wherever 

lands are classified for irrigation in the West it is nearly always 

true that the State has granted prior rights to the use of the 

water. In the earlier days of irrigation these rights were granted 

with the utmost liberality, without much regard for the amount, 

of water actually flowing in a stream. It is therefore common to 

find that these prior rights exceed in aggregate amount the volume 

of water carried by the stream, during irrigation seasons. This 

condition has been recognized by persons desiring to use water 

from such streams, and many of them have secured rights to use the 

flood waters which flow in the stream channels at periods of the year 

when irrigation is not practiced. Such utilization is dependent, of 

course, on the construction of storage reservoirs. Thus it may occur 

that, however well adapted for agriculture a piece of public land may 

be, on superficial examination there appears to be no available water for 

its reclamation. It is necessary for the engineer to bear in mind the 

liberality with which prior rights have been conferred and to examine
CLASSIFICATION IN EELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 183

the records for the purpose of determining what proportion of the' 

water so granted can be beneficially used for irrigation. Such a study 

involves a determination of the duty of water, a subject which is discussed below. It is clear, however, that the determination ol 

beneficial use involves an examination of the reservoirs, headworks, 

canals, and ditches, and the amount of lands embraced in irrigation 

systems under operation, and this is frequently a most difficult matter. It is the rule rather than the exception that the irrigator uses 

more water than is necessary for the growth and maturity of his 

crops; indeed, his use of water is not uncommonly so extravagant that 

the agricultural value of his land is greatly damaged. On few of 

the irrigation systems of the West, especially the older ones, has 

any record of the amount of water used been collected or preserved 

or the capacity of the irrigation canals been determined. This capacity may be variable, depending largely on the care with which the 

canals are maintained. Thus the engineer is obliged to investigate 

thoroughly all the working features of the systems already installed, 

so that he may make a report as to the actual amount of water necessary and thereby determine how much if any is available for the irrigation of new lands. Water-right matters are usually complicated 

and a proper study of them requires some working knowledge of the 

water laws and the decisions relating thereto. Although in many of 

the Western States the water laws are similar, they differ in some 

respects and some of the differences are very wide. To cover all the 

necessary points the engineer must examine into the grants and adjudications at the county or State offices where such matters are on 

record. Closely connected with this study of water laws is the observation and possibly the measurement of flow in existing canals to 

determine seepage losses. Such losses frequently represent 50 per 

cent or more of the water that is diverted from the streams, and it 

is necessary to consider the question of preventing such losses so that 

the water may be applied to lands not under cultivation. Where extravagant use or unreasonable loss is discovered the question then 

arises whether that water may not be filed upon for the benefit of the 

new lands under consideration. The determination of this point 

usually requires adjudication either by the courts or by State officials 

appointed for this specific purpose.

DUTY OF WATER.

The determination of the duty of water, or the amount of water 

necessary to irrigate a piece of arid land suitably, is another difficult 

task of the engineer. In some parts of the West the necessary amount 

of water, has been determined by scientific study. Over the greater 

portion of this region, however, the amount has been determined
184 CLASSIFICATION 6tf 5:Hl

largely by experience, so-called, and has usually been greater than is 

necessary. Frequently the lower limit has been determined in dry 

seasons when the supply of water was meager. Therefore the duty 

of water is susceptible of a very flexible interpretation. On each 

irrigation project there is a generally accepted idea of the amount 

necessary, and whether a larger or smaller amount than this is delivered by the canals is rarely determined. As a rule, however, the 

discriminating engineer can, by examining all the evidence, fix upon 

an approximate standard that may be considered reasonable, and 

unless that standard approaches too closely the total amount of water 

available adjustment is, comparatively easy. Determination of the 

duty of water is, after all, an agricultural problem, some crops requiring more than others on the same land and different kinds of 

soils requiring different amounts for the same crops. Having determined this amount, the engineer then measures or estimates the 

losses which occur in transmission through canals and other conduits 

from the source of supply to the cultivated fields, for duty of water 

is, unless otherwise specified, referred to the field itself. This 

amount is sometimes called the net duty. To the amount required 

for actual application to the crops must be added that lost by seepage and by evaporation, and the farther the supply from the place 

of utilization the greater the amount which must be allowed for such 

losses. It is necessary also to consider losses in 5 the storage reservoirs, especially the loss due to evaporation. Having summed up 

all these items and having previously determined the total supply 

available, the engineer can then determine how much is available for 

new lands. To this quantity is applied the duty previously determined, allowance being made for the prospective losses in the conduits that will carry the water to the new land. The result of this 

computation will show the amount of new land that can be irrigated.

CHARACTER OF LAND TO BE IRRIGATED.

The elements in the investigation of the character of the lands to 

be irrigated include topography,, geology, character and depth of 

soil, and general drainage conditions. These are partly engineering 

and partly agricultural factors, but the engineer must take them all 

into consideration, because it is apparent that, with a given prospective cost of irrigation, a project would be feasible if the soil and 

physical conditions were of one kind and not feasible if those conditions were of another kind. The climate is another essential factor, 

and a study must also be made of the kind of crops adapted to the 

particular locality. It is apparent that a greater investment can be 

made for irrigation in a region adapted to citrus fruits than in one 

where, on account of climate, soil, or altitude, hay is the principal 

possible commodity. The determination of these points by the engi-
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 185

neer rests largely on his general knowledge of related conditions and 

on the experience that has been gained by the people in the region. 

The transportation facilities and the market are subject to change 

and should usually be considered merely to determine whether present or future development is desirable. Transportation facilities 

will, under ordinary conditions, be provided in response to production, and market is a feature which, in the long run and under the 

present conditions of rapid growth and consumption in this country, 

will ultimately offer few difficulties.

CHARACTER OF IRRIGATION WORKS.

Having reached a favorable determination as to water supply, duty 

of water, and the economic features above set forth, the engineer must 

then investigate the character of irrigation works that are adapted 

to the phj'sical conditions of the area. The character of such works 

depends entirely on the physical problems to be met. It may be 

necessary to construct storage reservoirs in order to utilize the highest possible proportion of the available water. On the other hand, 

the source of supply may be a very large stream, having a capacity 

sufficient to furnish all the water required for practicable irrigation in the entire region, and the studies are then confined to the 

determination of suitable diversion sites and canal routes reaching 

from the headworks to the lands to be irrigated. As in the case of 

reconnaissance power surveys, no final locations are determined by 

the engineer, it being considered preferable to leave such matters 

of detail to those who may in the future develop the project. The 

location of the headworks and of reservoirs and the routes, lengths, 

and capacities of canals can be determined approximately by field 

investigation of the type herein described, and while the results may 

be inaccurate for purposes of final location and development, they 

are sufficient to afford information suitable for departmental action. 

The public lands located in reservoir sites or along the courses of 

prospective conduits are carefully considered by the engineer with 

respect to their relation to the ultimate problem under consideration.

METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION. 

PROCEDURE UNDER THE CARET ACT

In the administration .of the Carey Act and its amendments classification of lands with respect to irrigability is a necessary incident, 

for under the conditions of this act the land granted must be nonmineral, desert, and irrigable. The first step in the present procedure is the withdrawal of lands under the act of March 15, 1910 

(36 Stat., 237), at the solicitation of the State in which the lands are
186 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

situated. This is essentially a withdrawal for the purpose of classification, and the area withdrawn may be far in excess of that eventually constituting the irrigable area of the project. The withdrawal 

is made on the assumption that the area includes some land susceptible of irrigation under the Carey Act, but investigation may 

show this not to be the case. During the period of withdrawal, 

which is limited to one year, the promoter of the project has opportunity to investigate the area, plan the details of the project, and 

make a reliable classification as to irrigability without fear of alienation of the lands and resulting interference with the successful conduct of the project. In case such investigation's and a request by the 

State for segregation are not made, the land is restored to the public 

domain without classification. If, on the other hand; the plans for 

the project are perfected and application for segregation is made, the 

lands listed in the application are further reserved until action is 

taken on the case, and the remainder of the withdrawn lands are 

restored to the public domain and may thereafter be assumed to be 

nonirrigable. The regulations require that the application for segregation shall include full data to show that the land is nonmineral 

and desert land and is irrigable and that the project is feasible. 

A field investigation is made by the General Land Office and the case 

is referred to the Geological Survey for report. A careful analysis 

of the water supply of the project is then made by the Survey, and 

sufficient investigation of probable costs and returns is made to show 

whether the reclamation and settlement can probably be accomplished 

at a cost warranted by the value of the reclaimed lands. If the 

existing data relative to the amount of water available for the project 

are insufficient to warrant a reasonably definite conclusion as to the 

area that can probably be irrigated, a hydraulic engineer of the 

Geological Survey may be called upon to supplement them by stream 

gagings and such other determinations as seem advisable. When all 

the data are considered, an estimate of the allowable area is prepared 

and a definite report and recommendation on the case are made. 

Final adjustment of the area to be segregated and of the terms of 

the contract between the Secretary of the Interior and the State 

devolves upon the General Land Office.

The approval of the segregation list under present departmental 

practice is in effect a fairly reliable classification of the land as nonmineral, desert, and irrigable. The aim of the work as now conducted is to safeguard the welfare of prospective settlers, the necessary investment of capital, and the interest of the Government. 

Some attention is being paid also to construction and settlement on 

Carey Act projects. When data obtained after the segregation is 

made indicate that the area included in a project exceeds the land
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATEE RESOURCES. 187

that can be successfully irrigated, or when it is learned that constructing companies are attempting to increase the area of the project 

by selling water rights to owners of private lands and thus depriving 

the segregated lands of a portion of the water supply necessary for 

their complete reclamation, conferences are held with State authorities and prompt measures are taken to insure the protection of the 

settlers. It is hoped by such means to avoid the disastrous results 

that have heretofore too often attended operation under the Carey 

Act, to eliminate speculation, so far as possible, and to insure, so far 

as the department has the power,, that the settler who seeks a home 

on segregated lands will receive a sufficient area of land with a satisfactory water right at a reasonable cost.

IRRIGATION RESERVOIR SITES.

Withdrawals of sites for irrigation reservoirs under the acts of 

June 25, 1910 (36 Stat., 847), and August 24, 1912 (37 Stat., 497), 

are made in the same way as withdrawals of power sites whenever 

the investigations of the Geological Survey indicate that feasible 

locations exist. Such withdrawals are made in the interest of bona 

fide development and to withhold from adverse possession reservoirs 

required in connection with large irrigation projects, both public and 

private. Modifications of the withdrawals to permit occupation and 

use of the sites under the applicable right of way acts are made 

when the development is warranted and applications for modification 

are made by responsible parties.

PROCEDURE UNDER THE ENLARGED-HOMESTEAD ACT.

The classification of lands under the enlarged-homestead acts also 

devolves upon the Geological Survey, the Director having been 

instructed by the Secretary of the Interior to make recommendations 

of lands suitable for designation thereunder. Nearly 193,000,000 

acres of land have been designated in the States to which the provisions of the acts apply. Of this area, approximately 157,000,000 

acres were designated within three months after the passage of the 

earlier acts. This result was achieved in part by the use of topographic maps, the accumulation of 35 years of work, in connection 

with a large number of which unpublished land-classification sheets 

were on file; in part by tlie application of available data on rainfall, 

run-off, and stream flow; in part by consultation with the Reclamation Service; and in part by the cooperation of the several State 

engineers. In spite of the uncertainty incident to rapid work covering large areas, later information has shown that these designations were in general properly made. The cancellations of erroneous 

designations amount in the aggregate to about 615,000 acres, or less
188 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

than 0.4 per cent of the early designations. Since the first general 

designations were made numerous requests for the designation of 

additional areas have been received, and the work incident to the 

designation of lands under the enlarged-homestead acts now consists 

largely of the consideration of such requests, with office and field 

studies to determine whether the lands involved may properly be 

designated. The office studies include investigation of township 

plats, topographic maps, records of irrigation projects, rainfall .and 

stream-flow data, and other sources of information from which' a 

conclusion as to the suitability of the land for designation may be 

reached. In case field examination is made, the results are used in 

the office studies preceding designation.

Not all nonirrigable lands, however, may properly be designated, 

for it would obviously be useless to designate lands that could not be 

entered under the acts. Unsurveyed lands are not designated and 

newly surveyed lands are, by departmental order, withheld from 

designation until six months after the filing of the approved plats of 

survey in the local land office. Patented lands are, of course, not 

lands of the United States and are therefore eliminated from proposed designation. Lands on which there is sufficient rainfall for the 

production of ordinary crops without recourse to unusual methods of 

cultivation are not designated. Lands on which there is merchantable timber or which contain valuable minerals other than coal (in 

Utah coal, oil, or gas) are not properly subject to designation. Coal 

lands and in Utah coal, oil, or gas lands may be designated and entered subject to the terms of the acts providing for agricultural entries of the surface rights on such lands. Lands included in withdrawals or reservations of any kind or in Carey Act segregations are 

not properly subject to designation. Lands entered and in process of 

acquisition under the public-land laws may be designated if otherwise subject to the act, but lands included in subsisting entries under 

the desert-land act, being prima facie irrigable lands, are not properly subject to designation. Lands including sectio'ns granted to 

States as school lands are not designated unless they are excepted 

from the school grant.

Although no form of petition is specified for the use of those requesting the designation of lands under the enlarged-homestead acts, 

it is desired', in order that the Survey may have such information 

concerning the character of the land as the petitioner can supply, 

that such petitions be made on the usual form of application for 

entry of such lands, wherein the applicant sets forth under oath statements as to important features of the character of the land. Where 

this form is not used an affidavit setting forth essentially the same ^nformation is requested of the petitioner.
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 189

Orders of designation originating in the Geological Survey have 

been serially numbered both with general and State numbers. The 

form of letter and order used is here shown:

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,

Washington, January 6, 1913. 

The honorable the SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.

SIR : The following areas of kind to which the enlarged-homestead act of 

February 19, 1909 (35 Stat, 639), as construed by the department, is applicable 

are, in my opinion, not susceptible of successful irrigation at a reasonable cost 

from any known source of water supply, and I therefore recommend .their 

designation under the said act:

ENLARGED-HOMESTEAD DESIGNATION No. 210. 

Montana No. 59.

Montana meridian, Montana.

T. 9 N., R. 7 E., sec. 22, lots 2, 3, 4, and 5, NW. i of SE. \. 

[Here follows remainder of land description.]

a

The above-listed lands will be enterable under the provisions of the enlarged-homestead act in so far as they may be vacant, public, nontlmbered, 

and nonmineral and unaffected by any special provision of law, withdrawal, or 

reservation inconsistent with the provisions of said act. The surface of coal 

lands may, however, be entered subject to the reservation of the coal to the 

Government.

The area included in this designation is approximately 1,485 acres. None, 

of the lands listed above are withdrawn in oil, phosphate, or power-site reserves.

Arery respectfully, GEO. OTIS SMITH,

Director.

Approved January 28, 1913, and referred to the General Land Office to become effective February 27, 1913. SAMUEL ADAMS,

First Assistant Secretary.

The office record of the Survey relating to enlarged-homestead 

designations consists of State maps on which the designated lands 

are platted, a file of orders of designation arranged by serial numbers, a file of minutes similarly arranged showing the data on which 

the designation is based, and township cards on which are platted 

the designated areas. Cancellations are similarly recorded and filed, 

all designations and cancellations affecting any township, however, 

being shown on a single township card.
190 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

CLASSIFICATION AS REGARDS DOMESTIC USE. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

The problem of domestic water supply in an arid region is closely 

associated with the agricultural development of the region. In the 

broadest meaning of the term the use of water for domestic purposes 

includes not only its use in the household but by farm animals, by 

cattle on the range, and by the prospector in the desert wastes.

Permanent agricultural settlement depends on the presence of a 

water supply suitable for household purposes and for farm use. 

Under homestead laws requiring as their fundamental conditions 

both residence and cultivation, the extension of settlement to new 

areas is possible only Avhere the prospective homesteader finds water 

within a reasonable distance of his chosen location. Where water 

suitable for such use does not exist on the surface the homesteader 

must resort to wells; failing there, he must haul water. The labor 

and therefore the expense of hauling water are great. Uncleanliness 

and insanitation are almost enforced by the resulting economy of use. 

The conditions of water storage on the homestead do not usually tend 

to insure purity and frequently cause disease. The possibility of 

procuring a domestic water supply from wells in regions where 

surface waters are impure or altogether absent is thus a question of 

great importance.

In areas where the underground water resources are unexplored 

geologic investigation may determine the more favorable localities 

for putting down test wells, and in regions where the position of 

the water table is not known or is known but imperfectly the application of principles well known to the geologist may be of great assistance to the farmer and the well driller in forecasting the possibilities. To this end large areas in the arid region have been geologically 

investigated. The data relative to underground waters have been 

compiled and maps prepared, not only showing the position of the 

water table in proved areas but indicating the probable location of 

the water table in adjacent unexplored areas. The data thus obtained 

by the Geological Survey, many of them in cooperation with the 

States, are published and widely distributed in water-supply and professional papers.

FARM WATER SUPPLY.

A modification of the homestead laws to relieve the entryman of 

the necessity of residence on lands where a domestic water supply is 

not available and can not be obtained is operative in Idaho and Utah 

under the enlarged-homestead acts, whose provisions have been mentioned. The provision in these acts relating to domestic water supply
CLASSIFICATION IN RELATION TO WATER RESOURCES. 191

has been construed by the Department of the Interior as referring 

not only to surface waters but to the underground waters which 

could be reached by wells of reasonable depth. In determining 

the existence of such a domestic water supply and in recommending 

suitable lands for designation under the provisions of these acts, in 

regions where no potable surface waters exist, the Geological Survey 

takes into consideration the depth below the surface and the 

quality of the underground water, the amount of labor necessary to 

reach it by a well, and the cost of development compared with the 

agricultural value of the lands. The provisions of the law are considered particularly applicable to areas where substantial but fruitless efforts have been made to obtain such a water supply by digging 

wells. In procuring data for classification of lands of this class the 

Geological, Survey has been assisted by special agents of the General 

Land Office. To January 1, 1913, areas comprising 1,199,638 acres 

had been designated in Utah and 7,801 acres in Idaho as not having 

a suitable domestic water supply.

RANGE WATER SUPPLY.

The problem of the disposition of grazing lands is still largely 

unsettled. By the creation of national forests a large part of the 

summer range has come under the general scheme of forest administration and is leased by the Forest Service at a specified price per 

capita, but the unreserved public lands still include considerable 

areas of summer range, much of the fall and spring range, and a 

iarge proportion of the winter range. The control of the spring, 

summer, and fall range is rapidly passing into the hands of individuals and live-stock associations, not in general by securing title to 

the public lands as a whole but by the simple expedient of acquiring 

title to the water holes. The owner of the springs and streams located 

on an otherwise waterless range has obtained the use of the grazing 

land on far more favorable terms than if he had acquired absolute 

ownership. He is free from State land tax, he pays no rent to the 

Government, and no rival sheep or cattleman may water at his wells. 

Except for the period when snow, by providing water, may make 

invasions by rival stockmen possible, he is secure in his possession.

As a remedy for this situation, disposition of the grazing lands by 

sale and by lease has been advocated, and several bills dealing with 

the situation have been introduced in Congress. If, as is advocated 

by the Interior Department, a leasing system is adopted, it is apparent that the Government would be at a serious disadvantage in 

proper administration unless watering places were also available for 

lease. As a step in the working out of a definite policy for the administration of public grazing lands outside of national forests the
192 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

withdrawal of public watering places under the authority conferred 

by the acts of June 25,1910 (36.Stat., 847), and August 24, 1912 (37 

Stat., 497), has been sanctioned by the President. The first withdrawal for this purpose was approved by him on March 29, 1912. 

The effect of withdrawals of this character is to prevent alienation 

of the lands pending legislation governing their use under public 

control, but the use of the watering places by all is meantime possible 

under such conditions that no user can acquire the right of permanent 

exclusive occupation.

These withdrawals are based upon field investigation by members 

of the Geological Survey and some of them on reports of General 

Land Office inspectors. Careful consideration is given to the relation of the watering place to the surrounding range and its value in 

connection with grazing on the public lands. Agricultural lands susceptible of successful cultivation have been excluded from withdrawal except in regions where most of the watering places have 

passed into private ownership and it becomes imperative to reserve 

water for stock, even at the expense of settlement.

MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY.

An incidental classification of lands as valuable for domestic water 

supply arises through right of way applications for municipal systems. In general, where sources of water supply are sought for 

municipal purposes their value therefor far exceeds their value for 

power or irrigation. Approval of such right of way applications 

therefore amounts to a definite, classification of the lands affected. 

The lands may be used for reservoirs, conduits, stream protection, 

or any other purpose relating to municipal water supply.

Such right of way applications are referred to the Geological 

Survey for report. In view of the relatively high value of water for 

municipal supply, the question whether the application provides for 

the highest use is seldom considered. The most troublesome question 

is to determine whether the application is really made for municipal 

purposes. If the application is made by a municipality this question is readily answered, but if a private water company makes the 

application it may be difficult to determine whether the purpose is 

private or municipal. A strict showing of municipal authorization 

to the private company is required in such cases and constitutes the 

chief criterion for classification.

Lands embraced in permits for municipal water supply are withdrawn and reserved ih order that occupation in the interests of the 

municipality may be suitably protected.
INDEX.

A.

Agricultural land laws, acquisition

of mineral land under _ 

provisions of ____________ 

purpose of 

See also Homesteads ; Desert

land ; Timber and stone

land. 

Agricultural lands, existing public

domain in _ ___ _ 

Agriculture, information as to, from

classification __ __ 

Apex, law of ___________ 24, 

Appalachian field, oil in ______ 

Applicant's affidavits, classification

by 

Arizona, enlarged homesteads in_ _ 

Asbestos, occurrence of _ 

Ashley, G. H., work of _ _ 

Asphalt, occurrence of ________ 

Assessment work, requirement of_ 24, 

Authorship, division of ________

B.

Page.

36

20-23 

20

8

156

39,48

116

'33

22

140

9

140

25, 49

9-11

Ball, M. W., work of _________ 9

Base maps. See Topographic maps. 

Borax, occurrence of_________ 139 

Building stone, deposits of, laws concerning 25-26

California, oil in___________ 117 

Calkins, F. C., work of________ 10 

Campbell, M. R., work of__ __ 11 

Canals. See Irrigation canals__ 28 

Carey Act, proceedings under_ 185-187 

provisions of____________ 30 31 

Chance, H. M., curves of, use of, in

valuing coal lands __ 83 

Clark, F. R., work of_________ 10 

Classification. See Land classification ; Water supply. 

Coal, attitude of, allowance for, in

classification____.__ 70-73, 92 

attitude of, allowance for, in

valuation__ 87-92 

determination of _ __ 105 

broken beds of, allowance for, in

classification________ 70 

allowance for, in classification, chart showing__ _ 71 

burned beds of, allowance for, in

valuation __________ 79 

depth to, allowance for, in classification _,_______ 73-78 

allowance for, in valuation_75, 91-93

78894° Bull. 537 13 13

Page.

Coal, depth of, determination of__ 105 

depth of, limits of, chart showing _ __ 75 

irregular beds of, allowance, for,

in classification______ 72-73 

allowance for, in valuation_ 87-90 

chart showing _____ 89 

mining cost of, allowance for, in

valuation- _ ' 82 

figure showing _________ 85 

multiple beds of, valuation of_.- 93 

quality of, allowance for, in

classification________ 68-69

allowance for, in valuation_ 82

determination of _ 59,68,105-108

royalty on_____________ 80-81

sampling of, method of______ 108

thickness of, allowance for, in

classification________ 69-73

allowance for, in valuation 83-90

determination of ______ 100-104

value of, in ground __ _____ 79-81

weathering of, depreciation by_ 78-79

workability of, allowance for, in

classification -._____ 66-78 

See also Coal lands; Coal beds. 

Coal beds, persistence of ______ 100-104 

persistence of, uncertainty of__ 94 

Coal lands, access to, by rail, allowance for .:__ __ 95 

acquisition of, under agricultural

land laws __________ 36 

area of, still belonging to United

States ___________ 8

classification of, authority for__ 65

factors involved in _ 67-78

field methods of 50-53,59-60

methods of ___________ 66-79

organization for______ 16-17

principles involved in__ 66-67

procedure in __ 108 110

progress in _ 111

purpose of 65-66

review of_ ___ 95

regulations for _____ 96

coal in, value of, in ground__ 79-81

extent of_____________ 100-108

fa'ults in, allowance for__ 93

field work on___________ 98-108

40-acre tracts of, classification

by ________________ 78,99 

geographic location of_^____ 99 

geology of, necessity for field determination of ______ 99-100 

intrusions in, allowance for- 94 

laws concerning 27,37,45-46 

maximum price of _____ 95

193
194 INDEX.

Page.

Coal lands, prices of____ __ 81,95.

 restorations of _________ 52, 97-98

valuation of __!_______ 65, 79-95

allowance for faults in_ 93

diagram used in_ ___ 92

difficulty of___________ 47

factors in ______._______ 81-82

allowance for^ __ 82-95

maximum of___ _ 9f>

procedure in __ _ 108-110

regulations for__-____- 96-97

value per acre of _ __ 90-91, 95

withdrawals of____ 36-37, 52, 65-66

rules for_ __ . _ 37

typical form of ______. 65-66

See also Coal; Coal beds.

Coal section, organization of- 16

work of ________________ 16-17

Colorado, enlarged homesteads in_ 22

oil in _________________ 117

Colville Indian Reservation, failure

to classify lands in____ 144 

Contour lines, explanation of 57 

Crystalline rocks, occurrence of oil

in______________- 113

D.

Dam sites, physical details of_ 173

See also Water-supply sites. 

Desert-land laws, provisions of-__ 22 

Domestic use, classification for_ 190-192 

classification for, general princi^

pies of____________ 190 

See also Enlarged homesteads; 

Municipal use ; Range. . Duty of water, allowance for, in

classification _______ 183-184

E.

Elevations, determination of _ 57

Enlarged-homestead law, proceedings under__ 187-189, 190-191 

provisions of_-___-______ . 22 

Entries, fraudulent, defeat of, by

classification _ ____ 144-145

F.

Farm use, water for. See Enlargedhomestead law. 

Faults, allowance for, in valuing

coal lands _ ___ __- 93 

Field methods of classification, development of________ 50-53 

outline of __ _____ 98-108 

See also Surveys; particular

classes of lands.

Finch, E. H., work of_________ 10 

Float, investigation of_______ 151-153 

Florida, phosphate reserves in____ 125 

Forest homestead laws, provisions

Of ___________ 21 

Forty-acre tracts, classification by 78

G. Page,

Gaging stations, establishment of_ 173,182 

Gale, H. S., 'work of_________ 10 

Gas. See Oil and gas. 

General Land Office, cooperation

with-_____________ 13 

Geological Survey, U. S., classification by_____________ 35-43 

classification by, authorization

for __________ 11-13, 35

history of _____________ 35-36

evolution of_____________ 14-16

topographic maps of________ 14

Graphite, occurrence of__.._____ 140

Grover, N. C.,-work of________ 10

Guano, occurrence of _______ 140

Gypsum, occurrence of ____ 139

H.

Halite, occurrence of___-______ 139 

Hayes, C. W., work of________ 11 

Heroy, W. .B., work of _______ 10 

Homesteads, laws for, provisions of- 21-22 

relation of, to public-land withdrawals__________;____________ 44 

to power-site withdrawals__ 176 

See also Enlarged homesteads. 

Hydrographic classification-__ 16,17-18

I.

Idaho, enlarged homestead in__ 190-191 

phosphates in ______ 127 

Indiana, oil in___________ li6-117 

Indian reservations, classification of

lands of __-______ 143-144 

Internal improvement, land grants

for_____ _______ 30

Irrigation, character of land for_ 184-185

classification for ___ 178-189

factors in__________ 181-185

general considerations in__ 178-181

methods of_________ 185-189

duty of water in________ 183-184

water available for-__'____ 181-182

water utilized for_______ 182-183 

. withdrawals for_________ 185-187 

works for, character of, allowance for ____ ______ 185 

See also Enlarged homestead. 

Irrigation canals, right of way for,

laws concerning______ 28 

water in, loss of_ _______ 183 

Irrigation reservoir sites, withdrawals of________-- 187

Irrigation section, organization of 17 

work of -____--________ 17

Irrigation surveys, development of 14-15 

Isolated tracts, laws concerning 23

K.

Kansas, oil in___ 117 

King, Clarence, report of, on land

classification________ 12-13.
INDEX. 195

L. Page.

Land classification, agencies of 33-43

data for, chart showing 63

reports on _ 63-65

history of __< ___________ 18-50

laws for _____________ 12,18-32

See also Public-land laws;

Land grants.

methods of _________ 33-50, 66-79 

necessity for__________ 32-33

organization for, development of_ 11 

policy of __ ______ 9 

purpose ofl 7-9 

See also Water supply ; particular classes of land. 

Land-classification board, organization of__________ 13,15-18. 

recordb of ____________ 16-17,18 

Land grants. See State grants ; Railroad grants.

Land Office field service, classification by ___________ 34-35

Land Office maps, use of, in coal

classification _______ 58-60 

Lands, alienation of :_ 7 

character of, allowance for, in

classification _______ 184-185 

classification of. See Land classification.

utilization of ______ __ 7

value of, determination of_ __ 7-8

La Rue, E. C., work of________ 10

Leasing, desirability of _____ 46, 47-49

proposed allotment to States

from _____________ 49

returns fuorn- -49

Legislation, desirable, outline of- 46-50,

177-178

See also Withdrawals; Land 

classification; Mineral 

lands; etc.

Leighton, M. 0., work of______ 10

Lesher, C. E., work of________ 10

Lindgren, Waldemar, work of____ 11

Lodes, investigation of claims for_ 148-155

laws concerning_______ 24-25, 140

sampling of____________ 154-155

Magnesite, occurrence of _______ 140 

Maps, construction of, for coal 

0 classification________ 51-53 

improvement in ___________ 50 

See also Topographic maps. 

Mendenhall, W. C., work of_____ 9 

Metalliferous mineral lands. See 

Mineral lands, metalliferous. " 

Milling uses, right of way for, laws

concerning _________ 29 

Mineral classification, organization

for____________ 16-17,18 

Mineral, lands, classification of, byproducts of_______ 155-159 

classification of, field methods of. 

See Field methods.

Page.

Mineral lands, data on, preparation

of ______________ 63-63'' 

valuation of _____________ 79-95 

See also Coal lands; Oil and gas 

lands; Phosphate lands; 

Potash lands; Miscellaneous minerals; Mineral 

lands, metalliferous. 

Mineral lands, metalliferous, claims 

for, precedence over water-supply rights .____ 175 

classification of, agencies of__' 145 

field work in________ 146-155 

methods of_________ 145-155 

problems of__ __ 145-146 

procedure in__________ 146 

purposes of_______ _ 142-145 

laws for, provisions of______ 23-29 

- leasing of ______________ 48 

withdrawals of_____ 40-41,44-45 

Mining, aid to, from classification. 157-158 

Mining uses, right of way for, laws

concerning_________ 29

Miscellaneous minerals, data on 140-141

lands containing, withdrawal of- 142

laws on _________ ___ 140

occurrence of-_ 138-140

Missouri, oil in __ _ _ 117

Monazite, occurrence of_ __ 139

Montana, enlarged homesteads ln_ 22

Municipal use, water supplies for,

right of way for____:_ 29,192

N.

National Academy of Sciences, report of, on land classification _____________ 11 

Nevada, enlarged homestead in__ 22 

New Mexico, enlarged homestead in_ 22 

oil in_________________ 117 

Northrop, J. D., work of______ 10

0.

Ohio, oil in_______________ 116 

Oil, depth to, allowance for, in

classification___^__ 120-121 

quality of, allowance for, in

classification_______ 119-120 

Oil and gas, accumulations of, dependence of, on struc-" 

ture ____________ 114-116 

accumulations of, position of_ 112-116 

migration of _____ _ 112 

occurrence of, distribution of_ 116-117 

factors in_________ 112-116 

surface indications of____, 116 

See also Oil and gas lands. 

Oil and gas lands, adverse water-site

claims and, relations of- 175-176 

area of, still belonging to United

States ______:_____ 8 

classification of_ __ 111 

data for_____________ 118 

factors in __________ 118-121 

method of .__________ 118 

purpose of__ _ 117
196 INDEX.

Page.

Oil and gas lands, laws concerning- 26, 39 

leasing of_-____________ 47-48 

restorations of__________ 122-123 

withdrawals of 38-39, 44, 46,121-122 

legal authority for___ 43-44 

Bee also Oil and gas; Oil rock.

Oil and gas section, organization of_ 17 

work of_____ ____-- _ 17

Oil fields in United States, positions

of_____________ 116-117

Oil rock, character of _ 119 

depth of_______________ 119 

structure of____________ 114-116 

water in ________________ 120

Oklahoma, oil in__________ 117

Oregon, enlarged homestead in___ 22 

oil in _________________ 117

P.

Patents, application for, time limit

on_______________ 49 

Phosphate lands, area of, still belonging to United States _ 8 

classification of, factors in__ 128-129 

principles governing ____ 129-130 

regulations for________ 130-132 

diagram illustrating ____ 131 

distribution of _________ 124-128 

restorations of __________ 134 

withdrawals of _ 39-40,125-128,132-133 

Phosphates, definition of _ 124 

exports of 40 

lands containing, distribution

of_____________ 124,128 

production of, in United States_ 124 

use of _______________ 123-124 

Phosphate section, organization of 17 

work of 17 

Phosphorus, depletion of, in farming land__________ 123-124 

Placers, investigation of claims

for_______________ 147-148

laws concerning__________ 25, 40

Potash deposits, formation of__ 135-136

occurrence of __________ 134-135

search for _____________ 40,136

Potash lands, classification of____ 137

exploration for_________ 40

leasing of---__ ___-__ 48

withdrawal of_____-____ 40, 137

Bee also Potash deposits.

Powell, J. W., report of, on land

classification________ 11-12 

Power development, grants for, laws

concerning__________ 28-29 

Prospecting, aid to, from classification_____________ 157-158 

permits for _ _ ___ _ 48 

Public-land laws. See Agricultural 

lands ; Mineral lands ; Coal 

lands; Public uses.

Public-land surveys, methods of ___ 61-62 

Public uses, lands for, laws concerning_________ 27-29, 192 

lands for, leasing of 49 

Pyrite, occurrence of 140

R. Page.

Railroad grants, classification of

lands of_________.__ 143 

laws concerning-'_________ 31-32 

Railroads, access by, to "coal land,

allowance for _______ 95 

right of way grants to______ 27-28 

routes for, over water-power

sites ___________ 16§, 172 

Range, water supply on, withdrawals for______ 42-43,191-192 

"Reclamation, development of____ 14-15 

laws for________________ 19, 22 

Reconnaissance surveys, methods of- 60 61 

Reservoir sites, withdrawals of___ 42

See also Water-supply sites. 

Restorations of lands, extent of__ 52 

See also particular classes of 

lands; Water-power sites^ 

etc.

Richards, R. W., work of_______ 10 

Right of way, grants for, laws concerning______ 27-29, 161,192 

leasing of __________ . _____ 49 

River surveys, execution of____ 173 

Rocky Mountains, oil in_______ 117 

Rogers, G. S., work of________ 10

S.

Salines, laws concerning_______ 26 

origin of _____________ 135-136 

See also Potash deposits. 

Salt, common, occurrence of_____ 139 

School lands, classification of____ 145 

grants of, laws concerning!-__ 29 

Scientific data, acquirement of, from

classification_______ 158-159 

Schultz, A. R., work of_______ 10 

Sedimentary rocks, oil in_____ 113 114 

Separations, authority for_____ 45-46

definition of ______________ 37, 45 

extension of _________ 46-47,177 

Smith, G. 0., report of, on land

classification________ 13 

Soapstone, occurrence of _______ 139 

Stabler, Herman, work of ______ 10 

States, allotments from proceeds of

leases to, proposal of__ 49 

State grants, laws concerning____ 29-31 

Stone, deposits of, laws concerning- 25 26 

Stone and timber land law, provisions of ____ ____ 23 

Stream flow, records of_______ 181-182 

Structure, importance of, in oil-land

classification_______ 114-116 

Structure contours, explanation of 57-58 

Surveyors, deputy, classification by_ 34 

Surveys for mineral classification,

methods of _________ 53-62 

topographic base for, existence

of _______________ 53-54 

making of ___-___- 55-58 

need for_____________ 53-58 

See also Reconnaissance surveys; 

Public-land surveys.
INDEX. 197

T. Page.

Talc, occurrence of 139 

Tennessee, phosphate reserves in 126-127 

Timber and stone land law, provisions of____ - 23 

Topographic maps of Geological Survey, character of 53-54 

construction of, for coal classification_______ 51-53 

improvement in ____ 50 

making of _____ 55-58* 

uses of 14, 50 

Township, sample, map of, showing

coal classification_ 63

U.

Utah, enlarged homestead in 190-^.91 

oil in _____________ 117 

phosphates in _ 127

V.

Valuation of lands, determination

of______________ 8 

Veatch, A. C., work of__ 11

W.

Washington, enlarged homesteads in_ 22 

oil in _________________ 117 

Water, duty of, allowance for, in

classification______ 183-184 

highest use of, principle of__ 160 

utilization of, principles of__ 159-161 

Water laws, State, divergences in _ 183 

Water power, development of, on 

public land, recommendations concerning____ 177-178 

Inferior value of 160 

monopoly in______________ 161 

protection against ______ 161 

nonexclusiveness of ______ 160-161 

Water-power section, organization

of _______________ 17 

work of - _____ ___ 17

Page. 

Water-power sites, adverse claims

to____________ 175-176 

classification of _________ 161-178 

commercial factors

in________ 167-168,171-172 

engineering factors in___ 169-171 

field work for________ 167-174 

Initiation of __________ 162 

legislation recommended

for _____'_______ 177-178 

comparative value of, for other

purposes ___________ 167-168

detailed investigation of__ 172-173 

exclusion of land from__ ^ 176-177

See also Restorations, 

location of _____________ 167 

preliminary investigation of_ 168-172 

restorations of _______ 174-175

transmission of power from _ 161

valuation of__________ 167-168

withdrawals of___ 41-42, 161-167,174

chart illustrating_______ 166

Water reserves, public, withdrawal

of__________ 42-43,191-192 

Water supply, available amount of_ 181-182 

classification in relation to_ 159-192 

information concerning, from

classification_________ 156-157 

right of way for_________ 192 

utilization of, for irrigation.. 182-183 

See Water-power sites; Irrigation;

Domestic use.

Wegemann, C. I-L, work of_____ 10 

West, phosphate reserves in___ 125-126 

Withdrawals, action of Geological

Survey in________ 35-42

authority for____________ 43-45

extent of _____________ 52 

law for ____________ 19-20

object of _ __ ________ 8 

See also particular classes of

land. 

Woodruff, E. G., work of________ 10

Wyoming, enlarged homesteads in 22 

oil in_ ____________ _ 117 

phosphates in_ _ _____ 127

o