chapter 4
growth and maturity, 1946–1975

[Opposite] Home sweet home. After decades of hope and promises 

followed by disappointment, in 1955 the AFIP finally had a new, 

and this time permanent, home. The institute is pictured here 

just prior to dedication ceremonies formally opening the building. 

(NCP 17327)
 

| 109

FFor nearly 30 years following the end of World War II, the institute was char

-

acterized by tremendous growth and maturity: growth in terms of personnel, 

missions, departments, specialties, and subspecialties, and maturity in terms of 

how staff members interacted with each other, the military and civilian medi-

cal communities, other federal agencies, and medical professionals around the 

globe. But before that growth and maturity could be realized, what had offi-

cially become the Army Institute of Pathology by mid-1946 would need an even 

broader mandate and a new home.

Justification for the institute’s expansion was enthusiastically summarized in a 

research study requested by the surgeon general and conducted by the National 

Research Council. The council’s 1945 final report read: 

Today, the Army Institute of Pathology is truly the central laboratory of 

pathology and medical illustration for the entire United States Army. 

The extraordinary amount and variety of material at the disposal of the 

institute is unmatched elsewhere in the world. This material offers unlimited 

opportunities for the study of structural tissue changes and correlation 

with clinical observations. With proper development of facilities and 

personnel, the Army Institute of Pathology can become a guiding force in the 

furtherance of pathology in this country and the world.”1(p269) 
110 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 111

The council’s report also noted the antiquated, overcrowded conditions in the “Old Red 

Brick” and recommended construction of a new facility to allow the institute to expand 

activities and modernize operations.

The need for a new home was echoed and magnified by Brigadier General Raymond O

Dart in his 1947 Annual Report of the Army Institute of Pathology: 

Research in morbid anatomy constitutes but one of the phases of pathologic 

investigation. If research problems in pathology are to be properly correlated with 

medical problems as a whole, laboratory investigation and animal experimentation 

are indispensable. These phases of investigation are not available to members of the 

staff on the present premises of the Army Institute of Pathology. This deficiency is 

keenly felt by members of the professional staff who are trained to think and work 

in broader terms, but who cannot exercise their abilities and tendencies in this 

direction under the present circumstances.”1(pp282–283)

Between 1946 and 1950 much discussion took place among institute leaders, the Army 

Surgeon General’s Office, and Congress about construction of a new home, including 

what components it should comprise, possible locations, and costs. During these 

years it became abundantly clear that the Old Red Brick could no longer support both 

the pathology function and museum activities. During World War II the amount of 

material examined by the Division of Pathology amounted to three-fourths as much 

as had been received by the museum during its entire previous existence. Additionally, 

more space was needed by the Army Illustration Service, which was receiving vast 

quantities of significant material. Consequently, the museum functions were moved 

out of Old Red Brick, across Independence Avenue, and into Chase Hall, a building 

that had served as a barracks for the women’s reserve contingent of the Coast Guard 

during the war. On May 7, 1947, the museum opened its doors to the public at its 

new location, where it remained until 1960, when yet another set of relocations would 

begin, ending with the museum physically rejoining the institute in 1971.1(p280)

[Opposite] Lack of space in the “Old Red Brick” 

led to the Army Medical Museum’s move into 

Chase Hall, where it would it remain until 1960. 

(NCP 2406)

[Top] Brigadier General Raymond O Dart, first 

director of the AFIP, 1949–1950. (MIS 05-6214-1)
112 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

While building plans slowly progressed, two other key issues were resolved: the location for the building, 

and the broader concept of the place of the Army Institute of Pathology in the overall scheme of military 

medicine. In 1947 the Committee on Medical and Hospital Services of the Armed Forces—headed 

by Major General Paul RHawley, formerly chief surgeon of the European Theater of Operations, 

and known as the “Hawley Board”—was charged with conducting a thorough and objective study of 

military medical services. Early in the board’s deliberations Walter Reed General Hospital Reservation 

was chosen as the institute’s new location. And most importantly, the committee recommended that the 

institute become “the central laboratory of pathology for all of the Armed Forces, as well as the Veteran’s 

Administration, with the appropriate change of name to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology.” In 

February 1949 these recommendations were approved by then Secretary of Defense James V Forrestal, 

and on July 6, 1949, the name change became official with the issuance of Department of the Army 

General Orders, Number 32. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) became a triservice 

organization under the command of the director, with administrative jurisdiction assigned to the Army 

surgeon general.1(pp284–285)

On July 10, 1951, preparation for the AFIP’s new site was started with traditional groundbreaking 

ceremonies. The outer walls of the building were halfway up when the cornerstone-laying ceremony 

was held on October 20, 1953. And by mid-February 1955, the institute began its move out of Old 

Red Brick and into its new quarters on the Walter Reed campus. Finally, on May 26, 1955, the AFIP 

was officially dedicated, featuring an address 

by President Dwight D Eisenhower before an 

audience of approximately 3,000 people, in 

which he said, “Some years ago those of us who 

were advocating unification of the services 

saw something of this kind in the offing, even 

though we were ignorant of the exact form 

these developments would take. For that reason 

I couldn’t be happier that three of the services 

are combined in this effort. And so I dedicate 

this building to the conquest of disease so that 

mankind, more safe and secure in body, may 

[Opposite] The Army Medical Museum’s 

main exhibit area in Chase Hall in 1948. 

Despite its physical separation from the institute, the museum’s popularity remained 

strong, attracting 8,500 visitors in its first 

month at Chase Hall. In 1962, with the 

AFIP by then in its permanent home, the 

museum returned to Old Red Brick, where 

it stayed until 1968. (NCP 2598)

Scale model of the original design for the 

AFIP building. This design was abandoned 

after a short-lived presidential directive 

that certain federal buildings be blastresistant made the design too costly. The 

result was a sharp reduction in the size of 

the final building (see page 107), whose 

design would seal the institute’s place in 

architectural history. (NCP 2001) 
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 113
Major General George E Armstrong, the Army surgeon general, turns the sod at the AFIP 

groundbreaking ceremony on 

July 10, 1951. The ceremonial 

spade used in the event is still 

a part of the collection of 

AFIP’s National Museum of 

Health and Medicine. 

(MIS 21836-191133)

[Opposite] Construction 

photo circa early 1953. The 

new home takes shape. 

(MIS 53-23011)


Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 117

more securely advance to a widely shared prosperity and an enduring and just peace.”1(p310) With 

these words, and with new facilities to advance the field of pathology, the institute was well on its 

way to replacing Germany and Austria as the global center of pathology.

Occupancy of the new building made it possible, 

for the first time, to formulate and carry out a 

comprehensive program of pathology, which 

the institute lost no time in undertaking. 

The expansion of professional services 

was consistently focused on the institute’s 

Department of Pathology—the core of its 

operation, containing nearly two-thirds of the 

entire staff. Closely related to the Department of 

Pathology in the AFIP structure, even sharing 

staff, was the American Registry of Pathology 

(ARP). Several registrars of the individual 

registries that made up the ARP were senior 

pathologists who headed specific branches and 

sections of Department of Pathology. At the time of occupancy of the new building there were 

22 individual registries, with a total of 119,000 cases in their files; 7 years later the number of 

registries had grown to 27 and the number of cases to more than 200,000.

The number of cases coming into the AFIP between the mid-1950s and 1975 averaged 

between 50,000 and 70,000 per year. The number was limited by a June 1950 regulation 

requiring that only specimens derived from surgery on tumors or tumor-like conditions, as 

well as other surgical specimens requiring confirmatory diagnoses, be sent to the institute. 

Despite the regulation, cases continued to flow into the institute in high numbers through 

1952, when a high of 118,704 cases was reached before submissions gradually declined to a 

more manageable rate. But caseload figures only scratch the surface of the development of 

AFIP’s consultative services.

[Opposite] Assistant Secretary of Defense 

for Health and Medicine Melvin Casberg 

spreads mortar for the cornerstone during 

the official cornerstone-laying ceremony on 

October 20, 1953. “As I spread the mortar 

which will unite the cornerstone with this 

building, it shall be my prayer that all our 

medical resources, civilian as well as military, 

similarly shall be cemented in a united fight 

against disease and for the preservation of 

our country,” he said during ceremonial 

remarks.1(p306) (MIS 53-22003-46)

[Top] President Eisenhower delivers his 

dedication speech during the ceremony.

(MIS 55-10841-6)
118 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The institute’s ability to handle a high volume of cases was enhanced by acquisition of 

new technologies such as the electron microscope and the ultracentrifuge, as well as 

new techniques using X-ray technology. At the same time, continuous and innovative 

development of new stains by AFIP histologists meant that pathologists had an evergrowing arsenal in the histopathology laboratories to help them diagnose cases. 

While remaining primarily focused on traditional pathology pursuits, the institute also 

broadened its breadth and scope during this period. Additions included a laboratory 

animals branch, a joint committee on aviation pathology, an aerospace pathology branch, 

a geographic pathology division, and a forensic pathology branch—a branch whose 

extensive expertise was regularly requested to assist with high profile autopsies, such as 

those of President John F Kennedy and Senator Robert Kennedy. 

As its pathology efforts expanded and matured, so too did the AFIP’s education function. 

Education programs in the late 1950s and early 1960s included postgraduate short 

courses, individual training on a residency or fellowship basis, lectures to and by staff 

members, seminars on pathology topics, and active duty training for reserve officers. The 

institute’s global reputation meant that nearly 1,000 foreign nationals from more than 40 

countries attended AFIP courses during the first 6 years in its new building. By 1970 the 

AFIP was conducting 19 postgraduate courses per year, and by 1975 that number grew to 

32, with a total attendance of 3,127. 

The AFIP’s research function exploded during this time. More than 200 investigations 

were carried out in the first 5 years in the new building. In addition to the hundreds 

of thousands of neoplasms that were examined and diagnosed by AFIP doctors, staff 

conducted studies of the biological and biochemical effect of microwaves, the response 

of cells to acute radiation, the neuropathology of nuclear and cosmic radiation, the 

structure and functions of various tissues, and the effects of toxic agents on various 

organs. The new building also opened the door to expanded experimental pathology 

using animals. The Laboratory Animals Branch of the Department of Pathology had a 

dual mission of both caring for the animal population and consultation to staff members 

Brigadier General Elbert DeCoursey, second director of 

the AFIP, 1950–1955. General DeCoursey is credited for 

the successful transition from the Old Red Brick to the 

new AFIP headquarters with a minimum disruption of 

work. (MIS 55-14699)

[Opposite] More than 3,000 people gathered in front of 

the AFIP for the May 26, 1955, dedication ceremony and 

address by President Dwight D Eisenhower.

120 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

on experimental surgery. The average number of animals maintained in the 12 months of 

1960 was about 2,800 per month, including mice, hamsters, rats, rabbits, and guinea pigs. 

Other groundbreaking research efforts throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and into the ’70s included 

investigative studies into radiation injuries on the Japanese 

who died from atomic bomb blasts at the close of World 

War II, leprosy, malaria, tuberculosis, infectious hepatitis, 

underwater deaths involving scuba gear, tissue reactions 

to drugs, battered child syndrome, rabies encephalitis 

among service members, injury patterns in military aircraft 

accidents, wound ballistics, effects of prolonged immersion 

during hyperbaric exposure, and the role of dental 

identification in aircraft accidents.

Just as important to the institute’s maturation were 

collaborations by staff with each other and with outside 

agencies. In addition to establishing and maintaining 

relationships with the academic pathology community, 

the AFIP built enduring ties with such organizations as the American Medical Association, 

Food and Drug Administration, World Health Organization, National Institutes of Health, 

Veterans Administration, National Air and Space Administration, Army Medical Research and 

Development Command, Army Materiel Command, National Academy of Sciences, and the 

Smithsonian’s National Zoological Park.

Within the institute, collegiality flourished during these years. With an influx of talent from 

around the world, pathologists were eager to learn from each other and seek other opinions 

on tough diagnoses. The design of the building’s interior and sharing of laboratory space 

were conducive to regular interaction and cross-fertilization between the various pathology 

divisions. As famed AFIP pathologist and former long-time chairman of the Department of 

Soft Tissue, Dr Franz Enzinger, once said about the early years of the institute, “Everything was 

available. There was no lack of equipment or even lack of support. The pathologists, clinical 

administration and the laboratory staffs functioned collaboratively and functioned extremely 

Plaque with a quote from 

President Eisenhower’s dedication remarks. The plaque 

is on display on the outside 

wall at the AFIP entrance. 

(MIS 09-10367-1)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 121

well. Even in the first two or three years that I was here, I learned a great deal about other fields 

of pathology, as much or more than I would have learned in a very large hospital.”2

 Although 

this atmosphere of collegiality ebbed and flowed many times during the institute’s long history, 

from the 1940s through the mid-1970s it nurtured the AFIP through growing pains as the 

institute and the field of pathology matured. n

s Form and Function

Th e AFIP’ s n ew e i g h t- s to ry, 70,000 square-foot, permanent home was constructed 

of heavily reinforced concrete throughout, including the transverse walls surrounding the 

double-corridor design of the interior. Openings in the outer walls of the central mass were 

fitted with blast-resistant doors. The heart of the building consisted of a central rectangular 

block of research laboratories, surrounded by passageways separating the laboratories from 

the offices located against the windowless walls. Running through the research laboratories 

was a 3-foot-wide mechanical core that supplied electricity, gas, and compressed air. At the 

ends of the building were four-story outer sections that did have windows and contained 

additional office space.1(pp306–307)
122 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Opposite] Air Force Staff Sergeant Frank Avallone just 

prior to his assignment to AFIP in 1954, when it was still 

located in Old Red Brick. (NCP 17337) 

[Left] Now a research biologist, Frank Avallone examines 

a grossed whole prostate in April 2010. Avallone is the only 

remaining AFIP staff member who has worked for the institute since the building opened in 1955. (NCP 17329)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 123

s Frank Avallone on Day One in the AFIP’s New Home

“Ou t s id e , m y fir s t s i g h t of t h e b ui l din g was awesome—a huge concrete 

monolithic structure with no windows. The only windows I did see were located on 

the jutted out ends of the building, which I found out were referred to as blisters. I 

entered the building on the ground level at the south side. Once inside I saw that each 

of the blister areas was protected by two huge, metal blast doors that rode on a metal 

plate in the floor. In the event of a nuclear attack on the city, the blister areas were to 

be evacuated and the blast doors were to be closed and locked.

“I located the rooms I was assigned to near the histology laboratories on the second 

floor of the North Wing. I selected my work area and began to unpack and set up so 

that we could be a functional entity quickly. We had to set up everything—paraffin 

ovens, processors, staining areas and so forth. It was a whole new ballgame—a bit 

chaotic to say the least. But our supervisors had a good handle on everything and 

it all went smoothly. We all took some time during the first day to walk around and 

familiarize ourselves with the different areas and to see where our friends were located. 

The laboratories themselves were very bright and spacious—the lighting was great and 

we had all metal, green cabinets with stone tops, as opposed to the wooden cabinetry 

at Old Red Brick. There were truly many neat things about the building and we were 

pleased with our new home. It had every amenity to make it a self-sufficient mini-city 

for at least a week or so in case of a nuclear attack. However, many of us missed two 

things—the lack of windows and being on the mall next to the Smithsonian.

“I have many great memories of that first day. Everyone pitched in, helping wherever 

they could and assisting anyone who asked. AFIP was truly a family oriented 

organization, and the director, Brig Gen Decoursey, was truly a family oriented 

individual who treated both military and civilians like members of one family. A 

great place to work and great people to work with. In summary, the first day was 

AWESOME!” (F Avallone, e-mail, 29 June 2010)
[Left] Herman Van Cott, chief of the AFIP’s 

Medical Illustration Service in the 1940s and 

1950s. (MIS 62-2108-3) 

[Top] The AFIP emblem designed by Van Cott in 

1952 is still in use today. 

[Opposite] Ham, the first chimpanzee in space, 

is greeted by the recovery ship commander following his 1961 flight on NASA’s Mercury Redstone

rocket. By this time, AFIP veterinary pathologists 

had already established a strong relationship with 

NASA and its early experiments with various 

animals in the space program. As was the case 

with other space flights using animals, an AFIP 

veterinary pathologist was on board the recovery 

ship when Ham landed to conduct a post-flight 

health examination. Ham was found to be 

fatigued and slightly dehydrated, but otherwise 

in good shape. Ham lived until 1983. His skeletal 

remains are part of the collection in AFIP’s 

National Museum of Health and Medicine. The 

museum also is the home of the remains of Able, a 

rhesus monkey. Able and a squirrel monkey were 

the first American mammals to survive a ride 

into space. (NASA file photograph: Ham_

Retrieval_GPN-2000-001004)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 125

[Top] Navy Captain William M Silliphant, third director of the AFIP, 1955–

1959. Having previously spent 5 years as director of laboratories for the US 

Naval Medical School, National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, 

Silliphant was uniquely positioned to lead the institute during its first years in 

the new building. (MIS 05-06934)

[Bottom] Dr Ernest W Goodpasture, the AFIP’s first scientific director, 

1955–1959. Considered one of pathology’s greats, Goodpasture was charged 

with completing the organization and staffing of the Department of Pathology, 

which previously had been limited to the Pathology Division. Under the new 

organization, the division was joined by the Basic Laboratories Division and 

the Dynamic Pathology Division to make up the new department. 

(MIS 59-01167)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 127

[Opposite] An animal care specialist looks after dogs in AFIP’s 5th floor animal housing room circa 1965. During the 1950s and 1960s the institute’s veterinary pathologists conducted extensive testing on the over 80 diseases that are communicable from animals to humans. As early as 1960 the Veterinary Pathology Division included 11 veterinarians, one of 

the largest aggregations of veterinary pathologists in the country at that time. (MIS 59-04678) 

[Left] Tissue specimens in storage in large, 20-gallon crock jars. (MIS 56-21661-9)

[Right] An AFIP staff member shows visitors specimens stored in sealed plastic bags containing a small amount of formalin, a method that superseded the crock jars in the late 1950s 

and early 1960s. The plastic bag storage system saved space, eased handling of specimens, and eliminated formalin fumes. At the same time, efforts were underway to find a closer 

location for storage of the remaining specimens, which were kept in a warehouse in Franconia, Virginia, 25 miles away. This effort eventually led to creation of a permanent tissue 

repository at Walter Reed’s Forest Glen Annex. (MIS 06-3048)
128 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

Famed AFIP pathologist Dr Frank B Johnson (bottom right) with other AFIP staff members of the Histochemistry Branch at Old Red Brick in 1954. Johnson was chief of the section 

at the time. During his long and distinguished career with the institute, Dr Johnson served in many capacities, including chief of the Basic Sciences Division, chair of the Department 

of Chemical Pathology, and finally, chief of the Division of Chemical Pathology, Department of Environmental and Toxicologic Pathology from 1990 until his retirement in 2004. 

Johnson was also the first African-American pathologist appointed to the Senior Executive Service. His expertise in histochemistry and chemical pathology led to comprehensive research projects involving the identification of substances in tissue sections. In 1954 he coauthored a paper called “Chronic idiopathic jaundice with unidentified pigment in liver cells,” 

a condition that came to be known as Dubin-Johnson syndrome.3

 (NCP 17338)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 129

Dr Johnson (right) and Dr Monroe E Freeman, director of the Scientific Information Exchange of the Smithsonian Institute, discuss the benefits of AFIP’s 

electron microscope during Freeman’s visit to the AFIP in 1958. Dr Johnson was instrumental in acquiring AFIP’s first electron microscope and ultracentrifuge 

in the mid-1950s. Use of the electron microscope, with a magnifying power on the order of 250,000 diameters, gave pathologists the ability to see farther into 

the interior cellular structure than was possible with the optical microscope. With such instrumentation and methodology, the pathology of diseases could be 

traced beyond the cell to the intracellular and molecular level.1(p350) The AFIP had acquired six electron microscopes by 1965. (NCP 17339)
[Top] Dr Kenneth Earle examines a case file circa 1965. Serving as chief of neuropathology from 1962 to 1979, Dr Earle was 

instrumental in designing a course to prepare pathologists, neurologists, and neurosurgeons for specialty board certification. In 

February 2010, the AFIP conducted the 48th iteration of this 5-day course, now known as the Dr Kenneth M Earle Memorial 

Neuropathology Review. (MIS 09-10241-1)

[Inset] Air Force Colonel Frank M Townsend, fourth director of the AFIP, 1959–1963. (MIS 05-07036)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 131

[Top Left] Captain William Stahl, chief of forensic pathology, 

1965–1975. (MIS 05-6973-5-29533) 

[Top Right] Colonel Richard Froede, chief of the Department of 

Forensic Sciences, 1968–1976. (MIS 05-6340-6)

Drs Stahl and Froede played vital roles in solidifying the reputation of 

forensic pathology as a legitimate and valued field within the military. 

Stahl developed an extensive education program not only for forensic 

pathologists, but also for military investigators, attorneys, and other 

officers who might be involved in medico-legal death investigations. 

This program later evolved into a forensic sciences program at the 

master’s degree level in partnership with George Washington University. In 1968, Stahl and Froede also came up with the initial idea for 

what is now the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System. This plan 

came to fruition 20 years later when Froede returned to AFIP as the 

first armed forces medical examiner, with the charge of establishing 

the medical examiner system as a separate entity within the institute 

(see page 141). 

Dr Vincent J Hyams preparing coursework in the early 1950s, when the 

institute was still occupying the Old Red Brick. In 1966, then a Navy captain, 

Hyams was assigned to the institute, where he became director of the Otolaryngic Pathology Branch, a position he held until his retirement from the 

Navy in 1984. Although highly respected for his breadth of knowledge and 

diagnostic skills, he is most remembered for his teaching abilities and efforts 

to gain interest in and an understanding of pathology within the surgical 

community. (NCP 3075)
132 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

The expanded space of the AFIP’s new home meant increased opportunities for lectures to and by members of the institute staff, such as this one involving several departments in the 

Callender Teaching Laboratory, circa 1961. At around the same time the AFIP established weekly professional staff conferences for pathologists and scientists to share the results of 

their diagnostic, research, and investigative efforts with other members of the staff—a tradition that continues today. (MIS 56-5999)
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 133

In addition to lectures involving large numbers of staff, opportunities for more intimate and intensive studies by smaller groups increased throughout the 1960s. (MIS 58-2917-5)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 135

[Opposite] Dr Lent Johnson (left) and Smithsonian anthropologist T Dale Stewart 

examine various bone sets during a visit to the AFIP by Stewart in 1954. Dr Johnson 

served as chairman of the Department of Orthopedic Pathology from 1946 to 1980, 

and then as chairman emeritus from 1980 to 1998. Considered one of the world’s 

leading orthopaedic pathologists, Johnson was responsible for establishing the Bone 

Sarcoma Registry at the institute, as well as a bone laboratory and X-ray registry. He 

also developed a 300-hour basic science course for all military orthopaedic residents, as 

well as a separate 80-hour special training program in orthopaedic pathology. Johnson 

also performed pioneering work with micro x-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared lights, and 

polarized light forms to further advance the study of bone sarcomas. (MIS 54-2848-K.)

[Inset] Dr Kamal Ishak, who joined the AFIP staff in 1963 and became chief of the Hepatic Pathology Branch in 1965. Although raised and educated primarily in Egypt, Dr 

Ishak—as well as other foreign-trained pathologists—was attracted by AFIP’s growing 

reputation as the world leader in pathology. Ishak became one of the foremost hepatic 

pathologists in the world, starting with a landmark 1967 paper on malignant liver tumors in children that defined hepatoblastoma as an entity distinct from hepatocelluar 

carcinoma. In 1981 he devised the first version of the Histologic Activity Index (HAI) 

for evaluating biopsies from patients with chronic hepatitis. His further refinement of 

the HAI came to be known as the Ishak score. (NCP 17331)

[Top] Colonel TC Jones, chief of veterinary pathology, conducts a pathology session 

in the AFIP teaching lab in March 1956. The veterinary pathology sessions quickly 

became a weekly tradition named the “Wednesday slide conference.” Now entering 

its 58th year, the conference is a unique slide exchange program that provides classic 

veterinary pathology diagnostic training to a broad range of participants, and is an 

integral part of the core veterinary pathology training at more than 135 participating 

institutions throughout the world. (NCP 11426)

[Bottom] Dr Franz M Enzinger (at head of table) along with visiting pathologists from 

the First World Health Organization Committee for the Classification of Soft Tissue 

Tumors, circa 1961, which produced the first classification system for soft tissue pathologists, a system that came to be known as the Enzinger classification system. Enzinger 

joined the AFIP staff in 1957 and became chairman of the Department of Soft Tissue in 

1960, a position he held until 1988. During a 1993 interview for the AFIP’s oral history 

program, Enzinger said the following about his decision to apply for a job at the institute: “At that time, it was considered the mecca of pathology . . . the staff was very well 

known. So it was a plum appointment to come to the AFIP . . . the AFIP was actually 

not only the center of pathology in this country, but in the world.” (NCP 17332)
136 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 137

[Opposite | Top Left] An AFIP histotechnologist cutting a ribbon of tissue on a microtome in preparation 

for staining, circa 1954. (MIS 219791-4-29-1)

[Opposite | Bottom Left] In this 1953 photo, a 

histotechnologist stains slides prior to review by a 

pathologist. (MIS 219816-22-4-1)

[Opposite | Top Right] A histotechnologist stains a 

section of tissue in a petri dish using a medium called 

cellodin, circa 1954. (MIS 219791-17-3-2) 

[Opposite | Bottom Left] A vacuum oven used in 

the 1950s and 1960s, which helped paraffin thoroughly infiltrate a block of tissue, which in turn made 

the block easier to cut and preserve for future use. 

(MIS 219546-16041)

[Right] In this 1954 photograph, taken just prior to 

the move from the Old Red Brick, a histotechnologist prepares a tissue processor for operation. The 

machine sent wet tissue through a process using 

formalin, alcohol, and xyline, resulting in a paraffin 

block ready to be cut. It was often referred to as “the 

spider.” (MIS 219816-22-4-3)
138 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] During the 1950s and 1960s the AFIP became 

a world leader in histologic staining methods. Indeed, 

the 1968 edition of the Manual of Histologic Staining 

Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 

(pictured) by Lee Luna was the most widely used staining reference source in the world. (NCP 17328)

[Bottom] AFIP pathologists and officials marvel at 

the technology of the AFIP Computer Center during its grand opening on May 26, 1967. Left to right: 

Dr Elson B Helwig, Captain Bruce H Smith, Major 

General Joseph Blumberg, Dr Fathollah K Mostofi, and 

an identified staff member. The institute was one of a 

small group of medical facilities to pioneer the use of 

computers devoted solely to medicine. At the time, the 

AFIP had 1.2 million cases on file, which were used by 

staff members for diagnostic and research activities. The 

computer system made it possible for pathologists to access cases, which helped to diagnose new cases faster and 

with greater accuracy. (NCP 17334)

[Opposite | Top Left] The AFIP’s printing 

plant, which was included in the design of 

the new building. (MIS 62-2302-2) 

[Opposite | Bottom Left] Examples of early 

fascicles of the Atlas of Tumor Pathology. 

Popularity of the fascicles grew so quickly 

that by the early 1960s a nightshift had to be 

added to the printing plant to keep up with 

worldwide demand. (MIS 62-1976-4)
[Top Right] Luna, who served as chairman of the 

Department of Histopathology for 33 years, was 

frequently referred to as the “father of histology” by 

his peers. In 1965 he held the first AFIP Symposium in Histotechnology, which later grew into 

the National Society for Histotechnology.4

 (MIS 

08-1321-298-625)

[Bottom Right] Brigadier General Joseph M 

Blumberg, fifth director of the AFIP, 1963–1967. 

During his tenure, Blumberg significantly expanded 

research, particularly in geographic pathology and 

in the basic sciences of immunology and veterinary 

surgery. He also led the effort to obtain emerging computer technology for the institute. (MIS 

05-06082)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 141

s The AFIP Crest: Symbolism and Historical Significance

“Ad opt e d in 1964, t h e AFIP c r e s t, or blazon, contains a wealth of symbolism. 

The gold field and green border of the shield are derived from the yellow guidon 

with green border, which marked the way to field hospitals during the Civil War. The 

green stars in the field are taken from the constellation microscopium, a symbol of 

investigation. The five stars represent the investigative mission of the original Army 

Medical Museum: collection, preparation, illustration, procedures, and teaching. The 

canton is an augmentation to memorialize the great humanitarian service which the 

Army Medical Museum and the present day Armed Forces Institute of Pathology have 

rendered to the armed forces, the nation, and the world. Its green background is taken from the green robe of 

the ancient physician to represent the medical profession. The silver cross portrays the crusader spirit of the 

Hospitaler Orders of Knighthood, which dedicated themselves to the alleviation of suffering and lessening 

of mortality. The red lozenge is taken from the stone of the ring of the ancient physician, which symbolized 

protection from disease. The four sides of the lozenge allude to the ancient classification of the parts of man: 

head, chest, viscera, and limbs. The three conjoined bay leaves of the crest represent the armed forces of the 

United States: the Departments of the Army, Navy and the Air Force. The golden serpent symbolizes the 

cross-service medical services performed by the AFIP. Both the bay leaf and the serpent are ancient symbols 

of the science of pathology. Finally, the motto Consultatio Eruditio Investigatio reflects the missions of the 

AFIP: Consultation, Education, and Research.”5

 (NCP 17335)

References

1. Henry RS. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Its First Century, 1862–1962. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, 

Department of the Army; 1964.

2. Enzinger Franz M (pathologist and chairman of the Department of Soft Tissue, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology). Interview 

by Charles Stuart Kennedy, AFIP Oral History Program. 12 May 1993. Available at: http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/

collections/archives/aproducts/aoralhistories/enzinger.pdf. Accessed 8 September 2010.

3. AFIP Letter. Vol 163, No. 3 (Fall 2005): 6–7. 

4. AFIP Letter. Vol 150, No. 2 (April 1992): 4. 

5. “Seal, AFIP” folder, AFIP Historical Files, Box 121, Otis Historical Archives.

6. AFIP Letter. Vol 129, No. 5 (June 1971): 2. 

7. Seldam REJ, Helwig EB. Histological Typing of Skin Tumours. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1974. 

International Classification of Tumours, No. 12.

[Opposite] Forensic pathologists 

preparing to conduct an autopsy 

in the AFIP’s autopsy suite. During the 1960s and into the 1970s 

the institute’s Military Environmental Pathology Division 

evolved into the Department of 

Forensic Sciences, which included 

forensic pathology, aerospace 

pathology, accident pathology, 

and legal medicine. A forensic fellowship program was developed, 

and educational programs were 

begun to train military investigators how to work with forensic 

pathologists. By the mid-1970s 

many of the most prominent 

forensic pathologists in the nation had trained or worked at 

the AFIP. These early programs 

paved the way for what would 

later become the Armed Forces 

Medical Examiner System (see 

page 131). (MIS 59-4678-124)
142 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
[Opposite] Dr William Manion, chief of the Cardiovascular Branch 

(right), discusses cases with visitors to the AFIP circa 1965. Manion joined 

the AFIP in 1953 and served as chief of the Cardiovascular Branch until 

1970. During that time he contributed greatly to the institute’s reputation 

as a world leader in cardiovascular pathology. (MIS 05-6629-A)

[Top Left] Furniture being moved out of the Old Red Brick in 1968. The 

historic building was subsequently demolished to make room for a new 

building that would house the Hirshhorn collection of modern art. 

(NCP 3889-2)

[Bottom Left] Workmen take down the sign from the Old Red Brick that 

referenced its 1964 designation as a national historic landmark by the Department of the Interior— a designation that was later interpreted as being 

applicable to the museum’s collections, not the building itself. The collections 

then went into storage while the new addition to the AFIP was being built. 

(NCP 3833)

[Inset] Captain Bruce H Smith, sixth director of the AFIP, 1967–1971. It 

was under Captain Smith’s watch that the Army Medical Museum moved 

out of the Old Red Brick, and a new addition to the AFIP was constructed 

to house the museum. (MIS 05-6949-10B) 
144 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011
Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 145

[Opposite] Captain Smith turns the sod at the March 22, 1968, 

groundbreaking ceremony for the new wing of the AFIP to house the 

museum and additional office space. (MIS 68-2777-37)

[Top] Captain Smith makes welcoming remarks at the May 21, 

1971, opening of the Army Medical Museum at its new home. 

Featured at the ceremony was the surgeon general of the Army, 

Lieutenant General Hal B Jennings Jr, who observed: “What has 

been accomplished in the museum in the more than a century since 

its founding has been done in the interest of humanity. We have seen 

man’s ability to contribute to and control his physical surroundings 

as steps toward making the world a better place in which to live. So, 

as we now observe the museum’s reopening, and the continuation of 

its second century of service, it’s our earnest belief that the staff of experts in this superb facility will continue to meet the future challenges 

to medical science as they have in the past and they shall remain 

dedicated to the conquest of disease for the benefit of all mankind.”6

(MIS 71-6133-38)

[Bottom] Visitors tour the inside of the museum following opening 

ceremonies. The public part of the museum was divided into four 

specialized exhibit halls whose names honored influential leaders in 

the museum’s long and distinguished history. The Hammond Hall 

of Pathology displayed plastic mounted tissues arranged in an organ 

system. The Brinton Hall of History portrayed the history of pathology. The Billings Hall of Instruments featured the “Evolution of the 

Microscope” exhibit. The Silliphant Hall of Current Events featured 

selected subjects of current research at the institute. 

(MIS 71-6133-94)
146 | Armed Forces Institute of Patholo gy, 1862–2011

[Top] Construction of the museum space nears completion in this September 2, 1970, photograph. Although different in style from the original, 

mostly windowless AFIP construction of the 1950s, the cube-like design on 

top was intended to help give the addition an integrated look. (NCP 2582)

[Bottom] Dr Lorenz Zimmerman addresses the International Course of 

Ophthalmology in May 1969 in Barcelona, Spain. Now recognized as the 

founder of modern ophthalmic pathology, Zimmerman joined the AFIP 

in 1952. Only 2 years later he became chairman of the Department of 

Ophthalmic Pathology, where he remained for nearly 50 years. During his 

long and distinguished career Zimmerman made important contributions 

to understanding the behavior of almost every neoplasm, inflammation, 

degeneration, and developmental malformation that affects the eye. Indeed, 

even without the aid of modern immunohistochemistry, he was the first 

person to describe phacomatous choristoma of the eyelid and identify this 

tumor as resulting from a malformation in the development of the crystalline lens of the eye. Many ophthalmic pathologists still refer to it as the 

“Zimmerman tumor.” (NCP 17333)

[Opposite] Dr Elson B Helwig receives the President’s Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service from President Lyndon B Johnson in 1966. 

At left is Dr Helwig’s wife, Mildred. Dr. Helwig, who joined the AFIP in 

1946, played an important role in elevating the institute to a position of 

world prominence. Although he served many roles during his more than 

50 years of service to the AFIP, he is best known for his pioneering work 

in dermatopathology. In addition to his own studies in the field, Helwig 

offered a popular training program in dermapathology, shared his expertise 

through weekly slide conferences, and consulted on difficult cases. He was 

also one of the most influential members of the World Health Organization 

panel that produced the first Histological Classification of Skin Tumors.

7

(NCP 17330)


Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 149

[Opposite] Dr Chapman Binford (at microscope) consults with Dr Helwig (left) and Dr Daniel Connor (right), circa 1975. Dr Binford served 

as chief of the Infectious Disease Branch from 1951 to 1956, and later as 

chief of the institute’s Special Mycobacterial Diseases Branch, from 1972 

to 1976. Binford was considered a world leader in the studies of leprosy 

and fungal diseases. Dr Connor joined the AFIP in 1960 and served as 

chairman of the Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases Pathology. In the early 1960s he spent 3 years in Uganda, where he diagnosed 

and studied infectious diseases that had previously been unknown to the 

Western scientific community. (MIS 05-7267-3-36625)

[Left] Dr Florabel G Mullick with Julius Halsman, chief of the Photography Division, shortly after Dr Mullick’s arrival to the AFIP in 1970. 

(NCP 17340)

[Right] Army Colonel James L Hansen, eighth director of the AFIP, 

1973–1976. (MIS 05-6406-3C)

Growth and Maturity, 1946–1975 | 151

[Opposite] Dr Mullick reviews case files with her colleague and mentor, Dr Nelson Irey, chairman of the Department of 

Environmental and Toxicologic Pathology, in 1972. Dr Irey was not only considered a pioneer in environmental pathology, 

but by 1972 he was also recognized as the foremost environmental pathologist in the world. His mentorship helped Dr Mullick rise through the ranks of the AFIP to become associate director of the AFIP in 1987, director for the Center for Advanced 

Pathology in 1994, chair of the Department of Environmental and Infectious Diseases in 1996, the institute’s first civilian 

principal deputy director in 1999, and its first civilian director in June 2007. (NCP 17341)

[Top] Dr. Fathollah K Mostofi (second from right) presides over a 1973 international meeting for standardizing the classification of testis tumors, held at the World Health Organization (WHO) headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Mostofi 

was hired as AFIP’s chairman for the Department of Genitourinary Pathology in 1948, a position he held until his death in 

2003. He was influential in accomplishing AFIP’s 1958 agreement with WHO and the National Research Council for the 

establishment of several international reference centers that collected tumors for evaluation by international panels to create 

standardized tumor classifications. By 1973 Mostofi had long been recognized as the foremost genitourinary pathologist in the 

world. Seated to his right is Dr Leslie Sobin, a WHO pathologist. In 1981 Sobin joined the AFIP staff, where he rose to chief of 

gastrointestinal pathology and director of scientific publications. (NCP 17432)

[Inset] Air Force Colonel Robert W Morrissey, seventh director of the AFIP, 1971–1973. (MIS 05-6711-2)
“By the mid-1970s, having achieved an enviable level of growth 

and maturity, the AFIP was poised for the next chapter in 

its long and distinguished history—a chapter marked by a 

continued infusion of talent and the incorporation of rapidly 

evolving technological advances . . .”