OCS Study 

MMS 2003-040 

 

Coastal Marine Institute 

Marine and Coastal Fishes Subject to 

Impingement by Cooling-Water Intake 

Systems in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 

An Annotated Bibliography 

Cooperative Agreement

Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 
U.S. Department of the Interior Cooperative Agreement 

Minerals Management Service Coastal Marine Institute 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Louisiana State University 

OCS Study 

 MMS 2003-040 

 

Coastal Marine Institute 

Marine and Coastal Fishes Subject to 

Impingement by Cooling-Water Intake 

Systems in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 

An Annotated Bibliography 

Authors 

Fernando Martinez-Andrade 

Donald M. Baltz 

August 2003 

Prepared under MMS Contract 

1435-99-CA-30951-85249 

by 

Louisiana State University 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 

Published by 
iii

DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared under contract between the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and 

Louisiana State University. This report has been technically reviewed by the MMS and has been 

approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the view and 

policies of the MMS, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement 

or recommendation for use. It is, however, exempt from review and compliance with MMS editorial 

standards. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Extra copies of this report may be obtained from the Public Information Office at the following address: 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Attn: Public Information Office (MS 5034) 

1201 Elmwood Park Blvd. 

New Orleans, LA 70123-2394 

Telephone (504) 736-2519 or 

 1-800-200-GULF 

CITATION 

Suggested citation: 

Martinez-Andrade, F. and D. M. Baltz. 2003. Marine and Coastal Fishes Subject to Impingement by 

Cooling-Water Intake Systems in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: An Annotated Bibliography. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-040. 113 pp. 

ABOUT THE COVER 

Cover photo courtesy of Dr. William Lang, Minerals Management Service. 
v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This synthesis report was prepared with the assistance of several electronic databases subscribed to by 

Louisiana State University. The databases were searched electronically using the Cambridge Scientific 

Abstracts Internet Database Service (CSA), the U.S. Government Printing Office Access service (GPO), 

the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), the Louisiana Library Network (LOUIS), the Scholarly 

Journal Archive (JSTOR), the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), and the Springer Link, Biblio 

Line and Ovid Technologies database services. The following databases were searched: 

Aquatic Science and Fisheries Abstracts (CSA) 

Biology Digest (CSA) 

Catalog of U.S. Government Publications (GPO) 

Conference Papers Index (CSA) 

Ecology Abstracts (CSA) 

Electronic Collections Online (OCLC) 

Expanded Academic ASAP (LOUIS) 

JSTOR (Ecology) 

Oceanic Abstracts (CSA) 

Science Citation Index (ISI) 

Springer Link (Environmental Sciences) 

Wildlife and Ecology Studies Worldwide (Biblio Line) 

World Cat (OCLC) 

Zoological Record (Ovid Technologies) 
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 Page 

Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... v 

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ ix 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 

Definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 3 

Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 5 

Results ...........................................................................................................................................21 

Comments .................................................................................................................................... 25 

Part I: Studies of Fish Impingement/Entrainment by Cooling-Water Intakes in Marine 

and Estuarine Environments ....................................................................................................... 27 

Part II: Studies Related to Assessment of Fish Impingement/Entrainment by 

Cooling-Water Intakes ................................................................................................................. 59 

Part III: Studies Related to Mitigation Measures of Fish Impingement/Entrainment by 

Cooling-Water Intakes ................................................................................................................. 79 

Part IV: Other Relevant Studies Related to Fish Impingement/Entrainment by 

Cooling-Water Intakes ................................................................................................................ 93 

Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................... 113 
ix

LIST OF TABLES 

Table Page 

1. List of key words, phrases, and variants used for the database searches ........................... 7 

2. Searched databases and key woreds with date, number of results per query, 

and file number for each output file .............................................................. 8 

3. List of scientific and common names of fish species found in abstracts 

and their maximum length and occurrence (A = Atlantic, F = Freshwater, 

I = Indian, P = Pacific, * = Present in U. S. coasts, ** = Confirmed in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico) ............................................................................. 22 
1

INTRODUCTION 

Since the early 1970's cooling-water intakes have been identified as having a potential adverse 

impact on aquatic organisms due to impingement/entrapment and entrainment. To measure the 

magnitude of this impact, hundreds of studies have been undertaken over the last three decades. 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is proposing a series of new rules to address the 

impingement and entrainment of fishes and shellfish by cooling-water intake systems on all 

surface waters of the United States. As part of the rule making process, EPA requested 

information about the species of fish in the Gulf of Mexico and for any information about 

research conducted on the impingement and entrainment of fishes and other organisms in coastal 

ecosystems. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) offered to assist the EPA with the 

gathering of information, since much of what is known in the Gulf of Mexico has been funded by 

MMS or used by MMS for the preparation of impact statements. 

To meet the information needs of MMS and EPA, this study provides an initial annotated 

bibliography on all available research reported in marine and coastal waters concerning the 

impingement and entrainment of estuarine and marine organisms by cooling-water intake 

systems. 
3

DEFINITIONS 

Below we quote the definitions EPA promulgated in the regulatory language for the final Phase I 

316(b) rule (December 18, 2001 found at 40 CFR 125.83). While these are the most recent 

regulatory definitions, they do not fully reflect all meanings behind the use of the words in the 

open literature, particularly those from several years ago. 

Cooling-water intake structure means the total physical structure and any associated constructed 

waterways used to withdraw cooling-water from waters of the U.S. The cooling-water intake 

structure extends from the point at which water is withdrawn from the surface water source up 

to, and including, the intake pumps. 

Entrainment means the incorporation of all life stages of fish and shellfish with intake water flow 

entering and passing through a cooling-water intake structure and into a cooling-water system. 

Impingement means the entrapment of all life stages of fish and shellfish on the outer part of an 

intake structure or against a screening device during periods of intake water withdrawal. 
5

METHODOLOGY 

The criteria used to determine whether a reference might be useful or not had to be adjusted as 

the search progressed. No consideration was given for other closely related topics, such as fish 

impingement or entrainment by hydropower plants, biofouling in cooling-water systems or 

effects of discharges of cooling waters in receiving aquatic environments. Only references 

related to fish impingement/entrapment or entrainment by cooling-water intakes located on 

marine and estuarine environments were fully considered. Nevertheless, some references on 

freshwater environments, considered of potential interest are listed on Part IV. References on 

marine or estuarine environments, other than the northern Gulf of Mexico, were considered 

relevant because fish species reported out of the target area might give clues about the potential 

effect of these water intakes on species of the same family or genus, inhabiting the northern Gulf 

of Mexico. Additionally, the warming effect of the Gulf Stream current distributes, at least 

seasonally, several fish species north along the U.S. Atlantic coast. 

Finally, references regarding mathematical models to estimate fish impingement or entrainment 

in cooling-water intakes and references regarding mitigation measures to reduce fish impingent 

or entrainment by cooling-water intakes, were both considered valuable regardless of the type of 

environment. 

The search strategy included preparation of an initial keyword and database lists. All data bases 

available for searching in the library at Louisiana State University and relevant to aquatic 

biology were queried to search article titles, abstracts and any other available text in the data 

bases using the initial list of keywords. The initial keyword list was expanded during the course 

of the search to add more keywords, phrases or variants or to modify them in order to refine the 

search for expected results. The final version of the key word list is presented in Table 1. 

Nine key words or phrases, their root forms, logical operators (e.g., AND & OR) and wild cards 

(*) were used to develop the bibliography. Additionally, the Science Citation Index database 

was also used to search forward in time from early references to obtain a list of subsequent 

publications that cited important early literature. 

A laboratory notebook was used to keep track of all database searches, including date, number of 

results obtained with each query and the identification number of file where each database output 

with relevant references was stored. A table containing all key words searched in every database 

and the information mentioned above was prepared (Table 2). Minor changes in the keyword list 

were made in each database, depending on the particular search characteristics of the database. 

A total of 31,610 documents were obtained through 432 individual searches and each database 

output was reviewed on-line to determine if it contained relevant references. A new file was 

created and given an identification number each time an output had at least one potential result. 

However, since several databases are not specific to aquatic biology and some key words are also 

relevant in other fields (e.g., medicine, physics, etc.), some files contain irrelevant citations. 

Database outputs containing more than 200 records were not saved and the search query was 

refined to obtain more specific results. 
6

Almost 200 files containing references with or without abstracts were then scrutinized and an 

alphabetical list of all potentially useful references was prepared. After the bibliography was 

completed, references were reviewed again, edited for uniformity, and sorted into four major 

categories as follows: 

Part I: Studies of fish impingement/entrainment by cooling-water intakes in 

marine and estuarine environments, 

Part II: Studies related to assessment of fish impingement/entrainment by 

cooling-water intakes, 

Part III: Studies related to mitigation measures of fish 

impingement/entrainment by cooling-water intakes, and 

Part IV: Other relevant studies related to fish impingement/entrainment by 

cooling-water intakes. 

Finally, a list of all fish species subject to impingement or entrainment, mentioned in the 

abstracts included here, was prepared and additional information, such as maximum length 

attained and ocean of occurrence was obtained from literature. 
7

Table 1. 

List of Key Words, Phrases and Variants Used for the Database Searches 

Key words Variants 

Cooling water Cooling-water, cooling-water AND intake* cooling-water AND 

entrain*, cooling-water AND entrap*, cooling-water AND imping* 

Entrainment Entrain*, entrained, entraining 

Entrapment Entrap*, entrapped, entrapping 

Fish Fish entrainment, fish entrapment, fish impingement, fish mortality 

AND cooling water, fish mortality AND imping*, fish mortality 

AND oil platforms, fish mortality AND power plants, fish mortality 

AND water intake 

Ichthyoplankton Ichthyoplankton AND entrain*, ichthyoplankton AND entrap*, 

ichthyoplankton AND imping*, ichthyoplankton AND mortality 

Impingement Imping*, impinged, impinging 

Oil platform Oil platform AND entrain*, oil platform AND entrap*, oil platform 

AND imping*, oil platform AND intake*, oil platform AND impact* 

Power plant Power plant* AND entrain*, power plant* AND entrap*, power 

plant* AND impact*, power plant* AND imping* 

Water intake(s) Water-intake*, water-intake* AND impact* 
8

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

ASFA Marine Biotechnology 

Abstracts, Including: 

ASFA 1: Biological Sciences 

and Living Resources. 

ASFA 2: Ocean Technology, 

Policy and Non-Living 

Resources. 

ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution 

and Environmental Quality. 

Cooling water impact 

Cooling water intake 

Cooling-water mortality 

Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrapping 

Fish entrain* 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish entrapping 

Fish entrapped 

Fish impinged 

Fish impingement 

Fish impinging 

Fish imping* 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platforms 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrainment 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* mortality 

Oil platform 

Oil platform entrainment 

Oil platform impact(s) 

Oil platform impingement 

Oil platform intake(s) 

Power plant entrainment 

Power plant entrapment 

Power plant impact 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

0

61

2

3

0

2

28

33

21

8

0

4

7

25

0

32

6

5

0

4

2

17

16

0

0

8

6

84

0

0

0

0

25

0

16

52

44

61

60

NR

39

51

57

62

59

41

40

49

47

48

50

42

53

45

43

NR

54

63
9

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

 Power plant intake 10/15/02 18 46

 Power plant impingement 10/15/02 2 58

 Water-intake impact 10/15/02 0

Biological Sciences, 

including: 

Ecology Abstracts 

Cooling water 

Cooling water impact 

Cooling water intake 

Cooling-water mortality 

Cooling-water entrain* 

Cooling-water entrap* 

Fish entrain* AND cooling 

water 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish imping* AND cooling 

water 

Fish impinging 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Impingement 

Oil platform 

Oil platforms 

Oil platform entrain* 

Oil platform entrap* 

Oil platform impact 

Oil platform imping* 

Power plant entrain* 

Power plant entrap* 

Power plant impact 

Power plant intake 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/01/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/01/02 

10/15/02 

10/01/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

0

11

1

2

0

8

1

3

7

4

5

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

3

34

13

20

0

0

0

0

9

0

2

5

84

78

77

73

82

81

74

83

65

80

79

76

75

64

89

71

88

87

85
10

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Power plant imping* 

Water-intake and imping* 

Water-intake entrap* 

Water-intake impact 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

10/15/02 

1

2

0

0

86

89

Biology Digest Cooling water 

Cooling water intake 

Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrain* 

Entrained 

Entraining 

Entrap* 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* 

Oil platform entrainment 

Oil platform impact 

Power plant entrainment 

Power plant impact 

Water-intake 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02 

4

1

0

0

0

23

7

3

27

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

25

0

0

0

0

0

91

90

92

NR

NR

93

NR

Catalog of U.S. Government 

Publications 

Cooling water 

Cooling-water intake 

Cooling-water entrain* 

Cooling-water entrap* 

Cooling-water imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish AND entrain* 

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

200+

6

3

0

0

12

2

NR

NR

NR

174

175
11

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Fish AND entrap* 

Fish AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant* 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND impact* 

Power plant AND intake* 

Water AND intake* 

Water AND intake* AND 

impact 

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

0

0

200+

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

22

0

1

0

2

0

1

96

2

11

0

NR

NR

176

177

NR

178

179

180

EIS: Digests of 

Environmental Impact 

Statements, including: 

Conference Papers Index 

Cooling-water 

Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water extraction 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrain* 

Entrap* 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

116

0

0

1

0

299

176

6

1

1

0

0

0

23

22

NR

NR

21

NR

20
12

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* 

Oil platform entrainment 

Oil platform entrapment 

Oil platform impact 

Oil platform intake 

Power plant entrainment 

Power plant entrapment 

Power plant impact 

Power plant impingement 

Water-intake 

Water-intake impact 

10/18/02 

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

0

1

0

0

0

221

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

0

62

1

19

NR

18

NR

NR

ECO: Electronic Collections 

Online (OCLC First search) 

Cooling water 

Cooling-water 

Cooling-water impact 

Cooling-water intake 

Cooling-water mortality 

Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrain* 

Fish entrain* 

Fish entrap* 

Fish imping* 

Fish mortality 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

627

5

0

1

1

0

0

0

1144

39

7

7

721

1

2

4

1

6

1

NR

104

NR

NR

NR

105

106

107

NR

NR

108

110

109

111

112
13

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* AND mortality 

Imping* AND cooling-water 

Imping* AND water intake 

Oil platform AND water 

intake 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

Oil platform AND entrap* 

Oil platform AND imping* 

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND intake 

Water AND intake 

Water-intake 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

0

0

5

3

0

3

1

1

1

1

8

1

3

2

3

3

669

1

113

114

115

NR

NR

NR

NR

116

NR

NR

NR

117

NR

NR

NR

Expanded Academic ASAP 

(Info Trac) 

Cooling-water* 

Cooling-water entrain* 

Cooling-water entrap* 

Cooling-water imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish AND entrain* 

Fish AND entrap* 

Fish AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant* 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

183

1

1

3

0

8

3

5

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

2

827

0

NR

181

182

183

185

184

186

187

188

189

NR
14

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND impact* 

Power plant AND intake* 

Water-intake* 

Water AND intake* 

Water AND intake* AND 

impact 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02

11/06/02

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

11/06/02 

1

0

8

2

5

196

20

236

779

20

190

191

192

193

NR

194

NR

NR

195

JSTOR Cooling water 

Cooling-water impact 

Cooling-water intake 

Cooling-water mortality 

Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrain* 

Fish AND entrain* 

Fish AND entrap* 

Fish AND impingement 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish imping* 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND 

impingement 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant* 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

10/28/02 

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02 

10/28/02

10/28/02 

10/28/02 

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02 

10/28/0 

10/28/02 

10/28/02 

10/28/02 

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

121

0

7

0

0

0

0

127

60

28

19

0

1

0

2

1

1

1

0

3

0

0

0

0

NR

94

NR

NR

102

101

95

96

97

98

99

100
15

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* AND mortality 

Imping* AND cooling-water 

Imping* AND water intake 

Oil platform AND water 

intake 

Oil platform AND coolingwater 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

Oil platform AND entrap* 

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND intake 

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02 

10/28/02 

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02

10/28/02 

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

4

1

26

0

NR

NR

NR

103

Science Citation Index (Web 

of Knowledge/Web of 

Science) 

Cooling water 

Cooling-water AND impact 

Cooling-water AND entrain* 

Cooling-water AND entrap* 

Cooling-water AND imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish entrain* 

Fish entrap* 

Fish imping* 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton & entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton & entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton & imping* 

Ichthyoplankton & mortality 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

11/05/02 

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02 

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02 

11/05/02

11/05/02 

11/05/02 

11/05/02 

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

1176

0

1

0

0

11411

10

4

8

8

1

0

2

0

0

3

0

0

4

0

NR

162

NR

163

164

165

17

166

167

168

169
16

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Oil platform AND entrap* 

Oil platform AND imping* 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND intake 

Power plant AND impact 

Water-intake 

Water-intake entrain* 

Water-intake imping* 

Water-intake impact 

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02 

0

0

0

11

0

0

3

8

2857

1

0

0

170

172

171

NR

173

Springer Interlink 

(Environmental Sciences) 

Cooling-water 

Cooling-water AND impact 

Cooling-water AND imping* 

Cooling-water AND intake 

Cooling-water AND 

mortality 

Cooling-water AND entrain* 

Cooling-water AND entrap* 

Cooling-water AND imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish entrain* 

Fish AND entrain* 

Fish imping* 

Fish mortality AND entrap* 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Ichthyoplankton & entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton & entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton & imping* 

Ichthyoplankton & mortality 

Imping* 

Imping* AND fish 

Oil platform AND imping* 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

11/04/02 

11/04/02 

11/04/02 

11/04/02 

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02 

11/04/02

11/04/02 

11/04/02 

11/04/02 

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02

11/04/02 

7

55

1

11

13

11

7

7

1428

0

37

0

2

11

0

1

1

1

3

142

24

0

0

0

0

NR

NR 

NR 

NR 

 NR 

NR 

NR 

NR 

NR 

 NR 

 NR 

NR 

NR 

NR 

158

 NR 

NR 

NR 

NR 

NR 

 
17

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Wildlife and Ecology Studies 

Worldwide 

Cooling-water 

Cooling-water AND entrain* 

Cooling-water AND entrap* 

Imping* 

Fish AND imping* 

Fish AND entrain* 

Fish AND entrap* 

Fish mortality AND entrap* 

Fish mortality AND intake 

Ichthyoplankton & entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton & entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton & imping* 

11/05/02 

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02

11/05/02 

158

0

0

26

3

4

15

12

3

0

1

0

NR

NR

159

160

NR

NR

NR

161

World Cat (OCLC First 

search) 

Cooling-water 

Cooling-water AND impact 

Cooling-water AND intake 

Cooling-water AND 

mortality 

Cooling-water AND entrain* 

Cooling-water AND entrap* 

Cooling-water AND imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish entrain* 

Fish entrap* 

Fish imping* 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND entrain* 

Fish mortality AND entrap* 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

Ichthyoplankton & entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton & entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton & imping* 

Ichthyoplankton & mortality 

Imping* AND mortality 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

30

0

2

0

0

0

1

3359

89

14

54

0

19

1

7

19

0

0

16

0

3

9

15

118

119

120

NR

121

122

123

125

126

124

127

128

129

130

131
18

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Imping* AND cooling-water 

Imping* AND water intake 

Oil platform AND water 

intake 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

Oil platform AND entrap* 

Oil platform AND imping* 

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND intake 

Power plant AND water 

intake 

Water AND intake 

Water-intake 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

1

5

0

0

0

0

13

0

89

1

46

91

45

634

6

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

NR

NR

Zoological Record Cooling-water 

Cooling-water AND impact 

Cooling-water AND intake 

Cooling-water AND 

mortality 

Cooling-water AND entrain* 

Cooling-water AND entrap* 

Cooling-water AND imping* 

Entrain* 

Fish entrain* 

Fish entrap* 

Fish imping* 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND entrain* 

Fish mortality AND entrap* 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plant 

Fish mortality AND oil 

platform 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

8

0

4

0

0

0

0

336

8

12

6

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

140

141

NR

142

143

144

145
19

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Ichthyoplankton & entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton & entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton & imping* 

Ichthyoplankton & mortality 

Imping* AND mortality 

Imping* AND cooling-water 

Imping* AND water intake 

Oil platform AND water 

intake 

Oil platform AND entrain* 

Oil platform AND entrap* 

Oil platform AND imping* 

Oil platform AND impact 

Oil platform AND intake 

Power plant AND entrain* 

Power plant AND entrap* 

Power plant AND imping* 

Power plant AND intake 

Power plant AND water 

intake 

Water AND intake 

Water-intake 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02

11/03/02 

11/03/02

11/03/02 

5

0

0

2

15

1

8

0

0

0

0

1

0

57

2

15

20

11

337

22

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

NR

157

Oceanic Abstracts (CSA) Cooling-water entrainment 

Cooling-water entrapment 

Cooling-water impingement 

Entrain* 

Entrained 

Entraining 

Entrap* 

Entrapped 

Fish entrainment 

Fish entrapment 

Fish impingement 

Fish mortality AND cooling 

water 

Fish mortality AND imping* 

Fish mortality AND power 

plants 

Fish mortality AND water 

intake 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

0

0

1

380

65

169

63

1

1

1

1

0

33

NR

NR

NR

NR

32

31

30

29
20

Table 2. 

Searched Databases and Key Words with Date, Number of Results Per Query, 

and File Number for Each Output (NR = not recorded) (continued). 

Database Title Key Word Date Results File

Ichthyoplankton entrain* 

Ichthyoplankton entrap* 

Ichthyoplankton imping* 

Ichthyoplankton mortality 

Imping* 

Oil platform entrainment 

Oil platform entrapment 

Oil platform impact 

Oil platform intake 

Power plant entrainment 

Power plant entrapment 

Power plant impact 

Power plant impingement 

Water-intake 

Water-intake impact 

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

10/18/02 

1

0

0

1

236

0

0

0

0

5

0

0

1

61

0

28

NR

NR

27

26

25
21

RESULTS

A total of 342 references are presented in this report in four different categories: 138 are 

references on biological studies directly related to fish impingement or entrainment by coolingwater intake systems in marine and estuarine environments; 74 are references on mathematical 

models to assess fish impingement or entrainment by cooling-water intake systems, 59 are 

references related to mitigation measures for fish impingement or entrainment, and 71 are other 

relevant references on fish impingement or entrainment by cooling-water intake systems or 

closely related topics. 

Most of the results obtained through this search were references about studies on fish 

impingement or entrainment by cooling-water intakes of nuclear or thermoelectric power plants 

located on estuarine or marine environments. Only one reference specific to fish impingement or 

entrainment by cooling-water intakes of oil platforms, Littrell and Biaggi (1979), was actually 

found, which means that such information is generally unavailable through the searched data 

bases. However, it is possible that some information exists in unpublished corporate documents. 

A total of 95 fish species were found in the abstracts, including 53 species found in U.S. waters 

(AFS 1991) and 10 species confirmed in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Hoese and Moore 1998). 

The results are presented in Table 3; however, some abstracts just mention a few of the fish 

species subject to impingement or entrainment and some others give only the number of fish 

species with the actual list of fish names located inside the document. For example, Araujo et al.

(1998) mention 15 species, Koehler (1981) mentions 22 species, Love et al. (1998) mention 16 

species, Maes et al. (1998) mention 55 species, Reay and Culley (1980) mention 100 species, 

and Shao et al. (1990) mention 295 species. For a more complete list of fish species subject to 

impingement or entrainment, it would be necessary to acquire and analyze the complete 

documents. 
22

Table 3. 

List of Scientific and Common Names of Fish Species Found in Abstracts, Their 

Maximum Length Attained, and Occurrence (A = Atlantic, F = Freshwater, I = Indian, 

P = Pacific, * = Present in U. S. waters, ** = Confirmed in the northern Gulf of Mexico) 

Scientific Name Common Name Max. 

Length 

(cm) 

Occurrence 

Abudefduf septemfasciatus Seven-bar damsel 23 I-P 

Agonus cataphractus Hooknose 21 A 

Alosa aestivalis Blue-back herring 28 A-F* 

Alosa alosa Shad 70 A 

Alosa chrysochloris Skipjack herring 46 A-F** 

Alosa fallax Twaite shad 50 A 

Alosa pseudoharengus Alewife 40 A-F* 

Alosa sapidissima American shad 51 A-F-P* 

Ammodytes tobianus Sand lance 20 A 

Anchoa mitchilli Bay anchovy 10 A-F** 

Anguilla anguilla European eel 100 A 

Aplodinotus grunniens Freshwater drum 95 F* 

Atherina presbyter Sand smelt 20 A 

Brevoortia tyrannus Atlantic menhaden 35 A* 

Ciliata mustela Five-bearded rockling 17 A 

Clupea harengus harengus Atlantic herring 40 A* 

Crenimugil labrosus Thicklip grey mullet 60 A 

Cyclopterus lumpus Lumpfish 61 A* 

Cymatogaster aggregata Shiner surfperch 18 P-F* 

Dicentrarchus labrax European sea bass 100 A 

Dorosoma cepedianum Gizzard shad 30 A-F** 

Dorosoma petenense Threadfin shad 18 A-F-P** 

Engraulis mordax Northern anchovy 18 P* 

Entelurus aequoreus Snake pipefish 60 A 

Gadus morhua Atlantic cod 104 A* 

Gasterosteus aculeatus Three-spine stickleback 8 A-F-P* 

Genyonemus lineatus White croaker 41 P 

Gobiosoma bosci Naked goby 6 A-F** 

Gymnocephalus cernuus Ruffe 25 F* 

Hyperoplus lanceolatus Greater sand-eel 40 A 

Hyperprosopon argenteum Walleye surfperch 30 P* 

Lagocephalus inermis Smooth blaasop 90 I-P 

Lagodon rhomboides Pinfish 40 A-F** 

Lampetra fluviatilis River lamprey 45 A 
23

Table 3. 

List of Scientific and Common Names of Fish Species Found in Abstracts, Their 

Maximum Length Attained, and Occurrence (A = Atlantic, F = Freshwater, I = Indian, 

P = Pacific, * = Present in U. S. waters, ** = Confirmed in the northern Gulf of Mexico) 

(continued). 

Scientific Name Common Name Max. 

Length 

(cm) 

Occurrence 

Leiostomus xanthurus Spot 25 A-F** 

Lepomis gibbosus Pumpkinseed 30 F* 

Limanda limanda Dab 40 A 

Liopsetta putnami Smooth flounder 30 A* 

Liparis liparis Stripped seasnail 15 A* 

Liparis montagui Snailfish 51 A 

Lota lota Burbot 50 F* 

Merlangius merlangus Whiting 70 A 

Microgadus tomcod Atlantic tomcod 38 A-F* 

Morone americana White perch 48 A-F* 

Morone saxatilis Striped bass 125 A-F-P** 

Mugil cephalus Striped mullet 76 A-F-P** 

Mullus surmuletus Red mullet 40 A 

Myoxocephalus scorpius Arctic sculpin 60 A-P* 

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chinook salmon 147 P-F* 

Osmerus eperlanus Estuarine smelt 45 A 

Osmerus mordax Rainbow smelt 13 A-F-P* 

Peprilus simillimus Pacific pompano 28 P* 

Perca flavescens Yellow perch 29 F* 

Phanerodon furcatus White surfperch 32 P* 

Pholis gunnellus Rock gunnel 25 A* 

Platichthys flesus Flounder 50 A 

Pleuronectes platessa Plaice 100 A 

Pollachius virens Pollock 120 A* 

Pomatoschistus lozanoi Lozano’s goby 8 A 

Pomatoschistus microps Common goby 6 A 

Pomatoschistus minutus Sand goby 10 A 

Pomatoschistus pictus Painted goby 6 A 

Prionotus carolinus Northern searobin 41 A** 

Prionotus evolans Stripped searobin 45 A* 

Pseudopleuronectes americanus Winter flounder 64 A* 

Raniceps raninus Tadpole-fish 30 A 

Rutilus rutilus Roach 46 F 

Salmo salar Atlantic salmon 150 A-F* 
24

Table 3. 

List of Scientific and Common Names of Fish Species Found in Abstracts, Their 

Maximum Length Attained, and Occurrence (A = Atlantic, F = Freshwater, I = Indian, 

P = Pacific, * = Present in U. S. waters, ** = Confirmed in the northern Gulf of Mexico) 

(continued). 

Scientific Name Common Name Max. 

Length 

(cm) 

Occurrence 

Salmo trutta Sea trout 50 A-F* 

Sardinella sindensis Sind sardine 17 I 

Sebastes auriculatus Brown rockfish 55 P* 

Sebastes mystinus Blue rockfish 53 P* 

Sebastes paucispinis Bocaccio 91 P* 

Sebastes rastrelliger Grass rockfish 56 P* 

Sebastes serranoides Olive rockfish 61 P* 

Sebastes serriceps Treefish 41 P* 

Seriphus politus Queenfish 30 P* 

Solea solea Common sole 70 A 

Sparus aurata Gilthead sea bream 70 A 

Spinachia spinachia Fifteen-spined stickleback 22 A 

Sprattus sprattus Sprat 16 A 

Stizostedion canadense Sauger 76 F* 

Stizostedion vitreum Walleye 107 F* 

Syngnathus acus Greater pipefish 50 A-I 

Syngnathus rostelattus Nilsson's pipefish 17 A 

Taurulus bubalis Sea scorpion 18 A 

Tautogolabrus adspersus Cunner 38 A* 

Therapon puta Spiny-cheeked grunt 15 A 

Trachinus vipera Leeser weever 15 A 

Triglopsis thompsonii Deepwater sculpin 23 F* 

Trisopterus luscus Pout 45 A 

Trisopterus minutus Poor cod 26 A 

Urophycis chuss Red hake 130 A* 

Zoarces viviparus Viviparous eelpout 52 A 
25

COMMENTS 

The ecological impact of oil platform water intakes might be different than those for power 

plants mainly because of the offshore location of most oil platforms, the large number of them, 

and the differences in volume of cooling water required at each oil platform. For example, Kindt 

(1980) mentions that each nuclear power plant requires approximately10 million gallons of 

cooling water per minute, an amount much higher than that required by oil platforms. 
27

PART I: STUDIES OF FISH IMPINGEMENT/ENTRAINMENT BY COOLING-WATER 

INTAKES IN MARINE AND ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS 

Abou-Seedo, F. S. and I. C. Potter. 1979. The estuarine phase in the spawning run of the river 

lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis. J. Zool., Vol. 188, No. 1, pp. 5-25. 

Abstract: The biology of the very early stages in the upstream migration of the river 

lamprey has been studied using samples taken from the cooling-water intake screens of 

the Oldbury Power Station in the Severn Estuary. An increase in freshwater discharge is 

the predominant environmental factor responsible for initiating the movement from the 

sea into the estuary, although temperature may also be a contributory factor. The 

migrants could be separated into typical and praecox forms whose mean lengths during 

peak abundance were approximately 300 and 240 mm respectively. The typical forms 

were found in the estuary between July and April, with peak abundance in November, 

whereas the praecox forms were present mainly between January and March. The ratio 

of typical to praecox forms over the four years of sampling was estimated as 3.3:1. 

Measurement of a number of different characters suggest that, although the typical forms 

enter the estuary over a long period of time, the onset of the changes leading to sexual 

maturity are more synchronous. Measurements made on typical animals from Oldbury in 

November indicate that they can regulate their plasma ions in salinities as high as 70% of 

full strength sea water. 

Ambrogi, R. and R. Vitali. 1992. Environmental impact assessment for Italian thermoelectric 

power plants in coastal zones. Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique, Monaco. Monaco, 

Vol. 51, No. 11, pp 289-298. 

Abstract: Environmental impact studies on coastal marine power stations take into 

account both the effects on marine organisms passing through the plant, and 

environmental effects at the warm water discharge site. A synthesis is presented of the 

research carried out on an open-sea power station (Brindisi) and on an estuarine one 

(Porto Tolle). 

Anon. 1973. Entrainment studies. Marine ecology studies related to operation of Pilgrim 

Station. Semi-annual report No. 2. [Marine ecology studies related to operation of 

Pilgrim Station Semi-annual report (series)]. 

Abstract: Actual data collection for this study did not commence until Aug. 1973, 

consequently no results are available for reporting here. Sampling procedures and 

techniques being employed for these studies have been further developed and are 

described. Measurements are being conducted initially over a period of 1 yr to determine 

the effects of cooling-water entrainment on phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish eggs, fish 

larvae, and lobster larvae. Samples of these organisms will be collected at the intake 

canal just ahead of the intake screens, and in the discharge canal. 

Anon. 1974. Selected references on the ichthyoplankton of the CICAR area. Compiled for the 

Ichthyoplankton Workshop held in the Mexico Oceanic Sorting Centre (Mexico, D.F., 

17-26 July 1974). Bol. Tec. CPOM/CPOM Tech. Pap., No. 1., Sep 1974. 
28

Abstract: The selected references prepared by some of the participants to the CICAR 

Ichthyoplankton Workshop on Fish Egg and Larval Studies of the Caribbean Area have 

been compiled in the present bibliography. It includes 366 references mainly dealing 

with identification of eggs and/or larvae of several fish families, including those of 

economic importance, as Clupeidae, Engraulidae, Gadidae, Carangidae. Useful 

references on quantitative sampling of ichthyoplankton are also included as well as a list 

of references on power plant entrainment. An author index is also given. 

Anon. 1982. Marine ichthyoplankton entrainment studies. California: Southern California 

Edison Co. 

Applied Marine Research Limited. 1974. Biological field program conducted as a component of 

a nuclear power plant intake study in New Brunswick. Halifax. 

Araujo, F. G., R. G. Bailey and W. P. Williams. 1998. Seasonal and between-year variations of 

fish populations in the middle Thames estuary: 1980-1989. Fisheries Management and 

Ecology, Vol. 5, No. 1, (Feb. 1998), pp. 1-21. 

Abstract: (1) Fish samples collected at the cooling-water intake screens of West 

Thurrock power station located 35.5 km downstream of London Bridge on the Thames 

estuary during the decade 1980-1989 were analyzed. (2) Seasonal and long-term changes 

in the abundance of the 15 most numerous fish species and in several fish community 

parameters were analyzed. (3) The majority of species were highly seasonal in their 

distribution and abundance. Species diversity was lower in the summer (May-August) 

compared with spring/winter (October-February). (4) Evidence of long-term changes in 

species diversity and community structure over the decade is presented. The changes 

were consistent with a period of relative stability (1980-1984) followed by a period of 

change (1985-1989) and may reflect a deterioration in water quality in the second 

quinquennium. (5) It is argued that the monitoring of fish communities in estuaries 

should be based on a multi-metric approach as no single indicator alone can describe the 

complex community structure. 

Araujo, F. G., W. P. Williams and R. G. Bailey. 2000. Fish Assemblages as Indicators of Water 

Quality in the Middle Thames Estuary, England (1980-1989). Estuaries, Vol. 23, No. 3, 

(Jun. 2000), pp. 305-317. 

 Abstract. (1) Fish abundance and environmental data collected over ten years (1980-

1989) from the Middle Thames estuary, England, were analyzed to detect temporal trends 

in fish populations and relationship with environmental parameters, and to assess water 

quality. Fish were collected from the cooling-water intake screens of West Thurrock 

power station, situated 35.5 km below London Bridge, in the mid-estuary. (2) Marine 

species abundance were highly seasonal, with peaks in December-March for herring 

(Clupea harengus), sprat (Sprattus sprattus), 3-spined-stickleback (Gasterosteus 

aculeatus), and poor cod (Trisopterus minutus); July-August for flounder (Platichthys 

flesus); and September-December for sand goby (Pomatoschistus minutus), whiting 

(Merlangius merlangus), bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), 

and dab (Limanda limanda). (3) Bimodal seasonal patterns of peaks or unclear 

seasonality in abundance characterized marine estuarine-dependent sole (Solea solea), 
29

Nilsson's pipefish (Syngnathus rostelattus) (April/May and September/October), and 

pouting (Trisopterus luscus) (May and November/December); the estuarine smelt 

(Osmerus eperlanus) (October and January) and the catadromous eel (Anguilla anguilla) 

(June and October). (4) There was substantial variation in the abundance of common 

species over the period of ten years, with herring, sand goby, flounder, and plaice 

showing a stable abundance in 1980-1984, increasing sharply in 1985-1986, and then 

decreasing successively through the remainder of the decade (1987-1989). The first half 

of the decade was a period of higher abundance for less tolerant species such as smelt, 

sprat, and poor cod, while the second half showed higher abundances of species tolerant 

to harsh environmental conditions such as sand goby, flounder, eel, and plaice. (5) A 

general pattern of stable fish populations with a slight trend of deterioration was found to 

emerge over the years, related to the number of species and quantities of common 

species. Multivariate techniques of principal component and canonical correspondence 

ordinations were used for assessing relationships between fish populations abundance and 

environmental variables. (6) The most significant environmental variables correlated 

with fish species were temperature and dissolved oxygen. High abundances of flounder 

were associated with high temperature, while high abundance of poor cod, sprat, herring, 

and 3-spined-stickleback were associated with high dissolved oxygen, flow, ammoniacal 

nitrogen, and low temperature. Plaice, whiting, sand goby, bass, and dab were 

preferentially found in high salinity and suspended solids, while smelt and sole were 

likely to prefer average values or showed no clear preferences. 

Barker, S. L., D. W. Townsend and J. S. Hacunda. 1981. Mortalities of Atlantic Herring, 

Clupea h. harengus, Smooth Flounder, Liopsetta putnami, and Rainbow Smelt, Osmerus 

mordax, Larvae Exposed to Acute Thermal Shock. Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 

198-200. 

Abstract: Experiments were designed to evaluate the thermal tolerances of three species 

of larval fish occurring in the Gulf of Maine and its estuaries: Atlantic herring, Clupea h. 

harengus, smooth flounder, Liopsetta putnami, and rainbow smelt, Osmerus mordax. 

These fish, although differing somewhat in their life histories, are all common in inshore 

areas during some part of their larval life, and are therefore subject to power plant 

entrainment. This paper presents the results of thermal tolerance experiments, which 

encompassed the range of temperatures planktonic organisms encounter in condenser 

cooling systems. 

Barnes, J. M. 1977. The sustained swimming ability of larval and juvenile gizzard shad, 

Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur), and threadfin shad, D. petenense (Gunther), as related 

to entrainment and/or impingement by water intake structures of power stations. 

Beauchamp J. J. and K. D. Kumar. 1984. Sub-sampling program for the estimation of fish 

impingement. Environmental Management, Vol. 8, Iss. 6, pp 539-542. 

Benda, R. S. 1982. Diurnal movement of fish larvae and invertebrates into a power plant intake. 

Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science. Vol. 91, pp. 601-605. 
30

Boreman, J. 1977. Impacts of power plant intake velocities on fish. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Power 

Plant Project, Office of Biological Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior. 

Boreman, J. 1981-1982. The Impact of entrainment and impingement of fish populations in the 

Hudson River estuary. Washington, D.C: Springfield, Va.: The Commission: Available 

from GPO Sales Program, Division of Technical Information and Document Control, 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission; National Technical Information Service, 

Bowles, R. R. 1978. Factors affecting accuracy of ichthyoplankton samples used in power plant 

entrainment studies. Washington: Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 

Bridges, W. L. and R. D. Anderson. 1984. A brief survey of Pilgrim Nuclear Power Plant 

effects upon the marine aquatic environment. Observations on the Ecology and Biology 

of Western Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, Lect. Notes Coast. Estuar. Stud., Vol. 11, pp. 

263-271. 

Abstract: A broad range of environmental studies, begun in 1969, were designed to 

detect environmental disturbances attributable to release of heated cooling water into 

Cape Cod Bay from the Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station. On a scale encompassing the 

more immediate vicinity of the power station certain site specific or occasionally 

occurring effects were documented. Most notable were several significant mortalities 

due to "gas bubble disease", periodic incidences of finfish impingement on the coolingwater intake traveling screens, near-field alterations of the benthic and epibenthic 

communities in the vicinity of the cooling-water discharge, and entrainment of 

phytoplankton, zooplankton, and ichthyoplankton in the cooling-water flow. 

Brooks, A. J., R. J. Schmitt and S. J. Holbrook. 2002. Declines in regional fish populations: 

have species responded similarly to environmental change? Marine and Freshwater 

Research, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 189- 

Cada, G. F. and G. L. Hergenrader. 1978. An assessment of sampling mortality of larval fishes. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. Vol. 107, No. 2, pp. 269-274. 

Campbell, K. P., I. R. Savidge, W. P. Dey and J. B. McLaren. 1977. Impacts of recent power 

plants on the Hudson River striped bass (Morone saxatilis) population. In: Proceedings 

of the Conference on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish 

Populations, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, May 3-6, 1977. 

Abstract: The impact of the Bowline, Roseton, and Indian Point power plants has been 

studied by estimating entrainment and impingement mortality rates on striped bass at 

these plants and relating these mortality rates to reduction in equilibrium stock size under 

various hypothetical stock-recruitment relationships. The conditional rates of mortality 

due to entrainment by these three plants were 0.0811 in 1974 and 0.1188 in 1975. The 

conditional rates of mortality due to impingement were calculated to be 0.0426 in 1974 

and 0.0229 in 1975. Based on a range of potential Ricker stock-recruitment curves, 

reduction in equilibrium stock size due to the estimated levels of power-plant-induced 

mortality were discussed. 
31

Carpenter, E. J., S. J. Anderson and B. B. Peck. 1971. First semi-annual report on entrainment 

of marine plankton through Millstone Unit One: to Northeast Utilities Service Co. 

Woods Hole, Mass.: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 

Carpenter, E. J., S. J. Anderson and B. B. Peck. 1971. Second semi-annual report on 

entrainment of marine plankton through Millstone Unit One: to Northeast Utilities 

Service Co. Woods Hole, Mass.: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 

Chase, D. M. and K. Strawn. 1978. Survival rates of fishes and macroinvertebrates impinged on 

the vertically revolving intake screens of a power plant on Galveston Bay, Texas. 

Houston, Tex.: Houston Lighting & Power Company. 

Chow, W., I. P. Murarka and R. W. Brocksen. 1981. Entrainment and impingement in power 

plant cooling systems. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp. 

965-973. 

Chung, K-S. 1977. Heat resistance of crustaceans and fishes taken from the intake canal of an 

estuarine power plant and their predicted survival in the discharge canal. 

Claridge, P. N. and D. C. Gardner. 1978. Growth and movements of the twaite shad, Alosa 

fallax (Lacepede), in the Severn Estuary. J. Fish Biol., Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 203-211. 

Abstract: Between July 1974 and April 1977, appreciable numbers of O group twaite 

shad, A. fallax, have been collected from the cooling-water intake screens of the Nuclear 

Power Stations at Oldbury-upon-Severn and Berkeley on the Severn Estuary and at 

Hinkley Point on the Bristol Channel, England. Young of the year first appeared at 

Oldbury in July at a size of approximately 32 mm standard length, and grew to 

approximately 61 mm by October. The downstream migration in the late summer and 

autumn appeared to be closely correlated with water temperature since movement 

reached a peak soon after the temperature in the Estuary had declined below 19 degree C, 

and ceased altogether below 9 degree C. Thereafter, there was virtually no movement of 

shad until temperatures rose sharply above 7 degree C in the spring. Maturing adult 

twaite shad were captured in late April and May as they moved into freshwater to spawn, 

probably in mid-June. Males were recorded slightly earlier during the migration and 

were generally younger than females. Furthermore, mean lengths and weights for 

individuals belonging to the different age classes indicated that males were also smaller. 

Logarithmic relationships between length and weight of young and adult A.fallax and for 

the variation with size in the number of rakers on the first gill arch are presented. 

Coastal Zone Consultants. 1979. New England Power Company velocity cap fish entrapment 

assessment: Phase II-comparative study. Westboro, Mass.: Yankee Atomic Electric Co. 

Copeland, B. J. 1975. Report on entrainment and entrainment mortality of zooplankton and 

larvae, and impingement and movement of fish to Carolina Power and Light Co., 

Raleigh, N.C. 
32

Coutant, C. C. 1977. Determining the ecological effects of power plant cooling. In: Lectures 

presented at the Fifth FAO/SIDA Workshop on Aquatic Pollution in Relation to 

Protection of Living Resources. Scientific and administrative basis for management 

measures. Manila, Philippines, 17 January-27 February 1977. 

Abstract: This review is intended to be an educational article for those who are 

considering the impacts of power plant cooling for the first time. Unfortunately, there 

have been few power plant impact studies in tropical waters, so generalizations have been 

made from the extensive literature from temperate zones. The major environmental 

impacts from power plant cooling now seem to be recognized. The task now is to 

quantify the effects, to place theorized effects in the context of local populations and 

ecosystems at power plant sites, to make reasoned judgements about significance of 

impacts for both local ecology and man, and to develop mitigating plans for siting, design 

and operation of new or modified systems that make a reasonable balance between 

environmental benefit and cost to the consumer of electricity. 

DeMartini, E. E. 1983. A Preliminary evaluation of interim monitoring data for coastal, pelagic, 

and benthic, soft-bottom fishes near San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS): a 

re-evaluation of some SONGS' impingement topics: and completion of exploratory data 

analyses for pre-operational monitoring data : final report of the University of California, 

Santa Barbara fish study project for the period: November 1982-October 1983. Santa 

Barbara, Calif.: Marine Science Institute, University of Califiornia, Santa Barbara. 

DeMartini, E. E. 1986. 1986 annual report of the UCSB fish project: preliminary statistical 

comparisons of baseline and operational samples for otter trawl and lampara seine tasks 

and estimation and comparison of entrapment and mortality of fishes at SONGS units 1, 

2, and 3. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa 

Barbara. 

Dempsey C. H. 1988. Ichthyoplankton Entrainment. Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 33, pp. 93-

102. 

Dempsey, C. H. and S. I. Rogers. Ichthyoplankton entrainment at Wylfa power station, 

Anglesey and implications for a further siting proposal. 

Abstract: A 12 month survey of ichthyoplankton in the cooling-water system of Wylfa 

Power Station and the surrounding 40 km (sup 2) of sea, was carried out between October 

1986 and September 1987. The larvae of 31 species and the eggs of 8 species were 

identified in the survey. Samples taken from the cooling-water system and by boat from 

offshore were largely similar in respect of species diversity and density. Estimates of 

annual losses due to entrainment are given both in terms of immediate losses and 

consequential losses of adults to the population. Estimates of losses of six commercially 

exploited species are considered in terms of loss to the commercial fishery. Assuming 

the `worst case' of a 100% mortality of eggs and larvae passing through the cooling 

system, losses of ichthyoplankton due to entrainment at the existing `magnox' nuclear 

power station at Wylfa Point are small and could have no significant adverse effect on 

fish populations of those species entrained. The operation of the proposed `pressurized 

water reactor' nuclear power station on the same site would increase losses by up to 
33

100%. Such an increase would still not alter the existing situation. No significant adverse 

effect is likely. 

Dew, C. B. 1995. The nonrandom size distribution and size-selective transport of age-0 Atlantic 

tomcod (Microgadus tomcod) in the lower Hudson River estuary. Canadian Journal of 

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 52, No. 11, pp. 2353-2366. 

Abstract: From early March until about mid-May 1975 and 1976, the entire Hudson 

River population of recently hatched Atlantic tomcod, Microgadus tomcod, was sorted, 

by estuarine hydrodynamic forces, into a distinct longitudinal size gradient throughout a 

93-km section of the lower estuary. This distribution was evident as a well-ordered 

progression of mean lengths, beginning upriver with the smallest larvae and increasing in 

a downriver direction, with the largest larvae being nearer the estuary mouth. Aspects of 

the passive estuarine transport of larval tomcod during March and April, and the active 

upriver migrational movement of juveniles greater than 20 mm in length beginning in late 

April, were deduced from systematic changes in the longitudinal distribution of tomcod 

mean lengths and associated variances. Abrupt increases in tomcod mean length, 

variation in length, and population density often occurred just seaward of the 1.0ppt 

salinity-intrusion boundary. During March-May, vulnerability of tomcod to power-plant 

entrainment at km 60 - km 69 increased whenever freshwater flow decreased and the 1.0 

ppt intrusion boundary moved upriver. The late April - early May appearance each year 

of age-0 tomcod in impingement samples at km 69 is consistent with the hypothesis of an 

upriver migration of juvenile tomcod beginning in late April. 

Diamond, J. A. 2001. Preliminary study on the impact of entrainment through a heat exchanger 

at the Holyrood Power Generating Plant on winter marine plankton. 

Dimou, N. K. 1990. Numerical simulation of fish larvae entrainment at the Millstone Nuclear 

Power Station. Publication: [Cambridge, Mass.]: Energy 

Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 

Ecological Analysts, Inc. 1977. Survival of Entrained Ichthyoplankton and Macroinvertebrates 

at Hudson River Power Plants. Middletown, New York. 

Edinger J. E. and V. S. Kolluru. 2000. Power plant intake entrainment analysis. Journal of 

Energy Engineering ASCE, Vol. 126, No. 1, pp. 1 14. 

Abstract: Power plant condenser cooling-water intake entrainment of fish, eggs and 

larvae is becoming an issue in evaluating environmental impacts around the plants. 

Methods are required to evaluate intake entrainment on different types of water bodies. 

Presented in this paper is a derivation of the basic relationships for evaluating 

entrainment from the standing crop of fish eggs and larvae for different regions of a water 

body, and evaluating the rate of entrainment from the standing crop. These relationships 

are coupled with a 3-D hydrodynamic and transport model that provides the currents and 

flows required to complete the entrainment evaluation. Case examples are presented for 

a simple river system, and for the more complex Delaware River Estuary with multiple 

intakes. Example evaluations are made for individual intakes, and for the cumulative 

impacts of multiple intakes. 
34

Electric Power Research Institute. 1999. Proceedings: 1998 EPRI Clean Water Act Section 

316(b) Technical Workshop: Coolfont Conference Center, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 

TR-112613, (Apr 1999), 461 pp. 

Abstract: Under an October 1995 Consent Decree, EPA is revisiting Clean Water Act 

Section 316(b) and how it applies to cooling-water intake structures (CWIS). At EPRI's 

request, EPRI and EPA have established a dialog to share technical information related to 

Section 316(b) issues. As part of this dialog, EPRI sponsored this technical workshop for 

EPRI and EPA staff, EPRI's Section 316(b) Technical Advisory Team, and invited 

guests. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2000. Review of Entrainment Survival Studies: 1970-2000, 

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1000757, (Dec 2000). 

Abstract: This report summarizes the results of entrainment survival studies conducted at 

power stations over the last 30 years. It is the most comprehensive review to date and 

will be of value to utilities, industries, and government agencies involved in assessing 

potential environmental impacts of cooling-water intake structures. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. Connecticut River Ecological Study Workshop: 

Revisiting the Impact of a Power Plant: November 15-16, 2001, The University of 

Connecticut Marine Sciences Institute at Avery Point, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 

1006900 (Apr 2002). 

Abstract: The workshop summarized in this CD brought together specialists to review 

the 1965 to 1973 Connecticut River Ecological Study in the context of current regulatory 

developments. The earlier effort established the theoretical and scientific basis for power 

plant ecological impact studies to follow and for environmental impact assessment in 

general. The study examined the potential impact on the ecology of the lower 

Connecticut River due to the operation of the Haddam Neck Connecticut Yankee (CY) 

nuclear powered electric generating station. Results of this study were published in 1976 

as the American Fisheries Society Monograph Number One. The study's methodology, 

results, and conclusions, including information collected during operation and post 

closure of the CY plant, are of relevance to the ongoing national dialog on the impacts of 

cooling-water withdrawals on aquatic resources. This dialog is occurring because the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is developing regulations to implement 

Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act that are intended to minimize those impacts where 

they exist. This rule-making effort applies to the regulation of cooling-water intake 

structures (CWIS) as used by power plant and other industrial operations. The 

regulations will address the meaning of "adverse environmental impact" (AEI), 

approaches for assessing the potential for AEI, and measures for minimizing AEI. These 

measures may include requirements affecting the design, construction, location, and 

capacity of CWIS that are determined to reflect the "best technology available" (BTA). 

EPA is collecting information that it will use to develop the regulations. EPRI is 

providing scientific information to EPA, via both technical reports and technical forums 

for sharing and discussing scientific data, to support their rule development efforts. This 

workshop was an EPRI-supported forum for discussion of CWIS technical issues 
35

associated with the now-retired CY plant and the lower Connecticut River. 

This workshop provided an opportunity to re-examine the original Connecticut River 

Study in relation to the long-term operation of CY and in relation to the current 

ecological condition of the Lower River. All key scientists involved in the Connecticut 

River Study agreed to participate and re-examine its methods, results, and conclusions. 

Presentations from scientists and power plant personnel involved in current Connecticut 

River research supplement the original scientific team. Presentations and discussions 

provide important insights contributing to the ongoing 316(b) dialog and rule-making 

effort. 

The objective of this workshop was to examine in retrospect the study's methods, results 

and conclusions. Data gaps that could be resolved through additional field research were 

identified. Re-visiting the Connecticut River Ecological Study and CY experience 

provided a unique opportunity and case study to examine key issues relative to the impact 

of CWIS on aquatic resources. 

Elwany, M. H. S., J. Reitzel and M. R. Erdman. 1990. Modification of coastal currents by 

power plant intake and thermal discharge systems. Coastal Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 4, 

pp. 359-383. 

Abstract: Power plant cooling systems that entrain large volumes of seawater in multiple 

discharge jets can produce changes in the local field of flow. A case history of observed 

flow modification is provided by dye studies and records of currents around the diffusers 

of the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station (SONGS), which entrain a volume of flow 

on the order of 1000 m super(3)/s. Field observations of dilutions and velocities in the 

discharge plume agree well with the results of hydraulic modeling of the diffuser system. 

Synoptic observations and long-term statistical distributions of current speeds and 

directions show systematic patterns of altered flow around the diffusers that are more 

complex than the flow in the model because of interactions with flow modification by 

local beds of giant kelp. 

Environmental Protection Agency. 1977. Guidance for evaluating the adverse impact of cooling 

water intake structures on the aquatic environment: Section 316 (b) P. L. 92-500. EPA 

Office of Water Enforcement, Permit Division, Industrial Permits Branch, Washington D. 

C., 59 p. Available on-line at http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/316b/ 

Fletcher, R. I. 1990. Flow dynamics and fish recovery experiments: water intake systems. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 393-415. 

Gaudy, R. and B. Moatti. 1978. [Study of the mortality of zooplankton transient in the cooling 

waters of a thermoelectric power plant]. In: Workshop on pollution of the 

Mediterranean. Antalya, 24-27 November 1978. 

Abstract: The mortality of zooplankton sampled from intake and effluent circuits of a 

power plant (Martigues-Ponteau, Gulf of Fos, France) has been followed during an 18 

months study. A vital staining technique was used to determine the proportion of dead 

and live animals under different conditions of power plant activity. The sampling process, 

added to the natural mortality caused a mortality rate of 25%. The lethal factors 

introduced by the cooling-water system were: turbulence (mechanical shock in the 
36

circuits) 21%; thermal shock, whose effect is correlated with the increase of t (about 0 to 

12%) and chlorination (31% average). The mortality appeared to affect larger and smaller 

forms of zooplankton equally. These results are discussed and compared with previous 

estimations. 

Greenwood, M. 2001. Cooling water extraction impacts on lower Forth estuary fish 

populations. 131st American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting, Phoenix, AZ (USA). 

19-23 Aug 2001. (World Meeting Number 000 5724). 

Grotbeck, L. M. and J. L. Bechthold. 1975. Fish impingement at Monticello Nuclear-Plant. 

Journal of the Power Division-ASCE, Vol. 101, Iss. 1, pp 69-83. 

Hanson, C. H., J. R. White and H. W. Li. 1977. Entrapment and impingement of fishes by 

power plant cooling-water intakes: an overview. Mar. Fish. Rev., Vol. 39, No. 10, pp. 7-

17. 

Abstract: An overview of the recent information available on fish entrapment and 

impingement by power plant cooling-water intakes is presented. The types of biological 

problems caused by intake structures, the strengths and weaknesses of various water 

intake/fish protection systems, and the biological/ecological processes relevant to this 

problem are discussed. Factors contributing to direct and delayed mortality in screenimpinged fish are examined with emphasis on the relationship between water velocity, 

impingement time, and physiological stress. In considering the present state of 

developing impact assessment areas which need refinement, omission, and limitations of 

present knowledge are pointed out. The biological impact of water withdrawal for power 

plant cooling can be minimized by consideration of intake sitting and design criteria 

including site evaluations, cooling system design, and the use of guidance, diversion, and 

fish salvage systems. 

Hartwell, S. I. and R. G. Otto. 1978. Swimming performance of juvenile menhaden (Brevoortia 

tyrannus). Publ. by: JHU/CBI; Baltimore, MD (USA), Dec 1978, 23 p., Spec. Rep. 

Chesapeake Bay Inst. 

Abstract: Critical swimming speeds (CSS) for groups of B. tyrannus were determined in 

an array of time and velocity combinations. CSS varied between 20.7 body lengths 

(BL/s) at short time intervals (2 min) to 15.8 BL/s at long time intervals (64 min). The 

experiments were repeated using the same group of fish to assess the effect of previous 

experience and mean CSS increased by 2.3 BL/s. Tailbeat frequency increased steadily 

with increasing velocity. Differences in tailbeat frequency between fish in different 

positions in the groups were noted. This work is part of an investigation to predict fish 

entrainment at water intakes on the Chesapeake Bay. 

Helvey, M. 1985. Behavioral factors influencing fish entrapment at offshore cooling-water 

intake structures in southern California. Marine Fisheries Review, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 18-

26. 

Abstract: Seven species account for the majority of fish entrapment by offshore coolingwater intake structures in southern California. These fishes include transient species 
37

(queenfish, Seriphus politus; white croaker, Genyonemus lineatus; walleye surfperch, 

Hyperprosopon argenteum; northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax and Pacific pompano, 

Peprilus simillimus), which generally encounter intakes at night, and reef-associated 

species (shiner perch, Cymatogaster aggregata ; and white seaperch, Phanerodon 

furcatus) which utilize intake structures as artificial reefs. The entrapment of these 

species results from different behavioral activities that bring these species into direct 

contact with the intake water currents. Future research focused on identifying the 

mechanisms and different behavioral activities that determine these movements is 

recommended as the most practical approach for reducing fish entrapment. 

Helvey, M. and P. B. Dorn. 1987. Selective Removal of Reef Fish Associated with an Offshore 

Cooling-Water Intake Structure. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 24, No. 1, (Apr, 

1987), pp. 1-12. 

Abstract: (1) Fish captured, tagged and released at an offshore intake structure, together 

with a comparison of field population densities and respective impingement rates, 

indicated intake removal to be a selective process. Intake-associated species comprised a 

small proportion of the total number of fish removed and were not removed in numbers 

proportional to their field densities. (2) The rheotropic behavior of four species 

associated with the intake structure demonstrated that, given adequate water clarity, they 

avoided being trapped by intake water currents. (3) Diurnally active species seeking 

benthic cover at night were least susceptible to intake removal. Diurnally active species 

that hover in the water column at night and predators that periodically feed at twilight and 

evening hours were more susceptible to removal. Nocturnal fish were most susceptible to 

removal. 

Helvey, M. and R. W. Smith. 1985. Influence of habitat structure on the fish assemblages 

associated with two cooling-water intake structures in southern California. Bulletin of 

Marine Science, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 189-199. 

Henderson, P. A., A. W. H. Turnpenny and R. N. Bamber. 1984. Long-term stability of a sand 

smelt (Atherina presbyter Cuvier) population subject to power station cropping. Journal 

of Applied Ecology, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 1-10. 

Abstract: The sand smelt (A. presbyter Cuvier) is a species of fish particularly 

susceptible to impingement at power station cooling-water intakes. Data are available 

from 1971 to 1981 for the numbers and sizes of sand smelt impinged at Fawley Power 

Station, Hampshire, during which time it was the commonest impinged fish species. 

Recruitment into the population of a new 0 group is in July/August. Somatic growth only 

occurs during the summer and autumn. There is a seasonal inshore migration for 

spawning by 2 year and older fish, and virtually none survive after 3 years. The observed 

population age structure did not change significantly over the period of this study, despite 

age-selective cropping by the power station. It is suggested that this stability is afforded 

by a density-dependent response. It is concluded that the 10 years of operation of Fawley 

Power Station has had no significant effect on the long-term stability of the local sand 

smelt population. 
38

Hicks, D. B. and L. Tebo. 1985. Power plants: Their present and future impact on the aquatic 

resources of Tampa Bay. Proceedings. Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information 

Symposium, Rep. Fla. Sea Grant Program., No. 65, p. 525 

Abstract: Presently, 5 steam electric plants are using Tampa Bay as a source of 

condenser cooling water and as a site for disposal of waste heat. The subject of this 

presentation is the environmental data and assessment strategies used to evaluate impacts 

of these facilities on the aquatic resources of Tampa Bay. The areal extent of thermal 

impacts can be estimated and regional consequences assessed. Siting criteria are 

discussed as the most effective means of minimizing future environmental impacts. 

Existing technologies are reviewed as "fixes" for currently operating facilities. 

Holmes, R. H. A. and P. A. Henderson. 1990. High fish recruitment in the Severn Estuary: The 

effect of a warm year? Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 961-963. 

Abstract: In 1989, exceptionally strong recruitment has been observed in several fish 

species in the Bristol Channel. This is thought to be a consequence of the unusually high 

sea temperatures during the 1988-89 winter and the following spring and summer. The 

Marine Biological Unit of National Power (currently a division of the C.E.G.B.) has been 

monitoring catches of marine fishes and invertebrates on the cooling-water screens of 

Hinkley Point `B' Power Station on the south side of the estuary of the River Severn at 

regular monthly intervals since January 1981. Animals, seaweed and debris are normally 

washed off into hoppers and then sluiced into collecting baskets for disposal. Samples 

were collected in plastic baskets of 6-mm mesh placed under the spouts of the hoppers or 

where the water enters the collecting baskets. The sampling dates were chosen to lie 

between spring and neap tides. The number of animals collected by two screens for 6 h 

from high water to low water was recorded. Sea water temperatures for each date are 

shown in Fig. 1(a). Average temperature rose from 1981 to 1983 and, after falling to a 

trough in 1985, rose steadily to the warm summer of 1989. Unusually high numbers of 

five fish species [bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L.); twaite shad, Alosa fallax Lacepede; red 

mullet, Mullus surmuletus L.; herring, Clupea harengus L.; pout Trisopterus luscus (L.)] 

and of the invertebrate swimming crab Liocarcinus holsatus (Fabricius) were observed in 

1989. For bass, the relationship between successful recruitment and temperature is well 

established; authors record good recruitment in 1976. 1979 and 1982-83, corresponding 

to warm sea temperatures in the same years. Peaks of 0-group bass were also observed at 

Hinkley during the winter of 1981-82 and autumn of 1983. The September and October 

1989 samples produced the highest captures for the decade. Twenty twaite shad were 

caught at Hinkley in March 1985, since when few were observed until September 1989 

when 39 were caught. Aprahamian states that peak immigration by adult twaite shad into 

the Severn Estuary occurs at temperatures of between 10.6 and 12.3 degree C, while 

Claridge & Gardner attribute a low observed number of shad at Oldbury-on-Severn in 

1974 (compared with 1975 and 1976) to the relatively cold spring and summer 

temperatures of that year; they found that shad started to move out of the estuary when 

temperatures fell to 19 degree C. Red mullet are relatively rare at Hinkley, but nine were 

found in the August sample of 1983 when the sea temperature was 22 degree C, after 

which few were seen until 26 occurred in September 1989. The herring occurred in brief 

peaks of 14 and 47 in 1982 and 1987; unusually 36 were captured in October 1989. 
39

Horwitz, R. J. 1987. Assessment of power plant impact. Impingement studies. Lecture Notes 

on Coastal and Estuarine Studies. Vol. 23, pp. 254-269. 

Hoss, D. E. and J. H. S. Blaxter. 1981. Effects of Rapid Changes in Hydrostatic Pressure on the 

Larvae of Atlantic Herring (Clupea harengus L.). The Early Life History of Fish: Recent 

Studies, Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Ciem., Vol. 178, pp. 328-329. 

Abstract: Fish with gas-filled organs are most likely to be at risk when subjected to the 

pressure changes, which occur during passage through the cooling-water system of a 

thermal power station. Larval herring from 11-39 mm T.L. were subjected to different 

series of pressure changes intended to simulate passage through the cooling-water system 

of a power station. Results showed that the effects of large rapid pressure changes on 

herring larvae were minimal until the bulla developed. As expected the larvae seemed to 

go through a particularly vulnerable stage at the length range 25-30 mm when the 

adaptation mechanism to changes in hydrostatic pressure is missing. With respect to 

power stations, only herring below about 40 mm T.L., which can penetrate the intake 

screens, will be at risk and then only from pressure increases which may cause implosion 

of the bulla membrane before the adaptation mechanism has developed. Herring cannot 

secrete gas into the bulla or swim bladder so there is never likely to be excess gas to 

cause harm to the bulla membrane on pressure decreases. Both pressure increases and 

decreases may be harmful by causing hyperactivity. 

Huh, H. T. 1980. Effects of Thermal Effluents on Marine Biota in Coastal Waters of Korea. 

Acta Oceanogr. Taiwanica., No. 11, pp. 1-9. 

Abstract: To evaluate the effects of thermal effluents from the power plants on marine 

biota, marine ecological studies have been conducted in the vecinities of Kori Nuclear 

Power Plant, located near the tip of south-east coast of Korea. The results have shown a 

possibility of damage, though not conclusive yet, to coastal environment and fisheries by 

the thermal discharges. Densities of plankton populations at the discharge water were 

much lower than those of the intake which may reflect possible metabolic impairment 

and/or physical breakdown of the planktons by the thermal and mechanical stresses in the 

cooling systems. The number of larval fish going into the cooling system of Kori Plant, 

Unit 1, during the reproductive months (May-July), was estimated to be 1-502 per second 

in every 40-ton of cooling water used. The mortalities of planktons due to operation of 

the power plant appear to have minor effect on the plankton populations in surrounding 

waters, but the resulting effects of larval fish mortality due to the entrainment are yet to 

be determined. 

Huish, M. T. and J. Geaghan. 1987. Movements and impingements of juvenile spot. 

Proceedings of the Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife 

Agencies. 1987 October 4-7; Vol. 41, pp. 15-23. 

Hung, T-C., C-C. Huang and K-T. Shao. 1998. Ecological survey of coastal water adjacent to 

nuclear power plants in Taiwan. Chemistry and Ecology, Vol. 15, pp. 129-142. 

Abstract: A total of six nuclear reactors installed in three power plants, two along the 

northern and one along the southern coasts of Taiwan, started their operations one after 
40

another since October 1977. Owing to the large quantities of cooling-water intake into 

and discharge from the plants, some environmental factors such as water temperature, 

chlorine, environmental radioactivity and near shore currents may be significantly 

changed. Variations of these abiotic environmental factors may influence the biological 

activities in the ecosystem, particularly doing some kinds of damage to marine biological 

resources. Therefore, the possible environmental impact upon the biological systems 

including the fishery resources along the northern and southern coasts of Taiwan should 

be studied before and during the plant operation. We have started the long-term 

programmes of biological, chemical and hydrographical surveys of the nuclear power 

plant sites on both northern (since July 1974) and southern (since July 1979) coasts of 

Taiwan. The survey items include ocean currents, physical and chemical properties of 

sea water, primary productivity specific compositions and interspecific relationships 

among phyto- and zooplankton, algae, invertebrates, corals, and fishes; and radionuclides 

in water and biological specimens, and fishery statistics. In general, except for a few 

events, the operations of the six units of nuclear power plants have not produced 

detectable effects on the marine ecosystem. Radioactivity levels and radionuclides in 

water and the biological specimens remained the same as background levels throughout 

the survey period. However, the events of coral bleaching and fish body anomalies 

caused by thermal discharges were observed respectively along the outlets of third and 

second Nuclear Power Plants. The purposes of this paper are to report and evaluate these 

two events during the operations of nuclear power plants in Taiwan. 

Jan, R-Q, J-P Chen, C-Y Lin and K-T Shao. 2001. Long-term monitoring of the coral reef fish 

communities around a nuclear power plant. Aquatic Ecology, Vol. 35, no. 2, (Jun 2001), 

pp. 233-243. 

Abstract: Over the past 21 years (1979-1999) we have observed temporal changes in the 

fish communities on a coral reef around a nuclear power plant in southern Taiwan. Data 

used for analyses were collected bimonthly by scuba-diving ichthyologists at four subtidal stations (Stations A, B, D, E). The commercial operation of the nuclear power plant 

was launched in the summer of 1984. During the study period the number of fish species 

varies, with the coefficient of variation (CV) ranging from 19.0% (Station A) to 25.2% 

(Station D). Nevertheless, the sequential data on number of species follow a random 

trend in terms of runs up and down at all four stations. This characteristic persists both 

before and after the initiation of power plant operation. Dendrograms drawn using 

UPGMA (un-weighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages) on the dissimilarity 

coefficients between yearly fish occurrences show that the years 1980-1984 are more 

closely grouped than any other years. This phenomenon prevails at all stations, 

indicating that wide-scale change occurred between 1984 and 1985. After the power 

plant began operation, changes in water temperature were minute at these sub-tidal 

stations. Impacts from other sources such as chlorine release and fish impingement seem 

remote. We believe temporal variations in the studied fish communities can be better 

explained as arising from natural fluctuations of environmental factors as well as physical 

disturbance caused by typhoons. The latter factor is also thought to account for the major 

faunal change between 1984 and 1985. 
41

Jeffries, P., S. Hale and A. Keller. 1986. Finfish compilations for Mt. Hope Bay and the 

Providence River, Rhode Island: otter trawls and power plant intake screens. Kingston, 

R.I.: Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, (Dec. 1986). 

Jeng, C-H., K-T. Lee and C-H. Liao. 1992. The use of stationary hydroacoustic transducer to 

study dial and seasonal influences on the distribution of fish school in water adjacent to 

the cooling water intake of Nuclear Power Plant III. Journal of the Fisheries Society of 

Taiwan. Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 289-298. 

Jennings, S. 1992. Potential Effects of Estuarine Development on the Success of Management 

Strategies for the British Bass Fishery. Ambio, Vol. 21, Iss. 7, pp. 468-470. 

Jensen, A. L. and T. A. Hamilton. 1982. Application of a conventional fishery model for 

assessment of entrainment and impingement impact. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 

Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 181-185. 

Johnson, D. R. 1983. Effects of rainfall, recruitment, and the operation of the Cedar Bayou 

Electric Generating Station (Baytown, Texas) on the dynamics of fish and 

macrocrustacean communities in the brackish intake and discharge waters. Dissertation 

Abstracts International, B: Sciences and Engineering. Vol. 43, No. 11. 

Johnson, K. W. and K. Strawn. 1973. Occurrence and abundance of fishes in the intake and 

discharge areas of the Cedar Bayou Power Station before and during the first year of 

plant operation. Houston, Tex.: Houston Lighting & Power Company. 

Karaas, P. 1992. Zooplankton entrainment at Swedish nuclear power plants. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 27-32. 

Abstract: Studies on zooplankton entrainment with the cooling-water at four Swedish 

nuclear power plants demonstrated that mortality of crustaceans caused by mechanical 

damage and temperature elevation was low. Chlorination against fouling organisms, 

however, occasionally caused raised mortality. The greatest effect found on the 

zooplankton communities was caused by filter feeders attached to the walls of the 

cooling-water systems. Up to about 50% of the plankton was filtered off, and the effect 

was positively related to the lengths of the cooling-water tunnels. Delayed mortality was 

low in most taxonomical groups except in the cladocerans. As the volumes of water 

passing through the cooling-water systems are very large, the effect on the zooplankton 

community was considered as severe. At one of the plants the estimated yearly average 

loss of crustacean zooplankton was some hundred tons. 

Khalanski, M., O. Mikolacek and F. Travade. 1981. (Fish catches at power plants pumping 

stations. Quantitative estimation of in situ catches at the Dunkerque power plant and 

experimental study of devices for diverting fish at the Gruissan Station (Aude) (France).). 

(Influence of Thermal Discharges on Marine and Estuarine Organisms.), pp. 777-799. 

Abstract: Impingement of fish has been observed on the rotating filters of Dunkerque 

thermal power plant. The impinged fish were caught and 31 species were identified and 

examined (length-weight, health, survival rate). The number of fish that die after 
42

impingement has been estimated per year. An experimental device to divert fishes from 

the power plant intake station, with deflecting screens orienting fishes in a bypass, has 

been tested. 

Koehler, A. 1981. Fluctuations of the ichthyo-fauna in the Elbe estuary: An indicator for a 

disturbed ecosystem. Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen. Hamburg, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 

263-285. 

Abstract: During 1978, 22 fish species (particular Anguilla anguilla L., Platichthys flesus

L., Osmerus eperlanus L., Gasterosteus aculeatus L., Lampetra fluviatilis L., Alosa fallax

(Lacepede), Gymnocephalus cernua L., Clupea harengus L. and Sprattus sprattus L.), 

sampled at the intake of the cooling system in the nuclear power plant at Brunbuettel 

(Elbe estuary) were analyzed for quantities and size distribution. Spawning times and 

seasonal migrations of the fish species investigated corresponded to appropriate 

temperatures of the Elbe water. The diversity of fish species from the cooling water 

proved to be representative for the ichthyo-fauna of this particular estuarine area. At 

least 190 tons of fish per year, were estimated to be annihilated by the suction of cooling 

water into the nuclear power plant. In spite of the progressive development of regional 

industries and the increasing discharges of cooling water, temperature in the estuary has 

remained largely unaffected up till now. The oxygen content of the heavily polluted 

lower Elbe river, however, has become mainly dependent on the amount of fresh water 

flowing from the upper Elbe river. Varying oxygen concentrations downstream of 

Hamburg and at Brunsbuettel are considered to be responsible for migrations of certain 

fish species (mainly flounder and smelt) between the Brunsbuettel region and their 

habitats further upstream which were occupied before the process of industrialization 

initiated. 

Langford, T. E., N. J. Utting and R. H. A. Holmes. 1977. Factors affecting the impingement of 

fishes on power station cooling-water intake screens. European Marine Biology 

Symposium, No. 12, pp. 281-288. 

Littrell, J. A. and J. V. Biaggi. 1979. Petroleum refinery impacts on near shore marine 

environment. Proceedings Association of Island Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean. 

Mayaguez, Vol. 14, p. 29. 

Abstract: A one year biological monitoring program was conducted in Tallaboa and 

Guayanilla Bays, Puerto Rico to assess the impacts of petroleum refinery facility 

operations on the near shore marine life of Tallaboa and Guayanilla Bays. Topics 

covered are: 1) impacts from impingement of nektonic organisms on cooling-water intake 

screens; 2) Quantity of zooplankton available for entrainment in cooling-water system; 3) 

assessment of near shore fish populations; 4) sampling of fouling and interstitial 

organisms; 5) water quality of Tallaboa and Guayanilla Bays; and 6) toxicity testing of 

heated effluent water. Results of the monitoring program are discussed. 

Love, M. S., J. Caselle and L. Snook. 1999. Fish assemblages on mussel mounds surrounding 

seven oil platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin. Bulletin of 

Marine Science, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp.497-513, (Sep 1999). 
43

Abstract: Mussel shell mounds surround all offshore oil and gas platforms in California. 

These biotic reefs are formed when large clumps of mussels are dislodged from the 

superstructure. In 1997, we surveyed the fish assemblages on the mussel mounds 

surrounding seven platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel and in the Santa Maria Basin, 

California. The objectives of this study were (1) to document the fish assemblages on the 

mussel reefs, (2) to investigate the spatial patterns of use of parts of mussel reefs by 

various fish species and (3) to compare species assemblages, population densities and 

fish sizes on the mussel reefs with those on adjacent platform bottoms. We observed at 

least 35 species on the mussel mounds, 18 of which were rockfishes (genus Sebastes). 

Most of the species that were found both in large numbers and were encountered at a 

number of mussel mounds were solitary, benthic forms. Most species appeared to be 

non-randomly distributed among parts of the mussel mounds with different percent shell 

cover. All species combined and all rockfish species tended to be slightly but 

significantly over-represented on areas of 80-100% cover (all species: chi super (2) = 

227, n = 5, P < 0.001, all rockfishes: chi super (2) = 211, n = 5, P < 0.001). Species 

richness, density (fish100 m super (-2)) and mean lengths of fishes were all less on the 

mussel mounds than on the platform bottoms. However, cluster analysis revealed that the 

species composition on each mussel mound is more similar to its adjacent platform 

bottom than to other mounds. There did not appear to be a distinct "mussel mound 

community", instead the mussel mounds should be considered as an integral part of the 

oil platform system. 

Love, M. S., J. E. Caselle and K. Herbinson. 1998. Declines in near-shore rockfish recruitment 

and populations in the southern California Bight as measured by impingement rates in 

coastal electrical power generating stations. Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 96, No. 3, (Jul. 1998), 

pp. 492-501. 

Abstract: We used data from fish impingement studies of the coastal electric generating 

stations of Southern California Edison Company to examine patterns of near-shore 

rockfish abundance in the southern California Bight. The impingement data spanned 17 

years (1977-93), comprised a minimum of several surveys per month and included power 

plants from throughout much of the Bight. Sixteen rockfish species were taken and six 

(olive rockfish, Sebastes serranoides; brown rockfish, S. auriculatus; bocaccio, S. 

paucispinis; blue rockfish, S. mystinus; treefish, S. serriceps; and grass rockfish, S. 

rastrelliger) accounted for 99% of all rockfish caught. Most of these fishes were 

between 0 and 2 years old. Catch rates for all six of these species have dropped 

substantially since the inception of the survey in 1977. Catch rates peaked in the early 

1980s, dropped by a factor of over 100 to a low in 1984, and have generally remained 

low through 1993. One species, blue rockfish, has not been taken since 1984. We 

compared our rockfish impingement data from one power station in King Harbor, 

Redondo Beach, with data from scuba transects conducted during the same period within 

King Harbor. The results of the two surveys strongly suggest that the catch rates of 

rockfishes by power plants reflect the abundance of these fishes surrounding the plants. 

We suggest that the reduction in the abundance of near-shore rockfishes in the southern 

California Bight is due to both decreased recruitment success, reflecting long-term 

adverse oceanographic conditions, and to over-fishing. 
44

Maes, J., A. Taillieu, P. A. Van Damme, K. Cottenie and F. Ollevier. 1998. Seasonal patterns in 

the fish and crustacean community of a turbid temperate estuary (Zeeschelde Estuary, 

Belgium). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, Vol. 47, No. 2, (Aug 1998), pp. 143-

151. 

Abstract: Fish and crustaceans were sampled for 1 year in the upper reaches of a 

temperate estuary characterized by high turbidity and a tidal range of up to 5 m. Samples 

were taken in the cooling-water circuit of the Doel Nuclear Power station (Zeeschelde, 

Belgium). Between July 1994 and June 1995, 55 fish species, two shrimp species and 

four crab species were recorded. The fish community was composed of 36 marine 

species, 16 freshwater species and three diadromous species. Shrimps, Gobiidae and 

Clupeidae dominated the samples both in numbers and biomass. An exceptionally clear 

seasonal succession was observed in the species composition. It is argued that young fish 

and crustaceans use the highly turbid Zeeschelde Estuary as a refuge from predators. 

Maes, J., J. Pas, A. Taillieu, P. A. Van Damme and F. Ollevier. 2001. Sampling of fish and 

crustaceans at the cooling water intake of an estuarine power plant: A comparison with 

stow net fishery. Archive of Fishery and Marine Research, Vol. 49, Iss. 1, pp 27-36. 

Abstract: Fish and crustaceans were sampled in November 1995 in the cooling-water 

intake of the nuclear power plant Doel (Zeeschelde Estuary, Belgium) and by stow nets, 

to determine possible differences in species abundance, species biomass, and mean 

species length between the two methods. A total of 39 species were caught, 32 by stow 

net and 33 at the intake, with 26 species being caught by both methods. The abundance 

and biomass were several times higher at the intake than in the stow net samples. 

Although the average length was higher in the stow net samples in the case of most 

species, almost all length classes of each population were also present in the samples 

from the cooling-water intake. The results suggest that the cooling-water intake is an 

effective means to collect fish and crustaceans, and reflects the species abundance in the 

surrounding waters, if the method is combined with surveys to separate local events from 

long-term trends. 

Maes, J., P. A. Van Damme, A. Taillieu and F. Ollevier. 1998. Fish communities along an 

oxygen-poor salinity gradient (Zeeschelde Estuary, Belgium). Journal of Fish Biology, 

Vol. 52, No. 3, (Feb 1998), pp. 534-546. 

Abstract: Fish living in the tidal fresh and brackish water reaches of the Zeeschelde 

Estuary were studied in samples collected from the cooling-water inlets of three power 

stations. Between July 1994 and June 1995, 42 different species were recorded including 

26 marine migrants, 14 freshwater species and two diadromous species. Species number 

as well as fish abundance were correlated significantly with salinity and oxygen 

concentration. The community structure was analyzed with a correlation biplot based on 

principal component analysis of the root-root transformed fish abundance. Four 

separated communities could be distinguished since the first principal component 

expressed a salinity and the second a temperature gradient. During summer and fall 

Pomatoschistus microps, P. minutus, P. lozanoi and Syngnathus rostellatus were most 

abundant in the brackish-water reach. At this time, freshwater species seemed to avoid 
45

the freshwater area. During winter, Sprattus sprattus, Clupea harengus and 

Dicentrarchus labrax were the dominant species of the brackish-water zone while the 

freshwater reaches were dominated by Gasterosteus aculeatus. Migrating fish such as 

Pleuronectes flesus, Lampetra fluviatilis, Anguilla anguilla and Osmerus eperlanus were 

restricted to the brackish environment. 

Maitland, P. S., K. East and K. H. Morris. 1980. Fish entrained in 1977 at Cockenzie Power 

Station, in the Firth of Forth. Forth naturalist and historian. Stirling, Vol. 5, No. 1980, 

pp. 35-45. 

Abstract: Power station intakes are of value in monitoring water quality or studying 

population dynamics of various species. A pilot project was set up in 1977 to monitor the 

Cockenzie Power Station, Firth of Forth. This power station is situated on the open 

seaward end of the estuary, where tidal and salinity conditions are marine. A total of 28 

different species of fish were recorded, but the total catch was dominated by relatively 

few species, notably sprat, herring, whiting and sand goby. The species recorded were: 

Sprattus sprattus, Clupea harengus, Anguilla anguilla, Syngnthus acus, Entelurus 

aequoreus, Merlangius merlangus, Pollachius virens, Gadus morhua, Raniceps raninus, 

Ciliata mustela, Ammodytes tobianus, Hyperoplus lanceolatus, Trachinus vipera, 

Pomatoschistus pictus, Pomatoschistus minutus, Pholis gunnellus, Zoarces viviparus, 

Crenimugil labrosus, Myoxocephalus scoripius, Taurulus bubalis, Agononus 

cataphractus, Cyclopterus lumpus, Liparis liparis, Liparis montagui, Spinachia 

spinachia, Limanda limanda, Platichthys flesus, and Pleuronectes platessa . 

Marcy, B. C., Jr. 1975. Entrainment of organisms at power plants, with emphasis on fishes. 

Fisheries and energy production: A symposium. 

Abstract: An overview of the recent information available on entrainment, specifically 

on fish eggs and larvae, is presented. The components of inner-plant mortality (thermal, 

mechanical and biocidal effects) are discussed, with emphasis on recent data on 

mechanical damage. Sampling considerations for entrainment studies as well as 

philosophies and suggestions for reducing entrainment losses are presented. Power plant 

impact can be minimized by siting in non-productive areas and going to closed cooling 

systems, i.e., lower intake volumes, since the mortality of meroplankton is directly 

related to the volume entering the intake. The low volume concept is presently the only 

effective approach to minimizing the adverse effects on entrained organisms. If studies 

continue to reveal high percentages of mechanical damage relative to thermal or chemical 

effects, future alternative strategies may also include the raising of condenser {delta} T's 

while lowering the intake water volume, i.e., decreasing the number of entrained 

organisms vulnerable to mortality. 

Marcy, B. C., Jr. 1976. Planktonic fish eggs and larvae of the lower Connecticut River and the 

effects of the Connecticut Yankee Plant including entrainment. American Fisheries 

Society Monograph. Vol. 1976, No. 1, pp. 115-139. 

Mathur, D., P. G. Heisey and N. C. Magnusson. 1977. Impingement of fishes at Peach Bottom 

atomic power station, Pennsylvania. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 

Vol. 106, No. 3, pp. 258-267. 
46

McBride, R. S. and K. W. Able. 1994. Reproductive seasonality, distribution, and abundance of 

Prionotuscarolinus and P. evolans (Pisces: Triglidae) in the New York Bight. Estuarine, 

Coastal and Shelf Science, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 173-188. 

Abstract: The reproductive seasonality, distribution, and abundance of two sympatric 

searobins, Prionotus carolinus (Linnaeus) and P. evolans (Linnaeus), were investigated 

using multiple gears (plankton nets, seines, trawls, and powe rplant impingement 

samples) in several New Jersey estuaries and across the continental shelf of the New 

York Bight. Reproduction occurred from May to October and peaked in July or August 

based on collections of eggs (Prionotus spp.) near Little Egg Inlet, during 1972-75. The 

larvae were present July-October and abundance peaked in September. Eggs and larvae 

were more abundant at inner continental shelf stations compared to estuarine stations. 

Juvenile (<100 mm standard length) P. carolinus were primarily found at inner shelf 

habitats from September to December, but they were also collected in much colder 

months (i.e. February-June). Juvenile P. evolans were captured in both estuarine and 

inner shelf habitats from July to December. Prionotus carolinus was generally more 

numerous and more frequently collected in trawls compared to P. evolans, but diel 

period, season, and habitat all affected measured abundance. Catches for both species 

were higher and more frequent at night. Both species were collected from May to 

November, but P. carolinus arrived earlier to (and emigrated sooner from) coastal 

habitats than P. evolans. Each species was also distributed differentially between 

estuarine and continental shelf habitats, although they frequently occurred together. A 

canonical discrimination analysis showed that P. evolans was found in seasonally 

warmer, less oxygenated, and more turbid habitats than P.carolinus. In addition, P. 

carolinus was found scattered near the edge of the continental shelf during winter (i.e. 

January-March) when P. evolans was not collected in the New York Bight. Temperature, 

in particular, helps explain the observed inter specific differences in seasonal distribution 

at a small scale (i.e. in the estuary) as well as at a large scale (i.e. across the continental 

shelf). 

McDonough, T. A. and P. A. Hackney. 1979. Relationship of threadfin shad density and size 

structure to impingement at a steam-electric plant. Proceedings of the Annual 

Conference Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. Vol. 33, pp.639-

647. 

McDonough, T. A. and P. A. Hackney. 1979. Relationship of threadfin shad density and size 

structure to impingement at a steam-electric plant. Proc., Annu. Conf., Southeast. Assoc. 

Fish Wildl. Agencies, Vol. 33, 639-647. 

Abstract: Threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense) impingement at the Cumberland SteamElectric Plant followed a seasonal pattern related to the abundance and length distribution 

of young-of-year fish. Electrofishing samples taken near the plant showed a similar 

pattern. The number of impinged fish (larger than 50 mm) decreased rapidly with 

increasing length due to reduction in abundance by natural mortality. Impingement 

mortality was found to be length dependent. Most individuals, less than 50 mm in length 

passed through the screens, while increasingly larger individuals were more likely to 

become impinged. Impinged fish less than 100 mm total length tended to be more plump 
47

than fish collected in rotenone samples, while impinged fish larger than 100 mm tended 

to be in poorer condition. 

Mclean, R. B., J. J. Beauchamp, V. E. Kane and P. T. Singley. 1982. Impingement of threadfin 

shad: effects of temperature and hydrography. Environmental Management. Vol. 6, No. 

5, pp. 431-439. 

McLean, R. I. 2002. Maryland power plant cooling water intake regulations and their 

application in evaluation of adverse environmental impacts. [Annapolis, MD]: Maryland 

Power Plant Program, Dept. of Natural Resources. 

Merriner, J. V. and A. D. Estes. 1976. Ecological study of the tidal segment of the James River 

encompassing Hog Point: 1975 final technical report : appendices to section 3 A, plant 

entrainment of ichthyoplankton at the VEPCO nuclear power station. Gloucester Point, 

Va.: Virginia Institute of Marine Science. 

Milliken, D. M., R. C. Baird and A. Feinstein. 1973. A review and annotated bibliography of 

the problem of fish entrapment at power generating facilities. St. Petersburg, Fla., 

University of Florida, Marine Science Inst. 

Moazzam, M. and S. H. N. Rizvi. 1980. Fish entrapment in the seawater intake of a power plant 

at Karachi coast. Environ. Biol. Fish, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 49-57. 

Abstract: The study deals with the entrapment of fishes in the intake of Karachi Nuclear 

Power Plant. A total of 62 species of marine fishes belonging to 43genera were observed 

entrapped in the seawater intake. Therapon puta, Liza waigiensis, Abudefduf

septemfasciatus, and Lagoceptalus inermis were the most common. Mass mortalities of 

the juveniles of Sardinella sindensis were recorded in September and October of 1974, 

1975, and 1977. Commercially important fishes such as sardines, mullets and anchovies, 

were entrapped in the intake of the power plant in considerable numbers at various times 

of the year. The majority of fishes removed from the screen washes of the power plants 

were killed by impingement. 

Moorehead, P. W. and M. Service. 1992. Capture of fish on screens of power stations in 

Northern Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal (Belfast), Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 3-8. 

Murdoch, W. W., R. C. Fay, B. J. Mechalas and others. 1989. Final report of the Marine 

Review Committee to the California Coastal Commission. [San Francisco, CA]: Marine 

Review Committee. 

Nair, K. V. K. 1994. Condenser cooling using seawater: Problems and prospects. Training 

Programme in Modeling and Monitoring of Coastal Marine Pollution (Mamcomp), 

November 21-December 16, 1994. Lecture Notes. Indian Inst. Of Technol., New Delhi 

(India), pp. 129-137. 

Abstract: Electric Power Plants are often strategically located in close proximity of water 

bodies such as lakes, rivers, estuaries and coastal waters, so as to make use of them as 

heat sinks. In addition to waste heat, these power plants also release chlorine trace 

metals, fly ash, and low level radioactive wastes (if the source of energy is nuclear) into 
48

the aquatic environment. Further, in the cooling circuit aquatic organisms are subjected 

to effects of entrainment and impingement. This paper attempts to state the major 

environmental and operational issues involved, in an integrated manner, with a view to 

involve a comprehensive survey strategy for the study of aquatic ecosystems used for 

industrial cooling. An attempt is also made to draw lessons from the experience at 

Kalpakkam, where studies on operational and ecological problems around a power plant 

have been in progress for the last several years. 

Nisbet, R. M, W. W. Murdoch and A. Stewart Oaten. 1996. Consequences for adult fish stocks 

of human induced mortality on immatures. In: Schmitt, R. J. and C. W. Osenberg, [Eds]. 

Detecting ecological impacts: concepts and applications in coastal habitats. Academic 

Press. San Diego, New York. pp. 257-277. 

Nitschke, P., M. Mather and F. Juanes. 2002. Evidence for density-dependent mortality in 

recruitment of a temperate reef fish, cunner Tautogolabrus adspersus, among similar 

reefs in the vicinity of an anthropogenic disturbance. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 

Vol. 226, (Jan. 2002), pp. 165-178. 

Abstract: Determining the factors that regulate recruitment of cunner Tautogolabrus 

adspersus, a temperate reef fish, can help assess the effect of an anthropogenic 

disturbance on population abundance. The relative abundance of cunner recruits was 

tracked over 1 reproductive season via visual counts on line transects across similar 

habitats at 4 sites across 3 boulder reefs in the vicinity of the Pilgrim Nuclear Power 

Station (PNPS) in Plymouth, Massachusetts, USA. Habitat characteristics including 

macroalgae structure, canopy height, rugosity (a measure of structure complexity), 

temperature, and visibility were measured at each site to assess the influence of these 

factors on recruit abundance. We assumed that immigration and emigration were not 

responsible for recruit abundance patterns through time due to the sedentary life history 

of cunner recruits. We observed differences in recruit abundance over the settlement 

period among reefs, which were likely the result of differences in settlement. However 

recruitment at the end of the post-settlement period was similar across reefs. Recruit 

mortality rates among reefs differed in the post-settlement period, with the reef that had 

the highest density also having the highest mortality rate. Post-settlement mortality rates 

provided evidence for density-dependent mortality, since habitat and abiotic factors failed 

to explain the difference in mortality among reefs. Consequently, because of the 

existence of density-dependent processes in the post-settlement stages, entrainment 

mortality of the pre-settlement egg and larval stages by the PNPS will have a diminished 

effect on the local cunner population. An additional assessment of within-reef variability 

in recruitment also suggests recruitment success is sensitive to small changes in habitat 

structure which can occur over the recruitment season. 

Normandeau Associates. 1975. The impact of entrainment by the Seabrook Station. Bedford, 

N.H.: The Associates. 

Olson, M. M. 1987. Assessment of power plant impact. Entrainment studies. Zooplankton 

entrainment. Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine Studies. Vol. 23, pp. 240-250. 
49

Pawson, M. G. and D. R. Eaton. 1999. The influence of a power station on the survival of 

juvenile sea bass in an estuarine nursery area. Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 54, no. 6, 

(Jun. 1999), pp. 1143-1160. 

Abstract: (1) Trawl surveys in the estuary of the River Medway in the autumns of 1987-

1991 have shown that the distribution of juvenile sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax is 

strongly associated with the warm-water outflow from Kingsnorth power station. (2) In 

years of low abundance of first-year bass, very few were caught outside the warm-water 

discharge channel, whereas proportionately more fish of abundant year classes occupied 

the main river. (4) About 15% of the available juvenile bass population died on the 

cooling-water intake screens at Kingsworth in the autumn and winter of 1987 and 1988. 

(5) However, growth and survival of first-year bass in the Medway Estuary may be 

enhanced by the power station's warm-water effluent, such that over-winter mortality due 

to inadequate nutritional reserves and low temperatures may be considerably reduced. 

Piet, G. 1998. Impact of environmental perturbation on a tropical fish community. Canadian 

Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 55 (August. 1998), pp. 1842-1853. 

Polgar, T. T., M. A. Turner and J. K. Summers. 1988. The effect of power plant entrainment on 

the population dynamics of the bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli). Ecological Modelling. 

Vol. 41, No. 3 4, pp. 201-218. 

Quinby-Hunt, M. S., P. Wilde and C. W. Case. 1984. Environmental considerations: Ocean 

thermal energy conversion (OTEC) on Pacific Islands. Proceedings Of The Pacific 

Congress On Marine Technology, Honolulu, Hawaii, April 24-27. 1984, pp. 53-58. 

Abstract: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) has been proposed as an 

alternative energy source for tropical and sub-tropical Pacific islands. It is a relatively 

benign technology, however a number of environmental issues must be addressed. These 

include the effects of: biota attraction, organism impingement/entrainment, biocide 

impacts on non-target organisms, redistribution of oceanic properties, and release of trace 

constituents. Safety and plant survivability must be assured. Mitigation strategies can 

and should be devised prior to final site and design selection. Once the site and design 

are selected, a site- and design-specific review of potentially significant environmental 

concerns should occur. 

Reay, P. J. and M. B. Culley. 1980. Fish and fisheries in the Solent. In: The Solent estuarine 

system. An assessment of present knowledge. Publ. by: Nat. Environ. Res. Counc. 

Publs., Swindon (UK)., (Nov. 1980), Ser. C, No. 11 pp. 86-91. 

Abstract: There are three types of fisheries in the Solent region: commercial; sport and 

anadromous sport fisheries. Statistics are not accurate, however, catch by rod and line 

equals commercial fishing operations. The area is more important for sea angling than 

for commercial fisheries. Counts and/or weights of fish collected on the cooling-water 

intake screens of the power station at Fawley have been taken since 1973. A total of 73 

spp have been recorded. The most abundant are sand smelt, sprat, pouting, bass, great 

pipefish, sand goby, herring, golden mullet, flounder and whiting. There has also been a 

survey of fish in Langstone Harbour and a MAFF survey of young fish in the Solent 
50

region. A table gives a check list of 100 spp recorded in the region and the source of the 

information. 

Riley, J. D., M. J. Andrews, M. W. Aprahamian and P. N. Claridge. 1986. Bass (Dicentrarchus 

labrax) year class size variation as shown by sampling the 0 group on power station 

cooling water intake screens, English coast 1972-1983. Annales Biologiques 

(Copenhagen). Vol. 40, pp. 181- 

Robin, J. P. 1991. Assessment of Juvenile Flounder Catches at the Cordemais Power-Station 

Water-Intake in the Loire Estuary, France. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research, Vol. 27, 

No. 3-4, (Jul. 1991), pp. 317-323. 

Abstract: A comprehensive sampling exercise was carried out at Cordemais Power 

Station during 1988 in order to evaluate the number of 0-group flounder, Platichthys 

flesus, removed from the Loire Estuary by the water intakes. Larvae drawn through the 

cooling system and juveniles impinged on the drumscreens were both taken into account. 

Statistical confidence limits of the estimates (which are useful for comparisons with the 

effect of other human activities) were estimated using non-linear regression and MonteCarlo techniques. The method was developed for one of the two similar units working 

during the April-June period of high flounder abundance in the cooling-water. For this 

unit 16.5 million fish were drawn through the cooling system and 1.13 million were 

trapped on the drumscreen. The effect of the Power Station is discussed in connection 

with small-meshed fisheries and assessments of the estuarine juvenile stock. 

Rodríguez Santiago, A. E. 2000. Taxonomic composition and seasonal abundance of 

zooplankton entrained by a thermoelectric power plant in San Juan Bay, Puerto Rico. 

Rulifson, R. A. 1977. Temperature and water velocity effects on the swimming performances of 

young-of-the-year striped mullet (Mugil cephalus), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), and 

pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides). J. Fish. Res. Board Can., Vol. 34, No. 12, pp. 2316-2322. 

Abstract: Swimming performances of young-of-the-year Mugil cephalus, Leiostomus 

xanthurus, and Lagodon rhomboides were tested by examining the combination of 

physical endurance and swimming behavior to provide information on potential fish 

entrainment and impingement problems at industrial intakes. Tests were conducted at 

three temperatures (15-25 degree C) and six water velocities (12-48 cm/s). Fish lengths 

ranged from 1.4 to 7.0 cm TL. Fish tested at higher temperatures exhibited increased 

time for steady swimming and for impingement avoidance. Temperature was also 

positively correlated with maximum swimming speeds and with the number of bursts 

performed during drift-burst activity (drifting with the current and returning upstream 

with a burst of swimming). Increased water velocities resulted in decreased times of 

steady swimming and impingement avoidance, and reduced drift-burst activity. Larger 

fish avoided impingement longer and had faster maximum swimming speeds; however, 

smaller fish showed stronger rheotaxis and swam steadily for longer periods at equal 

water velocities. Abnormally heavy mullet and spot had reduced capabilities for position 

maintenance (steady swimming), which may decrease their ability to avoid impingement. 
51

Saila, S. B. 1976. Final report on effects of power plant entrainment on winter flounder 

populations near Millstone Point. Narragansett, R.I.: Graduate School of Oceanography, 

University of Rhode Island. 

Saila, S. B., E. Lorda, J. D. Miller, R. A. Sher and W. H. Howell. 1997. Equivalent adult 

estimates for losses of fish eggs, larvae, and juveniles at Seabrook Station with use of 

fuzzy logic to represent parametric uncertainty. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management, Vol. 17, No. 4, (Nov. 1997), pp. 811-825. 

Abstract: Regulatory agencies continue to direct their attention to the impact of coastal 

power generating stations on fishery resources. We analyzed 6 years of entrainment and 

2 years of impingement data for selected species at the Seabrook Station, Seabrook, New 

Hampshire, in combination with selected life history parameters to provide equivalent 

adult estimates of fish losses at the station. The species examined were the winter 

flounder Pleuronectes americanus, pollock Pollachius virens, and red hake Urophycis 

chuss. The standard equivalent adult method involves estimates of numbers of fish 

entrained and impinged, survival from egg to impacted life history stage, and the average 

lifetime fecundity of a newly recruited female. However, this method does not account 

for the uncertainty in model parameters. The method was extended by applying fuzzy 

arithmetic to fuzzy numbers, constructed from empirical data, to provide upper and lower 

bounds on the estimated losses as equivalent adults. The analyses indicated that 

impingement losses were not ecologically significant for any of the three species. The 

largest equivalent adult losses were attributed to the entrainment of winter flounder 

larvae. However, even these represented an ecologically insignificant fraction of any 

sustainable stock. The offshore location of the intakes at mid-depth and the use of 

velocity caps were believed to account for the relatively small losses compared to similar 

coastal facilities. A specific comparison of equivalent adult estimates for winter flounder 

from another coastal power station (Pilgrim Station) indicated losses due to entrainment 

that were generally higher than for Seabrook Station. 

Santos, C. 1985. Zooplankton entrainment evaluation in a power plant station. Coastal Zone. 

Vol. 1985, No. 2, pp. 2305-2312. 

Schlotterbeck, R. E. and D. W. Connally. 1982. Vertical stratification of three nearshore 

southern California larval fishes (Engraulis mordax, Genyonemus lineatus, and Seriphus 

politus). Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 80, No. 4, pp. 895-902. 

Abstract: Northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax (Engraulididae); white croaker, 

Genyonemus lineatus (Sciaenidae); queenfish, Seriphus politus (Sciaenidae) are among 

the most abundant adult fishes in the area, and are important links in the local trophic 

structure. Larval length-frequency distributions of the three species of fish were 

determined in conjunction with a study of the effects of a power plant offshore coolingwater intake on local nekton populations. The northern anchovy is important as forage 

for larger fishes and is fished commercially for manufacture of fish meal and oil. While 

the two sciaenid species have less commercial value, both are important as forage for 

larger species. 
52

Schneider, J. W., B. J. Copeland and R. J. Monroe. 1980. The vertical distribution of estuarine 

meroplankton in the vicinity of a power plant cooling water intake, Southport, North 

Carolina. Raleigh, N.C. 

Schubel, J. R., C. F. Smith and T. S. Y. Koo. 1977. Thermal effects of power plant entrainment 

on survival of larval fishes: a laboratory assessment. Chesapeake Sci., Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 

290-298. 

Abstract: Blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), and 

striped bass (Morone saxatilis) larvae from the Chesapeake Bay region were subjected in 

the laboratory to time-excess temperature histories typical of those experienced by 

organisms entrained by power plants with a variety of design and operating criteria. The 

maximum excess temperature ranged from 7 degree to 20 degree C above the base 

temperature (the average surface water temperature on the spawning grounds); the time 

of exposure to a maximum excess temperature from 4 to 60 minutes; and the period of 

cooling to the final temperature from 60 to 300 minutes. An excess temperature of 20 

degree C resulted in virtually total mortality of larvae of all 3 species. Striped bass larvae 

were the most tolerant of the 3 species and could withstand excess temperatures of up to 

10 degree C with no significant increase in mortality. The response patterns of the other 

2 species were more complicated. 

Schubel, J. R., H. H. Carter and J. M. O'Connor. 1979. Effects of increasing [delta] T on power 

plant entrainment mortality at Indian Point, New York. Stony Brook, N.Y.: Marine 

Sciences Research Center, State University of New York. 

Shao, K-T. and S-R. Kuo. 1988. Species composition and seasonal distribution of impinged 

fishes at the two intakes along the northern coast of Taiwan. Acta Zoologica Taiwanica. 

Vol. 1988, No. 2, pp. 209-227. 

Shao, K-T., C-P. Lin, L-T. Ho and P-L. Lin. 1990. Study on the fish communities from 

northern and southern waters of Taiwan by analyzing the impingement data. Journal of 

the Fisheries Society of Taiwan, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 73-90. 

 Abstract: Fish impingement data collected from the cooling-water intakes of the three 

nuclear power plants located along the coast of northern and southern tips of Taiwan 

from July 1987 through June 1989 were used to analyze their species composition, 

temporal and spatial variations of fish communities. A total number of 84 families and 

295 species of fishes were collected by systematic sampling method during the past two 

years. Among them, 113 species were economic species, which comprised 38.3%; 180 

species were coral reef fishes contained 61% of the total species. However, 94.13% of 

the total impinged weights was contributed by economic species, mostly seasonal pelagic 

or benthic migratory species. The seasonal high peak of impingement in summer and 

low catches in winter were consistent among the three different stations especially for the 

economic species. 

Sheng, L., W. Hou, G. Zhao, D. Li, X. Wang and S. Ru. 1994. Entrainment effect of power 

plant cooling system on young fish and postlarvae shrimp. Acta Scientiae 

Circumstantiae. (March. 1994), Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 47-55. 
53

Sissenwine, M. P., K. W. Hess and S. B. Saila. 1974. Interim report on evaluating the effect of 

power plant entrainment on populations near Millstone Point, Connecticut. Narragansett, 

R.I.: Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 

Sissenwine, M. P., K. W. Hess and S. B. Saila. 1974. Second semiannual report on evaluating 

the effect of power plant entrainment on populations near Millstone Point, Connecticut. 

Narragansett, R.I.: Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 

Stephens, J. S. Jr., P. A. Morris, D. J. Pondella, T. A. Koonce and G. A. Jordan. 1994. 

Overview of the dynamics of an urban artificial reef fish assemblage at King Harbor, 

California, USA. 1974-1991: A recruitment driven system. Bulletin of Marine Science, 

Vol. 55, No. 2-3, pp. 1224-1239.Note: This paper mentions “a significant annual 

mortality from adult fish entrapment and larval entrainment by the Southern California 

Edison (SCE) intakes”. 

Stewart, P. L. and S. H. Arnold. 1994. Environmental requirements of Atlantic herring (Clupea 

harengus harengus) in eastern Canada and its response to human impacts. Canadian 

technical report of fisheries and aquatic sciences, 46 pp. 

Abstract: Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) is a migratory species, returning to 

localized coastal areas and banks for spawning. Depending on stock and season, 

spawning occurs in shallow water as well as on deeper shoals and banks. Herring deposit 

eggs on the seabed in deeper water and on algae and solid substrate in shallow coastal 

spawning beds. Spawning areas are generally associated with well-mixed water, with 

tidal gyres, with estuaries having well-developed estuarine circulation, or in bays and 

other coastal features, which are believed to aid in keeping the larvae in the area for 

subsequent development and to permit development of schooling and migratory behavior. 

Herring can be affected by human activities. The tendency to school, the use of localized 

spawning and nursery areas, and the association of the species with coastal waters make 

herring more susceptible than many other species to accidental releases of contaminants. 

Herring can accumulate organic contaminants owing to their elevated lipid content; and 

although concentrations are small, they can lead to reduced reproductive success. 

Herring movements can be impacted by coastal structures, sea cages, entrainment in 

cooling-water from thermal power plants and from chlorine discharges used in fouling, as 

well as wastewater and sewage treatment. 

Stupka, R. C. and R. K. Sharma, (year not available). Survey of fish impingement at power 

plants in the United States. Volume 3: estuaries and coastal waters. Argonne National 

Laboratory, IL (USA). Division of Environmental Impact Studies. Rep. Argonne Natl. 

Lab. 

Abstract: Impingement of fish at cooling-water intakes of 32 power plants located on 

estuaries and coastal waters has been surveyed and data are presented. Descriptions of 

site, plant, and intake design and operation are provided. Reports in this volume 

summarize impingement data for individual plants in tabular and histogram formats. 

Information was available from differing sources such as the utilities themselves, public 

documents, regulatory agencies, and others. Thus, the extent of detail in the reports 

varies greatly from plant to plant. Histogram preparation involved an extrapolation 
54

procedure that has inadequacies. The reader is cautioned in the use of information 

presented in this volume to determine intake-design acceptability or intensity of impacts 

on ecosystems. No conclusions are presented but data comparisons are made in Volume 

4. 

Swarbrick, S. L. and R. F. Ambrose. 1989. Technical report to the California Coastal 

Commission, C: Entrapment of juvenile and adult fish at SONGS. [Santa Barbara, CA]: 

The Committee. 

Thomas, G. L. and R. L. Johnson. 1980. Density dependence and vulnerability of fish to 

entrapment by offshore-sited cooling-water intakes. Oceans '80. An international forum 

on ocean engineering in the '80s., Publ. by: IEEE; New York, NY (USA)., pp. 504-508. 

Abstract: Simultaneous measurements of the offshore fish density and in plant fish 

entrapment were made during 8 surveys at 4 electric-generating stations along the 

Southern California coastline in 1979. Hourly estimates of the fish biomass in the 

vicinity of the cooling-water intake sites and measurements of fish entrapment were 

made. An entrapment vulnerability statistic, the ratio of the weight (kg) of fish entrapped 

in the plant (E) to the weight (kg) of fish offshore in the vicinity of the intake (B),i.e., 

E/B, was employed to describe the effect of water transparency, the velocity-cap and 

volume of flow on the entrapment of fish. 

Thomas, G. L. 1980. A Field evaluation on the influence of the recirculation of cooling water (a 

heat treatment operation) on the entrapment of fish at Huntington Beach generating 

station. Seattle, Wash.: Fisheries Research Institute, College of Fisheries, University of 

Washington. 

Titmus, G., P. N. Claridge and I. C. Potter. 1978. Growth and abundance of 0-group herrings, 

Clupea harengus L., in the Severn Estuary. Zool. J. Linn. Soc., Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 251-

260. 

Abstract: Collections made from the cooling-water intake screens of Power Stations in 

the Severn Estuary and the Bristol Channel have been used to investigate the biology of 

0-group herrings in this region. The abundance of herrings at Oldbury, the principal 

sampling site, was low in most years and in five successive seasons between July 1972 

and Dec 1976, large numbers were caught only between the summer of 1975 and the 

spring of 1976. The herrings were first observed in July, when many had still not 

completed metamorphosis, and reached peak numbers in September and October during 

which period they were clearly growing. Numbers declined in Dec before rising 

dramatically in January at which time the length-frequency curves displayed a 

pronounced bimodality. On the basis of data from other parts of the Bristol Channel and 

Severn Estuary, it is suggested that this bimodality is due to the influx of some animals 

from other regions where the growth rate was greater. Although movement is apparently 

taking place at this time and the numbers decline markedly in subsequent months, the last 

remnants of the population do not leave the estuary until early May. Post-pelvic scute 

(KSUB-2) and vertebral counts (VS) of 13.82 and 55.24 respectively, indicate that the 

Severn Estuary herrings are the product of a spring spawning stock, a view entirely 

consistent with length and field data. 
55

Turnpenny, A. W. H. and R. N. Bamber. 1983. The critical swimming speed of the sand smelt 

(Atherina presbyter Cuvier) in relation to capture at a power station cooling water intake. 

Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 65-73. 

Abstract: (1) Critical swimming speeds (CSS) of sand smelt, A. presbyter, were 

measured in a laboratory flume. (2) Individuals of all age classes (0+ to 3+) found in the 

vicinity of Fawley Power Station, Hampshire, were tested at temperatures covering the 

seasonal range. (3) The median CSS was 2 multiplied by 7 body lengths per second (bl s 

super (-1)) at 5 multiplied by 8 degree C, rising to 5 multiplied by 7 bl s super(-1) at 18 

multiplied by 5 degree C. (4) It is concluded that the sand smelt remains vulnerable to 

entrainment at the power station over its whole length range and over the full range of 

seasonal temperatures and that size-dependent swimming performance will not lead to 

significant bias in sample length distributions. 

Turnpenny, A. W. H. 1983. Multiple regression analysis for forecasting critical fish influxes at 

power station intakes. Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 33-42. 

Abstract: (1) Coastal power stations in Britain are subject to ingresses of fish which, may 

jeopardize plant operation or temporary local depletion of fish populations. (2) There 

have been attempts in the United States and in Europe to develop costly and often 

ineffectual exclusion devices. For sites where the problem is intermittent, statistical 

models should be developed which allow critical levels of fish ingress to be predicted and 

the necessary reduction in cooling-water flow determined. (3) The procedure for 

developing a multiple regression model is described and illustrated using fish 

impingement data collected from Fawley Power Station. Over 60% of the overall 

variation was accounted for in terms of a small number of easily measured variables. 

With refinements of the model the approach would have practical application. 

Turnpenny, A. W. H. 1988. Fish impingement at estuarine power stations and its significance to 

commercial fishing. Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 33, pp. 103-110. 

Abstract: The abstraction of cooling water (CW) at power stations sited on tidal waters 

inevitably leads to mortalities of some fish which are drawn in with the CW supply and 

become impinged on the intake screens. These fish are predominantly 0- or 1-group 

juveniles, which, owing to their small size, are unable to resist intake currents. 

Commercial fishermen often object to the fact that juvenile fish are killed in this way. 

Their concern stems from the fact that in order to protect stocks, commercial fishing is 

restricted to fish, which are above a statutory minimum landing size, whereas the 

majority of fish killed by impingement are below this size. This Report considers the 

significance of impingement mortalities at four estuarine sites in Britain for six 

commercially important species. Life tables are used to establish expected survival 

trajectories for each species and to compute reproductive potential. Each fish killed on 

intake screens is then considered in terms of the fraction of the reproductive potential of a 

single adult at maturity, and is ascribed an `adult equivalent' value. Total catches of 

mixed juveniles and adults are then presented as `adult equivalent' values. 
56

Turnpenny, A. W. H., R. N. Bamber and P. A. Henderson. 1981. Biology of the Sand-Smelt 

(Atherina presbyter Valenciennes) around Fawley Power Station. Journal of Fish 

Biology, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 417-427. 

Abstract: (1) Past studies of fish impingement at Fawley power station have shown that 

sand-smelts, Atherina presbyter Valenciennes, are susceptible to impingement and may 

be a useful species for examining effects of impingement mortalities on population size 

and structure. (2) A 21 month study of population in the vicinity of Fawley power station 

was carried out to obtain data on the biology of the species for future population 

dynamics modelling studies. (3) Aspects included in the study were growth, sex ratio, 

reproduction, survival and mortality rates and diet. 

Ulanowicz, R. E., J. M. Lindsay and W. C. Caplins. 1982. Simulating the Lateral Transport of 

Ichthyoplankton in the Potomac Estuary. Estuaries, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 57-67. 

Abstract: (1) Previous simulations of potential ichthyoplankton entrainment by power 

generating stations on the Potomac estuary have not included the influence of lateral 

transport in distributing eggs and larvae over the nursery area. Therefore, twodimensional, vertically-averaged hydrodynamic and kinematic models of passive 

organism transport were developed to represent advective and dispersive processes near 

the proposed Douglas Point Nuclear Generating Station. (2) Although the more refined 

model did not substantially alter the estimate of ichthyoplankton entrainment, it did 

reveal that lateral inhomogeneities in hydrodynamics could engender several fold 

differences in entrainment probabilities on opposite sides of the estuary. (3) Models of 

higher resolution and greater biological detail did not project greater total entrainment by 

the Douglas Point plant, because the volume of nontidal flow past the site was large in 

comparison to the proposed rate of cooling-water withdrawal. 

Uziel M. S. 1978. Impingement. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 50, Iss. 6, 

pp. 1553-1567. 

Uziel M. S. 1980. Entrainment And Impingement at Cooling Water Intakes. Journal Water 

Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 52, Iss. 6, pp. 1616-1630. 

Van Winkle, W. 1980. Evaluation of impingement of losses of white perch at the Indian 

Nuclear Station and other Hudson River power plants. Washington, D.C.: Springfield, 

Va.: The Commission: Available from GPO Sales Program, Division of Technical 

Information and Document Control, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission ; National 

Technical Information Service. 

Vandenbroek, W. L. F. 1979. A seasonal survey of fish populations in the Lower Medway 

Estuary, Kent, based on power station screen samples. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci., Vol. 9, 

No. 1, pp. 1-15. 

Abstract: Quantitative samples were collected from the cooling-water intake screens at 

Kingsnorth Power Station between May 1973 and Aug 1975. The sampling method is 

discussed and the catch compared with trawl samples taken in the vicinity. A total of 

46,228 fish, 49 species and weighing 325.0 kg were taken in 39 screen samples. 
57

Numerically the monthly samples were dominated by Sprattus sprattus and twelve other 

species, which together formed more than 90% of the catch in most months. Short-term 

fluctuations in catch were marked but superimposed on this was a clear seasonal cycle; 

numbers of species, numbers of individuals and total weights of catch reached maximum 

in winter and minimum in summer. The three diversity indices measured displayed no 

definite seasonal pattern, the result of fluctuations in sprat numbers. 

Vaughan, D. S., N. Buske and S. B. Saila. 1976. Final report on evaluating the effect of power 

plant entrainment on populations near Millstone Point, Connecticut (Menhaden). 

Narragansett, R.I.: Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 

Victor-Baptiste, F. and C. Wohrer-Blanpied. 1983. Quantitative and qualitative estimation of 

impinged fishes at the Gravelines nuclear plant. Oceanis. Serie de documents 

oceanographiques (Paris), Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 33-52. 

Abstract: The purpose of this study at the Gravelines nuclear plant (Northern France) 

was to estimate the impact of coastal nuclear plants on fish populations. The study was 

made in relation to fish mortality due to impingement and the egg and larvae mortality 

after their transit into the water-cooling system. This quantitative and qualitative 

estimation of impinged fishes is based on weekly samples. The sampling method, early 

results and a preliminary analysis of the factors capable of affecting this impingement are 

described here. 

Weisberg, S. B. 1984. The effects of screen slot size, screen diameter, and through-slot velocity 

on entrainment of estuarine ichthyoplankton through wedge-wire screens. Annapolis, 

Md.: Maryland. Dept. of Natural Resources, Power Plant Siting Program. 

Weisberg, S. B., W. H. Burton, F. Jacobs and E. A. Ross. 1987. Reductions in ichthyoplankton 

entrainment with fine-mesh, wedge-wire screens. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 386-393. 

Abstract: The exclusion efficiency of cylindrical wedge-wire screens was investigated at 

the Chalk Point Steam Electric Station in Aquasco, Maryland, by measuring entrainment 

of larval bay anchovies Anchoa mitchilli and naked gobies Gobiosoma bosci through 

screens with slot sizes of 1, 2, and 3 mm and through an unscreened intake. The degree 

of exclusion by the screens increased with fish size. Fish less than 5 mm long were not 

excluded by any of the screens. In contrast, more than 80% of larger ichthyoplankton 

were excluded by all screens. Virtually no ichthyoplankton larger than 10 mm were 

entrained through the 1-mm screen even when fish of this size were abundant and were 

entrained through the unscreened intake. The results suggest that entrainment through 

water intake structures can be successfully reduced by wedge-wire screens if the larval 

fish at risk exceed 5 mm in length. 

Wharfe, J. R., S. R. Wilson and R. A. Dines. 1984. Observations on the fish populations of an 

east coast estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 133-136. 

Abstract: (1) Monthly samples of fish were collected from the cooling-water intake 

screens at Kingsnorth Power Station on the Medway Estuary. (2) A total of 26,372 fish, 
58

comprising 41 species, was recorded between April 1981 and August 1983. (3) The 

seasonal distribution of both species numbers and abundance of fish was similar to earlier 

studies, although the community structure has altered in recent years. (4) The regular 

occurrence and increased population size of Osmerus eperlanus, the smelt, and Clupea 

harengus, the herring, were the most notable changes. (5) The results are compared with 

previous studies, and the indirect effects of enhanced water quality conditions in the tidal 

Thames and the subsequent recolonization by fish, which were previously absent for 

many years, are discussed. 

Zheng, C., Z. Huang, C. Li, J. Wang and S. Lin. 1990. Filtering substances from cooling water 

filtration gate and drum of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Station. Collections of Papers on 

Marine Ecology in Daya Bay (2)., Dayawan Haiyang Shengtai Wenji (2). 1990, pp. 497-

505. 

Abstract: A weekly survey was carried out on the filtering substances of cooling-water 

system for 24 h at 3 h intervals at the cooling-water intake of GNPS, Daya Bay, China in 

1987, totaling 52 cruises with 412 net trawlings. The results indicate that there were 

minorly abiotic materials, and mainly sargassum medusa, opossum shrimp and fishes. 

These organisms presented clear seasonal and day/night variations. Sargassum occurred 

especially in large quantities from March to April and reached nearly zero in summer. 

Opossum shrimps mainly appeared at night. 
59

PART II: STUDIES RELATED TO ASSESSMENT OF FISH 

IMPINGEMENT/ENTRAINMENT BY COOLING-WATER INTAKES 

Anon. 1983. Mathematical modeling of estuarine phenomena. Hydro Delft, No. 67, pp. 3-8. 

Abstract: Estuarine research is a difficult job for which often still complex hydraulic 

scale models are used. However, the development of mathematical modeling techniques 

made it possible to tackle gradually more estuarine problems. The basis for these studies 

are mathematical models describing the water movement in the system. One-dimensional 

models are being applied already quite some time, but although they are cheap in use, 

their applicability is limited. They cannot simulate density-induced currents properly, 

while also most estuaries have a complex geometry. Therefore, a proper simulation of 

estuarine flows calls for two-dimensional modeling in the vertical sense in case of a 

stratified system or in the horizontal sense in the case of a well mixed wide estuary with 

tidal flats and deep channels. Data from these models simulating the hydraulics, can be 

used as an input for models of the influence of infrastructural works, salt intrusion, the 

effect of waste discharges, the water quality, cooling-water recirculation and sediment 

transports. The work in these fields is illustrated. 

Attrill, M. J., M. Power and R. M. Thomas. 1999. Modelling estuarine Crustacea population 

fluctuations in response to physico-chemical trends. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 

Vol. 178, pp. 89-99. Mar 1999. 

Abstract: Regular samples (generally every 2 wk) of 6 estuarine crustacean species, 

Carcinus maenas, Liocarcinus holsatus, Crangon crangon, Palaemon longirostris, 

Palaemon serratus and Gammarus spp. (mainly G. zaddachi), were taken over a 12 yr 

period from the cooling-water intake screens of West Thurrock power station on the 

Thames estuary, UK. Additionally, comparative data sets for abiotic variables 

(freshwater flow, salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, suspended solids, total 

nitrogen) were collected for the same time period. The comprehensive nature of the time 

series, and accompanying suite of variables, allowed the construction of statistical models 

for the trends in population abundance of the 6 species using multiple linear regression 

techniques. Statistically significant models were constructed for C. maenas, C. crangon

and Gammarus spp., accurately predicting annual, and longer term, fluctuations in 

abundance. All models had strong seasonal components, although for C. maenas

temperature was the only physico-chemical variable with significant explanatory power. 

The importance of temperature as a controlling variable for the species was reinforced by 

the inclusion of an instrumental variable to simulate a threshold temperature for foraging 

activity. The optimal value was found to be 8 oC. C. crangon was found to be positively 

correlated with dissolved oxygen, but showed a slight decline in abundance over the time 

period. There was no significant relationship with either salinity or temperature, 

variables previously suggested as being important. Gammarus spp. abundance had 2 

significant explanatory variables (temperature and salinity) but also demonstrated a large 

decrease in population size with time. L. holsatus and P. serratus are summer-occurring 

species, so were recorded too infrequently to adequately capture seasonal dynamics. 
60

Despite the long time series, no significant model was possible for P. longirostris

abundance (non-normal residuals), which has been suggested previously as having a 

strong relationship with salinity. The results of the study provide the first significant 

multiple linear regression models that accurately predict estuarine crustacean abundance. 

Whilst these models are useful for helping to understand variability in the Thames, it will 

be interesting to determine whether populations in other estuaries demonstrate 

relationships with similar suites of physico-chemical parameters. 

Barnthouse, L. W., D. L. DeAngelis and S. W. Christensen. 1979. An empirical model of 

impingement impact / Washington, D.C.: Springfield, Va.: The Commission ; Available 

from National Technical Information Service. 

Boreman, J., C. P. Goodyear and S. W. Christensen. 1981. An empirical methodology for 

estimating entrainment losses at power plants sited on estuaries. Transactions of the 

American Fisheries Society. Vol. 110, No. 2, pp. 253-260. 

Cakiroglu, C. and C. Yurteri. 1998. Methodology for predicting cooling water effects on fish. 

Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 7, pp. 612-618. (Jul 1998). 

Abstract: The mathematical model presented here predicts the long-term effects of oncethrough cooling-water systems on local fish populations. The fish life cycle model 

simulates different life stages of fish by using appropriate expressions representing 

growth and mortality rates. The heart of the developed modeling approach is the 

prediction of plant-caused reduction in total fish population by estimating recruitment to 

adult population with and without entrainment of ichthyoplankton and impingement of 

small fish. The model was applied to a local fish species, gilthead (Sparus aurata), for 

the case of a proposed power plant in the Aegean region of Turkey. The simulations 

indicate that entrainment and impingement may lead to a population reduction of about 

2% to 8% in the long run. In many cases, an impact of this size can be considered rather 

unimportant. In the case of sensitive and ecologically valued species facing extinction, 

however, necessary precautions should be taken to minimize or totally avoid such an 

impact. 

Christensen, S. W. and D. L. DeAngelis. 1982. The effect of stochastic variation on estimates of 

the probability of entrainment mortality: Methodology, results, and user's guide. NTIS, 

Springfield, VA (USA), 82 pp. 

Abstract: The probability that live fish eggs or larvae, entrained in cooling water, will be 

killed is an important element in projecting power plant effects on fish stocks. This 

probability, the entrainment mortality factor, is commonly estimated with one of several 

relatively simple formulae, which use data collected from intake and discharge water. 

Such biological phenomena as gear avoidance, gear-induced mortality, extrusion through 

nets, and the presence of dead organisms in ambient water introduce errors into estimates 

obtained with these formulae. An additional difficulty is that, because of small sample 

sizes, it is usually necessary to combine data from many samples, taken under different 

conditions, before applying the formula. 
61

Coutant, C. C., R. B. McLean and D. L. DeAngelis. 1979. Influences of physical and chemical 

alterations on predator-prey interactions. Predator-Prey Systems In Fisheries 

Management, pp. 56-68. 

Abstract: Three facets of identifying influences of physical and chemical alterations on 

predator-prey interactions are described: 1) experimental research; 2) field studies; and 3) 

computer simulation for making predictions based on research data. Detailed 

experimental research is beginning to be applied to the question of sub-lethal stresses that 

affect predator-prey interactions. Engineering works such as power station water intakes 

can act as "predators" on forage species in competition with natural, biotic predators. 

Computer modeling was used to show that small differences in growth rates of two 

species of fish fry can determine whether there is significant interspecies predation and 

whether the slower-growing species could be eliminated. Predator-prey interactions in 

nature probably do more to determine the species composition of water bodies than could 

all of man's direct fish kills. The subtle stresses and changes man imposes on those 

predation relationships are likely the vehicles for many of the changes seen in aquatic 

ecosystems over the years. Only by understanding these subtle impacts, and by 

determining "tolerance thresholds" of aquaticpopulations for them, aquatic life resources 

can be managed. 

Cowan, C. E. 1977. A methodology for determining the effects of fish characteristics on the 

entrainment of larval fish. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. 

DeAngelis, D. L., S. W. Christensen and A. G. Clark. 1977. Responses of a fish population 

model to young-of-the-year mortality. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., Vol. 34, No. 11, pp. 

2124-2132. 

Abstract: A multiple-age-class model is used to examine the effects of increases in 

density-independent young-of-the-year mortality caused by power plant entrainment of 

larval fish. It is demonstrated analytically that in all realistic cases, an increase in such 

mortality results in a smaller equilibrium population density of adult fish. The stability of 

the population with respect to perturbations about its equilibrium point is increased in 

these cases. However, situations can occur where a slight increase in mortality causes a 

catastrophic population decline. The model is used to generate autoregression graphs of 

population numbers that can be compared with field data. 

Dunstall, T. G. 1980. Approaches Used to Assess the Impact on Fish Populations Resulting 

From Power Station-Induced Mortality - A Review. Rep. Ont. Hydro Res. Div. (Can.), 

16 pp. 

Abstract: Approaches taken to evaluate the significance of fish loss at generating stations 

employing once-through cooling were reviewed. Population models have been used to 

describe reduction in abundance of fish stocks resulting from entrainment at thermal 

generating stations. These models are based on life history strategies of the species. 

Required estimates of initial population size and per cent reduction of young-of-the-year 

fish limits the use of life cycle models to populations of known stock size. An approach 

equating ichthyoplankton entrainment losses to adult fish required to maintain the 
62

populations in equilibrium is more general in application. Community level assessments 

require estimation of fish biomass removed from the ecosystem by generating station 

operation. 

Eisele, P. J. and J. F. Malaric. 1978. A conceptual model of causal factors regarding gizzard 

shad runs at a steam electric power plant. In: Fourth national workshop on entrainment 

and impingement, 5 December 1977, Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by: Ecological 

Analysts, Inc., Melville, New York, Publ. by : EA Communications; Melville, NY (USA) 

(Apr 1978), pp. 291-298. 

Abstract: Gizzard shad runs are a common yet seemingly unpredictable event occurring 

during cool weather at power plant intakes. Both young-of-the-year and adult shad are 

involved. Various environmental parameters were measured during three years of 

continuous fish collection using a fish pump at the Monroe Power Plant. Parameters 

include power plant operating conditions, water quality, and weather conditions. These 

parameters were used in regression analysis to determine their effect on shad runs. A 

conceptual model is presented to identify the causal relationships. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 1999. Catalog of Assessment Methods for Evaluating the 

Effects of Power Plant Operations on Aquatic Communities, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 

Report TR-112013, (May 1999), 302 pp. 

Abstract: This report documents the current state of knowledge on methods for assessing 

the effects of stressors on the health, function, integrity and quality of aquatic populations 

and ecosystems. This information will be valuable to industry, resource agencies, nongovernmental environmental organizations, and universities involved in research, 

management and protection of aquatic resources. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2000. Evaluation of Biocriteria as a Concept, Approach and 

Tool for Assessing Impacts of Entrainment and Impingement under Section 316(b) of the 

Clean Water Act, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report TR-114007, (Aug 2000), 152 p. 

Abstract: This report documents the current state of development of multimetric 

bioassessment and biocriteria for assessing the biological integrity of aquatic ecosystems. 

The report also examines the suitability of multimetric bioassessment for regulating 

cooling-water intake structures (CWIS) under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act 

(CWA). This report will be valuable to industry, resource agencies, non-governmental 

environmental organizations, and universities involved in research, management, and 

protection of aquatic resources. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. Assessment of Spawning and Nursery Habitat: Review 

and Evaluation of Methods Potentially Applicable to Regulation of Cooling water Intake 

Structures, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1000732. (Feb 2002). 

Abstract: Spawning and nursery habitat assessments can influence the regulation of 

cooling-water intake structures (CWISs) under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act. 

This report documents the state of development of methods for assessing fish spawning 
63

and nursery habitats, examining the suitability of such methods for regulating CWISs 

under Section 316(b). 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. Evaluating the Effects of Power Plant Operations on 

Aquatic Communities: An Ecological Risk Assessment Framework for Clean Water Act 

Section 316(b) Determinations, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1005337. (Jul 2002). 

Abstract: This report describes a general framework for ecological risk assessment 

proposed by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and explains how this 

framework can be integrated into the decision-making process under Section 316(b) of 

the Clean Water Act (CWA). This report complements EPRI reports TR-112013 and 

1005176. These three reports provide technically sound guidance for assessing the 

potential for adverse environmental impact (AEI) resulting from cooling-water 

withdrawals and evaluating the potential ecological benefits of mitigation alternatives. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. Evaluating the Effects of Power Plants on Aquatic 

Communities: Guidelines for Selection of Assessment Methods, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, 

Report 1005176. (May 2002). 

Abstract: This report provides guidelines for selecting methods to estimate effects of 

cooling-water withdrawals on aquatic populations and communities. The report is a 

companion to the EPRI 1999 report TR-112013, "Catalog of Assessment Methods for 

Evaluating Effects of Power Plant Operations on Aquatic Communities." These two 

documents describe approaches for estimating the magnitude of cooling-water intake 

structure effects as part of assessing the potential for adverse environmental impact (AEI) 

under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA). 

Fletcher, R. I. 1985. Risk analysis for fish diversion experiments: Pumped intake systems. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 114, No. 5, pp. 652-694. 

Abstract: Such facilities as power-generating stations, public water systems, and reprocessing plants draw off large quantities of water from estuaries, coastal seawaters, 

lakes, and rivers. In turn, large numbers of fishes are often drawn into these pumped 

intake systems and killed if not otherwise removed or diverted. The large mortalities 

associated with many intake systems treated the perpetuation of indigenous stocks. The 

diversion and removal devices most commonly used for protecting fish life from such 

risks are presumed to operate on principles shown here to be erroneously conceived. In 

consequence of these faulty theories, the estimators and experimental designs of standard 

industry practice seldom reveal the true correlations necessary for improvements in fish 

conservation systems, nor do the assessments of small-scale experiments extend with 

reliability to full-scale system designs. 

Goodyear, C. P. 1977. Mathematical methods to evaluate entrainment of aquatic organisms by 

power plants. [Washington, D.C.]: Power Plant Project, Office of Biological Services, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 

Goodyear, C. P. 1978. Entrainment impact estimates using the equivalent adult approach. 

[Washington]: The Service: for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off. 
64

Gray, R. H., T. L. Page, D. A. Neitzel and D. D. Dauble. 1986. Assessing population effects 

from entrainment of fish at a large volume water intake. J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part A., 

Vol. 21a, No. 2, pp. 191-209. 

Abstract: The authors describe a method for estimating population effects from 

entrainment of juvenile chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) at a steam electric 

generating station on the Columbia River that required cooperation between power plant 

operators and fishery biologists. The method involved sampling fish in the river and 

entrained fish (both marked recaptures and naturally occurring downstream migrants) 

within the intake, and estimating the total number of fish entrained, size of the natural 

population, and percent of the natural population affected. 

Hackney, P. A. 1980. A partial differential equation model of fish population dynamics and its 

application in impingement impact analysis / Research Triangle Park, N.C.: Springfield, 

Va. : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 

Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory ; available from National Technical 

Information Service. 

Hackney, P. A. 1977. Methods for calculating natural mortality rate, biomass production, and 

proportion entrained of lacusterine Ichthyoplankton. In: Proceedings of the Conference 

on Assessing the Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations, 

Gatlinburg, Tennessee, May 3-6, 1977. 

Abstract: The impact of ichthyoplankton entrainment in lacusterine environments has 

been difficult to ascertain because the total number produced is usually unknown. 

Additionally, larvae in lakes are vulnerable to entrainment for varying periods of time, 

not just instantaneously as when transported past cooling-water intakes located on rivers. 

A method for determining the number of larvae produced in lakes is given. Also, methods 

of calculating the natural mortality rate and biomass production of lacusterine 

ichthyoplankton are presented. 

Helbig, J. and P. Pepin. 1998. Partitioning the influence of physical processes on the estimation 

of ichthyoplankton mortality rates. I. Theory. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences, Vol. 55 (October 1998), pp. 2189-2205. 

Hess, K. W., M. P. Sissenwine and S. B. Saila. 1975. Simulating the impact of the entrainment 

of winter flounder larvae. Fisheries and energy production: A symposium. 

Abstract: The transport of winter flounder larvae around the Millstone Point, Conn. 

Area by the action of tidal currents and diffusion was simulated by computer to predict 

the numbers, which could be entrained during the operation of a local nuclear power 

station. A tidal hydrodynamic model with variable depth was employed to simulate 

currents and water levels. These techniques provided input to a transport model which 

simulated the conc. of larvae. A larval source in a tributary river was simulated for 

twenty tidal cycles, with and without entrainment. The results indicated that the 

reduction in winter flounder larvae near Millstone Point at the end of the pelagic stage 

(period during which larvae are likely to be entrained) was less than 1% when it was 

assumed that larvae have little chance of returning once lost from Millstone bight. In 
65

order to assess the effect of a 1% reduction in recruitment of winter flounder larvae to the 

benthic phase of their life cycle, the local population was simulated by a model in which 

year-classes and the total egg production were represented by compartments. Each yearclass grew, produced eggs, suffered natural and fishing mortality according to 

information derived from the literature. The effect of power plant entrainment was 

incorporated by reducing the number of recruits to year-class I that would normally result 

from a specific level of egg production. For a 1% reduction in recruitment due to power 

plant entrainment, a potential 6% decrease in total population size following 35 y of 

operation was indicated. 

Jager, H. I., D. D. Schmoyer, M. J. Sale, W. Van Winkle and D. L. DeAngelis. 1993. A spatial 

simulation of small mouth bass in streams. CONF-930870-1, 11 pp. 

Abstract: The hydropower industry and its regulators are hampered by the inability to 

predict the relationship between alternative flow regimes and fish population response. 

We have developed a spatially explicit, individual-based model of populations of smallmouth bass in streams as part of the Compensatory Mechanisms in Fish Populations 

Program. In the model, the profitability of alternative stream locations varies in response 

to habitat depth and velocity through changes in the frequency of prey encounters and the 

metabolic costs experienced by fish. We conducted an evaluation of our hydraulic 

simulation at the scale of individual stream cells. The potential error in predictions for 

individual cell velocities suggests that larger-scale model predictions for the 

representative reach are most appropriate. At this scale, the model appears to produce 

realistic patterns in the growth and dispersal of young-of-year small-mouth bass. This 

verification step allows us to proceed with greater confidence in evaluating the original 

question of how small-mouth bass populations respond to alternative flow regimes. 

Jeffries, P., A. Keller and S. Hale. 1989. Predicting winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes 

americanus) catches by time series analysis. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 650-659. 

Abstract: Long-term changes in catches of winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes 

americanus) were compared at five locations within Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, 

USA and in three areas directly offshore. In the lower Bay, relative abundance decreased 

86% during warming in the early 1970's,recovered briefly, and then declined to an alltime low in 1986.Time-series analysis successfully predicted a recovery in 1987. Year 

ahead predictions, based on annual models, had a maximum error of 14% (1986); 

monthly forecasts explained 62-72% of catch variation during the entire investigation; 

cumulative monthly error (forecast compared with actual over an annual cycle) was 11% 

in the Bay and 21% offshore. Commercial offshore catch and the fish retained on power 

plant intake screens in two major rivers showed the same 11-yr pattern of population fall 

and recovery detected in the lower Bay. 

Jensen, A. L. 1990. Estimation of recruitment forgone resulting from larval fish entrainment. 

Journal of Great Lakes Research, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 241-244. 

 Abstract: The effect of larvae entrainment on fish populations is difficult to determine 

because larvae abundance, mortality, and growth are difficult to estimate. The concept of 
66

production forgone (lost) was developed recently to avoid estimation of abundance, but 

estimates of mortality and growth rates for larvae, young-of-year, and juveniles are still 

necessary, and these too are difficult to estimate. For sportfish, production forgone is less 

important than recruitment, and recruitment forgone, or lost, as a result of larvae and egg 

entrainment could be useful for assessment of sportfish larvae and egg entrainment. A 

method is developed for estimation of recruitment forgone; it only requires estimates of 

population parameters for the mature population; it requires no estimates of abundance. 

The method is applied to assess yellow perch larvae entrainment at the Monroe Power 

Plant, Monroe, Michigan, located on the western basin of Lake Erie. 

Jensen, A. L. 1982. Impact of a Once-Through Cooling System on the Yellow Perch Stock in 

the Western Basin of Lake Erie. Ecological Modelling, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 127-144. 

Abstract: The surplus production model, a conventional fishery stock assessment model, 

is applied to assess the entrainment and impingement impact of the Monroe Power Plant 

on the yellow perch (Perca flavescens) standing stock and fishery in the western basin of 

Lake Erie. Biological parameters of the model are estimated from commercial catch and 

effort data and entrainment and impingement coefficients are estimated from power plant 

data. The model is applied to estimate stock biomass, egg production, and larva 

production; the proportions entrained and impinged are then estimated. The impact of 

water withdrawal on the equilibrium standing stock and maximum sustainable yield from 

the fishery is estimated and the impact of increased water withdrawal is simulated. The 

impact on equilibrium standing stock and the maximum sustainable yield are larger than 

the proportion of the standing stock entrained and impinged, but the impact of the 

Monroe Power Plant is relatively small; it decreases biomass and the maximum 

sustainable yield of the yellow perch stock by only a few percent. However, there are 

several power plants impacting the yellow perch stock of the western basin of Lake Erie 

and the combined impact should be examined. 

Jensen, A. L. 1992. Relation between mortality of young walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) and 

recruitment with different forms of compensation. Environmental Pollution, Vol. 76, No. 

2, pp. 177-181. 

Abstract: The relation between mortality of young fish and recruitment is important for 

assessment of the environmental effects of facilities that kill large numbers of young fish, 

such as electric power stations and hydropower plants. A simulation model with a 

bioenergetic growth component was applied to examine the relation between mortality of 

young and recruitment for walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) with different forms of 

population regulation, including: food limited growth, food limited growth with sizedependent mortality, and food limited growth with age at maturity dependent on size. 

With food limited growth small increases in mortality of young reduced recruitment 

considerably, but the population slowly approached a new equilibrium. If mortality of 

young increased when growth was food limited, the population approached a new 

equilibrium of natality and mortality because with fewer individuals there was more food 

per individual, and individuals were larger in size and produced more eggs; this feedback 

adjusted natality to equal mortality. With either mortality or age at maturity dependent 
67

on size, large increases in mortality of young resulted in only small decreases in 

recruitment. 

Jensen, L. D. 1974. Entrainment and intake screening: Proceedings of the Second Entrainment 

and Intake Screening Workshop. Palo Alto, Calif.: Electric Power Research Institute. 

Jensen, L. D. 1981. Issues associated with impact assessment: proceedings of the Fifth National 

Workshop on Entrainment and Impingement, Sheraton-Palace, San Francisco, California, 

5-7 May 1980. Sparks, Md.: EA Communications. 

Johnson, G. E., J. R. Skalski and D. J. Degan. 1994. Statistical precision of hydroacoustic 

sampling of fish entrainment at hydroelectric facilities. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 323-333. 

Abstract: Hydroacoustic sampling can be an important technique for estimating fish 

entrainment rates at hydroelectric facilities applying for relicensing by the U.S. Federal 

Energy Regulatory Commission. Existing sampling procedures typically require daily 

monitoring of entrainment over at least one annual cycle. To investigate potential cost 

savings through the use of probability sampling, three data sets consisting of daily 

hydroacoustic estimates of entrainment for at least 1 year were reanalyzed to determine 

the effects of subsampling on the precision of seasonal and annual estimates of fish 

entrainment. The study sites were located in New York, Wisconsin, and annual estimates 

of fish entrainment. The study sites were located in New York, Wisconsin, and South 

Carolina. When a stratified random sample of days within each month was used, a 50% 

subsample of days (i.e., 15 d/month) resulted in a sampling precision of approximately 

plus or minus 22.0% of the true value of annual entrainment at the New York site, plus or 

minus 14.3% at Wisconsin, and plus or minus 9.6% at South Carolina, 95% of the time. 

Sampling 20 d/month resulted in a precision of plus or minus 15.5%, plus or minus 

10.0%, and plus or minus 6.7%, respectively, 95% of the time. Substantial cost savings 

appear possible through the use of stratified random sampling designs that provide a level 

of precision sufficient for both management and relicensing decisions. 

Kaluzny, S. P., K. A. Rose, P. J. Sullivan and G. L. Swartzman. 1983. Evaluation of ecosystem 

models in power plant impact assessment: A case study using Lake Ontario. Description 

of alternative process equations and documentation of parameters values. WU, 

SEATTLE, WA (USA), 66 pp. 

Abstract: In this report, the authors give the documentation for LAKONT, multi-trophic 

level model for energy flow and population dynamics in the neighborhood of the Nine 

Mile Point and Fitzpatrick nuclear power stations. The model contains equations from 

models reviewed from the literature and is designed to compare the behavior of models 

put together with different combinations of the reviewed equations. Here they give the 

equation forms and rationale, a description of the biotic and spatial structure of the 

models, a list of notation and parameter values and reference to the sources of data used 

to estimate parameter values and run the model. 
68

Kimmerer, W. J., J. H. Cowan Jr., L. W. Miller and K. A. Rose. 2001. Analysis of an Estuarine 

Striped Bass Population: Effects of Environmental Conditions During Early Life. 

Estuaries, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 557-575, (Aug 2001). 

Abstract: Estuarine fish populations are exposed to a variety of environmental conditions 

that cause both short-term variability and long-term trends in abundance. We analyzed 

an extensive data set for striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in the San Francisco Estuary to 

refine our understanding of how environmental variability influences recruitment. We 

examined the effects of environmental variability during early life stages on subsequent 

recruitment (age 3 yr), and the degree to which conditions in early life may have 

contributed to a long-term decline in abundance of adult striped bass in the San Francisco 

Estuary. Survival from egg to young-of-the-year varied strongly with freshwater flow; 

this effect apparently occurred within the first week or two of life, a time period that 

encompasses transport of eggs and larvae from the rivers to rearing areas and the onset of 

feeding. The rate of freshwater flow to pumping facilities that export freshwater from the 

system had small or sporadic effects on survival during the first month or two of life. 

Although many young striped bass between ages 2 and 8 mo were entrained in export 

pumping facilities, the resulting high mortality was unrelated to total mortality rates 

determined from field data on young striped bass. This lack of effect was apparently due 

to strong density-dependent mortality occurring between ages 1 mo and 3 yr (Kimmerer 

et al. 2000). The available data do not support previously suggested relationships 

between recruitment and freshwater flow during early life, or between gross estimates of 

pesticide input and survival of early life stages. We used a simple life-cycle model to 

show that various combined factors could have led to a decline in adult abundance, 

particularly a large and increasing adult mortality, but that events early in life probably 

did not contribute substantially to the decline. These results demonstrate that several 

decades of monitoring data from numerous life stages are needed to distinguish among 

alternative hypotheses about environmental influences on populations of estuarine fish. 

Kleinstreuer, C. and B. E. Logan. 1980. A mathematical model simulating fish losses near 

power plants using rotenone data. Water Res., Vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 1047-1053. 

Abstract: Fish losses like impingement on cooling-water intake screens play an 

important role in the overall physical impact on the aquatic ecosystem by power-plant 

operations. Of the long list of potential causes for fish losses, 3 most significant factors 

are examined, i.e. fish population dynamics, water temperature and the hydrodynamics of 

the cooling-water body. A semi-empirical, comprehensive model has been developed 

employing inexpensively sampled site specific far-field data on which the submodels for 

flow patterns, temperature and fish population are based. These submodels are directly 

adaptable to other sites and alternative case studies; the population submodel, for 

example, could also be employed for investigating the impact of increased fish mortality 

caused by toxic materials, excessive fishing, etc. The comprehensive model together with 

the systems analysis approach presented can be used as a planning tool for the optimal 

design and location of proposed power plants and for the minimization of aquatic 

ecosystem impacts due to existing plants. The impingement model was successfully 

pplied to Arkansas Nuclear One (lake with long intake canal) and Browns Ferry (river 

with short intake canal). 
69

Kumar, K. D. and J. S. Griffith. 1978. Temporally stratified sampling programs for estimation 

of fish impingement. In: Fourth national workshop on entrainment and impingement, 5 

December 1977, Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by: Ecological Analysts, Inc., Melville, 

New York, Publ. by: EA Communications; Melville, NY (USA)., (Apr 1978), p. 267-

280. 

Abstract: Impingement monitoring programs often expend valuable and limited 

resources and fail to provide a dependable estimate of either total annual impingement or 

those biological and physicochemical factors affecting it. In situations where initial 

monitoring has identified 'problem' fish species and the periodicity of their impingement, 

intensive sampling during periods of high impingement, will maximize information 

obtained. The authors use data gathered in a study of 32 generating facilities throughout 

the southeastern United States to discuss techniques of designing temporally stratified 

monitoring programs and their benefits and drawbacks. Of the possible temporal patterns 

within a calendar year, differences between seasons are most influential in the 

impingement of freshwater fishes in the Southeast. Data on the threadfin shad 

(Dorosoma petenense) and the role of seasonal temperature changes are used as an 

example to demonstrate ways of most efficiently and accurately estimating impingement 

of the species. 

Lawler, J. P., T. L. Englert, R. A. Norris and C. B. Dew. 1977. Modeling of compensatory 

response to power plant impact. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Assessing the 

Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 

May 3-6. 

Abstract: Mechanisms of kinetics of compensatory response in fish populations subject 

to power plant cropping are presented. Topics discussed include (a) the biological and 

mathematical underpinning leading to nonlinear prey-predator and competitor relations; 

(b) the mathematical relationship between compensating and non compensating systems 

for single species cases; (c) the relationship between Ricker-type stock-recruitment, 

population oscillation, and lagged logistic growth; (d) the use of Ricker and BevertonHoltstock-recruitment curves to simulate compensation in single-species lifecycle 

models; and (e) a model of density-dependent growth. Application of the last two topics 

to the assessment of power plant impact in the Hudson River is discussed. 

Lifton, W. S. and J. F. Storr. 1978. The effect of environmental variables on fish impingement. 

In: Fourth national workshop on entrainment and impingement, 5 December 1977, 

Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by: Ecological Analysts, Inc., Melville, New York, Publ. by 

EA Communications; Melville, NY (USA)., (Apr 1978), p. 267-280. 

Abstract: Studies were conducted on two power stations to contrast the differences 

between two types of intake systems used. The C.R. Huntley Power Station is a fossilfueled plant located near Buffalo, NY on the Niagara River. The plant employs a 

shoreline intake system. Studies conducted there showed statistically significant 

correlations between changes in several environmental variables (including wind speed, 

wind direction, sky cover, and water temperature) and fish impingement. These 

correlations indicated important relationships between physical factors and behavior of 
70

fish species. These behaviors are triggered by wave action, turbulence, seiche, and 

changes in light intensity. Species studied included rainbow smelt, alewives, and gizzard 

shad. The R.E. Ginna Power Station is a nuclear plant with an offshore intake located 

near Rochester, NY, on Lake Ontario. The effect of environmental variables (including 

wind direction, wind speed, sky cover, and water temperature) on fish behavior near the 

intake and correlated changes in impingement owing to these variables were examined. 

Lorda, E. and S. B. Saila. 1986. A statistical technique for analysis of environmental data 

containing periodic variance components. Ecological Modeling, Vol. 32, No. 1-3, pp. 

59-69. 

Abstract: A statistical technique for analyzing data containing periodic variance 

components when the observations are made at irregular intervals is described. The 

technique uses a less constrained version of harmonic or periodic regression than that 

usually employed. The main feature of this method is that a known period is 

hypothesized, and its component is removed from the data if it is found to be significant. 

This is in contrast to searching for the presence of unknown periodic components 

following a classic Fourier analysis. The steps in the analysis are described in detail, and 

the new method of analysis is applied to the abundance of a marine flatfish captured at 

the intake of a coastal power plant. 

Madenjian, C. P. and D. J. Jude. 1983. Error bounds for estimates of entrained ichthyoplankton. 

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 10-16. 

Abstract: Entrainment of fish larvae and eggs was monitored at the J.H. Campbell Plant, 

eastern Lake Michigan, from 1977 to 1979. A procedure for calculating error bounds for 

estimated number of fish larvae (or eggs) entrained by the plant for each year of 

operation, assuming independence among observations, was outlined. A new method for 

calculating these bounds was devised by adjusting the variance for its non-independent 

component, using time series analysis. Serial correlation in the data was accounted for by 

modeling the sequence of entrainment data for a year as a time series. 

Marcy, B. C. Jr. and M. D. Dahlberg. 1980. Sampling problems associated with 

ichthyoplankton field-monitoring studies with emphasis on entrainment. Biological 

Monitoring of Fish, pp. 233-252. 

Abstract: The objective of this account is to present a classification of the basic sampling 

problems, to define the major causes, to analyze the variables that influence each of the 

problems, and to provide state-of-the-art literature concerning the monitoring of 

ichthyoplankton. Entrainment-sampling problems are necessarily emphasized because of 

the current high level of sampling effort being conducted. 

Mattice, J. S. 1987. Compensatory mechanisms in fish populations: literature reviews. Electric 

Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, Calif. 

MacCall, A. D., K. R. Parker, R. Leithiser and W. Jessee. 1983. Power plant impact assessment: 

a simple fishery production model approach. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery 

Bulletin. Vol. 81, No. 3, pp. 613-619. 
71

McFadden, J. T. 1977. An argument supporting the reality of compensation in fish populations 

and a plea to let them exercise it. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Assessing the 

Effects of Power-Plant-Induced Mortality on Fish Populations, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, 

May 3-6, 1977. 

Abstract: The concepts in fishery science were developed through experience with stocks 

subjected to exploitation by man, however, little has been stated about the ability of these 

stocks to compensate for increased mortality by increased fecundity. This paper outlines 

the historical development of the concept of compensatory mechanisms within 

populations and gives examples of compensation in fish populations. This principle is 

then applied to the assessment of power plant impact on fish populations, with the 

conclusion that the mortality caused by power plant impingement occurs only once 

during a 'year-class' life time. Thus a 50% mortality caused by a power plant represents a 

very much smaller loss to the population of adults than an annually repeated fishing 

mortality. 

Muench, K. 1976. Utility uses a computer to analyze a power plants impact on marine life. 

Computers and people, Vol. 25, Iss. 12, pp. 25-26. 

Murarka, I. P. 1977. A model for predicting fish impingement at cooling water intakes / 

Argonne, Ill.: Springfield, Va.: Argonne National Laboratory ; available from National 

Technical Information Service. 

Murarka, I. P. and D. J. Bodeau. 1977. Sampling designs and methods for estimating fishimpingement losses at cooling-water intakes. Argonne, Ill.: Argonne National 

Laboratory. 

Murarka, I. P. and D. J. Bodeau. 1977. Software documentation and user's manual for fishimpingement sampling design and estimation method computer programs. Argonne, Ill.: 

Springfield, Va.: Argonne National Laboratory ; available from National Technical 

Information Service. 

Murarka, I. P., D. J. Bodeau and W. K. Derickson. 1977. Validation and software 

documentation of the ANL fish-impingement model. Springfield, Va.: The Commission ; 

Available from National Technical Information Service. 

Murarka, I. P., S. A. Spigarelli and D. J. Bodeau. 1978. Statistical comparison and choices of 

sampling designs for estimating fish impingement at cooling water intakes. In: Fourth 

national workshop on entrainment and impingement, 5 December 1977, Chicago, Illinois. 

Sponsored by: Ecological Analysts, Inc., Melville, New York., Publ. by : EA 

Communications; Melville, NY (USA)., (Apr. 1978), pp. 267-280. 

Abstract: The estimation of fish losses due to impingement is a routine environmental 

monitoring requirement at cooling-water intakes, but a lack of purpose and design in 

sampling generally precludes high confidence estimates and collection of data 

appropriate to the projection of population impacts. Therefore, we have examined 

several sampling methods and compared the statistical validity and precision of 

impingement estimates. The stratified systematic random, the systematic random, and 
72

the stratified random sampling schemes offer suitable designs for higher efficiency and 

improved precision for two models of fish impingement as a time series process. 

Impingement sampling and present specific recommendations to improve data utility for 

assessing the losses due to impingement are also discussed. 

New York University, Laboratory for Environmental Studies. 1977. The evaluation and 

description of a power plant condenser tube simulator: a research tool to assess power 

plant entrainment mortality of aquatic organisms. New York: The Laboratory. 

Ogawa, H. and W. J. Mitsch. 1979. Modeling of power plant impacts on fish populations. 

Environ. Manage., Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 321-330. 

Abstract: A simulation model was developed for assessing the effects of power plant 

impacts on fish populations. The model was based on biomass changes in a fish 

population that divided into 4 life stages; eggs, larvae, juveniles, and adults. Power plant 

impacts on a fish population included entrainment (eggs and larvae) and impingement 

(juveniles and adults). The model was applied to the Dorosoma cepedianum population 

in Pool 14 of the Mississippi River in Illinois and Iowa. The nearby nuclear power plant, 

the Quad-Cities Station, is located on the Illinois side. The simulation of the model with 

the 1976 field data estimates of the power plant entrainment and impingement predicted a 

10% potential reduction of the population over 30 years. The simulated reduction of the 

population with the effects of different river flows showed that the result with the 1976 

river flow data gave 1.5 times higher reduction than the results with data of other plant 

operation years 1972 through 1975. Because the 1976 data recorded low river flow, the 

10% reduction quoted above may be high. 

Paller, M. H., R. C. Tuckfield and W. M. Starkel. 1995. Statistical methods for detecting 

ichthyoplankton density patterns that influence entrainment mortality. Journal of 

freshwater ecology (La Crosse, WI), Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 231-240. 

Abstract: Samples of drifting American shad eggs were collected with 0.5 mm mesh nets 

at two transects in the Savannah River near industrial water intakes. A teach transect the 

river was divided horizontally and vertically into four sectors that were sampled at two 

hour intervals for 24 hour periods to assess horizontal and vertical patterns of egg 

distribution that could affect vulnerability to entrainment. Egg densities varied by an 

average factor of 20 over a 24 hour cycle and were consistently highest between2300 and 

0300 and lowest between 1300 and 2000. We used two methods to separate spatial from 

temporal variance, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with a polynomial model for time 

of day as the covariate and a detrending technique in which diel variation was subtracted 

from each data point. These procedures resulted in substantially more sensitive tests of 

sector differences as indicated by minimum detectable ratios of sector means that were 

only half as great as for unadjusted data. Spatial patterns differed between transects but 

were generally consistent within transects where three to four-fold differences among 

sector means were common. The actual risk of entrainment was approximately 35-50% 

lower than if the shad eggs were uniformly distributed, and the risk of entrainment was 

lower at one intake than at the other. Our results indicate the importance of site specific 
73

assessments of ichthyoplankton distribution near existing or proposed water intakes using 

statistical designs that permit sensitive resolution of spatial patterns. 

Pan, M., Z. Wang, H. Chen and K. Ho. 2000. A model assessing the impacts on fishery 

resources caused by the cooling system of nuclear power station. Mar. Sci. Bull. Vol. 19, 

No. 5, pp. 41-46. 

Abstract: This paper analyzes the impacts on aquatic organisms in adjacent waters 

caused by nuclear power station (NPS). Based on calculation of fish entrainment and 

mortality rate, an assessment model induced from cohort analysis is given. Supposing 

NPS entrainment to be a fish predator and using cohort analysis, we can calculate natural 

mortality rate and adult number of certain fish colony if the fishing death rate and catch 

are known. Then the environmental effects on fishery resources from NPS can be 

assessed through this model. 

Patterson, R. L. 1987. Revised estimates of power plant entrainment of ichthyoplankton in 

western Lake Erie in 1975-77. Journal of Great Lakes Research, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 78-

83. 

Abstract: Previous estimates of larval production and power plant entrainment, 

distributed over four power plants, are revised using a lumped parameter method by 

which power plant mortality is estimated independently of natural mortality. Using the 

method, mean daily power plant entrainment of four species of ichthyoplankton averaged 

over three seasons of production (1975-77) ranged from zero to 7.6 percent. These 

estimates are statistically consistent with earlier estimates made by a more laborious, 

distributed parameter technique. 

Rago, P. J. 1984. Production foregone: An alternative method for assessing the consequences of 

fish entrainment and impingement losses at power plants and other water intakes. 

Ecological Modelling, Vol. 24, No. 1-2, pp. 79-111. 

Abstract: Losses of fish at power plant and other water intakes have immediate as well as 

future impacts. Not only is fish biomass removed from the aquatic system, but also the 

biomass that would have been elaborated by the cohort is not available to other predators. 

A simple biological production model was modified to allow projections of future 

impacts associated with current losses of fish and fish larvae. To compute these 

projections, it is assumed that short-term future responses will be similar to recent 

survival and growth rates, deducible from analysis of current population structure. The 

model has several advantages over other approaches. First, a dynamic population model 

need not be specified. Second, the relative importance of ichthyoplankton versus juvenile 

and adult fish losses can be compared directly. Third, the ecological effects of future 

losses can be addressed by considering the predicted size-frequency distributions. Finally, 

the relative uncertainty of the forecast can be assessed. 

Rago, P. J., E. S. Fritz and I. P. Murarka. 1983. Assessing impacts of power plants on fish 

populations: A general strategy. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 3, No. 

2, pp. 185-202. 
74

Abstract: Environmental impact statements are often characterized by extraneous data 

collection, irrelevant statistical procedures, misapplied models and concomitant 

ambiguity in conclusions. Impact assessment is difficult but when explicit objectives are 

not stated and specific tasks are not linked to these objectives, assessment becomes 

impossible. The authors emphasize a flexible approach that can be adapted to sitespecific requirements. The strategy consists of six steps: (1) Conceptualization of the 

ecosystem, (2) design and execution of pilot studies, (3) refinement of conceptualization, 

(4) design of a study plan, (5) execution of the study plan and (6) evaluation of impact. 

Development of a conceptual model leads to specification of testable hypotheses directly 

linked to the objectives of impact assessment. Deterministic and stochastic simulation 

modeling can be coupled effectively with traditional statistical methods to reduce the 

probability of decisions, which impose unnecessary risks on the environment or costs to 

industry. 

Rose, K. A., J. H. Cowan Jr., K. O. Winemiller, R. A. Myers and R. S. O. Hilborn. 2001. 

Compensatory density dependence in fish populations: importance, controversy, 

understanding and prognosis. Fish and Fisheries, Vol. 2, No. 4, (Dec. 2001), pp. 293-

327. 

Abstract: Density-dependent processes such as growth, survival, reproduction and 

movement are compensatory if their rates change in response to variation in population 

density (or numbers) such that they result in a slowed population growth rate at high 

densities and promote a numerical increase of the population at low densities. 

Compensatory density dependence is important to fisheries management because it 

operates to offset the losses of individuals. While the concept of compensation is 

straightforward, it remains one of the most controversial issues in population dynamics. 

The difficulties arise when going from general concepts to specific populations. 

Compensation is usually quantified using some combination of spawner-recruit analysis, 

long-term field monitoring or manipulative studies, and computer modeling. Problems 

arise because there are limitations to each of these approaches, and these limitations 

generally originate from the high uncertainty associated with field measurements. We 

offer a hierarchical approach to predicting and understanding compensation that ranges 

from the very general, using basic life-history theory, to the highly site-specific, using 

detailed population models. We analyze a spawner-recruit database to test the 

predictions about compensation and compensatory reserve that derive from a threeendpoint life-history framework designed for fish. We then summarize field examples of 

density dependence in specific processes. Selected long-term field monitoring studies, 

manipulative studies and computer modeling examples are then highlighted that illustrate 

how density-dependent processes led to compensatory responses at the population level. 

Some theoretical and empirical advances that offer hope for progress in the future on the 

compensation issue are discussed. We advocate an approach to compensation that 

involves process-level understanding of the underlying mechanisms, life-history theory, 

careful analysis of field data, and matrix and individual-based modelling. There will 

always be debate if the quantification of compensation does not include some degree of 

understanding of the underlying mechanisms. 
75

Saunders, W. P., Jr., J. H. Thorp and J. W. Gibbons. 1978. A simple model for assessing the 

potential loss of adult fish resulting from ichthyoplankton entrainment. In: Energy and 

environmental stress in aquatic systems., Publ. by Technical Information Center, US Dep. 

Energy; Oak Ridge, TN (USA), pp. 49-61, DOE Symp. Ser., (No. 48). 

Abstract: A mathematical model for estimating potential survival of fish eggs and larvae 

to reproducing adults is examined in the context of predicting the potential loss from 

power-station entrainment. It is demonstrated that violating one assumption of the model 

can result in gross underestimates of potential adult loss. High rates of natural mortality 

occurring during the egg and larval life stages are considered in relation to the 

assumption that all exploitation by the power plant occurs instantaneously at spawning or 

hatching. The sensitivity of potential loss estimates to various time mortality-rate 

regimenes is examined on the basis of the natural mortality rates observed in young life 

stages of several species. An alternative model is proposed, and its sensitivity to 

underlying assumptions is examined. This model is shown to consistently overestimate 

loss of equivalent adults. The magnitude of the overestimation depends on speciesspecific conformity of the model assumptions to actual planktonic mortality and first-year 

survival. 

Sharma, R. K. 1977. Survey of fish impingement at power plants in the United States. 

Argonne, Ill. Springfield, Va.: Argonne National Laboratory ; available from National 

Technical Information Service. 

Sharma, R. K. 1978. Perspectives on fish impingement. In: Fourth national workshop on 

entrainment and impingement, 5 December 1977, Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by: 

Ecological Analysts, Inc., Melville, New York, Publ. by: EA Communications; Melville, 

NY (USA), (Apr 1978), pp. 267-280. 

Abstract: Data on fish impingement and related parameters are being gathered at a large 

number of power stations throughout the country at substantial monetary and manpower 

costs. A national survey of fish impingement at power plants was conducted and much of 

the resultant information was compiled in a standardized format. This paper examines 

the objectives of fish impingement studies, monitoring programs, variables affecting fish 

impingement, siting and design criteria, the state of the art of screening systems, and 

suggestions for meeting requirements. It also discusses where future emphasis should be 

placed in fish impingement-related activities. 

Shriner, C. R. and J. S. Mattice. 1987. Mechanisms of compensatory response of fish 

populations: workshop proceedings. Palo Alto, Calif.: Electric Power Research Institute, 

(Jun 1987). 

Small R. D. and B. J. Wilson. 1978. Analyses of serial fish impingement data. Biometrics, Vol. 

34, Iss. 3, pp. 535-535. 

Stone and Webster Engineering Corporation. 1976. Biological modeling of the effect of 

entrainment on four selected fish species at the NEPI & 2 site, Charlestown, R.I. Boston: 

Stone and Webster Engineering Corp. 
76

Summers, J. K. 1989. Simulating the indirect effects of power plant entrainment losses on an 

estuarine ecosystem. Ecological Modelling, Vol. 49, No. 1-2, pp. 31-47. 

Abstract: (1) A simple estuarine trophic dynamics model was constructed to determine 

the magnitude of the potential losses to major estuarine consumers in the Patuxent River, 

Maryland, USA, ecosystem due to the power plant-related losses of forage fish. 

Simulations were completed using two sets of feeding assumptions: feeding proportional 

to forage abundance, and feeding based on dietary preferences. (2) The model 

demonstrates that striped bass, bluefish, and weakfish could experience significant losses 

(> 25%) to overall population production levels if they prefer to prey upon bay anchovy 

and silversides and entrainment losses to these forage populations is greater than or equal 

to 70% of juvenile recruitment. (3) The model also shows that indirect predator losses 

would be expected to be low (< 5%) if the majority of their diets consisted of forage other 

than bay anchovy and silversides. 

Tomlinson, T. and S. F. Atkinson. 1987. Environmental audits: A literature review. 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 239-261. 

Abstract: This paper presents a literature review focused on predictive technique audits, 

one of the types of audit considered to have the greatest potential role in improving 

environmental impact assessment practice. The literature review is limited to US 

literature with the exception of a few UK audits, one undertaken by Tomlinson at the 

University of Aberdeen. The authors are, however, aware that literature from other 

countries exists on this subject, for example from Canada and South Africa. In the 

review, predictive technique audits performed for or by the US Bureau of Land 

Management, the Electric Power Research Institute, the US Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission, the US Corps of Engineers, together with the Wisconsin Power Plant 

Impact Study are described. 

Van Winkle, W. and S. W. Christensen. 1979. Incorporation of sublethal effects and indirect 

mortality in modeling population-level impacts of a stress, with an example involving 

power-plant entrainment and striped bass. Oak Ridge, Tenn.: Environmental Sciences 

Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

Vaughan, D. S. and K. D. Kumar. 1981. Detectability and precision of estimates of entrainment 

mortality of Ichthyoplankton. Washington, D.C., Springfield, Va.: The Commission ; 

National Technical Information Service. 

Vaughan, D. S. and K. D. Kumar. 1982. Entrainment Mortality of Ichthyoplankton: 

Detectability and Precision of Estimates. Environmental Management, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 

155-162. 

Abstract: (1) The ability to detect entrainment mortality is explored as a function of the 

sample sizes (numbers of organisms collected) at the intake and discharge sampling 

stations of a power plant and of the proportion of organisms found alive in the intake 

samples (intake survival). (2) Minimum detectable entrainment mortality, confidence 

interval width, and type II error (probability of accepting the null hypothesis of no 

entrainment mortality when there is mortality) are considered. (3) Increasing sample size 
77

and/or decreasing sampling mortality will decrease the minimum detectable entrainment 

mortality, confidence interval width, and type II error for a given level of type I error. (4) 

The results of this study are considered in the context of designing useful monitoring 

programs for determining the entrainment mortality fraction. (5) Preliminary estimates of 

intake survival and the entrainment mortality fraction can be used to obtain estimates of 

the sample size needed for a specified level of confidence interval width or type II error. 

(6) Final estimates of the intake survival and the entrainment mortality fraction can be 

used to determine the minimum detectable entrainment mortality and the type II error. 

Wainwright, T. C., D. A. Armstrong, P. A. Dinnel, J. M. Orensanz and K. A. McGraw. 1992. 

Predicting effects of dredging on a crab population: An equivalent adult loss approach. 

Fishery Bulletin, Vol. 90, No. 1, pp. 171-182. 

Abstract: The effect of benthic dredging on coastal fisheries has been of concern for 

several decades, but little work quantifying direct population impacts has been published. 

Modeling approaches have been used extensively to assess effects of power plant 

entrainment on fishery stocks. Several important differences between power plant and 

dredge operations prevent direct application of these models to dredge problems: 

Entrainment by dredges is short-term, has a moving intake, and affects all age-classes of 

the population. We present an equivalent adult loss model of impacts to the Washington 

coast Dungeness crab Cancer magister fishery from dredging of a navigation channel in 

Grays Harbor, Washington. The model is driven by empirical population data to account 

for spatial and temporal variation in abundance and age-class structure. Results show 

that impacts are quite sensitive to the type of dredge used and the season in which 

dredging occurs. Contrary to initial expectations, the 0 + age-group loss was unimportant 

relative to losses from older age-classes. Despite many limitations, the model has proven 

useful for focusing impact assessment work, as a basis for scheduling construction to 

reduce impacts, and as a basis for scaling mitigation projects. 

Wallace, D. N. 1978. Two anomalies of fish larval transport and their importance in 

environmental assessment. N. Y. Fish Game J., Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 59-71. 

Abstract: Environmental impact assessments for industrial plants using water generally 

include estimates of ichthyoplankton entrainment. The pattern of transport of fish larvae 

in water currents determines the proportion of a population, which will pass through the 

zone of intake influence and the proportion of those passing the intake which will be 

entrained. Sampling studies revealed 2 anomalies of importance to such estimates: (1) 

data from field surveys in the Hudson River estuary showed that larvae are not 

transported in the water mass like solute particles; and (2) data from entrainment 

monitoring at generating plants on the Great Lakes showed that larval densities in the 

entrained water are not always the same as those in the surrounding ambient water. 

Realistic assessment of entrainment impact is both environmentally and economically 

important, and laboratory observation of the conditions that determine patterns of larval 

transport would be desirable. 
78

Warsh, K. L. 1975. Hydrological-biological models of the impact of entrainment of spawn of 

the striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in proposed power plants at two areas in the upper 

Chesapeake Bay. 

Zeitoun, Ibrahim H; and others. 1980. Power Plant Water Intake Assessment. Environmental 

Science and Technology; Vol. 14, No. 4, p398-402, (Apr 1980). 

Abstract: In order to adequately assess the impact of power plant cooling-water intake on 

an aquatic ecosystem, total ecosystem effects must be considered, rather than merely 

numbers of impinged or entrained organisms. 

Zhu, Liangsheng; Wen, W. 1995. A numerical prediction method on effects of the cooling 

system in a power factory to organisms in water environment. Tropic oceanology/Redai 

Haiyang. Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 60-67. 

Abstract: The influence of hot, winding and chemical blasts to organisms in the cooling 

system of a power factory was analyzed in this paper. Then movement mechanism of 

organisms in water was analyzed, and from these organisms movement differential 

equation and loss rate control differential equation were deduced, giving the numerical 

computation method for an organisms loss rate mathematical model. Finally, the blast 

effects in a certain power factory influencing organisms in ocean environment was 

predicted by the mathematical model. 
79

PART III: STUDIES RELATED TO MITIGATION MEASURES OF FISH 

IMPINGEMENT/ENTRAINMENT BY COOLING-WATER INTAKES

Anon. 1974. Little Fish in a Big Pond Bubble Curtain Keeps Fry Out of Power Plant Intake. 

Compressed Air, Vol. 79, No. 7, pp. 10-11. 

Cada, G. F. and A. T. Szluha. 1979. A biological evaluation of devices used for reducing 

entrainment and impingement losses at thermal power plants. Oak Ridge, Tenn.: Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory. 

Cada, G. F., J. A. Solomon and D. K. Kumar. 1982. Investigation of entrainment stresses using 

a power plant simulator. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 

Chezar, B. 1976. Multifarious power plant water intake structure (MWIS): a design concept to 

reduce the environmental effects of cooling water intake structures. New York: The 

Authority. 

Cooper, W. E., Jr. 1980. Power plant recirculation and entrainment impact: a solution for 

constant recirculation and once through mortality rates. Journal of the Alabama 

Academy of Science. Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 16-19. 

Divanach, P., G. Chevalier and J. M. Lavoue. 1981. (Impact of two detachment systems on the 

fish impinged on revolving screens.). (Influence of Thermal Discharges on Marine and 

Estuarine Organisms.). pp. 801-820. 

Abstract: The usual detachment systems for fish impinged on the power plants revolving 

screens, based on water jets, are compared with a new aspiration system. Mortality rates 

are usually higher for small size fish and for unhealthy fish. The aspiration system tested 

causes lower mortality rates. 

Dorn, P. B. and J. T. Johnson. 1981. Advanced intake technology for power plant cooling water 

systems: proceedings of the Workshop of Advanced Intake Technology held at the 

Sheraton-Harbor Island Hotel, San Diego, California, April 22-24. 1981. [Springfield, 

Va.]: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ; available through NTIS. 

Dunning, D. J., Q. E. Ross; P. Geoghegan, J. J. Reichle, J. K. Menezes and J. K. Watson. 1992. 

Alewives avoid high-frequency sound. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 407-416. 

Abstract: The authors studied the response of the alewife Alosa pseudoharengus to highfrequency sound to develop an acoustic system for preventing fish from entering power 

plant intakes. Four groups of alewives were subjected to different frequencies of sounds 

ranging from 110 to 150 kHz at sound pressure levels (SPLs, given in decibels (dB) in 

reference to 1 mu Pa) ranging from 125 to 180 dB. Each group of 20 or 25 fish was 

tested in a cage that was suspended in a flooded rock quarry. During the day, alewives 

schooled and strongly avoided pulsed tones (500 ms pulses, 1,000 ms apart) of 110 and 

125 kHz at or above 175 dB, a continuous tone of 125 kHz at 172 dB, and pulsed 

broadband sound between 117 and 133 kHz at or above 157 dB. Although alewives 
80

habituated to tones, they avoided pulsed broadband sound at 163 dB more consistently. 

The more consistent response to the broadband sound was probably due to the range of 

frequencies in this signal. At night, alewives did not school, did not swim actively, and 

did not react as strongly to the broadband sound. The diminished avoidance response at 

night may be due to the absence of schooling and to reduced swimming activity. 

Ecological Analysts, Inc. 1979. Evaluation of the effectiveness of a continuously operating fine 

mesh traveling screen for reducing ichthyoplankton entrainment at the Indian Point 

Generating Station. New York. 

Elarbash, M. M. 1991. Improvements of conventional water intake system. Proceedings of the 

Twelfth International Symposium on Desalination and Water Re-Use, Malta, April 15-

18. 1991. Volume 2: Seawater Reverse Osmosis; Solar Processes; Pretreatment., Vol. 82, 

No. 1-3. pp. 315-335. 

Abstract: Installations that intake water from open water bodies usually obtain the 

quantities of water required through open channel systems or ducts. Maintenance costs 

relating to pumps and heat exchangers have been on the rise where water is consumed 

through open channels including fish, grass and sand. The subject of this paper is the 

upgrading of the intake head system, a device installed at the upstream end of the pipeline 

conveying the cooling water to the site onshore. This new invention provides a new 

intake system that is virtually invisible to suspended matter, fish and seafloor sand. The 

system was developed by utilizing the continuity equation, which was the main tool for 

flow calculations. The system also utilizes the natural laws, gravity is the only driving 

force of the flow. 

Elder, J. A., J. W. Icanberry, D. J. Smith, D. G. Henriet and C. E. Steitz. 1979. Assessment of a 

large-capacity fish pump for sampling ichthyoplankton for power-plant entrainment 

studies. Rep. CCOFI, Vol. 20, pp. 143-145. 

Abstract: The use of pumps to sample plankton from the intakes and outfalls of electric 

generating plant cooling-water systems is discussed. Conventional pumps have too small 

a capacity (1mSUP-3) to be useful in sampling ichthyoplankton, therefore a largecapacity pump was utilized in this study. The pump proved more efficient than the net in 

capturing Neomysis mercedis, and was a satisfactory tool for assessing the density of 

organisms entrained in power plant cooling-water systems. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 1989. Field Testing of Behavioral Barriers for Fish Exclusion 

at Cooling-Water Intake Systems, Ontario Hydro Pickering Nuclear Generating Station, 

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report GS-6246 (Mar 1989), 140 pp. 

Abstract: Depending on site-specific considerations, behavioral barriers such as sound 

and lights may be more effective, less expensive, and more environmentally suitable for 

excluding fish from power plant intakes than physical barriers. Specifically, field tests at 

Ontario Hydro's Pickering station on Lake Ontario indicated that behavioral barriers 

excluded alewife, an important prey species in the Great Lakes. 
81

Electric Power Research Institute. 1999. Fish Protection at Cooling Water Intakes: Status 

Report, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report TR-114013. (Dec 1999), 246 pp. 

Abstract: The U.S. EPA is developing new regulations to ensure proper implementation 

of Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act (CWA), which requires that the location, 

design, construction, and capacity of cooling-water intake structures (CWIS) reflect the 

best technology available (BTA) for minimizing adverse environmental impact. This 

report documents four groups of fish protection technologies that have the potential for 

CWIS application. Included is information such as how each technology functions, the 

effectiveness of installations in minimizing aquatic impacts, biological effectiveness for 

known important species and site conditions, and design and maintenance issues 

encountered. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2000. Procedural Guideline for Evaluating Alternative Fish 

Protection Technologies to Meet Section 316(b) Requirements of the Clean Water Act, 

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1000551 (Dec 2000). 

Abstract: As part of an effort to develop implementation rules for Section 316(b) of the 

Clean Water Act (CWA), EPRI commissioned this effort. The goal is to create a 

technically and biologically defensible screening process for evaluating and identifying 

alternative fish protection technologies that merit more rigorous evaluation. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2000. Technical Evaluation of the Utility of Intake Approach 

Velocity as an Indicator of Potential Adverse Environmental Impact under Clean Water 

Act Section 316(b), EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1000731, (Dec 2000). 

Abstract: This report addresses issues related to causes of fish impingement at coolingwater intake structures (CWISs), specifically the relationship of water velocity, site 

geometry, fish swimming ability, and environmental conditions. CWIS approach velocity 

is central to the ongoing U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) effort to regulate 

CWISs under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act. Energy producers, federal and state 

resource agencies and regulators, and the public will find this report a valuable reference 

on impingement issues and appropriate approaches to minimize potential impingement 

impacts. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. CWIS Technologies Workshop: EPRI Research on 

Cylindrical Wedgewire Screens and Aquatic Filter Barriers, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 

1007006. (Jun 2002). 

Abstract: On March 26-27. 2002, EPRI held a workshop on cooling-water intake 

structure (CWIS) fish protection technology. The goals and objectives were as follows: 

o Review EPRI CWIS fish protection technology research 

o Obtain input/recommendations and stimulate discussion on EPRI's preliminary results 

and on their experimental design for 2002+ research 

o Provide all with a technical update on the latest CWIS fish protection technology 

information 

Three key research programs were reviewed at the workshop: 
82

o On-going evaluation of cylindrical wedge-wire screens 

o A new program evaluating performance (biological and physical) of aquatic filter 

barriers 

o Completed research on bar racks/louvers 

Electric Power Research Institute. 2002. Enhancement Strategies for Mitigating Potential 

Operational Impacts of Cooling Water Intake Structures: Approaches for Enhancing 

Environmental Resources, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 1005326 (Jul 2002). 

Abstract: This interim report describes environmental enhancement or restoration 

approaches that may be applicable for mitigating impingement and entrainment impacts 

associated with cooling-water intake structures (CWISs). These approaches are 

described with respect to their underlying objectives, implementation and operational 

requirements, costs, current use by government and the private sector, and advantages 

and limitations for potentially mitigating CWIS operational impacts. 

Fletcher, R. I. 1990. Flow dynamics and fish recovery experiments: Water intake systems. 

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 393-415. 

Abstract: Large water-use facilities are often equipped with vertically traveling debris 

barriers known as Ristroph screens. Although made in a variety of configurations, all 

such screens are equipped with some manner of fish-catching troughs or rails, and all 

operate on the principle of direct contact and active removal of impounded fish and 

debris. The imposed fish mortalities associated with these machines are commonly 

attributed to the consequences of impingements (to fish being flattened against the 

screening by the force of the inflowing water), but the laboratory and field experiments 

reported here imply that in those circumstances where the screens travel continuously and 

where water speeds are moderate, the major underwater injuries are attributable instead to 

buffeting of captured fish within the fish troughs proper. A reconfigured machine, 

including the redesigned fish-catching apparatus, was installed and tested at a nuclear 

generating station on the Hudson River estuary. In tests similar to those on the 

unimproved machine, injuries and deaths were reduced from 53 to 9% for striped bass 

Morone saxatilis, from 64 to 14% for white perch M. american, from 80 to 17% for 

Atlantic tomcod Microgadus tomcod, and from 47 to 7% for pumpkinseed Lepomis 

gibbosus. 

Friedman, R. 1989. Shooing Fish With Sound. Sea Frontiers, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 136-141, 

May-June 1989. 

Abstract: Schools of fish routinely clog the water intakes of shoreline power plants and, 

in unpredictable invasions, schooling anchovies have repeatedly crowded the small 

harbor of Santa Cruz on the California coast. But new work on shooing fish with 

underwater sound at the Long Marine Laboratory of the University of California at Santa 

Cruz, along with contributions from utility company engineers, looks promising. It 

shows that the schooling behavior of anchovies may provide clues to deterring them from 

their unwelcome pilgrimages into Santa Cruz Harbor, and to keeping fish other than 

anchovies away from power plants. Two years ago, Long Marine researchers tested a 
83

seismic "popper" to solve Santa Cruz's crowding problem. The popper, which is 

basically an air gun that delivers an underwater thump, caused a milling school of 

anchovies to turn at each blast. Possible explanations as to why the anchovies never 

seem to habituate to the noise are that the schooling fish would need to stay alert to the 

signals that they use to navigate as a group and that anchovies may be slow to learn as an 

adaptation to the selection pressures of their schooling life. The slow habituation of 

certain fish to sound may also spell success for utility companies. Engineers at Ontario 

Hydro have found that an array of poppers reduces the number of alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus) at the cooling-water intake of Pickering nuclear power station on Lake 

Ontario. The various fish deterrents, whether they be sound, light, or air bubbles, 

unfortunately are not reliable for all species all of the time, so the search continues for an 

appropriate combination. 

Fritz, E. S. 1980. Cooling water intake screening devices used to reduce entrainment and 

impingement. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior. For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O. 

Goeman, T. J. 1984. Fish survival at a cooling water intake designed to minimize mortality. 

Progressive Fish-Culturist, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 279-281. 

Abstract: Fish impingement on water intake screens is one environmental impact 

associated with cooling systems of electric power generating facilities. Impinged fish can 

be killed directly or may suffer delayed mortality due to exhaustion, suffocation, or other 

physical injury. However, not all impinged fish are killed, particularly at newer intakes 

designed to minimize impingement mortality. Results of previous studies have shown 

that impingement survival is species specific and that juveniles may exhibit different 

survival than adults of the same species (Congleton 1974; Haven and Ginn 1977). In the 

present study, fish survival was monitored at a cooling-water intake designed to minimize 

impingement-induced mortality. Species-specific responses to impingement were 

documented for juveniles and adults. 

Goeman, T. J. and J. C. Thiel. 1984. A simple weir box for measuring flow rates during 

entrainment sampling. Progressive Fish-Culturist, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 147-148. 

Abstract: Entrainment sampling at cooling-water intakes is a vital aspect of evaluating 

environmental impacts on fish communities. Accurate measurement of the volume 

sampled is a primary concern if entrainment data is quantified and used to reach 

meaningful conclusions. In-line flow meters can provide reliable flow data for 

entrainment studies but costs associated with these instruments are often beyond budget 

limitations. Flows can also be measured volumetrically using a container of known size. 

However, this methodology is not considered adequate for some investigations where 

volumes associated with cooling-water intakes are large and it is necessary to sample a 

relatively large volume, or vary the sample volume. The authors designed a simple, large 

capacity weir box for measuring flow during entrainment sampling, resulting in quality 

data within the budget. 
84

Hadderingh, R. H. and N. V. Kema. 1982. Experimental reduction of fish impingement by 

artificial illumination at Bergum power station. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol., Vol. 67, 

No. 6, pp. 887-900. 

Abstract: Entrapment of juvenile fish at the cooling-water intakes of power stations may 

lead to considerable fish mortality. At Bergum Power Station, located within the Frisian 

Lake District, large numbers of juvenile fish are impinged on the cooling-water screens, 

mainly during the nocturnal hours, due to loss of visual orientation. Artificial 

illumination of the intake area at the power station was used during the night to reduce 

the number of fish impinged. Substantial reduction was achieved with ruffe 

(Gymnocephalus cernua) and perch (Perca fluviatilis). Effect of the illumination level 

and phototaxis on the results are discussed. Suggestions to further reduce fish 

impingement are given. 

Hadderingh, R. H. 1979. Fish intake mortality at power stations. The problem and its remedy. 

Hydrobiol. Bull., Vol. 13, No. 2-3, pp. 83-93. 

Abstract: Fish larvae and juveniles are not strong enough to maintain in the water flow 

occurring at cooling-water intakes of power stations. Therefore, they are drawn into the 

cooling-water system and show considerable mortality mainly due to mechanical causes. 

In this paper several measures are discussed which may lead to a reduction of this 

problem. Special emphasis is laid on site selection in low productive areas, reduction of 

the volume of cooling water, careful removal and transport from the screens and 

preventing fish from entering the intake. Illumination of the intake are during night 

appears to be an effective means in decreasing the large nocturnal fish inflow. It is 

suggested to modify the current cooling-water standard in order to diminish the intake 

fish mortality. 

Haymes, G. T., P. H. Patrick and L. J. Onisto. 1984. Attraction of fish to mercury vapour light 

and its application in a generating station forebay. Internationale Revue der Gesamten 

Hydrobiologie. Vol. 69, No. 6, pp. 867-876. 

Hickey, C. R. 1980. Power plant siting and design : a case study of minimal entrainment and 

impingement impacts at Davis-Besse Nuclear Power Station. Washington, D.C.: 

Springfield, Va. : Division of Engineering, Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation, U.S. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission: Available from GPO Sales Program, Division of 

Technical Information and Document Control, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission ; 

National Technical Information Service. 

Hyman, M. A. M. 1975. The effects of two electrical barriers on the impingement of fish at a 

nuclear power plant. [Kingston]: University of Rhode Island. 

Hyman, M. A. M., W. H. Mowbray and S. B. Saila. 1975. The effects of two electrical barriers 

on the entrainment of fish at a freshwater nuclear power plant. Fisheries and energy 

production: A symposium. 

Abstract: In order to limit the numbers of fish entrained at the Connecticut Yankee 

Atomic Power Plant (CYAP) at Haddam Neck, Connecticut, it was desirable that a 
85

system be designed to discourage the presence of fish from the immediate environs of the 

plant intakes. Two such systems are described, both of which statistically reduced the 

numbers of fish taken. The feasibility of electrical barriers for reducing power plant 

entrainment in a freshwater environment was demonstrated. 

Johnson, L. 1979. A field evaluation of the effect of nighttime flow reduction on entrapment of 

fish. Seattle, Wash.: Fisheries Research Institute, College of Fisheries, University of 

Washington. 

Jude, D. J. 1982. Adult, Juvenile, and larval fish populations in the vicinity of the James H. 

Campbell Plant. 1981: with special reference to the effectiveness of wedge-wire intake 

screens in reducing entrainment and impingement of fish. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Great 

Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan. 

Jude, D. J., P. J. Mansfield and M. Perrone. 1983. Impingement and entrainment of fish and 

effectiveness of the fish return system at the Monroe Power Plant, western Lake Erie. 

1982-1983. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Great Lakes Division, University of Michigan. 

Leithiser, R. M., K. F. Ehrlich and A. B. Thum. 1979. Comparison of a high volume pump and 

conventional plankton nets for collecting fish larvae entrained in power plant cooling 

systems. J. Fish. Res. Board Can., Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 81-84. 

Abstract: A high volume pump (2.5 mSUP-3 /min capacity at 6 m head) and 

conventional plankton nets (0.5 and 1.0 m diam) were operated side by side in two tests 

to evaluate the efficiency of each gear for sampling fish larvae within the intake structure 

of a coastal power plant. At intake channel current velocities up to 40 cm/s (the 

maximum tested), the pump in one test caught significantly more fish larvae than the 

nets. Compared to the pump, both sizes of plankton nets in each test greatly 

undersampled large larvae (over 5.0 mm total length). These findings suggest that 

conclusions regarding ichthyoplankton entrainment based on data obtained with 

conventional plankton nets may be of questionable validity. 

Leslie, J. K. 1983. Cooling water flow velocity in relation to collection of entrained larval fish 

at power plants. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 

370-373. 

Abstract: Velocity of condenser cooling water at numerous sampling sites at some Great 

Lakes power plants was examined in relation to larval fish entrainment. Current velocity 

was found to differ significantly in many cases at all depths, for sampling locations 

spaced 1 m apart in the vertical plane. Extensive use of current meters showed that a 

simple, pre-sampling study of current velocity at the intake or discharge could improve 

the accuracy of entrainment estimates. 

Lieberman, J. T. and P. H. Muessig. 1978. Evaluation of an air bubbler to mitigate fish 

impingement at an electric generating plant. Estuaries, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 129-132. 

Abstract: To determine whether fish impingement at an electric generating plant was 

significantly reduced during the operation of an air bubbler, impingement monitoring 

data was subjected to statistical analysis. Daily impingement rates were calculated for 
86

total fish collections and for three impinged species, and associated with water chemistry 

conditions and air curtain operation during impingement periods. Analysis for each 

species by season indicated that the air curtain was not an effective fish deterrent. 

Matousek, J. A. and A. W. Wells. 1988. Field testing of behavioral barriers for fish exclusion at 

cooling-water intake systems: Central Hudson Gas & Electric Company, Roseton 

Generating Station. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, Calif. 

McKinley, R. S., Patrick, P. H. and others. 1989. Field testing of behavioral barriers for fish 

exclusion at cooling-water intake systems: Ontario Hydro Pickering Nuclear Generating 

Station. EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif. 

Mussalli, Y. G. 1979. Alternative intake designs for reducing entrainment and impingement 

losses: St. Clair Power Plant, Detroit Edison Company. Boston : Stone & Webster 

Engineering Corporation. 

Mussalli, Y. G., E. P. Taft III and J. Larsen. 1980. Offshore water intakes designed to protect 

fish. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. J. Hydraul. Div., Vol. 106, No. 11, pp. 1885-1901. 

Abstract: The engineering design and biological effectiveness of five design concepts for 

fish protection at offshore intakes are examined. Velocity cap intakes entrap large 

quantities of fish at some locations and are not effective in preventing the entrainment of 

fish larvae. Hydrodynamic model studies and tests indicated poor fish diversion and the 

need for further development. Wedge-wire screen intakes are effective and practical for 

makeup intakes; however, since proven methods for preventing icing and clogging 

problems have not been developed, further developmental work is needed for application 

to once-through cooling intakes. Behavioral barriers, such as an air bubble curtain, a 

water jet curtain, and hanging chains, have only limited effectiveness in reducing fish 

entrapment. For makeup water intakes, infiltration systems, such as the radial well 

intake, are effective, given that a suitable aquifer exists. 

Nakato, T. and D. Houser. 1990. Hydraulic model studies of circulating-water ocean-intake 

velocity caps: Florida Power & Light Company's St. Lucie Power Plant. Iowa City, 

Iowa: Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, The University of Iowa. 

Nolen, S. L., J. H. Carroll and J. N. Veenstra. 1988. Development of water release plans for 

minimizing fish kills below Tulsa District, Corps of Engineers impoundments. Journal of 

Environmental Systems, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp.353-366. 

Abstract: Late summer fish kills comprised primarily of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) 

and associated with high water temperatures, low levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) and 

fish entrapment occasionally occur in the tail waters of Tulsa District, Corps of Engineers 

impoundments. In response to these kills, studies were initiated to develop means of 

using minimal water releases to consistently maintain adequate temperature and dissolved 

oxygen conditions for fish survival below these projects. Activities included the use of 

the computer model, SELECT, for the prediction of minimum required releases, followed 

by field vertification of predicted release characteristics. Results of studies at two lakes 

are presented here. In both instances, the SELECT model adequately predicted release 
87

characteristics and low level (approximately 0.7 m super (3)/sec),continuous sluice 

releases were successfully used to prevent fish kills. 

Poje, G. V., S. A. Riordan and J. M. O'Connor. 1981. Power plant entrainment simulation 

utilizing a condenser tube simulator: Final report. Washington, D.C.: Springfield, Va.: 

The Commission : Available from GPO Sales Program, Division of Technical 

Information and Document Control, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission ; National 

Technical Information Service. 

Ransom, B. H. and T. W. Steig. 1994. Using hydroacoustics to monitor fish at hydropower 

dams. Lake Reservoir Manage., Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 163-169. 

Abstract: In the USA hundreds of existing hydropower sites have federal operating 

licenses that expire by the year 2000, and many licenses are being considered for new 

sites. The mortality to fish passing through hydropower dams has been variously 

estimated at 2-30%. Many of the power producers applying for licenses in the USA and 

elsewhere have been required to evaluate the impact their facilities have on fish. 

Entrainment studies are potentially expensive, labor intensive, and can effect project 

operations. Estimates of fish entrainment may be required 24 hour/day for up to 12 

months, with periodic evaluations of fish survivability through turbine units. Underwater 

acoustics (sonar) provides one method of obtaining these data that has been accepted by 

many government fisheries agencies (Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 1987). 

Fixed-location hydroacoustic techniques have proved effective at documenting and 

quantify the abundance and behavior of fish passing through hydropower dams, and in 

reservoirs. In the last 15 years, hundreds of hydroacoustic evaluations of entrainment at 

hydropower dams have been conducted in the USA. 

Ross, Q. E., D. J. Dunning, J. K. Menezes, M. J. Kenna Jr. and G. Tiller. 1996. Reducing 

impingement of alewives with high-frequency sound at a power plant intake on Lake 

Ontario. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 548-559. 

Abstract: From April 22 through July 20. 1993, we conducted a follow-up study to 

confirm that high-frequency broadband sound (122-128 kHz) at a source level (in 

decibels [dB] in reference to 1 mu Pa) of 190 dB reduced the impingement of alewives 

Alosa pseudoharengus at the James A. FitzPatrick Nuclear Power Plant (JAF), located on 

Lake Ontario near Oswego, New York. During the first full-scale test in 1991, the sound 

field covered only the front of the JAF intake. In this second full-scale test, the sound 

field included the top, sides, and rear of the JAF intake to prevent fish from approaching 

the intake from those directions when the JAF reactor was shut down and the hot water 

discharge, located 57 m offshore from the intake, disappeared. Our study also provided 

the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of the deterrent system during a mass die-off 

of alewives that occurred in Lake Ontario during late spring and early summer in 1993. 

We used a before-after-control-impact pairs (BACIP) design to test and quantify the 

effectiveness of the deterrent system. The new sound field reduced the impingement of 

alewives by 81-84% during a year following an unusually cold winter and should reduce 

impingement by 87% during most years. 
88

Ross, Q. E., D. J. Dunning, R. Thorne, J. K. Menezes, G. W. Tiller and J. K. Watson. 1993. 

Response of alewives to high-frequency sound at a power plant intake on Lake Ontario. 

North American Journal of Fisheries Management, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 291-303. 

Abstract: From April through June 1991, we tested a full-scale deterrent system for 

excluding alewives Alosa pseudoharengus from the intake of the James A. FitzPatrick 

Nuclear Power Plant (JAF), near Oswego, New York. This electronic system produced 

high-frequency broadband sound (122-128 kHz) at a source level (in decibels (dB) in 

reference to 1 mu Pa) of 190 dB. When the system was on, the density of fish near the 

JAF intake decreased by as much as 96% and the number of alewives impinged on the 

intake screens at JAF decreased by as much as 87%. The system was effective during 

both day and night, and its range was greater than 80 m. 

Sager, D. R. 1986. Avoidance behavior of Morone americana, Leiostomus xanthurus and 

Brevoortia tyrannus to strobe light as a method of impingement mitigation. 

Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. 

Schneeberger, P. J. and D. J. Jude. 1981. Use of fish larva morphometry to predict exclusion 

capabilities of small-mesh screens at cooling-water intakes. Transactions of the 

American Fisheries Society, Vol. 110, No. 2, pp. 246-252. 

Abstract: A relationship between total lengths and body depths of certain fish larvae was 

used to predict the effectiveness of small-mesh screens in limiting entrainment of fish 

larvae at cooling-water intakes. Total length-body depth regressions were linear for eight 

species (293 larvae) common to Lake Michigan near the J. H. Campbell Power Plant at 

Port Sheldon, Michigan. Regressions indicated that 35-100% (depending on species) of 

the fish larvae that had been entrained by the J. H. Campbell Plant in 1978 would have 

been excluded if 0.5-mm mesh screening had been employed in the plant's cooling-water 

intake system instead of 9.5-mm bar mesh vertical traveling screens. These calculations 

do not take into consideration approach velocities of intake water, larva avoidance 

behavior, or mortality due to impingement on or extrusion through the screens. 

Stafford-Glase, M. K. J. Jirka, J. Homa Jr. and P. Kennedy. 1997. Evaluation of strobe lights for 

deterring fish entrainment at a steam generating electric station. 127th Annual Meeting 

of the American Fisheries Society, Monterey, CA (USA), pp. 24-28, (Aug 1997). (World 

Meeting Number 973 5004). 

Steen, A. E. and J. R. Schubel. 1986. An application of a strategy to reduce entrainment 

mortality. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 215-228. 

Abstract: Regulatory agencies have often required power plants to operate at low excess 

temperatures (Delta Ts) because thermal stresses are believed to be the primary cause of 

mortality to organisms entrained by the once-through cooling systems of electric 

generating stations. It has become accepted scientific practice to calculate safe levels of 

toxics. Procedures to determine the temperature and cooling-water flow characteristics 

which minimize entrainment mortality were developed and applied. The operating 

conditions of a power plant on the Potomac River were examined as a case-study to 

determine whether the plant was operating at, below, or above a maximum tolerate Delta 
89

T. This method may be applied to power plants to determine if entrainment mortality due 

to thermal effects may occur and what alterations in cooling-water flow would minimize 

entrainment mortality to selected representative important species. 

Taft, E. P. and Y. G. Mussalli. 1978. Fish diversion and transportation system for power plant 

application. Fisheries, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 2-5. 

Abstract: An angled, flush-mounted traveling screen has been tested in order to 

determine its potential for alleviating fish impingement at the cooling-water intakes of 

electric power plants. Laboratory studies have shown that an angled screen is 100% 

effective in diverting alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) to a bypass and that these fish can 

be transported safely through a pipe and jet pump system with low resultant mortality. 

Such systems are presently incorporated in the design of two new large power plants 

being constructed on Lake Ontario. 

Thomas, G. Lee and L. Johnson. 1980. The Effectiveness of a velocity cap and decreased flow 

in reducing fish entrapment: final report to Southern California Edison Company, 

submitted 31 December 1980. Seattle, Wash.: Fisheries Research Institute, University of 

Washington. 

Thorne, R. E., G. L. Thomas, W. C. Acker and L. Johnson. 1979. Two applications of 

hydroacoustic techniques to the study of fish behavior around coastal power generating 

stations. Publ. by: WSG; Seattle, WA (USA)., Nov 1979., 33 p., Tech. Rep. Wash. Sea 

Grant. 

Abstract: Acoustic techniques were used to study the behaviour of fish around the 

cooling-water intake structure of the Southern California Edison Generating Station at 

Redondo Beach, California. The transducer was positioned on the bottom near the intake 

and alongside a television camera atop the intake structure. Considerable information 

was obtained on the diel behaviour of fish and their response to the television camera 

lights. In the second study the distribution and relative abundance of fish in the water 

column was investigated prior to, during, and after a shutdown of the San Onofre (Cal.) 

Nuclear Generating Station. The relative fish abundance changed substantially 

throughout the study period; it was high in the spring and summer and low in the fall and 

winter, suggesting the expected seasonal pattern in near shore fish density. However the 

change in fish density also directly corresponded to the own and resumption of the 

thermal discharge suggesting that fish may have been attracted to the thermal effluent. 

Thorne, R. E. 1980. Application of stationary hydroacoustic systems for studies of fish 

abundance and behavior. Oceans '80. An international forum on ocean engineering in the 

'80s., Publ. by: IEEE; New York, NY (USA), pp. 381-385., Oceans '80. 

Abstract: This study reports on two applications of stationary hydroacoustic systems: one 

at a coastal power plant intake in Southern California, and the second under the ice near 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Several advantages of stationary systems were apparent, including 

more detailed information on fish behavior, capability for detection closer to boundaries, 

and better signal to noise characteristics. 
90

Turnpenny, A. W. H., K. P. Thatcher, R. Wood and P. H. Loeffelman. 1993. Experiments on 

the use of sound as a fish deterrent. Fawley Aquatic Research Labs. Ltd. (England) Rept. 

No.: ETSUT0400171REP, 79 pp. 

Abstract: (1) This report describes a series of experimental studies into the potential use 

of acoustic stimuli to deter fish from water intakes at thermal and hydroelectric power 

stations. (2) The aim was to enlarge the range of candidate signals for testing, and to 

apply these in more rigorous laboratory trials and to a wider range of estuarine and 

marine fish species than was possible in previous initial preliminary studies. (3) The 

trials were also required to investigate the degree to which fish might become habituated 

to the sound signals, consequently reducing their effectiveness. (4) The species of fish 

which were of interest in this study were the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), sea trout 

(Salmo trutta), the shads (Alosa fallax, A. alosa), the European eel (Anguilla anguilla), 

bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), herring (Clupea harengus), whiting (Merlangius merlangus) 

and cod (Gadus morhua). (5) All of these species are considered to be of conservation 

and/or commercial importance in Britain today and are potentially vulnerable to capture 

by nuclear, fossil-fuelled and tidal generating stations. (6) Based on the effectiveness of 

the signals observed in these trials, a properly developed and sited acoustic fish deterrent 

system is expected to reduce fish impingement significantly at water intakes. (7) Field 

trials at an estuarine power station are recommended. 

Weisberg, S. B. 1984. The effects of screen slot size, screen diameter, and through-slot velocity 

on entrainment of estuarine ichthyoplankton through wedge-wire screens. Annapolis, 

Md.: Maryland. Dept. of Natural Resources, Power Plant Siting Program. 

Weisberg, S. B., W. H. Burton, F. Jacobs and E. A. Ross. 1987. Reductions in ichthyoplankton 

entrainment with fine-mesh, wedge-wire screens. North American Journal of Fisheries 

Management, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 386-393. 

Abstract: The exclusion efficiency of cylindrical wedge-wire screens was investigated at 

the Chalk Point Steam Electric Station in Aquasco, Maryland, by measuring entrainment 

of larval bay anchovies Anchoa mitchilli and naked gobies Gobiosoma bosci through 

screens with slot sizes of 1, 2, and 3 mm and through an unscreened intake. The degree 

of exclusion by the screens increased with fish size. Fish less than 5 mm long were not 

excluded by any of the screens. In contrast, more than 80% of larger ichthyoplankton 

were excluded by all screens. Virtually no ichthyoplankton larger than 10 mm were 

entrained through the 1-mm screen even when fish of this size were abundant and were 

entrained through the unscreened intake. The results suggest that entrainment through 

water intake structures can be successfully reduced by wedge-wire screens if the larval 

fish at risk exceed 5 mm in length. 

Wiancko, P. M. 1981. Environmental Design and Operation of Nanticoke Thermal Generating 

Station. Journal of Great Lakes Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 96-104. 

 Abstract: The 4,000 MW fossil-fueled Nanticoke Thermal Generating Station (TGS) 

located in Long Point Bay was commissioned in 1978. Ontario Hydro became involved 

with the Nanticoke Environmental Committee (NEC) through its involvement with 

various government agencies in the design and licencing approvals for the station. At full 
91

load, up to 150 m super (3) multiplied by s) super(-)1o)f cooling water is used by the 

station, similar to 60% for condenser cooling and 40% for discharge tempering. Only 1% 

is used for plant services. All chemical-laden wastes, fly ash and bottom ash, treatment 

plant wastes, coal pile drainage, and sewage are pumped to a 76 ha lagoon for maximum 

recirculation with continuous drainage to the lake at a rate of up to 0.4 m super(3) 

multiplied by s super(-1). This is after a lagoon retention time of approximately 40 days. 

All oil storage sites at Nanticoke TGS are dyked with further plans for their upgrading. 

Oil spill contingency plans are also being improved to contain accidental spills before 

they reach the lake. To minimize blowing coal dust, the station has adopted specific 

wetting, shaping, and reclaiming procedures for operation of the coal site. The station 

monitors all water processing and waste systems, air quality (SO sub(2)), fugitive coal 

dust, fish impingement, and seasonal stack impingement of birds. Some results are 

presented. 

Wu, L-J., K-T., Lee, S-R. Leu and C-H. Liao. 1989. Estimation of abundance of carangids near 

the water intake of nuclear power plant I by dual-beam hydroacoustic methods. Journal 

of the Fisheries Society of Taiwan [J. FISH. SOC. TAIWAN.], Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 175-

188. 

Abstract: (1) The water pumping of the Nuclear Plant I has resulted in mechanical 

injuries of certain fish species as they swim near the influx filter net. (2) The present 

study takes the fish school of carangids to measure their target strength by means of dualbeam acoustic approach. (3) This effort duly coordinated with fishing experiment to 

verify the feasibility of employing in-situ target strength as a scaling factor. (4) 

Furthermore, in a joint effort with underwater optical method to determine the actual fish 

density, one looks into the reliability of estimation of carangids swimming to the coolingwater intake using echo integration technique. 

Zeitoun, I. H., J. A. Gulvas and D. B. Roarabaugh. 1981. Effectiveness of fine mesh cylindrical 

wedge-wire screens in reducing entrainment of Lake Michigan Ichthyoplankton. Can. J. 

Fish. Aquat. Sci., Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 120-124. 

Abstract: Samples of ichthyoplankton entrained through 2.0-mm and 9.5-mm-slot 

opening cylindrical wedge-wire screens and through an open pipe (control) were 

collected in June, July, and August 1979, 1067 m off the southeast shore of Lake 

Michigan at a depth of 10.7 m. Screens were designed for a flow rate of 1.9 mSUP-3 

/min at 15.2 cm/s through slot velocity. Ambient composition and density of 

ichthyoplankton were determined by net tows. Osmerus mordax, Alosa pseudoharengus, 

and Perca flavescens larvae were common in both entrainment and tow collections. Eggs 

were found almost exclusively in entrainment collections. Ambient larval fish densities 

were about 11 times greater than those found in entrainment collections. Total 

entrainments through either screen and the open pipe were not statistically significant. 

Larval avoidance and, to a lesser extent, screen exclusion were responsible for the low 

entrainment. The authors estimated that about 90% of native fish larvae at the site 

avoided pumping. 
92

Zweiacker, P. J., J. R. Gaw, E. Green and C. Adams. 1977. Evaluation of an air-bubble curtain 

to reduce impingement at an electric generating station. Proc., Annu. Conf. Southeast. 

Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies, No. 31, pp.343-356. 

Abstract: A biological testing program was conducted during 1974-75 to determine the 

efficiency of an air-bubble curtain in reducing fish impingement at Arkansas NuclearOne Unit 1, on Dardanelle Reservoir, AR. Air curtain operation did not effectively deter 

fish from entering the intake canal or substantially reduce impingement. Seasonal 

variations in species composition and length-frequency distribution of impinged fish were 

independent of air curtain operation. There was a significant inverse correlation between 

water temperature and impingement levels during fall 1974 and spring 1975. Highest 

impingement rates occurred during late fall, winter, and early spring, regardless of air 

curtain status. Impinged individuals were predominantly young-of-the-year fish, 

especially Dorosoma petenense and D. cepedianum, assumed to be thermally stressed by 

low (<15.5 C) water temperatures. 
93

PART IV: OTHER RELEVANT STUDIES RELATED TO FISH 

IMPINGEMENT/ENTRAINMENT BY COOLING-WATER INTAKES 

Anon. 1978. An analysis of factors influencing the impingement of threadfin shad at power 

plants in the southeastern United States. In: Fourth national workshop on entrainment 

and impingement, 5 December 1977, Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by: Ecological 

Analysts, Inc., Melville, New York, Nat. Workshop Entrain. Impinge., Publ. by : EA 

Communications; Melville, NY (USA)., Apr 1978., p. 245-255. 

Abstract: Data on intake design and location, plant operating procedures, water quality, 

numbers of fish impinged, and sampling procedures were analyzed for 27 fossil-fueled 

and 5 nuclear power plants located on inland waters in the southeastern United States. 

Small clupeids (<9 cm), especially threadfin shad (Dorosoma pretenense), comprised the 

majority of the fish impinged at these facilities. The parameter that was correlated most 

highly with shad impingement was water temperature. Maximum impingement rates 

occurred during the winter when intake temperatures dropped below 10 C. Analyses of 

differences in impingement rates between plants failed to adequately demonstrate that the 

magnitude of impingement at a particular plant was the result of any site-specific 

characteristics associated with intake design or location. High approach velocities at the 

traveling screens did not necessarily result in high levels of impingement. Results 

obtained from inter-unit comparisons at several plants indicate that unit and screen 

differences do exist, but it is unclear from existing data whether or not such inter-unit 

differences determine the magnitude of impingement losses or merely affect the 

distribution of impinged fish at a given intake structure. Recommendations for 

monitoring fish impingement are presented. 

Anon. 1975. (Influence of water intakes of two nuclear Stations (St. Laurent and Chinon) on 

fish other than salmon, and general conclusions: first observations (spring 1975)). CSP, 

Region piscicole 'Auvergne-Limousin', Clermont-Ferrand (France). 14 p. 

Abstract: The average numbers of fishes (other than salmon) rejected daily by the drums 

of the nuclear power stations of St-Laurent (counts made between 29/4 and 22/5) and 

Chinon (1/5 to 10/5) were estimated respectively to be {approx} = 550 and {approx} = 

2500 fishes. 86% of these fishes at St-Laurent and 99% at Chinon were small-sized 

Cyprinidae (length < 10 cm), with a high proportion of roach and bleak. The larger fishes 

(length > 10 cm) were also mainly Cyprinidae (roach, beaked carp and bream) but some 

carnivores (pike perch, perch), Salmonidae (trout) and others (lampreys, eels, cat-fishes) 

were also noted. The proportion of fishes rejected in a healthy state was estimated as 15% 

at St-Laurent, < 5% at Chinon. Some spp. (pike perch, trout) seemed less fragile than 

others (roach, beaked carp, bream, etc). Nearly 3000 fishes were destroyed each day, i.e., 

a biomass of 24 kg/24hr distributed almost equally between the 2 stations. Certain 

reservations must be made concerning the precision and generalization of these results: 

some of the fishes rejected were probably dead already before entering the stations; the 

number of small fishes (difficult to separate from the plant debris) was underestimated; 

there was a lack of observations at other times of the yr. Some general conclusions are 
94

drawn: the destruction of young salmon is not very great; but this is already a threatened 

sp; the destruction of other spp. is significantly higher but the piscicole value of the river 

should not be greatly affected. Various safety measures could be taken: creation of an 

outlet for the direct return to the river from the downstream portion of the water-intake 

canal; modifications of the external structure of the drums (to facilitate the evacuation of 

the fishes). 

Anon. 1976. 316(b) report, Widows Creek Steam Plant: effects of the Widows Creek Steam 

Plant cooling water intake on the fish populations of Guntersville Reservoir. [Knoxville, 

Tenn.]: Tennessee Valley Authority. 

Attrill, M. J. and R. M. Thomas. 1996. Long-term distribution patterns of mobile estuarine 

invertebrates (Ctenophora, Cnidaria, Crustacea: Decapoda) in relation to hydrological 

parameters. Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol. 143, No. 1-3, pp. 25-36. 

Abstract: Between 1977 and 1992, semi-quantitative samples of macro-invertebrates 

were taken at fortnightly intervals from the Thames Estuary (UK) utilizing the coolingwater intake screens of West Thurrock power station. Samples were taken for 4 h over 

low water, the abundances of invertebrates recorded in 30 min subsamples and related to 

water volume filtered. Abundances of the major estuarine species have therefore been 

recorded every 2 wk for a 16 yr period, together with physico-chemical parameters such 

as temperature, salinity and freshwater flow. Annual cycles of distribution were apparent 

for several species. Carcinus maenas exhibited a regular annual cycle, with a peak in 

autumn followed by a decrease in numbers over winter, relating to seasonal temperature 

patterns. Conversely, abundance of Crangon crangon was consistently lowest in 

summer, responding to seasonal changes in salinity, whilst Liocarcinus holsatus, Aurelia 

aurita and Pleurobrachia pileus were only present in summer samples, with P. pileus

often in vast numbers (>100,000 per 500 million l). The estuarine prawn Palaemon 

longirostris showed no obvious sustained annual pattern, but evidence for a longer cycle 

of distribution was apparent. During 1989-1992 severe droughts in southeast England 

severely disrupted annual salinity patterns and coincided with a large increase in the 

Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis population. This included the first synchronized 

migration of adults in the UK. Settlement of young crabs during low-flow periods is 

suggested as an explanation for this population increase. 

Bauml, G. A. 1996. Evaluating fish impingement and entrainment at the Comanche Peak Steam 

Electric Station Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. 

Beard, L. M., D. J. Bruggink, J. P. Buchanan, R. A. Buckingham and D. L. Dycus. 1985. 

Aquatic environmental conditions in Chickamauga Reservoir during operation of 

Sequoyah Nuclear Plant: Fifth annual report. 

Abstract: TVA is required by its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

(NPDES) Permit for Sequoyah Nuclear Plant (SQN) to conduct and report annually on 

operational non-radiological monitoring to evaluate potential effects of SQN on 

Chickamauga Reservoir. Because few changes were identified through 1984, the 

following changes were recommended in June 1985: (1) terminate studies on benthic 

macro-invertebrates, mollusk bioaccumulation, fish impingement, fish gill netting, fish 
95

creel surveys, and water quality at the plant intake and discharge; (2) continue studies on 

plankton and larval fish with specific changes; and (3) continue cove rotenone studies 

without change. These recommendations were instituted in July 1985 following approval 

from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This report evaluates 1985 results for 

the continued portions and, briefly, for the discontinued portions conducted prior to 

EPA's approval. Evaluation of water quality data showed that during low flows SQN 

altered the distribution of DO in the water column at and downstream of the diffusers. 

Studies to define the extent and duration of the DO alteration will be conducted during 

spring and summer when SQN resumes operation (DBO). 

Benda, R. S., M. John and J. Gulvas. 1975. Comparison of fish impingement at the Palisades 

nuclear power plant for once-through and closed-cycle cooling. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 

85, 155-160. 

Abstract: Two studies of fish impingement were conducted at the Palisades Nuclear 

Power Plant. The first (May 16, 1972 to October 25, 1973) during once-through cooling 

and a second (March 10, 1974 to March 29, 1975) during closed-cycle cooling using 

mechanical draft cooling towers. The Palisades facility, which has an ultimate electrical 

output up to 821 megawatts, began operations in early 1972. The cooling-water intake is 

submerged 1006m offshore at a minimum depth of about 7.6 m. The heated discharge 

enters the lake directly at the shoreline. The total flow rate was about 30686 l/s during 

once-through cooling and 4644.5 l/s during closed cycle cooling. From May 16, 1972 to 

October 25, 1973 daily records showed a total of 651,712 fish weighing 19,842.2 

kilograms were impinged on the traveling screens. Of these totals, alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus), slimy sculpin (Cottus cognathus), spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius), 

and perch (Perca flavescens) made up 58.6, 27.5, 7.2, and 4.4%, respectively, of the total 

number. Coregonoids and salmonids, and smelt, Osmerus mordax made up 0.2 and 1.0% 

of the total respectively. The fish appeared seasonally on the screens with none of the 37 

recorded species being collected regularly. In addition, 4,768 crayfish, (Oronectes 

propinquis) were counted, mostly during late spring and early summer. Results from the 

March 10, 1974 to March 29, 1975 study showed 2724 individuals weighing 25 kg were 

impinged during 111 screen counts which represented 31.3% of the total number of hours 

the screens were operated. Slimy sculpin and alewife made up 85.8 and 11.4% 

respectively of the total, with seven other species comprising the additional 2.8%. 

Extrapolation of the data (based upon weekly screen counts) showed that potentially 

7,488 fish weighing 68 kg could have been impinged. An additional 8,096 crayfish were 

impinged and extrapolation show that potentially 10,218 could have been impinged. The 

change from once-through cooling to closed cycle cooling resulted in a significant 

decrease in the total number, weight, and number of fish species impinged at the 

Palisades Plant resulting in a reduction of biomass removed from the inshore area Lake 

Michigan near South Haven. 

Best, C. D. and D. W. Morgan. 1977. Factors affecting ichthyoplankton entrainment in the 

Michigan City generating station condenser cooling water system. Proc. Indiana Acad. 

Sci., Vol. 87, pp. 170-171. 
96

 Abstract: Analysis of ichthyoplankton entrainment data collected at the NIPSCO 

Michigan City generating station indicates a correlation between temperature changes 

and density of alewife, carp, and spottail shiner larvae. The plankton sampling program 

was conducted from 3 May to 23 August. 1976, with the first occurrence of the 3 species 

found on 27 May when average temperatures of intake and discharge waters were 15.4 C 

and 20.0 C respectively. Mean larval densities varied directly with temperature from 12 

June to 14 July. The first major increase in the density of carp, alewife and spottail 

shiner larvae occurred on 16 June when average intake temperature was 21.1 C and 

average discharge temperature was 27.2 C. The mean density of all larvae dropped 

sharply on July 26 when water temperatures averaged 24.1 C at the intake crib and 31.7 C 

in the discharge plume. Thereafter, a mean density of larvae varied inversely with 

discharge temperature changes, with relatively fewer larvae being found when 

temperatures were above 29.0 C. No significant correlation was found between larval 

density and plant flow, rainfall, or barometric pressure. 

Bimber, D. L. 1984. Field distribution and entrainment of fish larvae and eggs at the Donald C. 

Cook Nuclear Power Plant, southeastern Lake Michigan: 1973-1979. Ann Arbor 

(Mich.): University of Michigan, Great Lakes Research Division. 

Boreman, J., D. H. Arner and others. 1977-1980. Topical briefs, fish and wildlife resources and 

electric power generation. [Ann Arbor, Mich.] : Power Plant Project, Office of 

Biological Services, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 

Carter, K. L. and J. P. Reader. 2000. Patterns of drift and power station entrainment of 0+ fish 

in the River Trent, England. Fisheries Management & Ecology 7, No. 5, pp. 447-464. 

Abstract: Entrainment of 0+ riverine fish (mostly pelagic cyprinids) by a power station 

intake, and down-river drift over a nearby weir, followed the same pattern, occurring 

throughout the year and being greatest during the night in the first weeks of life (i. e. in 

summer), reaching a peak shortly after dusk. Entrainment and drift of benthic species, 

and of fish older than 0+, were negligible. Mortality following entrainment was 100%. 

Impingement of fish on the intake screens was negligible, probably because individuals 

larger than the screen mesh were able to escape the intake current. The species 

composition and length-frequencies of the drifting fish, but not their overall abundance, 

showed some variation with distance from the river margin. It is argued that the fish 

vulnerable to entrainment are those 0+ individuals which are dispersing in the river by 

drifting. 

Chen, C. W. 1981. Power plant intake systems database. C.W. Chen; prepared for Electric 

Power Research Institute. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute. 

Chioffi, N. and D. J. Jude. 1984. Impingement losses at the D.C. Cook Nuclear Plant during 

1975-1979: with a discussion of factors responsible and relationships to field catches. 

Ann Arbor, Mich.: Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan. 

Cooper, C. L., J. J. Mizera and C. E. Herdendorf. 1981. Power Plant Entrainment of Larval 

Fishes in the Western and Central Basins of Lake Erie. Twenty-Fourth Conference on 
97

Great Lakes Research and Annual Meeting of the International Association for Great 

Lakes Research, Columbus, OH, 28-30 Apr 81. (World Meeting Number 812 5010). 

Dunstall, T. G. 1985. Effects of entrainment on phytoplankton primary production at four 

thermal electric generating stations on the Laurentian Great Lakes. Internationale Revue 

der gesamten Hydrobiologie (Berlin), Vol. 70, No. 2, pp. 247-257. 

Abstract: Primary production was used to measure the response of phytoplankton to 

entrainment in once-through cooling water at thermal electric generating stations. 

Ambient lake water temperatures ranged from 1.0 to 20.5 degree C. The maximum 

discharge temperature was 32.0 degree C. There was no chlorination of cooling water at 

the stations studied. On a few occasions, primary production was stimulated following 

station passage by discharge temperatures which were approximately 10 degree C above 

ambient lake water temperatures of 4.5 to 8.5 degree C. Entrainment was considered to 

have minimal impact on phytoplankton productivity in large open water bodies such as 

the Great Lakes. 

Electric Power Research Institute. 1982. Ecological Investigations at Power Plant Cooling 

Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds: An Annotated Bibliography, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, Report 

EA-1874, (Jun 1982), 176 pp. 

Abstract: This report contains citations and abstracts of published and unpublished 

reports on ecological investigations at power plant cooling lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. 

Data are provided on facility location (region and state), operator, unit name, capacity, 

status, year on-line, fuel, water body, and cooling system. 

Evans, M. S. and L. E. Flath. 1984. Intakes as sampling locations for investigating long-term 

trends in zooplankton populations. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 

Vol. 41, No. 10, pp. 1513-1518. 

Abstract: The authors present data demonstrating the representativeness of a power plant 

intake as a sampling location for investigating long-term trends in zooplankton 

populations. The intake (Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant) and the inshore region 

(southeastern Lake Michigan) were sampled within a matter of days on 54 occasions 

between April 1975 and November 1981. Intake population estimates were significantly 

correlated with inshore region population estimates for all 26 zooplankton taxa categories 

analyzed. Differences in abundances in intake and inshore region samples were not 

significant for most euplanktonic taxa. The plant apparently entrained water and microcrustaceans from the sediment-water interface. However, because vertically hauled 

plankton nets do not effectively sample the lower1 m of the water column, intake 

sampling may provide a more accurate representation of near shore region copepod and 

cladoceran community structure than traditionally employed methods for inshore region 

sampling. 

Foster, J. R. and T. J. Wheaton. 1981. Losses of juvenile and adult fishes at the Nanticoke 

Thermal Generating Station due to entrapment, impingement, and entrainment. Journal 

of Great Lakes Research, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 162-170. 
98

Abstract: From April 1976 to June 1977, juvenile and adult fish mortality at the power 

plant was determined by examining the numbers, sizes, species, and health of fish 

entrapped by the western intake, impinged on the traveling screens, and entrained through 

the tempering pumps. These data indicate that the cooling-water system of the plant 

entraps many valuable commercial and sport species, virtually all of which are 

subsequently killed. Mortality of entrapped fish was primarily due to entrainment 

through the tempering pumps, with only a small fraction due to impingement on the 

traveling screens. Mortality was highest among transient schooling species. The 

contribution of the eastern and western intakes to fish entrapment and mortality appeared 

to differ significantly. 

Ginn, T. C. W. T. Waller and G. J. Lauer. 1974. The effects of power plant condenser cooling 

water entrainment on the amphipod, Gammarus sp. Water Research. Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 

931. 

Abstract: The abundant Hudson River amphipod Gammarus sp was examined for 

viability before and during entrainment in the Indian Point cooling-water system. The 

mean per cent survival of Gammarus sp sampled during {Delta}T's of 7.1-8.3{degree}C 

and ambient temps of24.9-26.0{degree}C was 98.5 and 97.4% for the 2 intake stations 

and 90.1 and 96.8% for the discharge canal stations D-1 and D-2respectively. A 

statistically significant ({alpha} = 0.05) difference was detected between the survival of 

Gammarus sp at the intake stations and discharge station D-1, located near the upper end 

of the discharge canal. Entrained Gammarus sp experience increased initial and latent 

mortalities during periods of condenser chlorination. Comparison of the abundances of 

entrained Gammarus sp during day and night sampling periods reveals a significantly 

higher occurrence during darkness. Temp bioassays indicate that the thermal tolerance of 

Gammarus sp is dependent on exposure time and ambient temp. the temp resulting in a 

50%mortality of Gammarus sp for 30 min exposure times, increased{approx} 

11{degree}C as ambient temps increased from 2.5 to25.8{degree}C. Consequently, 

Gammarus sp was capable of surviving {Delta} T's of greater magnitude as the ambient 

temp to which they were acclimated decreased. Temp bioassays indicated that 

Gammarussp should be able to tolerate all projected time-temp exposure combinations 

encountered during entrainment through the cooling-water system. 

Greenland, D. C. and A. E. Thomas. 1972. Swimming speed of fall chinook salmon 

(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) fry. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Vol. 

101, No. 4, pp. 696-700. 

Abstract: Tests to determine the swimming ability of fall Chinook salmon fry were 

conducted in a stamina tunnel located at the Salmon Cultural Lab., Longview, Wash. 

Fish were subjected to water velocities of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 and 0.9 ft/sec for periods of 3, 6, 

and 9 min. The number of fish impinged on a screen placed across the downstream end 

of the stamina tunnel was noted for each test. The number offish free of the screen and 

still swimming at the end of the test period was used as the measure of swimming ability. 

The smallest group tested, fry 33.0 to 34.9 mm in length, had visible yolk sacs. 98% of 

these fish were capable of coping with velocities of0.6 ft /sec for at least 3 min. Only 

88% and 72% of these small fish could cope with increased velocities of 0.7 and 0.8 
99

ft/sec. Larger fry performed better; however, a slump in performance in fish 37.0 to 38.9 

mm in length was noted. Changes of 0.05 ft/sec caused measurable changes in 

swimming performance, and the number of fish impinged increased with exposure time. 

Hadderingh, R. H. 1978. Mortality of Young Fish in the Cooling Water System of Bergum 

Power Station. Congress in Denmark 1977. Internationale Vereinigung fur theoretische 

und angewandte Limnologie/Proceedings. International Association of Theoretical and 

Applie Limnology/Travaux. Association internationale de Limnologie theorique e 

appliquee (Stuttgart), Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 1827-1832. 

Abstract: Substantial numbers of larvae and juveniles are drawn into the cooling system 

of the Bergum power station. The highest numbers, up to 10 million per 24 hours, are 

found in May. This study shows that smelt is the most vulnerable species: entrainment 

mortality 75%, impingement mortality 95%. For the Percidae (pike-perch, perch) the 

respective mortalities are 34 and 65%. Most entrainment mortalities as shown by Marcy 

(1975) in a survey, are higher (90-100%) probably because of other circumstances. To 

diminish mortality due to entrainment and impingement can be achieved by decreasing 

the amount of cooling water. Besides, investigations will be carried out to keep the fish 

(juveniles) away from the intake by electrical barriers or by diverting the fish to a bypass. 

Hadderingh, R. H., G. H. F. M. van-Aerssen, L. Groeneveld, H. A. Jenner and J. W. van-derStoep. 1983. Fish impingement at power stations situated along the Rivers Rhine and 

Meuse in the Netherlands. Hydrobiological-Bulletin. Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 129-141. 

Harmon, P. L. 1981. Entrainment and impingement of fish at five electric generating stations on 

the Delaware River. Millersville, Pa.: State College. 

Johnson, M. G. 1984. Great lakes fisheries and environmental issues. Advances in 

Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 16 pp. 1-8. 

Abstract: Stresses on aquatic communities attributable to human activities include toxic 

metals and organic compounds, limnological changes due to excessive nutrient 

enrichment, acid rain, mortalities at water intakes by impingement and entrainment, 

losses of natural littoral habitat, depreciation of streams and bays in many places, 

pressures from exotic species, and overexploitation. In the face of effects from these 

stresses, combined with variability due to natural factors, it becomes extremely difficult 

to attain tolerable fluctuations in quantity and quality of fish yields. Instability does not 

favor public and private investment in the resource, and, to add insult to injury, funds 

available of management of the stocks and fisheries may be diverted to programs aimed 

at understanding and dealing with stresses imposed by the activities of other water users, 

often on a too-short-term, fire-fighting basis. Fisheries agencies cannot avoid dealing 

with these issues, not only because we must try to understand major stresses, whatever 

their origin, but also because we have the expertise and he conviction to protect and, if 

necessary, to rehabilitate aquatic communities. However, it is important to control how 

we shall perform this task, which is a central concern of this book. 
100

Jordan, R. A. and C. E. Sutton. 1984. Oligohaline benthic invertebrate communities at two 

Chesapeake Bay power plants. Estuaries, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 192-212. 

Abstract: Benthic invertebrate populations at the Surry power plant on James River, 

Virginia and the C.P. Crane power plant on Saltpeter Creek, Maryland exhibited large 

spatial and temporal variations. At C.P. Crane, where the cooling water is pumped 

between two tidal creeks, populations in the receiving creek exhibited five response 

patterns: 1) mitigation of a winter dieoff (Rangia cuneata, a brackish water clam), 2) 

acceleration of growth or development (R. cuneata; Scolecolepides viridis, a polychaete; 

Leptocheirus plumulosus, an amphipod; Tubificidae; and Coelotanypus sp., a dipteran), 

3) importation of larvae from the source water creek (S. viridis and Coelotanypus sp.), 4) 

extension of creek-dwelling species into the adjacent river (Coelotanypus sp. and other 

dipterans), and 5) increased severity of late summer population depressions (S. viridis and 

L. plumulosus). At Surry, where the cooling water is taken from the downriver side of a 

peninsula and discharged on the upriver side, there was no confined creek system at the 

discharge, and effects were less pronounced. 

Jude, D. J., P. J. Mansfield, S. F. DeBoe and F. J. Tesar. 1986. Spatial distribution of entrained 

fish larvae in a power plant discharge canal. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 1070-1074. 

Abstract: Larval fish were sampled with plankton nets during June and July at 1-, 3-, and 

5-m depths at three stations in the 6-m-deep discharge canal of the Monroe electricitygenerating plant on western Lake Erie. Of nine species, gizzard shad (Dorosoma 

cepedianum) accounted for 96% of all larval fish collected in June and, along with 

freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens), 78% of those taken in July. Densities of fish 

larvae at the three depths and at two of the three stations sampled, were not significantly 

different. Mean densities of gizzard shad and total fish larvae in June were significantly 

higher at one station. Fluctuating and significantly lower velocity at that station, causing 

the flowmeter not to turn while the net was still filtering water, was suspected of causing 

inflated densities. Generally sizes of larvae were not stratified by depth or station; 

differences that were found were small. 

Kelso, J. R. M. and G. S. Milburn. 1979. Entrainment and Impingement of Fish by Power 

Plants in the Great Lakes Which Use the Once-Through Cooling Process. J. Great Lakes 

Res. Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 182-194. 

Leslie, J. K., R. Kozopas and W. H. Hyatt. 1979. Considerations of entrainment of larval fish by 

a St. Clair River, Ontario, power station. Tech. Rep. Fish. Mar. Serv. (Can.), (Jun 1979), 

No. 868, 30 p. 

Abstract: Larval fish entrainment by the Lambton generating station was estimated at 

22.5 x 10SUP-6 for the ten week sampling period (April 10-June 21. 1978). Smelt 

(Osmerus mordax) comprised approximately 96% of the total. Two larval species 

previously unreported in the river, fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis) and 

silver chub (Hybopsis storeriana) together formed 3%, while seven species formed the 
101

remaining 1%. The total absence of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) larvae in all 

samples generated increased concern for its abundance, if not survival, in the area. 

Liston, C. R., D. C. Brazo and others. 1981. Assessment of larval, juvenile, and adult fish 

entrainment losses at the Ludington pumped storage power plant on Lake Michigan: 1980 

annual report. Ludington Project, Vol. 1: East Lansing, Mich.: Dept. of Fisheries and 

Wildlife, Michigan State University. 

Lohner, T. 2001. Cooling water intake system impacts on Ohio River fish. 131st American 

Fisheries Society Annual Meeting, Phoenix, AZ (USA). 19-23 Aug 2001. (World 

Meeting Number 000 5724). 

Madenjian, C. P., D. J. Jude and F. J. Tesar. 1986. Intervention analysis of power plant impact 

on fish populations. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 4, 

pp. 819-829. 

Abstract: Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) 

abundances, estimated from monthly gillnet and trawl catches at two transects, were 

monitored before (1973-74) and during (1975-82) operation of the D.C. Cook Nuclear 

Power Plant, southeastern Lake Michigan. Intervention analysis, a technique, which 

accounts for auto-correlated observations, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were 

applied to the monitoring data to assess any plant impact beginning in 1975. Both 

analyses disclosed no significant power plant impacts except for gillnetted yellow perch 

adults. The ANOVA indicated a significant decrease in abundance at the plant-discharge 

transect relative to the reference transect as plant operation began, which established a 

plant effect; intervention analysis showed no change. When April and May catches 

(months of low abundance) were deleted, this plant effect was insignificant. 

Madenjian, C. P., D. J. Jude and F. J. Tesar. 1986. Intervention analysis of power plant impact 

on fish populations. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 4, 

pp. 819-829. 

Abstract: Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens) 

abundances, estimated from monthly gillnet and trawl catches at two transects, were 

monitored before (1973-74) and during (1975-82) operation of the D.C. Cook Nuclear 

Power Plant, southeastern Lake Michigan. Intervention analysis, a technique which 

accounts for auto-correlated observations, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were 

applied to the monitoring data to assess any plant impact beginning in 1975. Both 

analyses disclosed no significant power plant impacts except for gillnetted yellow perch 

adults. The ANOVA indicated a significant decrease in abundance at the plant-discharge 

transect relative to the reference transect as plant operation began, which established a 

plant effect; intervention analysis showed no change. Monte Carlo simulation showed 

that as the first-order autoregressive coefficient increased positively, type 1 error of the 

ANOVA F-test increased. However, ANOVA was more powerful than intervention 

analysis when a first-order autoregressive component was included. 
102

Mansfield, P. J. and D. J. Jude. 1986. Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) survival during the first 

growth season in southeastern Lake Michigan. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 7, pp. 1318-1326. 

Abstract: Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) survival from newly hatched larvae to fall 

young-of-the-year (YOY) was calculated using data collected in southeastern Lake 

Michigan, June-November 1974-82. Alewife YOY density (number per 1000m super(3)) 

was estimated from trawl catches. Larval alewife densities, derived from plankton net 

samples at trawling stations and from power plant entrainment samples, were averaged 

each year for length intervals which represented yolk-sac and post-yolk-sac larvae. 

Survival (ratios of YOY to larval alewife densities) varied considerably among years, but 

mean survival over all years from yolk-sac larvae to YOY was 1% calculated from either 

field-larvae or entrained-larvae data. Mean survival from post-yolk-sac larvae to YOY 

was higher, 2.2-4.6%. Differences in survival among years may be due to timing of 

sampling, distribution of larvae and YOY, or actual survival differences, perhaps related 

to predator abundance. 

Marcy, C. Jr. 1973. Vulnerability and survival of young Connecticut River fish entrained at a 

nuclear power plant. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. Vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 1195-1200. 

Abstract: Most of the young fish of 9 spp. that were entrained in the condenser coolingwater system of the Connecticut Yankee nuclear power plant were dead by the time they 

reached the lower end of the plant's 1.83-km (1.14 mile) long discharge canal. Sampling 

during June and July, when 95 per cent of the non screenable fish were abundant near the 

plant's intake, showed that approx. 80 per cent of the mortality in the canal was caused by 

mechanical damage and 20 per cent was attributed to heat shock and prolonged exposure 

to temps elevated greater than 28 degrees C. There was no measurable mortality due to 

the injection of sodium hypochlorite into the system as a biocide. The number of non 

screenable living fish entrained at the intake averaged about 4 per cent (range, 1.7-5.8 per 

cent) of those passing by the plant under conditions of unidirectional net tidal flow. 

Masilamoni, J. G., K. S. Jesudoss, K. Nandakumar, K. K. Satpathy, K. V. K. Nair and J. Azariah. 

2000. Jellyfish ingress: A threat to the smooth operation of coastal power plants. 

Current Science, Vol. 79, No. 5, pp. 567-569. 

Abstract: Coastal areas are often preferred for setting up power stations due to the easy 

availability of sea water for condenser cooling. In such coastal power stations, there are 

instances of plant shutdown due to excessive accumulation of fouling debris inside the 

cooling circuits. Recently, there have been a few instances, when jellyfish in large 

numbers entered the seawater cooling system of the Madras Atomic Power Station 

(MAPS) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, India causing plant shutdown. While moderate 

ingress of jellyfish leads to a reduction in the plant efficiency, large arrivals may even 

lead to forced shut down of a power plant. The present study deals with the ingress of 

jellyfish in MAPS cooling-water system and its impact on the power plant operation. 
103

McFarlane, R. W., R. A. Frietsche and R. D. Miracle. 1979. Community structure and 

differential impingement of Savannah River fishes. Proc., Annu. Conf., Southeast. 

Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies, Vol. 33, pp. 628-638. 

Abstract: The fish communities of the middle Savannah River and 2 cooling-water 

intake canals connected to the river had equal species richness and were equally diverse. 

However, the relative abundance of functionally similar species groups differed between 

the localities. Sunfishes were more dominant in the canal communities. Suckers 

contributed 55% of the biomass in all 3 communities. Impingement was very low and 

spread over 32 species. Three species of clupeids comprised 32% of the total number of 

fish impinged. The impingement of a number of species was disproportionate to their 

relative abundance in the intake canals. 

McKinley, R. S., R. A. Hester, B. Sim and S. M. Legrow. 1986. Assessment of ichthyoplankton 

entrainment at Bruce A generating station. IAGLR-86 Program. International 

Association For Great Lakes Research 29th Conference, May 26-29. 1986, p. 43. 

Abstract: The objective of this study was to assess ichthyoplankton entrainment at Bruce 

A Nuclear Generating Station from April to September. 1985. Total number of eggs 

entrained was 55.4 x 10 super(6), with the peak occurring in April. Total larval 

entrainment was 59.6 x 10 super(6), with an initial peak in June and a lesser peak in 

August. Burbot (Lota lota), rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus) and deepwater sculpin (Yoxocephalus thompsoni) accounted for 88 and 

98% respectively of the eggs and larvae collected in the intake-forebay. Most of the 

smelt and alewife larvae were classified as dead prior to entrainment. Larval mortality 

attributable to intake passage was greater for all species than passage through the station. 

McLean, R. B. 1980. Threadfin shad impingement: effect of cold stress : report to the Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission for period October 1. 1976, to September 30. 1978. 

Washington, D.C.: Springfield, Va.: The Commission : Available from GPO Sales 

Program, Division of Technical Information and Document Control, U.S. Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission ; National Technical Information Service. 

McLean, R. B., J. S. Griffith and M. V. McGee. 1985. Threadfin shad, Dorosoma petenense

(Guenther), mortality: Causes and ecological implications in a South-eastern United 

States reservoir. Journal of Fish Biology, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 1-12. 

Abstract: Cold stress was identified as an important factor influencing both reservoirwide mortality and impingement of threadfin shad, D. petenense during the period 

October 1976 to April 1977 in Watts Bar Reservoir, Tennessee. Relative numbers and 

size frequency of impinged threadfin shad were similar to the relative numbers and size 

frequency of shad preyed upon by sauger, Stizostedion canadense, and skipjack herring, 

Alosa chrysochloris. This relationship implies that the factor mainly responsible for 

impingement, low temperature, also influences prey vulnerability. Threadfin shad made 

up 99% of the combined diet of sauger and skipjack herring from November until the 

threadfin shad disappeared in January. 
104

McLean, R. B., P. T. Singley and D. Lodge. 1981. Threadfin shad impingement, population 

response: Final report to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for period October 1. 1978 

to September 30. 1980. Washington, D.C.: Springfield, Va.: The Commission: 

Available from GPO Sales Program, Division of Technical Information and Document 

Control, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission; National Technical Regulatory 

Commission. 

Noguchi, L. S. 1985. Field distribution and entrainment of fish larvae and eggs at the Donald C. 

Cook Nuclear Power Plant, Southeastern Lake Michigan. 1980-1982. Ann Arbor, 

Mich.: Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan. 

Page, H. M., J. E. Dugan, D. S. Dugan, J. B. Richards and D. M. Hubbard. 1999. Effects of an 

offshore oil platform on the distribution and abundance of commercially important crab 

species. Marine Ecology Progress Series, (Aug 1999), Vol. 185, pp. 47-57. 

Abstract: The distribution, abundance, and population characteristics of large, highly 

mobile crab species (Cancer antennarius, C.anthonyi, C. productus, Loxorhynchus 

grandis) differed in relation to an offshore oil platform in the Santa Barbara Channel, 

California, USA. Only C. antennarius individuals recruited onto the platform, primarily 

into the attached community of Mytilus galloprovincialis and M. californianus at depths 

of <12 to 15 m. The higher CPUE (catch per unit effort) of C. antennarius beneath the 

platform, compared with nearby soft bottom stations, suggested that this species 

remained primarily in the vicinity of the platform. Although C. anthonyi did not recruit 

at the platform, adult female C. anthonyi were attracted to the platform from surrounding 

habitat. The higher CPUE of female C. anthonyi beneaththe platform, compared with 

soft bottom stations, suggested that habitat selection is related to reproduction in this 

species. C. productus and Loxorhynchus grandis were present in low numbers at all 

benthic stations. The distribution and abundance of these crab species fit into 3 of 4 

hypothesized scenarios that described different combinations of recruitment, distribution 

and abundance of mobile species around oil platforms: (1)`recruitment/emigration', a 

platform provides recruitment habitat and individuals that recruit to the platform emigrate 

at some point to the surrounding environment, (2) `recruitment/resident', a platform 

provides recruitment habitat, but individuals remain in the vicinity of the structure (C. 

antennarius), (3) `attraction', individuals that recruited elsewhere are attracted to and 

aggregate at a platform (C. anthonyi), and (4) `visitor', individuals that recruited 

elsewhere occur temporarily at the platform without aggregation (C. productus, L. 

grandis). Our results, in the context of these scenarios, illustrate the need to consider the 

responses of individual species to artificial structures. 

Page, T. L., D. A. Neitzel and R. H. Gray. 1978. Comparative fish impingement at two adjacent 

intakes on the mid-Columbia River. In: Fourth national workshop on entrainment and 

impingement, Chicago, Illinois, December 5, 1977. Sponsored by: Ecological Analysts, 

Inc., Melville, New York, Publ. by : EA Communications; Melville, NY (USA), (Apr 

1978), pp. 267-280. 

Abstract: Fish impingement on the mid-Columbia River is a concern only from April 

through June each year and is limited to a few species. From May through June 1977 a 
105

comparison of fish impingement was made at two water intake facilities located about 

276 m apart on the Columbia River at River Mile 380. The intakes each have a capacity 

of over 25 cu m/sec, are similarly designed, and have comparable water intake velocities. 

Collections from the traveling screens at 100-N yielded a total of 89 chinook fry. During 

the same period 766 chinook fry were collected at the Hanford Generating Project (HGP). 

Extensive studies indicate that this sample represents an estimated impingement of 2,695 

chinook fry, 97% of which survived. Impingement for 10 other species of fish was 

similar at both intakes, except that HGP impinged about twice as many yellow perch fry 

as did 100-N (2642 versus 1296). Several hypothesis are offered to explain the 

differences in impingement between the intakes. These include subtle differences in 

forebay configuration, curtain wall location, and possible differences in fish behavioral 

responses to the two facilities. 

Paller, M. 1992. Ichthyoplankton entrainment study at the SRS Savannah River water intakes 

for Westinghouse Savannah River Company. Final report. Tech. Rep. Westinghouse 

Savannah River Co., 405 pp. 

Abstract: Cooling water for L and K Reactors and makeup water for Par Pond is pumped 

from the Savannah River at the 1G, 3G, and 5G pump houses. Ichthyoplankton (drifting 

fish larvae and eggs) from the river are entrained into the reactor cooling systems with 

the river water and passed through the reactor's heat exchangers where temperatures may 

reach 70(degrees)C during full power operation. Ichthyoplankton mortality under such 

conditions is assumed to be 100 percent. The number of ichthyoplankton entrained into 

the cooling system depends on a variety of variables, including time of year, density and 

distribution of ichthyoplankton in the river, discharge levels in the river, and the volume 

of water withdrawn by the pumps. Entrainment at the 1 G pump house, which is 

immediately downstream from the confluence of Upper Three Runs Creek and the 

Savannah River, is also influenced by discharge rates and ichthyoplankton densities in 

Upper Three Runs Creek. Because of the anticipated restart of several SRS reactors and 

the growing concern surrounding striped bass and American shad stocks in the Savannah 

River, the Department of Energy requested that the Environmental Sciences Section 

(ESS) of the Savannah River Laboratory sample ichthyoplankton at the SRS Savannah 

River intakes. Dams & Moore, Inc., under a contract with Westinghouse Savannah River 

Company performed the sampling and data analysis for the ESS. 

Paller, M., J. O'Hara, V. Osteen, W. Specht and J. Kania. 1984. Annual report on the Savannah 

River Aquatic Ecology Program, September 1982-August 1983. Vol. 1. ECS-SR-8, 275 

pp. 

Abstract: This document reports on the Savannah River Aquatic Ecology Program for 

the period September 1982 through August 1983. Volume 1 covers fisheries studies 

including ichthyoplankton, entrainment, impingement, diurnal studies, adult fish studies 

and special quality assurance tests and quality assurance programs. 

Patterson, R. L. and K. D. Smith. 1982. Impact of power plant entrainment of ichthyoplankton 

on juvenile recruitment of four fishes in western Lake Erie in 1975-77. Journal of Great 

Lakes Research, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 558-569. 
106

Abstract: The effect of power plant entrainment on juvenile recruitment of four species 

of ichthyoplankton in western Lake Erie was investigated. Of the four species studied -- 

gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum), white bass (Morone chrysops), walleye 

(Stizostedion vitreum) and freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens) -- it was found that 

the effect on walleye year class strength is minimal while the effect on gizzard shad 

recruitment may possibly be significant in terms of overall impact on the community 

ecology of the western basin. This aspect of the impact of power plant entrainment 

should be further investigated. It was estimated that total juvenile recruitment of these 

four species would increase by 742 individuals per acre if all power plant entrainment 

were eliminated. 

Patterson, R. L. 1979. Production, mortality, and power plant entrainment of larval yellow 

perch in western Lake Erie. Publ. by: EPA; Duluth, MN (USA), (Aug 1979). 199 p., 

Ecol. Res. Series U. S. Environ. Protect. Agency. 

Abstract: The impacts of the Monroe Power Plant upon the yellow perch population of 

western Lake Erie caused by entrainment and impingement of larvae and older fishes in 

the plant's open cycle cooling system in 1975-1976 are assessed. Estimates of total 

numbers of perch larvae entrained, total perch production, the natural mortality rate of 

perch, and the percentage of perch production that was entrained by the Monroe Power 

Plant were obtained. Impingement estimates were obtained from data supplied by the 

power plant. The estimates consider only effects that occur in the same year in which 

entrainment and impingement occurs. Impacts may occur in subsequent years including 

a depression of fish stocks and reduced yields to the fishery. Losses to the standing 

stocks and fisheries were estimated using a method which falls into a category known as 

the 'equivalent-adult' type which provided estimates of the long-run annual depression of 

yellow perch standing stocks and the yellow perch fisheries. A numerical model was 

developed which incorporated several population parameters including entrainment and 

impingement losses and natural mortality rates for larvae, young-of-year and juveniles, 

and fishing mortality rates. 

Porak, W. and J. A. Tranquilli. 1981. Impingement and entrainment of fishes at Kincaid 

Generating Station. The Lake Sangchris Study: Case History Of An Illinois Cooling 

Lake, Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull., Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 631-655. 

Abstract: From December 1976 through March 1977, 94.16 percent of the estimated 

total impingement occurred. Gizzard shad (83.38 percent) and yellow bass (14.26 

percent) accounted for 97.46 percent of the estimated 158,853 fish impinged on the 

screens. Small fishes were the most vulnerable to impingement; 93.8 percent of all the 

fish collected were less than 200 mm in total length. Only 218 fish eggs were collected 

during entrainment sampling, accounting for a relatively low total estimate of 2.2 million 

eggs lost during the spawning season. Gizzard shad (85.61 percent). Morone spp. (4.03 

percent), and Lepomis spp. (0.66 percent) accounted for most of the larval fish entrained. 

During 1976 impingement and entrainment at Kincaid Generating Station's cooling-water 

intake system caused only relatively minor reductions in numbers of a few overabundant 

and/or undesirable species, and consequently was found to have no adverse impact on 

either the individual populations of those species or the sport fishery. 
107

Potter, W. A. 1979. Rancho Seco Nuclear Generating Station: 1979 Fish impingement and 

entrainment programs. 

Potter, W. 1978. Assessment of the effects of impingement and entrainment on the fish 

community of the New River, Virginia. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. 

Rajagopal, S., K. V. K. Nair and J. Azariah. 1989. Some observations on the problem of jelly 

fish ingress in a power station cooling system at Kalpakkam, east coast of India. 

Mahasagar. Dona Paula [Mahasagar.], Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 151-158. 

Abstract: The seasonal distribution and abundance of jelly fishes in the coastal waters of 

Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu, east coast of India) in the context of their ingress into the 

cooling system of a power plant was studied. Three species of jelly fishes Dactylometra 

quinquicirrha, Crambionella stuhlmanni and Chiropsalmus buitendijki, were found in 

such abundance as to cause blockage of the cooling-water intake screens. The seasonal 

variation in the incidence of the jelly fishes clearly showed that the periods of maxima 

and minima were different for each species. During the study period (February 1988 to 

April 1989) three maxima were noted - May, July and October. On any given single day, 

maximum quantity of jelly fishes collected from the travelling screens was 29 tonnes (21 

July 1988). The data are discussed with respect to: (1) qualitative and quantitative 

variations in the ingress; (2) operational problems associated with ingress; and (3) 

possible approaches to combat the problem. 

Reutter, J. M. 1981. Fish impingement at the Davis-Besse nuclear power station during 1980: 

environmental technical specifications, sec. 3.1.2.a.6, fish impingement. Columbus, 

Ohio: Ohio State University, Center for Lake Erie Area Research, 

Reutter, J. M. 1981. Fish egg and larvae entrainment at the Davis-Besse nuclear power station 

during 1980: environmental technical specifications Sec. 3.1.2.a.5 fish egg and larvae 

entrainment. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Center for Lake Erie Area 

Research. 

Reutter, J. M., C. E. Herdendorf and G. W. Sturm. 1978. Impingement and entrainment studies 

at the Acme and Bay Shore Power Stations, Toledo Edison Company : 316 (B) program, 

Task I : Appendix C, entrainment results . Columbus, Ohio: Center for Lake Erie Area 

Research, Ohio State University. 

Rodgers, D. W. 1995. Comparison of impinged and open-water alewives at Pickering Nuclear 

Generating Station, Lake Ontario. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 

Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 152-155. 

Abstract: I compared alewives Alosa pseudoharengus impinged at Pickering Nuclear 

Generating Station on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario with alewives seined along 

the lakeshore. The characteristics assessed included morphological measurements, counts 

of the principal fin rays, allelic frequencies for more than twenty-five protein-coding loci, 

and pathological and parasitological condition. In general, impinged alewives were 

similar to alewives in the open water. Impingement did not appear to select unhealthy 

fish, and the allelic frequencies of impinged alewives did not differ significantly (P > 
108

0.05) from open-water fish. However, impinged alewives had significantly (P < 0.05) 

lower body weights and liver weights, at an equivalent length, than open-water fish. The 

observed differences were suggestive of exhaustion of the impinged alewives, but the 

causes of exhaustion and impingement have yet to be resolved. 

Savitz, J., L. G. Bardygula-Nonn, R. A. Nonn and G. Wojtowicz. 1998. Impingement and 

entrainment of fishes within a high volume-low velocity deep-water intake system on 

Lake Michigan. J. Freshwat. Ecol. Vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 165-169. 

Abstract: The extent of fish entrainment and impingement was determined for a low 

velocity-high volume Lake Michigan water intake system where the entrance of the 

intake system occurred in deep waters. There was no evidence of any fish entrainment 

probably because of the location of the entrance to the water intake system. Fish 

impingement was also low and comparable to the lowest impingement found for power 

plant intakes. The number of impinged fish was 93 fishes for 58 sampling dates from 

April 23 to November 13. Of the 93 fishes, 61 were alewives, 11 were yellow perch, and 

the remainder included black crappie, black bullhead, bloater, bluegill, emerald shiner, 

johnny darter, pumpkinseed, slimy sculpin, and spotfin shiner. The impact of this intake 

system on the fish community was insignificant, since the estimated total of impinged 

fishes during the operating season of the intake was 280. 

Sawyko, P. M. S. 1999. Review of twenty-five years of fish impingement at Rochester gas and 

electric's Ginna nuclear power station. 42nd Conference of the International Association 

for Great Lakes Research, Cleveland, OH (USA), pp. 24-28, (May 1999). (World 

Meeting Number 992 5051). 

Sazaki, M., W. Heubach and J. E. Skinner. 1972. Some preliminary results on the swimming 

ability and impingement tolerance of young-of-the-year steelhead trout, king salmon and 

striped bass. 

Scott-Wasilk, J., R. Kunshek, D. T. Michaud, A. E. Gaulke and J. H. Balletto. 1981. A 

Comment on the Paper by John R.M. Kelso and Gary S. Milburn: "Entrainment and 

Impingement of Fish by Power Plants in the Great Lakes Which Use the Once-Through 

Cooling Process" (J. Great Lakes Res. 5: 182-194. 1979). Journal of Great Lakes 

Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 491-497. 

Abstract: Assessment of entrainment and impingement impact of the 89 steam-electric 

generating stations on Great Lakes fish stocks reported by Kelso and Milburn (1979) is 

evaluated. Despite the large number of fish impinged at these stations, impingement 

losses typically constituted less than 1% of the standing stocks of fish in the lakes. 

Similarly, entrainment losses also represented a small fraction of total larvae in the lakes. 

Therefore, power plants alone probably have minimal impact on the Great Lakes sport 

and commercial fisheries and no detectable impact on fish populations. Despite Kelso 

and Milburn's assertion to the contrary, future fish losses from proposed generating 

capacity expansion may be less, due to improvements in cooling-water intake design. 
109

Smith, K. A. and M. L. Brown. 2002. Seasonal Composition and Abundance of 

Ichthyoplankton Entrained through Big Bend Dam, South Dakota. Journal of Freshwater 

Ecology; Vol 17; Part 2; pp. 199-208. 

Snyderman, M. 1989. California Nuke Plant Blamed for 'Marine Goop' That's KillingOcean; 

Sea Life. Underwater USA, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 29, June 1989. 

Abstract: The San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station on the Pacific shore of California 

is again surrounded by controversy. Patches of thick sludge and sticky silt, referred to as 

"marine goop" by environmentalists, are smothering sea life along the ocean floor. The 

Coastal Commission advisory panel investigated this "marine goop" and concluded that 

the plant's cooling system was responsible for creating this material which has tripled in 

size since its discovery just south of the outfall pipes 3 yr. ago. The scientific panel has 

reported that the goop has turned the once prolific bottom of the sea into a barren oceanic 

wasteland. The nuclear plant takes in two million gallons of Pacific Ocean water every 

minute to help cool its reactors before discharging the water back into the sea. Upon 

being discharged, the cooling-water's temperature has been raised to an average 

temperature of 19-22 degrees higher than the water in the ocean. Water temperatures in 

Southern California typically range between 57-68 degrees over the course of an average 

year. Experts agree that this elevated water temperature plays a major role in the health 

and survival of many sea creatures. The generally accepted theory is that the "marine 

goop" is what is formed when the hot water plume comes out of the San Onofre plant. 

This plume has small particles of dirt and the consensus of opinion is that the turbulence 

caused by the plume combines small organisms within organic material, giving it 

cohesiveness. This cohesive goop then settles to the bottom, creating a suffocating layer 

of sludge. Surprisingly, some forms of plankton, which were originally expected to 

perish in the goop, are actually thriving, but populations of several mid-water species are 

being seriously diminished in an area that was once a thriving kelp forest community. 

Sukackas, V. 1993. Morphological variability (power plant impact.). Ecosystem Of The WaterCooling Reservoir of Ignalina Nuclear Power-Stationat The Initial Stage of its 

Operation., Sostoyanie Ehkosistemy Vodoemaokhladitelya Ignalinskoj Ash V Nachal'nyj 

Period Ee Ehkspluataciji.,Academia, Vilnius (Lithuania), p. 156, Therm. Power 

Generationenviron./Teploehnerg. Okruzhayushchaya Sreda., Vol. 10, No. 2. 

Abstract: Variability of 23 morphological parameters of roach (Rutilus rutilus) in 

warmer and colder water zones of Ignalina nuclear power plant (Lithuania)was 

investigated. Fishes of 27-35 cm long were taken into consideration. The programme of 

generalized estimation of properties was applied. According to stable features reliable 

differences between those two zones of roach were not observed. 

Thoernqvist, S., E. Neuman, A. Jacobsson and O. Sandstroem. 1998. Biological monitoring at 

Ringhals nuclear power plant 1988-1996. Fiskeriverk. Rapp. No. 1, 20 pp. 

Abstract: Losses of fish eggs and larvae were estimated at the cooling-water intake 

screens of Ringhals nuclear power plant (Sweden), and the impact in the effluent area 

was studied by standardized fyke net fishing. The possible large-scale influence on fish 
110

stocks was investigated by analyzing catch data in the commercial fishery. The main 

conclusions are: 1.The recruitment of some stationary littoral fish species has likely been 

damaged by the losses of eggs and larvae at the intake screens. 2. Results from the fyke 

net fishing indicates that the recruitment damage in these species has resulted in a 

negative development of adult abundance, although other cooling-water impacts in the 

effluent area may have contributed to this effect. 3. The presence of different species in 

the effluent area is strongly influenced by their temperature preference. Attraction as 

well as avoidance has been documented. 4. Climate variations, either natural or caused 

by human activities, add to the impacts of cooling water. Avoidance reactions have been 

stronger during the warm summers of the 1990's. 5. Commercial catch data do not 

suggest any regional impacts on the fish stocks related to the intake of cooling water and 

the heated discharge. 

Thurber, N. J. and J. D. Jude. 1985. Impingement losses at the D.C. Cook Nuclear Power Plant 

during 1975-1982 with a discussion of factors responsible and possible impact on local 

populations. University-of-Michigan-Great-Lakes-and-Marine-Waters-Center-SpecialReport-of-the-Great-Lakes-Research-Division. 1985, No. 115, pp. 1-70 & A1-A88. 

Wahtola, C. H., R. W. Clubb and G. F. Boronow. 1977. The Lake-wide effects of impingement 

and entrainment on the Lake Michigan fish populations. Milwaukee, WI: 

CDM/Limnetics Environmental Consultants. 

Winchell, F. C., E. P. Taft, J. K. Downing, J. Mattice and C. W. Sullivan. 1993. Review of fish 

entrainment and mortality studies. Waterpower'93 - International Conference on 

Hydropower, Nashville, TN (USA), 10-13 Aug 1993. (World Meeting Number 933 

5006). 

Wright, D. A., V. S. Kennedy, W. H. Roosenburg, M. Castagna and J. A. Mihursky. 1983. 

Temperature tolerance of embryos and larvae of five bivalve species under simulated 

power plant entrainment conditions: A synthesis. Marine Biology, Vol. 77, No. 3, pp. 

271-278. 

Abstract: (1) Thermal tolerance studies on three larval stages of five species of bivalve 

are compared: Crassostrea virginica, Mulinia lateralis, Argopecten irradians, 

Mercenaria mercenaria and Spisula solidissima. (2) Experiments were designed to 

simulate possible larval entrainment in the cooling systems of power plants. (3) For all 

species, larval mortality generally increased with increasing exposure temperature and 

with increased time exposure at any one temperature. (4) In some species (M. 

mercenaria and A. irradians) a cold-shock was also apparent (i.e. increased mortality at 

temperatures below those at which the larvae were spawned). (5) In the case of A. 

irradians, this effect was more noticeable at the trochophore stage than at the other two 

stages, although for all species investigated, there was a general trend of decreased 

thermal sensitivity with increasing age. (6) Despite some interspecies variability from 

temperature to temperature and from stage to stage, S. solidissima was the most sensitive 

species and A. irradians was intermediate in thermal tolerance between this and the other 

three species. 
111

Wright, D. A., W. H. Roosenburg and M. Castagna. 1984. Thermal tolerance in embryos and 

larvae of the bay scallop Argopecten irradians under simulated power plant entrainment 

conditions. Marine ecology progress series, Vol. 14, No. 2-3, pp. 269-273. 

Abstract: Thermal tolerance was tested in cleavage stages, trochophores and straight 

hinge larvae of the bay scallop Argopecten irradians. Experiments were designed to 

simulate larval entrainment in power plant cooling systems. In general, higher mortalities 

were associated with higher temperatures and with longer time exposure at any one 

temperature. However, there was some evidence of cold shock in trochophore and 

straight hinge larvae, with elevated mortalities occurring at temperatures lower than the 

spawning temperature. There was a trend towards increased thermal tolerance is older 

larvae, although in general A. irradians showed the greatest sensitivity to thermal shock 

of the estuarine bivalves so far tested in our laboratory. 

Wyman, R. L. and R. S. Dischel. 1984. Factors influencing impingement of fish by Lake 

Ontario power plants. Journal of Great Lakes Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 348-357. 

Abstract: Fish impinged by two Lake Ontario power plants were examined to determine 

the causal factors. Fish were near shore because they resided there, migrated there to 

spawn or forage, or because the water mass in which they resided moved near shore. 

Once near shore, fish abundance in impingement collections was correlated with 

demersal with demersal of pelagic behavior. Periodic increases in diversity and 

abundance of impinged fish corresponded with times of upwelling and thermocline 

scillations. These data suggest that some species were segregated along temperature 

gradients and were impinged when the thermocline passed near the intake. Alosa 

pseudoharengus and Osmerus mordax were apparently attracted to water currents 

entering the intake. Morone americana, Morone chrysops, Dorosoma cepedianum, and 

Perca flavescens were not influenced by changes in flow rate, suggesting that their 

impingement was proportional to their density in nearshore water. Micropterus 

dolomieui avoided the intake at higher flow rates in part due to rheotactic behavior. 

Zhidovinov, V. I., N. G. Degtyareva, E. K. Lebedeva and V. Sil'va. 1986. Effect of water intake 

and discharge tubes on young fish entrainment into pumping house. (Protection and 

Development Of Fishery Resources in the Caspian Sea.)., Okhrana I Vosproizvodstvo 

Rybnykh Zapasov Bassejna Kaspijskogo Morya., pp. 82-89. 

Abstract: Young white bream and bream (Abramis) are most easily entrained into water 

intake tubes whereas roach and herrings are less susceptible. As weirs and water intake 

contribute towards formation of young fish concentrations it is recommended that intake 

and discharge tube should be located down the river with respect to the streamline fin. 
112

Zimin, V. L., O. V. Bodrov and I. N. Ryabov. 1992. Analysis of the influence of the Leningrad 

nuclear power plant water intakes on the ichthyofauna of the cooling water body. Vopr. 

Ikhtiol./J. Ichthyol., Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 182-186. 

 Abstract: The paper presents results of the Fourier analysis of data on the numbers, 

biomass and linear sizes of fish (by species) collected from the water cleaning screens of 

the water intakes. High mortalities of commercial fish species necessitate installation of 

special fish protection devices on the intakes. 
113

LITERATURE CITED 

American Fisheries Society. 1991. Common and scientific names of fishes from the United 

States and Canada. Fifth Edition. AFS Special publication No. 20, Bethesa, Maryland, 

183 pp.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1977. Guidance for evaluating the adverse impact of cooling 

water intake structures on the aquatic environment: Section 316 (b) P. L. 92-500. EPA 

Office of Water Enforcement, Permit Division, Industrial Permits Branch, Washington D. 

C., 59 pp. 

Eschmeyer, W. N. and E. S. Herald. 1983. A field guide to Pacific coast fishes of North 

America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 336 pp. 

Hoese, H. D. and R. H. Moore. 1998. Fishes of the Gulf of Mexico. Texas, Louisiana and 

adjacent waters. Second edition. Texas A & M University Press, College Station, Texas, 

422 pp. 

Jennings, G. 1999. Sea fishes of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. Calypso Publications, 

148 pp. 

Kindt, J. W. 1980. Offshore siting of nuclear power plants. Ocean Devel. and Int. Law, Vol. 8, 

No. 1, pp. 57-103. 

Manooch, C. S. 1984. Fisherman’s guide. Fishes of the Southeastern United States. North 

Carolina State Museum of Natural History, Raleigh, North Carolina, 362 pp. 

Nelson, J. S. 1994. Fishes of the world. Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., U.S.A., 600 

pp. 

Robins, C. R. and G. C. Ray. 1986. A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North America. 

Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 354 pp. 

Whitehead, P. J. P., M. L. Bauchot, J. C. Hureau, J. Nielsen and E. Tortonese (eds.). 1984. 

Fishes of the North-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Vols. I-III United Nations 

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Printed by Richard Clay 

Ltd., U. K., 1473 pp. 
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