Department of Health and Human Servces 

OFFICE OF 

INSPECTOR GENERAL 

YOUTH AND ALCOHOL: 

DRINKING AND CRIME 

VI. 

Rich.,d P. Ku"cww 

J(( INSPECTOR GENERA '0 

O'''cr APRi 199 
OFFCE OF INSPECfOR GENERA 

The mission of the Offce of Inspector General (OIG), as mandated by Public Law 95-452, as 

amended, is to protect the integrity of the Department of Health and Human Servces' (HHS) 

programs as well as the health and welfare of beneficiaries served by those programs. Ths 

statutory mission is carried out through a nationwide network of audits, investigations, and 

inspections conducted by three OIG operating components: the Offce of Audit Servce, the 

Offce of Investigations, and the Offce of Evaluation and Inspections. The OIG also informs the 

Secretary of HHS of program, and management problems, and recommends courses to correct 

them. 

OFFCE OF AUDIT SERVICE 

The OIG's Offce of Audit Servce (OAS) provides all auditing servces for HHS, either by 

conducting audits with its own audit resource or by overseeing audit work done by others. 

Audits examine the performance of HHS programs and/or its grantees and contractors in carrng out their respective responsibilties and are intended to provide independent assessments of HHS 

programs and operations in order to reduce waste, abuse, and mismanagement and to promote 

economy and effciency throughout the Department. 

OFFCE OF INTIGATIONS 

The OIG's Offce of Investigations (01) conducts criminal, civil, and administrative investigations 

of allegations of wrongdoing in HHS programs or to HHS beneficiaries and of unjust enrichment 

by providers. The investigative efforts of 01 lead to criminal convictions, administrative sanctions 

or civil money penalties. The 01 also oversees State Medicaid fraud control units which 

investigate and prosecute fraud and patient abuse in the Medicaid program. 

OFFCE OF EVALUATION AN INSPECTONS 

The OIG's Offce of Evaluation and Inspections (OEI) conducts short-term management and 

program evaluations (called inspections) that focus on issues of concern to the Department, the 

Congress, and the public. The findings and recommendations contained in these inspection 

reports generate rapid, accurate, and up-to-date information on the effciency, vulnerabilty, and 

effectiveness of departmental programs. 

This report was prepared under the direction of Kaye D. Kidwell, Regional Inspector General 

and Paul A Gottlober, Deputy Regional Inspector General, Offce of Evaluation and Inspections 

Region IX. Participating in this project were: 

Brad Rolln, Project Leader


Donald Loeb


Brian Pattison


Maruta Zitans, Headquarters

Department of Health and Human Servces 

OFFICE OF 

INSPECTOR GENERAL 

YOUTH AND ALCOHOL: 

DRINKING AND CRIME 

VI' 

Richard P. Kusserow 

INSPECTOR GENERA '0 

"0'""" OEI-0-92-
, 

EXECUTIVE SUMMAR Y


PUROSE 

The purpose of this study was to determine how many youth were under the influence 

of alcohol when they committed crimes. 

BACKGROUN 

In response to public health concerns and the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse 

the Surgeon General requested that the Offce of Inspector General (OIG) provide 

information on the number or percentage of youth who were under the influence of 

alcohol when they committed a crime. This concern mirrors one of the Department of 

Health and Human Servces (HHS) Secretary s goals which is to reduce the prevalence 

of alcohol problems among children and youth. Ths study is one in a series conducted by the OIG related to youth and alcohol. A related report Youth and 

Alcohol: Dangerous and Deadly Consequences" (OEI-09-92-00261), describes 

alcohol's role in youth problems such as rape , risky sexual behavior, suicide, and 

drowning. 

We conducted intervews with 51 Federal, State, and local agencies to determine 

whether they collect data about minors' sobriety at the time of crime or arrest. In 

addition, we conducted an extensive literature search and 13 intervews with 

researchers to determine whether they had been able to measure alcohol's role in 

youth crime. 


FIINGS 

Data collctin obstacle are di to overcome 

No agencies maintain data on a regular basis. Depending on the circumstances, a 

youth who commits a crime may be involved with one or many different agencies. In 

addition, States have varyng procedures and agencies to handle youth offenders. 

Although several agencies mentioned that they had statistics, their data proved to be 

inaccessible or inherently biased. In addition, we were unable to collect our own 

statistics. All data collection methods presented barriers that prohibited us from 

obtaining useful, reliable data. In addition, national youth surveys do not address this 

issue. 

Departnt of Justie researchers have Ii informtin and data


Department of Justice (DOJ) researchers at times have attempted to determine the 

extent to which youth alcohol use is associated with crimnal activity. The DOJ 
studies, which are limited to serious juvenile offenders, found a strong association between alcohol use and criminal activity. 

Othe researche have li akohol and cr statitiall 

Other studies and articles show alcohol's involvement in crimes of aggression, including murder and rape. 

Fute technlo ma enble data collctin and analysi 

Technological advances such as a computerized national crime reporting system may 

aid researchers in studying the link between underage drinking and crie. 
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

EXCU SUMY 

INODUCTON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1


FIINGS


Data collection obstacles are diffcult to overcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2


Department of Justice researchers have limited information and data. . . . . . . . . . . 4


Other researchers have linked alcohol and crime statistically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7


Future technology may enable data collection and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8


APPENDIX A: Lit of Contact 

APPENDIX B: Alcohol and Youth Crie Bibliography 
, 

INTRODUCTION€

PUROSE 

The purpose of this study was to determine how many youth were under the infuence 

of alcohol when they committed crimes. 

BACKGROUN 

In response to public health concerns and the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse 

the Surgeon General requested that the Offce of Inspector General (OIG) provide 

information on the number or percentage of youth who were under the infuence of 

alcohol when they committed a crime. This concern mirrors one of the Department of 

Health and Human Servces (HHS) Secretary s goals which is to reduce the prevalence 

of alcohol problems among children and youth. This study is one in a series 

conducted by the OIG related to youth and alcohol. A related report Youth and 

Alcohol: Dangerous and Deadly Consequences" (OEI-09-92-00261), describes 

alcohol's role in youth problems such as rape , risky sexual behavior, suicide, and 

drownng. 

We conducted intervews with 51 Federal, State, and local agencies to determine 

whether they collect data about minors' sobriety at the time of crime or arrest. In 

addition, we conducted an extensive literature search and 13 intervews with 

researchers to determine whether they had been able to measure alcohol's role in youth crime. €

Appendix A contains a list of the agencies and researchers we contacted. Appendix B 

contains a bibliography of youth and crime research and articles. 
FINDINGS€

DATA COLLCTON OBSTACL AR DIFCUT TO OVERCOME 

Data Collctin Prblems 

Numerous Federal, State, and local agencies administer juvenile justice. Depending 

on the circumstances, an arrested youth may be involved with one or many different 

State and local agencies. State agencies may include the State alcoholic beverage 

control agency, social servce agencies, Attorney General' s offce, courts, corrections 

department, State police, youth authority, and health servces department. Local 

agencies may include the city police, county sheriff, social servce agencies, health 

department, youth guidance center, juvenile courts, probation department, and public

school system. Although rare, the Federal government also may become involved in 

the adjudication of certain juvenile offenses. 

Juvenile justice agencies have varyng procedures to handle youth offenders. Most€

agencies do not maintain statistics related to arrested minors' use of alcohol.€

Although offcials from several agencies mentioned that they had some data, their data€

proved to be inaccessible or inherently biased. Although some officials stated that we€

might be able to compile and review individual case files, not all communities allow€

researchers access to case files. In addition, files would reveal alcohol's involvement€

only if police or attorneys specifically included it. One official acknowledged that not€

all arresting offcers follow the procedure for reporting alcohol use. Therefore


statistics probably would be biased. In summary, our attempt to collect statistics was€

unsuccessful.€

Metholoal Prble 

We examined the feasibilty of collecting data ourselves. We could intervew youth 

who have been arrested or analyze police arrest records to determine the percentage 

of minors who were under the influence of alcohol when they committed a crime. 

Both methods presented barriers that would prohibit us from obtaining useful, reliable 

data. 

Intervewg youth who have ben arested


Intervewig youth offenders about whether they were under the infuence of 

alcohol when they committed a crime is one method to establish the link 

between alcohol use and crime. Researchers who have used this method have 

noted, however, that most offenders are never caught. In addition, researchers 

have not been able to determine whether arrested youth represent an accurate 

cross-section of youth criminal offenders. 
The focus on arrested youth poses other methodological problems. Establishing 

the universe of youth offenders who have been caught is almost impossible. 

These youth experience many diferent outcomes. They may be: 

released without charges


cited and released 

granted probation


given alternative treatment, such as community servce or admission to


an alcohol education or treatment program 

committed to local juvenile detention facilities 

placed under the jurisdiction of State youth authorities


required to serve time in State-operated youth facilties, or€

tried in adult courts and placed in adult correctional institutions.€

State and local authorities do not automate their records sufficiently for 

researchers to select samples of all arrested youth. Youth who have been 

released, cited, or given alternative treatment may be impossible to track. The 

only youth available for intervews are those who are being detained or 

incarcerated. Surveying these youth may yield highly biased data, according to some critics. Youth who are in detention tend to be the most serious 

offenders, with a history of social and/or psychological problems. Researchers 

stress that it is not uncommon for youth with these problems to abuse alcohol. 

In addition, one researcher expressed serious doubts about seriously troubled 

minors' willngness to disclose alcohol or drug use after being incarcerated. 

Analg police arest recrds 

Analyzng arrest records is another method to determine the youth alcohol and 

crime rate. This requires, however, that police make an arrest at the scene of the crime. One researcher estimates a minute percentage of all criminals are 

caught at the scene of the crime. Some may be arrested after a lengthy 

investigation, but authorities are unable to determine whether the offender had 

used alcohol before committing the crime. 

In addition, most police departments we surveyed do not require arresting 

offcers to note the sobriety of an arrested minor or to even ask if a suspect has 

been drinking. Researchers and authorities explained that enforcement 

agencies focus on the crime, not the related circumstances such as alcohol use. 

An arresting officer may notice only very obvious alcohol use. 

An arresting officer may be the only person who can ascertain whether a youth 

offender has been drinking. The human body breaks down and eliminates 

alcohol faster than many other drugs. A drug test administered several hours 

after an arrest is not an accurate measure of a youth's condition at the time of 

the crime.

Although we found several police departments that record offenders' sobriety, 

their records are not automated suffciently for analytical purposes. Authorities 

use the sobriety record to adjudicate individual cases, not for research 

purposes. In addition, juvenile courts often seal juvenile records, rendering 

them inaccessible to researchers. 

Natina Yout Surey Limtins 

Annual youth surveys, such as the Center for Disease Control's Youth Risk Behavior 

studies or the National Institute on Drug Abuse s National Household Survey on Drug 

Abuse, do not include questions about alcohol's role in criminal activity. If they did 

they might be hindered by a lack of reliable self-reporting. A minor might be hesitant 

to admit or not even know that he had committed a crime. 

DEPARTM OF JUSTICE REEACHRS HAVE LID 

INORMTION AN DATA 

The Department of Justice s (DOJ) Bureau of Justice Statistics and Offce of Juvenie 

Justice Prevention have attempted to determine the extent to which youth alcohol use 

is associated with criminal activity. The DOl's most recent and comprehensive study 

related to this subject is its "Survey of Youth in Custody, 1987. 

According to the survey report, 31.9 percent of youth under 18 in long-term, Stateoperated juvenile institutions in 1987 were under the influence of alcohol at the time 

of the offense. In addition, 55.4 percent admitted that they drank one or more times 

per week in the year before their incarceration. Youth in these facilities represent 

only a small percentage of all handled by the juvenile justice system, however. They 

are generally the most serious offenders, with a history of criminal activity.1 The DOJ 

analyzed alcohol use rates for different crimes. The table on page 5 ilustrates the 

results. 

S. Department of Justice, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics 

Survey of Youth in Custody, 1987 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. September 

1988, p. 6. 
PERCENT OF OFFNDER UNER AGE 18 IN WNG-TERM STATEOPERTED JU FACI WHO COMM CUNT 

OFFSE UNER TH INUECE OF ALHOL (1987)" 

Al Ofens 

Violent Ofens 

Murder 

Rape 

Other Sexual Assault 

Robbery 

Assault 

Other Violent Offenses 

Propert Offens 

Burglary 

Larcenyffeft 

Motor Vehicle Theft 

Aron 

Other Property Offenses 

Drg Offens 

Possession 

Traffcking 

Other Drug Offenses 

Total 

Number 

(Weighted) 

18,


081 

326 

431 

634 

372 

926 

392 

8,1


303 

303 

402 

319 

894 

521 

(Including alcohol-related offenses) 

Public-Orer Offens 1,296 

Juvenie Statu Offens 

Number Under 

the Influence 

of Alcohol 

During the Crime Percentage 

814 31.9% 

2,94 324% 

27.3 

132 30. 

110 17.4 

887 37.4 

986 33. 

23. 

2,696 328% 

463 34. 

410 31.5 

437 31.2 

20. 

320 35. 

24. 

122 23.4 

108 23. 

68. 

'l7 20. 

130 34. 

. Includes those who were under the influence of alcohol only or alcohol and other 

drugs. 

.. This column represents our estimate because the DOJ supplied only the total 

weighted number and the percentage under the infuence of alcohol at the time of 

the crime. The DOJ states that because of missing data, some percentages may be 

slightly off. 

... Totals are slightly higher than the sum of the subcategories because of missing data. 
, 

According to another DOJ ll-city survey, from 4 to 32 percent of male juvenile 

arrestees admitted using alcohol in the 72 hours prior to their arrest. The DOl's Drug 

Use Forecasting (DUF) program intervews minors about their alcohol use. This is 

not useful for determining the extent to which alcohol use influences crime, however. 

The DUF intervewers do not ask minors specifically if they were under the influence 

of alcohol at the time of the crie? 

MA JU' SEL-REORTED ALHOL 

USE BEFORE COMMG A CR RAGES 

FROM 4 TO 32 PERCENT 

Percent Who Used 

Alcohol in the 

72 Hour before 

City Commttg a Crie

Birmingham 

Cleveland 

Indianapolis 

Kansas City 

Los Angeles


Portland 

St. Louis 

San Antonio


San Diego 

San Jose 

Washington, Do 

. Source: DOJ, Offce of Justice Programs, National 

Institute of Justice Drugs & Crime: 1990 Annual 

Report Drug Use Forecasting. August 1991. 

The DUF program relies on intervews only to gather information about alcohol use. 

Although DUF intervewers obtain urine samples from most minors .who are arrested 

they do not analyze for alcohol. The DUF admits that in certain cities-osuch as 

Washington D.C. where only 4 percent of minors intervewed admitted using alcohol in 

the previous 72 hours--minors clearly underreported their alcohol use. Two local 

enforcement offcials were highly critical of the DUF program because it neglects to 

collect adequate information about youth alcohol use. "Including alcohol in the DUF 

2 U.S. Department of Justice, Offce of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice 

Drugs & Crime: 199 Annual Report Drul! Use Forecastinl!. August 1991, p. 16. 
, 

, ), 

network' s drug scan would not be difficult at all," one official stated. The other added 

We have found that the urine testing that we do detects substantially more than any 

of the self-report studies, even the confidential ones. Adding alcohol is no big deal as 

far as cost goes. Urine samples cost 21 cents. 

A 1974 survey of youth under 21 in State adult correctional facilities found that 

approximately 36.4 to 38.6 percent reported drinking at the time of the offense. 

Although this study is dated, it sheds light on the alcohol problems of miors who 

commit the most serious crimes. Minors incarcerated for crimes against persons 

(murder, assault, rape, robbery) were slightly more likely to be under the influence of 

alcohol than those who committed crimes against property (arson, grand theft 

burglary).3 Youth in adult correction facilities represent a very small proportion of all 

juvenile offenders.


OTHR REEACHRS HAVE LIND ALOHOL AN 

STATISTICAI Y 

Other studies and articles report that: 

Almost 50 percent of German juvenile offenders surveyed in 1971 were 

intoxicated when they committed criminal offenses. For crimes of aggression--

such as murder, robbery, rape, and assault--the rates were "rather higher. 

More than 52 percent of college students who admitted committing crimes were 

under the infuence of alcohol when the incident occurred. 

According to a school administrator who investigated the problem, 100 percent

of sexual assault cases at the University of Colorado involve alcoho1. 

One researcher had reviewed other researchers' attempts to link alcohol use and 

crie. He noted that researchers' have found that anywhere from 6 to 72 percent of 

3 James J. Collns Alcohol Careers and Criminal Careers " in Collns, (Ed. Drinkinl! and 

Crime: Persoectives on the Relationshios Between Alcohol Consumotion and Criminal 

Behavior. 1981, p. 191. Data were first reported in a survey of State correctional inmates 

conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the former Law Enforcement Asistance 

Administration, 1974. 

4 Joachim Gerchow Alcohol Use and Juvenile Delinquency, Child Health, v. 2, 1983 

129. 

5 National Familes in Action (NFI), "College Students Report Strong Link Between 

Substance Abuse and Campus Crime Drul! Abuse Update, no. 34, September 199, p. 13. 

NF "Alcohol Use Linked with Sexual Assault, Gang Rape on College Campuses 

Drul! Abuse Uodate. no. 28, March 1989, p. 17. 
miors were under the influence of alcohol at the time of the crime.7 This wide 

range further ilustrates the barrers that researchers encounter when examining this 

issue. 

FU TECHOLOY MAY ENABLE DATA COLLCTON ANALYSIS 

Technological advances may aid researchers attempting to link underage dring and 

crime. A new, computerized national crime reporting system and a passive alcohol 

sensor may provide data on alcohol's role in youth crime in the future. 

The FBI has collected, analyzed, and published national crime data since 1930. The 

FBI's Uniorm Crime Reports contains data relating to the number and tyes of crimes committed every year. To improve the quality, accuracy, and usefulness of this 

information, the FBI has initiated a program to automate and standardize the way 

communities report crime statistics. The National Incident-Based Reporting System 

(NIBRS) requires that State and local agencies enter certain crime information into a 

computer database. 

The FBI requires that each database contain a field to indicate whether authorities 

suspect that an offender consumed alcohol or drugs prior to the incident. In its 

implementation guidelines to State and local agencies, however, the FBI states that the 

field may be left empty if the reporting police offcer does not note any alcohol or 

drug use. In order for the system to provide reliable national data, arresting offcers 

must note alcohol use. 

Another barrier is the cost to States and local communities. Implementing the NIBRS 

requires costly computer equipment and technical expertise. Because of current 

budget diffculties, only a handful of communities participate in the program. 

Another technological advance is a new alcohol sensor that may allow police offcers 

to determine immediately whether criminal suspects have consumed alcohol. 

Authorities in some communities have begun implementing a new "passive" alcohol 

sensor. The device monitors the alcohol content of air near a suspect's mouth without 

requiring any special effort on the suspect s part. Although the sensors primarily are 

used to detect drunk drivers, they could be used quickly and legally to determine the 

sobriety of a criminal suspect. Authorities could record this information in the arrest 

report or in an automated computer database. 

7 Gerchow 

, p. 129.

APPENDIX A


LIT OF CONTACI 

FEERA AGENCIE 

Department of Health and Human Servces: 

Public Health Servce: 

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration: 

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism 

National Institute on Drug Abuse 

Offce for Substance Abuse Prevention


Department of Justice: 

Drug Enforcement Agency


Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Office of Justice Programs: 

Bureau of Justice Statistics 

National Institute of Justice 

Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

STATE ENORCENT/JUNI JUSTICE AGENCI 

Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center 

California Attorney General' s Offce 

California Youth Authority 

California Department of Justice, Bureau of Criminal Statistics€

Illinois Criinal Justice Information Authority€

Massachusetts Department of Probation€

New Mexico Youth Authority€

Oklahoma Department of Human Servces€

Oregon Law Enforcement Data System


Pennsylvania State Police 

Vermont Administrator for the Courts 

Washigton Department of Social and Health Servces, Offce of 

Juvenile Rehabilitation 

STATE ALHOUC BEVEGE CONTOL AGENCIE 

Indiana Alcoholic Beverage Commission€

Oklahoma Alcohol and Beverage Laws and Enforcement Commission€

Oregon Liquor Control Commission€

Washington Liquor Control Board€

West Virginia Alcoholic Beverage Control€
CIT/COUN JU JUSTCE AGENCIE 

Boise, il Juvenile Probation Department


Boston, MA Juvenile Court System


Charlotte, NC Juvenile Courts


Dallas, TX Juvenile Court System


Denver, CO Juvenile Intake Division€

Detroit, MI Juvenile System


Little Rock, AR Juvenile Courts, Prosecution Offce


Los Angeles, CA Juvenile Court System


Louisville, KY Juvenile and Family Courts


Memphis, TN and Shelby County Juvenile Court


Miami, FL Juvenile Intake


Milwaukee, WI Probation Department


San Francisco, CA Probation Department


Springfeld, IL Juvenile Division, Department of Corrections


St. Louis, MO Juvenile Court Intake Department


Tulsa, OK Juvenile Courts


Wichita, KS Juvenile Court Administration€

LOAL ENFORCEMENT AGENCI 

Charles County, MD Office of the Sheriff


Columbus, NE Police Department


Honolulu, HI Police Department


Los Angeles, CA Police Department


Plymouth, NH Police Department


Portland, OR Police Department


San Francisco, CA Department of Public Health 

South Paris, ME Sheriff Department 

REEACHS/ACADEMCLGHOUSES 

Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse


Ernie Chavez, Colorado State University€

Delbert Elliott, University of Colorado


Jeff Fagan, Rutgers University€

Jim Inciardi, University of Delaware


Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research


(University of Michigan) 

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information 

National Council on Crie and Delinquency 

National Criminal Justice Reference Servce 

Prevention Research Center (University of California, Berkeley)€

Rutgers University Criinal Justice/NCCD Collection


Eric Wish, University of Maryland


, 

, , , , ), ), ), , pp. 

APPENDIX B€

ALHOL AN YOUT CR BffUOGRAHY 

Brent, David A, Perper, Joshua A, and Allman, Christopher Alcohol, Firearms, and 

Suicide Among Youth: Temporal Trends in Alegheny County, Pennsylvania 

1960 to 1983 Journal of the American Medical Association, June 26, 1987 

3369-3372 

Collns, James J. Alcohol Careers and Criminal Careers " in Collis, (Ed. Drinking and Crime: Perspectives on the Relationships Between Alcohol Consumption 

and Criminal Behavior, 1981, pp. 152-206. 

The Relationship of Problem Drinking to Individual Offending 

Sequences " in Blumstein, Cohen, Roth, and Visher (Eds. Crimal Careers 

and Career Criminals, v. 2, 1986, pp. 89-120. 

Fagan, Jeffrey, "Intoxication and Aggression " in Tonry and Wilson (Eds. Drugs and 

Crime. v. 13, 1990, pp. 241-320. 

Gerchow, Joachim Alcohol Use and Juvenile Delinquency, Child Health, V. 2 

pp. 127- 135. 

Haggerty, Kevi Po, Wells, Elizabeth A, Jenson, Jeffey M., Catalano, Richard F., and 

Hawkins, J. David Delinquents and Drug Use: A Model Program for 

Community Reintegration Adolescence. Summer 1989, pp. 439-456. 

Harrison, Carlos Kids on Crack: 880 Crimes Each in a Year Miami Herald, 

August 3, 1989, p. 1. 

llinois Criminal Justice Information Authority, Trends and Issues 89: Criminal and 

Juvenile Justice in llinois. 1989. 

llinois Deparment of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse, Addictions Research 

Institute Youth Survey: 1990--0ur Youth Is Our Future, Apri 1991. 

Inciardi, James A and McBride, Duane C. Treatment Alternatives to Street Crime 

developed for U.S. Department of Health and Human Servces, Public Health 

Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Adminstration, National 

Institute on Drug Abuse, 1991. 

Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, "For Patrol Officers, Alcohol Sensors are 

Helpful Screening Tool Status Report, November 30, 1991, p. 9. 
, 

, , , , , 

, 

, , 

Jacobs, James B. Drinking and Crime National Institute of Justice Crime File 

Study Guide 

Jenson, Randy, "Severity of Delinquent Offense and Alcohol Involvement Among 

Residents from a Rural Midwestern Juvenile Correctional Facilty, Juvenile 

and Familv Court Journal, November 1982, pp. 63-66. 

Loeber, Rolf, van Kammen, Welmoet, Huizinga, David, and Krohn, Marvn D. The 

Crime-Substance Use Nexus in Young People " in Projects of the Program of 

Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquencv (Compilation of articles 

stemming from the Denver and Pittsburgh Youth Surveys and the Rochester 

Youth Development Study), September 1991, chapter 5. 

Males, Mike Commentaries: Youth Behavior: Subcultural Effect or Mirror of Adult 

Behavior Journal of School Health, December 1990, pp. 505-508. 

Martin, Susan E. Alcohol-Related Interpersonal Violence: Current Knowledge and 

Research Directions " to be published in Journal of the American Medical 

Association, 1992. 

Nadelman, Ethan A. Drugs: The Case for Legalization Washington Post, 

October 8, 1989. . 

National Families in Action Alcohol Use Linked with Sexual Assault, Gang Rape on 

College Campuses, Drug Abuse Update March 1989, p. 17. 

College Students Report Strong Lin Between Substance Abuse and 

Campus Crime Drug Abuse Update, September 1990. 

Newcomb, Michael D. and McGee, Linda Adolescent Alcohol Use and Other 

Delinquent Behaviors: A One- Year Longitudinal Analysis Controlling for 

Sensation Seekig, Criminal Justice and Behavior, September 1989 

pp. 345-369. 

Rivers, James E. Drug Use and Criminal Activity Among Miami Youth Involved in 

the Crack-Cocaine Business, July 1989 

Temple, Mark and Ladouceur, Patricia The Alcohol-Crime Relationship as an 

Age-Specific Phenomenon: A Longitudinal Study, Contemporary Drug 

Problems, Spring 1988, pp. 89-115. 

U.s. Department of Health and Human Servces, Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug 

Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse 

and Alcoholism Seventh Special Report to the U.S. ConbIess on Alcohol and 

Health From the Secretary of Health and Human Servces, January 1990. 
, 

 , , 
 

Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 

Administration, National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series 

#103--Drugs and Violence: Causes. Correlates. and Consequences, 1990. 

Public Health Servce, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health 

Administration, Offce for Substance Abuse Prevention OSAP Mobilzes to 

Combat a National Crisis The Fact Is.... Spring 1991. 

, Public Health Servce Homeless and Runaway Youth: Public Health 

Issues and the Need for Action. 1991. 

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime 

Reporting--National Incident-Based Reporting System, v. 1- , July 1, 1988. 

, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional 

Populations in the United States. 1987, December 1989. 

Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Drugs and Jail 

Inmates, 1989 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, August 1991. 

, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Fact Sheet: 

Drug Data Summary, Drugs & Crime Data. November 1991. 

Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Profile of State 

Prison Inmates, 1986 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report 

January 1988.


Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Sourcebook of 

Criminal Justice Statistics--1990. 1991. 

, Offce of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey of 

Youth in Custody, 1987 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report 

September 1988. 

Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics Violent Crie 

in the United States, 1991. 

, Offce of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice 

Drugs & Crime: 1990 Anual Report Drug Use Forecasting, August 1991. 

Offce of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention Improving Juvenile Justice at the Local Level OJJDP Juvenile 

Justice Bulletin, Reprinted from 
 NIl Reports March/April 1990.
, 

, , 

Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention Growth in Minority Detentions Attributed to Drug Law Violators 

OJJDP Update on Statistics. Reprinted from March 1990. 

Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention Juvenile Courts Vary Greatly in How They Handle Drug and 

Alcohol Cases OJJDP Update on Statistics. Reprinted from NIl Reports 

July/August 1989.


, Offce of Justice Programs, Offce of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention Public Juvenile Facilities: Children in Custody, OJJDP Update on 

Statistics, January 1991. 

Watts, W. David and Wright, Loyd So The Relationship of Alcohol, Tobacco 

Marijuana, and Other llegal Drug Use to Delinquency, Among MexicanAmerican, Black, and White Adolescent Males Adolescence, Spring 1990 

pp. 171-181. 

White, Helene R., Pandina, Robert J., and LaGrange, Randy L. Longitudinal 

Predictors of Serious Substance Abuse and Delinquency, Criminology. v. 25 

no. 3, 1987, pp. 715-740.