Hi-Grouse Project

Silviculture Report

Prepared by:

Rob Schantz,

Silviculturist

USDA-Forest Service TEAMS Enterprise Unit

for:

Goosenest Ranger District,

Klamath National Forest

April 13, 2009

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Table of Contents

Introduction................................................................................................................................. 2

Methodology for Analysis .......................................................................................................... 2

Sources of Information............................................................................................................ 2

Analysis Methods.................................................................................................................... 3

Affected Environment................................................................................................................. 3

Existing Condition................................................................................................................... 3

Changes from Historic Conditions........................................................................................ 10

Desired Condition.................................................................................................................. 14

Environmental Consequences................................................................................................... 24

Mitigation and Monitoring .................................................................................................... 24

Comparison of Alternatives................................................................................................... 25

Cumulative Effects of Each Alternative................................................................................ 41

Compliance with Forest Plan and Other Regulatory Direction................................................. 42

NFMA Consistency............................................................................................................... 42

Consistency with 1995 Forest Plan ....................................................................................... 43

References................................................................................................................................. 43
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Introduction

This report addresses the Forest conditions, purpose and need, and effects of proposed vegetation 

and fuels treatments within the Hi-Grouse Project area. The report also discusses past actions, 

particularly how they have affected existing conditions, and how these would contribute to the 

long-term (20 to 50 years) effects of the alternatives.

This report has three primary purposes:

1) To disclose the effects of the alternatives on Forest vegetation and fuels.

2) To provide information necessary to support the purpose and need for action.

3) To provide vegetation information to support other resource analyses.

Items addressed are:

1) Reference conditions and departure from these conditions.

2) Effects of treatments on Forest structure, species composition, and Forest health.

3) Fuels management.

Methodology for Analysis

Sources of Information

Goosenest Adaptive Management Area Ecosystem Analysis (AMA Analysis 1996): In 1996 an 

interdisciplinary team was organized to conduct an intermediate analysis between Forest planning 

direction and project planning. This analysis provides an integrated assessment of the ecosystem 

processes and functions operating within the AMA, resource issues and the affected resources, 

and management recommendations. The analysis was used as a source of information on the 

existing conditions and reference conditions, and as background for the purpose and need for the 

project. 

Vegetation Database/Stand Exams: There are 128 stands greater than 1 acre in size identified in 

the district stand layer, representing 7,214 acres out of the 7,390 acres in the planning area. Of 

these, 120 stands have plot data in FSVeg, and 48 have an adequate sample of 5 or more plots. 

These 48 stands were processed in FVS, and used to model silvicultural and fuels treatments.

GIS Layers: GIS data was used to develop the maps of the proposed action and alternatives; 

these layers included stands and roads. A 10-meter digital elevation model was used to generate 

contours and slope classes as an aid in determining appropriate logging systems.

Walk-Through Surveys: Initial reconnaissance began in October of 2007. Items noted during 

walk-through surveys included tree species, size and density of trees, understory vegetation, 

presence of insects and disease, fuel loadings, and logging systems access. A preliminary 

prescription was assigned to each stand based on stand conditions, previous management, 

topography, species composition, and professional judgment concerning long-term management 

options. 
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Further field visits to the project area by the project silviculturist and logging systems specialist 

occurred in May, June, July, and September of 2008. The primary purpose of this reconnaissance 

was to refine unit boundaries, silvicultural prescriptions, and logging systems access.

Analysis Methods

Planning Area/Project Area

The planning area is defined as the area that was analyzed for meeting the purpose and need for 

the project, and is approximately 7,400 acres. The project area is the area within the planning 

area where treatments would occur, and is the largest under the proposed action at approximately 

4,850 acres.

Forest Vegetation Simulator – FVS-FFE Model

The South Central Oregon, Northeastern California Variant of the Forest Vegetation Simulator 

(FVS) (Dixon 2005) was used to simulate management activities. The Fire and Fuels Extension

to FVS (FFE) was used to predict fuels parameters.

Limitations. Stand exam data was not available for each stand, but stands representative of the 

different forest strata were run and used to compute stratum averages. Thinning prescriptions 

with diameter limits for cut trees, such as in alternative 3, are difficult to simulate and achieve the 

target stand density. 

Assumptions. It was assumed that when target stand densities were not met it was a result of 

diameter limits.

Methods. Stand exam data (Common Stand Exam) was used to run the model. Thinning and 

fuels treatment was simulated for each of the prescriptions.

Indicators from Model. The model was used to generate pre-and post-thinning stand parameters 

of canopy cover, average diameter, basal area, trees per acre, and stand density index. Timber 

volumes from thinning were computed by the model. The FFE provided estimates of stand height, 

canopy bulk density, canopy base height, and total canopy cover.

Affected Environment

Existing Condition

Influences on Existing Condition

General. The major influences on this area over the last 100 years are railroad logging beginning 

around 1900, grazing, fire suppression, and selective cutting prescriptions over the last several 

decades in the true fir-dominated stands. Early logging removed the majority of the original pine 

forest and left white fir. The removal of pine seed sources, combined with livestock grazing and 

post-logging fires, created ideal conditions for germination of true firs, which then became 

established and grew during the relatively warm and wet early half of the 20th century. Selective 

logging in the white fir/pine and red fir types has lead to the introduction and spread of annosus

root disease, which is now a major factor in stand health. Due to the recent drought, insect and 

disease-related mortality is occurring in true firs and ponderosa pine. Mature lodgepole pine 

stands are continuing to experience heavy stand-replacing mortality due to the mountain pine 
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beetle, and these high beetle populations are now infesting ponderosa pine within the white 

fir/pine type. 

Most of the stands in the project area are overstocked and substantial mortality is occurring and is 

expected to continue. Most all of the project area has missed several fire cycles, severely 

departing from the historic fire-return intervals. 

Timber Harvest. Timber harvest in the planning area has removed most of the large ponderosa 

pine and white fir. It is estimated that approximately 60 percent of the planning area has had 

previous partial cutting, with approximately another 5 percent having been regenerated. 

Approximately half or the previous partial cutting (30 percent of planning area) has had a full or 

partial overstory removal of the largest trees. 

Fire Suppression. Fire suppression has allowed the establishment and dominance of white fir in 

the white fir series, where ponderosa pine was historically maintained as the dominant species by 

frequent low-severity fires. The stands originating after railroad logging were dominated by 

white fir due to lack of a remaining pine seed source; the lack of subsequent fires has perpetuated 

the dominance of this species.

In the higher elevation red fir series a similar situation occurred with the removal of pine seed 

sources with logging, and increases in the amount of true fir. These stands would have 

historically had more fir in them due to the mixed-severity fire regime, but they have still been 

altered by lack of fires.

Insects and Disease. Native insects and pathogens of forest trees perform important functions in 

natural ecosystems, killing trees, creating dead and down woody habitat, recycling nutrients, and 

creating gaps for regeneration. Under historic disturbance regimes in the white fir and red fir 

communities, these organisms remained at levels where they did not cause rapid, large-scale 

changes in the structure or composition of the communities. Conditions, such as drought and 

high stand densities, can trigger major insect or disease outbreaks that result in substantial tree 

mortality, such as recently occurred in this and other areas of the AMA. These outbreaks have 

differed from a frequent low-severity fire regime in that the largest trees have often been the most 

affected by heavy mortality. Also, these outbreaks have increased fuel loadings, contributing to 

increased fire hazards in these forests.

Several insects and diseases are common in the planning area and are having an impact on species 

composition and structure. White fir is affected by annosus root disease, dwarf mistletoe, and 

cytospora canker. Mountain pine beetles have been recently active in lodgepole pine and 

ponderosa pine. Most lodgepole is also infected with dwarf mistletoe.

Annosus Root Disease (Heterobasidion annosum): Two forms of this fungus are 

recognized, the P-group which affects mainly pines, and the S-group affecting true firs. Both 

forms are known to occur in this area, but the P-group is generally found on drier sites 

(Angwin 2008). Susceptible trees become infected when their roots contact infected roots in 

the soil. Airborne spores colonize freshly cut conifer stumps and basal tree wounds and grow 

down through the woody tissue into the roots, where it may remain viable in larger stumps for 

at least 50 years. When the roots of surrounding trees grow into this inoculum, they become 

infected. The fungus may kill the trees directly or debilitate them to the point where they are 

readily killed by bark beetles, especially the fir engraver in true firs. Infection by this 

pathogen can be prevented by treating freshly cut stumps with borate (Schmitt et al. 2000). 

This disease is a very serious management issue on the east slope of the Cascades in Oregon, 
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Washington (Hessburg et al. 1994), and the southern Cascades in California (Angwin 2008),

and once established on a site, it remains there for decades, spreading in extent and killing 

trees gradually over time.

Annosus root disease was noted in all stands that have had previous partial cutting which 

removed white fir and red fir. Infection centers are located around larger true fir stumps, and 

typically have trees exhibiting all stages of infection from recent mortality to decline. These 

centers expand at the rate of approximately 1 foot per year, as the fungus grows through root 

contacts of live trees. The level of infection in white fir-dominated stands with previous 

partial cutting will lead to significant losses of canopy cover and high levels of down wood as 

the disease progresses in the next 20 to 30 years. 

Bark Beetles: This group of forest insects is best known for killing conifers stressed by 

disease, drought, or other factors. When populations of some species of bark beetles build up 

during droughts, even vigorously growing trees may be successfully attacked and killed; 

reducing losses requires keeping root diseases and dwarf mistletoes at low levels, and 

thinning to reduce moisture stress.

The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is currently very active in the planning 

area in both ponderosa and lodgepole pines (Angwin 2008). This beetle is the key agent 

responsible for regenerating mature lodgepole pine stands when average stand diameter 

reaches 9 to 10 inches or when 90 to 100 trees per acre are at least 9 inches dbh. Mature 

lodgepole in the planning area has been under attack by this beetle for the past 5 years, and 

the overstory in these stands is now 75 to 100 percent dead. In ponderosa pine the beetles 

have been attacking trees within dense white fir leading to a substantial loss of the pine 

component in these stands. 

The fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis) is a key mortality agent for trees under stress, 

especially those infected by root disease. Sub-lethal attacks resulting in top-kill of trees are 

also common. Fir engraver activity in white fir has been low recently, but was common in 

the mid-1990s within the AMA. Drought conditions are usually the trigger for outbreaks of 

this beetle, and the most impressive outbreaks have occurred on the drier white fir sites 

during periods of drought. Large scale outbreaks of this beetle are best prevented by reducing 

the occurrence of white fir on drier sites, especially where root diseases are active.

Ips species are commonly called pine engraver beetles and have several generations per year. 

Ips beetle populations may build up in slash to levels where small diameter trees and tops of 

mature trees in the vicinity are at risk for attack. Thus, proper slash treatment is believed to 

be essential to the management of these beetles (Livingston 1979). Pine engraver beetle 

activity appears to currently be low in the planning area.

Dwarf Mistletoes (Arceuthobium spp.): Dwarf mistletoes are obligate parasitic plants that 

depend on their hosts for most of their food and all of their water requirements. They are 

fairly host-specific, meaning that individual species cannot grow on all conifers. The plant 

becomes embedded in the branch or stem of the host and grows systemically with the growth 

of the host, causing characteristic “witches brooms” in the crown. These brooms become 

nutrient and water sinks that weaken the host trees and reduce their growth. Fire plays a role 

in sanitizing stands of mistletoe, and the lack of fires has likely lead to their increase in many 

areas. Heavily infected stands are also more susceptible to stand-replacing fire due to the 

flammability of the brooms.
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The dwarf mistletoes found within the planning area are lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe (A. 

americanum), true fir dwarf mistletoe (A. abietinum), and western dwarf mistletoe (A. 

campylopodum). The first two species are very common and important to management, 

while western dwarf mistletoe on ponderosa pine has limited occurrence and is not a 

significant factor in this planning area.

Lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe is found in all lodgepole pine stands and is especially heavy 

in mature lodgepole stands in both the remnant overstory trees and in the advanced lodgepole 

regeneration. Remnant trees are providing a recurring source of infection to the seedlings and 

saplings, the majority of which are moderately to heavily infected. Moderate to heavy 

infection in lodgepole reduces growth drastically, and most of these trees would never reach 

the typical 9 to 12 inch diameters of a mature stand; this level of infection leads to 

development of stunted, bushy trees that persist for long periods without any substantial 

growth. Removal of the overstory dwarf mistletoe seed source and sanitation of the 

understory by removal of the most heavily infected trees, while favoring the non-host white 

fir and ponderosa pine, would allow this advanced regeneration to eventually develop into an 

upper canopy. 

Infection of white fir by the true fir dwarf mistletoe tends to be moderately heavy throughout 

the white fir series. This dwarf mistletoe is less of a drain on its host than most other species, 

but when it is combined with concurrent infection by a canker fungus (Cytospora spp.), 

damage can be substantial. The canker causes branches to die and leads to a general dieback 

of the crowns. This effect was commonly noted in the planning area where white fir was 

infected with dwarf mistletoe, and along with annosus root disease is creating a high hazard 

for attack by fir engraver beetles, especially if the current drought conditions continue. 

Physical Environment

Elevations in the project area range from 5400 to 6500 feet. The red fir series is generally found 

above 6000 feet, and flat areas with poor cold air drainage are dominated by lodgepole pine. 

Slopes are gentle with elevation increasing from west to east and from north to south. Soils are of 

volcanic ash and pumice derivation, and lava flow outcrops are common. Precipitation ranges 

from about 20 inches annually at the lower elevations to about 40 inches annually at the higher 

elevations. 

Forest Composition/Series/Plant Associations

White Fir Series. White fir is the primary species found regenerating in the understory in this 

series, and most stands are now almost exclusively white fir in the overstory. This series 

generally occurs from lowest elevations (about 5,400 feet) to 6,000 feet elevation in the project 

area outside of pumice flats that are dominated by lodgepole. Before railroad logging, these sites 

were occupied by stands dominated by large-diameter ponderosa pine with embedded patches of 

white fir and more structurally complex mixed species forest that likely escaped the frequent 

fires. Currently the stands are 9 to 24 inch diameter and dominated by 50 to 80 year old white fir 

with ponderosa pine comprising from 5 to 60 percent of the stocking. Sugar pine is a minor 

species that historically occupied the same niche as ponderosa pine. Patches of predominant 

white fir and/or ponderosa pine are found scattered throughout the area, and some stands have 

enough larger tree structure to qualify as nesting habitat for goshawk and nesting-roosting habitat 

for spotted owl. Precipitation in this zone averages 25 to 35 inches annually, making it a 

moderate to high risk area for maintaining white fir as a significant stand component (Schultz 

1994; Cochran 1998).
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Common shrubs and herbaceous plants found in this type are: bitterbrush, fescue, greanleaf 

manzanita, bearberry, snowberry, snowbrush, mahala mat, pinegrass, strawberry, hawkweed, 

currant, sedge, and penstemon. 

Community types from the AMA analysis (1996) are mainly represented by the white fir/pine 

community, with some of the white fir/mixed conifer community being found at the ecotones to 

the red fir series. Douglas-fir and incense cedar are absent from these communities in the 

planning area. 

Plant associations reflect the drier range of the white fir series. The most likely plant associations 

are ponderosa-white fir/bitterbrush-manzanita/needlegrass and ponderosa-whitefir/spreading 

snowberry (Smith 1994), although neither appears to be an exact fit. Bitterbrush and manzanita 

tend to dominate the shrub layer at lower elevations, while currant and snowberry become more 

common as elevation increases. Bearberry and prostrate ceanothus indicate drier areas of shallow 

soils, while snowbrush indicates past fire or high soil temperatures. Simpson (2007) described 

similar plant associations for the Oregon East Cascades. Most sites appear to be represented by 

the white fir/greenleaf manzanita association, while sites at the transition to the red fir series are 

represented by the white fir/spreading snowberry association. 

On colder sites within the white fir series, lodgepole pine becomes part of the species mix in both 

the overstory and understory. These areas are generally adjacent to pumice flats or in the higher 

elevations transitioning to the red fir series, and are represented by the lodgepole/mixed conifer 

community from the AMA analysis.

Red Fir Series. On sites lying generally above 6,000 feet elevation the red fir series becomes 

dominant, and red fir is the primary species regenerating in the understory. Ponderosa pine was 

historically a seral co-dominant in this series along with red fir, but was greatly reduced in 

abundance in early logging. Stands are now typically a multi-aged mix of red fir, white fir, 

lodgepole pine, and ponderosa pine, with minor amounts of white pine. Patches of early mature 

single-cohort red fir are found, as well as a few stands of old-growth red fir and associates that 

have not had previous logging.

The most common understory vegetation is currant, chinquapin, and sedge. Snowbrush and 

manzanita often dominate heavily disturbed sites. Red fir dominates the tree regeneration, with 

lodgepole often common, and ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and white pine often scattered in the 

mix.

Plant associations are typical of the drier range of the red fir series, and may be best described by 

the red fir/golden chinquapin association of Simpson (2007). Data from this association shows an 

overstory dominated by red fir, but also containing ponderosa pine, sugar pine, white pine, and 

lodgepole pine. 

Lodgepole Pine-Type. Lodgepole pine occupies the colder sites within both the red fir and white 

fir series where it is often the dominant species found regenerating in the understory or on 

disturbed areas. It also acts in a seral role within both of these series, acting as a “nurse crop” for 

true fir and pine on cold air flats, and as an early colonizer after disturbance on sites that would be 

dominated by red fir absent a disturbance. Understory vegetation is typically dominated by 

currant and manzanita species. This is the lodgepole/mixed conifer community type from the 

AMA analysis (1996).
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Forest Structure/Tree Size/Species Composition/Density

Due to the past logging history, fire exclusion, insects and disease, and site characteristics stand 

structure, size, species composition, and density are highly variable. Most of the stands with only 

the original railroad logging entry regenerated to fairly even-aged white fir/ponderosa pine. 

Stands with subsequent logging entries and/or insect and disease disturbances often have a multiaged, multi-layered structure. Species composition is also dependent on the amount and type of 

past disturbance. 

In order to classify stands for modeling and prescriptive purposes they were stratified into 13 

strata, or stand types, with corresponding silvicultural options. Table 1 lists the acres and percent 

of these stand types within the planning area, the corresponding vegetation community (from 

AMA analysis), and prescription options. 

Table 1. Stratification of stands in planning area

Stratum Stand-type

Vegetation 

Community Acres % Description Rx Options

1 Mid-seral PPdominated 9–24” 

dbh

WF/Pine 292 4 PP stands with varying 

amount of WF/LP, previously 

thinned; stand density at or 

above UMZ

Thin from below, 

favor PP

2 Mid-seral WF-PP 

9–24” dbh

WF/Pine 614 8 Historic logging removed PP, 

stands dominated by WF with 

varying amounts of PP

Thin from below, 

favor PP

3 Mid-seral WF-PP 

9–24” dbh with 

root disease

WF/Pine 787 11 Second entry selectively 

removed WF/PP, reduced 

proportion of PP, and 

introduced annosus root 

disease 

Thin, removing 

most WF

4 Mid-seral WF 9–

24” dbh with root 

disease

WF/Pine 759 10 Second entry selectively 

removed WF and most PP 

and introduced annosus root 

disease

PP restoration 

and reestablishment

5 Early-seral WF 

5–16” dbh with 

root disease

WF/Pine 91 1 Overstory WF/PP was 

removed leaving densely 

stocked patches heavily 

infected with annosus

PP reestablishment

6 Mid-seral MC 5–

24” dbh

WF/Mixed 

Conifer, 

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

772 10 RF-WF-PP-LP stands with 

only historic logging removing 

most PP, or later selective 

PP cutting

Thin from below

7 Mid-seral MC 5–

24” dbh with root 

disease

WF/Mixed 

Conifer, 

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

494 7 RF-WF-LP stands with 

historic logging removing 

most PP and later selective 

cutting which introduced 

annosus root disease

Heavy thin from 

below favoring 

pines, MC reestablishment 

8a Early-seral MC 

5–16” dbh with 

root disease; old 

OSR

WF/Mixed 

Conifer, 

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

132 2 Overstory RF-WF/PP was 

removed leaving densely 

stocked patches heavily 

infected with annosus

Thin favoring 

pines

8b Early-seral MC 

5–16” dbh with 

root disease; old 

partial OSR

WF/Mixed 

Conifer, 

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

105 1 Overstory RF-WF/PP was 

partially removed leaving 

densely stocked patches 

heavily infected with annosus

Thin favoring 

pines

9 Early-seral MC 

5–12” dbh

WF/Mixed 

Conifer, 

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

35 <1 Small-diameter WF-LP-PP Thin favoring 

pines
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10 Late-seral RF 

dominated

RF/Mixed 

Conifer

347 5 LM RF-WF-PP-SP-WP multilayeredThin understory

11 Mid/Late-seral 

WF dominated

WF/Pine 863 12 LM WF with varying amounts 

of PP, multi-layered

Thin from below, 

thin understory

12 Mid-seral LPmature, heavy 

mortality

Lodgepole/

Mixed 

Conifer

1,072 15 LP in final stages of bark 

beetle infestation

Thin understory, 

favor TF/PP

13 Early/Mid-seral 

LP-immature

Lodgepole/

Mixed 

Conifer

583 8 LP generally too small for 

beetle attack

NT

14a Plantations/

regeneration 

harvest-poles

N/A 80 1 RF-PP-LP stands that have 

been PCT’d and are not in 

need of thinning 

NT

14b Plantations/

regeneration 

harvestseedling/sapling

N/A 132 2 LP-WF-PP in need of 

thinning to increase 

proportion of PP

PCT

15 No data, slivers, 

roads

N/A 176 2 N/A

Total 7,390 100

Early-/Mid-Seral Forest. The young second-growth stands (strata 1-9) are in a stage of 

development classified as the “stem exclusion” stage according to Oliver and Larson (1990). In 

this stage, the trees have re-occupied all growing space and exclude new plants from becoming 

established. Variations in height growth have occurred to various degrees, with some trees 

expressing “dominance” over other to the point that many are overtopped, receiving no direct 

sunlight. Especially in the stands that have not been previously thinned, the ratio of tree height to 

tree diameter has become very large; this translates into small-diameter crowns that are also short, 

and stems that cannot support the weight of heavy snows or ice and combined with high winds 

can lead to stem breakage. 

Stand density is currently where inter-tree competition can be expected to lead to suppressionrelated mortality, and in fact this mortality has already begun, especially affecting ponderosa pine 

within dense white fir-dominated stands, and white fir in root disease areas. Stand density index 

(SDI) (Reineke 1933) measures are above recommended stocking levels for optimizing individual 

tree and stand growth (see following “Healthy and Sustainable Density and Structure” section). 

Ideally, percentage of maximum SDI would be in the 30 to 40 percent range. 

Late-Seral Forest. There are approximately 1,210 acres of mid/late- and late-seral forest (latesuccessional forest) within the planning area represented by strata 10 and 11 (Table 2). These are 

stands having higher amounts of trees 24 inches dbh and larger, high stand densities, and two or 

more tree layers. The NSO-NR and NGH-N stands fell into this category.

This 5th field watershed was found to contain less than 15 percent late-successional forest in the 

Klamath NF assessment. No late-successional forest is proposed for removal in this project.
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Table 2. Stratum averages of stand parameters from stand exams 

Stratum No. Plots

Ave. dbh

(trees 8 in.+) Ave BA/Ac Ave SDI % Max. SDI*

1 24 17.6 189 318 74%

2 61 15.4 188 373 87%

3 76 14.6 149 252 59%

4 71 12.6 177 338 79%

5 9 13.1 99 180 42%

6 73 15.9 134 249 58%

7 44 14.8 147 303 70%

8a 12 12.9 81 160 37%

8b 17 16.1 139 270 63%

9 3 10.0 83 190 44%

10 32 18.1 177 337 78%

11 71 16.5 191 359 83%

12 99 12.5 94 197 46%

13 21 11.7 83 183 43%

14a 9 11.9 66 119 28%

14b 13 15.5 66 114 27%

*Based on stockability for ponderosa pine.

Changes from Historic Conditions

Fire Regimes 

White Fir Series. With effective fire suppression wildfire has been virtually excluded from these 

vegetation communities. Lightning and human-caused fires occur within the AMA on an annual 

basis, but are normally contained to very small areas. With increasing fuel loadings and vertical 

and horizontal continuity of fuels, some fires will eventually escape initial attack when conditions 

are conducive to rapid spread. The potential for development of large fires is quite high, and 

substantial amounts of stand-replacing fire are expected if a large fire develops within the 

planning area (AMA Analysis 1996).

Much can be inferred about past fire regimes in this area from the logging history, continuing 

presence of large pine stumps with fire scars, and current age classes and species composition. 

Early railroad logging removed most pine and left white fir un-harvested to re-seed the area 

(AMA Analysis 1996). Most of the stumps from this logging show fire scars characteristic of a 

frequent low-severity fire regime, and these stumps were commonly noted in walkthrough 

surveys in stands currently dominated by 50- to 90-year-old white fir. The age of these white fir 

cohorts indicate that they regenerated during the time when the pine removals were at their 

height. 

Agee (1994) has reported fire return intervals for the white fir series from studies in central 

Oregon, southern Oregon, and central California of 9 to 25 years, 9 to 42 years (included sites in 

red fir series), and 9 to 18 years respectively. Within this AMA in the white fir series, Skinner 

(unpublished) has found a mean fire interval of approximately 10 years from a fire record dating 
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from 1603 to 1883. Simpson (2007) offers the following synopsis for the dry range of the white 

fir series: 

The ABCO-ABGR Dry plant association group is associated with a historic very 

frequent, low-intensity fire regime (Fire Regime I) with a return interval of 9-25 years 

(Bork 1985). Under the historical regime, frequent burning and self-thinning created 

typical stand densities of 15-50 stems per acre. Evidence from the Klamath-Siskiyou 

Mountains suggests that the most common fire type was a low severity underburn. 

Occasional patches of stand-replacing fire were not uncommon, but these patches tended 

to be small, akin to group torching and short crowning runs of only a few minutes 

duration, and generally were not of a size that would indicate placement into a mixed 

severity fire regime. Stand replacement fires occurred on average about once every 100-

200 years (Agee 1993), usually driven by regional drought. White fir or grand fir was

present in unburned areas, but generally was much less common and abundant than 

today. Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine and western larch (north of McKenzie Pass) were the 

most common tree dominants, being resistant to fires after they have matured enough to 

develop the characteristic thick, corky, insulating bark typical of the species. Because 

grand fir and white fir are less fire resistant than ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir, fire 

would tend to remove it from stands (Agee 1993).

Frequent low intensity fires led to stands dominated by fire-tolerant ponderosa pine and sugar 

pine with many areas being open and park-like in appearance and having little understory (Ritchie 

2003). White fir was a component of this forest, but would have been confined to areas less

likely to burn such as lava rock outcrops. 

Red Fir Series. Red fir forests are noted to have experienced substantial spatial and temporal 

variability in fire severity, with moderate frequency and high variation in severity; reported fire 

return intervals vary from 40 to 65 years, with shorter intervals reported in NE California of 16 to 

19 years (Chappell and Agee 1996). Shlisky (2003) considered red fir as having a mixed severity 

fire regime (Fire Regime IIIb), with a fire return interval of 40 to 60 years. Old-growth red fir 

stands in the planning area show evidence of past non-lethal surface fire in the form of basal fire 

scars. As fires moved upslope from the ponderosa pine dominated white fir series, it is likely that 

they crept through the red fir with flare ups that created patches of regeneration occurring during 

burning periods conducive to more extreme fire behavior. The occurrence of mixed-severity and 

stand-replacing patches was no doubt responsible for maintaining the shade-intolerant pines

(ponderosa, sugar, white, and lodgepole) in the species mix of these forests. 

Ecosystem Function and Resiliency

Over the last 100 years there has been a loss of this area functioning as late-successional habitat 

in ponderosa pine and red fir, with the loss of most of the large tree habitat. There has also been a 

loss of resiliency of the forest to fire, insects, and disease, as changes from disturbances now are 

likely to be abrupt and may require management assistance to rehabilitate (Hessburg et al. 1994;

USFWS 2008). Restoration of function and resiliency would require these forests to have the 

ability to withstand fire and maintain growth in the face of insects and disease. 

Forest Structure and Composition

White Fir Series. The white fir series in the planning area was historically dominated by 

ponderosa pine, maintained by frequent low severity fires, with lesser amounts of white fir; the 

current dominance of white fir represents a species shift directly attributable to the removal of 

pine in logging and suppression of fires (Ritchie 2003). According to the AMA analysis (1996) 
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12

the white fir/pine community was “a pine dominated community with a smaller white fir 

component prior to railroad logging and fire suppression...Much of the larger pines were removed 

during the railroad logging period...existing white fir was left un-harvested leaving established 

trees as a seed source. Therefore, white fir began to occupy historic pine sites and the removal of 

fire as an ecological process has promoted white fir domination....Greater than 85 percent of 

conifers are in a mid-seral stage (less than 24 in. dbh)...majority is even-aged white fir lacking 

structure and species diversity and is 50 to 80 years old.” Partial cut harvesting of remnant pine 

and white fir appears to have begun in the 1970s and this practice has had the dual effect of 

further pushing the species composition towards white fir and introducing annosus root disease 

into the highly susceptible white fir. 

A clue to the structure of this historic pine forest can be found in plot data taken in the Klamath 

Lake Region, Klamath County, Oregon in 1917 (Munger 1917). Table 3 summarizes data from 

what is called a “representative stand” from this publication.

Table 3. Stand summary data from 159 acres in Klamath County, Oregon, in 1917

Species

Trees/Acre

Trees 1” 

dbh+

Basal 

Area/Acre

Trees 1” 

dbh+

SDI

Trees 1” 

dbh+

Trees/Acre

Trees 20” 

dbh+

Basal 

Area/Acre

Trees 20” 

dbh+

SDI

Trees 20” 

dbh+

Ponderosa 

Pine

43 91 133 18 79 113

Other 

Species

33 33 45 6 25 30

Total 76 124 178 24 104 143

From this summary data and referring to the original data for this stand we can conclude the 

following:

• Ponderosa pine comprised 73 percent of the basal area

• Ponderosa pine comprised 75 percent of the SDI

• The stand averaged 62 trees per acre 6 inches dbh and larger; for reference purposes this 

represents an average spacing of 26 feet, although stem distribution was highly irregular 

with openings, patches of younger cohorts, glades, and barren spots

• The stand averaged 24 trees per acre 20 inches dbh and larger; for reference purposes this 

represents an average spacing of 43 feet, although stem distribution was highly irregular 

with openings, patches of younger cohorts, glades, and barren spots

• Canopy Cover of this stand using crown widths from inventory plot data in central 

Oregon is estimated to have been approximately 40 percent, but like stem distribution 

was highly irregular

• Average stand density was in the mid-range between the lower (LMZ) and the upper 

management zone (UMZ) (see below)

In this same publication an estimate of the merchantable timber on a small watershed (7,120 

acres) representative of the east slopes of the Cascades in Klamath County is given. Ponderosa 

pine comprised 64 percent of the timber; Douglas-fir 21 percent; true firs 12 percent; and sugar 

pine, white pine, lodgepole pine Engelmann spruce, and incense cedar comprised the remaining 3 

percent. In commenting on the character of the “yellow pine” stands, Munger states “Most of the 
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13

forests of Oregon in which it occurs commercially are at least 75 percent yellow pine, and the 

other trees that are present in the mixture are apt to grow in groups by themselves and not in 

intimate mixture with the pine...” 

Munger’s data appear to reflect conditions that existed in the planning area before logging and 

fire suppression. As noted above, old pine stumps with fire scars are common throughout the 

white fir strata. In these strata (Table 3) young-growth, small diameter (<20 inch dbh) white fir 

now comprises from 70 to 100 percent of the basal area, a complete reversal from turn of the 

century conditions.

Red Fir Series. Departures in stand structure and species composition on red fir sites have been 

due primarily to partial-cut timber harvest, although fire suppression here has undoubtedly also 

played a role. Major changes are the loss of most of the ponderosa, sugar, and white pine due to 

harvest (and blister rust in the case of sugar and white pine), and the continuity of regeneration 

layers dominated by red fir and lodgepole that originated after logging. More recent partial 

cutting removed many large red fir, and introduced annosus root disease into the red fir. This 

disease is well above the likely endemic levels, and will continue to influence stand structure in 

both the short and long term.

Tree Mortality, Snags and Down Wood

Widespread mortality in the white fir series from high tree density, mountain pine beetle, and 

annosus root disease, has created an abundance of snags and down logs in the project area. 

Levels of snags and down logs are higher than what would have existed under the historic fire 

regime (Agee 2002; Harrod 1998). Current high levels are contributing to the potential for severe 

fire behavior that now exists. 

Disturbance Processes and Patterns

The white fir series has seen the largest disruption in historic processes and patterns of 

disturbance. The AMA analysis (1996) identified several trends related to this topic. A frequent 

low-severity fire regime has been replaced by the potential for high severity stand-replacing fire. 

Small group kills of several trees by the western pine beetle in old pines have been replaced by 

widespread mortality from the mountain pine beetle in younger pines embedded in dense white fir 

stands. Ponderosa pine is unable to regenerate in dense early and mid-seral stands, which 

comprise 70 to 85 percent of the AMA. There is a continuing trend towards increasing white fir 

on formerly pine sites, with commensurate increases in fuel continuity in horizontal and vertical 

dimensions. Mortality is concentrated in mid-seral white fir stands, with 40 to 50 percent of the 

AMA being in the moderate-high mortality class.

In the red fir series, the changes are not as dramatic, but there are still several notable trends. 

With the absence of mixed-severity from these sites there has been an overall increase in stand 

density and regeneration beneath the canopy, thereby increasing ladder fuels. There are less of 

the historic small openings for regeneration of patches of red fir and associated pine species from 

high-severity fire within the mixed severity regime. Like the white fir series, large pines were 

preferentially removed in logging, and combined with fire suppression, has lead to virtual 

domination by red fir and white fir on these sites.
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Desired Condition

Klamath Forest Plan Direction

The following direction related to vegetation, silviculture, biological diversity, and fire and fuels 

management is taken from the Klamath NF LRMP.

Management Direction – Forest-wide

Silviculture

21-10 A silvicultural analysis for project planning should address both stand and landscape 

conditions. All silvicultural prescriptions shall include a statement on land management and 

resource objectives as well as the desired future condition of the stand. 

21-11 Manage vegetation according to an approved silvicultural prescription. Silvicultural 

prescriptions should be completed in enough detail to reasonably assure that short- and long-term 

management objectives for the area can be met. 

21-12 The silvicultural system selected shall meet the resource and vegetation management 

objectives of the area, including objectives for biological diversity, long-term site productivity, 

and Forest health. Both even-aged and uneven-aged systems shall be available for use.

21-58 Design all Forest management practices to maintain Forest health, consistent with the 

objectives for the stand and landscape. Avoid conditions that promote the introduction and spread 

of disease, increase risks of insect attack, or promote unacceptable fire risk.

21-63 During vegetative manipulation projects, consider the removal of overstory trees that have 

been infected by dwarf mistletoe. If it is necessary to leave the infested trees, favor non-host 

species in the understory if possible. Do not utilize silvicultural prescriptions that continue the 

spread of dwarf mistletoe. During thinning activities, discriminate against trees infected with 

dwarf mistletoe.

Fire/Fuels

22-1 Restore fire to its natural role in the ecosystem, to the maximum extent, consistent with the 

safety of persons, property, and other resources.

22-10 Prescribed fire (wildland fire managed for resource benefits or management-lighted 

prescribed fire) is a desirable tool to be used for managing the Forest resources. Consider the 

long-term role of fire during all project planning phases. 

22-11 Site treatments should be prescribed which will minimize intensive burning, unless 

appropriate for certain specific habitat, communities, or stand conditions. Prescribed fires should 

be planned to minimize the consumption of litter and CWD. These provisions apply to regulated 

(matrix) land and within the Adaptive Management Area.

22-13 Do not allow management activities to result in fuel accumulations that increase the risk of 

high intensity fires that did not typically occur on the Forest before wildland fire suppression 

activities in the early 1900s began. Mange fuel loadings and the use of prescribed fire on the 

Forest to maintain ecological processes.

22-15 All fuels management planning will analyze the impact of a project within the project’s 

landscape. It also will analyze the cumulative effect of that project on the landscape with respect 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

15

to wildfires’ impact on future fires. The fire and fuels specialist will work with other ID Team 

members in analyzing the effect of fire on all resources. 

22-16 Fuels analysis of a landscape should address the accumulations of fuels on a site over time 

(at least to year 40 from project initiation), including the fuels generated from management 

activities, such as thinning. 

22-17 Project-level fuel planning needs to incorporate the areas immediately next to the project 

boundaries for consideration of fuels treatment.

22-19 All landscape- or watershed-level fuels analyses should describe the hazard, risk, and 

consequences of a wildfire on a site. It also should describe how that fire will influence the site in 

the foreseeable future. The analysis also should include to potential effects on the site’s fuel 

loading and the expected fire occurrence and behavior.

Snags

8-22 Assess the availability of snags within each landscape. Provide for an average of five snags 

per acre, in a variety of size and decay classes, within each landscape. These snags need not be 

equally distributed. The actual number of snags to be maintained in areas managed for timber 

production may vary from two to five, depending on the amount of snags available within the 

surrounding landscape and the desired future condition of that landscape. 

8-23 Maintain snag densities through the full timber rotation by providing green replacement 

trees to become snags of adequate size when existing snags fall. The size of snags and green trees 

to be retained within a given managed stand should be greater than the average diameter of the 

stand. 

8-24 Retain snags and replacement snags in clumps when possible. Consider the susceptibility of 

snags to windthrow and site preparation activities. Designated wildlife trees should be protected 

from woodcutting and Forest management activities. 

8-25 Retain snags with the largest dbh as they tend to last longer and make the best wildlife 

habitat.

Biodiversity

6-1 Manage to maintain the structure, composition, and function of forest, rangeland, and aquatic 

ecosystems within the range of natural variability. Implement management actions in a manner 

that complements ecological processes and promotes long-term sustainability. 

6-2 Manage for biological diversity at the Forest, landscape/watershed, and site (stand) level. 

6-3 Manage, restore, or recover ecosystems, as necessary, through project planning and 

implementation. 

6-4 Landscape areas where little late-successional forest persists should be managed to retain 

late-successional patches. This standard and guideline will be applied in 5th field watersheds (20 

to 200 square miles) in which Federal forest lands are currently comprised of 1 percent or less 

late-successional forest. This assessment should include all allocations in the watershed. Within 

such an area, all remaining late-successional stands should be protected. Protection of these 

stands could be modified in the future, when other portions of the watershed have recovered to 

the point where they could replace the ecological roles of these stands.
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6-16 A renewable supply of large down logs is critical for maintaining populations of fungi, 

arthropods, bryophytes, and various other organisms that use this habitat structure. Provision of 

CWD is also a key standard and guideline for American marten, fisher, two amphibians, and two

species of vascular plants. The objective is to provide CWD well-distributed across the landscape 

in a manner which meets the needs of species and provides for ecological functions. Standards 

and guidelines would provide for appropriate CWD quantity, quality (such as species, decay 

stage, and size) and groups of plant associations and stand types, which can be used as a baseline 

for managers to develop prescriptions for landscape management. An important factor is to 

provide the CWD within a forest patch so that the appropriate microclimate for various organisms 

that use this substrate is available.

a) Manage to provide a renewable supply of large down logs well distributed across the 

matrix landscape in a manner that meets the needs of species and provides for ecological 

functions. Develop models for groups of plant associations and stand types that can be used 

as a baseline for developing prescriptions.

b) Until standards are developed as described above, the following guidelines apply in areas 

of regeneration harvests and other vegetation manipulation: 

Maintain 5 to 20 pieces of CWD per acre in various states of decay. The specific amount 

of materials specified for retention on individual projects shall be determined by the 

project ID Team. At a minimum, the ID Team should consider the amount of materials 

existing on site, the amount of material needed to provide for nutrient cycling and site 

productivity, the denning needs of wildlife species, and the fire risk as a result of fuel 

material on site. Attempt to maintain these levels of CWD on site throughout the life of 

the project or throughout the rotation (if timber harvest is planned.) 

Leave large logs, conifer and hardwood, sound and cull of at least 20 inches in diameter 

and about 40 cubic feet in volume when they are available. Most of the logs should be in 

decay class 3, 4, and 5 (defined in the USDA Handbook 553, page 80) with at least two 

logs per acre in decay class 1 or 2. Do not count logs less than 12 inches in diameter or 

stumps as CWD. This guideline may be waived in strategic fuelbreak areas or for 

documented safety reasons. 

Down logs should reflect the species mix of the original stand. In areas of partial harvest, 

the same basic guidelines should be applied, but they should be modified to reflect the 

timing of stand development cycles where partial harvesting is practiced. 

c) CWD already on the ground should be retained and protected to the greatest extent 

possible form disturbance during treatment (e.g., slash burning and yarding) which might 

otherwise destroy the integrity of the substrate. 

d) Down logs should be left within forest patches that are retained under green-tree retention 

guidelines in order to provide the microclimate that is appropriate for various organisms that 

use this substrate.

Goosenest Adaptive Management Area

The specific goal for the Goosenest AMA is the development of ecosystem management 

approaches including use of prescribed burning and other silvicultural techniques for 

management of pine forests, including objectives related to forest health, production and 

maintenance of late-successional forest and riparian habitat, and commercial timber production. 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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The AMA is intended to contribute substantially to the achievement of well-distributed latesuccessional habitat outside of reserves, retention of key structural elements of late-successional 

forest on lands subjected to regeneration harvest, and restoration and protection of riparian zones 

as well as provision of a stable timber supply. 

Management Area 15–Partial Retention Visual Quality Objective

The goals of this MA are to provide an attractive, forested landscape where activities remain 

visually subordinate to the character of the landscape, while maintaining stand health and 

resilience to disturbances and providing a sustained yield of wood products on capable, available, 

and suitable lands.

MA15-5 Project activities should meet a partial retention VQO as soon after project completion 

as possible, and at the maximum, within 3 years of project completion.

MA15-12 Use silvicultural treatments compatible with area goals. Depending on conditions, 

either even-aged or uneven-aged silvicultural treatments may be compatible with the management 

objectives for these areas. 

MA15-13 Timber salvage (wood fiber objectives) of trees killed by wildfire, pest infestation or 

other natural processes should be implemented in a manner consistent with maintaining the 

resource management goals of the area. Minimize the loss of timber value where possible. 

MA15-14 The salvage, reforestation, and rehabilitation of sites within this management area 

deforested by fire, pest infestations, etc., should be a moderate priority.

MA15-15 Use prescribed fire to reduce natural fuel buildups, to treat post-harvest fuels and to 

influence vegetative development or composition when there is no market for the slash or down 

wood. 

MA15-16 Design fuelbreaks to mimic the natural characteristics of the area. On steep ground, 

design units that are operationally feasible and effective to treat fuels.

Forest Plan Standards and Guidelines

AMA-1 Provide for "old growth" fragments in watersheds where little remains. Less than 15

percent of Federal forest land in 5th

AMA-2 Forest-wide standards and guidelines provide specific measures for CWD, GTR, and 

snag retention in the matrix (regulated land). The intent of the measures must also be met in the 

AMA, but specific standards and guidelines are not prescribed for these areas. 

field watershed in late-successional forest should be 

considered as a threshold for analysis. A proposal to modify such stands should only be 

implemented following an analysis that considers the ecological function of the remaining latesuccessional forest and its location in the landscape. 

AMA-8 The AMA will produce timber as part of its program of activities consistent with these 

standards and guidelines. The rates and methods of harvest will be determined at the AMA level. 

The AMA management team will develop a strategy for ecosystem management as part of the 

AMA plan to guide implementation, restoration, monitoring and experimental activities involving 

timber sales. The strategy should contain a short-term (3 to 5 year) timber sale component and an 

assessment of long-term outputs of timber. 
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AMA-9 The intent of the Forest-wide standards and guidelines for regulated land (matrix) for 

CWD and for green tree and snag retention must be met in AMAs, but specific standards and 

guidelines are not prescribed for the AMA. 

AMA-10 Modify site treatment practices, particularly the use of fire and pesticides, and modify 

harvest methods to minimize soil and litter disturbance. Site treatments should be prescribed 

which will minimize intensive burning, unless appropriate for certain specific habitats, 

communities, or stand conditions. Prescribed fires should be planned to minimize the 

consumption of litter and CWD. Minimize soil and litter disturbance that may occur as a result of 

yarding and operation of heavy equipment, and reduce the intensity and frequency of site 

treatments. Soil compaction, and removal or disturbance of humus layers and CWD, may impact 

populations of fungi and arthropods. 

Healthy and Sustainable Forest Density and Structure

According to Long (1985), density management is the manipulation and control of growing stock 

to achieve specific management objectives. Stand density index (SDI) (Reineke 1933) was used 

to develop guidelines for maintaining stand density within a range where individual tree growth 

rates would be optimized, and mortality would be reduced. In general, maintaining the stand 

between 30 percent of maximum SDI (approximate onset of inter-tree competition) and 50 

percent of maximum SDI (zone below onset of competition induced mortality) (Long 1985) 

allows for maintaining healthy stands while meeting a variety of management objectives.

SDI was used to characterize the site potential for ponderosa pine stockability using methods 

outlined above. The upper management zone (UMZ), or the density at which a suppressed class 

of trees begins to develop, was calculated as approximately 120 to 140 square feet of basal area 

per acre for the average diameter of ponderosa pine (12 to 24 inches) within the white fir series. 

This range corresponds well with Oliver (1995) who estimated the threshold for imminent bark 

beetle mortality in ponderosa pine at a basal area of 150 square feet per acre based on empirical 

observations and inventory data. The lower management zone (LMZ) was established at a 

density which allows for high rates of individual tree growth while still capturing a significant 

portion of site resources (inter-tree competition is present, but full site occupancy has not been 

reached). Stands managed towards the LMZ would produce trees with long crowns with large 

limbs typical of old-growth ponderosa pines, which has implications for goshawk and spotted owl 

nesting structure. For ponderosa pine in the white fir series, the LMZ would be approximately 80 

to 90 square feet of basal are per acre for this project. Table 4 displays the recommended 

stocking regime for ponderosa pine in this project in terms of SDI and basal area per acre.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Table 4. Recommended site stockability for ponderosa pine 

Average 

Stand DBH LMZ-SDI UMZ-SDI TPA LMZ TPA UMZ BA/A LMZ BA/A UMZ

6 129 215 319 531 63 104

8 129 215 191 319 67 111

10 129 215 129 215 70 117

12 129 215 93 156 73 122

14 129 215 71 119 76 127

16 129 215 56 94 78 131

18 129 215 46 76 81 134

20 129 215 38 63 83 138

22 129 215 32 53 84 141

24 129 215 27 46 86 143

26 129 215 24 40 88 146

28 129 215 21 35 89 149

30 129 215 18 31 91 151

Maximum SDI equals 430 (PP- FVS); lower management zone (LMZ) = 30% max. SDI; upper management zone (UMZ) = 

50% of max. SDI; stockability increases with increasing average stand diameter.

White fir is noted for its rapid early growth, most likely due to its ability to orient foliage to take 

maximum advantage of available sunlight, and its lack of investment in secondary chemicals to 

ward off insect and disease antagonists. It is capable of out-growing ponderosa pine on similar 

sites, and this was observed within the project area through increment coring. Based on the 

methods outlined above, the UMZ for white fir on these sites would be 160 to 180 square feet of 

basal area per acre, and the LMZ would be 100 to 115 square feet, assuming a maximum SDI of 

560 (Cochran 1983). However, stockability for white fir on these sites may be largely determined 

by mean annual precipitation and periods of prolonged drought. Cochran (1998) reported on the 

results of a white fir-level of growing stock study on the Fremont and Deschutes National Forests 

that was begun in 1983 and destroyed by mortality between 1990 and 1995 after prolonged 

drought. Mortality was severe even in plots that were thinned to 20 percent of maximum SDI. 

Mortality was attributed to root disease, spruce budworm defoliation, and fir engraver beetles. 

This author cautioned against managing for white fir on sites with mean annual precipitation 

below 32 inches even at very low densities, recommended maintaining a large component of 

ponderosa pine in the stand, and recommended managing these sites based on ponderosa pine 

stockability guides. The recent widespread increase of tree mortality rates in the western U.S. 

(van Mantgem et al. 2009), which has been attributed to regional warming and increasing 

moisture stress, also casts doubt on the ability to manage for high levels of white fir on these sites 

in the long term, especially where diseases and parasites are already causing additional stress on 

this species. 

Red fir is noted for its high maximum density in natural stands, and is reported to have one of the 

highest maximum SDI levels of any species (Reineke 1933). Based on the methods outlined 

above, the UMZ for red fir would be 230 to 300 square feet of basal area per acre, and the LMZ 

would be 150-180 square feet, assuming a maximum SDI of 800. The main concern with 

stockability of red fir in this project is the effect of root disease which deteriorates roots making 

trees more susceptible to competition. Having lost most of the historic pine component means 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

20

there are fewer species to anchor these stands against the effects of losing red fir to drought-root 

disease interactions. However, contrary to white fir, it is thought that thinning red fir could help 

reduce losses to annosus root disease (Angwin 2008).

Late-Successional Wildlife Habitats

Management for Spotted Owl Habitat

As noted in the Final Spotted Owl Recovery Plan (USFWS 2008), management of habitat in the 

dry forest landscapes of the eastern Cascades of Oregon and Washington and the southern 

Cascades in California presents a challenge in that simply designating habitat reserves within 

these fire-prone landscapes is unlikely to be effective. The Plan has three components: 

identification of existing high-quality habitat, strategic placement of fuel reduction treatments, 

and management for sustainable ecosystem processes and functions. Restoration of fire tolerance 

and historic disturbance regimes is key to achieving the Plan’s goal of having 30 to 35 percent of 

each Province in high-quality habitat patches. Management of the entire landscape is 

emphasized, with the concept of maintaining or creating high quality nesting/roosting patches 

within a matrix of stands treated to reduce risk from wildfire, insects, and disease. The high 

quality patches are not considered static in the long term, but would mover throughout the 

landscape as current patches are inevitably lost to disturbance. The matrix (65 to 70 percent 

outside of nesting/roosting patches) should act as a retardant and not a conduit to fires, insects, 

and disease.

Active management of the matrix is a high priority. The following features are recommended to 

guide these treatments:

1) Favor fire tolerant species, e.g., old ponderosa pine, and promote smaller size classes of 

these species for future recruitment of large-tree habitat

2) Retain large, old trees

3) Apply treatments unevenly within stands

4) Apply treatments unevenly among stands

5) Develop landscape-level prescriptions 

In the Hi-Grouse Planning area the element most lacking in high-quality habitat is the presence of 

large, old, fire-resistant ponderosa pines which previously dominated this landscape. Promotion 

of existing smaller size classes and establishment of pine would be necessary to meet the Plan’s 

goal of restoration of fire tolerance and large tree habitat that would “anchor” stands from one 

disturbance to the next by providing the legacies that are the slowest to develop. White fir 

understory trees can develop in a relatively short period of time compared to the 150 to 200 years 

required to develop large tree structure in ponderosa pine. 

Management for Goshawk Habitat

Management for goshawks would entail most of the same principles as discussed above for 

spotted owls. Optimum goshawk nesting habitat in the primary nest zone would be met through 

the high quality nesting/roosting patches maintained and developed for owls. Foraging habitat 

would be encouraged by the use of thinning and underburning using the recommended features 

listed above for spotted owl habitat. 
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Management of Density and Structure for Fire Resilient Conditions 

The Hi-Grouse Project would follow documented scientific principles for creating fire-resilient 

forests, and would use methods that have been shown to reduce fire severity. This section will 

discuss recent publications dealing with the concepts of fuels reduction treatments, empirical 

studies dealing with the effectiveness of fuels treatments in actual wildfires, and studies modeling 

fire severity under different treatments using research plot and stand data. The implications of 

these papers for the design of the Hi-Grouse Project will also be discussed. 

Concepts of Fire Resilience

Agee and Skinner (2005) outlined four basic principles that are most important to address in 

designing fuels reduction treatments:

1) Reduce surface fuels—this reduces the potential flame lengths, reduces tree torching, and 

allows for easier suppression.

2) Increase height to live crown (gap between surface fuels and canopy fuels)—this 

necessitates a longer flame length for tree torching.

3) Decrease crown density—this makes tree-to-tree crown fire less probable.

4) Retain big trees of fire-resistant species (i.e., pines)—this results in less mortality for the 

same fire intensity.

Increasing the proportion of fire-resistant species in a stand is an additional basic principle 

(Graham et al. 2004). In this project that would mean increasing the relative amount of 

ponderosa pine by prioritizing white fir for removal when there is a choice of species.

Thinning from below can be the most effective way to alter fire behavior, but must be followed 

up with treatment of surface fuels to offset the increased flame lengths and drier fuels in thinned 

stands (Graham et al. 1999). It is important to manage all fuels strata over time and space, and 

the most appropriate strategy is often thinning followed by prescribed fire, pile burning, or other 

mechanical treatment of surface fuels. Mechanical treatments can create a more specific desired 

stand structure than fire alone, and when followed up with slash treatment eliminate the need for 

multiple prescribed fire treatments over a period of years (Graham et al. 2004).

Peterson et al. (2005) discuss many important factors related to forest structure and hazard in dry 

forests of the western U.S. They reiterate the four basic principles from Agee and Skinner (2005) 

mentioned above. They note that the formerly open structure of frequent, low severity regimes 

lead to less insect effects, and also less potential for crown fires, due to a lack of continuity in 

horizontal and vertical fuels. There was variability on the landscape due to local climate, slope, 

aspect, and elevation. Empirical data are rare for treated versus untreated stands under extreme 

weather and on steep slopes, but these extreme conditions will require relatively higher levels of 

removal of fuels to achieve the same fire behavior objectives. They note that designing fuels 

treatments to withstand weather conditions at the 97th percentile would be the least risky option. 

Other observations related to preventing crown fire are: canopy base height should be 

considerably greater than predicted flame lengths (may need to be 20 feet or more), understory 

species (e.g., white fir) have higher canopy bulk densities leading to more canopy fuels per unit

area, and the effects of thinning can lead to increased surface winds and drying of fuels, but 

effective treatment of ladder and surface fuels should mitigate these effects.

This project would follow the principles outlined above through use of the following methods:
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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• All thinning treatments would be a thinning from below, leaving the largest trees and 

favoring the fire-resistant pines by removing primarily suppressed and intermediate tree 

classes.

• In NSO and NGH habitat, thinning would be focused around removing ladder fuels and 

competition from the remnant old trees that have the largest diameter.

• Slash from thinning treatments would be removed in whole-tree yarding, piled and 

burned, and/or broadcast burned.

• Surface fuels such as manzanita brush would be mowed, and concentrations of down 

trees from insect and disease mortality would be piled and burned.

Empirical Studies of Fuels Treatments

Several recent studies have looked at how fuels treatments have modified on-the-ground fire 

effects in treated versus untreated stands. Pollet and Omi (2002) looked at ponderosa pine stands 

on the Kootenai, Wenatchee, and Tahoe National Forests. Treated stands ranged from averages of 

64 to 132 square feet of basal area per acre, 30 to 106 trees per acre, and average diameters of 12

to 17 inches. Untreated stands ranged from averages of 100 to 132 square feet of basal area per 

acre, 234 to 504 trees per acre, and average diameters of 8 to 10 inches. The authors made the 

following conclusions:

• Stand characteristics contributed to differences in fire severity in terms of crown scorch.

• This study does not support the assertion that more open stands, such as in the ones 

studied here, experience higher fire severity. The fuel reduction overcomes any 

microclimate effects on fire behavior resulting from a more open stand.

• Removing small diameter trees (actual sizes of trees removed not given in the study, but 

could be assumed to be mainly 12 inches or less) reduces subsequent fire severity.

• Quoting from page 8: “Wildfire, prescribed fire, and mechanical thinning all reduce tree 

densities and accomplish fuel treatments. Wildfire, or natural fire, is often impracticable. 

Letting natural fires play their historical role may have unwanted effects in forests that 

have undergone major stand structural changes. Prescribed fire may be effective in 

stands that have moderate to steep slopes that preclude mechanical treatment, and in 

locations where experts can plan and implement large scale prescribed burns. 

Mechanical tree removal may work best on forests that are too densely packed to burn, 

and areas that have nearby markets for small diameter trees.” 

The Hi-Grouse Project would thin stands to average densities of 80 to 140 square feet of basal 

area per acre in areas where there is potential removal of trees 12 inches and greater, so it would 

result in similar stand structure as described above. Stands on Hi-Grouse appear to have more 

trees greater than 16 inches based on a comparison of the post-treatment average stand diameters. 

Like the treatments in this study, most (96 percent) of the trees removed would be 12 inches dbh

or less.

Omi and Martinson (2002) looked at treated versus untreated fire severity in Mississippi slash 

pine, California Douglas-fir, and ponderosa pine in Colorado and New Mexico. The study 

purposely looked only at noncommercial or precommercial treatment prescriptions, so their 

results cannot be extrapolated to all stand conditions. However, their conclusions were that the 

studied fuels treatments moderated extreme fire behavior. Height to live crown had the strongest 

correlation to fire severity, and tree height and dbh had the strongest correlation to fire resistance. 

They conclude that opening up stands can increase surface fire intensity, but by increasing the 

height to live crown and increasing the average diameter, crown fire potential is reduced. The 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

23

treatments in the Hi-Grouse Project have as their primary objective to increase the height to live 

crown and the average diameter of the stand, as well as shift species composition towards the 

more fire-resistant pines. 

Skinner et al. (2004) looked at the effects of the Cone Fire of 2002 on thinned, thinned and 

underburned, and untreated stands at the Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest in the Cascade 

Range of Northern California. The forest consisted of ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, incense 

cedar, and white fir of the inland ponderosa pine-type with a historic frequent/low-moderate 

severity fire regime. Mechanical thinning with and without slash treatment had been done prior 

to the fire to two cutting prescriptions: a late-seral, high diversity prescription (HiD) that thinned 

from below with a 16-inch dbh limit to around 90 square feet of basal area per acre, and a midseral, low diversity (LoD) prescription that thinned from above and below to a basal area of 

around 40 square feet per acre. Canopy cover post-thinning averaged 30 percent in the HiD 

treatment and 19 percent in the LoD treatment. The authors concluded:

• Differences in fire severity follow current knowledge of how stand structures and fuel 

treatments contribute to fire behavior.

• In each case there was a higher percent of mortality in the untreated stands than in the 

areas treated. Treated stands had lower fire severity than untreated, and treatments with 

follow-up prescribed fire had lower severity than no prescribed fire. Prescribed fires after 

thinning reduced surface fuels to exclude surface fire in LoD treatments; surface fire was 

still possible in the HiD treatments, but it was a very low intensity surface fire. 

It is interesting to note that even in the LoD treatment with prescribed fire, where density was 

reduced to a low level and overstory trees were removed, mortality was negligible because 

surface fuels were treated and fire-resistant trees were still left on site. In the Hi-Grouse Project, 

the prescription for thinning is very similar to the HiD treatment with prescribed fire—98 percent 

of the trees removed would be less than 16-inch dbh, and thinning would be entirely from below, 

leaving the largest pines. The residual density would actually be higher in the Hi-Grouse 

prescription.

Studies Simulating Fire Effects from Thinning and other Stand Treatments

Stephens and Moghaddas (2005) compared the response of seven silvicultural systems to 

simulated wildfire at the Blodgett Research Forest on the Westside of the Sierra Nevada in North 

Central California. Species found on these very productive sites are typical of the Sierra mixed 

conifer type. There were basically no differences in mortality by diameter class and percentile 

weather conditions for the old-growth reserve, young-growth reserve, and thin from below 

(includes an understory of small trees). The thin from below was fairly dense (210 square feet of 

basal area per acre), but average height to live crown was 33 feet, even including all trees greater 

than one inch dbh; canopy cover of 57 percent includes understory trees of which 67 percent 

would be killed even at 80th percentile weather conditions (96 percent kill at 97th percentile 

weather). It appears the relevance of this study to the Hi-Grouse Project is that thinning from 

below which increases the canopy base height and average diameter is an effective system for 

maintaining fire-resilience. The fact that this system was maintained at a relatively high basal 

area/canopy cover is reflective of the very high productivity sites at Blodgett, which may be able 

to sustain this type of density over time in the absence of fire (the majority of trees less than 20 

inches dbh were predicted to die in a wildfire in all treatments). 

Perry et al. (2004) simulated wildfire effects in ponderosa pine in central Oregon. Thinnings 

were simulated using various diameters, below which all trees would be removed. Removal of 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

24

trees less than 8 inches dbh was generally effective in preventing crown fire. However, it is not 

possible to determine from the data presented what percentage of the pretreatment ladder fuels 

were less than 8 inches in diameter. If most or all of the potential ladder fuels were less than 8 

inches, then removal of trees 8 inches and less would be a highly effective prescription; however, 

if ladder fuels were larger than 8 inches, it would not be an effective prescription. The authors 

conclude that where similar stocking and species composition and slope are found their results 

may be generalized. They go on to say that “Our findings support the argument that wide 

application of highly specific thinning rules is at best crude and at worst contraindicated in 

heterogeneous landscapes...Thinning guidelines using a relatively small diameter limit (e.g., 20 

centimeters, or 8 inches) would significantly reduce the risk of crown fire on some of our plots 

but not on others, whereas a higher diameter limit would remove more trees from some plots than 

necessary.” It would seem that the authors are arguing for a prescription that allows site-specific 

factors to be taken into account, rather than using an arbitrary diameter limit. The Hi-Grouse 

Project would remove small-diameter trees, but allows flexibility for removing larger trees where 

they act as ladder fuels (e.g., larger white firs directly underneath an old-growth Jeffrey pine); this 

would only be done outside of spotted owl territories.

Purpose and Need for Project

The purpose and need for this project is driven by the recognition of the departure in processes 

and functions of these forests compared to the historic range of variability. There is a need to 

create forest structures and species compositions that are resilient to patterns of disturbance that 

are most likely to occur given current and predicted trends for fire behavior, stand density, insects, 

and disease. Historic references serve as an approximation of the types of conditions that are 

likely to be best adapted to these disturbances, but may not be entirely representative of 

conditions that would suffer the least amount of perturbation from predicted climate change 

(warmer, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers).

The purpose and need has three main elements:

1) Increase resiliency of this area to disturbance by using methods that promote the historic 

structure and species composition that are likely to be best adapted to disturbances given 

current and future climate scenarios.

2) Promote, protect, and maintain sustainable late-successional habitat elements for species 

such as the spotted owl and goshawk by promoting resiliency to fire, insects, and disease 

on the landscape, and by culturing young trees to increase growth rates and crown 

development for future suitable habitat. 

3) Mimic natural processes through management actions that promote healthy ecological 

conditions and replicate the role of natural disturbances, such as fire. Treat heavy fuel 

loadings to reduce the threat of stand-replacing wildfire and approximate historical fire 

regimes of low intensity fire behavior that protect older forest habitat components in the 

project area, and provide for firefighter safety. 

Environmental Consequences

Mitigation and Monitoring

Design features that would mitigate potential effects to late-successional habitat are as follows:

1) No late-successional forest would be removed in this project.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

25

2) Where found within units, patches of late-successional forest consisting of predominant 

trees, high canopy cover, and/or snags and down logs would be retained.

3) No-treatment clumps would be left in all treatments to increase structural patchiness and 

retain elements of biodiversity such as snags, logs, and predominant trees in a clumped 

distribution. The amount would vary by prescription from up to 10 or 15 percent of the 

unit area, with higher amounts being left in the heavier treatments where suitable habitat 

is available. Due to the nature of the fuels treatment corridors, no-treatment clumps 

would be minimized and designed to meet specific elements of adjacent habitat. 

Emphasis would be placed on leaving clumps that provide the most late-successional 

elements within the unit, as well as habitat elements for other species.

4) Predominant trees of all species would be retained in all treatments. In rare instances it 

may be necessary to cut them for safety of workers or for equipment access, but this 

would require approval of the Forest Service contract administrator. Predominant trees 

have the following characteristics: generally taller and older than the general canopy, 

more deeply furrowed bark with plate formation (especially ponderosa pine), large limbs 

and often patchy crowns with flat tops. In ponderosa pine the bark is orange to yellow 

and composed of many puzzle-like pieces in older trees (as trees age the bark plates 

become much wider than the fissures separating them). In white fir the bark plates 

appear more vertical and depth of fissures can be equal to the width of the plates. 

Diameter is often poorly correlated with age, but most trees with these characteristics are 

24 inches dbh and larger.

5) In all treatments the largest ponderosa pine and white fir would be left. In heavy thinning 

prescriptions that would involve removing substantial amounts of true fir the following 

elements would be retained: essentially all ponderosa pine/sugar pine/white pine, predominant trees, widely spaced true fir, and no-treatment clumps.

Monitoring would include the following:

1) Walk-through monitoring of project implementation would be done by the district 

silviculturist, wildlife biologist, fuels officer, and presale forester to assess compliance 

with design features (implementation monitoring). Visits to the project by district, forest, 

regional, or provincial teams may occur as part of regular Forest Plan monitoring. 

2) Effectiveness of these types of treatments (effectiveness monitoring) in restoring 

ponderosa pine forests in this area is being addressed through current research (see 

Ritchie [2003]).

3) Reforestation monitoring would consist of first year survival surveys, third year exams, 

and fifth year exams. Results of this monitoring could trigger use of protection measures 

and/or additional planting, and manual release.

Comparison of Alternatives

Alternative 1 – No Action

Indirect Effects

The no-action alternative does not address the purpose and need for the project, because it would 

lead to a continued loss of tree species diversity and movement away from the historic/desired 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

26

species composition and structure. High stand densities and slow growth would continue the 

trends of mortality and increase the time in which smaller trees would replace the larger fireresistant trees that have recently been killed. Dense canopies in both the vertical and horizontal 

dimensions, as well as continued fuel buildup from mortality, would perpetuate the propensity 

towards tree torching and active crown fire during a wildfire event.

Historic Forest Composition and Structure/Resiliency to Disturbance. Resiliency to 

disturbance would remain low, since almost all mid-seral stands are at or above the UMZ for 

stand density. There would be continued loss of the larger ponderosa pine, which are the most 

fire-resistant trees, and which “anchor” late-successional habitat from disturbance to disturbance 

by providing a long-lived component with the ability to survive wildfire. At the high stand 

densities found in this area, the larger, older trees are often the first to die, because under stress 

they are unable to maintain their higher respiratory requirements compared to smaller trees, and 

are susceptible to bark beetles (Fettig et al. 2006). Ritchie et al. (2008) noted this mortality of the 

larger pines in northeastern California at the Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest, and this 

situation was also observed within the planning area.

Without selective removal of white fir and red fir, the trend of true fir dominance would continue 

and this area would move even further away from the conditions that existed prior to early 

logging and fire suppression, namely a pine-dominated forest in the white fir series and a 

substantial pine component within the red fir series. 

Approximately one-third of the planning area consists of early- and mid-seral true fir-dominated 

stands that have a high incidence of annosus root disease primarily as a result of past 

management. Without intervention, these areas would continue to experience mortality leading to 

increasing fuel loadings and loss of canopy cover until they would eventually reach the stand 

initiation phase in 20 to 30 years. Regeneration in these stands would be heavily dominated by 

true fir, which would perpetuate the disease on the site. 

Within the mature lodgepole that is being regenerated by the mountain pine beetle, there would 

be a stagnation of small trees infected with dwarf mistletoe and a high hazard of losing all 

advance regeneration of other species to wildfire. This advance regeneration would continue to 

develop slowly and the true fir and ponderosa pine would not be promoted in thinning to increase 

stand resiliency to mountain pine beetles in the future.

Late-Successional Habitat. No action would leave all late-successional habitat untreated, 

leaving all of this habitat at a higher hazard for loss to wildfire and insects and disease. A primary 

effect would be that larger ponderosa pine would continue to be lost to bark beetles. No action 

would not address the NSO recovery plan objectives for habitat management in dry forests, which 

specifically mentions the loss of fire-resistant species as a key concern. Also, no action would 

forgo the opportunity to promote mid- and early-seral stands in the white fir/pine and mixed 

conifer communities towards late seral conditions through thinning; this represents over 50 

percent of the planning area. 

Fuel Loadings/Fire Regime. Current trends of heavy fuel loadings would continue under no 

action due to ongoing mortality related to bark beetles, root disease, and tree suppression. Forest 

structure would not be modified from its current condition, which is conducive to high-severity 

fire, to a structure that would be conducive to non-lethal surface fire.
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Effects Related to the Key Issues. The no action alternative does not directly affect any latesuccessional habitat, but has the indirect effect of perpetuating the high risk factors that in the 

future could lead to a rapid and widespread loss.

This alternative does not address the current and future conditions in the beetle-killed lodgepole 

pine stands, since fuel loadings and stand composition are not dealt with.

Consistency with Forest Plan

No action would not be consistent with the goals for the Goosenest AMA, since restoration 

treatments that employ prescribed burning and silvicultural techniques would not be initiated.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action

Silvicultural and Fuels Treatments

Choice of Silvicultural/Fuels Prescription. Stand density, species composition, and insect and 

disease conditions determined the silvicultural prescription. Almost all stands are above 

recommended stocking levels and are not reflective of historic species composition and structure. 

Only where stands have experienced substantial mortality or had a heavy partial harvest are 

densities within the recommended range, and in these cases there is still a need for treatment to 

re-establish ponderosa pine due to root disease issues with true fir. 

Thinning from below would be used to increase the proportion of ponderosa, sugar, and white 

pine by selective removal of true fir where possible. This treatment would increase diameter 

growth and crown development leading to increased resistance to fire and future nesting trees for 

raptors. It would also raise the height to live crown, reducing the potential for tree torching 

during a wildfire or a prescribed burn. Techniques of variable density would be employed to 

prevent the creation of uniform stands with little contrast. 

Ponderosa pine restoration and re-establishment treatments would use a heavy thinning from 

below with under-planting of widely-spaced ponderosa pine and sugar pine to create a twolayered stand. Eventually the pines would come to dominate the sites as the white fir succumbs 

to the continued effects of root disease.

Mechanical removal of smaller trees and mechanical piling of heavy fuel concentrations in this 

entry would allow for the use of prescribed under-burning post-treatment, and for the use of 

maintenance burning in the future either as a prescribed burn or as prescribed natural fire 

(wildland fire use).

See Hi-Grouse Project draft EIS Appendix A for a more detailed description of silvicultural and 

fuels prescriptions. 

Proposed Action Treatments. Table 5 shows the silvicultural and fuels prescriptions for 

alternative 2, the proposed action.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Table 5. Prescriptions for alternative 2

Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

HTH-LP LTA/PCT2/MP/M 428

HTH-MC-Hvy LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 293

HTH-MC-lite LTA/MP 18

LTA/PCT2/MP 57

LTA/SMR/MP 20

Total 95

HTH-PP LTA/M/UB 217

LTA/MP/UB 253

LTA/PCT2/M/UB 92

Total 562

HTH-PP-Hvy LTA/MP/UB 296

LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 168

Total 464

HTH-RF LTA 86

HTH-WF-PP LTA/SMR/MP 365

LTA/SMR/MP/UB 188

Total 553

HTH-WF-PP-lite-NGH LTA/SMR/MP 94

HTH-WF-PP-lite-NSO LTA/SMR/MP 224

LPFR LTA/PCT2/MP 256

MCR LTA/PCT2/MP 103

PCT Bundle/LS 99

PCT2 HP 16

HP/MP 29

HP/UB 6

LTA/MP 44
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

LTA/MP/UB 37

Total 132

PCT2-MC LTA/MP 55

LTA/MP/M 37

Total 91

PCT2-NGH LTA/MP 56

PCT2-OG-RF HP/UB 180

PPR LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 56

LTA/SMR/MP/UB 408

Total 464

PRE LTA/PCT2/MP/M/UB 70

LTA/SMR/MP 42

LTA/SMR/MP/UB 405

Total 517

PRE2 LTA/MP 90

LTA/SMR/MP 15

Total 105

UB UB 42

Grand Total 4,843

Direct and Indirect Effects

Historic Forest Composition and Structure/Resiliency to Disturbance. Under Alternative 2, 

approximately 1,870 acres of mid-seral white fir-ponderosa pine stands would be thinned down to 

levels approaching the LMZ to reduce mortality from bark beetles (Fiddler et al. 1989; Ritchie et 

al. 2008) and to create stand structures more conducive to low-severity surface fires. These 

stands have the prescriptions of HTH-PP, HTH-PP-Hvy, HTH-WF-PP, AND HTH-MC-Hvy. In 

terms of stand density, it is expected that these effects would last for at least 20 years (Table 6). 

The year 2014 represents the effects of thinning in 2009, which is reported at the cycle boundary 

of the FVS model. Canopy cover in the pine-dominated thinnings (HTH-PP) would be reduced to 

approximately 33 percent after thinning and would be 35 percent in 2029 (Table 7). In the white 

fir-dominated thinnings (HTH-WF-PP), canopy cover would be reduced to approximately 37 

percent, and would reach 40 percent in 2029. Heavy thinnings in pine (HTH-PP-Hvy) on 464 
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30

acres would reduce canopy cover below 30 percent- these stands would provide an open forest, 

park-like structure on the landscape. 

Table 6. Current and projected basal area for alternative 2 thinning treatments (from FVS model) 

Ave. Sq. Ft. Basal Area per Acre by Year

Silviculture Prescription 2009 2014 2029

HTH-PP 183 97 111

HTH-LP 93 39 58

HTH-WF-PP 191 122 141

HTH-WF-PP-lite 203 183 210

HTH-PP-Hvy 147 72 85

PPR/PRE 188 79 96

HTH-RF 177 108 133

HTH-MC-Hvy/MCR 166 107 126

HTH-MC-lite 188 172 237

PCT2-MC 64 69 92

PCT2-NGH 113 113 143

PCT2 100 94 117

PCT2-OG-RF 154 144 171

Approximately 415 acres would receive a lighter thinning in stands that would be maintained a 

higher density for habitat for NSO and NGH (HTH-WF-PP-lite, HTH-MC-lite). These stands 

would remain at a higher hazard for bark beetles and high-severity fire due to higher levels of 

basal area and canopy cover, and in 20 years would return to pre-treatment densities or higher 

(Tables 6 and 7).

White fir-dominated stands with a high-incidence of root disease would be thinned and underplanted with pine on approximately 1,190 acres (PPR, PRE, PRE2, and MCR). Long-term 

objectives of foraging habitat for NSO and NGH and late-seral forest conditions are not attainable 

given the current species composition and disease situation. With treatment, stand densities 

would remain within the desired range for at least 20 years, and regeneration would be dominated 

by ponderosa pine—these conditions would lead to a restoration of sustainable canopy cover and 

growth of fire-resistant trees in the long-term. These stands would also provide an open forest, 

park-like structure on the landscape, with canopy cover recovering to 30 percent by 2029. 

Small-tree thinning treatments (PCT2, PCT2-MC, PCT2-NGH, PCT2-OG-RF) designed to 

promote growth, promote a higher proportion of pines in the composition, and reduce potential 

for crown fire would occur on approximately 400 acres. These treatments would maintain these 

stands within desired ranges for at least 20 years.
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Table 7. Current and projected canopy cover for alternative 2 thinning treatments (from FVS model)

Ave. Canopy Cover per Acre by Year

Silviculture Prescription 2009 2014 2029

HTH-PP 54 33 35

HTH-LP 38 15 20

HTH-WF-PP 61 37 40

HTH-WF-PP-lite 53 45 47

HTH-PP-Hvy 49 22 24

PPR/PRE 55 22 30

HTH-RF 51 29 32

HTH-MC-Hvy/MCR 64 41 45

HTH-MC-lite 61 53 59

PCT2-MC 16 14 19

PCT2-NGH 36 29 32

PCT2 40 32 35

PCT2-OG-RF 41 29 32

Late-Successional Habitat. Direct effects of alternative 2 include light thinnings designed to 

reduce ladder fuels in approximately 415 acres of mid-late seral white fir-ponderosa stands that 

were identified as habitat for NSO and NGH. Alternative 2 avoids treatment of higher quality 

NSO-NR habitat. There would be no removal of late-successional forest in this alternative.

Indirect effects of alternative 2 include the promotion of pole-sized and small tree stands towards 

mid- and late-seral stages through thinning to create more durable structure and species 

composition. Ponderosa pine would be promoted in thinning to increase fire-resistance and future 

large-tree structure in accordance with the recovery plan for the northern spotted owl. Another 

long-term benefit of thinning would be the opening up of very dense areas to encourage growth of 

understory shrub and herbaceous species to increase overall biodiversity. Thinned areas, small 

openings, and un-thinned clumps in close proximity mimics historic stand conditions and provide 

for species diversity. 

Approximately 900 acres of mid- and late-seral stands would remain untreated in this alternative.

Fuel Loadings/Fire Regime. Alternative 2 would directly reduce fuel loadings through removal 

of smaller trees in thinning treatments, piling and burning of hazardous fuels in stands dominated 

by true firs and lodgepole pine, and under-burning where ponderosa pine would be a substantial 

component of the residual stand. Indirectly, this alternative would prevent fuel buildup from 

future suppression-related mortality and mortality due to insects and disease.

Thinnings and fuels treatments would follow the principles of fuel reduction treatments outlined 

above (see “Desired Condition”). The main point is that the complete fuels profile from surface 

fuel loadings to ladder fuels to canopy fuels would be treated in all thinning prescriptions. Given 

the landscape approach of this alternative, the overall effect would be to allow the re-introduction 

of fire into the ecosystem, either through controlled burns or through wildland fire use. 

Suppression would still be a strong consideration for fire starts, but there would be more options 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

32

to allow fires to be monitored and allowed to burn for beneficial effects while still protecting 

areas of dense habitat.

Effects Related to the Key Issues. 

Issue #1: The proposed activities could remove the best remaining wildlife habitat for species 

located within the project area, including northern spotted owl and northern goshawks.

Indicators: Acres treated in nesting/roosting (NSO-NR) and foraging habitats (NSO-F), and basal 

area maintained.

Alternative 2 avoids treatment in any higher quality NSO-NR habitat. Some low quality NSONR would be treated with a light thinning that would retain essentially all of the existing upper 

canopy cover and 180 square feet of basal area per acre. Also, some NSO-NR habitat in red fir 

would have hand thinning of understory trees followed by under-burning. 

Thinning in NSO-F habitat would cause a degradation or downgrading of habitat in some units 

(HTH-WF-PP-lite, HTH-WF-PP), and a removal of foraging habitat in others (PPR, PRE, PRE2, 

MCR). The lighter thinnings may reduce canopy cover below 40 percent in the short term, but 

would also improve some aspects of foraging by allowing owls to maneuver better through stands 

that are currently very dense. 

See Wildlife BA/BE for acres treated in NR and F habitat and their effects (degradation, 

downgrading, removal) by alternative.

Issue #2: In order to improve defensible space, more lodgepole pine should be treated.

Indicators: Acres treated and treatment type.

Alternative 2 would treat approximately two-thirds of the beetle-killed lodgepole pine area (684 

acres) on the west side of the planning area. Treatments are designed to reduce fuel loadings 

from the mortality and promote a stand composition of small trees that would be more resilient to 

the mountain pine beetle in the future.

Consistency with Forest Plan

Alternative 2 would be consistent with the goals established for the Goosenest AMA. Prescribed 

burning, thinning, and pine restoration treatments would be used to improve forest health and 

promote sustainable late-successional forests in both the short and long term. A landscape 

approach would be used to restore disturbance processes and patterns more typical of historic 

conditions before widespread changes resulting from logging and fire-suppression. Timber 

production would occur as a by-product of these restoration treatments, but would not be a 

primary objective, and this would also be consistent with the goals for the AMA.

Alternative 2 would be consistent with S&G 21-11. Silvicultural prescriptions were developed 

that addressed both short- and long-term objectives for habitat for late-successional species. 

Many areas would be left un-treated or would be treated with a light thinning to maintain canopy 

cover and stand density in the short term. Other areas would receive heavier thinnings and reestablishment of ponderosa pine in order to provide for durable habitat in the long term.

Alternative 2 would be consistent with S&G 21-58. Forest health would be improved in both the 

short and long term, and incidence of diseases such as annosus root disease and dwarf mistletoe 

in true fir would be reduced.
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Alternative 2 would be consistent with S&G 6-4. This watershed is currently comprised of 15 

percent or less late-successional forest, and all late-successional patches would be retained.

Alternative 3 

Silvicultural and Fuels Treatments

Choice of Silvicultural/Fuels Prescription. Alternative 3 would use less intensive thinning 

prescriptions and a 20-inch diameter limit in all stands, and would eliminate units that had the

ponderosa pine/mixed conifer restoration and re-establishment prescriptions. There would be no 

created openings, except in stands currently with a higher proportion of pine, where the objective 

is create small opening for goshawk foraging that would not be planted. This alternative places 

less emphasis on increasing the proportion of ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and white pine on the 

landscape, and maintains more area of untreated mid/late-successional habitat for wildlife than 

the proposed action. Use of under-burning without thinning is increased by over 400 acres in this 

alternative, since these stands would not have a viable thinning operation under a less intensive 

prescription. Total treatment acres are reduced from 4,843 acres in the proposed action to 3,354 in 

this alternative. Natural fuel loadings would not be treated with machine piling. 

See Hi-Grouse Project draft EIS Appendix A for a more detailed description of silvicultural and 

fuels prescriptions. 

Alternative 3 Treatments

Table 8 shows the silvicultural and fuels prescriptions for alternative 3.

Table 8. Prescriptions for alternative 3

Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

HTH-LP LTA/PCT2/MP/M 428

HTH-MC-lite LTA 56

LTA/PCT2 204

LTA/PCT2/UB 35

Total 295

HTH-PP-lite LTA/M/UB 217

LTA/PCT2 58

LTA/UB 314

Total 590

HTH-RF-lite LTA 86

HTH-WF-PP-lite LTA/SMR 719

LPFR LTA/PCT2 256
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

PCT Bundle/LS 99

PCT2 HP 46

HP/UB 6

LTA 44

LTA/UB 37

Total 132

PCT2-MC LTA 55

LTA/M 37

Total 91

PCT2-OG HP/UB 180

PCT2-OG-RF HP/UB 180

UB UB 478

Grand Total 3,354

Direct and Indirect Effects

Historic Forest Structure and Composition/Resiliency to Disturbance. Under alternative 3, 

approximately 1,690 acres of mid-seral white fir-ponderosa pine stands would be thinned down to 

levels approaching the UMZ to reduce mortality from bark beetles and to create stand structures 

more conducive to low-severity surface fires. These stands have the prescriptions of HTH-PPlite, HTH-WF-PP-lite, HTH-RF-lite, and HTH-MC-lite. In terms of stand density, it is expected 

that these effects would be reduced and short-lived compared to the proposed action (Table 9), 

because the target UMZ basal area is generally not reached due to the 20-inch diameter limit, and 

the stands are projected to be well above the UMZ by 2029. The year 2014 represents the effects 

of thinning in 2009, which is reported at the cycle boundary of the FVS model. Canopy cover in 

the pine-dominated thinnings (HTH-PP-lite) would be reduced to approximately 44 percent after 

thinning and would be 47 percent in 2029 (Table 10). In the white fir-dominated thinnings (HTHWF-PP-lite), canopy cover would be reduced to approximately 53 percent, and would increase 

slightly in 2029. 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Table 9. Current and projected basal area for alternative 3 thinning treatments (from FVS model)

Ave. Sq. Ft. Basal Area per Acre by Year

Silviculture Rx 2009 2014 2029

HTH-LP 93 39 58

UB 153 151 185

HTH-PP-lite 174 145 170

HTH-WF-PP-lite 200 191 216

HTH-RF-lite 177 176 213

HTH-MC-lite 148 153 186

PCT2-MC 64 69 92

PCT2 100 94 117

PCT2-OG-RF 154 144 171

Small-tree thinning treatments (PCT2, PCT2-MC, PCT2-NGH, PCT2-OG-RF) designed to 

promote growth, promote a higher proportion of pines in the composition, and reduce potential 

for crown fire would occur on approximately 400 acres. These treatments would maintain these 

stands within desired density ranges for at least 20 years.

Alternative 3 would not treat the approximately 1,200 acres of mid-seral white fir that has a high 

incidence of annosus root disease that would be treated under alternative 2. It is highly likely that 

over the next 20 to 30 years these stands will in essence be regenerated by the effects of the root 

disease in conjunction with fir engraver beetles which commonly attack white fir weakened by 

disease and/or drought. Since there is little or no ponderosa pine seed source in these stands, the 

resulting regeneration is also expected to be white fir, which would perpetuate the disease on the 

site. As mortality continues to occur, fuel loadings would reach high levels leading to concerns 

over resistance to control for fire suppression forces, and to potential for lethal surface fires and 

tree torching within the stands.

Table 10. Current and projected canopy cover for alternative 3 thinning treatments (from fvs model)

Ave. Canopy Cover per Acre by Year

Silviculture Rx 2009 2014 2029

HTH-LP 38 15 20

UB 49 48 53

HTH-PP-lite 53 44 47

HTH-WF-PP-lite 60 53 54

HTH-RF-lite 51 46 49

HTH-MC-lite 55 52 55

PCT2-MC 16 14 19

PCT2 40 32 35

PCT2-OG-RF 41 29 32
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

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Late-Successional Habitat. Direct effects of alternative 3 include light thinnings designed to 

reduce ladder fuels in approximately 233 acres of mid-late seral white fir-ponderosa stands that 

were identified as habitat for NSO and NGH. Alternative 3 avoids treatment of higher quality 

NSO-NR habitat. There would be no removal of late-successional forest in this alternative.

Indirect effects of alternative 3 include the promotion of pole-sized and small tree stands towards 

mid- and late-seral stages through thinning to create more durable structure and species 

composition. Ponderosa pine would be promoted in thinning to increase fire-resistance and future 

large-tree structure in accordance with the recovery plan for the northern spotted owl. Positive 

effects of reducing stand density on ponderosa pine would be less than under alternative 2. 

Another long-term benefit of thinning would be the opening up of very dense areas to encourage 

growth of understory shrub and herbaceous species to increase overall biodiversity. Thinned 

areas, small openings, and un-thinned clumps in close proximity mimics historic stand conditions 

and provide for species diversity. 

Approximately 2,000 acres of mid- and late-seral stands would remain untreated in this 

alternative.

Fuel Loadings/Fire Regime. On a landscape level, alternative 3 would not result in the breakup 

of the horizontal and vertical continuity of fuels as much as alternatives 2 and 4. Since less 

canopy would be removed in light thinning prescriptions, potential for tree torching and active 

crown fire would be higher. Lack of machine piling would reduce options for re-introduction of 

fire through controlled burn or wildland fire use, and compromise the strategy of protecting latesuccessional habitat by designing effective treatments around the habitat blocks. The resulting 

fire regime would be closer to the historic low severity surface fire, but would still have potential 

to escalate to lethal surface and/or crown fire during weather periods conducive to high fire 

behavior.

Effects Related to the Key Issues. 

Issue #1: The proposed activities could remove the best remaining wildlife habitat for species 

located within the project area, including northern spotted owl and northern goshawks.

Indicators: Acres treated in nesting/roosting (NSO-NR) and foraging habitats (NSO-F), and basal 

area maintained.

Alternative 3 avoids tree removal in any NSO-NR habitat. Some NSO-NR habitat in red fir 

(approximately 180 acres) would have hand thinning of 8 inch dbh and smaller understory trees 

followed by under-burning.

Thinning in NSO-F habitat would avoid a removal or downgrading of habitat since heavier 

thinning treatments were dropped and all thinning would leave approximately 180 square feet of 

basal area per acre in the white fir-ponderosa pine stands, and these light thinnings would 

maintain canopy cover above 50 percent. 

See Wildlife BA/BE for acres treated in NR and F habitat and their effects (degradation, 

downgrading, removal) by alternative.

Issue #2: In order to improve defensible space, more lodgepole pine should be treated.

Indicators: Acres treated and treatment type.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

37

Alternative 3, like alternative 2 would treat approximately two-thirds of the beetle-killed 

lodgepole pine area (684 acres) on the west side of the planning area. Treatments are designed to 

reduce fuel loadings from the mortality and promote a stand composition of small trees that 

would be more resilient to the mountain pine beetle in the future. However, since machine piling 

would be eliminated and prescribed burning is not feasible due to heavy fuel loads and 

preponderance of small trees, surface fuel loadings would remain higher than under alternatives 2 

and 4.

Consistency with Forest Plan

Alternative 3 would be consistent with the goals established for the Goosenest AMA, although 

the lack of a variety of different prescriptions designed to address site-specific conditions in the 

long-term limits the application of silvicultural methods for restoration. Prescribed burning and 

thinning treatments would be used to improve forest health and promote sustainable latesuccessional forests in both the short and long term. A semi-landscape approach would be used to 

restore disturbance processes and patterns more typical of historic conditions before widespread 

changes resulting from logging and fire-suppression. Timber production would occur as a byproduct of these restoration treatments, but would have limited economic feasibility, and most 

treatments would require an investment of appropriated funds to complete. 

Alternative 3 would be less consistent with S&G 21-11 than alternatives 2 and 4. Areas would be 

left un-treated or would be treated with a light thinning to maintain canopy cover and stand 

density in the short term. Heavier thinnings and re-establishment of ponderosa pine designed to 

provide for durable habitat in the long term would not take place in this alternative.

Alternative 3 would be less consistent with S&G 21-58 than alternatives 2 and 4. Forest health 

would be improved in both the short term, and incidence of diseases such as annosus root disease 

and dwarf mistletoe in true fir would be reduced, but the duration of effects would be much 

shorter and the most serious disease problems would not be dealt with.

Alternative 3 would be consistent with S&G 6-4. This watershed is currently comprised of 15 

percent or less late-successional forest, and all late-successional patches would be retained.

Alternative 4 

Silvicultural and Fuels Treatments

Choice of Silvicultural/Fuels Prescription. Alternative 4 would eliminate units with heavier 

thinning prescriptions in second-growth white fir-ponderosa pine stands within NSO critical 

habitat, and would eliminate the ponderosa pine/mixed conifer restoration and re-establishment 

treatments throughout the planning area. Otherwise, prescriptions from the proposed action 

would be carried through to this alternative, but there would be no created openings, except in 

stands currently with a higher proportion of pine, where the objective is create small opening for 

goshawk foraging that would not be planted. This alternative places less emphasis on increasing 

the proportion of ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and white pine on the landscape, and maintains 

more area of untreated mid/late-successional habitat for wildlife than proposed action. It also 

does not treat the areas with serious root disease, the PPR, PRE, PRE2, and MCR prescriptions in 

the proposed action. Natural fuel loadings would be treated with machine piling where necessary 

to allow the use of prescribed fire and reduce current heavy loadings in true fir-dominated stands.

See Hi-Grouse Project draft EIS Appendix A for a more detailed description of silvicultural and 

fuels prescriptions.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

38

Alternative 4 Treatments. Table 11 shows the silvicultural and fuels prescriptions for alternative 

4.

Table 11. Prescriptions for alternative 4

Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

HTH-LP LTA/PCT2/MP/M 728

HTH-MC-Hvy LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 239

HTH-PP LTA/M/UB 217

LTA/MP/UB 253

LTA/PCT2/M/UB 92

LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 58

Total 621

HTH-PP-Hvy LTA/MP/UB 296

LTA/PCT2/MP/UB 109

Total 405

HTH-RF-lite LTA 86

HTH-WF-PP LTA/SMR/MP 365

LTA/SMR/MP/UB 188

Total 553

HTH-WF-PP-lite-NGH LTA/SMR/MP 94

HTH-WF-PP-LITE-NSO LTA/PCT2/MP 256

LPFR LTA/PCT2/MP 256

PCT Bundle/LS 99

PCT2 HP 16

HP/MP 29

HP/UB 6

LTA/MP 44

LTA/MP/UB 37

Total 132
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

39

Silvicultural Rx Fuels Rx Total

PCT2-MC LTA/MP 55

LTA/MP/M 37

Total 91

PCT2-NGH LTA/MP 56

PCT2-OG-RF HP 180

UB UB 42

Grand Total 3,654

Direct and Indirect Effects

Historic Forest Structure and Composition/Resiliency to Disturbance. Under alternative 4, 

approximately 1,820 acres of mid-seral white fir-ponderosa pine stands would be thinned down to 

levels approaching the LMZ to reduce mortality from bark beetles and to create stand structures 

more conducive to low-severity surface fires. These stands have the prescriptions of HTH-PP, 

HTH-PP-Hvy, HTH-WF-PP, and HTH-MC-Hvy and are the same as alternative 2. In terms of 

stand density, it is expected that these effects would last for at least 20 years (Table 9). Canopy

cover in the pine-dominated thinnings (HTH-PP) would be reduced to approximately 33 percent 

after thinning and would be 35 percent in 2029 (Table 10). In the white fir-dominated thinnings 

(HTH-WF-PP), canopy cover would be reduced to approximately 37 percent, and would reach 40 

percent in 2029. Heavy thinnings in pine (HTH-PP-Hvy) on 405 acres would reduce canopy 

cover below 30 percent—these stands would provide an open forest, park-like structure on the 

landscape.

Small-tree thinning treatments (PCT2, PCT2-MC, PCT2-NGH, PCT2-OG-RF) designed to 

promote growth, promote a higher proportion of pines in the composition, and reduce potential 

for crown fire would occur on approximately 460 acres. These treatments would maintain these 

stands within desired density ranges for at least 20 years.

Like alternative 3, alternative 4 would not treat the approximately 1,200 acres of mid-seral white 

fir that has a high incidence of annosus root disease that would be treated under the proposed 

action (alternative 2). It is highly likely that over the next 20 to 30 years these stands will in 

essence be regenerated by the effect of the root disease in conjunction with fir engraver beetles 

which commonly attack white fir weakened by disease and/or drought. Since there is little or no 

ponderosa pine seed source in these stands, the resulting regeneration is also expected to be white 

fir, which would perpetuate the disease on the site. As mortality continues to occur, fuel loadings 

would reach high levels leading to concerns over resistance to control for fire suppression forces, 

and to potential for lethal surface fires and tree torching within the stands.

Late-Successional Habitat. Direct effects of alternative 4 include light thinnings designed to 

reduce ladder fuels in approximately 165 acres of mid-late seral white fir-ponderosa stands that 

were identified as habitat for NSO and NGH. Alternative 4 avoids treatment of higher quality 

NSO-NR habitat. There would be no removal of late-successional forest in this alternative.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

40

Indirect effects of alternative 4 include the promotion of pole-sized and small tree stands towards 

mid- and late-seral stages through thinning to create more durable structure and species 

composition. Ponderosa pine would be promoted in thinning to increase fire-resistance and future 

large-tree structure in accordance with the recovery plan for the northern spotted owl. Another

long-term benefit of thinning would be the opening up of very dense areas to encourage growth of 

understory shrub and herbaceous species to increase overall biodiversity. Thinned areas, small 

openings, and un-thinned clumps in close proximity mimics historic stand conditions and provide 

for species diversity. 

Approximately 2,000 acres of mid- and late-seral stands would remain untreated in this 

alternative.

Fuel Loadings. Alternative 4 would directly reduce fuel loadings through removal of smaller 

trees in thinning treatments, piling and burning of hazardous fuels in stands dominated by true firs 

and lodgepole pine, and under-burning where ponderosa pine would be a substantial component 

of the residual stand. Indirectly, this alternative would prevent fuel buildup from future 

suppression-related mortality and mortality due to insects and disease. However, unlike 

alternative 2 this alternative would continue the trend of heavy fuel buildup in the approximately 

1,200 acres of root disease infested white fir.

Thinnings and fuels treatments would follow the principles of fuel reduction treatments outlined 

above (see “Desired Condition” section). The main point is that the complete fuels profile from 

surface fuel loadings to ladder fuels to canopy fuels would be treated in all thinning prescriptions. 

Given the semi-landscape approach of this alternative, the overall effect would be to allow the reintroduction of fire into the ecosystem in treated areas, either through controlled burns or through 

wildland fire use. Suppression would still be a strong consideration for fire starts, but there 

would be more options to allow fires to be monitored and allowed to burn for beneficial effects 

while still protecting areas of dense habitat.

Effects Related to the Key Issues. 

Issue #1: The proposed activities could remove the best remaining wildlife habitat for species 

located within the project area, including northern spotted owl and northern goshawks.

Indicators: Acres treated in nesting/roosting (NSO-NR) and foraging habitats (NSO-F), and basal 

area maintained.

Alternative 4 avoids treatment in any higher quality NSO-NR habitat. Some low quality NSONR would be treated with a light thinning that would maintain essentially all of the existing 

canopy cover and 180 square feet of basal area per acre. Also, some NSO-NR habitat in red fir 

would have hand thinning of understory trees followed by under-burning. 

Thinning in NSO-F habitat would cause a degradation or downgrading of habitat in some units 

(HTH-WF-PP). These thinnings may reduce canopy cover slightly below 40 percent in the short

term, but would also improve some aspects of foraging by allowing owls to maneuver better 

through stands that are currently very dense. 

See Wildlife BA/BE for acres treated in NR and F habitat and their effects (degradation, 

downgrading, removal) by alternative.

Issue #2: In order to improve defensible space, more lodgepole pine should be treated.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

41

Indicators: Acres treated and treatment type.

Alternative 4 would treat essentially all of the beetle-killed lodgepole pine area (984 acres) on the 

west side of the planning area. Treatments are designed to reduce fuel loadings from the 

mortality and promote a stand composition of small trees that would be more resilient to the 

mountain pine beetle in the future.

Consistency with Forest Plan

Alternative 4 would be consistent with the goals established for the Goosenest AMA. Prescribed 

burning, thinning, and pine restoration treatments would be used to improve forest health and 

promote sustainable late-successional forests in both the short and long term. A semi-landscape 

approach would be used to restore disturbance processes and patterns more typical of historic 

conditions before widespread changes resulting from logging and fire-suppression. Timber 

production would occur as a by-product of these restoration treatments, but would not be a 

primary objective, and this would also be consistent with the goals for the AMA.

Alternative 4 would be less consistent with S&G 21-11 than alternative 2. Heavier thinnings and 

re-establishment of ponderosa pine designed to provide for durable habitat in the long term would 

not take place in this alternative.

Alternative 4 would be less consistent with S&G 21-58 than alternative 2. Forest health would be 

improved in both the short and long term in treated areas, but the most serious disease problems 

would not be dealt with.

Alternative 4 would be consistent with S&G 6-4. This watershed is currently comprised of 15 

percent or less late-successional forest, and all late-successional patches would be retained.

Cumulative Effects of Each Alternative

Alternative 1 – No Action

Within the planning area, timber harvest and fire suppression have been the dominant 

management activities having a cumulative effect on vegetation. The trends that have developed 

under this management regime would continue under no action, and would contribute to the 

adverse forest health conditions discussed under large-scale assessments such as ICBEMP and the 

NSO Recovery Plan. 

Action Alternatives

Past Actions and their Effect on Current Conditions. As mentioned above under “Existing 

Condition,” past timber harvest and fire suppression has resulted in conditions of extreme 

departure from historic conditions. Since these stands have been affected by fire suppression, 

they are now thought to be unrepresentative of most natural stand development processes under a 

frequent low-severity to mixed-severity fire regime. Without intervention, it is highly unlikely 

that historic stand structures and species composition would develop in either the short or long

term.

Contrasting Effects of Proposed Actions with Past Actions. The proposed action and other 

action alternatives differ from previous actions in that tree removals would not be focused on the 

largest and most fire-resistant trees. All treatments are designed to leave the largest trees and 

improve the composition of fire- and disease-resistant species. Rather than eliminating fire, 

prescribed fire is an integral part of these proposals. 
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

42

Effects of Ongoing and Reasonably Foreseeable Actions. Similar restoration projects are being 

carried out within the Goosenest AMA and other parts of this watershed. In conjunction with 

these projects, it is likely that the potential for large uncharacteristic wildfires and bark beetle 

outbreaks in ponderosa pine and white fir would be reduced. Management options for the future 

would be increased. Wildland fire use may become more of an option, and the ability to 

implement the northern spotted owl recovery plan would be improved.

Combined Effects from Past, Proposed, Ongoing and Foreseeable Actions. Proposed, 

ongoing, and foreseeable actions are all geared towards restoring ecosystem structure and 

processes, and undoing the effects of most of the previous management consequences, whether 

they were intentional or not. It is expected that the combined effects would be positive in terms 

of maintaining healthy forests and the natural and human communities that depend on them.

Compliance with Forest Plan and Other Regulatory Direction

NFMA Consistency

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) and the implementing regulations require specific 

findings to be made when implementing the Forest Plan. Those findings include the following.

Suitability for Timber Production. Harvest units proposed on suitable lands have been reviewed 

by a certified silviculturist and determined that they are located on suitable lands and are capable 

of being regenerated within 5 years of timber harvest, although regeneration harvest is not being 

proposed in this project.

Regeneration Harvest and Even-aged Management. The Klamath NF Forest Plan direction 

approves use of even-aged silvicultural systems on suitable lands within the management areas 

proposed for harvest in this project. The ID Team and the silviculturist have determined that 

prescribing even-aged systems on specified units is appropriate, given the current even-aged 

structure and white fir and red fir vegetation series, and the desire to re-establish and promote 

pines where possible. Treatments in this entry would provide future management options, 

including possibly the implementation of uneven aged systems on suitable sites. Regeneration 

harvest is not being proposed in this project, but rather under-planting of ponderosa pine and 

sugar pine would be done in alternative 2 to shift the composition towards these more diseaseresistant species in the long term. 

Vegetative Manipulation. NFMA provides that timber harvest and other silvicultural practices 

shall be used to prevent damaging population increases of forest pest organisms, and treatments 

shall not make stands susceptible to pest-caused damage levels inconsistent with management 

objectives. Harvest of trees provides social and economic benefit, reduces potential losses 

attributed to insects and diseases, and manipulates forest vegetation to enhance wildlife habitat 

and/or meet associate objectives. The silvicultural prescription which directs the vegetative 

management process is designed to meet Forest Plan goals, objectives, and guidelines for forest 

productivity and wildlife habitat improvement while achieving ecosystem-based management. 

Improvement harvest and commercial thinning are proposed for some stands in order to improve 

tree vigor of the desired leave trees and to maintain or enhance the plant diversity. NFMA

provides for these treatments where they increase the growth rate of residual trees, favor 

commercially valuable species, favor species valuable to wildlife, or achieve some other multipleuse objective.
Silviculture Report Hi-Grouse Project EIS

43

Regeneration Potential. NFMA specifies, "timber would be harvested from national forest 

system lands only where there is assurance that such lands can be adequately stocked within five 

years after final harvest" (16 USC 1604). Determination of adequate stocking is based on 

reforestation surveys conducted within a 5-year period following harvest or site preparation. 

Results of these stocking surveys are compared with the desired and minimum levels identified in 

a site-specific silvicultural prescription written for each treatment area. Restocking is considered 

satisfactory when the harvest area contains the minimum number, distribution, and species 

composition of vegetation specified in the prescription. There is no final harvest proposed in this 

project, and as discussed above, planting would be done with the objective of creating twolayered stands with the planted trees eventually taking over site occupancy.

Consistency with 1995 Forest Plan

Goosenest AMA. This project lies entirely within the Goosenest AMA. All proposed treatments 

in all action alternatives are consistent with Forest Plan standards for the Goosenest AMA, and 

meet or exceed the standards and guidelines for vegetative management and timber management.

Management Area 15 – Partial Retention VQO. Activities would not dominate the viewed 

landscape. Thinning units would meet the partial retention objective since most canopy cover 

would remain. No-cut areas within units would reduce the amount of visual disturbance as seen 

from foreground and middle-ground areas by leaving a non-uniform texture to the canopy. Slash 

piles and logging disturbance would be noticeable from foreground areas for several years, but 

would return to naturally appearing conditions generally within 3 years. Eventually thinned units 

would develop pleasing views into stands of larger trees from roadside views.

Fuel treatment corridors would be evident in the short term, but in the long-run would lead to a 

more naturally appearing landscape with better views from roadways of the surrounding 

vegetation and landscape.

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