4 Affected Environment
 

Staff working with neighboring landowners to conduct sage grouse surveys on their lands. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

This chapter describes the characteristics and 

resources of the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge. It specifically addresses physical, biological, 

cultural, and socioeconomic resources, as well as 

recreational opportunities. 

4.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 

The following sections describe physical 

environmental resources that may be impacted 

by the implementation of the CCP. Physical 

characteristics include climate, physiography, 

geography, soils, water resources, and the effects of 

global warming. 

CLIMATE 

The climate in the Centennial Valley is characterized 

by long, cold winters and short, mild summers. 

Climatic data have been collected by refuge staff 

at Lakeview, Montana (6,690 feet mean sea level) 

since July 1, 1948. The data presented below was 

analyzed through December 31, 2005. This data 

was submitted to and compiled by the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration—Western 

Regional Climate Center. Information and data (such 

as precipitation and temperature) presented below 

are based on this long-term dataset as analyzed by 

refuge staff. 

Annual precipitation is highly variable, both 

temporally and spatially, in the Centennial Valley. 

Mean annual precipitation at Lakeview, Montana, is 

19.69 inches (range: 10.26 inches in 2002 to 27.0 inches 

in 1970). Mean annual precipitation has declined 

significantly between 1948 and 2005 (figure 11). In 

addition, precipitation in the months of December 

and January has declined significantly during this 

same time period (figure 11); no other months showed 

statistically significant changes in precipitation. 

May and June are typically the wettest months. 

Precipitation during these months comprises 27% of 

the annual average. 

Air temperature is similarly variable throughout 

the Centennial Valley. Mean annual air temperature 

at Lakeview, Montana is 34.8 degrees Fahrenheit 

(°F) (range: 31.49° in 1985 to 37.68° in 1981) (fi gure 

12). January is typically the coldest month (mean air 

temperature 11.21°F) and July is the warmest month 

(mean air temperature 58.59°F). Mean annual air 

temperature between 1948 and 2005 did not change 

significantly. However, mean temperatures in March 

and April have increased signifi cantly (figure 12); no 

other months showed significant changes during this 

time period. This indicates that spring temperatures 

are warmer sooner than in recent decades. The 

statistically significant increase in March and April 

temperatures may be an indication of the climate 

change being documented globally. 
64 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 

y = -0.0673x + 152.63 

R 2

 = 0.076 

P = 0.042 

Total Annual Precipitation 

Lakeview, MT 1949-2005 

Annual Precipitation (in) 

Year 

y = -0.0181x + 37.109 

R 2

 = 0.0846 

P = 0.030 

Total December Precipitation 

Lakeview, MT 1948-2005 

Year 

Mean December Precipitation (in)

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 

y = -0.0236x + 48.026 

R 2

 = 0.0938 

0

2

4

6

8

10

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

P = 0.022 

Year 

Mean January Precipitation (in.) 

Total January Precipitation 

Lakeview, MT 1948-2005 

Figure 11. Significant declines in annual, December, and January precipitation totals between 1945 and 2005. (Service 

data) 
Mean Annual Temperatures
 

Lakeview, MT 1949-2004
 

emperature ( F)

45
 

o

40
 

Mean Annual T

35
 

30
 

y = 0.0062x + 22.712
 25
 R2 = 0.0032
 

20
 P = 0.58
 

15
 

10
 

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
 

Year
 

Mean March Temperatures 

Lakeview, MT 1949-2005 

Year 

o emperature ( F)45 

y = 0.1395x - 253.01 

40 R 2 = 0.211 

P < 0.01 35 

30 

Mean March T 25 

20 

15 

10 

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 

Mean April Temperatures 

Lakeview, MT 1949-2005 

45 

o emperature ( F) 40 

35 

30 

Mean April T25 y = 0.0591x - 82.865 

R 2

 = 0.062 20 

P = 0.087 

15 

10 

1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 

Year 

Figure 12. Mean annual, March, and April air temperatures at Lakeview, Montana, between 1949 and 2005. 

Significant increases are shown for the months of March and April. (Service data) 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 65 
 

66 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY 

The information contained in this section was 

taken from “Centennial Valley 1820–1930 Volume 

1” (Centennial Valley Historical Society 2006) 

and information obtained from Dr. Ken Pierce. A 

detailed geologic history of the Centennial Valley 

Region was written by Mr. Rob Thomas for the 

Centennial Valley Historical Society. Portions of 

Mr. Thomas’ narrative are re-written here with 

the permission of the Centennial Valley Historical 

Society. 

The Centennial Mountains and the adjacent 

Centennial Valley are very recent topographic 

features that formed from extension and uplift of the 

earth’s crust over the last 2 million years. The crust 

of the earth in the Centennial region was heated, 

causing it to rise, spread, and crack into mountains 

and valleys. The resulting uplift of the land (and 

formation of the Centennial Mountains) has exposed 

rocks that record over 2.5 billion years of Earth 

history. 

The oldest rocks exposed in the Centennial region 

are metamorphic and igneous rocks (known by 

geologists as “basement” rocks) that formed from 

the high pressures and temperatures produced by 

collisions of continents between 2.7 and 1.7 billion 

years ago (Archean and early Proterozoic Eons) 

(O’Neill and Christiansen 2002). Roughly during 

this time, the Centennial region was part of an area 

geologists call the Dillon Block. The basement rocks 

of the Dillon Block continued to erode until about 600 

million years ago (late Proterozoic Eon). At this time, 

the western part of the North American continent 

began to break apart to form a new ocean basin. 

Approximately 520 million years ago (Cambrian 

period), a global sea-level rise flooded the Centennial 

region with shallow water, covering the eroded 

basement rocks with oceanic sedimentary deposits. 

During the Cambrian period, the North American 

continent was located near the Earth’s equator; as 

such, the water was tropical and teemed with animal 

and plant life. The hard shells of the organisms that 

lived in these waters were buried and cemented 

together to form thousands of feet of sedimentary 

rock called limestone. This limestone can be observed 

today on the steep light-colored walls on the northfacing side of the Centennial Mountains. 

Over the next 320 million years, fluctuations in sea 

level caused the deposition of marine and nonmarine 

sediment in the Centennial region. The intermittent 

tropical waters that covered the Centennial region 

finally withdrew about 200 million years ago (Jurassic 

period). Marine and nonmarine deposition resumed 

again during the remainder of the Mesozoic era, but 

the marine waters were contained in an interior 

seaway that was north/south trending (connecting 

the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean). The 

mountains along the western margin of this interior 

seaway consisted, in part, of a chain of volcanoes. The 

collision of the continental crust and the Pacifi c Ocean 

floor caused the production of liquid rock (magma and 

lava) in a process called subduction. 

Approximately 80 million years ago (Cretaceous 

period), the sedimentary rocks that were deposited 

above the basement rocks were compressed by 

this collision between the continental crust and 

the Pacific Ocean floor, forming features known as 

thrust faults. In the Centennial region, the basement 

rocks were also included in this folding and faulting, 

which helped to expose these deeply buried rocks 

at the surface. As the compression continued during 

the Cretaceous period, streams and alluvial fans 

carried gravel eastward away from the mountains 

and toward the interior seaway. The mountains also 

migrated eastward over time, causing the gravel to 

be buried and crushed by the weight of the overlying 

rock. The weight of the moving mountains caused the 

cobbles to be cemented back together—geologists 

call these deposits the Beaverhead Group. The 

deposits are well exposed near Lower Red Rock 

Lake. 

The last 50 million years (Cenozoic era) marks a 

transition from compression to extension of the 

Earth’s crust and ultimately the formation of the 

valley (or basin) and range topography that are the 

Centennial Valley and Centennial Mountains today. 

This formation of the valley and range topography 

of the Centennial region started at least 17 million 

years ago (Miocene Epoch). This type of topography 

is formed when the crust of the Earth rises and is 

pulled apart or extended to form linear mountains 

and valleys along high-angle fractures in the crust 

called normal faults. The Odell Creek Fault is an 

example of a normal fault in the Centennial Valley. 

Over the last 4 million years, westward movement 

of the North American continent caused the 

Yellowstone hot spot to move eastward and formed 

west to northwest trending mountains, like the 

Centennial Mountains (Sears and Fritz 1998; Thomas 

et al. 2000). The Centennial Mountains present today 

may have started to uplift as recently as 2 million 

years ago (Pliocene Epoch). The timing of the uplift 

is constrained by the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, a 

ground-hugging volcanic ash flow that erupted from 

the Yellowstone and Island Park area around 2.05 

million years ago (Christiansen 2001, Lanphere et 

al. 2002). The distribution pattern of this particular 

ash flow suggests that the Centennial Mountains 

could not have existed at the time of the eruption. 

As a result, the Centennial Mountain range has 

probably risen over 5,000 feet in the last 2.0 million 

years (Sonderegger et al. 1982). The faults in the 

area remain active today, with an average of 40 

earthquakes recorded each year in the Centennial 

Valley (Stickney, personal communication. through 

Mr. Thomas, 2006). 
Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 67 

The topography of the Centennial region was 

signifi cantly modified by glacial action over the last 

200,000 years (Pleistocene Epoch). Alpine glaciers 

deeply eroded the mountains to produce the rugged 

landscape of the high country and deposited glacial 

outwash gravels that built large alluvial fans along 

the northern flank of the Centennial Mountains (for 

example, the Odell Creek alluvial fan) (O’Neill and 

Christiansen 2002). 

The Red Rock lakes are pluvial lakes (formed from 

rainfall) that formed during the last glacial period 

due, in part, to increased moisture. The lakes 

have shrunk as the climate became warmer and 

drier during the last 10,000 years. As the sandy 

shorelines of the lakes became exposed, the sand was 

windblown into sand dunes, forming the sandhills 

area in the northeast corner of the Centennial Valley. 

Hot springs activity in the valley is the result of 

groundwater that is heated by the high geothermal 

gradient in the area. The heated groundwater 

migrates to the surface following active faults. 

During this glacial period, the valley was home to an 

array of Pleistocene mammals, including mammoths, 

camels, bison, horses, and saber-toothed cats. Many 

of these animals went extinct near the end of the 

Pleistocene Epoch. The first humans were in the 

valley by at least 10,500 years ago, as shown by 

radiocarbon dating of artifacts found in the valley 

(Albanese et al. 1995). 

SOILS 

Information contained in this section is taken 

from a soil survey that was conducted by the Soil 

Conservation Service in cooperation with the Red 

Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. The survey 

was completed in 1965. 

Characteristics of the soils on the refuge are 

extremely varied due to changes in parent material, 

vegetation, and the effect of climactic forces such as 

wind, water, and ice. Topography and time have also 

had important influences. Soils range in texture from 

loamy sand in the Breca series to heavy clay of the 

Castle series. The better drained soils on the fans are 

predominately loamy-textured containing variable 

amounts of gravel, cobble and stone. Soils in the 

glaciated and mountainous region vary considerably 

in depth and have a high percentage of rock fragment 

in the profile. The soil in the Centennial Mountains 

east of the Odell Creek drainage consists principally 

of carbonitic mineral. The mountainous area west 

of Odell Creek is both igneous and sedimentary in 

origin, and the soils are more clayey with less lime 

carbonate. The soils north of the Red Rock lakes 

become more sandy and have considerably less 

gravel in the profi le. 

Eleven soil association descriptions were developed 

for the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge as 

reported in the 1965 soil survey report. 

Group 1. Peat and Marsh associations: 

These are very poorly drained soils on the 

bottomlands that lie adjacent to the open water areas 

and live streams. These are represented in the soils 

survey by marshland, peat and muck, Centennial 

clay, and alluvial lands and have a 5–12 inch layer of 

peat over a clay mineral soil that is strongly gleyed 

(greenish-gray in color and oxygen-deprived due to 

high water content). 

Group 2. Lamoure and Ching associations: 

These are imperfectly to poorly drained soils on the 

bottomlands that are not as wet as the soils in group 

1. The soils are deep and vary in texture from clay 

to sandy loam. They are calcareous (consisting of or 

containing calcium carbonate), slightly to moderately 

alkaline, and have water tables within moderate 

depths of 2–5 feet from the surface. The soils common 

to this group are Bug sandy loam, Centennial clay, 

Ching loam, and Lamoure loam. 

Group 3. Arvada and Beckton associations: 

These are imperfectly drained saline-alkaline soils 

that occur on the bottomlands but usually occupy a 

slightly higher position than the associated soils in 

groups 1 and 2. The soils are fine-textured and have 

a high sodium saturation at shallow depths, which 

makes them strongly alkaline and toxic to many 

plants. Strong columnar or prismatic structure in 

the subsoil is common to these sodic soils (containing 

sodium) . They are frequently found in complex with 

many of the imperfectly drained soils in group 2. 

Group 4. Breca and Breece associations: 

These are well-drained sandy soils that occupy the 

fans and dune topography to the north of the Red 

Rock lakes. The majority of the soil is loamy sand in 

texture and erodes very easily if not protected with 

vegetative cover. They are rapidly permeable and 

responsive to light showers. 

Group 5. Sangrey and Big Elk associations: 

These are well-drained soils that occupy the 

footslopes and fans at the base of the Centennial 

Mountains. They are predominately loamy-textured 

and contain variable amounts of gravel, cobble, and 

stone. They are the most maturely developed of all 

the soils in the survey. Other soils common to this 

group are the Melville, Adel, and loamy type of 

Breece. The Adel and Breece soils are less developed 

than other soils in this group. 

Group 6. Castle soil associations: 

These are imperfectly to well-drained heavy clay 

soils that occupy both smooth fans and buckled or 

slumped landscapes in the very southwest portion of 

the refuge. They are limited in area and very slowly 

permeable. 

Group 7. Hanson and Raynesford associations: 

These are well-drained, high lime soils that occupy 
68 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

the fans, footslopes, and glacial moraines to the 

south and east of Upper Red Rock Lake. They are 

predominately loamy textured and have a high 

percentage of limestone, gravel, and cobble in the 

profile. The Snowcrest soils in this group have a thick 

dark surface. 

Group 8. Gilispie and Merino associations: 

These are well-drained upland soils that are <20 

inches deep to igneous rock (primarily Rhyolite with 

some Basalt scarps). They occupy moderately steep 

to steep rolling upland and occur in the northeast 

portion of the survey area, close to Elk Lake. 

Group 9. Skaggs soil associations: 

These are well-drained upland soils that are <20 

inches deep to limestone rock and have a high 

percentage of rock outcrop. They occupy steep to 

very steep mountainous areas to the east and south 

of Upper Red Rock Lake. 

Group 10. Loberg-Little Horn associations: 

These are well-drained forest soil areas that 

occupy steep north-facing slopes of the Centennial 

Mountains. Douglas-fir and lodepole pine are the 

dominant tree species. The soils are predominately 

more than 20 inches deep and are both loamy- and 

clayey-textured, having variable amounts of gravel, 

cobble, and stone. Other soils common to this group 

are the Whitefish soils on the glacial moraines, 

Wishard, Sapphire, Carnet, and Worock series. 

Group 11. Rockland areas: 

These are very steep mountainous areas having more 

than 50% rock outcrop that occupy the steep scarps 

of the Centennial Mountains. 

WATER RESOURCES 

Surface Water Resources 

The refuge is located in the upper (headwaters) end 

of the Red Rock River watershed. This watershed 

is the headwaters of the Missouri River. The 

refuge encompasses approximately 25,000 acres of 

natural, enhanced, and created wetlands. Upper 

and Lower Red Rock lakes have a surface water 

area of approximately 6,300 acres. These two lakes, 

along with Swan Lake and the River Marsh area, 

are remnants of a post-glacial lake that is believed 

to have covered most of the valley floor at one 

time (Ken Pierce, 2005, personal communication). 

This wetland complex has many sources of surface 

and groundwater inputs. Spring runoff plays an 

important role in the hydrology of the mountain 

creeks that flow into this wetland complex (see fi gure 

13). Major sources of input into the Upper Red Rock 

Lake include Red Rock and Tom creeks. In addition, 

Elk Springs Creek (which originates from Elk and 

Picnic springs) ultimately provides surface water 

to the Upper Red Rock Lake after the water fl ows 

through Swan Lake. The River Marsh, a wetland 

area that connects Upper and Lower Red Rock 

lakes, receives surface water input from Teepee 

Creek. Lower Red Rock Lake has Odell Creek as a 

major source of input. The outlet of the Lower Red 

Rock Lake, known as Red Rock River, fl ows west 

toward Lima Reservoir and eventually becomes the 

Beaverhead River. 

Most Upper Red Rock Lake tributaries have their 

origins to the south at the east end of the Centennial 

Mountains. Red Rock Creek begins at an elevation 

of about 8,400 feet mean sea level (here this creek 

is know as Hell Roaring Creek) and fl ows north 

and west about 13 miles to the east shore of Upper 

Red Rock Lake. Tom Creek, about 6.2 miles long, 

originates at an elevation of 7,910 feet mean sea level 

and flows northwesterly toward its junction with 

the eastern shore of Upper Red Rock Lake. Picnic 

Creek, formerly known as Hackett Creek, originates 

at two large springs on the eastern boundary of the 

refuge. In the late 1800s, homesteaders dammed 

Picnic Creek, creating Culver Pond; this pond was 

enlarged by the refuge in 1959 to 27 acres. Widgeon 

Pond (132 acres), which was created by impounding 

Picnic Creek downstream of Culver Pond in 1964, 

flows into Elk Springs Creek. MacDonald Pond (5 

acres) was created by impounding Elk Springs Creek 

near the spring heads. Elk Springs Creek fl ows into 

Swan Lake and then into the Upper Red Rock Lake. 

Odell Creek, the major source of surface water 

input for Lower Red Rock Lake, originates at an 

elevation of 9,200 feet mean sea level and fl ows north 

approximately 12 miles to the east shore of the lake. 

Other sources of input into Lower Red Rock Lake 

that originate in the Centennial Mountains and fl ow 

north into the valley include Humphrey, Duff, and 

Matsingale creeks. 

There are a few surface water inputs that fl ow 

from the north side of the Centennial Valley into 

this wetland complex. Teepee Creek originates on 

lands owned by the state of Montana and fl ows onto 

the refuge. This creek is an important source of 

groundwater recharge to the lands north of River 

Marsh (Steve Custer, Montana State University, 

personal communication). In addition, Metzel Creek 

flows into the Red Rock River just west of the Lower 

Red Rock Lake. This creek is also an important 

source to the high water table that exists north of 

Lower Red Rock Lake. 

 Water Rights Chronology 

When Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge was 

established in 1935, with a checkerboard of acquired 

private land and land reserved from public domain, 

there were numerous notices of appropriation that 

had been filed in the county courthouse. Early 

inspection reports documented evidence of ditches 

and headgates built to put water to use. Apparently, 
Red Rock Creek 175

2001 2003 2004

140

cubic feet per second 105

70

35

0

4/1 4/21 5/1 5/21 5/31 6/30 9/28 10/28

Odell Creek 160

140

2001 2003 2004

120

cubic feet per second 100
 

80
 

60
 

40
 

20
 

0

5/1 5/9 5/17 5/25 6/2 6/10 6/18 6/26 7/4 7/12 7/20 7/28 8/5 8/13 8/21 8/29 9/6 9/14 9/22 9/30 10/8 10/1610/24

Tom Creek 60

50

1995 1999 2003

cubic feet per second 40

30

20

10

0

5/1 5/10 5/19 5/28 6/6 6/15 6/24 7/3 7/12 7/21 7/30 8/8 8/17 8/26 9/4 9/13 9/22 10/1 10/10 10/19 10/28

Figure 13. Representative flow rates for Red Rock, Odell, and Tom creeks at Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge. (Service data) 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 69 
 

70 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

those facilities were allowed to deteriorate and 

refuge staff did not irrigate most of the areas for 

approximately 30 years. 

In the 1960s the refuge manager and region 1 

regional office engineers researched the water 

rights appurtenant to lands within the boundary and 

compiled a list of water rights (USFWS [No date). 

At the same time, refuge staff began to rehabilitate 

the existing irrigation systems. Between 1963 and 

1971 stream measurement devices were installed and 

points of diversion were surveyed (USFWS fi les). 

There are records of measured water use for the 

years 1963–1971 (USFWS fi les). 

Most of the refuge was designated as a wilderness 

area in 1976. There are no records of water use 

for irrigation after 1973. Many of the diversion 

structures were removed before the actual 

designation of wilderness (Gene Stroops, former 

refuge manager, personal communication). 

Lower Red Rock Lake Dam 

The original dam was built in 1930 by MFWP to 

stabilize the water level of Lower Red Rock Lake. 

In 1957 the Service constructed a second structure 

just upstream of the original dam. A dam safety 

inspection in 1982 found several serious problems. 

The Service developed a plan to rehabilitate the 

dam and change the operation to meet biological 

requirements. That plan included raising the lake’s 

water level 2 feet for part of the year. 

A new water right was needed to cover the additional 

storage. Anticipating objections from downstream 

water users whose rights were filed earlier than 

Red Rock Lakes rights, the Service worked with the 

Water Users Irrigation Company (Lima Reservoir) 

and East Bench Irrigation District to develop a 

memorandum of understanding acknowledging 

that the additional water to be stored was actually 

their water, which would be held temporarily by the 

refuge. In the memorandum of understanding, the 

Service agreed to coordinate with them about the 

timing of releases. Rehabilitation of the structure 

was completed by Ducks Unlimited in 1988. 

Tucks Slough 

This project was constructed in 1989 by Ducks 

Unlimited. Anticipating that an application for a 

new water right would receive objections from 

downstream users, the Service filed an application 

to change the place and purpose of use of 9.5 cubic 

feet per second of existing Red Rock Creek water 

rights from irrigation to storage. After a contested 

case hearing, the Montana Department of Natural 

Resources and Conservation (DNRC) approved 

the application and a permit was issued. As part of 

the change process, 750 acres were permanently 

retired from irrigation to offset the consumptive use 

associated with the new ponds. 

Montana Statewide Water Rights Adjudication 

(Basin 41A) 

In 1982 the Service filed use rights for 32,952 acrefeet for open-water areas and 25,979 acre-feet for 

marsh areas. These amounts were calculated from 

surface acreage multiplied by 3.3 foot average 

depth for open water and one foot average depth for 

shallow water and marsh habitat. In addition, based 

on the early notices of appropriation appurtenant to 

the acquired lands, claims were submitted for 32,073 

acre-feet for irrigation of 12,829 acres and for fi sh and 

wildlife purposes. There were several other minor 

claims as well. 

As of 2004, only 9% of basin 41A (located in the 

drainage area above the Clark Canyon Reservoir) 

has been examined in preparation for issuing a 

temporary preliminary decree. The Service could 

have waited for the state process to be completed. 

However, given the potential for objections alleging 

abandonment of irrigation rights, and little ability 

to protect streamflows for fish and riparian (river) 

purposes under state law, the Service opted 

to negotiate for federal reserved water rights. 

Negotiations began in 1984 and were discontinued in 

early 1986, due to personnel changes and confl icting 

priorities for the state and federal parties. In 1997 

the state of Montana requested that negotiations 

be resumed. Numerous meetings, technical work, 

and coordination with local water users culminated 

in approval of the Water Rights Compact (compact) 

between the state of Montana and the United States 

of America, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for 

the Red Rock Lakes NWR and Wilderness Area. 

The compact was signed by the state, the U.S. 

Department of the Interior and the U.S. Department 

of Justice in 1999. A second bill correcting errors in 

the consumptive use table was passed in the Montana 

legislature in 2001. 

Technical Work 

Before and during negotiations, Service hydrologists 

installed gauges, and refuge staff took water 

measurements for 3 years. Hydrologic analysis 

predicted high, average, and low flows for each 

creek and the frequency with which those fl ows 

occurred. The Service’s Montana Fish and Wildlife 

Management Assistance Offi ce, confirmed that the 

minimum streamflows (see below) identifi ed by 

MFWP for Red Rock, Odell, and Tom creeks were 

sufficient to support Arctic grayling (Kaeding and 

Boltz 1999). Water rights claimed by upstream users 

were evaluated by DNRC to determine how much 

water was actually being used. In some cases, owners 

agreed to reduce their claims to reflect actual use. 

Several owners also signed management agreements 

describing how a refuge call for water would occur. 
Major Compact Provisions 

The compact includes the following major provisions: 

1. 	 Protects natural flows of all streams for 

wildlife habitat maintenance and enhancement, 

subordinate to diversion rights actually existing 

in 1999; 

2. 	 Maintains senior minimum streamflows of 1.4 

cubic feet per second in Tom Creek, 11 cubic 

feet per second in Odell Creek, and 15 cubic feet 

per second in Red Rock Creek; 

3. 	 Recognizes the natural outlet elevation of 

6607.5 feet mean sea level for Lower Red Rock 

Lake; 

4. 	 Confirms consumptive use rights for 


maintenance of refuge lakes, marshes, and 


ponds;
 

5. 	 Confirms existing uses of 8 acre-feet for the 

campground spring, 8 acre-feet of groundwater 

for residence and headquarters use, and 1.5 

cubic feet per second from Shambow Creek for 

irrigation of the headquarter lawn; 

6. 	 Confirms that the Service retains the right 


to develop an additional 8 acre-feet of 


groundwater for future headquarters and 


visitor use; 


7. 	 Allows for future diversion of 3,000 acre-feet 

from Odell Creek for irrigation purposes; 

8. 	 The compact specifies that there will be no 

changes in use for the natural and minimum 

flows, and that changes in consumptive use 

are constrained to the purposes of the refuge. 

Any changes must be made in accordance with 

applicable state law; 

9. 	 Montana DNRC imposed an administrative 

closure on the drainage basins above the refuge 

and will not issue any new ground permits >35 

gallons per minute and 10 acre-feet per year. 

Small stock and domestic use from springs and 

wells are exempt from the closure; 

10. The Service retains the right to object to 

inaccurate claims in the preliminary decree and 

may also petition courts for relief in the event of 

a conflict over water 

Odell Creek north of county road. 

Steve Sherman/USFWS W. 

AIR QUALITY 

Air quality is a global concern. The U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency has lead 

responsibility for the quality of air. Through the 1990 

Clean Air Act, the agency sets limits on the amount 

of pollutants that can be discharged into the air. 

Nationally, more than 170 million tons of pollution 

are emitted annually into the air within the United 

States borders, through either stationary sources 

(such as industrial and power plants) or mobile 

sources (such as automobiles, airplanes, trucks, 

buses, and trains). There are also natural sources 

of air pollution, such as fires, dust storms, volcanic 

activity, and other natural processes. The agency 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 71 

has identified six principal pollutants that are the 

focus of its national regulatory program: lead, carbon 

monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, 

and particulate matter. 

Air quality problems in Montana are usually related 

to urban areas and mountainous topography, or river 

valleys that are sensitive to temperature inversions. 

Particulate matter and carbon monoxide are the air 

pollutants that have the greatest adverse impact on 

Montana’s air quality. Particulate matter (PM10) is a 

measure of tiny liquid or solid particles in the air that 

are respirable in the lungs. In the area of the refuge, 

carbon from automobiles (including all-terrain 

vehicles and snowmobiles) and diesel engines; soot 

from slash burning, forest fi res, fireplaces, and wood 

stoves; and dust associated with windblown sand and 

dirt from roadways and fields may all contribute to 

particulate matter. The major sources of particulate 

matter are vehicles traveling on unpaved roads and 

forest fi res. 

The refuge has a designated Class I air quality area 

as defined under the Clean Air Act of 1977. Air 

quality in the area of the refuge is considered good, 

with no nearby manufacturing sites or major air 

pollution sources. Throughout the year, occasional 

widespread regional caused by large-scale forest fi res 

located to the west (in Idaho, Oregon, Washington, 

and Montana) and annual agricultural burning 

that occurs in Idaho (just south of the Centennial 

Mountains) causes haze, which results in reduced 

visibility. The small particles and aerosols resulting 

from these fires are carried long distances in the air 

and cause haze in this remote location. In addition, 

concern has been raised that increased snowmobile 

traffic, especially on the east end of the Centennial 

Valley, may be contributing to reduced air quality. 

A wintertime study of snowmobile emissions 

indicated that particulate emissions from two-stroke 

snowmobile engines have a potential for visibility 

impacts in the Yellowstone National Park airshed 

(Sive et al. 2003). Investigations would need to be 

conducted to determine if air quality and visibility 

are being impacted by increased snowmobile use in 

the area. 
72 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

GLOBAL WARMING 

The U.S. Department of the Interior issued an order 

in January 2001 requiring federal agencies under its 

direction that have land management responsibilities 

to consider potential climate change effects as part 

of long-range planning endeavors. The Department 

of Energy’s report, “Carbon Sequestration Research 

and Development,” concluded that ecosystem 

protection is important to carbon sequestration 

and may reduce or prevent loss of carbon currently 

stored in the terrestrial biosphere. The report defi nes 

carbon sequestration as “the capture and secure 

storage of carbon that would otherwise be emitted to 

or remain in the atmosphere.” 

The increase of carbon dioxide (CO2

) within the 

earth’s atmosphere has been linked to the gradual 

rise in surface temperature commonly referred to 

as “global warming.” In relation to comprehensive 

conservation planning for Refuge System units, 

carbon sequestration constitutes the primary 

climate-related effect to be considered in planning. 

Vegetated land is a tremendous factor in carbon 

sequestration. Large, naturally occurring 

communities of plants and animals that occupy major 

habitats—grasslands, forests, wetlands, tundra, 

and desert—are effective both in preventing carbon 

emission and in acting as biological “scrubbers” of 

atmospheric CO2

. 

One Service activity in particular—prescribed 

fi re—releases CO2 directly to the atmosphere from 

the biomass consumed during combustion. However, 

there is no net loss of carbon because new vegetation 

quickly germinates to replace the burned-up biomass. 

This vegetation sequesters an approximately equal 

amount of carbon as was lost to the air (Dai et al. 

2006). 

Several other effects of climate change may need to 

be considered in the future: 

■	 Habitat available in lakes and streams for coldwater fish such as trout and salmon could be 

reduced. 

■	 Climate change could reduce water resources 

available to refuge wetland and riparian 

habitats. 

■	 Forests may change, with some plant species 

shifting their range northward or dying out and 

other trees moving in to take their place. 

■	 Ducks and other waterfowl could lose breeding 

habitat because of stronger and more frequent 

droughts. 

■	 Changes in the timing of migration and nesting 

could put some birds out of synchronization 

with the life cycles of their prey. 

The refuge has collected weather data for over 50 years. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

4.2 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 

The following sections describe the biological 

resources that may be impacted by the 

implementation of the CCP. Biological characteristics 

include vegetation communities, birds, mammals, 

insects, reptiles, and amphibians. Unless otherwise 

noted, much of the following information is from 

unpublished Service data located in files at the refuge 

offi ce. 

Figure 14 displays the vegetation associations and 

figure 15 shows the location and composition of the 

various habitat types described in this section and 

found on the refuge, as defined by the National 

Vegetation Classification System (Anderson et al. 

1998). Data for these figures were collected during 

2005-07 by refuge staff (Newlon 2007). 

SHALLOW LAKE WETLANDS 

Shallow lake (lacustrine) wetland habitats are defi ned 

as >20 acres in total area and having more than 30% 

cover of emergent vegetation. These habitats often 

exhibit alternative stable states (Bayley and Prather 

2003). One state is characterized by hypereutrophic 

conditions (frequent algal blooms and low 

transparency), turbid water, and pelagic (open water) 

phytoplankton (microscopic plants). The second state, 

and the current state of refuge lacustrine habitats, is 

characterized by clear water and submerged aquatic 

vegetation (SAV). Within the refuge, lacustrine 

wetlands cover more than 6,300 acres of habitat 

(USFWS 1999a) (see fi gure 16). 

The most abundant SAV species in refuge lacustrine 

habitats, in order of decreasing magnitude, are 

Richardson’s pondweed, sago pondweed, and 

shortspike watermilfoil (Paullin 1973); however, the 

abundance of SAV species is highly variable. For 
Figure 14. Vegetation classifications found in Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 75
 

Figure 15. Habitat types found in Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. 
76 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Figure 16. Wetland types found in Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. 
Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 77 

example, the abundance of shortspike watermilfoil 

in Lower Red Rock Lake has varied in abundance 

from <2% of species composition in 1955–56 (Beed 

1957) to nearly 60% in 2002 (USFWS 2004). Canadian 

waterweed comprised nearly 40% of the SAV 

community in Lower Red Rock Lake during 1955–56 

(Beed 1957) but was reduced to trace amounts by 

2002 (USFWS 2004). Confounding the shifts in 

Lower Red Rock Lake SAV communities are the 

series of water control structures built at the lake’s 

outflow beginning in 1930. 

Although many factors determine the distribution 

of plant species within lacustrine habitats, water 

depth is perhaps the most signifi cant. Water 

depths of refuge lacustrine habitats typically do 

not exceed 7 feet, with the exception of Widgeon 

Pond. At the greatest water depths experienced 

on the refuge, SAV may be sparse, especially in 

more turbid waters. SAV species that can be found 

at depths >2.5 feet include whitestem, fl atstem, 

and sheathed pondweeds, Canadian waterweed, 

coon’s tail, and star duckweed. At shallower water 

depths (<2.5 feet), sago, Richardson’s, Fries, small, 

and fineleaf pondweeds, shortspike watermilfoil, 

common stonewort, longbeak buttercup, quillworts, 

wapato, and slender niad are common. Emergent 

vegetation in refuge lacustrine habitats is dominated 

by hardstem bulrush islands within Lower Red 

Rock Lake (more than 50 acres). Beaked sedge 

and broadleaf cattail can also be found on these 

islands. Within Swan Lake and River Marsh, islands 

of beaked sedge are prevalent. Rush, spike rush, 

American sloughgrass, smartweed, and common 

mare’s-tail commonly germinate on exposed mud 

flats during low-water years. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Native fishes found in lacustrine habitats include 

Arctic grayling, Westslope cutthroat trout, burbot, 

white sucker, longnose sucker, and mottled sculpin. 

Of these species, Arctic grayling and Westslope 

cutthroat trout have been listed as species of concern 

by the state of Montana. However, Westslope 

cutthroat trout in Upper Red Rock Lake are 

primarily hybrids with Yellowstone cutthroat 

trout and rainbow trout (Mogen 1996). Nonnative 

fishes introduced to refuge lacustrine habitats 

include Yellowstone cutthroat trout, rainbow trout, 

and brook trout. Yellowstone cutthroat trout are 

considered a species of concern by the state of 

Montana within its native habitat, primarily the 

Yellowstone River and tributaries. 

Waterbird species use lacustrine habitats on the 

refuge primarily for foraging, with the exception 

of nesting that occurs within the bulrush islands 

of Lower Red Rock Lake. Species nesting in these 

islands include trumpeter swan, canvasback, 

redhead, lesser scaup, coot, grebes (pied-billed, 

western, Clark’s, red-necked, eared, and horned), 

Franklin’s gull, Forster’s tern, white-faced ibis, 

double-crested cormorant, and great blue and 

black-crowned night herons. Marsh wrens and 

yellow-headed blackbirds are also common nesters 

on the bulrush islands. American white pelicans are 

commonly seen on the refuge, although no breeding 

colony exists. 

Mammals common to lacustrine habitats include 

muskrat, mink, and river otter. Additionally, little 

brown bats commonly forage over lacustrine habitats 

at night. Blotched tiger salamander is the primary 

amphibian of these habitats. 

SEASONALLY-FLOODED WETLANDS 

Seasonally-flooded (palustrine) emergent wetlands 

are typically inundated each spring and dominated 

by persistent emergent vegetation, often on peatforming soils. The frequency and duration of 

flooding is highly variable and a major determinant 

of vegetation communities in this dynamic habitat. 

Soil characteristics (physical and chemical) are also 

important. More than 9,000 acres of the refuge are 

palustrine emergent wetlands (USFWS 1999a). 

Relatively homogenous stands of beaked sedge 

represent over 80% of palustrine emergent wetlands 

on the refuge. These extensive areas of seasonally 

flooded sedge are largely associated with Upper 

Red Rock, Lower Red Rock, and Swan lakes and 

River Marsh. Moving upslope, much of the sedgedominated habitat is rung by the second most 

common palustrine emergent wetland vegetation 

on the refuge, Baltic rush. As noted for lacustrine 

habitats, other emergent vegetation species 

often germinate on exposed mud flats during lowwater years. These include spike rush, American 

sloughgrass, smartweed, and common mare’s-tail. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Palustrine emergent wetlands provide extensive 

habitat for breeding migratory waterbirds. Species 

known to nest in this habitat include trumpeter 

swan, canvasback, redhead, lesser scaup, ruddy 

duck, mallard, northern shoveler, blue-winged 

and cinnamon teal, gadwall, northern pintail, coot, 

sandhill crane, Wilson’s snipe, sora, Virginia rail, 

American avocet, marsh wren, and northern harrier. 

Other birds common to palustrine habitats, but which 

typically nest in drier areas, include willet, Wilson’s 

phalarope, spotted sandpiper, and killdeer. 

Mammal species common to palustrine emergent 

habitats on the refuge include meadow and montane 

voles, muskrat, and mink. Striped skunk, coyote, and 

red fox also commonly forage in these habitats. These 

habitats also support all of the amphibian and reptile 

species that occur on the refuge: western toad, boreal 

chorus and Columbia spotted frogs; blotched tiger 

salamander; and western terrestrial garter snake. 
78 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

SHRUB-DOMINATED WETLANDS 

Soils in these habitats range from poorly drained 

peat or muck meadows to saline to calcareous. The 

refuge has three major wetland shrub communities: 

shrubby cinquefoil dominated, low-statured willow 

dominated, and tall-statured willow dominated. 

Shrubby Cinquefoil 

The shrubby cinquefoil community is dominated by 

this low-statured (<2 feet in height) shrub with low 

to moderate (10%–60%) canopy cover. Topography 

in these wetlands is often hummocky. The surface 

is saturated into early summer, but the water table 

typically drops by mid- to late summer. Dominant 

graminoids include Baltic rush, tufted hairgrass, 

clustered field sedge, and mat muhly. Forbs are 

diverse and may be abundant with up to 35% cover. 

Common forb species include meadow zizia, weak 

groundsel, pleated gentian, meadow thistle, and 

wild chives. Dandelion, Rocky Mountain iris, and 

Kentucky bluegrass may be common to abundant in 

stands that have been heavily impacted by grazing. 

Low-statured Willow 

Low-statured willow habitats on the refuge are 

dominated by the low (<3 feet in height) Wolf’s 

willow. Willow canopy cover is typically moderate 

to high (30%–80%). Soils are generally histosols, 

entisols, or mollisols (Hansen et al. 1995). This 

habitat occurs on both subirrigated flats and adjacent 

to low-gradient streams. Generally, this habitat 

remains saturated until late summer. Other shrubs 

present include bog birch and diamondleaf willow. 

The understory is a dense graminoid layer dominated 

by beaked sedge, Baltic rush, and tufted hairgrass. 

Forb cover is low and slender cinquefoil, northern 

bedstraw, and largeleaf avens are common. 

Tall-statured Willow 

Tall-statured willow habitats are dominated by 

Booth’s and Geyer willows, with Booth’s willow 

having higher canopy cover. Total willow canopy 

cover ranges from 10%–30%. On the refuge, these 

habitats are found along streams as well as in an 

extensive willow fen (an area of low, fl at, marshy 

land) in the southeastern portion of the refuge. Along 

streams, soils are generally from alluvium, whereas 

willow fen soils are derived from peat. These sites 

generally remain saturated throughout the growing 

season. The understory is dominated by graminoids, 

typically tufted hairgrass, northern reedgrass, 

and various sedge species. Forbs are diverse but 

often have low canopy cover (10%–20%). Common 

forb species include largeleaf avens, wild chives, 

fringed willow herb, slender cinquefoil, elephanthead 

lousewort, and false lily of the valley. 

In all three shrub-dominated habitats, disturbed 

areas typically also have smooth brome, Kentucky 

bluegrass, and Canada thistle. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Shrub-dominated wetlands on the refuge support 

a diverse breeding bird community. According to 

refuge surveys, the most common species include 

yellow warbler, song sparrow, common yellowthroat, 

white-crowned and Lincoln’s sparrows. Common 

mammal species include moose, elk, white-tailed 

deer, striped skunk, meadow and montane voles, and 

long-tailed weasel. Amphibian and reptile species 

observed include western terrestrial garter snake, 

western toad, boreal chorus and Columbia spotted 

frogs, and blotched tiger salamander. Native fi shes 

found in refuge creeks include Arctic grayling, 

Westslope cutthroat trout, mountain whitefi sh, 

white sucker, longnose sucker, and mottled sculpin. 

Nonnative fishes include brook trout, rainbow trout, 

and Yellowstone cutthroat trout. 

Wilsons phalarope. 

Steve Sherman/USFWS 

WET MEADOWS 

Wet meadow habitat occurs over 7,000 acres of the 

refuge. Topography of wet meadows on the refuge 

varies from level to undulating or hummocky. 

Soils are poorly drained loam, sandy loam, or clay. 

These habitats are dominated by a dense layer of 

graminoids (sedges, rushes, and grasses) with low 

to moderate forb diversity and low forb canopy 

cover. These areas are flooded early in the growing 

season, but soils are dry by midsummer. Dominant 

graminoids include Baltic rush, clustered fi eld 

sedge, and mat muhly. Tufted hairgrass is common 

on more mesic sites, whereas basin wildrye, 
Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 79 

Sandberg bluegrass, and meadow and foxtail barley 

are common on drier or more alkaline sites. Forb 

coverage and diversity varies with moisture gradient 

and level of disturbance, mainly grazing. Native 

forbs in more mesic portions of this habitat include 

northern bedstraw, darkthroat shooting star, pleated 

gentian, meadow zizia, meadow thistle, slender 

thelypody, hooded lady’s tresses, weak groundsel, 

and hookedspur violet. Rocky Mountain iris, common 

dandelion, and Kentucky bluegrass are common in 

areas influenced by grazing. Bare ground is rare. The 

amount of residual cover is variable depending upon 

the species composition and subsequent vegetative 

growth of the previous growing season. Differences 

in species composition and moisture gradients result 

in a mosaic of relatively short (<1 foot in height) 

and relatively tall (>2 feet in height) vegetation. On 

average, vegetation is <20 inches in height by late 

summer. 

Montane wet meadows undergo a rapid wet/dry 

cycle, with complete inundation in the spring and 

early summer followed by two to three months of 

little to no precipitation. Groundwater fl ow, surface 

runoff, and spring/early summer precipitation are 

important water sources for these habitats (Windell 

et al. 1986). Hydrologic cycles in these habitats are 

strongly influenced by snowpack, and water table 

levels can undergo extreme fluctuations both within 

a single growing season and annually (Svejcar and 

Riegel 1998). Variation in the depth to water table 

has a strong influence on plant species distribution 

(Allen-Diaz 1991, Castelli et al. 2000, Dwire et al. 

2006). Soil characteristics are also important drivers 

of plant species composition and distribution, in 

particular the soil redox potential (Dwire et al. 2006). 

Soil redox potential is the ability of the soil to gain or 

lose electrons. When soils are inundated with water, 

pore spaces in the soil are depleted of oxygen, and an 

anaerobic soil layer develops. The soil redox potential 

varies temporally and spatially and is strongly 

tied to water table depth (Castelli et al. 2000). The 

composition and distribution of plant species refl ects, 

in part, their tolerance of these anaerobic conditions. 

The majority of wet meadow habitats on the refuge 

are grazed by cattle 1 out of every 3 years. Cattle 

typically arrive in mid-July and remain until mid- to 

late September. Nonnative plants, including smooth 

brome, Canada thistle, and Kentucky bluegrass, have 

invaded portions of this habitat, particularly areas 

that were historically-hayed. Prescribed fire has been 

used to reduce cover of smooth brome. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Wet meadow habitats on the refuge support a 

diverse breeding bird community, including longbilled curlew, willet, sandhill crane, northern harrier, 

short-eared owl, Savannah sparrow, and western 

meadowlark. Common mammal species include 

pronghorn, coyote, striped skunk, meadow and 

montane voles, long-tailed weasel, and American 

badger. Amphibian and reptile species observed 

include western toad, boreal chorus and Columbia 

spotted frogs, blotched tiger salamander, and 

western terrestrial garter snake. 

SHRUB-STEPPE AND GRASSLANDS 

Upland shrub-steppe habitats, or habitats where 

both shrubs and grasses share dominance, occur on 

over 9,200 acres of the refuge. Several shrub-steppe 

habitats occur on the refuge, with areas dominated 

by threetip sagebrush. These habitats typically have 

<20% sagebrush canopy cover. Threetip sagebrush 

is very localized in Montana, occurring only in the 

extreme southwestern portion of the state. This 

species typically occurs on gentle alluvial slopes 

or benches with moderately deep soils (Mueggler 

and Stewart 1980). Other common species include 

green rabbitbrush, fringed sagewort, and spineless 

horsebrush. Bunchgrasses dominate the understory 

with an average of 70% cover. Idaho fescue, needle 

and thread, and prairie junegrass are the most 

common bunchgrass species. Typically, <10% of the 

soil is bare. Forb cover and diversity are low with 

silvery lupine, spiny phlox, sticky geranium, rosy 

pussytoes, old man’s whiskers, and common yarrow 

being the most common. Mountain big sagebrush 

shrub lands occur on the southern edge of the refuge 

on the foothills of the Centennial Mountains, as 

well as within snowmelt drainages and north-facing 

aspects. Again, grasses are the most common plant 

form in the understory with Idaho fescue, basin 

wildrye, western needlegrass, and nodding brome 

being the most common. Forb coverage and diversity 

are moderate with sticky geranium, flax, and slender 

cinquefoil being common. Basin big sagebrush shrub 

lands occur only within the Centennial Sandhills (see 

“Centennial Sandhills” on the following page). Two 

shrub-steppe habitats, mountain silver sagebrush 

and greasewood, are considered wetland habitats. 

Silver sagebrush shrub lands occur on alluvial fans on 

the refuge and typically have <20% sagebrush canopy 

cover. Idaho fescue, basin wildrye, and western 

wheatgrass are the dominant understory species. 

Greasewood shrub lands also occupy alluvial fans 

on saline or alkaline soils. Most examples occur on 

the north and south sides of Lower Red Rock Lake. 

Grasses dominate the understory and include basin 

wildrye, western wheatgrass, Nuttall’s alkaligrass, 

inland saltgrass, and Sandberg bluegrass. 

Grasslands on the refuge occur primarily north of 

Lower Red Rock Lake and make up over 2,000 acres. 

The bunchgrass, Idaho fescue, has by far the most 

coverage at over 1,500 acres. On more alkaline soils, 

basin wildrye, Nuttall’s alkaligrass, and Sandberg 

bluegrass are common. Forb coverage and diversity 

is variable depending upon soil moisture and type. 

Silvery lupine, rosy pussytoes, and common yarrow 

are the most widely occurring forbs. 
80 CCP, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Soil type is the primary determinant of vegetation 

distribution. Secondarily, fire and herbivory are 

important drivers of sagebrush and grassland 

structure, composition, and seral stage. Highintensity fires can result in replacement of sagebrush 

species by subdominant shrubs such as green 

rabbitbrush, rubber rabbitbrush, and spineless 

horsebrush. With heavy grazing by livestock during 

the growing season, native bunchgrasses associated 

with Idaho fescue-dominated grasslands can be 

reduced or replaced by nonnative rhizomatous 

grasses such as smooth brome and Kentucky 

bluegrass. 

Grassland and shrub-steppe communities on the 

refuge are relatively intact and contiguous. The 

largest disturbance to these habitats resulted from 

seeding of nonnative forage for hay production, which 

occurred before refuge ownership. These haying 

operations resulted in the replacement of native 

vegetation with nonnative, rhizomatous grasses, 

particularly smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, and 

meadow foxtail. Other invasive species, including 

cheatgrass, Canada thistle, and common tansy, occur 

in localized patches throughout these communities. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Grassland and shrub-steppe habitats provide 

important nesting habitat for numerous migratory 

land birds, waterbirds, and raptors. These habitats 

also provide critical calving/fawning grounds for 

native ungulates and support a relatively intact 

predator and prey community. The value of these 

habitats to wildlife is enhanced by their relatively 

unfragmented character. Common birds of shrubsteppe and grassland habitats include Brewer’s 

sparrow, vesper sparrow, western meadowlark, 

Savannah sparrow, long-billed curlew, greater 

sage-grouse, and short-eared owl. Mammal species 

occurring in this habitat include white-tailed 

jackrabbit, coyote, badger, red fox, pronghorn, elk, 

mule deer, and Wyoming ground squirrel. Gray 

wolves have also been observed in these habitats. 

Amphibian and reptile species include western 

terrestrial garter snake, blotched tiger salamander, 

and boreal chorus frog. 

CENTENNIAL SANDHILLS 

The Centennial Sandhills (sandhills) cover the 

northeastern portion of the Centennial Valley and 

make up over 3,500 acres of refuge habitat. This is 

44% of the 7,907 total acres that occur in the valley. 

These well-vegetated, relatively stable sand dunes 

are in various states of activity. The western dunes, 

located outside of the refuge boundary, are the most 

active and topographically varied, whereas those 

on refuge lands to the east are well stabilized with 

less topographic relief. Soils in the sandhills are 

highly erodible, well-drained, and sandy. Vegetative 

communities in these sandhills occur nowhere else 

in Montana (Lesica and Cooper 1999). Basin big 

sagebrush is the dominant shrub with 5%–40% 

canopy cover. Such dominance of basin big sagebrush 

is rare in Montana (Morris et al. 1976). Threetip 

sagebrush, rubber rabbitbrush, green rabbitbrush, 

and spineless horsebrush are other common shrubs. 

Bunchgrass canopy cover ranges from 5%–90% 

with needle-and-thread dominant and Idaho fescue 

codominant in some portions. Other common grasses 

include prairie junegrass, Sandberg’s bluegrass, and 

thickspike wheatgrass. Forbs have 5%–45 % cover 

and moderate to high diversity. Hoary tansyaster, 

silvery lupine, granite prickly phlox, buckwheat, 

silverleaf phacelia, tarragon, slimfl ower scurfpea, 

and brittle pricklypear are common. Ten to 70% of 

the soil surface is bare sand, although the nonnative 

pale madwort is common in some portions of the 

sandhills, subsequently reducing the amount of bare 

sand. Several rare plant species are found in areas of 

open sand in early seral portions of this habitat. Two 

species are critically imperiled (painted milkvetch 

and sand wildrye), and one species (Fendler cat’seye) is imperiled in Montana due to limited range and 

habitat in the state. The status of a fourth species, 

pale evening primrose, is currently under review 

by the network of Natural Heritage Programs. 

The sandhills contain several unique vegetation 

associations, one of which, the threetip sagebrush 

and needle-and-thread grass vegetation association, 

is critically imperiled globally (MTNHP 2002). 

Characteristic Wildlife 

The Centennial Sandhills support several sagebrush 

obligate breeding birds, including Brewer’s 

sparrow and sage thrasher. Greater sage-grouse 

use the sandhills from early spring through fall; 

early refuge records show how grouse migrated to 

lower elevations for winter, including the western 

Centennial Valley and Camas Flats in Idaho. Other 

common breeding species include vesper sparrow, 

western meadowlark, long-billed curlew, and willet. 

Mammal species observed in the sandhills include 

four mammal species of concern in Montana: Preble’s 

shrew, black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy rabbit, and 

Great Basin pocket mouse (Hendricks and Roedel 

2001). Other common mammals include white-tailed 

jackrabbit, coyote, badger, red fox, pronghorn, elk, 

mule deer, Wyoming ground squirrel, northern 

pocket gopher, and several shrew species. Gray wolf 

has also been observed in this habitat. Amphibian 

and reptile species observed in the sandhills 

include western terrestrial garter snake, blotched 

tiger salamander, and boreal chorus frog. Several 

invertebrate species have been observed in the 

sandhills, including four species of tiger beetle and 

several butterfly species including Rocky Mountain 

parnassian, sooty hairstreak, and the common 

branded skipper (Hendricks and Roedel 2001). 
ASPEN WOODLANDS AND FORESTS 

Aspen communities on the refuge occur as relatively 

small patches located within wetlands in the 

southeastern portion of the refuge near Upper Red 

Rock Lake, within mixed stands of aspen and conifer, 

and as larger patches on the fringe of Douglas-fi r 

forests on the southern edge of the refuge. These 

larger patches are typically associated with old 

earthflows and landslides on the northern fl ank 

of the Centennial Range. The vegetation in these 

communities is variable, ranging from two-layered 

quaking aspen overstory and grassland understory 

communities (quaking aspen and mountain brome, 

quaking aspen and pinegrass) to multilayered 

quaking aspen and tall forb; and quaking aspen 

and tall willow vegetation associations. The upper 

elevation limit for aspen within the Centennial Valley 

is about 8,500 feet. 

Reproduction in these aspen communities is most 

likely vegetative via root suckering, forming clonal 

(genetically identical) stands. Aspen are shade 

intolerant and regeneration cannot occur under 

a dense tree canopy (Jones and Debyle 1985). 

Historically, many of these stands were maintained 

through disturbances, such as fire, that removed 

the overstory and promoted root suckering. Largescale declines of aspen across the western United 

States have been widely distributed, likely caused 

by a combination of factors, including global climate 

change, high levels of ungulate herbivory, and conifer 

encroachment due to fire suppression (Brown et al. 

2006). 

There is minimal aspen habitat within the refuge 

boundary. 

Mike Parker/USFWS 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 81 

Recent work suggests that aspen loss at the scale 

of the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem has averaged 

10% in the last 50 years—much less than previous 

studies have suggested (Brown et al. 2006). Much 

local variability exists in changes in aspen extent, 

likely based on biophysical setting and climatic 

conditions (Brown et al. 2006). In the Centennial 

Mountains of Idaho, vegetation models show a 

75% decline in aspen coverage since the mid-1800s 

(Gallant et al. 2003). A 45% decline in coverage of 

aspen and mixed aspen/conifer stands over the past 

50 years was estimated in the Gravelly Mountains of 

southwestern Montana (Wirth et al. 1996). A recent 

study conducted on the refuge found successful 

aspen regeneration throughout the twentieth 

century along the sagebrush-grassland and forest 

ecotone (transition zone between two different 

plant communities) (Sankey et al. 2006). Preliminary 

results of a second study conducted in the Centennial 

Valley show some aspen expansion, but most sites 

exhibited loss of aspen due to conifer encroachment 

(Korb et al. 2008). Fire suppression has likely 

promoted the encroachment of Douglas-fir into aspen 

stands, potentially reducing their extent. Surveys 

conducted by The Nature Conservancy showed that 

where aspen are successfully regenerating, aspen 

stems are undergoing moderate to heavy browsing 

by elk and moose, with few stems growing above 

browse height. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Aspen is often considered a keystone species, and 

aspen habitats, aside from riparian corridors, are 

the most biologically diverse habitats in the Rocky 

Mountains (Dobkin et al. 1995). Several bird species 

breed in aspen woodlands more than in any other 

habitat (Dobkin et al.1995, Finch and Reynolds 1987, 

Turchi et al. 1995, Winternitz 1980), and some species 

may be aspen obligates (species which must occupy 

a certain niche or behave in a certain way in order 

to survive ) (Finch and Reynolds 1987, Turchi et al. 

1995). Aspen habitats are particularly important to 

cavity-nesting birds such as woodpeckers (Dobkin 

et al. 1995, Martin et al. 2004). The susceptibility of 

aspen to fungal heartrot creates ideal conditions for 

cavity excavation, creating nesting and roosting sites 

for several bird and mammal species (Dobkin et al. 

1995). Bird species that breed in aspen habitats on 

the refuge include red-naped sapsucker, northern 

flicker, hairy woodpecker, American three-toed 

woodpecker, American kestrel, tree swallow, house 

wren, ruffed grouse, warbling vireo, lazuli bunting, 

western tanager, and great gray owl. Aspen stands 

on the refuge also provide valuable browse for native 

ungulates (moose, elk, and mule deer). Gray wolves 

have also been observed in these areas. Amphibian 

and reptile species include western toad, boreal 

chorus and Columbia spotted frogs, and western 

terrestrial garter snake. 
82 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

CONIFEROUS WOODLANDS 

AND FORESTS 

Coniferous woodlands (evergreen trees having <60% 

canopy cover) and forests (evergreen trees having 

>60% canopy cover) cover over 3,500 acres on the 

refuge. The primary natural disturbance in these 

habitats is fire. Several sawmills operated in the 

Centennial Valley during the early 1900s, but the 

extent of logging that occurred in the area that is 

now part of the refuge is unknown. 

At the forest and grassland ecotone, open woodlands 

dominated by Douglas-fir occur. Understory 

vegetation is dominated by mountain big and threetip 

sagebrush, bunchgrasses, bluebunch wheatgrass, 

and Idaho fescue. Historically, these woodlands 

underwent frequent (annual to every few years), 

low-severity fires, which killed sapling and smalldiameter trees and maintained the open tree canopy. 

Since settlement of the Centennial Valley, fi res in 

these woodlands have been actively suppressed 

because most homes and other buildings occur in this 

habitat. Cattle grazing occurs in these woodlands, 

reducing fine grassy fuels. As a result, tree densities 

have increased and forests have expanded into the 

adjacent sagebrush/grassland habitat (Heyerdahl et 

al. 2006, Korb 2005, Sankey et al. 2006). 

Open woodlands (tree canopy cover <60%) of limber 

pine are found on mostly south- and southwest-facing 

slopes. The ground is mostly bare and gravelly and 

understory vegetation is sparse. Scattered common 

juniper and bluebunch wheatgrass are the most 

common understory species although their coverage 

is typically <10%. Fire is infrequent due to the lack 

of fuels. Trees in these sites may be several hundred 

years old (Cooper 1999). 

Coniferous forests flank the north-facing slopes of 

the Centennial Mountains, ranging in elevation from 

6,700 to 9,600 feet. Common tree species include 

Douglas-fir, subalpine fir, lodgepole pine, Engelmann 

spruce, whitebark pine, and limber pine. Shrubs 

make up a minor component of the vegetative 

community with mountain snowberry and white 

spiraea. The undergrowth can be sparse depending 

upon tree canopy cover. The forb understory can 

be diverse, but no species are particularly common 

except heartleaf arnica, timber milkvetch, and 

western showy aster. Western meadowrue, showy 

aster, northern valerian, and mountain sweet-cicely 

are common forbs on more mesic sites. In more open 

forests, the understory is dominated by graminoids, 

with Geyer’s sedge and pinegrass being most 

common. 

Douglas-fir dominates the tree canopy at elevations 

up to 8,200 feet. Historically, these relatively mesic 

lower-elevation forests experienced mixed-severity 

fires; supporting both frequent (years to decades) 

low-severity fires, which typically killed individual or 

small clumps of small-diameter trees, and infrequent 

(one to many centuries), high-severity crown fi res, 

which killed large areas (thousands of acres) of 

canopy trees (Korb 2005, Schoennagel et al. 2004). 

Accordingly, the fire systems in these forests are 

the most complex and least understood of the major 

fire systems of Rocky Mountain forests. A complex 

interaction of both fuels and climate affect the 

frequency, severity, and size of fires under mixedseverity fire systems (Schoennagel et al. 2004). 

Historic fire suppression efforts in these forests were 

likely few due to their remoteness; thus, current 

conditions in these forests are likely to be within 

their historic range of variability. 

Above 7,200 feet, moist, high-elevation forests are 

dominated by subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and 

lodgepole pine. These forests experience infrequent 

(one to many centuries), high-severity, standreplacing crown fires (Schoennagel et al. 2004), and 

the thin bark of these tree species make them easily 

killed by fire. Tree density is high in these forests and 

tree canopy typically exceeds 70%, thus undergrowth 

vegetation is sparse and fuels are few. 

A small (19 acres) seasonally fl ooded Engelmann 

spruce forest exists on the south shore of Upper Red 

Rock Lake. Soils within this association typically 

remain wet well into the growing season. Old growth 

Engelmann spruce dominates the canopy. The 

understory is dominated by a moderate cover of 

field horsetail and a dense layer of moss. Other forbs 

include arrowleaf ragwort, starry false lily of the 

valley, and claspleaf twistedstalk. This forest type is 

rare in southwest Montana. 

Characteristic Wildlife 

Birds of coniferous forests and woodlands on the 

refuge include northern goshawk, bald eagle, greathorned owl, dusky grouse, Clark’s nutcracker, gray 

jay, Steller’s jay, hairy woodpecker, olive-sided 

flycatcher, hermit thrush, ruby-crowned kinglet, 

mountain chickadee, brown creeper, yellow-rumped 

warbler, dark-eyed junco, western tanager, pine 

siskin, and Cassin’s finch. Mammal species that 

inhabit coniferous forests on the refuge include elk, 

mule deer, moose, black bear, grizzly bear, wolverine, 

mountain lion, lynx, marten, short-tailed weasel, 

golden-mantled ground squirrel, yellow-bellied 

marmot, and red tree squirrel. Gray wolves have 

also been observed in these areas. Amphibians and 

reptiles of these habitats include western toad, boreal 

chorus and Columbia spotted frogs, and western 

terrestrial garter snake. 

4.3 CULTURAL RESOURCES 

Due to its unique location offering access to wetland 

and mountain ecotones, Red Rock Lakes National 

Wildlife Refuge has likely supported native people 

for the last 12,000 years. The area has abundant 

natural springs and game along with stone suitable 
for tool manufacture, including obsidian, ignimbrite, 

cherts, and Quadrant quartzite. The east to west 

trending valley and low pass over the Continental 

Divide would also have been a natural travel route. 

Because of deep winter snow, it is likely that summer 

use by prehistoric peoples was more common (Taylor 

1991). 

Little excavation work has been conducted near the 

refuge so models for understanding the lifeways of 

native peoples are not well formed. Being situated at 

the Continental Divide, Red Rocks Lakes National 

Wildlife Refuge borrows from both the Basin Plateau 

Model and Plains Model. In the Basin Plateau model, 

artifacts and other technologies are similar to the 

region west of the refuge. While in Plains model, the 

cultures are archaeologically similar to the plains to 

the east. According to a major survey of federal lands 

in the Centennial Valley conducted by the Bureau 

of Land Management, prehistoric people inhabited 

promontories along the Red Rock River and in the 

forested timberline along south slopes. Springs at 

the base of the slopes, near the valley fl oor, have 

also been documented to be important locations for 

prehistoric people. 

The valley has several prehistoric sites recorded 

as part of reviews for federal projects. The most 

important of these (24BE279) is located near a 

spring on the refuge. This site is a multicomponent 

prehistoric living floor with at least three 

components. The researchers observed indications 

of hearths with charcoal, bone and obsidian artifacts 

suggesting the site is largely intact. Artifacts 

observed at the site that are of known time period 

include: Folsum (10,500 BP), Hannah (3,000 BP) 

and Late Prehistoric period (500 AD to 1800 AD) 

documenting that the site has potential to yield 

information concerning adaptation to the area from 

Paleo-Indian to historic times. 

Osborn Russell, a trapper who visited the area 

in 1835 noted the presence of the Blackfeet tribe. 

Russell followed a well established trail that was 

recorded by Lewis and Clark in their 1805 visit to 

the area. The trail follows the Blacktail drainage and 

crosses the Centennial Valley. In 1938 Julian Steward 

noted the presence of Shoshone in the Centennial 

Valley although, by this time, it is difficult to discern 

whether this area was part of their aboriginal 

homelands. 

In 1876, in honor of the nation’s 100th birthday, the 

valley was named Centennial Valley by Ms. William 

Orr (Beaverhead County History Book Association 

1990). Reports of abundant waterfowl, fi sh, game, 

water and feed for livestock spurred homesteading 

efforts. Between 1876 and 1892, development within 

the refuge went from one cabin to 21 ranches and 

cabins, including a post office, which was the seed for 

present day Lakeview. This growth was spurred by 

the Utah and Northern Railway linking Monida to 

Idaho and Utah in 1880 and to Butte in 1881 (Ferrel 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 83 

et al. 1981). A stage route linking Monida with West 

Yellowstone also influenced development, including 

that at Culver Springs and Shambow Pond. An 

article published in August 1902, reported, “the 

Monida and Yellowstone stage line has carried over 

12,000 passengers to Yellowstone National Park this 

season and are having all they can handle every day” 

(Beaverhead County History Book Association 1990). 

Hunting clubs were also established on the shores of 

Upper and Lower Red Rock lakes. 

Transportation route development elsewhere, 

drought, long winters, and great distances to market 

made life difficult in the Centennial Valley. By the 

Great Depression of the 1930s, few remained in the 

valley. Many sold their land back to the Federal 

Resettlement Administration during the 1930s. The 

refuge supports several historic homesteads left 

by the early Anglo settlers including the Shambow, 

Buck, and Hanson Homesteads. 

In 1935, the Bureau of Biological Survey (a precursor 

to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) sent Basyl 

Kercheval to conduct an evaluation of the area’s 

natural resources in which he suggested these 

lands should become a migratory bird refuge. 

The tremendous natural resources and impacts of 

unregulated hunting and collecting of waterfowl, 

especially trumpeter swans, helped spur the 

establishment of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge. He stated, “The economic situation is grave. 

A large part of the land is mortgaged. Taxes are 

delinquent in many cases. Livestock in very [sic] 

instance is mortgaged to various agencies for feed. It 

is conceded by every one that the Red Rock Lakes 

area has been the foremost breeding, nesting and 

resting place for migratory waterfowl with the state 

of Montana” (Project of the Bureau of Biological 

Survey 1935). Soon after, on April 22, 1935, President 

Franklin D. Roosevelt established the Red Rock 

Lakes Migratory Waterfowl Refuge (renamed Red 

Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge on July 19, 

1961). 

The refuge was critical in protecting the last know 

trumpeter swan population in the world. Long 

before the refuge was established, concern for the 

trumpeter swan was apparent as noted in a letter to 

the Dillon Tribune on August 21, 1895; “It is wicked 

the way the young swan are being caught at the 

One of several pre-establishment duck hunting clubs. 

USFWS 
84 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

Red Rock Lakes. A man from Lima has made three 

trips and we are told by good authority he got from 

25 to 30 young ones to sell. This ought to be put a 

stop to or we will soon have none of the sacred birds 

on our lakes” (Beaverhead County History Book 

Association 1990). 

The Works Progress Administration constructed the 

original shop/office, barn, residence, oil storage shed, 

and fire tower in 1936 and 1938. All of the buildings 

have undergone some modifications with the offi ce 

having major changes over the years. Although 

several other buildings and structures have been 

added to the headquarters site, it is still considered 

eligible for inclusion into the National Register of 

Historic Places. 

A comprehensive cultural resource inventory has 

not been completed. Only site-specific inventories for 

project areas or buildings have been done. The area 

is rich in cultural resources, and a comprehensive 

inventory would help the refuge in protecting these 

sites. 

4.4 SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREAS 

WILDERNESS DESIGNATION 

Congress designated 32,350 acres of the refuge 

as the Red Rock Lakes wilderness area in 1976 

(figure 17). The wilderness is one of 71 such areas 

managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In 

1964, Congress passed and the president signed 

the Wilderness Act, which established the National 

Wilderness Preservation System. The legislation 

set aside certain federal lands as wilderness 

areas. Four federal agencies of the United States 

government administer the National Wilderness 

Preservation System, which includes 702 designated 

areas and more than 107 million acres. Wilderness, 

as defined by the Wilderness Act, is untrammeled 

(free of human’s control), undeveloped, and natural 

and offers outstanding opportunities for solitude 

and primitive recreation. The Refuge System 

manages refuge wilderness to secure an enduring 

resource of wilderness and to accomplish refuge 

purposes in a way that preserves wilderness 

character. People value wilderness for its wildlife, 

scenery, clean air and water, opportunities for 

solitude, and a sense of connection with nature. 

Wilderness policy permits hunting, fi shing, wildlife 

observation, wildlife photography, environmental 

education, interpretation, hiking, backpacking, crosscountry skiing, canoeing, and kayaking on national 

wildlife refuges where these activities are deemed 

compatible with the purposes of the refuge. 

WILDERNESS REVIEW 

A wilderness review is the process used to determine 

whether to recommend Service lands or waters to 

Congress for designation as wilderness. The Service 

is required to conduct a wilderness review for each 

refuge as part of the CCP process. Land or waters 

that meet the minimum criteria for wilderness 

are identified in a CCP and further evaluated to 

determine whether they merit recommendation for 

inclusion in the Wilderness System. To be designated 

a wilderness area, lands must meet certain criteria as 

outlined in the Wilderness Act of 1964: 

■	 generally appears to have been affected 


primarily by the forces of nature, with 


the imprint of human work substantially 


unnoticeable.
 

■	 has outstanding opportunities for solitude or 

primitive and unconfined type of recreation. 

■	 has at least 5,000 acres of land or is of suffi cient 

size to make practicable its preservation and 

use in an unimpaired condition. 

■	 may also contain ecological, geological, or other 

features of scientific, educational, scenic, or 

historic value. 

As stated earlier, 32,350 acres of the refuge are 

already designated as wilderness. This encompasses 

over 68% of the refuge. The planning team examined 

other portions of the refuge for inclusion into the 

wilderness area. Expanding this wilderness area 

into other portions of the refuge would make 

management and enhancement of the refuge 

difficult. This could result in a net loss of habitat and 

continued spread of invasive plants. The planning 

team is not recommending any further additions or 

expansions to this existing wilderness boundary. 

NATIONAL NATURAL LANDMARK 

The National Natural Landmarks Program was 

established in 1962 by the Secretary of the Interior 

“to identify and preserve natural areas that best 

illustrate the biological and geological character 

of the United States, enhance the scientifi c and 

educational values of preserved areas, strengthen 

public appreciation of natural history, and foster 

a greater concern for the conservation of the 

nation’s natural heritage” (36CFR62.1(b)). It is 

the only natural areas program of national scope 

that identifies and recognizes the best examples of 

biological and geological features in both public and 

private ownership. To date, there are about 600 sites 

designated as National Natural Landmarks. 

Portions of the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge were designated as a National Natural 

Landmark in May 1976. Designation was granted 

because the refuge contains a “series of relatively 

undisturbed, high-altitude ecosystem types, 

representative of pre-settlement conditions in this 

region including various wetland types as well as 

upland meadows and forests.” The evaluation also 

commented on the outstanding waterfowl production 

that occurs on the refuge, as well as the occurrence 

of several “uncommon species” at the time of 
Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 85
 

Figure 17. Designated wilderness within the acquisition boundary of Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. 
86 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

designation (some of the uncommon species include 

peregrine falcon and bald and golden eagles). 

RESEARCH NATURAL AREA 

Research Natural Areas are part of a national 

network of reserved areas under various ownerships 

where natural processes are allowed to predominate 

and which are preserved for the primary purpose of 

research and education. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administratively 

designates research natural areas on refuges. 

Currently, there are 210 research natural areas on 

national wildlife refuges. Research natural areas 

have these objectives: 

■	 to help in the preservation of examples of all 

significant natural ecosystems for comparison 

with those influenced by man. 

■	 to provide educational and research areas for 

scientists to study the ecology, successional 

trends, and other aspects of the natural 

environment. 

■	 to serve as gene pools and preserves for rare 

and endangered species of plants and animals. 

On Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, the 

Douglas-fir forest that occurs on Sheep Mountain 

was designated a research natural area. The entire 

research natural area is 85 acres in size. 

IMPORTANT BIRD AREA 

The American Bird Conservancy’s Important Bird 

Area Program concentrates on identifying and 

documenting the top important bird sites throughout 

all 50 states. For a site to be designated as an 

Important Bird Area (IBA), it must, during at least 

some part of the year, contain critical habitat that 

supports (1) significant numbers of an endangered 

or threatened species such as piping plover, redcockaded woodpecker, or Kirtland’s warbler; 

(2) a watch list species such as black rail, cerculean 

warbler, or Henslow’s sparrow; (3) a species with a 

limited range such as tricolored blackbird, yellowbilled magpie, or brown-capped rosy-fi nch; or 

(4) a significantly large concentration of breeding, 

migrating, or wintering birds, including waterfowl, 

seabirds, wading birds, raptors, or land birds. 

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge received 

designation as an Important Bird Area by the 

American Bird Conservancy in July 2001. More 

than 230 species of birds have been documented 

on the refuge, which is well known for its breeding 

trumpeter swans and other wetland species. An 

estimated 2,000 pairs of Franklin’s gulls nest here, 

as do more than 200 pairs of white-faced ibises. A 

pair of peregrine falcons and three pairs of bald 

eagles have nested on the refuge for many years. 

Thirteen species of breeders are of global (longbilled curlew, olive-sided flycatcher, Cassin’s fi nch) 

or continental (trumpeter swan, bald eagle, northern 

harrier, Swainson’s hawk, peregrine falcon, Wilson’s 

phalarope, short-eared owl, Williamson’s sapsucker, 

red-naped sapsucker, and willow fl ycatcher) 

conservation concern. Numerical data is unavailable 

for most of these species but trumpeter swan 

surveys document that numbers exceed threshold 

values to classify the refuge as an IBA of continental 

signifi cance. 

4.5 VISITOR SERVICES 

Visitors to Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge 

enjoy a variety of activities, including priority visitor 

services such as hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, 

wildlife photography, wildlife interpretation, and 

environmental education. 

The annual number of visits to the refuge is around 

12,000. This estimate is loosely based on visitors 

entering the visitor contact station, campground 

sign-in sheets, and general observation. The small 

visitor contact station, housed with administrative 

offices, is open Monday through Friday. Information, 

regulations, and universally accessible restrooms are 

available. 

The refuge has a general brochure that contains 

a refuge map, describes the refuge and its 

management, identifies habitats and common wildlife, 

lists recreational activities, and cites regulations. Two 

other leaflets provide information for visitors who 

are hunting or observing birds. These two leafl ets 

are produced by the refuge and do not meet Service 

standards. Brochures are generally available at the 

visitor contact station, Upper Lake and River Marsh 

campgrounds, and at kiosks located at headquarters, 

the east side of the refuge, and on Elk Lake Road. 

HUNTING 

Various forms of hunting are allowed in selected 

units of the refuge. Hunting seasons can start as 

early as August for archery seasons and generally go 

through the end of November. Species hunted include 

elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, pronghorn, 

ducks, coots, and geese.. Certain areas are closed to 

hunting to provide resting and feeding habitat for 

migratory birds, to protect refuge facilities, and to 

separate user groups. The limited moose hunting 

(currently an average of 11 permits annually) on the 

refuge is confined to the willow fen area (southeast 

corner of the refuge) and begins later than the state 

regulations. Boat launches are provided on Lower 

Lake for waterfowl hunters. 

FISHING 

Fishing primarily focuses on three introduced trout 

species (rainbow, brook, and Yellowstone cutthroat). 

Native sport fish species include Arctic grayling, 

mountain whitefish, and Westslope cutthroat 
trout, although the latter has hybridized with 

the introduced Yellowstone cutthroat. The Arctic 

grayling and Westslope cutthroat are both species 

of special management concern. Fishing generally 

follows state regulations, with some areas closed to 

fishing seasonally or year-round. Fishing is allowed 

on Red Rock, Odell, and Elk Springs creeks, and 

Culver, MacDonald, and Widgeon ponds. 

WILDLIFE OBSERVATION AND PHOTOGRAPHY 

Wildlife observation and photography is the most 

popular visitor service on the refuge. Most visitors 

view wildlife from the public roads and refuge 

campgrounds. There are two designated hiking trails, 

but no auto tour route or overlook. Foot travel is 

permitted throughout the refuge, and visitors are 

encouraged to take a hike into the wilderness. Boat 

launches are provided at Upper Lake and River 

Marsh campgrounds and Lower Red Rock Lake to 

allow visitors to explore the refuge and the wildlife 

by canoe or kayak during certain times of the year. 

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, 

OUTREACH, AND INTERPRETATION 

Staff-led environmental education, outreach, and 

interpretation programs are very limited, with 

refuge staff conducting talks or tours on an “asneeded” basis. Due to the refuge’s distance from 

local schools (minimum 45 miles, one way) and 

remote location, there is minimal contact with 

students in the surrounding communities. Visitors 

may explore the refuge independently and are 

provided some interpretation of refuge resources 

through informative panels in kiosks located at 

the headquarters, Upper Lake campground, east 

entrance, and along Elk Lake Road. There are also 

displays, interpretive panels, and maps in the visitor 

contact area in the headquarters offi ce. Interpretive 

panels are also located at Shambow Pond and the 

sandhills. 

Upper Lake campground. 

Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 87 

USFWS 

CAMPING 

Due to its remote location, the refuge provides two 

campgrounds for visitors to participate in wildlifedependent recreational activities on and off the 

refuge. River Marsh campground is located at 

Lower Red Rock Lake and the other campground 

is at Upper Red Rock Lake. Both are primitive 

sites with toilets, fire rings, and some picnic tables. 

Water is only available at Upper Lake campground. 

One campsite at the Upper Lake campground is 

universally accessible, but the outhouses are not. 

4.6 SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT 

A socioeconomic study prepared by BBC Consulting 

(2007) is the source for the information in this section. 

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge is open 

to the public and offers hunting, fishing, and wildlife 

observation and photography. These recreational 

opportunities attract outside visitors and bring 

in dollars to the community. The refuge primarily 

draws visitors from nearby Henry’s Lake in Idaho, 

but some come from Yellowstone National Park to 

the east. Ancillary visitor activity, such as spending 

on food, gasoline, and overnight lodging in the local 

area, provides local businesses with supplemental 

income and increases the local tax base. Management 

decisions regarding visitor services, expansion of 

services, and habitat improvement measures may 

either increase or decrease visitation to the refuge 

and thus affect the amount of visitor spending in the 

local economy. 

STUDY AREA 

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge is located 

in Beaverhead County in southwestern Montana, 

near the Idaho border. The study area also includes 

neighboring Madison and Gallatin counties as well 

as Fremont County, Idaho, because they are in close 

proximity to the refuge and could potentially be 

affected by management decisions. Gallatin County 

is different than the other counties because it has a 

much greater population and larger urban centers 

located far from the refuge; however, it is included in 

the study area because the city of West Yellowstone, 

located in the southern arm of the county near the 

refuge, serves as a base for overnight accommodation 

and commercial activity among visitors to the 

refuge. Fremont County in Idaho is also included 

because many visitors to the refuge stay in the area 

surrounding Henry’s Lake and towns to the south. 

POPULATION AND DEMOGRAPHICS 

The estimated 2005 population of the four-county 

study area was almost 106,500. Due to the large 

urban center of Bozeman and surrounding 

communities, Gallatin County is by far the most 

populous county in the region, with a population of 
78,200 in 2005; followed by Fremont County, Idaho 

(12,200); Beaverhead County, Montana (8,800); and 

Madison County, Montana (7,300). The population 

of the study area grew by over 26% between 1990 

and 2000 from 75,800 to 95,700. The population of 

Montana grew by 13% from 800,000 to 900,000 over 

the same period. Future growth rates for the study 

area and the state overall are expected to follow 

historical trends. 

About 32% of the population in 1990 was between 

35 and 64 years old, while that same demographic 

constituted 37% of the population in 2000. Gallatin 

County, with a large student population, and 

Fremont County, Idaho, have younger populations, 

with a median age of 32 in 2000, compared to a 

median age of 39 in Beaverhead County, and 43 in 

Madison County. 

EMPLOYMENT 

Employment in the four-county study area grew 

significantly between 2001 and 2005, from 43,000 to 

50,800, an increase of 18%. Gallatin County had by 

far the largest workforce with 42,102 employees, 

followed by Beaverhead County (3,380); Fremont 

County, Idaho (2,890); and Madison County (2,390). 

Estimates from 2005 calculated the unemployment 

rate for Fremont County at 3.9%, Beaverhead 

County at 3.4%, Madison County at 3.1%, and 

Gallatin County at 2.8%. These compare favorably to 

a statewide unemployment level of 4% in Montana 

and Idaho. 

The study area primarily employs individuals in 

retail trade, accommodations and food services, and 

educational services. Retail establishments employed 

15% of the workforce, while accommodation and food 

services,and educational services each employed 

14% of the workforce. The agricultural industry in 

the study area is small, employing only 2% of the 

workforce. 

This data is largely driven by the large workforce 

of Gallatin County. When Beaverhead, Madison, 

and Fremont (Idaho) counties are examined 

alone, significantly greater proportions of the 

workforce are employed in agriculture (6.8%) and 

public administration (13.5%), and a signifi cantly 

smaller proportion of the workforce is employed in 

educational services (9.4%). 

CURRENT CONDITIONS 

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge affects 

the local economy through the visitor spending it 

generates and the employment it supports. The 

refuge currently supports five full-time permanent 

employees. 

The refuge sees approximately 12,000 visitor days 

annually, of which an estimated 85%, or 10,200 visitor 

days, are not from the local area. Considering that 

expenditures can vary greatly among campers, 

lodgers, and passers-by, it is estimated that on 

average, a visitor to the refuge will spend $25 in 

the local area per day, for an annual total of about 

$260,000. 

4.7 OPERATIONS 

STAFFING 

Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge has 

been managed as a “stand alone” refuge since its 

establishment in 1935. Over the past 70 years, there 

have been a wide variety of staffing levels. In fi scal 

year 2007, the refuge was provided base funding for 

one full-time permanent refuge manager (GS-12), one 

full-time permanent assistant refuge manager (GS11), one full-time permanent biologist (GS-11), one 

full-time permanent maintenance worker (WG-08), 

and one full-time permanent administrative assistant 

(GS-7) (table 5). In recent years, the refuge has used 

grants and other “soft” funding sources in order 

to hire seasonal staff (such as seasonal biological 

technicians) and cover the cost of volunteer services. 

Over the past 5 years, seasonal staffing levels have 

varied depending on the amount of funding acquired 

through “soft” funding sources. Seasonal staff 

have been essential for collecting biological data, 

maintaining equipment and facilities (for example, 

signs, buildings, and fences), and orienting and 

educating refuge visitors. The hiring of seasonal staff 

has been invaluable to accomplishing biological and 

visitor service goals each year. 

Staff located at the refuge headquarters are 

responsible for Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge as well as the Centennial Valley Conservation 

Easement program (see “Centennial Valley 

Conservation Easement” on following page). 

Table 5. Current base funded staff at Red Rock 

Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Montana. 

Staff Group	 Position 

Management	 Refuge manager, GS-12, 


assistant refuge manager, 


GS-11
 

Biology	 Wildlife biologist, GS-9/11 

Administration	 Administrative assistant, 


GS-7
 

Maintenance	 Maintenance worker, WG-8 

Total Salaries and Benefits = $309,365 

88 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

FACILITIES 

The refuge used the Works Progress Administration 

(WPA) between 1936 and 1938 to build one log home, 

one log administrative and maintenance building 

(since converted solely to an administrative and 

visitor contact station), two log storage barns, and 
Chapter 4 — Affected Environment 89 

one metal fire tower. The refuge has since added 

several structures to help with management and 

operation activities. These additional structures 

include three 3-bedroom residences, one 4-bedroom 

bunkhouse, one metal maintenance shop, three 

vehicle and equipment storage structures, one trailer 

pad, and one 2-bedroom cabin. These structures were 

obtained through land acquisitions or built by the 

refuge staff. 

The infrastructure for these buildings includes 

two wells (supplying potable water to the 

residences, administrative building, bunkhouses, 

and maintenance shop) and six operational septic 

systems. The refuge also has an operable cistern 

that draws water from Shambow Creek. This was 

the main source of water for the residences until 

1956 when a well was established. The cistern now 

serves as a back-up water supply system and is used 

occasionally by the refuge staff. The cistern was 

also used to supply water to the surrounding town 

of Lakeview. The current year-round population 

of Lakeview is between five and 15, including the 

refuge staff and their families. 

There are several unused log buildings and 

structures that were obtained through various land 

acquisitions. Several of these serve as reminders of 

the homesteading era (for example, the Buck and 

Hanson homesteads), and the Compañeros house 

is eligible for listing under the National Historic 

Preservation Act. 

There are numerous water control structures, 

diversion ditches, culverts, and cattle guards (of 

various ages and condition) located throughout the 

refuge. There are approximately 12 miles of public 

and service roads maintained by the refuge staff 

and 23 miles of county-maintained roads that bisect 

the refuge. The South Valley Road (also known 

as Red Rock Pass Road) is maintained during 

the winter only from Monida, Montana, to the 

refuge headquarters. Depending on local weather 

conditions, this road can be impassable for several 

days to months at a time during the late fall, winter, 

and early springtime periods. No other county roads 

are maintained during the winter months. 

CENTENNIAL VALLEY CONSERVATION EASEMENT 

AND LAND ACQUISITION PROGRAM 

Most valleys and foothills in the Greater Yellowstone 

Area and near the Centennial Valley are being 

developed or subdivided to provide homes for people 

wanting to live in more rural settings. During the 

1960s, demographers documented that for the 

first time in American history, higher proportions 

of people were leaving cities for parts rural than 

were making the return trip (Fuguitt 1985). 

“Exurbanization” accelerated in the 1990s, drawing 

people still further out into the rural west. In the 

1990s, the West’s “beachfront property”—rural lands 

adjacent to national parks and forests—were the 

fastest growing areas (Rudzitis 1996). In the Greater 

Yellowstone area, fully one-third of all private lands 

have already been subdivided for development, with 

a majority of new lots locating outside existing towns 

(Harting and Glick 1994). In Gallatin County, 17,000 

acres of farmland were subdivided between 1993 and 

1999 alone. Madison Valley recorded 16,000 acres 

subdivided into 685 lots between 1994 and 1998— 

most of this into 20-acre “ranchettes” (Johnson 1999). 

Even in counties with slow growth rates, loss of 

agricultural land continues. The state of Montana, as 

a whole, is consuming land four times faster than the 

population growth rate (U.S. Census Bureau 1999). 

The Centennial Valley, in which the refuge lies, 

remains biologically intact and has not been 

converted to housing developments. Almost 

100,000 acres in the Centennial Valley are privately 

owned, and the majority of this land remains as 

large working ranches. The Service recognized 

the opportunity to partner and compensate these 

landowers for keeping their lands intact and in 

2001 the Service approved the Centennial Valley 

Conservation Easement Program. An approved 

acquisition boundary was determined at that time. 

Since this program began, the refuge has acquired 

perpetual conservation easements on 20,219 acres 

from nine landowners (see figure 6, page 19). 

There are approximately 20,000 acres of additional 

ranch lands in the Centennial Valley protected by 

perpetual easements acquired by nongovernmental 

organization. Given the current trends of low cattle 

prices and a strong market for scenic western 

properties, the remaining unprotected Centennial 

Valley ranches may be vulnerable to sale and 

subdivision for development. 

To achieve Service goals for fish, wildlife, and 

habitats (including providing large tracts of 

unfragmented habitats), the Service will pursue 

acquisition or protection, or both, of inholdings 

from willing sellers within the approved refuge and 

Centennial Valley conservation easement boundaries 

using both fee title and perpetual conservation 

easements (USFWS 2001). Key areas to acquire and 

protect include, but are not limited to 

■	 lands that protect and augment existing large 

tracts of undeveloped and unfragmented 

habitats (for example, Centennial livestock); 

■	 lands that would protect wetland or riparian 

habitats, or both (such as those along Red Rock 

Creek); 

■	 lands that would protect source waters into the 

refuge to maintain or improve water quality and 

quantity of the refuge’s wetland habitats (such 

as Alaska Basin and Red Rock Creek) (Note: 

the reach of Red Rock Creek through the area 

known as Alaska Basin is the largest input of 

water into the refuge remaining unprotected. It 

is key spawning habitat for Arctic grayling and 
90 Draft CCP and EA, Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, MT 

arguably the most important input of water into 

the refuge’s wetland complex). 

Staff located at the refuge headquarters are 

responsible for the Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife 

Refuge and for managing and monitoring lands 

protected under the Centennial Valley Conservation 

Easement program (see preceding page). No 

additional staff or operational funding was added to 

the refuge when the conservation easement program 

was established in 2001. 

PARTNERSHIPS 

The refuge has a history of fostering partnerships 

that help the refuge accomplish its mission and goals. 

The refuge actively sought and fostered partnerships 

with organizations and individuals with whom a 

common goal was shared. These partners include 

county, state, and federal agencies; nongovernmental 

organizations and conservation groups; schools, 

colleges, and universities; and local landowners and 

private citizens. Private lands and signifi cant acres 

of federal and state lands surround the refuge. These 

neighboring landowners and agencies have been and 

will continue to be partners in achieving the refuge’s 

vision in the Centennial Valley, while sharing ideas 

and resources 

The refuge’s partners have assisted in wildlife 

and habitat management, visitor services and 

recreational opportunities, land protection and 

acquisition, fire protection, law enforcement, and 

community outreach. Several of these relationships 

have developed into formalized partnerships 

with written agreements or memorandums of 

understanding, while others remain more informal.