THE CHANGING 

GEOSPATIAL LANDSCAPE

A Second Look

					

A	Report	of	the	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee

December	2015
The	Changing	Geospatial	Landscape	– A	Second	Look

December	2015

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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

I. Introduction

The	Secretary	of	the	Interior	formed	the	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee (NGAC) in	2008	to	

provide	advice	and	recommendations	related	to	the	management	of	Federal	and	national	geospatial	

programs.		This	committee	was	established	under	the	terms	of	the	Federal	Advisory	Committee	Act of	

1972,	as	amended.

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		The	Federal	Geographic	Data	Committee	(FGDC),	which	is	the	federal	entity	

responsible	for	managing	the	National	Spatial	Data	Infrastructure (NSDI),	is	the	designated	immediate	

beneficiary	of	the	NGAC’s	recommendations.		This	diverse	committee	consisted of	28	experts	from	

academia, the	private	sector and	all	levels	of	government:	Federal,	Tribal,	State,	regional	and	municipal.	

In	2009,	the	NGAC	produced	a	report	titled	The	Changing	Geospatial	Landscape.	As	noted	in	the	preface	

to	that	report, during	its	first	year	of	activity,	the	NGAC “endeavored	to	create	a	common	level	of	

understanding	as	it	relates	to	geospatial	technology,	policy	and	programs	that	exist	in	the	public	and	

private	sector.”

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		The	committee	published The	Changing	Geospatial	Landscape “to	describe	the	

changes	and	advancements	the	community	has	witnessed	over	the	past	three-plus	decades	and	to	set	a	

context	from	which	in	part	we	will	base	our	future	deliberations.	While	this	paper	is	not	meant	to	be	allinclusive	in	chronicling	the	growth	of	the	industry,	we	do	believe	it	captures	the	major	milestones	and	

identifies	several	of	the	major	issues	that	lie	ahead.”

The	subsequent eight	years	have	been	a	time	of rapid	technological	change	in	the	geospatial	industry.		

Some	of	the	“the	major	milestones	and	...	major	issues”	have	been	achieved	and	some have	been	

superseded.		For	example,	the	rise	of	cloud	computing	has	changed	the	way	we	collect	and	share	

information.		This can	be	a	beneficial	change,	as	was	seen	in	the	global	response	to	the	earthquakes	in	

Haiti	and	Nepal.		However,	it	also	has	raised	significant	concerns	about	privacy, and	information	

integrity	and	security.			

This	report	is	intended	to	build	upon	The	Changing	Geospatial	Landscape.		In	this	document,	the	

committee	contributes	its	perceptions	of	incipient	technologies	that	we	expect	will	guide,	define	or	

determine the	development	of	this	industry	in	the	near	and	medium	term.		Of	even	greater	importance,	

the	report	highlights	those	aspects	of	innovation	that	bear	directly	on	public	policy	and	on	individual	

privacy	and	security.		The	NGAC	has	also	prepared	this	report	to	help	inform	the	development	of	the	

next	iteration	of	the	strategic	plan	for	the	National	Spatial	Data	Infrastructure	(NSDI)	and	the	

development	of	transition	recommendations	for	the	next	Presidential	administration.

II. “The	Future	is	Coming,	Experts	Say”	– Near	and	Medium	Term	Trends	

In	this	remarkably	succinct	headline	from	the	early	1990s,	a	west	coast	newspaper	managed	in	a	single	

phrase	to	simultaneously	confirm	and	cloud	the	issue	of	forecasting.		Indeed	the	future	is	coming	but	

what	will	it	encompass and	how	can	we	ensure	beneficial	change?		During	one	of	its	2015	quarterly	

meetings,	the	NGAC	conducted	a	workshop	to	identify	the	components	of	what	one	member	

characterized	as	a	tsunami of	changes.		For	the	purposes	of	this	discussion,	we	categorize	these	

admittedly	multi-faceted	changes	as	primarily	related	to	technology	or	to	human	issues	(that	is,	social,	

economic,	and	policy-related)	and	present	the NGAC’s predictions	with	brief	clarifying	notes.
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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

Technology	Issues

Remotely	Sensed	Information	– Satellites,	Part	1:	Imagery

The Federal	government	launched	the ERTS-A	(Earth	Resources Technology	Satellite) in	1972.	Renamed	

Landsat	I,	this	satellite	and	its	successors	contributed	to	a	revolution	in	global	mapping.	 Between	1972	

and	2013,	the	government	built	and	launched	seven	other	Landsat	satellites.		In	2013	Landsat	8	went	

into	service.		It	“was	turned	over	to	the	U.S.	Geological	Survey	in	Sioux	Falls,	South	Dakota,	in	May	2013	

to	begin	service,	cost	the	government	about	$850	million	to	build	and	launch.	Five	years	of	operations	is	

expected	to	push	the	total	to	nearly	$1	billion.”3		With	its	instrument	packages,	Landsat	8	weighs	

approximately	2623	kg (slightly	less	than	three	tons). The	revisit	interval	is every	16	days.

During	the 42-year	interval between	the	first	and	most	recent	launches,	satellite	technology	has	

changed	significantly.		Perhaps the	most	dramatic	change	has	come	from	the	private	sector,	which	has	

developed	small,	lightweight,	inexpensive	satellite platforms intended	to	provide	current	data	collected	

daily.		As an	example,	consider	the	Dove	satellite	produced	by	Planet	Labs.4		The	Dove	weighs	4	

kilograms	and	measures	approximately	10	cm	by	10	cm	by	30	cm.		As	of	September	2015,	100	Dove	

satellites	are	in	orbit	with	a	revisit	rate	of	24	hours	for	every	location	on	the	planet.5		

What	are	the	implications	of	such	platforms?		First,	as	sensors	continue	to	proliferate,	private	firms will	

begin	to	acquire	their	data	from	these	less	expensive	and	higher	resolution	data	collectors.		This	in	turn	

means	the	federal	government	will	have	less	control	over	data acquisition.		Second,	small	satellites	solve	

the	prohibitively	expensive	process	of	testing	and	deploying	satellites, allowing	vast	resources	to	be	

repurposed.		Third,	the	more	frequent	rate	of	data	collection,	combined	with	lower	cost	and	higher	

resolution	imagery	will	enable	a	much	broader	range	of	applications	than	has	been	possible	in	the	past.		

For	example,	forest	fires,	storm	damage	and	new	building	construction	could	be	modeled	in	human	time	

(that	is,	one-day	intervals).		

Remotely	Sensed	Information	– Satellites,	Part	2:	Location

The	Navstar	Global	Navigation	Satellite	System	(GNSS),	also	known	as	the	Navstar	Global	Positioning	

System	(GPS)	was	proposed	by	the	Pentagon	in	1973 and	put	into	services	in	1989.

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		GPS	quickly solved	

the	problem	of	precise	collection	of	location	information	in	the	field.		The	reach	of	this	system	grew	in	

2000	when	the	method	of	encryption	known	as	selective	availability	was	removed	and	civilian	users	had	

access	to	high	quality	data.		Since	its inception,	the	Global	Navigation	Satellite	System	(GLONASS)	

launched	by	Russia,	the	BeiDou	system	launched	by	China,	the	European	Space	Agency’s	Galileo	system,

and	regional	systems	launched	by	India	and	Japan have	joined	the	Navstar	constellation	in	orbits	around	

the	earth.

The	NGAC	believes	that	the full	range	of	applications	for	GPS	data	remains	unidentified.		The	integration	

of	Navstar	data	with	the	even	more	precise	Japanese	localized	data	offers	the	opportunity for	highly	

accurate	road	vehicle	navigation,	just	as	the	Navstar	GPS	had	automated	many	aspects	of	agriculture.		

Combining	these	regional	GPS	data	sets	with	small	satellite	imagery	offers	the	prospect	creative	

solutions	to	problems	of	many	kinds.

Remotely	Sensed	Data	– Unmanned	Aerial	Systems	(UAS) (“aerial	drones”)

Terrestrial	drones	are	used	at	building	construction	sites	and	in	prisons,	locations	that	share	a	concern	

with	personal	safety	during	data	collection.		For	example,	drones	are	being	used	to	monitor	flare	stacks	
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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

for	natural	gas,	avoiding	the	dangers	of	placing	human	observers	in	the	field.

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		Marine	drones	are	being	

used	to	map	oceans	currents	and	bathymetry.		As	the	Federal	Aviation	Administration and	other	

agencies	move	forward	with	licensing	and	regulated	usage	of	aerial	drones	(also	known	as	unmanned	

aerial	systems),	their	application	to	mapping	and	related	data	collection	will	grow	exponentially.		

Operating	under	specific	certificates	of	authorization	(COA),	private	survey	firms	have	already	begun	

using	drones	to	survey	and	map	cross-country	power	lines	and	pipelines.		Aerial	drones	offer	a	safer	

alternative	to	helicopter	flights	over	forest	fires	and	flooded	rivers,	as	well	as	analysis	of	damaged	

infrastructure	such	as	storm	or	accident-damaged	bridges.		

The	use	of	aerial	drones	offers	significant	advantages	in	data	collection.		The	full	range	of	the	

applications	is	unknown,	but	should	be	monitored	as	the	NGAC	continues	its	advisory	role.		More	

importantly,	the	use	of	aerial	drones	poses	several	substantial	issues	related	to	personal	privacy	and	

security,	which	we	consider	later	in	this	paper.

Mobile	Device	Applications	

Fourth	generation	(4G)	mobile	telephone	technology,	and	its	enhancement	through	Long	Term	

Evolution	(LTE),	has made	mobile	computing	a	reality.		We	can	determine	the	general	location	of	any	

commercial mobile	communication	device	by	trilateration,	using	the	signals	from	three	(or	more)	

cellular	communication	towers.		The	specific	location	of	those	devices	can	be	determined	using GPS	(if	

this	capability	is	enabled	- the	default	setting	in	most	systems).

This	functionality	is	linked	directly	to	what	is	often	called	“The	Mobile	Revolution.”		Many	apps	

(software	programs	written	specifically	to	operate	on	portable	devices)	rely	on	knowing	the	devices	

geographic	location.		Such	location	intelligence services	are	driven	by	commercial	marketing

considerations.		Knowing	the	precise location of	users	allows	firms	to	target	their	promotions	and	alert	

users	to	location-specific	opportunities.		We	have	witnessed a	collective	societal	decision	to	“opt-in” to	

this	environment	and	have	become,	in	effect, part	of	a	“passive	sensor”	ecosystem.	This	also	poses	

several	substantial	issues	related	to	personal	privacy	and	security,	which	we	consider	later	in	this	paper.

Organizations	with	requirements	to	gather	and	utilize	program	data	and	document	in	the	field	should	be	

able	to	realize	greatly	streamline	workflow	through	the	use	of	mobile	devices	and	accompanying	

software.	These	platforms	will	allow	enhanced	information	to	be	collected	in	the	form	of	audio,	video,	

and	other	sensor	readings,	all	linked	to	the	location	of	observation	by	means	of	GPS	and	interactive	

maps.	Additionally,	field	workers	will	be	able	to	navigate	better	through	the	use	of	offline	maps	and	

navigation	aids	in	areas	as	yet	unserved	by	mobile	broadband.

Real	time	traffic	reporting	is	made	possible	by	the	use	of	thousands	or	millions	of	passive	data	

collectors.		As	driving	conditions change	and	traffic	slows	down,	this	information	is	being relayed	to	

mobile	mapping and	display	systems.		This	is	an	example	of	adaptive	design	in	which	drivers	provide	real	

time	inputs.		As	was	the	case	with	aerial	drones,	this	passive	sensor	technology	offers	tremendous	

opportunities	but	also	poses	several	substantial	issues	related	to	personal	privacy	and	security.		

Moreover,	the	ubiquity	of	data	access	has	created	certain	issues	related	to	trust	and	data	quality	that	

we	consider	later	in	this	report.

Indoor	Positioning

Given	that	the	newest	generation	of	U.S.	GPS	satellites, GPS	III,	permits	identifying	a	location	anywhere	

on	earth	to within	one	meter	and	new	satellite	imagery	provides a	view	of	any	point	on	the	earth	each	
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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

day with	a	resolution	of	less	than	2	feet,	why	is	it	so	difficult	to	locate	people	and	assets	accurately	

indoors? This	is	becoming	an	important	question	as	many	of	our	critical	business	needs	will	be	satisfied

by	solutions	that	require	knowing	where	people,	resources	and	assets	are	when	they	are	

indoors. Indoor	positioning	technology	provides	the	ability	for	real-time	tracking	of	location	information	

on	people	or	objects	indoor	using	sensory	information	from	automated	devices. NG911	is	an	excellent	

example	of	an	application	that	benefits	from	knowledge	of	not	only	X	and	Y	position, but	also	Z,	or	

elevation,	position.

The	expanding	use	of	indoor	positioning	includes	such	things	as	customer	tracking	and	information,	

indoor	navigation,	security,	safety,	augmented	reality,	location	based	services and	mobile	asset	

tracking. Beyond	early	adopters	with	specific	high	impact	needs,	the	challenges	around	creating	good	

indoor	positioning	infrastructure	have	prevented	widespread	implementation.	There	are	many	reasons	

that	indoor	positioning	is	so	challenging,	including	weak	or	no	indoor	GPS	signal,	limited	standards,	

multiple	different	business	requirements	and the	technically	difficult	environment	of	being	indoors.

As	with	any	new	capability,	standards	are	being	developed	(OGC,	2015)	and	more	robust	technology	is	

rapidly	evolving. Careful	planning	and	investment	will	allow	organizations	to	develop,	over	time,	a	

robust	indoor	positioning	infrastructure	that	meets	a	large	cross-section	of	the	organization’s	needs.		

The	NGAC	should	track	these	efforts	and	provide	appropriate	recommendations	to	the	FGDC.

Platform	Evolution

Mobile	communications	devices are	advancing	in	parallel	with the	evolution	in	the	workplace	from	

mainframe	computers	to	mini-computers	to	desktop	workstations	to	personal	computers	and	tablets	

using	web	services.		As	processing	power	has	increased,	the	cost	of	computing	has	gone	down	

dramatically.		The	Osborne	OM-1	of	1981	had	a	smaller	display	screen	than	most	contemporary	smart	

phones,	not	to	mention	substantially	less	processor	power	and	significantly	less	storage.		

The	transition	to	fast,	small-footprint	computing	tools,	cloud	storage	and	mobile	computing	have

enabled	development	of	tools	such	as	the	Geospatial	Platform,	a	federal	asset	that	provides a	managed	

portfolio	of	common	geospatial	data,	services	and	applications.

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		However,	this	transition	has	also	

engendered	a	lack	of	awareness	of	what	geospatial	technology	is	doing	in	our	daily	lives.		Somewhat	

“generational”	in	its	impact,	the	transition	has	dulled	the	senses	of	users	with	regard	to	the	provenance	

of	the	data	they	are	using.		This,	in	turn,	has	ramifications	for	the	training	of	the	next	generation of	

geospatial	professionals	and	our	expectations	for	their	role	in	the	industry.

Storage	in	the	Cloud

“Cloud	storage	is	a	model	of	data	storage	where	the	digital	data	is	stored	in	logical	pools,	the	physical	

storage	spans	multiple	servers	(and	often	locations),	and	the	physical	environment	is	typically	owned	

and	managed	by	a	hosting	company.”9		Cloud	storage	has	largely	solved	the	problems	of	cost	and	

capacity	for	bulk	data	storage.		Use	of	applications	such	as	Google	Drive,	Dropbox	and	Microsoft’s	

OneDrive	are	commonplace,	as	is	the	use	of	Rackspace	and	the	Amazon	cloud	for	larger	commercial	

enterprises.		

The	financial	benefits	of	cloud	storage	can	be	substantial,	as	a	former	member	of	the	NGAC	

demonstrated	in	one	substantial	region-wide	purchasing	initiative.10		Cloud	storage	certainly	is	

appropriate	for	federal	civilian	agency	use.		Appropriately	secured clouds	could	also	benefit	agencies	

that	must	store	and	access	restricted	data.		
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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

Crowdsourced	Data

Just	as	Wikipedia	has	revolutionized	collaborative	information	sharing,	on-line	systems	such	as	

OpenStreetMap	and	Ushahidi	have	enabled	collaborative	mapping	in	heretofore-unimagined ways.		As	

noted	earlier	in	this	report,	the	NGAC	sponsored	two	workshops	on	crowdsourcing in	2015.		The	

availability	of	quantities	of	detailed	information	has	many	benefits	but	also	creates	many	concerns.		For	

example,	must	we consider	what	crowdsourced	data	should	be	included	within	the	NSDI?		What	should	

be	the	content	requirements	for	data	themes	and	individual	records?		Should	there	be	NSDI	metadata	

standards	for	crowdsourced	data	and,	if	so,	what	should	the	standards	define?

Communications

The	nation’s	infrastructure	is	at	constant	risk,	from	terrorism	certainly	but	also	from	decay	and	

degeneration.		This	infrastructure	exists	at	specific	locations.		Disasters	strike	at	specific	locations.		

Ambulances	are	dispatched	to	specific	locations.		These	locations	must	be	communicated	to	first	

responders	and	to	engineers	working	to	alleviate	the	impact	of	these	events.		What	happens when	the	

communications	network	goes	down?	

FirstNet	(National	Public	Safety	Broadband	Network)	hopes	to	have	8	million	credentialed	users	by	2022	

using	a	single	sign-on	mechanism	to	access	the	network	and	information.		The	NGAC	asks	if	this	system	

can	be	leveraged	to	access	protected	layers	and	services	associated	with	the	NSDI.		An	NGAC	member	

working	with	the	Department	of	Homeland	Security	has	shared	the	claim	made	by	agencies associated	

with	the	NextGen911	and	FirstNet	initiatives	and	their	underlying	technologies	that	these	will	be	able	to	

improve	emergency	response	by	an	average	of	2-4	minutes	per	call.	

Leveraging	geospatial	data	is	a	big	part	of	the	strategy	to	achieve	this	impact.	 In	August 2015,	FCC	

Chairman	Tom	Wheeler	called	for	Congress	to consider	and	fund	efforts	toward	NextGen911	including	a	

borderless	national	public	safety	map	(including	roads,	addresses,	jurisdictions,	facilities and	similar	

information).

11		The	NGAC	recommends	continued	engagement	in	this area.

Social,	Economic,	and	Policy	Issues

Rural-Urban	Dichotomy

There	are	significant	differences	in	the	availability	of	Internet	services	throughout	the	United	States.		A	

digital	divide	exists	in	which	entities	in	urban areas	(for	example,	Fortune	500	companies and	the	betterfunded agencies) have	ample	access	to	geospatial	resources	and	the	highest	quality	data while	rural	

areas	do	not.		This	exacerbates competitive	advantages	and	leaves rural	communities	behind.	 Strictly	

relying	on	market	forces	and	striving	for	complete	efficiency	does	not	always	result	in	the	best	societal	

outcome.		The	NGAC	endorses	the	continued	use	of	the	Broadband	Map	to	continue	to	expand	Internet	

access	to	the	nation’s	rural	areas.

Workforce	Development

Today,	very	few	business	decisions	are	made	in	the	public	and	private	sector	which	don’t	take	into	

account	location	or	aren’t	heavily	dependent	on	geospatial	data	and	technology	(e.g.,	GPS).	The	United	

States	is	a	world	leader	in	the	industry	that	acquires,	manages,	analyzes,	integrates,	maps,	distributes,	

and	uses	geographic,	temporal,	and	spatially	based	information	- a	multi-billion	component	of	the	US	

economy	touching	every	sector	from	public	health	to	homeland	defense.	
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National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	(www.fgdc.gov/ngac)

It	follows	that	economic	growth	and	security	depends	as	much,	if	not	more,	on	the	people	who	perform	

the	work	than	on	the	resulting	products	and	analytic	techniques	themselves.	Unfortunately,	this	vital	

component	faces	a	shortage	of	qualified	and	skilled	workers	to	meet	the	demands	of	this	fast	growing	

industry.	Beyond	workforce	development,	the	industry	confronts	an	identity	challenge	as	the	traditional	

geospatial	‘competency	model’	is	rapidly	expanding	to	include	more	elements	than	one	might	think.	A	

good	geospatial	practitioner	can’t	just	be	a	spatial-data	guru.	He	or	she	has	to	be	able	to	speak	the	

language	of	a	particular	domain,	write	some	code,	apply	statistics,	all	coupled	with	communication	

acumen.	

This	calls	for:

• Commercial,	academic,	nonprofit	organizations,	and	all	levels	of	government	use	a	

complementary	set	of	competencies	to	support	systematic	geospatial	learning	and	development	

of	training	and	education	programs	and	curricula;

• Effective	and	compelling	public	outreach	programs	and	informational	materials	about	the	

geospatial	profession	distributed	through	geospatial	professional	organizations	and	existing	

DOL-supported	education	and	information	channels;	and

• A	set	of	skills	standards	describe	the	kinds	of	workers	needed	to	support	the	geospatial	industry;	

improve	employee	recruitment	and	selection;	and	advance	geospatial	technology.	

These	direct	and	indirect	benefits	ultimately	work	to	better	align	educational,	employment,	and	

workforce	development	programs	with	employers’	labor	needs,	ultimately	providing	public	and	private	

organizations	with	the	knowledge	and	skills	employees	need	to	be	successful.

Data	Analytics

The	development	of	location	based	mobile	device	applications	has	created	a	huge	appetite	for	

geospatial	data.		It	also	has	created	a	demand	for	higher	accuracy,	greater	relevancy	and	real-time	data	

(that	is,	more frequent	refresh	rates).		 This	represents	a	huge	opportunity	for	the	data	analytics

industry,	but	also	has	implications	for	the	geospatial	community.

Many	aspects	of	human	behavior	can	be	modeled	in	aggregate	by	examining	collateral	data.		For	

example,	FEMA	has	modeled	patterns	of	movement	and	evacuation	following	disasters	by	sampling	

sales	reports	from	the	Waffle	House	chain	of	restaurants.		The	CDC	models	epidemics	by	following	

hospital	bed-use	and	availability.		The	NGAC	notes	that,	in	a	world	of	ubiquitous	passive	sensors,	similar	

public	health	modeling	could	be	performed	using CVS	and	Walgreen	sales	data.		However,	this	type	of	

application	raises	several	questions.

This	type	of	data	gathering	and	publishing	would	require	meaningful	usage	statistics for	geospatial	

services.		If	pursued,	these	capabilities should	be	incorporated	in	application	design	from	the	start,	not	

as	an	afterthought.		This,	in	turn,	would	improve	confidence	and	relevancy	of	the	data.		However,	it	

would	raise	serious	questions	regarding	individual	privacy,	a	point	to	which	we	return	below.

Standards

As	was	appropriate	at	the	inception	of	the	program,	the	NSDI	data	standards	focus	on	sources	of	the	

data	rather	than on	use	of	the	data.		The	NGAC	recommends	a	review	of	the	possibility	of	adapting	

standards	and	policies	to	the	rapid	pace	of	technological	change	and	to	current	and	future	uses	of	data.		

Incentive	structures	to	support	adherence	to	data	standards	are	not	expected.		Because	of	this,	data	

standards	focus	should	be	on	functional,	not	operative	standards	and	the	communication	of	best	
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practices	examples.		The	NGAC	also	recommends	consideration of	a	change	in	focus	to	reflect	the	

changing	user	population:	everyone	in	the	nation	uses	these	data,	not	only	technically sophisticated	

employees	working	in	the	geospatial	industry and	government.

Privacy	Issues	

Personal	privacy	is	a	matter	of	growing	concern, especially	when	user	location	is	linked	to	mobile	

devices.		Click-through	“terms	of	use”	agreements are	of	little	value	in	this regard,	given	their	small	font	

size,	their	length and	detail,	their	brief display	time, their	lack	of	real-world	utility,	and	the	growing	

opinion	that	they	are	increasingly	meaningless	without	legal	force.		There	is	real	and	growing	concern	

with	the	collection	of	real-time	data	and	how	these	data “back	into” privacy.		Indoor	mapping,	the	

“Internet	of	Things”	and	small	satellites	have	created	more	eyes	and	ears	that	are	seeing	and	hearing

more	things.		The	integration	of	space	and	time	in	data	collection	has	enabled applications	that	are	not	

only	used	for	static	inventories	and map-making but	also	for	real-time	decision-making and	action.		The	

NGAC	expresses	its	concern	about	the	impact	of	these	data	collection	practices	for	personal	privacy	and	

security.		The	NGAC	also	recommend	continued	dialogue	with	the	CIO	Council	and	other	appropriate	

agencies	and	entities.

Certainly,	in	some	cases,	the	GPS	capability	of	mobile	devices	(discussed	previously	in	this	report)	offers	

benefits that	may	outweigh	privacy	concerns...			Consider	the	user’s	ability	to	turn	off	the	GPS	tracking	

functionality.		A	common	question	to	law	enforcement	officials	is	“don't	criminals	change	the	default	

setting	to	off	so	they	won't	be	tracked?”		The	most	frequent	answer	is	“No,	the	criminals	do	not	usually	

turn	the	tracking/GPS	off.”			For	example,	upon	several	occasions,	mobile	phones	were	used	during	the	

commission	of	a	crime in	Lexington	County,	South	Carolina.		In	each	time	the	criminal	had	not	changed	

the	default	setting	for	GPS	tracking	from	“on”	to	“off.”		In	each	case,	county	officials	were	able	to	use	

local	area	maps to triangulate	locations	from	the	identified	towers	and	demonstrate	where	and	when	

the	criminals	were	located	in	relationship	to	the	crime.	At	South	Carolina’s	most	recent	statewide Crime	

Intelligence	conference,	this	counties	experience	was	confirmed	to	be	typical statewide.

Despite	the	fact	that	information	about	precise	location	can	be	useful	for	law	enforcement	and	can	be	

critical	for	first	responders	requiring	assistance,	access	to	such	data	does	raise	privacy	considerations.		

The	NGAC	recommends	on-going	consideration	of	privacy	issues	as	technologies	continue	to	evolve.

Health	Issues	

One	specific	area	of	privacy	concern	is	related	to	health	care.		On	a	positive side,	precise	geolocation	can	

be	used	to	improve	response	times	for	ambulances.		There	could	be similar	benefits	for	disaster	

response.		With	proper	tools,	CVS	and	Walgreens	could	track	events	such	as	the	2014	Ebola	outbreak by	

recording	customer	symptoms in	real-time	and	sharing that	information	with	the	Centers	for	Disease	

Control.		

However,	there	must	also	be	consideration	of	negative	consequences.		The	Health	Insurance	Portability	

and	Accountability	Act	of	1996	(HIPAA)	has	privacy	at	its	heart.		What are	the	implications	for	insurance	

coverage	of	identifying	individual	users	(by	mobile	phone	number	and	GPS	location)	who	seek	forms	of	

treatment	for	certain	diseases?		Could	a	company	decide	to	terminate	medical	insurance	coverage	

based	on	a	request	for	a	home	pregnancy	test	kits	or	AIDS	infection	test	kit?

Public	health	and	safety	must	be	protected,	but	so	must	individual	privacy.	This	is	a	matter	of	law.		There	

is	no	one	from	the	health	care	industry currently	appointed	to the	NGAC.		Moreover,	the	Department	of	
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Health	and	Human	Services	does	not	actively	participate	in	the	work	of	the	FGDC.		The	NGAC	

recommends	that	the appropriate	federal	agencies	and	organizations	work	to	more	effectively	address	

these	issues.

Public	Safety

NextGen	911	and	computer-assisted	vehicle	dispatch	systems	are	clear	examples	of	the	use	of	

geospatial	technology	for	public	safety.		As	the	sophistication	of	relevant	technologies including	passive	

sensors has	increased,	certain	additional	capabilities	have	come to	light.		

Among these	newer	systems	are	building	mapping	systems,	often	known as	Building	Information	

Management	(BIM)	systems.		When	combined	with	building	communications	systems,12 these	systems	

afford	a	measure	of	security	for	building	occupants	and,	in	time	of	need,	first	responders.		The	NGAC	

recommends	continued	monitoring	of	public	safety	applications	of	geospatial	information	and	

technology	to	ensure	appropriate	advice to	the	FGDC.

Public-Private	Partnerships

Approximately	85%	of	the	nation’s critical	infrastructure is	owned	and	operated	by	the	private	sector.		

The	streets	and	buildings	of	private	university	campuses	and	larger	private	firms	are	maintained	by	their	

owners.		The	street	networks	used	for	vehicle	navigation	are	owned	by	private	industry.		These	data	sets	

and	many	others	should	be	evaluated	for	inclusion	in	the	NSDI.		We	must	address	the	question	of	when	

to	license	commercial	geospatial	products	versus	creating	public	domain	products.	Public-private	

partnerships	appear to	offer	value	in	many	areas.		The Federal	government	should	aggressively	evaluate	

effective	operational	public/private	partnerships.		Given	that	the	majority	of	the	nation’s	streets	fall

within	cities,	which	also	manage	a	substantial	portion	of	the	nation’s	critical	infrastructure	(for	example,	

water	and	sewage	systems),	the	Federal	government	should	also	evaluate	an	expanded	program	of	local	

and	Tribal	government	partnerships.

Remotely	Sensed	Information	– Satellites,	Part	3: Data Access

A	major	implication	of	new	satellite	platforms	and	new	technology	is	how	they	will	conform	to	national	

remote	sensing	data	law	and	policy	to	ensure	national	interests.		To	determine	this,	new	systems	will	

require	a	license.13 U.S.	national	interests	include	keeping	appropriate	data	free	of	cost	to	promote

scientific,	commercial,	national	security,	and	foreign	policy	applications.	It	took	from	1992	to	2004	for	

U.S.	policy	and	decision	makers	to	learn,	accept,	and	put	into	practice	the	fact	that	satellite	remote	

sensing	data	paid	for,	and	acquired	by,	the	Federal	Government	has	to	be	made	available	on	the	same	

basis	as	GPS	and	weather	data (that	is,	free	of	cost)	to	ensure	that	these	interests	are	met.14

To	determine	the	appropriate	policy	to	be	applied	to	a	new	system,	it	will	be	necessary	to	determine	1)

to	what	degree	it	is	intended	to	replace	the	Landsat	system	for	national	purposes;	and 2)	the	degree	it	is	

paid	for	by	public	and/or	private	funds.15 Another	crucial	consideration	is	the	long-term	historical	

archiving	of	data.	Currently	satellite	remote	sensing	data	is	collected	and	archived	for	the	very	long	term	

in	a	national	archive.16 New	platform	operators	will	have	the	same	archiving	provisions	in	their	licenses	

that	the	current	operators	have.17

The	NGAC	recommends	that,	as	required	by	law,	the	data	policy	contained	in	the	National	and	

Commercial	Space	Programs	Act18be	applied	to	new	satellite	platforms.
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Data	Accessibility

The	“flip	sides”	for	public/private	data	partnerships	are	initiatives	led	within	the	government	sector	that	

manage	the	acquisition	and	maintenance	of	geospatial	information.	This	more	traditional	path	remains	

relevant,	especially	with	regard	to	geospatial	information	for	which	government	is,	for	statutory,	

economic,	or	public	good	reasons,	the	authoritative	source.	Public	and	public/private	models	should	be	

holistically	compared	on	a	case-by-case basis.

Regardless	of	the	model	employed	to	acquire	and	manage	geospatial	content,	the	work	must	not	stop	at	

producing	the	data	resources.	The	return	on	investment	comes	from	the	beneficial	use	of	geospatial	

data	to	guide	decision-making and	to	fuel	operational	efficiency.

Without	significant	fanfare,	the	dominant	paradigm	for	public	sector	geospatial	data	has	transitioned	to	

an	"open	data"	position.	And,	this	is	reflected	in	open	data	laws	and	executive	orders	at	local,	state,	and	

national	levels,	to	include	action	by	both Congress	and	the	White	House.

This	important	landscape	change	toward	open,	highly	accessible	data,	is	relevant	to	the	success	strategy	

for	another	untrumpeted	transition	-- across	the	country,	driven	by	the	local	requirements,	municipal,	

county,	regional,	and	state	government	perform	much	of	the	framework	geospatial	data	stewarding.	

With	public	sector	imposed	subscription	fees	and	licensing	restrictions	on	data	diminishing,	the	fight	

against	redundant	effort	is	easier,	as	are	"bottom	up"	approaches	to	maintaining	national	spatial	data	

assets.	

Along	these	lines,	the	NGAC	acknowledges	the	collaborative	work,	in	progress,	by	the	Bureau	of	the	

Census	and	the	Department	of	Transportation	in	the	prototype	development	of	a	National	Address	

Database.	The	NGAC	recommends	that	this	model,	also	exemplified	by	the	EPA	Exchange	Network,	

FHWA's	Map21	Initiative,	the	NTIA	State	Broadband	Initiative,	and	USGS's	hydrology	map	layers,	serve	

to inform	the	efforts	of	other	Federal	agencies.

To	maximize	ROI	from	geospatial	technology,	the	data	that	drives	it	must	be	highly	discoverable	and	

accessible.	Increasingly,	current	and	future	users	expect	to	instantaneously	find,	learn	about	and	utilize	

data	resources,	often	via	a	streaming	web	service,	starting	from	a	simple	key	word	web	search.

Commercial,	open,	and	custom	web	"platform"	offerings	have	emerged	that	greatly	aid	web-based	

discovery	and	exploration	of	needed	geospatial	information	resources.	These	platforms	often	offer	

metadata	documentation,	capabilities	for	two-way	file	transfer	and	publishing	data	web	services,	access	

control	regimes,	and	customizable	map	views	that	facilitate	integrated	views across	multiple	data	

sources.

Additional	and	substantial	ROI	comes	from	the	packaging	of	geospatial	information	within	web	and	

mobile	apps	that	are	each	designed	to	specific	business	needs.	Geospatial	data	quality,	currency, and

completeness	expectations	continue	to	grow	and	are	of	paramount	importance,	especially	when	the	

information	is	accessed	broadly,	and	by	non-technical	users.	Increasingly,	applications	do	not	explicitly	

describe	or	qualify	the	data	resources	utilized. Some	apps	that	draw	directly	on	geospatial	data	

resources provide	the	resulting	information	without	the	aid	of	a	map	view	to	visually	inspect	and	

confirm	the	validity	of	results.
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Geospatial	Identity	Crisis		

The	marriage	of	GPS	with	ubiquitous	mobile	communication	devices	has	created	expectations	

concerning	data	quality	and	availability	that	may,	at	times,	be	unrealistic.		The	typical	driver	using	a	

dashboard	navigation	system	doesn’t	ask	how	the	street	map	was	constructed,	but	it	is	not	

unreasonable	for	someone	to	pose	this	question.		As	driverless	cars	enter	the	nation’s	transportation	

network,	questions	related	to	public	safety,	property	damage	and	liability	will	become	more	significant.		

Now	that	geospatial	is	ubiquitous,	how	does	it	govern	behaviors?		

To	some	extent,	the	geospatial	industry	has	suffered	from	an	identity	crisis.		To	address	this	problem,	

the	industry	must	articulate	the	“value-add” of	geospatial	expertise	and	investment in	training.		The	

NGAC	recommends	designation	of	the	FGDC	as a	lead	agency	to convene	a	national/international	

geospatial	Congress.		The	focal	points	of	this	Congress	would	be	to	examine	global,	sustainable	

initiatives	to	achieve	appropriate	educational	goals and	to	help	secure	funding	for	those	efforts.

Conclusion

The	goal	of	this	report	is	to	identify	key	trends	that	will	define	the	geospatial	industry	in	the	future.		

Near	term	trends	already	guide	the	thinking	and	analysis	of	the	NGAC.		Medium	term	trends	serve	to	

shape	the	committee’s	research	agenda.		The	long-term trends	depend	in	large	part	on	our	society’s	

decisions	regarding	the	quality	of	life	we	desire	for	our	citizens,	including	the	protection	of	personal	

privacy	and	the	integrity of	information	about	individuals.			It	also	depends	in	part	on	our	ability	as	a	

nation	to	make	judicious	and	prudent	decisions	with	regard	to:	organizing the	workforce;	

refining agency	responsibilities,	requirements,	and	process;	and,	strategically	prioritizing	and	partnering	

on	expenditures	and	resources.

“Google’s	mission	is	to	organize	the	world’s	information	and	make	it	universally	accessible	and	useful.”19		

Google’s	contributions	to	the	common	good	are	generally	regarded	as	positive	and	access	to	the	

information	cataloged	and	presented	by	Google	has	changed	our	world.		However,	unrestricted	access	

to	information	about	individuals is	rightly	viewed	as	problematic.		Indeed,	throughout	the	European	

Union,	access	to	personally	identifiable	information	is	strictly	regulated.20		

In	this	regard,	geospatial	technology	is	inherently	connecting	and	integrating.		Every	automobile	with	a	

GPS	mapping	display;	every smart	phone,	smart	watch	or	smart	television with	a	connection	to	the	

Internet;	and	every	other	component	of	the	“Internet	of	Things” offer insights	regarding	personal	

location,	hence	personal	behavior.	 A	precaution	is	warranted	as	geospatial	data	has	the	ability	to	

connect	to	other	information	that	is	or	may	be	perceived	to	be	private.		The	NGAC	believes	that	as	

geospatial	technology	continues	to	evolve,	and	as	we	analyze	and	recommend	courses	of	action for	the	

effective	and	efficient	use	of	that	technology,	we	must	not	lose	sight	of	the	human	beings and	society	in	

general affected	by	those	recommendations.
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III. For	Further	Reading

Near	and	Medium-Term	Trends

The	GEOINT	Revolution.	Masback,	Keith.	Trajectory	Magazine,	Issue	4,	2015.

http://trajectorymagazine.com/business-and-technology/item/2077-the-geoint-revolution.html

The	Changing	Geospatial	Landscape.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee.	2009.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/NGAC%20Report%20-%20The%20Changing%20Geospatial%20Landscape.pdf

Storage	in	the	Cloud

Cloud	Computing:	Potential	New	Approaches	to	Data	Management	and	Distribution.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	

Committee	– Landsat	Advisory	Group.	2013.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2013/ngac-landsat-cloud-computing-paper-FINAL.pdf

Remotely	Sensed	Imagery

The	Value	Proposition	for	Landsat	Applications	- 2014	Update.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee	– Landsat	

Advisory	Group.	2014.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2014/ngac-landsat-economic-value-paper-2014-update.pdf

Sentinel	Data	Use	Policies.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee – Landsat	Advisory	Group.	2015.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2015/ngac-paper-sentinel-data-use-policies.pdf

Privacy	Issues

Big	Data	and	Privacy:	A	Technological	Perspective.	President’s	Council	of	Advisors	on	Science	and	Technology.	

2014.

https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_big_data_and_privacy_-

_may_2014.pdf

Crowdsourced	Data

Federal	Crowdsourcing	and	Citizen	Science	Toolkit

https://crowdsourcing-toolkit.sites.usa.gov/

Citizens	as	Sensors:	The	World	of	Volunteered	Geography.	Goodchild,	Michael.	Workshop	on	Volunteered	

Geographic	Information,	December	13-14,	2007.

http://ncgia.ucsb.edu/projects/vgi/docs/position/Goodchild_VGI2007.pdf

Public-Private	Partnerships

Innovative	Strategies	for	Geospatial	Programs	and	Partnerships.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee.	2012.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/ngac-geospatial-workforce-development-paper-final.pdf

Data	Sharing

Interagency	Data	Sharing	– A	Primer.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee.	2011.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/ngac-interagency-data-sharing-primer-june-2011.pdf

The	Need	for	a	National	Address	Database	– Use	Cases.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee.	2014.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/december-2014/ngac-national-address-database-use-case-paperdecember-2014.pdf

Geospatial	Identity	Crisis

Geospatial	Workforce	Development	White	Paper.	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee.	2012.

https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/ngac-geospatial-workforce-development-paper-final.pdf
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IV. Notes

 1 http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/100916 2 The	complete	text	of	this	report	is	available	at	https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/NGAC%20Report%20-

%20The%20Changing%20Geospatial%20Landscape.pdf. 3 http://spacenews.com/40841nasa-official-a-landsat-8-clone-would-cost-more-than-650-million/ 4

https://www.ted.com/talks/will_marshall_teeny_tiny_satellites_that_photograph_the_entire_planet_every_day?

language=en#t-290882 5 http://www.informationweek.com/cloud/platform-as-a-service/planet-labs-revolutionizes-earth-views-withinexpensive-satellites/d/d-id/1322196 6 http://www.space.com/19794-navstar.html 7 http://www.bestflyingdrones.com/blog/companies-monitoring-the-oil-patch-by-drone/ 8 https://www.geoplatform.gov/

9 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_storage

10 “The	Western	States	Contracting	Alliance	(WSCA)	and	the	National	Association	of	State	Procurement	Officials,	

working	in	collaboration	with	the	states	of	Colorado,	Montana,	Oregon	and	Utah,	have	awarded	four	contracts	for	

GIS	public	cloud	hosting	services	to	Dell,	Dewberry,	Esri and	Unisys.”	

https://gcn.com/articles/2013/01/02/western-states-build-gis-data-platform.aspx 11 http://psc.apcointl.org/2015/08/24/fcc-chairman-tom-wheeler-tells-apco-members-failure-is-not-an-option-innext-generation-9-1-1/ 12 https://www.bicsi.org/ 13 51	U.S.	Code	§60142 14 Landsat	Data	Continuity	Strategy,	Memorandum	from	Director,	Office	of	Science	and	Technology,	Policy,	

Executive	Office	of	the	President,	2004;	and,	Landsat	Data	Continuity	Strategy	Adjustment,	Memorandum	from	

Director,	Office	of	Science	and	Technology	Policy,	Executive	Office	of	the	President,	2005

15 15	CFR	Part	960 16		51	U.S.	Code	§60122 17 15	CFR	Part	960 18 51	U.S.	Code	§60101,	et seq. 19 https://www.google.com/about/company/ 20 http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/
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This	report	was	approved	at	the	December	2015	meeting	of	the	NGAC.		The	report	was	prepared	by	a

subcommittee	that	included	the	following	members:	Dr.	Robert	Austin	(Chair), Ms.	Julie	SweetkindSinger,	and	Mr.	David	DiSera.

Members	of	the	National	Geospatial	Advisory	Committee

Dr.	Robert	Austin (NGAC	Chair),	City	of	Tampa,	FL (ret.)

Ms.	Julie	Sweetkind-Singer (NGAC	Vice-Chair),	Stanford	University

Mr.	Talbot	Brooks,	Delta	State	University

Dr.	Keith	Clarke,	University	of	California,	Santa	Barbara

Mr.	Steve	Coast,	Telenav,	Inc.

Mr.	Dan	Cotter,	U.S.	Department	of	Homeland	Security

Ms.	Patricia	Cummens,	Esri

Mr.	David	DiSera,	RAMTeCH	Corporation

Mr.	Steve	Emanuel,	State	of	New	Jersey

Prof. Joanne	Gabrynowicz,	University	of	Mississippi	School	of	Law

Mr.	Matthew	Gentile,	Deloitte	Financial	Advisory	Services,	LLP

Mr.	Bert	Granberg,	State	of	Utah	

Mr.	Frank	Harjo,	Muscogee	(Creek)	Nation

Mr.	Jack	Hild, Hild	Enterprises,	LLC

Mr.	Michael	Jones,	Wearality	Corp.

Mr.	Jeff	Lovin,	Woolpert,	Inc.

Mr.	Jack	Maguire,	County	of	Lexington,	SC	(ret.)

Mr.	Keith	Masback,	U.S. Geospatial	Intelligence	Foundation

Mr.	Roger	Mitchell, MDA	Information	Systems,	Inc.

Mr.	Kevin	Pomfret,	Centre	for	Spatial	Law	and	Policy

Major	General	William	N.	Reddel	III,	New	Hampshire	National	Guard

Dr.	Douglas	Richardson,	American	Association	Geographers

Mr.	Anthony	Spicci,	State	of	Missouri

Mr.	Gary	Thompson,	State	of	North	Carolina

Dr.	Harvey	Thorleifson,	Minnesota	Geological	Survey

Ms.	Molly	Vogt,	City	of	Gresham,	OR

Mr.	Jason	Warzinik,	Boone	County,	MO

Mr.	David	Wyatt,	Eastern	Band	of	Cherokee	Indians