Proceedings : 

Fourteenth Annual Gulf of Mexico 

Information Transfer Meeting 

November 1994 

U.S. Department of the Interior 

AM Minerals anagement Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

40 

OCS Study 

M M S 96-0024 
OCS Study 

M M S 96-0024 

Proceedings : 

Fourteenth Annual Gulf of Mexico 

Information Transfer Meeting 

November 1994 

Clarion Hotel 

New Orleans 

November 15-17, 1994 

Compiler 

University of New Orleans 

Office of Conference Services 

Prepared under MMS Contract 

14-35-0001-30665 

by 

University of New Orleans 

Office of Conference Services 

New Orleans, Louisiana 70148 

Published by 

U .S. Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service New Orleans 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region August 1996 
I11 

DISCLAIMER 

This report was prepared under contract between the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and the University 

of New Orleans, Office of Conference Services . This report has been technically reviewed by the MMS and 

approved for publication. Approval does not signify that contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the 

Service, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for 

use. It is, however, exempt from review and compliance with MMS editorial standards. 

REPORT AVAILABILITY 

Preparation of this report was conducted under contract between the MMS and the University of New Orleans, 

Office of Conference Services . Extra copies of this report may be obtained from the Public Information Unit (Mail 

Stop 5034) at the following address: 

U.S . Department of the Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Public Information Unit (MS 5034) 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard 

New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394 

Telephone Numbers: (504) 736-2519 

1-800-200-GULF 

CITATION 

This study should be cited as : 

U.S . Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 1996. Proceedings; fourteenth annual 

Gulf of Mexico information transfer meeting, November 1994. U.S . Dept. of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, La., OCS Study 

MMS 96-0024. 463 pp. 
V 

SUMMARY 

The 1994 Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) was held by the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region of the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS) at the Clarion Hotel in New Orleans. The purpose of the ITM is to foster sharing 

of information among participants about current research, accomplishments, or issues of concern to the MMS. 

Presentations at the ITM pertained to the MMS Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas 

program, as well as regional environmental, social, or economic concerns, or current OCS industry activities or 

technologies . Once again, the ITM also served as an opportunity for the public to comment on the information 

base available for future oil and gas lease sales, particularly those proposed in the Western and Central Gulf of 

Mexico. The audience included scientists, managers, and laypersons from government, academia, industry, 

environmental groups, and the general public . 

Technical sessions this year included University Research Initiative studies, Conservation and Environmental 

Awareness, Chemosynthetic Communities, Oil Spill Contingency Planning, GOOMEX studies, Marine and Energy 

Education, Coastal Marine Institute reports, Air Quality Issues, Aging Infrastructure, the LATEX-Seasonde 

Cooperative Experiment, Mariculture Associated with Oil and Gas Structures, MMS Environmental Studies 

reports, Distribution and Abundance of Cetaceans, and Subsalt Efforts on the Outer Continental Shelf. 
Vll 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

LIST OF FIGURES ix 

LIST OF TABLES xvii 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 

OPENING PLENARY 

Mr. Gary D. Goeke, Chair 

SESSION IA - UNIVERSITY RESEARCH INITIATIVE STUDIES 

Dr. Robert Rogers and Mr. Marion Fannaly, Co-Chairs 11 

SESSION 113 - CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS 

Ms. Carla M. Langley and Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno, Co-Chairs 35 

SESSION 1C - CHEMOSYNTHETIC COMMUNITIES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO 

Dr. Robert M. Avent and Dr. James M. Brooks, Co-Chairs 61 

SESSION 1D - GIS APPLICATIONS TO OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING 

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO 

Dr. Norman Froomer and Dr. Shea Penland, Co-Chairs 89 

SESSION 2A - GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART I 

Dr. Pasquale Roscigno and Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Co-Chairs 103 

SESSION 2B - INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO MARINE AND ENERGY EDUCATION 

Dr. Robert Rogers and Ms. Gail Rainey, Co-Chairs 123 

SESSION 2C - COASTAL MARINE INSTITUTE PROGRESS REPORTS, PART I 

Dr. Richard Defenbaugh and Dr. Robert S. Carney, Co-Chairs 139 

SESSION 2D - AIR QUALITY ISSUES ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 

Mr. William S . Steorts and Dr. Mark Yocke, Co-Chairs 177 

SESSION 3A - GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART II 

Dr. Pasquale Roscigno and Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Co-Chairs 193 

SESSION 3C - COASTAL MARINE INSTITUTE PROGRESS REPORTS, PART II 

Dr. James J. Kendall and Dr. Robert S. Carney, Co-Chairs 215 

SESSION 3D - AGING INFRASTRUCTURE: PIPELINES AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES 

Mr. Gary Rutherford, Mr. Alex Alvarado, and Mr. Felix Dyhrkopp, Co-Chairs 247 

SESSION 4A - LATEX-SEASONDE COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENT 

Dr. Alexis Lugo-Fernandez and Dr. Murray Brown, Co-Chair 259 

SESSION 4B - MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, PART I 

Mr. Villere Reggio and Mr. Dave Moran, Co-Chairs 291 
viii 

SESSION 4C - MMS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES REPORTS 

Dr. Pasquale Roscigno and Ms. Carla M. Langley, Co-Chairs 311 

SESSION 4D - DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, PART I 

Dr. Robert Avent and Dr. Randall Davis, Co-Chairs 343 

SESSION SB - MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, PART II 

Mr. Villere Reggio and Mr. Dave Moran, Co-Chairs 365 

SESSION SC - SUBSALT EFFORTS ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 

Mr. Jesse Hunt and Mr. Gary Rutherford, Co-Chairs 387 

SESSION SD - DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, PART II 

Dr. Robert Avent and Dr. Randall Davis, Co-Chairs 403 

INDEX TO AUTHORS 439 

ATTENDEES 445 
1X 

LIST OF FIGURES 

No. 

Page 

1 A.1 . Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) benzo(fl-quinoline homologs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

1A.2 . Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) benzothiazole homologs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

1A3. Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) microbial oxidation products of 

benzo(f)auinoline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

1A.4 . Mass spectra of microbial transformation products of benzothiazole from deuterated 

tracer experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

1A.5 . Other deuterated compounds observed in the tracer runs of benzothiazole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 

1A .6 . Statewide and coastal median family income: 1970, 1980, 1990 (1990 dollars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

1A.7 . Statewide and coastal income inequality : 1970, 1980, 1990. Atkinson Measure (1 .0). . . . . . . . . 33 

1 B.1 . Weekly number of non-headstarted sea turtles found stranded on the Texas coast 

from January through October 1994. Upper Texas coast is defined as the region from 

Matagorda Island and nearby inshore waters northward and lower Texas coast 

is defined as the region from San Jose Island and nearby inshore waters southward. . . . . . . . . . 47 

1C.1 . Location of study areas. Simplified bathymetry of the Louisiana slope shown at top; 

bottom panels show multibeam echosounder bathymetry in vicinity of study areas. 

Boxes show areas of detailed study. Contours labeled in meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 

1C .2 . Examples of echo types observed in 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles from the 

study sites. Distance between horizontal lines is 5 feet in seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 

1C.3 . Description of Core GB386-A: from a Type 1 echo type (hard substrate) zone. At 

right are trends in carbonate percentage and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1 C.4 . Description of Core GB425-A: from a Type 2 echo type (buried hard substrate) zone, 

showing evidence of buried hard substrate. At right are trends in carbonate percentage 

and porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 

1C .5 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the 

vicinity of the seep-related mound in the GC 184 study area . Echo types are shown in 

Figure 1C .2 . Observed chemosynthetic organism locations are shown by open and filled 

circles. Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 

1C.6 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the 

vicinity of the seep-related mound in the GB 386 study area . Echo types are shown in 

Figure 1C.2 . Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. Core locations denoted by 

letters; capitals signify piston cores, whereas lower case represent push cores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 
X 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Pace 

1C.7 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the 

vicinity of the seep-related mound in the GB 425 study area. Echo types are shown in 

Figure IC.2 . Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. Core locations denoted by 

letters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 

1C .8 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the 

vicinity of the seep-related mound in the GC 234 study area . Echo types are shown in 

Figure iC .2 . Observed chemosynthetic organism locations are shown by filled circles; 

gas seep locations shown by stars. Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. . . . . . . . . . . . 78 

1C.9 . Side-scan sonar mosaic of the GC 234 detailed study area. Dark areas show strong 

acoustic backscatter, whereas light areas show weak backscatter or acoustic shadow. 

Bathymetry contours, at 5-m intervals, are overlaid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1C.10. Comparison of the GC 234 side-scan sonar mosaic and fault traces (heavy lines) mapped 

with multi-channel seismic data (J . R. Reilly, personal communication, 1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 

I CAL Model for the formation of flat-topped seep-related mud mounds. Faulting associated 

with salt movement (II) creates fluid conduits (III). Fluid sediment slurry, propelled by 

rising gas and oil, vents along the fault zone and spreads radially from vent to build 

mound (IV) . Authigenic carbonate precipitation and gas hydrate emplacement form a 

relatively impermeable cap at the mound top, so that vents are localized to the edges 

of the summit (VI and VII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . . 83 

2A.1 . Mean surficial (0-2 cm) sediment Ba as a function of distance at the final GOOMEX 

study sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 

2C.1 . Contour plot of model depths (meters) superimposed on an outline of gridded land 

values for model domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 

2C.2 . Contour plot of the v-component of velocity (cm/s) looking northward across the 

Yucatan Straits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 

2C.3 . Velocity vector plot (cm/s) superimposed on tempreature contours (°C) for level 1 at 

week 204 of model integration showing the Loop Current and detached eddy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 

2C .4 . Contour plot of temperature (°C) versus depth from west to east through the cores of 

the detached eddy and the Loop Current at week 204 of model integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 

2C.5 . Contour plot of salinity (PPt - 35) versus depth for week 204 of model integration . . . . . . . . . . . 150 

2C.6 . Distribution of salt-related structures across the northern Gulf of Mexico continental 

slope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 
X1 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

2C .7 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean number of offspring produced 

by one mating pair in the fluoranthene 14-day reproductive output experiment with 

Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractionated into number of eggs, nauplii and copepodites . 

Oac = acetone control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 

2C .8 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean number of offspring produced 

by one mating pair in the phenanthrene 14-day reproductive output experiment with 

Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractioned into number of eggs, nauplii and copepodites. 

Oac = acetone control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 

2C.9 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean number of offspring produced 

by one mating pair in the diesel fuel 14-day reproductive output experiment with 

Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractioned into number of eggs, nauplii and copepodites. 

Oac = acetone control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 

2C.10. Histogram of the radioactivity incorporated in Schizopera knabeni after grazing for 3 

hrs on '4 C Radiolabeled Schizopera galbana. c = control ; ac = acetone control ; do = 

dead control ; dpm = disintegration per minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 

2C.11 . Adsorption of cadmium as influenced by sediment Eh (mV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 

2C.12. Adsorption of barium as influenced by sediment Eh (mV). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 

2D.1 . Measurements of the SOZ concentration in the Breton Wilderness Area in the summer of 

1993 and their pollution levels relative to the NAAQS and PSD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 

213.2 . Gosier Island, 24 July - 3 August 1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 

213.3 . Chandeleur Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 

213.4 . Pass-A-Loutre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 

213.5 . 24 August 1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 

213.6 . Gosier Island limnological data, July 1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 

3A.1 . Splenic macrophage aggregate analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 

3C.1 . Location map of the study sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 

3C .2 . Top: Model geometry of the Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model. The southern boundary 

is open. Bottom: Model bathymetry of the Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 

3C3. Top: Model geometry of the Four League Bay Model. The northwestern and southwestern 

boundaries are open. Bottom: Model bathymetry of the Four League Bay Model. . . . . . . . . . . . 224 
X11 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

3C.4 . Observed (solid line) and simulated (dashed line) currents at Station 3 located in the 

middle of Terrebonne Bay for the period 03/21/90-03/27/90. East-west component (top), 

and north-south component (bottom). r is correlation coefficient between the observed 

and modeled currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 

3C.5 . A: Simulated currents within Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay at 6 hr on 05/02/90. Maximum 

reference vector shown is 82 cm/s. B: Simulated currents within Four League Bay at 16 

hr on 08/05/92. Maximum current vector shown is 52 cm/s. Numbered dots indicate 

mooring locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 

3C.6 . LC50 of Callinectes sapidus, C. similis, Fundulus grandis and Stramonita haemastoma 

as a function of hypoxia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 

3C .7 . Water soluble fraction of the crude oil generator used to expose different species to oiled 

water for28days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 

3C.8 . Mean target strengths (dB) and 95% CL and estimated length (cm) of fishes associated 

with petroleum platform WC 352 by month for the study period of January 1991 to 

May 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 

3C.9 . Estimated fish density (number / m') and 95% CL by depth at WC 352 from January 1991 

to May 1992, based on dual-beam hydroacoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 

3C.10. Mean density of fish (number / m') and 95% CL around WC 352 from January 1991 to 

May 1992 based on dual-beam hydroacoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 

3C.11 . Mean fish density (number / m') with distance from the WC 352 platform over the study 

period of January 1991 to May 1992 for each side of the platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 

3C .12. Western blot of A. elegantissima cytosol probed with anti-HSP-70 IgG: Induction by 3MC. . . . . 245 

3C.13 NAD(P)H-cytochrome c reductase activity of A. xanthogramica microsomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 

3D.1 . Pipeline failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 

313.2 . Failures per cause category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 

3D.3 . Corrosion failures by age group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 

3D.4 . Overall corrosion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 

313.5 . 3rd party damage by age group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 

313.6 . Overall 3rd party damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 

3D.7 . Storm failures by age group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 
x iii 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

313.8 . Overall storm failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256 

4A.1 . Disposition of instruments for TexSonde '94. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 

4A.2 . SeaSonde coverage area for the first deployment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 

4A.3 . Periods of data recovery for TexSonde '94. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 

4A.4 . Wind and water level records for TexSonde '94. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 

4A.5 . Surface currents during onshore winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 

4A.6 . Galveston Bay jet flow during offshore winds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 

4A.7 . Location of mooring array, showing radar coverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 

4A .8 . Stick vector plots of three current meters, at depths of 4, 9, and 14 meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 

4A .9 . Stick vector plots of radar data and the 4-meter current meter data for 14 March4 April 1994. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 

4A.10. Progressive vector diagram of the current meters and radar current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 

4A.11 . Galveston Bay oil tracker data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4A.12 . Gulf of Mexico buoy data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4A.13 . Description of the AR model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 

4A.14. Sample surface current time-series used for input to the AR model. The solid line denotes 

the input data period, and the dashed line represents the measured current during the 

prediction interval . The three solid bars between the panels show the three input records 

lengths for the AR model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . . .285 

4A.15 . Comparison of the measured and predicted current time-series (48 h) for an AR model of 

order 5 for current and 4 for wind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4A.16. Tracks from SCULP and oil-following drifting buoys offshore Galveston, Texas, during the 

TEXSONDE experiment . Track lengths of two days or less are shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 

4A.17. Vectors indicate the velocity of buoys in the TEXSONDE experiment offshore Galveston, 

Texas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289 

4B .1 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Trek Ocean Farming System 

resting in 50 feet of water showing the central platform and the six semisubmerged barrel 

cages. The cages will be 170 feet in length and 40 feet in diameter. The octagonal 

platform will be 112 feet in diameter and will rise 125 feet from the sea bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 
X1V 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

413 .2 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Star Oyster Relaying System 

Pale 

showing eight oyster racks around the central ballast tank . The system size will 

approximate a 12-foot cube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 

413 .3 . Fish pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin circulating water channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 

413 .4 . Ocean Spar pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin maneuvering and seakeeping basin. . . . . 306 

413.5 . Combined wave and current tests at trhe David Taylor Model Basin maneuvering and 

seakeeping basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 

413.6 . The tent pen mariculture system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 

4C.1 . Predicted Ra-226 concentration distribution in fishes living in the plume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 

4C.2 . Calculated distribution of ingestion rates for recretional fishermen (g/d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 

4C3. Predicted individual lifetime fatal cancer risk distribution for recretional fishermen at 

South Timbalier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 

4C.4 . Transect and circular survey placement at SMI 23 Platform A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 

4C.5 . Map of the dispersal area of the Mississippi River Bight showing location of box cores 

used to estimate carbon accumulation is shelf sediments. Contour lines represent the rates 

of carbon burial in gC m-2 y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 

4C.6 . Mass balance of carbon accumulation (gC M-2 yr') in shelf sediments of the Mississippi 

River Bight including the riverine input, and the relative contribution of terrigenous and 

marine carbon to total accumulation rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 

4C .7 . Conceptual model of the fate of organic matter in the plume and mid-shelf region of the 

Louisiana shelf ecosystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 

4D.1 . Acoustic detection function for sperm whales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 

4D.2 . Initial distance of all sightings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 

4D3. Initial sighting distances by individual species, and six pooled groups; with means as 

central line, standard deviation as outer lines, and 95% confidence intervals as boxes; 

and sample sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 

4D.4 Initial sighting distances by six pooled groups. Data presentation as in Figure 4D3. . . . . . . . . . 358 

5B.1 Surface view rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 

513 .2 . Vertical cross-section rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities 

that shows the radial dimensions of the complex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 
XV 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

513.3 . OCS production platform installation vs . removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 

513 .4 . Hydro Wheel concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 

513 .5 . Tributary sedimentation prevents any natural reef development until a thin archipelago 

of reefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 

513 .6 . Petroleum structures constitute 90% of the reef habitat along the Louisiana continental shelf. . . . 383 

513.7 . Japanese artificial reefs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 

513.8 . Petroleum platform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 

5C.1 Depth migrated data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 

SC.2 . Conventional migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 

SC.3 . Prestackdepth migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 

5C.4 Prestack depth migrated CDP gathers (offset range 300m - 6,OOOm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 

5D.1 TIO Cruise 2 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale 

and pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting effort, and prominent eddies shown. . . . . . . . 408 

513.2 . NOAA-AVHHR SST (°C) analysis of the western Gulf of Mexico for 12 October 1992, showing 

Eddy "V" (northwest) and eddy "U" (southeast) (Image courtesy of Coastal Studies Institute, 

LSU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410 

SD.3 . TIO Cruise 3 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and 

pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting effort, and prominent eddies shown. . . . . . . . . . . 411 

5D.4 TIO Cruise 4 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and 

pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting effort, and prominent eddies shown. . . . . . . . . . . 412 

SD.S . TIO Cruise 5 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 500 m, sperm whale and 

pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, and sighting effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 

SD.6 . TIO Cruise 6 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and 

pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting effort, and prominent eddies shown. . . . . . . . . . . 416 

SD.7 . TIO Cruise 7 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and 

pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting effort, and prominent eddies shown. . . . . . . . . . . 417 

SD.8 . Cruise 3 overall relative bird abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 

SD.9 . Cruise 4 overall relative bird abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 

SD.10 . Cruise 5 overall relative bird abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 
XVI 

LIST OF FIGURES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

5D. It . Cruise 6 overall relative bird abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 

513.12. TIO acoustic localization and tracking cruise study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 

SD.13 Array configuration. Three sonobuoys are used in conjunction with the towed linear array 

to obtain ten travel time difference estimates. The origin of the coordinate system used 

was the location of the aftmost trace in the towed array. The orientation of the aces was 

the same as shown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 

5D. 14 . Matched field model output . Given a hydrophone array similar to the one shown in Figure 

SD .12, the matched field model estimates the location of a test acoustic source . Views 

along each of the coordinate axes are shown (see Figure SD.12), as well as a three 

dimensional perspective. Circles represent the hydrophone locations. The location of the 

test source is indicated by a square, and the triangle represents the estimated location . . . . . . . . . 434 

SD .15. A "de-coupled" version of the array configuration. Range and depth of the source are 

estimated first using the vertically aligned sonobuoys. Azimuth may then be determined 

from arrival time estimatesat the towed array. Because the acoustic field no longer needs 

to be continually re-calculated due to changing relative receiver positions, computation 

time is minimized. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435 

SD.16. Example of the model output for a single vertical array of sonobuoys. Range and depth 

are estimated for five whales encountered during GulfCet Cruise 8. Estimates lying near 

the model bounds are suspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436 
XVlI 

LIST OF TABLES 

No . Page 

1 A.1 . Summary of land cover area in square meters by land cover type for the study period . . . . . . . . . 18 

1A.2 . Land loss by land cover type in square meters between 1990 and 1993 for East Timbalier 

Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

1A3. Land cover change for East Timbalier Island between 1990-1992 and 1992-1993 in 

square meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

1A.4 . Summary of 1992 oil impacted areas on 1992-1993 land cover change map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

1B.1 . Cooperation between the Flower Gardens Banks National Marine Sanctuary and other 

organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 

1D.1 . The GWIS priority data layers for oil spill contingency planning identified by interagency and 

industry consensus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 

1D.2 . Steering Committee members of the MMS GWIS program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 

2A.1 . Summary of analyses covariance by platform . Asterisks (*) indicate significance levels 

for the test that there are no significant distance effects at platforms. Abbreviations: 

*p<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, ****P<0.0001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 

2C .1 . Mean percentage survivorship and corresponding standard deviation in the fluoranthene, 

phenanthrene and disel 96-h survivorship experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 

2D.1 . A comparison among calibrated measurements of SO, concentrations (in ppb) in the 

Breton Wilderness Area when the wind blew from land to Gulf on 11 September and 

vice versa on 13 September 1993 (in parentheses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 

3A.1 . Species of fish collected at both near and far stations for at least one platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 

3A.2 . Invertebrate species collected on Cruises 2, 3, and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 

3A3. Pathological abnormalities in liver and spleen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 

3C .1 . Data sources for socioeconomic baseline study for the Gulf of Mexico, Phase 1 

(as of November 1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 

3C.2 . Experiments performed and measurements done. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 

3C3. Fundulus grandis. Changes in the RNA and DNA concentration and RNA:DNA ration in 

the gulf killifish after 28 days of hypoxic exposure as compared to the control killifish 

from day 0. Nucleic acid concentration is given in pg/mg dry body wt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 

3C .4 . Integrated relationships of biomarkers and levels of biological organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 

4A.1 . Summary of Experimental Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
X V 111 

LIST OF TABLES 

(continued) 

No. 

Page 

4C.1 . Platform and reference sites, Task 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 

4C.2 . Types of samples and data, Task 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 

4C3. Analyses, Task 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 

4C .4 . Study sites and sampling, Task 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 

4C .5 . Types of samples and data, Task 4.321 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 

4C .6 . Analyses, Task 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 

4C .7 . Uniform distributions of radium concentrations used in direct risk assessment for the 

Eugene Island, Ship Shoal and South Timbalier platforms (Continental Shelf Associates 

1992 ; Steimle & Associates 1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 

4C.8 . Summary of parameters used to estimate the rate of ingestion for fishes caught near 

offshore platforms (means and standard deviations are arithmetic). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 

4D.1 . Behavioral reactions* of Group 1 relative to the census vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 

4D.2 . Behavioral reactions of Group 2 (smaller delphinids) relative to the census vessel . 

Reaction designations as in Table 4D.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 

4D3. Behavioral reactions of Groups 3 and 4 relative to the census vessel . Reaction 

designations as in Table 4D.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 

4D.4 . Behavioral reactions of Group 5 (larger delphinids) relative to the census vessel . 

Reaction designations as in Table 4D.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 

4D.5 . Paired comparisons (Fishers LSD) of initial sighting distances for the six groups. 

"" S"" denotes comparisons (P<_0.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 

5C . 1 . Significant subsalt wells - Federal Offshore Gulf of Mexico (major sill well penetrations). . . . . . 400 

5D. 1 . Oceanographic features located during GulfCet, LATEX, and SOOP programs during 

1992-1993, and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 

513.2 Mean hydrographic values for cetaceans sighted in the GulfCet study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 

SD3. Mean hydrographic values for four commonly observed species in the GulfCet study area . . . . . . 423 

513.4 . Seabird sighting results for TIO Cruises 3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 
X1X 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The Minerals Management Service thanks all ITM participants . Special recognition goes to the speakers whose 

timely individual and panel presentations stimulated discussions and exchange of information. Authors are listed 

by name with their articles and again in an index at the back of this publication . 

We are grateful to the Chairs and Co-Chairs for the many hours spent in organizing and chairing the sessions, 

as well as for their time spent gathering the presentation summaries. They are listed by name in the table of 

contents as well as at the beginning of each session. 

Appreciation is also extended to the University of New Orleans, Office of Conference Services, the contractor 

who handled the logistics for the meeting and compiled the proceedings. 
OPENING PLENARY 
3 

Session : OPENING PLENARY 

Chair: Mr. Gary D. Goeke 

Date: November 15, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction Mr. Gary D. Goeke 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Environmental Studies Section 

Agency Welcome Mr. Chris Oynes 

Acting Regional Director 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Local Perspectives Dr. Don Davis 

Administrator 

Louisiana Applied Oil Spill Research and 

Development Program 

Federal/State Partnerships Dr. Robert S. Carney 

Executive Director 

Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

NAFTA: New Directions Mr. Howard O. Ness 

Director 

Mexico Affairs Office 

National Park Service 
5 

INTRODUCTION 

Mr. Gary D. Goeke 

Environmental Studies Section 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

procurement process. A proceedings volume is 

prepared for each ITM based on presentation 

summaries submitted by each speaker and on session 

introductions prepared by session chairpersons . 

OPENING PLENARY SESSION 

INTRODUCTION 

The Opening Plenary Session welcomes attendees to 

the Information Transfer Meeting (ITM) and initiates 

the meeting with one or two major presentations of 

interest to a broad cross-section of meeting attendees 

as well as pertinent to the interests of the Minerals 

Management Service's (MMS) Gulf of Mexico Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS) Regional Office . 

ITM INTRODUCTION 

The primary purposes of the ITM are (1) to provide 

a forum for interchange on topics of current interest 

relative to environmental assessments in support of 

offshore oil and gas activities in the Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region; (2) to present the accomplishments of 

the MMS Environmental Studies Program for the 

Gulf of Mexico, and of other MMS research 

programs or study projects ; and (3) to foster an 

exchange of information of regional interest among 

scientists, staff members, and decision makers from 

MMS, other federal or state governmental agencies, 

regionally important industries, and academia and to 

encourage opportunities for these attendees to meet 

and nurture professional acquaintances and peer 

contacts . 

The ITM agenda is planned and coordinated each 

year by the MMS Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional 

Office staff around the three themes mentioned 

above- issues of current interest to the Region or 

the MMS oil and gas program; accomplishments of 

the agency ; and regional information exchange. 

Presentations are by invitation through personal 

contacts between session chairpersons and speakers 

who have demonstrated knowledge or expertise on 

the subject. A few presentations are accepted in 

response to our calls for contributed papers . 

Meeting support funding is provided through the 

MMS Environmental Studies Program. All meeting 

logistical support is provided by a contractor (Office 

of Conference Services, University of New Orleans) 

and subcontractors selected through the usual federal 

The Opening Plenary Session is planned each year to 

address changing themes, which have included 

environmental topics, industry technology, offshore 

resources, marine research, and OCS program issues . 

This year's Opening Plenary Session was planned to 

revisit some of the basic considerations in OCS 

operations . 

AGENCY WELCOME 

Mr. Chris Oynes 

Acting Regional Director 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Welcome to our Information Transfer Meeting. This 

is a very important meeting for MMS in the Gulf of 

Mexico Region, one that focuses on significant 

developments in the oil and gas industry. We're glad 

to have you here, and we hope that you have a good 

time over the next couple of days. 

A tremendous number of environmental studies have 

been brought to bear on the OCS-related issues in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Some of the efforts we would like to 

highlight are that MMS is just completing a fiveyear, $16 million study to examine the physical 

oceanography of the Gulf of Mexico, as well as a 

four-year, $5 .7 million study on air quality, and a 

number of other broad-brush efforts to further our 

understanding of the environmental nature of the 

Gulf of Mexico. There are also a number of new 

trends affecting the oil and gas industry in the gulf. 

The industry is increasingly moving towards deep 

waters with the development of new technology. 
6 

LOCAL PERSPECTIVES 

Dr. Don Davis, Administrator 

Louisiana Applied Oil Spill Research and 

Development Program 

In 1947 Kerr-McGee and the Scanlon Oil Company, 

now known as Amoco, put the first well out of sight of 

land off the Louisiana coast. Today the offshore 

industry has grown to include deepwater projects such 

as Auger, Neptune, and Cervesa. Although the 

industry's impact on the people of Louisiana has been 

enormous, this impact has at times been both promoted 

and ignored. 

The largest non-tax source of income to the U.S . 

Treasury is off Louisiana's coast, and it is worth from 

$3 .4 to more than $10 billion annually . MMS's 

directive is to meet the nation's present and future 

energy needs, to reduce our dependency on foreign 

energy sources, and to protect the environment, the 

people, in addition to the animals that inhabit our coasts 

and oceans. 

Therefore, when we look at oil and gas exploration, we 

should recognize that in Louisiana its a two-fold 

development. First of all, when we consider onshore, 

beginning in 1906, moving into Catto Lake, which is 

the first over-water exploration in the world, we find 

dramatic input, not only in oil in Southeastern 

Louisiana but also in natural gas in Southwestern 

Louisiana. As a result, we recognize prior to spacing 

laws, throughout coastal Louisiana there was enormous 

oil production so successful that one out of three wells 

was productive . 

But there is also the forgotten coastal resource : sulphur. 

The city of Sulphur was developed as a result of the 

Frasch sulphur process, so much so that now we turn 

to Main Pass Block 299, a $30 billion production . It 

overshadows other South Louisiana producing areas 

such as Garden Island Bay, Grand Isle, and Caminada. 

Therefore, when we look at Louisiana's perspective, we 

are tied directly to the petroleum industry . The Texas 

company now known as Texaco developed the first 

mobile drilling barge. We had to gain access . To do 

that we built an extensive network of oil and gas 

canals . Then the offshore industry simply transported 

this kind of technology to move product ashore . 

Thus, Louisiana has been involved in the offshore oil 

and gas industry for almost 100 years. It is an 

enormous industry, one that moves by boat or 

helicopter . The largest privately-owned helicopter fleet 

in the world is based in Louisiana. And of course, there 

are also all the other logistics. The technology for the 

construction of offshore facilities was developed in 

coastal Louisiana. The development of onshore support 

bases at places like Intercoastal City, Empire, Morgan 

City, and Grand Isle has been significant as well. Do 

you realize that one large oil company annually buys 

$500 thousand worth of soft drinks and has over 55 18-

wheelers parked at their facilities? 

And yet, this is a conference that is going to look at the 

Caribbean initiative . One MMS employee in the 

audience that has spent almost a lifetime looking at 

recreation . Has anybody thought for a moment that 

with the development of oil in Trinidad/Tobago, we're 

also going to see a spinoff industry? We should be 

looking at that . 

The Caribbean initiative is only one. You're going to 

hear about the North America Free Trade Agreement. 

If you develop offshore wells in the Gulf of Campeche 

and off of Yucatan, recognizing that the Mexican 

government controls the industry in Mexico, has it 

occurred to you that the logistic support may in fact 

come from Louisiana? It's been done before . A well off 

Yucatan was once supported out of Venice. 

So the oil and gas industry is a non-renewable resource 

that indeed has enormous impact . Note for a moment, 

there are 30,900 plus oil and gas wells drilled in federal 

offshore waters ; 7,900 producing wells; 3,700 oil and 

gas producing platforms; 21,000 miles of pipeline . 

Question: Do we know where they are? And are we 

ready for the oil spill if we don't? 

If you get an oil spill out of a pipeline in San Jacinto 

and future prices increase, what happens when you 

have a pipeline that carries two billion cubic feet of 

natural gas that's also disrupted? 

Let us keep in mind these human impacts from a 

Louisiana perspective. In 1992, there were 13,000 

producing company jobs, and of those 10,000 were in 

Louisiana. The payroll resulted in an average income 

of $52,580 per employee . More than $4.1 billion was 

paid by producing companies to vendors annually . I 

suspect most people are unaware of that . And I remind 

you that there are 6,000 vendors, but if you'll note, 
3,800 of them are in Louisiana. And those people get 

an annual income of $2 .4 billion. 

When you begin to look then at a Louisiana 

perspective, the numbers explain it clearly. There are 

167 different communities in 47 parishes influenced by 

the oil industry . And numbers directly from the oil 

industry suggest there are 55,000 vendors. Forty-five 

percent derive most of their income from the OCS. So 

is OCS important to Louisiana? Unquestionably, the 

answer is yes. The impact of this oil and gas activity on 

the human, marine and coastal environments are 

significant. It is the reason for this plenary session. 

We need to look at some of the social as well as the 

economic impacts. Currently (December 1994) there are 

198 platforms or operations drilling in the Gulf of 

Mexico, higher than in 1990 . The industry has been 

rediscovered . And quickly we see that the wells drilled 

and the percentage off coastal Louisiana is represented 

in the 90th percentile . But to move this product ashore 

we have to get it there by affecting our wetlands . 

Pipelines are critical . 

I was involved in a study not too long ago in which we 

changed MMS numbers because MMS felt that there 

were 100 pipelines making landfall in coastal Louisiana 

when in point of fact, there were close to 200. 

Recognizing that that's nobody's fault, we are going to 

have to look carefully at this aging infrastructure 

because there's no doubt we're going to go into deeper 

water and there's no doubt that through the Oil 

Pollution Act of 1990 we're going to have to take 

critical steps in looking at the pollution problems. But 

in reality, the pollution from offshore is minimal. A 

number of studies suggest it is less than one percent of 

all oil found in the world's seas . With that in mind, 

Louisiana's production is somewhat staggering . It is 

hard to visualize a trillion cubic feet of natural gas. And 

it is hard to visualize that most of Illinois, Wisconsin, 

Michigan, Minnesota get their natural gas from one 

pipeline off Louisiana's coast. 

I am involved in an oil spill research and development 

program. In terms of a partnership, I suggest to MMS 

that we need to move ahead with an MOU. And 

through your coastal studies program I suggest that we 

should not take five years to initiate studies. We should 

fast-track them. The environment simply cannot wait . 

meeting U.S . energy needs and co-funding is a reality. 

Co-funding needs to be looked at very carefully at the 

highest level. 

And if we talk about new partnerships, what is 

Louisiana's position? I have talked to the new secretary 

of the Department of Natural Resources, from the 

Governor's office . Dr. Len Bahr is in the audience who 

represents coastal activities, Mr. Roland Guidry, who is 

the director of Louisiana's oil spill program, all agree 

it is time to move forward, it's time we speak with a 

common voice. And with that we feel barrier islands 

are absolutely critical. Remember for a moment, those 

barrier islands are your anchor points for pipelines. 

They protect the bay's infrastructure . The pipelines are 

aging. The pipelines' locations are not fully understood. 

And it is a difficult, multi-million dollar job. 

Unitization needs to be looked at carefully by MMS 

and the state of Louisiana. I realize there are some legal 

questions, but there have been other legal issues we 

have overcome . The aging infrastructure, orphan wells, 

plug-and-abandon issues need to be clearly looked at . 

Logistic support will be the driving mechanism as we 

continue to go into deeper water. 

Do you realize there are 500 operators in the Gulf of 

Mexico? Do you realize that 70% of U.S . production 

comes from independents, not the majors. Therefore, 

we have some important liability issues that also need 

to be addressed. Planning and cooperation are critical . 

Let's take a look at the barrier islands for a moment. I 

can tell you that the Department of Natural Resources, 

the Office of the Governor wants this looked at very 

carefully. And we feel we can enter into a partnership. 

You already know that recent legislation allows you to 

go into ship shoal and mine the sand. You also realize 

that the Jones Act prohibits us from importing the 

dredge technology . 

Pipelines represent a potential for ecodisaster, not a 

good word. But think of it for a moment. I can show 

you a pipeline incident in which it took ten hours to 

find the company to turn off the oil. Not their fault; 

they bought the pipeline from Company A that sold it 

to B. It was absorbed by D that was broken up into E, 

F, and G, and you see what happens. Pipelines are an 

issue we're going to have to look at very carefully. And 

that is an area of partnership. 

MMS scientists and engineers work to determine ways 

to protect our environment. We're in the business of 
So the bottom line is simply cooperation, 

communication, coordinated policy . These should be 

complementary. And we must look for decisive 

solutions. But let us not take forever. Let us move fasttrack. Because if we are indeed talking here of 

partnerships and a new beginning, from Louisiana's 

point of view, I can tell you unequivocally that we are 

now speaking with a common voice. 

FEDERAL/STATE PARTNERSHIPS 

Dr. Robert S. Carney, Executive Director 

Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

As a graduate student at Texas A&M twenty-five years 

ago, my first job was to sort marine animals. Since I 

had never seen most of the creatures before, I learned 

a great deal about the animal kingdom. At the same 

time I also began also began to formulate questions that 

eventually became part of my research in the gulf. 

Returning to Texas A&M after military service, I found 

most of the people I had known had moved on to jobs 

with the Bureau of Land Management. These youthful 

new administrators were posing questions about 

pollution and then funding research at Texas A&M, the 

laboratories where they had been educated, to find 

answers the questions. 

In contrast to the relationship between the Bureau of 

Land Management and Texas A&M, some years ago 

NOAA chose to not to contract with the University of 

Hawaii when it needed to have fifty box cores from 

4,000 meters below the ocean sorted . Instead, the 

agency chose a more cost-effective independent firm in 

New Jersey for the job. So, university students were 

denied opportunities to study the diversity of life in the 

Pacific Ocean and to formulate ideas that would carry 

forth into their professional lives. 

The current relationship between MMS and academia 

is the result of hard work by Scott Sewell . A Bush 

administration appointee and an LSU alum, he 

proposed an arrangement between MMS and 

universities that works somewhat differently from 

traditional situations . For example, according to 

guidelines of the 1993 agreement MMS and LSU, both 

groups first sit down and identify topic areas after 

which a solicitation is issued to LSU researchers. 

However, rather than maintain its normal hands-off 

treatment of solicited proposals, MMS can negotiate 

with the individual principal investigators whenever 

necessary. This prevents the academics from going off 

on tangents and producing results that are academically 

interesting but of questionable use to MMS. 

As an example of the breadth of the agreement, as of 

November 1994 nearly twenty projects had been 

reviewed and had undergone negotiation with a 

commitment of over $4.2 million in federal funds to 

economics, physical oceanography, platform ecology, 

deepwater policy issues, geohazards, spills, 

bioremediation, and laboratory studies of toxicity . 

The system is not perfect. There are some difficulties 

because it is a partnership with the provision that the 

state of Louisiana will provide a dollar-for-dollar match 

to the federal money coming in . Up to now matching 

funds have come from existing university resources, but 

with many departments competing for a limited 

amount, there is always the possibility that matching 

money may not be awarded. 

Another complication of the partnership is that the 

program has to remain fairly restricted . Since LSU is 

not in a position to fund research done by other 

universities, only schools that can commit to the fiftyfifty match can be asked to participate in the research . 

As part of the partnership, the Coastal Marine Institute 

at LSU and those being set up at the University of 

Alaska and the University of California at Santa 

Barbara have been encouraged by MMS to include 

students in research projects . MMS must continue to 

encourage student involvement since such training is 

vital to the generation of ideas in the field. 

With MMS obligated to foster educational research, 

academia must meet its obligation to provide matching 

money. Additionally, educators must commit to treat 

the partnership projects not simply as adjunct 

undertakings but as central issues of genuine research 

that should be put into the arena of scientific debate . 

Dr. Robert Canvey, an associate professor in LSU's 

Department of Oceanography and Coastal Studies, has 

served as director of LSU's Coastal Ecology Institute 

since 1986 and has been director of the LSU-MMS 
9 

CMI program since its inception. He received his M.S . 

from Texas A&M University and his Ph.D. from 

Oregon State University . Prior to LSU, Dr. Carney was 

employed at Moss Landing Marine Labs, the National 

Science Foundation, and the Smithsonian Institution . 

Disputes such as the tuna-dolphin matter and the 

subsequent embargo by the United States government 

stopped very important, very high dollar, trade 

negotiations . With NAFTA, Mexico decided a frontdoor solution would best promote direct negotiations 

with the United States . 

NAFTA : NEW DIRECTIONS 

Mr. Howard O. Ness 

Director, Mexico Affairs Office 

National Park Service 

Before we can understand where we are today with 

NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement, 

we need briefly to review recent Mexican history. 

The United States' relationship with the Republic of 

Mexico has not been entirely smooth . Established after 

the Mexican Revolution (1936-1938), the new republic 

was led by a strong president, Lazaro Cardenas, who 

nationalized the oil and gas industry as well as other 

natural resources, including fisheries, agriculture, and 

hard minerals . He also forced the foreigners, the British 

and the Americans, out of Mexico. Cardenas did this 

for political reasons, primarily to help Mexico recover 

from a revolution that killed over four million people, 

about 20% of the population . This allowed them to take 

control of their destiny. He unified Mexico and proved 

to be one of the greatest presidents that Mexico 

has ever had until the most recent president, Carlos 

Saunas . 

Carlos Saunas completely changed the policies that 

Cardenas had initiated. Saunas, a Harvard graduate in 

economics, understood that to correct Mexico's 

economic difficulties he had to open Mexico to trade. 

An important step in this process was opening trade 

with the United States . Mexico decided to lower tariff 

areas and get rid of restrictive trade policies for the 

United States before they ever negotiated with NAFTA. 

Thus, even if we had not passed an agreement in 

Congress, Mexico would still have opened its doors to 

the world. NAFTA is as much a Mexican initiative as 

a U.S . initiative. 

Mexico pushed NAFTA so hard because in the GATT, 

General Agreement of Tariff and Trade, environmental 

issues were obstructing negotiations between the United 

States, Mexico, and other countries in the hemisphere. 

Ethical questions regarding environmental protection 

arose in Mexico in the early 1980s irrespective of 

NAFTA. At that time Mexico initiated important 

environmental regulations, some of which were 

modeled after the United States' EPA protection laws 

and the Department of the Interior's land management 

policies . Although some of them have proven 

unenforceable, they are nevertheless excellent laws and 

policies . 

NAFTA is a very high forum partnership among three 

nations, the United States, Mexico and Canada. It 

commits the three countries to "sustainable development consistent with environmental protection and 

conservation ." Along with NAFTA there are numerous 

and complicated site agreements . Many are still 

forming and are still somewhat competitive with each 

other. One of them is the North America Development 

(NAD) Bank that was founded to finance 

environmental protection research, particularly that 

concerned with hazardous waste and water quality. 

The Border Environmental Cooperation Commission is 

an advisory board to the NAD Bank. Their charge is 

environmental protection focused on the water. It is a 

bi-national commission between Mexico and the U.S . 

headquartered in Juarez, Mexico. Its job will be to 

certify the NAD Bank projects . 

The EPA has already opened two more offices, one in 

El Paso and one in San Diego. Again, this is part of the 

environmental protection and conservation concerns, 

particularly on the U.S . side, that were required by 

Congress before NAFTA was approved . 

Another site agreement is the Environmental 

Cooperation Committee. It is a committee of U.S . 

members only living on the Canadian and Mexican 

borders. The group is funded with several million 

dollars. The Good Neighbors Commission is a 

presidential commission created to enhance a good 

neighbor policy with Mexico. These commissions and 

committees are all offshoots of NAFTA. 
10 

Finally we come to the U.S . Department of the 

Interior. In the prior administration, EPA administrator 

Bill O'Rielly ran the negotiations on environmental 

policy for the U.S . side, and Interior was not well 

represented. This is incredible when you consider that 

Interior manages 30 .7% of the U.S ./Mexico border. 

The border is 2,000 miles long, and over 700 miles is 

under the auspices of the U.S . Department of the 

Interior with nine bureaus involved . 

In this administration, Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt 

was involved early in negotiations with Mexico. 

Secretary Babbitt's close relationship with Mexico's 

former Environmental Protection Social Development 

administrator greatly assisted us . Sadly, the 

administrator was assassinated . However, we are 

optimistic that the new Mexican administrator will 

continue environmental quality policies with the United 

States . 

Our current administration has aggressively tried to 

patch the rift between Interior and the EPA. Interior 

has said, "We are the resource managers . We need to 

be involved in the NAFTA process." So Secretary 

Babbitt got involved in the Bi-National Commission, 

a high-level commission between the U.S . Secretary of 

State and Mexico's Secretary of Foreign Relations. 

Together, they got the dialog going between the two 

countries on land policies . 

We have recently formed a partnership that many of us 

are very proud of, a field coordinating committee with 

nine members. One member is the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs. With 75 miles of land adjacent to Mexico, the 

Indian tribes insist that they are a part of NAFTA. The 

Bureau of Reclamation, the old dam builders, is 

another member. They are viewed not in their old role, 

but as an agency that is changing direction and one 

involved with the water issues on the border . The Rio 

Grande, a highly used and highly polluted river, takes 

up over half the U.S ./Mexico border. 

In our next fiscal year this new partnership has a three 

million dollar budget. The nine bureaus are going to 

concentrate on environmental education and the socioeconomic issues of the lower Rio Grande as a region 

and as a natural contributor to the Gulf of Mexico. We 

will look at Padre Island as part of the ecosystem in 

the Gulf of Mexico. Water quality takes on a very high 

priority with the committee. This is a new, more 

efficient way of doing business with this administration 

in that we are pooling our expertise on resources. 

Realistically, Mexico's next administration will 

probably de-emphasize environmental protection issues . 

Mexico has a rural countryside to feed that will likely 

take precedence over other concerns. However, we 

have no doubt that the partnerships with Mexico will 

continue . 

The number one state-owned industry of the 

government of Mexico is oil and gas. The fact that it 

was not de-centralized demonstrates that the 

government has no intention of letting go of its most 

important source of revenue. But we have made some 

real progress between our two nations with their two 

languages and two distinct cultures . In fact, 

environmental issues in some ways have brought us 

closer together. 

Mr. Howard O. Ness is the Head of the Mexican 

Affairs Office for the National Park Service, a 

cooperative program with Mexico in natural resource 

management and cultural affairs. He has over 20 years' 

experience in conservation and resource management 

working for various federal and state agencies . Prior to 

his current position, he worked in Mexico City for the 

U.S . State Department as Attache for Fisheries, 

Wildlife and Natural Resources for Mexico and Latin 

America. Mr. Ness received a B.A . in biology and a 

master's degree from New Mexico State University . 
SESSION 1A 

UNIVERSITY RESEARCH INITIATIVE STUDIES 
13 

Session: 

Co-Chairs: 

Date: 

Presentation 

lA - UNIVERSITY RESEARCH INITIATIVE STUDIES 

Dr. Robert Rogers and Mr. Marion Fannaly 

November 15, 1994 

The University Research Initiative : Overview 

and Current Status 

The Recovery of a Deltaic Barrier Island to 

Hurricane and Oil Spill Impacts in Coastal 

Louisiana 

Satellite Based Assessment of the Mississippi 

River Discharge Plume's Spatial Structure and 

Temporal Variability 

Author/Affiliation 

Mr. Marion T. Fannaly 

Director of Special Programs 

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium 

Ms. Dianne Lindstedt 

Center for Coastal Energy 

Louisiana State University 

Ms. Karolien Debusschere 

Coastal Environments, Inc. 

Dr. Irving A. Mendelssohn 

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Mr. Qiang Tao 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Nan D. Walker 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Biotransformation Pathways of Heterocycles in Dr. W. James Catallo 

the Marine Environment. Benzo(f)quinoline and Laboratory for Ecological Chemistry & 

Benzothiazole: Potentiation of Mobility and Toxicology (SVM) & Center for Coastal Energy 

Toxicity and Environmental Research 

Louisiana State University 

Oil and Gas Development and Coastal Income Dr. Charles M. Tolbert 

Inequality : A Comparative Analysis Louisiana State University Agricultural Center 
15 

THE UNIVERSITY RESEARCH 

INITIATIVE: 

OVERVIEW AND CURRENT STATUS 

Mr. Marion T. Fannaly 

Director of Special Programs 

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium 

focus of offshore oil and gas development off 

Louisiana and Texas, the region serves as a living 

laboratory . The experience of over forty years 

intensive development can be used to guide prudent 

development elsewhere and minimize undesirable 

environmental and social impacts. 

GOALS 

BACKGROUND 

In 1989, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

began two university-based research programs on the 

long-term environmental and socioeconomic effects 

of offshore oil and gas development, one based in the 

Gulf of Mexico region and the other in California. 

The purposes of these programs were to 

" increase strategically the emphasis on longterm effects within the MMS Environmental 

Studies Program (ESP), and 

" expand the involvement of universities in 

the ESP, stimulating innovative research and 

training students in relevant areas. 

The Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium 

(LUMCON), acting on behalf of Louisiana's state 

universities, was competitively awarded a five-year 

cooperative agreement to conduct the Gulf of Mexico 

university-based research program. This report 

provides an overview of the objectives and 

organization of the MMS/LUMCON University 

Research Initiative (URI) in the Gulf of Mexico, 

reviews overall accomplishments, and presents a 

status report for the fifth and final year of the 

program. 

Since the 1940s, the Gulf of Mexico region, and 

Louisiana in particular, has dominated offshore oil 

and gas production . From 1941 to 1991, Louisiana 

produced 84.5% of all the oil derived from U.S . 

federal offshore waters and 87 .9% of the natural gas 

(Francois and Barbagallo 1992). These figures have 

not changed greatly. In 1991, Louisiana accounted 

for 83% of all the oil and condensate produced from 

the OCS and 75% of all natural gas production . 

Clearly, the central Gulf of Mexico region is where 

most of the OCS oil and gas production lies within 

the United States . Because of the historical and future 

The LUMCON-MMS University Research Initiative 

in the Gulf of Mexico has three long-term goals: 

To identify and implement innovative ideas 

for studies of relevant environmental and 

socioeconomic effects, to foster 

interdisciplinary investigations of these 

issues in a peer-review environment, and to 

encourage and train students in research 

applicable to decision making, 

To allow MMS to meet its established 

information needs by fostering multiple, 

interdisciplinary investigations as opposed 

to one or a few large efforts, and 

3 . To build intellectual and technical capacity 

within Louisiana's universities for research 

and problem-solving concerning offshore 

and coastal petroleum development. 

This cooperative program seeks to approach these 

goals by supporting investigator-initiated research 

germane to one or more key framework issues . The 

university scientists are encouraged to propose novel 

approaches to their investigation. Proposals are 

subjected to internal and external review both in 

terms of scientific rigor and innovation and relevance 

to the identified issues . Research projects are 

supported at modest levels in comparison to typical 

MMS studies, but support may be provided over 

several years. Research projects under this program 

complement MMS' larger, multi-investigator studies 

by filling gaps in understanding, providing 

technological innovation, and testing concepts that 

may be addressed ultimately by larger MMS 

programs . 

PARTICIPATING INSTITUTIONS 

The Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium 

(LUMCON) is an organization of Louisiana's public 

universities, established by statute in 1979 to 
16 

"conduct research and promote education in the 

marine sciences and marine technology, particularly 

where related to coastal resources and the impact of 

energy-related industries upon these resources." 

Thirteen public universities in the state are members 

of the Consortium . Affiliate members include five 

private institutions, one non-degree granting public 

institution, the Louisiana Association of Independent 

Colleges and Universities, and three state 

departments responsible for environmental and 

resource management. 

CURRENT STATUS 

The URI is currently in its final year and is operating 

under a no-cost extension to the contract that will 

expire 31 January 1995 . The major tasks remaining 

are completion and publication of final project 

reports and publication of a compilation of the 

quarterly issues of the bibliography . 

Fifteen of the final study reports have been 

published. The remaining seven are in draft form and 

at various stages of the editing process leading to 

publication. All are on schedule for publication 

before 31 January 1995 . 

SCIENTIFIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

The University Research Initiative has produced 

valuable results for MMS, resulting in 

" 22 research projects, providing significant 

new insights into the environmental and 

socioeconomic impacts of oil and gas 

development, 

" 92 conference presentations, 

" 68 journal articles, 

" a new social sciences research agenda for 

MMS via a socioeconomic workshop, 

" 58 new research proposals related to this 

program, with 35 funded to date, 

" $11,970,000 in additional funding derived 

from related federal grants and private 

sources, and 

" the involvement of 191 university students 

and junior researchers (60 graduate and 54 

undergraduate students, 76 post-doctoral 

fellows and research assistants, and one 

award-winning minority high-school 

student) . 

CONCLUSIONS 

The program has been successful in achieving the 

original goals set for it by MMS in 1988. The URI 

allowed researchers to address a variety of questions 

related to long-term, low-level impacts of oil and gas 

development and production on the OCS. It provided 

general conceptual guidance on subject areas of 

interest and then permitted considerable latitude in 

the formulation of proposals for specific studies to 

address the pre-defined framework issues . This 

approach stimulated and broadened the participation 

of the academic community, developed new concepts 

and directions within the MMS relating to the longterm impacts of oil and gas operations to be 

addressed. 

Although much valuable research was conducted 

under the URI, much still remains to be learned about 

the long-term effects of oil and gas development on 

Louisiana's environmental and socioeconomic 

resources. Research in the living laboratory provided 

by over 40 years of offshore development in 

Louisiana is needed and should continue in order that 

we may fully understand its impacts and intelligently 

guide development in areas of future oil and gas 

exploration and production . 

Mr. Marion T. Fannaly is the Director of the 

LUMCON Office of Special Programs where his 

responsibilities include management of the 

University Research Initiative . He has over 20 years' 

experience in environmental and natural resource 

research and management. Previous positions include 

Environmental Coordinator for the Oklahoma Air 

National Guard and Administrator of the Water 

Pollution Control Division of the Louisiana 

Department of Environmental Quality. Mr. Fannaly 

supervised the water enforcement and permit 

programs of DEQ prior to his appointment as 

Administrator. He received a B.S . in zoology from 

Southeastern Louisiana University (1972) and aM.S . 

in biology from the University of Mississippi (1973). 
17 

THE RECOVERY OF A DELTAIC 

BARRIER ISLAND TO HURRICANE 

AND OIL SPILL IMPACTS IN 

COASTAL LOUISIANA 

Ms. Dianne Lindstedt 

Center for Coastal Energy 

Louisiana State University 

Ms. Karolien Debusschere 

Coastal Environments, Inc. 

In 1992, Hurricane Andrew and the Greenhill 

Petroleum Corporation (GPC) oil spill impacted East 

Timbalier Island, Louisiana within one month of each 

other. East Timbalier Island, a deltaic barrier island 

in Southeast Louisiana is located in an area 

characterized by high rates of land loss and shoreline 

erosion. Initial reports indicated that both 

disturbances had negatively affected the salt marshes 

on the island . The impact of the natural and humaninduced disturbance within such a short time period 

was evaluated regarding their potential impact on the 

island's vegetation and recovery from those impacts. 

Dr. Irving A. Mendelssohn 

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Mr. Qiang Tao 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

ABSTRACT 

The effects of two disturbances in the fall of 1992, 

Hurricane Andrew and the Greenhill Petroleum 

Corporation oil spill, on salt marsh recovery on East 

Timbalier Island were evaluated through a 

combination of landscape and community scale 

analyses . Landscape scale analysis indicated that the 

hurricane had a profound effect on the island's land 

cover and morphology . The analysis indicated that 

the oil spill had minimal effect on island vegetation . 

The landscape scale analysis detected changes in 

vegetative cover in areas where oiling occurred in 

1992 . The community-scale analysis detected finescale vegetative responses to the spill. 

INTRODUCTION 

Coastal Louisiana is a region of intense oil-and gasrelated activities and is potentially subject to frequent 

oil spills that affect coastal marshes. Although many 

studies have focused on the immediate impact of oil 

spills on coastal marshes (Mendelssohn et al . 1990), 

longer-term impacts and the eventual recovery of 

these marshes from oil spills are not well 

documented. In addition, the confounding effects of 

natural disturbances on the recovery of coastal salt 

marshes from oil spills in unknown. 

The overall goal of this study was to evaluate the 

effects of the GPC oil spill on East Timbalier Island 

with regard to salt marsh recovery and the extent to 

which this recovery was influenced by hurricane 

disturbance. Specific objectives were to (1) determine 

the impact and recovery of salt marshes on East 

Timbalier Island to the oil spill as a function of 

degree of initial oiling and residual surface and 

penetrated oil, and (2) document the impact of 

Hurricane Andrew on East Timbalier Island and its 

effect on salt marsh recovery to the oil spill. This 

paper is a summary of the research discussed in 

Debusschere et al. 1994. 

METHODS 

A combination of remote sensing image analysis 

procedures, replicated field surveys, and quantitative 

field sampling was employed to assess the potential 

impact and subsequent recovery of East Timbalier 

Island to both disturbances . Large-scale changes in 

island geomorphology, marsh habitat, and oiling 

were documented with pre- and post-disturbance 

aerial imagery (1990, 1992, and 1993) in conjunction 

with field surveys (1992 and 1993). The data were 

mapped, analyzed, and processed for spatial and 

temporal variations in oiling and hurricane impacts. 

The community scale assessment of recovery was 

based on a statistical evaluation of the degree to 

which the oil-affected areas had recovered (in terms 

of plant species composition, biomass, and percent 

cover), compared to adjacent reference marshes 

(hereafter refereed to as unoiled marshes). This 

technique provided a quantitative and statistical 

assessment of residual oil effects on the vegetation 

and a measure of residual oil in the soil . 
18 

Table lA .l . Summary of land cover area in square meters by land cover type for the study period . 

Land Cover 1990 1992 1993 

Vegetated Marsh 1,284,815 932,474 896,012 

Vegetated Shrubs 121,007 96,946 101,159 

No Vegetation 713,202 569,289 486,150 

Submerged Washover 0 748,085 462,035 

Water 334,018 61,217 54,233 

Seawall 154,451 118,809 126,539 

Marsh Platform 16,012 4,577 12,143 

Intertidal 22,152 49,209 57,375 

Inert Solid 6,335 4,053 4,212 

Inert Liquid 5,065 4,246 4,001 

Total Land Area 2,300,888 1,730,394 1,630,216 

Table 1A.2 . Land loss by land cover type in square meters between 1990 and 1993 for East Timbalier Island . 

Land Cover 1990-1992 1992-1993 1990-1993 

Vegetated Marsh -352,341 -36,463 -388,804 

Vegetated Shrubs -24,061 -4,213 +198,848 

No vegetation -143,913 -83,138 -227,052 

Submerged Washover +748,085 -286,050 +462,035 

Water -272,801 +6,984 +279,785 

Seawall -35,642 +7,730 -27,912 

Marsh platform -11,435 +7,566 -3,869 

Intertidal +27,057 +8,165 +35,223 

Inert solid -2,282 +159 -2,123 

Inert liquid -820 -245 -1,064 

Total Land Area -570,494 -100,178 -670,672 
19 

Table 1A3. Land cover change for East Timbalier Island between 1990-1992 and 1992-1993 in square 

meters. 

LAND COVER CHANGE 1990-1992 1992-1993 

Not Vegetated to Not Vegetated 291,348 342,088 

Not Vegetated to Vegetated 126,062 92,424 

Not Vegetated to Water 477,655 266,466 

Change 895,065 700,978 

Vegetated to Not Vegetated 232,155 83,967 

Vegetated to Vegetated 842,230 813,242 

Vegetated to Water 331,437 132,2 1 3 

Change 1,405,822 1,029,422 

Water to Not Vegetated 177,470 206,989 

Water to Vegetated 62,087 91,508 

Water to Water 117,573 560,007 

Change 357,130 858,504 

Table 1A.4 . Summary of 1992 oil impacted areas on 1992-1993 land cover change map. 

LAND COVER CHANGE PERCENT 

Percent Land Cover Change of Total Not Vegetated Oiled Area in 1992 

Not Vegetated to Not Vegetated 43 

Not Vegetated to Vegetated 18 

Not Vegetated to Water 39 

Percent Land Cover Change of Total Vegetated Oiled Area in 1992 

Vegetated to Not Vegetated 

Vegetated to Vegetated 80 

Vegetated to Water 15 

Percent Land Cover Change of Total Oiled Area in 1992 

Not Vegetated to Not Vegetated 14 

Not Vegetated to Vegetated 

Not Vegetated to Water 13 

Vegetated to Not Vegetated 

Vegetated to Vegetated 54 

Vegetated to Water 10 
20 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The landscape scale analysis indicated that between 

1990 and 1992, East Timbalier Island land mass 

decreased by 25%; the island's shoreline changed 

from continuous to fragmented; and 56% of the 

island's land cover changed. Most of the land loss 

and land cover changes during the study period 

occurred in the mid section and on the east and west 

ends of the island . Between 1992 and 1993, changes 

in land area and land cover continued to be dramatic 

and were occurring in the same areas as between 

1990 and 1992 where Hurricane Andrew's impact 

had reshaped the island's morphology . 

The 1992 oiling data indicated that 26% of the 

island's land mass was impacted by oil. One year 

later, 0.19% of the island's land mass was impacted 

by oil. Only surface oil was observed during the 1992 

surveys and in 1993 both surface and penetrated oil 

were present. The extent of area impacted varied 

significantly: a total of 379,307 m2 of surface was 

oiled in 1992 from heavy to light categories . In 1993, 

1,087 mZ of the surface was lightly oiled and 11 in' 

was lightly penetrated . 

The analysis indicates that the GPC oil spill had 

minimal large-scale effects on land cover. Much of 

the erosion that occurred between 1992 and 1993 is 

more likely due to natural erosion than oil impact. 

The analysis did identify some areas where oil 

seemed to have an effect on the land cover. These 

areas were located in the interior of a land mass or in 

sheltered areas. The analysis was not able to identify 

small areas where field surveys noted that oil did 

seem to have an effect on the land cover. Field 

surveys enhanced the remote sensing image analysis 

of oiling and hurricane impacts. 

From a community-scale perspective, dead 

aboveground biomass, live-to-dead biomass ratio, 

and dead vegetative cover were not sensitive 

evaluators for oil impact in this particular case . The 

community scale analysis was able to detect finescale vegetative responses. Live aboveground 

biomass was significantly lower in oiled compared to 

unoiled marshes at four of the nine marsh sites 

investigated; two marsh sites had significantly greater 

live aboveground biomass at the oiled locations 

compared to the unoiled, while the remaining marsh 

sites did not differ as a function of oiling . Vegetative 

cover generally showed similar trends as 

aboveground biomass. When plant biomass and cover 

were averaged over all marsh sites across the island, 

oiled marshes were not significantly different from 

unoiled marshes. Although site-specific impacts, 

apparently because of the oiling, were identified, 

marsh recovery was apparent as evidenced by similar 

vegetative responses between the oiled and unoiled 

marshes, when averaged over all marsh sites that 

were sampled. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The acute and longer term effects of Hurricane 

Andrew and the Greenhill Petroleum Corporation oil 

spill were evaluated from a landscape scale and 

community scale perspective. In general, the 

landscape scale analysis indicated that Hurricane 

Andrew had a dramatic effect on the morphology and 

land cover of the island. In addition, landscape scale 

and community scale analyses showed that the 

Greenhill Petroleum Corporation oil spill had 

minimal negative effect on the island vegetation . 

More specifically this study demonstrated that : 

On a landscape scale 

The East Timbalier Island land mass decreased 

by 25% between 1990 and 1992, most of which 

can be attributed to Hurricane Andrew. 

The East Timbalier Island shoreline changed 

from continuous to fragmented between 1990 

and 1992, most of which can be attributed to 

Hurricane Andrew. 

Between 1990 and 1992, 56% of the island's 

land cover changed, most of which can be 

attributed to Andrew. 

Most of the land loss and land cover changes 

during the study period occurred in the mid 

section and on the east and west ends of the 

island . 

Changes in land area and land cover between 

1992 and 1993 continued to be dramatic and 

were occurring in the same areas as between 

1990 and 1992 where Hurricane Andrew's 

impact had reshaped the island's morphology . 

The analysis indicates that the Greenhill 

Petroleum Corporation oil spill had minimal 

large-scale effects on land cover. 

In 1992, 26% of East Timbalier Island's total 

land mass was impacted by oil. 
21 

In 1993, 0.19% East Timbalier Island's total 

land mass remained oiled. 

Surface and oil penetration were present in 1993 . 

Oil penetration occurred in areas where the 

oiling was classified as pooled in 1992 . 

Much of the erosion that occurred between 1992 

and 1993 is more likely because of natural 

erosion than oil impact. 

The analysis identified some areas where oil did 

seem to have an effect on the land cover. These 

areas were located in the interior of a land mass 

or in sheltered areas. The majority of those areas 

were located on the eastern end of the island . 

The analysis was not able to identify small areas 

where field surveys noted that oil did seem to 

have an effect on the land cover. 

Field surveys enhanced the remote 

sensing image analysis of oiling and hurricane 

impacts. 

recovery was apparent as evidenced by similar 

vegetative responses between the oiled and 

unoiled marshes, when averaged over all marsh 

sites that were sampled. 

These conclusions clearly indicate that the landscape 

scale and community scale analyses of East 

Timbalier Island's response to the Greenhill 

Petroleum Corporation support and complement each 

others findings . In addition, the landscape scale 

analysis was able to estimate the impact of the 

Hurricane Andrew on the island . Furthermore, this 

investigation indicated that the post-hurricane coastal 

processes controlling island morphology did not 

appear to have an effect on salt marsh recovery to the 

oil spill. This was probably due to the fact that the 

Greenhill Petroleum Corporation oil spill had 

minimal impact on the East Timbalier Island 

vegetation, while Hurricane Andrew had a dramatic 

effect on the island's morphology and land cover. 

On a community scale 

The analysis was able to detect fine-scale 

vegetative responses. 

Live aboveground biomass was significantly 

lower in oiled compared to unoiled marshes at 4 

of the 9 marsh sites investigated . 

Two marsh sites had significantly greater live 

aboveground biomass at the oiled locations 

compared to the unoiled, while the remaining 

marsh sites did not differ as a function of oiling . 

Vegetative cover generally showed similar trends 

as aboveground biomass. 

When plant biomass and cover were averaged 

over all marsh sites across the island, oiled 

marshes were not significantly different from 

unoiled marshes. 

Dead aboveground biomass, live to dead 

biomass ratio, and dead vegetative cover were 

not sensitive evaluators for oil impact in this 

particular case . 

The analysis indicated that oiling appeared to 

have a more negative effect on the east end 

marshes while the west end marshes were more 

positively affected . 

Oil concentration in the soil was significantly 

greater in oiled versus unoiled marshes; 

however, no significant relationship between oil 

content in the soil and vegetative response could 

be identified 14 months after the spill event. 

Although site-specific impacts, apparently 

because of the oiling, were identified, marsh 

REFERENCES 

Mendelssohn, I .A ., M.W. Hester, C. Sasser, and M. 

Fischel. 1990. The effect of a Louisiana crude oil 

discharge from a pipeline break on the 

vegetation of a southeastern Louisiana brackish 

marsh. Oil and Chemical Pollution 7 :1-15. 

Debusschere, K., D. Lindstedt, I .A. Mendelssohn, 

Q. Tao, and Q. Lin. 1994. The recovery of a 

deltaic barrier island to hurricane and oil spill 

impacts in coastal louisiana. OCS Study/MMS. 

U.S . Department of the Interior, Minerals Mgmt. 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office, 

New Orleans, La. 

Dianne Lindstedt is a Research Associate at LSU's 

Center for Coastal Energy and Environmental 

Resources, where she conducts research on coastal 

related issues . 

Karolien Debusschere is a Project Scientist at Coastal 

Environments, Inc. and conducts research in a variety 

of spill and geomorphology related issues . 

Irving Mendelssohn is an LSU Professor of 

Oceanography at the Coastal Sciences and Wetland 

Biogeochemistry Institute, where he conducts 
22 

research in coastal plant ecology and anthropogenic 

impacts on wetland plant communities. 

Qiang Tao is a Research Associate at the LSU's 

Coastal Studies Institute, where he conducts research 

using GIS in coastal systems. 

SATELLITE BASED ASSESSMENT 

OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 

DISCHARGE PLUME'S SPATIAL 

STRUCTURE AND TEMPORAL 

VARIABILITY 

Dr. Nan D. Walker 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

The Mississippi River is the major contributor of 

freshwater, sediments, pollutants, and nutrients to the 

northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf and slope. 

These river inputs have important impacts on all 

aspects of continental shelf oceanography in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. This study utilized five 

years of satellite information obtained by the NOAA 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) to quantify which areas of the continental 

shelf and slope of the Gulf of Mexico are subjected 

to discharges emanating from the Mississippi River 

on various time scales ranging from days to years. 

Correlation and multiple regression techniques were 

employed to identify the environmental forcing 

factors which most affect plume variability. Results 

of this study provide important information 

concerning suspended sediment distribution on the 

continental shelf, potential fate of riverborne 

contaminants, and circulation processes in the 

vicinity of the Mississippi River delta. The primary 

objectives of this research were 

1 . to determine which areas of the continental 

shelf and slope in the Gulf of Mexico are 

most influenced by riverborne sediments 

and pollutants of the Mississippi River 

through the Balize delta 

2 . to gain a better understanding of the 

environmental forcing factors controlling the 

distribution of river water and sediments in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Five years of digital data acquired by the Advanced 

Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) of the 

NOAA environmental satellites were used in this 

study. Reflectance information, derived from the 

visible channels, provided a quantitative means of 

defining the Mississippi River plume and was used as 

the primary database for this investigation. 

The study area included much of the Gulf of Mexico, 

including but not limited to the area 25° to 31° N 

latitude, 86° to 92° W longitude. In year 1, a 

calibration algorithm relating satellite reflectances to 

suspended sediment concentrations was developed. 

The satellite image database was comprised of 113 

NOAA-I 1 afternoon images, hand selected from over 

3,000 images obtained at the Earth Scan Laboratory 

(ESL), Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State 

University between July 1988 and October 1993 . The 

image database was used to investigate the spatial 

and temporal variabilities of plume morphology on 

various time scales . The environmental variables 

included in the study were river discharge, hourly 

wind data from the Bumvood C-man station, tidal 

phase and tidal range. The relationships between five 

plume measurements and these environmental 

variables were explored using correlation and 

multiple regression techniques . 

Individual satellite images revealed that the 

Mississippi River sediment plume ranged in size 

from 822 km2 under low river discharge conditions to 

7,700 km2 under high river discharge conditions . The 

sediment plume exhibited annual variability which 

was related to the annual river discharge cycle. The 

average plume for October 1989, a low discharge 

month, measured 2,058 km2, less than one-half the 

area of the average plume for March/April 1989, 

during the spring flood. Although the time-averaged 

plume was found to be closely related to large 

variations in river discharge, tremendous day-to-day 

variability was observed which was unrelated to 

discharge. 

Results of the correlation analyses revealed that the 

size and morphology of the Mississippi River 

sediment plume is influenced by several 

environmental forcing factors. The most important 
23 

factors determining plume area were found to be 

river discharge, prevailing winds 12 hours prior to 

image acquisition, and wind speed. Tidal phase and 

range explained very little of the variability in plume 

area or morphology . Southeasterly winds confined 

the plume to the continental shelf and nearshore 

zone. The presence of westerly winds maximized the 

areal extent of the sediment plume west of the Balize 

delta throughout the year . During winter, northerly 

winds associated with eastward-moving winter 

storms increased the areal extent of the Mississippi 

plume and maximized the offshore dispersal of the 

suspended sediments. The presence of southerly and 

westerly winds increased the areal extent of the 

plume east of the delta as well as the extreme 

eastward extent of the plume. 

Multiple regression techniques were employed in an 

attempt to use the relationships observed between the 

plume parameters and the environmental variables to 

help establish predictive models for plume 

variability. More success was obtained in predicting 

plume area than plume length . The best model was 

obtained for the eastern area from May through 

September when 70% of plume variability was 

explained by river discharge and local wind behavior. 

Plume area was found to increase in size under 

conditions of high river discharge and southerly or 

westerly winds. The largest sediment plumes east of 

the delta were observed after exposure to at least 12 

hours of strong southwesterly wind forcing (8-10 m 

s') when river discharge was high. In predicting the 

eastern extent of the sediment plume, local wind 

behavior was found to be more important than river 

discharge. The enormous sediment plume observed 

east of the delta in August 1993, subsequent to the 

Great Flood of 1993, provides an excellent example 

of how efficiently the surface sediment is dispersed 

towards the east under prolonged exposure to 

southerly and southwesterly winds. In this extreme 

case, so much Mississippi River water flowed onto 

the continental shelf east of the delta that a detectable 

amount reached the Florida Keys and the east coast 

of the United States, entrained by southward-flowing 

currents associated with the eastern edge of the Loop 

Current. 

maximized during summer under conditions of high 

river discharge and weak to moderate westerly winds. 

During winter, a prevalence of northerly or westerly 

winds maximized sediment dispersal west of the 

delta. Strong northerly winds, associated with 

eastward moving winter storms, maximized the 

offshore transport and dispersal of plume water and 

sediments. 

CONCLUSIONS 

This study has demonstrated the all-important role of 

river discharge variations and wind forcing to the fate 

of river sediments from the Mississippi River delta in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico. In most cases, the 

plume's response to wind forcing was maximized 

after 12 hours. The multiple regression model results 

were encouraging and demonstrate that the plume's 

areal extent and surface morphology are somewhat 

predictable from readily accessible environmental 

variables. Further satellite-based research should 

incorporate information on the sub-surface 

characteristics of the plume. 

Dr. Nan D. Walker is an Assistant Research 

Professor at the Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana 

State University . Her areas of interest include 

satellite oceanography and its applications to coastal, 

shelf, and deep-water circulation processes, air-sea 

interactions, and ocean climatology. She received a 

B.S . in marine zoology from Duke University and a 

Ph.D. in oceanography from the University of Cape 

Town, South Africa. 

The second best predictive model was obtained for 

the western plume area during the summer months. 

In this case, 64% of plume variability was explained 

by river discharge, wind speed, and the east-west 

wind component. The western plume area was 
24 

BIOTRANSFORMATION PATHWAYS 

OF HETEROCYCLES IN THE 

MARINE ENVIRONMENT. 

BENZO(F)QUINOLINE AND 

BENZOTHIAZOLE: POTENTIATION 

OF MOBILITY AND TOXICITY 

Dr. W. James Catallo 

Laboratory for Ecological Chemistry & Toxicology 

(SVM) & Center for Coastal Energy and 

Environmental Research 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

The purpose of continuing work in this laboratory for 

MMS is to examine degradation rates and pathways of 

N-, O-, and S- heterocycles (NOSHs) in marine 

sediments. NOSH compounds are found in petroleum, 

produced waters, coal chemicals, and pyrogenic 

mixtures (Catallo et al. 1992). Several NOSHs and 

their oxidation products are mutagenic, carcinogenic, 

and/or teratogenic (Catallo et al. 1992 ; Ho 1984). 

Relative degradation rates have been determined for 

19 prominent NOSH compounds under oxidized 

(aerobic) and reduced (anaerobic/methanogenic) 

electrochemical conditions in three marine sediments 

(Catallo 1994). In the course of work, degradation 

pathways for several NOSHs were inferred from 

analysis of transformation products using gas 

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). 

Sediment microbes capable of degrading NOSHs 

were isolated during these experiments. To facilitate 

accurate identification of the NOSH degradation 

products and evaluate their potential toxicity and 

mobility in situ, methods were developed to 

synthesize several compounds in deuterated form for 

use as tracers. Access to both protiated and 

deuterated homologs allows for isotopic dilution 

mass spectrometry and tracer studies to be 

undertaken in microbial cultures and environmental 

matrices (e .g., marine sediment/water). 

CASE STUDIES 

Sediments (fine-grained estuarine mud) were 

collected from coastal marine systems in Bay St . 

Louis Mississippi. The sediments were added to 

sealed teflon and glass reactors as slurries and 

maintained under oxidized (aerobic) or reduced 

(anaerobic methanogenic) electrochemical conditions 

in the laboratory . Benzo(flquinoline (I) and 

benzothiazole (II) are present in petroleum and 

produced water, 

o ~~ o 

II 

and are of interest because of their reactivity and 

toxicity . Both I. and II . were synthesized in 

deuterated form using the HTDA method (Werstiuk 

and Kadai 1974) or de novo syntheses starting with 

commercial deuterated precursors . 

Mass spectra for the protiated and deuterated 

homologs of I. and II . are shown in Figures lA .l 

and 1A.2 . The protiated and deuterated compounds 

were added to oxidized and reduced sediment/water 

followed by equilibration for several months. 

Samples were collected periodically over the 

incubation period, followed by solvent extraction 

and quantitative analysis using GC-MS. 

With respect to I ., a major stable metabolite 

observed was a polar compound with a molecular 

ion at m/z 195 (Figure lA3A). The mass spectrum 

suggested that the identity of this metabolite was 

5(H)-6-benzo(flquinoline-one, although the 

corresponding phenol also would be consistent : 

x 

a o 

x 

x 

0 0~ o o~ 

Benzo(f)quinoline oxidation products 

consistent with the mass spectrum shown in 

Figure lA3A (m/z 195) . 
25 

A 

Abundance 1 9 

5000000 O 

4000000 O O) 

N 

3000000 

2000000 

1000000 

5P 

63 76 89 1 1 

3 1 6 

J, 'j IP, 

M/Z -> 

0 

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 

B 

Abundance O D 118 

1200000 

~ O O D ioooooo p Y ~N D 

sooooo 

sooooo 

i 

aooooo 

io 

200000 sa 

o i ~ 4 ~s ~s 

MR -> 

0 

80 90 700 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 

Figure lA.l . Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) benzo(f)-quinoline homologs. 
26 

A 

1 :15 

5000000 

8 

4000000 

6 

1 

s O~N 

3000000 

2000000 45 63 82 

1000000 

TJI., 

0 

M/2 -> 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 

B 

S gas 

zaooooo 

'N 

2000000 

1600000 

1200000 

eooooo 

65 8 94 

400000 7g 

0 

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 

Figure 1A.2 . Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) benzothiazole homologs. 
27 

A 

O~ 1 5 

H 

240000 

0 

N 

200000 

160000 

120000 

1 7 

80000 

40000 51 6370 83 97 1 1,,3 

1 

19 

0 

1 1 J

. 

M/Z -> 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 

B 

D 

204 

D 

50000 O 

p 

~ 

D 

40000 

30000 

20000 

1 6 

10000 8 88 1 2 1 1 113 1 9 2 1 6 

M/2 ->0 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 

Figure 1A3. Mass spectra of protiated (A) and deuterated (B) microbial oxidation products of 

benzo(flquinoline . 
28 

152 

300000 

/"~ S 

0, "~~ J ~ ~-CH, 

~IN 

zooooo 

70 iii 

100000 

e 

1~, x,14 

sa TO , 

0 

80 70 HO 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 

30000 

zoooo 

10000 

e 

~1 

tsa 

DS-tr J ~ 

81 ill 

~I 

0 

.11 

eo 

1 

70 eo 

. 

1 . 

I 

. . 

. 

. 11 , - I f . . T 

so ioo iio im iw iw iso Sao i7a ieo iso zao 

~ 183 

D3 ~ ) I ~-CHOHCH3 

240000 

200000 

160000 

120000 

80000 1 0 

40000 70 

83 

0 

60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 

~3 ~ l J 1 }'-C-CHZOH 

1 1 4 

60000 

50000 

40000 - 

30000 - 

7 ~ 1 9 1 g 1 6 

20000 8~ 92 j ~ 1 5 

10000 

o 

M/Z -> 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 

Figure 1A.4 . Mass spectra of microbial transformation products of benzothiazole from deuterated tracer 

experiments. 
29 

p ~N~ z a 

S 

>-

H 

3 

V _ 

20000 N 2 

16000 

12000 127 

8 1 8 

9000 

97 1 1 

4000 1 6 11 1 ~ 1 6 4 

0 

M2 > 60 BO 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 

1 7 

300000 Deuterated 

Unknown 

83 

200000 

100000 

70 

7 1 Z I S 5 2 

0 

M2 -> 60 80 100 120 740 760 180 200 220 240 

2 7 

24000 

Deuterated zoaoo 

,6000

Unknown 2 9 

B3 

21 5 

12000 

70 

8000 

4000 

11112~~3 

1 6 

1 9 

1~1 318 111 

0 

M/Z -> 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 

Figure I A.5 . Other deuterated compounds observed in the tracer runs of benzothiazole. 
30 

Parallel runs using the deuterated homolog of I. 

(Figure lA.1B) also produced a major oxygenated 

product with the same retention time as the protiated 

compound. But mass calculations showed that a 

ketone or phenol derivative of the deuterated 

compound would have a molecular ion of m/z 203, 

which was not found. The only structurally consistent 

product with appropriate masses in both protiated and 

deuterated experiments is benzo(f)quinoline epoxide, 

probably the 9,10 epoxide (shown in Figure lA3B, 

the corresponding protiated system is shown in 

Figure lA3A). These epoxides are of interest because 

they are similar to precursors of known carcinogens 

and teratogens . 

The mass spectra of protiated and deuterated II . are 

given in Figure 1A.2 . In general, the main metabolic 

products of II . were alkylated and glycolated 

benzothiazoles, with smaller amounts of oxidized 

species also present (Figure 1 A.4). These 

transformation products are very similar to those seen 

in biochemical reactions of thiamine, which has a 

thiazole ring active site : 

CH, CH ZCHZ OH 

CHp~~ 

N O \l/ 

C H3 N N Reactive site 

Thiamine (Vitamin 131) 

Intermediates these reactions in vivo can include 

reduced thiazole and its alkyl substituted homologs 

including glucoaldehydes and thiols : 

I 

"~N - H -~y 

HOCHZ p 

X Cy/r- I HOCHq 

OW -H -140+ OH-~ 

OH-C-H 

The products of benzothiazole and its deuterated 

homolog in marine sediments were precisely of these 

types (Figure 1A.4), and this suggested that 

benzothiazole competed with thiamine for enzyme 

active sites (e .g ., in transketolase) . A range of other 

deuterated compounds were observed in the tracer 

runs of benzothiazole, but these have not submitted to 

identification (Figure 1A.5). There also was evidence 

of biochemical oxidation reactions which gave rise to 

heavy addition products including anilobenzothiazole 

and dimeric bis-2,2'-benzothiazole . These products 

and the results of subsidiary experiments indicated 

that 1H'/le oxidations of benzothiazole at the acidic 

2-proton were followed by recombination to the dimer 

or reaction with other amines, including aniline. 

RELEVANCE 

A fundamental goal of biodegradation research is to 

understand the transformation pathways of toxic 

chemicals under conditions found in nature. Once 

understood mechanistically, the environmental effects 

from pollutants can be more adequately anticipated, 

and affected systems can be manipulated in ways that 

may promote the removal of inhibitory or toxic 

products . 

REFERENCES 

Catallo, W. J., R. J. Gale, and R. J. Portier. 1992. 

Toxicity of azaarenes in bacterial assays : 

mechanistic studies, Environ. Toxicol. Water 

Qual. 7 :1-17. 

Catallo, W. J. and R. P. Gambrell . 1994. Fates and 

Effects of N-, O-, and S- Heterocycles (NOSHs) 

from Petroleum and Pyrogenic Sources in Marine 

Sediments. OCS Study/MMS 674-2010. U.S . 

Dept. Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Gulf of Mexico Regional Office, New Orleans 

LA, 72 pp. in press. 

Ho, C., B. T. Walton, G. L. Kao, M. L. Guerin . 

1984 . Identification of benzo(g)isoquinoline-5-10 

dione as an insect teratogen in commercial 

acridine . Environ. Sci . Technol. 18:362 . 

Werstiuk, N. H. and T. Kadai. 1974. The high 

temperature dilute acid (HTDA) procedure as a 

general method of replacing aromatic hydrogen 

with deuterium. Can. J. Chem. 52:2169-71 . 
31 

OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT AND 

COASTAL INCOME INEQUALITY: 

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 

Dr. Charles M. Tolbert 

Louisiana State University Agricultural Center 

INTRODUCTION 

This research was conducted as part of the University 

Research Initiative (URI). The URI was sponsored by 

the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium 

(LUMCON) through a contract with the Minerals 

Management Service. 

OVERVIEW OF KEY FINDINGS 

This research employed parish- and county-level data 

from the 1970, 1980, and 1990 censuses in a 

comparative analysis of family income inequality . We 

focused on the analysis of trends in family income 

inequality in coastal Louisiana parishes adjacent to the 

substantially developed Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). 

With a comparative analysis design, we examined 

inequality trends in Louisiana parishes and in coastal 

counties of the Florida panhandle where there has been 

no significant onshore or offshore development of oil 

and gas resources. Inequality trends in the parishes and 

counties along the Gulf of Mexico were also compared 

to statewide family income inequality in Louisiana and 

Florida. 

The analysis framework enabled a temporal comparison 

across key decades in the recent history of the oil and 

gas industries . While the decade of the 1970s was one 

of rising oil prices and greatly expanded oil and gas 

development, the 1980s saw prices fall and industry 

activity generally decline. Income inequality was 

gauged with multiple measures of inequality computed 

with decennial census data . 

family income levels in Louisiana were actually lower 

than they were in 1970 (see Figure 1A .6). 

A comparative inequality analysis revealed very 

different patterns of income inequality for statewide and 

coastal areas of Florida and Louisiana. While Florida 

inequality primarily trended downward across time, 

inequality in Louisiana exhibited a great deal of 

volatility and, by 1990, was higher than in 1970 in 

several cases. The Louisiana patterns suggest a 

substantial impact of oil and gas development on 

coastal families in the middle to upper, middle portions 

of the income distribution . Sample results targeting the 

middle of the income distribution with the Atkinson 

(1970) inequality measure are presented in Figure 1A.7 . 

The inequality patterns suggest that the Kuznets (1955) 

hypothesis does hold for the decennial census years 

1970-1980 that approximate the oil and gas industry 

expansion period . At the state level and in the coastal 

parishes, Louisiana income inequality declined . Though 

Kuznets did not focus on the case of a decline in 

development, the contraction of the oil and gas industry 

brought about a corresponding increase in inequality . 

In the modeling phase of the analysis, we attempted to 

account for these inequality patterns by controlling for 

important factors known to influence inequality . At 

best, the models accounted for roughly half the variance 

in the observed inequality . Moreover, through these 

modeling procedures, we were unable to eliminate the 

sharp differences between coastal Louisiana parishes 

and panhandle counties of Florida or the volatility in 

the Louisiana patterns . Education, race, industry mix, 

and the national economy simply do not account for the 

volatility or trends in Louisiana inequality patterns . 

When we control for these factors, a boom and bust 

pattern that corresponds to the expansion and 

contraction of the oil and gas industry is still evident. 

REFERENCES 

An initial review of per capita income and median 

family income figures indicated lower 1970 income in 

Louisiana parishes than in Florida counties . By 1980, 

the income relationship in coastal areas was reversed, 

with Louisiana parishes generally exhibiting higher 

incomes-some precipitously higher-than Florida 

counties . Louisiana statewide and coastal 1990 

incomes, however, were well below those of Florida. 

After taking inflation into account, coastal 1990 median 

Atkinson, Anthony B. 1970. On the measurement of 

inequality . Journal of Economic Theory 2:244-263 . 

Kuznets, Simon. 1955 . Economic growth and income 

inequality . The American Economic Review 

XLV:1-28. 
32 

All Counties and Parishes 

40000 

Louisiana 

f 

36000- Florida 

32000 - 

28000 

24000- 

20000 1970 1980 1990 

Coastal Counties and Parishes 

40000 

Louisiana 

f 

36000 Florida 

32000- 

-100~ 

28000- 

24000 

200001970 1980 1990 

Figure 1A.6 . Statewide and Coastal Median Family Income: ly7U, lyxU, l`l`JU (IyYU llOl1Si'S) . 
33 

All Counties and Parishes 

0.32 

0.30 

0.28 

0.26 

., ., 

., ., 

., ., 

` " ., . . ., 

., 

0.24 

1970 1980 1990 

Coastal Counties and Parishes 

0.32 

0.30 

0.28 

0.26 

0.24 

1970 1980 1990 

Louisiana 

f 

Florida 

Louisiana 

f 

Florida 

Figure 1A.7 . Statewide and Coastal Income Inequality : 1970, 1980, 1990. Atkinson Measure (1 .0). 
34 

Dr. Charles M. Tolbert is Professor of Sociology and 

Rural Sociology at LSU and is Senior Research 

Scientist at the Louisiana Population Data Center. He 

specializes in socioeconomic research, including 

employment, earnings, and industrial organization . He 

came to LSU in 1992 after 11 years in the Department 

of Sociology at Florida State University, where he 

served as chair from 1988 until 1992. He received his 

Ph.D. from the University of Georgia in 1980. His 

research has been supported by the Economic Research 

Service (U.S . Department of Agriculture), the Louisiana 

Agricultural Experiment Station, the Minerals 

Management Service, and the National Science 

Foundation. 
SESSION 113 

CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS 
37 

Session: 113 -CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS 

Co-Chairs: Ms. Carla M. Langley and Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno 

Date: November 15, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction Ms. Carla M. Langley 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

MMS CARE Award Program: Mr. Villere Reggio 

Overview and Highlights U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Coastal America - A Partnership for Action 

Sea Turtle Strandings Along the Texas Coast 

During 1994 

Mr. Jim Ratterree 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency 

Region VI 

Ms. Donna J. Shaver 

National Biological Survey 

Southeastern Biological Science Center 

Padre Island National Seashore 

Handshakes Curb Heartaches : Cooperation the Key Dr. Stephen R. Gittings 

to Conservation at the Flower Gardens Mr. Christopher L. Ostrom 

National Oceanic & Atmospheric 

Administration 

Sanctuaries and Reserves Division 

A Clockwork Orange: The Trans-Gulf Migration 

of the Monarch Butterfly 

No manuscript submitted 

The Louisiana Program: Programmatic Overview 

Dr. Gary Noel Ross 

President, Baton Rouge Audubon Society 

Mr. Harold Schoeffler 

Sierra Club State Conservation Chair 

Mr. Rik Kasprzak 

Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries 

Rigs to Reefs Program 
39 

INTRODUCTION 

Ms. Carla M. Langley 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

The primary focus for this session is to address 

conservation issues to enhance environmental 

awareness in the Gulf of Mexico region . The 

speakers for this session are affiliated with federal, 

state, and private sectors with backgrounds in the 

environmental field. Presentation topics discussed 

within the speakers' respective areas of expertise 

focus on the interrelationships of OCS oil and gas 

activities and environmental conservation. 

the Interior, and the coastal states . Although MMS 

currently has a Safety Award for Excellence (SAFE) 

program that has environmental protection as a stated 

purpose, the focus of that program is to protect the 

human and natural environment by avoiding 

accidents and pollution through adherence to safety 

and environmental protection regulations and 

guidelines . There are many opportunities, however, 

to go beyond these requirements and invest time, 

capital, and human resources specifically to enhance 

the environment or to cooperate voluntarily with 

others seeking solutions to onerous environmental 

problems resulting from multiple use of the marine 

environment. The CARE Award program has been 

established to acknowledge that such efforts and 

investments are worthy of recognition and 

appreciation . 

Ms. Carla M. Langley is an environmental scientist 

in the MMS Environmental Studies Section in New 

Orleans where she oversees publications coordination 

and information transfer . She is a graduate of the 

University of New Orleans in Louisiana. 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno is a program manager in 

the MMS Environmental Studies Section in New 

Orleans. Previously he held several positions in the 

Department of the Interior's Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

MMS CARE AWARD PROGRAM: 

OVERVIEW AND HIGHLIGHTS 

Mr. Villere Reggio 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

INTRODUCTION 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) has 

established a Conservation Award for Respecting the 

Environment, better known as the CARE Award. The 

CARE Award recognizes and champions exemplary 

actions and accomplishments by those private 

companies engaged in offshore energy development 

and that support the broader conservation and 

environmental goals of the nation, the Department of 

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES 

Establishment of the CARE Award seeks to achieve 

the following objectives : 

A. Recognition of outstanding environmental 

accomplishments by companies involved in 

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) activities . 

B. Endorsement of the concept that 

conscientious environmental concern and 

initiative can be good business and good 

public relations. 

C. Resolution of environmental problems 

without undue regulation . 

D. Demonstration that energy development and 

environmental conservation can be mutually 

supportive . 

E. Encouragement of cooperation between 

private industry, environmental groups, and 

government to achieve conservation and 

environmental goals. 

SCOPE 

The CARE Award is presented on the regional level 

for projects or actions occurring on the OCS or 

within the Gulf States . Presentation is judged on the 

guidelines outlined in Section IV. The CARE 

program is focused toward OCS lessees and operators 

but may be extended to any private company 
40 

involved with offshore operations that warrants agencies, private industry, OCS Advisory 

environmental distinction. The CARE Award is groups, the MMS regional staff, and others. 

honorary and will be presented annually, if Companies are encouraged to nominate 

warranted, by the Gulf of Mexico Regional themselves . Each nomination should meet 

Supervisor, Leasing and Environment. Conservation one or more of the guidelines for selection 

achievements resulting from required mitigation discussed in Section IV. 

actions are not eligible for the Minerals Management 

Service CARE Award. Nomination should be solicited by MMS 

three months prior to the planned award 

SELECTION GUIDELINES presentation date . All nominations should be 

provided to the MMS Regional office within 

Guidelines considered in making recommendations one month after the call for CARE Award 

for the CARE Award include the following: nominations. The award presentation date 

may vary from year to year as this date will 

A. Relevancy-The nominee's achievement(s) be determined on an annual basis by the 

assist(s) the Department and coastal States MMS. Selection of the CARE award 

in implementing a particular and timely presentation date should be made well in 

conservation or environmental policy, advance, and nominators and nominees 

program, goal, or philosophy. should be so notified . Although the award 

will, if warranted, be presented annually, 

B. Leadership-The nominee's achievement(s) candidates nominated for the award can be 

establishes) a precedent or an improved, considered for environmental contributions 

new way of doing business likely to be preceding the current calendar year . 

copied by other companies with similar However, once a candidate has received an 

environmental problems or opportunities . award for a project(s), that candidate will be 

judged in future calendar years only on the 

C. Scope of influence-The nominee's merits of those activities conducted after the 

achievement(s) has (have) regional or date the award was received. Nominees not 

national application or contribute(s) to selected as recipient of the CARE Award 

enduring appreciation, understanding, can be considered, based on environmental 

enhancement, preservation, or use of our contributions for which they are previously 

natural resources. nominated, if renominated for future awards. 

A file will be maintained on each company 

D. Innovation-The nominee's achievement(s) nominated, and the selection committee will 

involve(s) the use of new technology, consider the cumulative achievements of 

approaches, or methods environmentally each nominee in recommending annual 

superior to standard methods and practices. selections . 

E. Commitment-The nominee's 

environmental/conservation achievement(s) 

require(s) significant time, money, effort, or 

company resources. 

SELECTION PROCEDURES 

The CARE recipient is selected from a field of 

nominees by an MMS committee. 

A. Nomination of Candidates-Nominations of 

appropriate candidates for a CARE Award 

will be solicited by MMS from 

environmental groups, state and federal 

Recommendations should be submitted on 

an official Minerals Management Service 

CARE Award nomination form (Section 

VII), along with a letter or memorandum not 

to exceed three pages, providing 

justification for the nomination of the 

candidate on the basis of the company's 

environmental contribution(s). The 

transmittal letter and nomination form will 

constitute the essential elements of a CARE 

Award nomination . Supporting 

documentation can be included as an 

attachment when such documentation will 
41 

provide more insight into the company's 

achievement or the selection rationale. 

B. Selection of CARE Award Recipient-A 

selection will be made by the MMS 

Regional Director from recommendations 

provided by a selection committee chaired 

by the Regional Supervisor, MMS, Leasing 

and Environment (LE). The selection 

committee will be comprised of section 

chiefs, MMS (LE), and other discretionary 

members within the MMS or United States 

Department of the Interior. The use of 

discretionary members will be decided upon 

by the selection committee chairman. The 

selection committee is responsible for 

evaluating the recommendations submitted 

by the nominees . All information presented 

in the recommendations will be considered . 

In order to verify and supplement the 

recommendations, the selection committee 

may consult with representatives of other 

federal and state agencies, and other 

interested parties, as well as nominees and 

nominators. 

The selection committee shall identify the 

selection for the CARE Award, via 

memorandum to the Regional Director, one 

month after receiving nominations. The 

selection memorandum shall provide 

appropriate details of the justification used 

for the selection. If a candidate is not chosen 

for that calendar year, a memorandum of 

explanation shall be submitted in accordance 

with the above procedures . Within five 

working days from receipt of the selection, 

the Regional Director should inform the 

selection committee chairman regarding his 

decision for concurrence. 

less than three days prior to the designated 

presentation date. The successful candidate 

and nominator will be notified of the 

selection along with the date, time, and 

place of the award conveyance several 

weeks prior to the scheduled presentation . 

AWARD PRESENTATION 

The Regional Supervisor will formally present the 

award to the winner on an annual basis. Date and 

time of presentation will be determined by the 

selection committee with special consideration to the 

best interest of the recipient. 

Mr. Villere Reggio, Jr ., has been an Outdoor 

Recreation Planner with the U.S . Department of 

Interior's Leasing and Environment division of the 

OCS Program for almost 20 years. His 

responsibilities include investigation, assessment, and 

reporting on the interrelationship of the offshore oil 

and gas program with the recreational elements of the 

marine and coastal environment throughout the Gulf 

of Mexico region. Mr. Reggio was instrumental in 

developing and establishing the MMS CARE Award 

Program, and has served as the CARE Award 

Program Manager for the Gulf Region since the 

Program's inception since 1987. 

After concurrence is received, the selection 

committee is responsible for procuring the 

appropriate memento for the CARE Award 

recipient and for preparing the final written 

documentation to be presented along with 

the award. The CARE Award selected for 

the recipient should relate to the nominee's 

environmental contribution(s) and should be 

suitable for display. The selection committee 

will prepare the final written documentation 

and the chosen award for presentation no 
42 

CARE Award Nomination Form 

Nomination Form 

CONSERVATION AWARD FOR RESPECTING THE ENVIRONMENT 

MMS CARE AWARD 

Date 

PART I : GENERAL INFORMATION 

Company Nominee's Name including Division or other subgroup: 

Nominee's Address 

City 

Contact in Nominee's Organization 

TITLE 

Daytime Phone Number 

State Zip Code 

Type of Organization (Establish relationship to offshore oil and gas business) 

[ ] Lessee [ ] Operator [ ] Service Company [ ] Other (Specify) 

Person Submitting Nomination: 

Name 

Address 

City State Zip Code 

Daytime Phone Number 

Affiliation 
43 

PART II: JUSTIFICATION 

Responses should be concise . If additional space is required please continue on a separate sheet of paper 

with reference to the appropriate location on the nomination form. 

1 . DESCRIPTION: Provide a general description of the nature of the nominee's achievement(s) 

warranting consideration for recognition under the MMS CARE Award. (This can be incorporated into 

a transmittal letter but should not exceed two or three pages.) 

2. RELEVANCY: Explain how a conservation or environmental policy, program, goal, or philosophy was 

advanced by the nominee's action(s) or achievement(s) . 

3 . LEADERSHIP: Did the nominee's achievement(s) establish a precedent likely to be adopted by others? 

Explain. 

4. SCOPE OF INFLUENCE: Did the nominee's achievement(s) have Regional or National application 

or contribute to enduring appreciation, understanding, enhancement, preservation, or use of our natural 

resources? 

5 . INNOVATION: Did the nominee's achievement(s) involve the use of new technology, approaches, 

or methods environmentally superior to standard methods and practices? Explain. 

6. COMMITMENT: Provide available quantitative information indicating the time, money, effort, or 

company resources invested in attaining the nominees's achievement. 

PART III: OPTIONAL SUBMISSIONS (5 page limit) 

You are encouraged to append new articles or published materials further describing the nominee's 

environmental/conservation achievement(s) that are the subject of this nomination. Photographs and an 

indication of other recognition received by the nominee for this accomplishment would also be 

appreciated if available or known. 

Note: Environmental/conservation achievements resulting from legally required actions are not eligible 

for the MMS CARE Award. 

Mail Completed Nominations to: 

MMS Care Award 

Regional Supervisor 

Leasing and Environment 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard 

New Orleans, Louisiana 70123-2394 
44 

COASTAL AMERICA - 

A PARTNERSHIP FOR ACTION 

Mr. Jim Rattenee 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency 

Region VI 

Coastal America began in fiscal year 1992 as a 

collaborative, multi-agency partnership to address 

environmental problems along the nation's coasts . 

The partners include the federal agencies with 

principal responsibility for the stewardship of coastal 

resources, those with responsibilities for 

infrastructure development, and those whose 

activities impact the coastal environment: the 

Departments of Agriculture, Air Force, Army, 

Commerce, Energy, Housing and Urban 

Development, Interior, Navy, and Transportation, the 

Environmental Protection Agency, and the Executive 

Office of the President. The concept originally 

envisioned pooling of fiscal resources from 

individual agency appropriations, to be used to 

implement projects on a competitive basis. However, 

due to government-wide streamlining and cutbacks, 

Coastal America has been compelled to evolve into 

an effective project endorsement process . 

The partnership integrates federal capabilities with 

state, local, and non-governmental efforts to address 

habitat loss and degradation, non-point source 

pollution, and contaminated sediments, and 

essentially provides : 1) a mechanism for leveraging 

resources, expertise, and authorities; 2) a 

collaborative, problem-solving focus that expedites 

initiatives; 3) a consensus-building process that 

avoids conflicts; 4) a philosophy that encourages 

cost-efficient, creative solutions; and, 5) an actionoriented approach that achieves results. A 

Memorandum of Understanding signed by the 11 

federal agencies outlines the operational framework, 

goals, and objectives of the partnership. The 

partnership is guided by a Principals Group, 

comprised of sub-cabinet level representatives of the 

signatory agencies, and by a National Implementation 

Team and nine Regional Implementation Teams 

(RITs), comprised of senior-level representatives 

from the partnership agencies . 

Over the past three years, Coastal America has 

established an innovative, collaborative process that 

has encouraged national policy formulation, regional 

planning, and local project implementation. At the 

national level, the partners have resolved policy 

conflicts and corrected program directives that 

inhibited collaborative action . For example, a policy 

preventing the beneficial use of dredged material for 

wetland restoration was modified and a broader 

legislative solution was implemented which 

encouraged the use of dredged material for habitat 

creation . 

At the regional level, the RITs are empowered to 

work through existing authorities to set regional 

agendas for the Coastal America priorities . Individual 

regional strategies have been developed to focus and 

prioritize multi-agency efforts. The strategies range 

from restoring habitat while developing 

transportation routes along the coast to targeting 

critical coastal watersheds for coordinated restoration 

projects . 

At the local level, the partnership teams have pooled 

financial resources, technical expertise, and 

legislative authorities to implement projects no 

agency could accomplish alone. Project concepts 

endorsed by the regional teams are placed on a 

working list for priority funding, and partner 

contributions are solicited. To be eligible for 

endorsement consideration a project must 1) be 

action-oriented, with a focus on habitat loss and 

degradation, non-point source pollution, or 

contaminated sediments; 2) include at least three 

federal partners and one non-federal participant; and, 

3) include education outreach and monitoring 

components . 

Although the partnership is relatively new, it has 

already proven to be cost effective: resources have 

been leveraged, implementation efforts have been 

expedited, and environmental improvements have 

resulted. More than 20 federal agencies and 150 nonfederal organizations are now participating in Coastal 

America projects . In its first year, 1992, the 

partnership initiated 24 projects, valued at over $12 

million, in 15 states, with over one-half of the funds 

contributed by non-federal partners . In 1993, the 

partnership initiated an additional 43 projects, valued 

at approximately $18 million, in 17 states . These 

efforts have resulted and will continue to result in the 

restoration of thousands of acres of wetlands; the 

reestablishment of hundreds of miles of spawning 
45 

streams; and, the protection of coastal birds, 

anadromous fish, and marine mammals. 

The Gulf of Mexico Regional Implementation Team 

(GMRIT) is composed of federal and state agency 

representatives from the five Gulf Coast states of 

Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. 

It has had a distinct organizational advantage over 

the other eight Regional Implementation Teams, 

since its formation in May 1991, due to the existence 

of the Gulf of Mexico Program (GMP), which 

features a highly structured and well-supported 

committee system. Because the Coastal America 

partners have been active participants in the GMP, a 

spirit of cooperation and a sense of organization was 

established almost from the very beginning of the 

GMRIT. Consequently, attention was turned 

immediately to the task of identifying projects 

eligible for Coastal America endorsement 

consideration, rather than expending energy on 

establishing rules of order or defusing conflict arising 

from individual parochial concerns. Also, members 

were anxious to lay the foundation for devising a 

mechanism to implement projects aimed at correcting 

problems identified by the GMP committees. 

The GMRIT is at the forefront of the RITs in its 

makeup and philosophy. The five Gulf states' 

representatives sit on the RIT as equal voting 

members. Recently, non-governmental organizations 

have been invited to participate in the project 

identification and implementing process. Two Gulf 

Region projects have been cited by the NIT as 

excellent examples of the Administration's emphasis 

on sustainable development and ecosystem 

management. 

4. Be formally submitted to the GMRIT by the 

primary federal sponsor for endorsement (subject 

to existing federal and state laws and 

regulations), which must be unanimous. 

Three projects lists are maintained by the GMRIT 

chair: a Completed Projects List, a Endorsed/Funded 

Projects List, and an Endorsed/Unfunded Projects 

List. To date, eight projects have been completed, 12 

are on the funded list, and 19 are on the endorsed list . 

Since 1991, over 200 projects have been considered . 

To improve the project endorsement and 

implementation processes, the GMRIT recently 

devised a project success assessment mechanism (for 

those projects that are similar in scope to previously 

completed or funded projects) and a nongovernmental organization participation strategy . 

Mr. Jim Ratterree has worked at EPA, Region 6, as 

an Environmental Scientist for the past eight years, 

the last four in the Marine and Estuarine Section. 

Prior to that he was employed with the Department 

of the Interior and Federal Energy Regulatory 

Commission in Washington, D.C . ; the Bureau of 

Reclamation in Amarillo, TX, and Albuquerque, NM; 

and, the U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service in Galveston, 

TX, in various aquatic biologist-related positions. His 

areas of interest and responsibility lie in coastal 

wetlands and estuarine ecology. Mr. Ratterree 

received his B.S in biology from Lamar University 

and pursued an M.S . in geology from the University 

of Houston at Clear Lake. 

The GMRIT Regional Strategy is among the more 

flexible and innovative of the nine regional strategies . 

The geographic focus is the entire Gulf of Mexico. 

Projects are endorsed, but not prioritized, so as not to 

detract from a project's opportunity to be funded 

through an existing mechanism. In addition, to 

receive GMRIT endorsement a project must: 

Include the national Coastal America eligibility 

requirements ; 

Have at least one federal sponsor, strongly 

committed to securing project funding or to 

developing an implementation strategy ; 

Have a project success assessment and reporting 

mechanism; and, 

SEA TURTLE STRANDINGS ALONG 

THE TEXAS COAST DURING 1994 

Ms. Donna J. Shaver 

National Biological Survey 

Southeastern Biological Science Center 

Padre Island National Seashore 

INTRODUCTION 

The Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network 

(STSSN) was established in 1980 to document 

strandings of marine turtles on United States beaches 
46 

located along the Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Ocean, 

and Caribbean Sea (Schroeder 1988). Stranded sea 

turtles are defined as those non-headstarted turtles 

that wash ashore or are found floating either dead or 

alive (Schroeder 1988; Teas 1993). 

Individuals of all five threatened and endangered sea 

turtle species occurring within the northwestern Gulf 

of Mexico, including the loggerhead (Caretta), 

Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), green (Chelonia 

mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and 

leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), have been 

found stranded in Texas (Rabalais and Rabalais 

1980; Whistler 1989). Despite on-going research and 

conservation efforts, strandings of sea turtles along 

the Texas coast reached unprecedented levels during 

1994. This study was undertaken to examine 

stranding patterns for sea turtles found along the 

Texas coast during 1994 and to determine possible 

causative factors for the strandings . 

METHODS AND RESULTS 

STSSN Procedures and Number of Stranded Turtles 

Stranded sea turtles were located by network 

participants in response to information provided by 

beach visitors and during systematic patrols 

conducted in various areas of the state. For each 

stranded turtle, information was collected on species, 

size, stranding date and location, tag numbers (if 

applicable), visible injuries, condition, and final 

disposition of the animal. Information was recorded 

on standardized forms that were forwarded to the 

state and subsequently the national STSSN 

coordinators . 

The Texas STSSN database was queried for records 

of turtles found stranded in Texas from January 

through October 1994. Four hundred and 

seventy-nine (479) turtles were located stranded, 

more than during any previous entire year on record 

for the Texas STSSN. Previous yearly totals ranged 

from 77 in 1980 to 355 in 1990 . Of the 479 turtles 

found stranded during 1994, 446 were located dead 

and 33 alive. Live individuals were taken to 

rehabilitation facilities . Species composition of the 

479 stranded turtles included 173 C. caretta, 241 L. 

kempi, 37 C. mydas, three D. coriacea, 13 E. 

imbricata, and 12 unknown species turtles. 

NECROPSIES AND GUT 

CONTENT ANALYSES 

All of the turtles that died during rehabilitation 

efforts and many of the dead, stranded turtles that 

were not highly decomposed were salvaged for 

necropsy and study. General necropsies, similar to 

those described by Wolke and George (1981), were 

performed by a limited number of STSSN 

participants and veterinarians . Due to the large 

number of turtles found stranded and salvaged during 

1994, necropsies have not been completed for all 

individuals. Of those for which necropsies have been 

completed, tissue deterioration often prohibited 

conclusive determination of cause of death. 

I necropsied and removed the entire digestive tract 

from approximately 120 turtles found stranded along 

the lower Texas coast during 1994. For the 37 

Kemp's ridley digestive tracts analyzed to date, 

ingested items were identified, categorized into seven 

general food groups, baked in a drying oven, and 

weighed according to procedures outlined by (1991). 

Gut contents were present in all 37 analyzed, 

indicating recent foraging, and none appeared to have 

been ill prior to death. Overall, crabs comprised 95% 

of the dry mass. Although marine debris was ingested 

by 19% of the 37 L. kempi, only minute amounts 

were found and in no instances did it appear that 

marine debris ingestion led directly to the demise of 

the animal. 

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF MORTALITY 

Comments listed on STSSN forms revealed possible 

causes for strandings of 41 turtles, including boat 

propeller injuries (19), entanglement (13), hook and 

line ingestion (4), illegal gillnetting (2), and being 

lodged in rocks (3). Eleven turtles had been bitten by 

sharks and 18 had straight-edged cuts at the bases of 

missing appendages, typical of human-inflicted 

mutilation (Heinly et al. 1988). In most cases it was 

impossible for the STSSN participant to determine 

whether the bites and mutilation occurred before or 

after death. Although I1 turtles were found with 

water coming out of their mouth and/or froth in their 

trachea, this condition has been disputed as 

conclusive evidence of drowning. Based upon 

necropsies performed to date, illness and marine 

debris ingestion probably caused relatively few of the 

479 turtles to strand . Several other possible causes 
60 

p UPPER TEXAS COAST 

N 50 

U 

~ LOWER TEXAS COAST 

M Q TEXAS CLOSURE 

B 

E 

R 40 - 

0 

F 

30 - 

N 

D 

I 

V 20- 

1 

D 

U 

A 

L 10 - 

S 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 

WEEK 

Figure IB .1 . Weekly number of non-headstarted sea turtles found stranded on the Texas coast from January through October 1994. Upper . Texas coast 

is defined as the region from Matagorda Island and nearby inshore waters northward and lower Texas coast is defined as the region from 

San Jose Island and nearby inshore waters southward. ~1 
48 

for the strandings have been suggested, but were 

subsequently dismissed because of a lack of 

supportive evidence . Among the unlikely 

contributing factors proposed were seismic 

exploration, oil platform removal, menhaden fishing, 

low water oxygen, pollutants, toxic wastes, 

dinoflagellate blooms, and ingestion of fish killed by 

any of the preceding factors (Zimmerman personal 

communication) . There is circumstantial evidence 

that a large percentage of the strandings during 1994 

resulted from incidental capture in shrimp trawls . 

Stranding patterns closely followed nearshore 

shrimping patterns . Strandings increased dramatically 

during early April and continued at high levels 

through mid-May (Figure 1 B.1 : Weekly number of 

non-headstarted sea turtles found stranded on the 

Texas coast from January through October 1994. 

Upper Texas coast is defined as the region from 

Matagorda Island and nearby inshore waters 

northward and lower Texas coast is defined as the 

region from San Jose Island and nearby inshore 

waters southward). From April through mid-May, 

strandings were concentrated on Galveston,Mustang, 

and North Padre Islands. When shrimping activity 

increased along the Texas coast during April, and 

boats were most numerous in nearshore waters off 

Galveston, Mustang, and North Padre Islands, 

strandings were most numerous in those areas. 

Strandings abruptly decreased and remained at 

relatively low levels from 13 May to 7 July, when 

Gulf waters were closed to shrimping activities out to 

322 km (termed Texas closure) . When shrimping 

resumed in Gulf waters, large numbers of turtles 

were again found stranded . Strandings at that time 

were concentrated in the Galveston, Matagorda, and 

Mustang Island areas, where nearshore shrimping 

effort was high. In the latter portion of July, when 

intensive turtle excluder device (TED) enforcement 

and education activities occurred, strandings 

decreased. However, strandings again increased 

during late August, when TED enforcement activities 

decreased, and subsequently decreased when TED 

enforcement activities resumed. Correlations have 

previously been found between shrimping effort and 

strandings of sea turtles in Texas (Whistler 1989; 

Magnuson et al . 1990; Caillouet et al . 1991 ; Sis et al . 

1993). In an attempt to reduce trawl-related 

mortality, TEDs have been phased into mandatory 

usage since 1990. Most of the shrimp vessels 

inspected by the National Marine Fisheries Service 

and the U.S . Coast Guard in Texas during 1994 had 

TEDs present in their nets . However, TED 

installation and operational problems that might have 

caused turtles to be retained in the nets were noted in 

numerous instances (Zimmerman personal 

communication). Continued strandings of sea turtles 

at levels similar to those recorded in Texas during 

1994 could diminish the effectiveness of 

conservation programs undertaken on behalf of these 

threatened and endangered species. The STSSN 

should continue to document stranded turtles and 

investigate possible sources of mortality so that 

sources related to human activities can be identified 

and reduced. TED education, enforcement, and 

research/development activities must be continued. 

SUMMARY 

1) Four hundred seventy-nine (479) non-headstarted 

sea turtles were found stranded along the Texas coast 

from January through October 1994, exceeding the 

number found during any entire year from 

1980-1993. 

2) Approximately one-half of the turtles found 

stranded were Kemp's ridley, the most critically 

endangered sea turtle species in the world. 

3) Strandings were most numerous from April 

through mid-May and during mid-July. Temporal and 

spatial distributions of the strandings closely 

coincided with nearshore shrimping effort . A large 

percentage of the strandings documented during 1994 

probably resulted from incidental capture in shrimp 

trawls . 

REFERENCES 

Caillouet, C.W., Jr., M.J . Duronslet, A.M. Landry Jr., 

D.B . Revera, D.J . Shaver, K.M. Stanley, R.W. 

Heinly, and E.K . Stabenau. 1991 . Sea turtle 

strandings and shrimp fishing effort in the 

northwestern Gulf of Mexico, 1986-1989. 

Fishery Bulletin, U.S . 89:712-718. 

Heinly, R.W., E.K. Stabenau, A.M. Landry, and M. 

Duronslet. 1988. Mutilation of stranded sea 

turtles along the Texas coast, pp. 33-34. In 

Schroeder, B.A . (compiler) . Proceedings of the 

Eighth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle 

Conservation and Biology. NOAA Tech. Memo. 
49 

NMFS-SEFC-214, Southeast Fish . Sci. Cent., 

Miami, Fla. 

Magnuson, J.J ., K.A . Bjorndal, W.D . DuPaul, G.L . 

Graham, D.W.Owens, C.H . Peterson, P.C .H . 

Pritchard, J.I Richardson, G.E . Saul, and C.W. 

West. 1990 . Decline of the sea turtles: Causes 

and prevention . Natl . Research Council, Natl . 

Acad. Sci. Press, Washington, D.C . 190 pp. 

Rabalais, S.C ., and N.N . Rabalais . 1980. The 

occurrence of sea turtles on the Texas coast. 

Contributions in Marine Science 23:123-129 . 

Ms . Donna Shaver has worked at Padre Island 

National Seashore as a National Biological Survey 

and National Park Service employee for the past 14 

years and serves as the Texas Coordinator for the Sea 

Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network. Her areas of 

research interest are sea turtle foraging ecology and 

population dynamics . Ms. Shaver received her B.S . 

degree in wildlife biology from Cornell University 

and M.S . degree in biology from Texas A&I 

University . 

Schroeder, B.A. 1988. Sea Turtle Stranding and 

Salvage Network (STSSN): 1987 results, pp. 

99-101 . In Schroeder, B.A . (compiler) . 

Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Workshop on 

Sea Turtle Conservation and Biology. NOAA 

Tech. Memo. NMFS- SEFC-214, Southeast Fish . 

Sci. Cent., Miami, Fla. 

Shaver, D.J . 1991 . Feeding ecology of wild and 

head-started Kemp's ridley sea turtles in south 

Texas. Journal of Herpetology 25(3):327-334. 

Sis, R.F ., A.M. Landry, and G.R. Bratton. 1993. 

Toxicology of stranded sea turtles. IAAAM 

(International Association of Aquatic Animal 

Medicine) Conference Proceedings 24 :63-64 . 

Teas, W.G. 1993 . Species composition and size class 

distribution of marine turtle strandings on the 

Gulf of Mexico and southeast United States 

coasts, 1985-1991 . NOAA Tech. Memo. 

NMFS-SEFSC-315, Southeast Fish . Sci. Cent., 

Miami, Fla. 43 pp. 

Whistler, R.G. 1989. Kemp's ridley sea turtle 

strandings along the Texas coast, 1983-1985, pp. 

43-50. In Caillouet, C.W. Jr ., and A.M. Landry 

Jr . (eds .) . Proceedings of the First International 

Symposium on Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle 

Biology, Conservation and Management. 

TAMU-SG-89-105, Texas A&M Univ. Sea 

Grant Coll . Prog., College Station, Tex. 

Wolke, R.E ., and A. George. 1981 . Sea turtle 

necropsy manual . NOAA Tech. Memo. 

NMFS-SEFC-24, Southeast Fish . Sci. Cent., 

Miami, Fla. 20 pp. 

HANDSHAKES CURB 

HEARTACHES: COOPERATION THE 

KEY TO CONSERVATION AT THE 

FLOWER GARDENS 

Dr. Stephen R. Gittings 

Mr. Christopher L. Ostrom 

National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration 

Sanctuaries and Reserves Division 

INTRODUCTION 

Doing things at the Flower Gardens has always been 

difficult. The banks contain the northernmost coral 

reefs in the United States and are over 100 miles 

offshore . While this has insulated them from most 

human impacts and left them in nearly pristine 

condition (Gittings et al . 1992), it has historically 

made them difficult to visit, to monitor, and to study, 

at least when compared to most other Atlantic reef 

systems. And with the designation of the banks as a 

National Marine Sanctuary by the National Oceanic 

& Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and 

approval by Congress and the President in 1992, their 

isolation has made resource protection, education, 

surveillance and enforcement all challenges for 

resource managers . 

Formal environmental protection can be a doubleedged sword. Though protective regulations are 

promulgated, designation is typically followed by 

increases in recreational use (Tilmant 1987), 

elevating the task of enforcement. Recent years have 

seen substantial increases in the number of visitors to 

the Flower Gardens. Nearly 3,000 recreational divers 

annually arrive on charter boats or private vessels. 
50 

Industry has also expanded offshore. Currently seven 

oil or gas production platforms and over 60 miles of 

pipeline are within the Four-Mile Zone around the 

banks. The immediate future is likely to see even 

more recreational divers, more private boat arrivals, 

more fishing, increased industrial activity, and more 

scientific use of the Flower Gardens resources. But 

all these uses, which many view as threats, are 

accompanied by a high level of interest in and 

awareness of issues related to resource protection and 

environmental stewardship on the part of the public, 

industry and other federal agencies . This has lead to 

a number of unique and productive partnerships . The 

cooperative nature of the users of the resources 

above, on and below the Flower Gardens has resulted 

in a more effective and comprehensive protective 

regime for the banks and the unusual biological 

assemblages they contain. 

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF 

CONSERVATION AT THE 

FLOWER GARDENS 

The Flower Garden Banks are fortunate to have had 

a long history of efforts directed at resource 

protection . These efforts have come from several 

fronts, including government, industry, and the 

public . 

Bright et al . (1985) summarized the history of 

protection for the Flower Gardens for the period up 

to 1985, and Gittings et al . (1993) updated the 

history. The most significant perceived threats to the 

resources of the Flower Gardens have generally been 

considered to arise from oil and gas development, 

from anchoring by large vessels, and from increasing 

levels of use by recreational divers and boaters. Oil 

and gas concerns included diminished water quality 

due to drilling and production discharges near the 

banks, and the threat of spills and clean-up 

operations . Large vessel anchoring has been 

documented on a number of occasions. The damage 

resulting from even single incidents can be extensive, 

and anchor scars can be seen on large-scale side scan 

sonograms. High levels of recreational use increase 

the amount of damage caused by anchoring as well 

the impacts of souvenir collection, trash disposal, and 

overfishing. 

The majority of threats posed by oil and gas 

operations were addressed first by the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS). In 1974, regulatory 

zones were imposed prohibiting activity on the 

Flower Garden Banks themselves, and in adjacent 

areas required reef monitoring and/or shunting of 

discharges to within 10 m of the seafloor . 

By all accounts, the MMS regulations have been very 

effective, and monitoring programs have revealed no 

industry-related deterioration at the Flower Gardens 

(e.g. Gittings et al. 1992). In fact, the Flower Garden 

Banks National Marine Sanctuary (FGBNMS) 

regulations (15 CFR Part 943) affecting the oil and 

gas industry are nearly the same as those adopted by 

MMS in 1974. 

It was evident in the early 1970s that the Flower 

Gardens would be a strong candidate for sanctuary 

designation. The Banks were formally nominated in 

1977 in part because of continuing threats posed by 

anchoring by non-oil industry vessels. Anchoring and 

the potential problem of coral collecting were nearly 

taken care of in the early 1980s. The Draft Gulf of 

Mexico Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) for Corals 

and Coral Reefs included a provision that would 

prohibit anchoring on and collecting corals . Because 

the Plan's promise of removing the final significant 

perceived threats, the Flower Gardens was removed 

from NOAA's List of Active Candidates for Marine 

Sanctuary status in 1982. But the final FMP did not 

contain the anchoring provision. It had been 

determined during the review of the Draft FMP that 

anchoring was not a fisheries issue. 

In 1984, researchers on the East Flower Garden Bank 

witnessed an anchoring incident and documented the 

damage. Videotapes of the damage were shown at an 

MMS Information Transfer Meeting and raised the 

awareness of the problem to the staff of 

Representative Solomon Ortiz, a member of the 

House Merchant Marine and Fisheries Committee. 

He and another Committee member, then-Rep . John 

Breaux, recommended the Flower Gardens be again 

placed on NOAA's Site Evaluation List (SEL). 

In 1990, the Gulf Reef Environmental Action Team 

(GREAT), a group of 24 volunteers with funding and 

support from federal agencies and private sources, 

installed 12 mooring buoys on the banks to reduce 

anchoring by small vessels. In January of 1992, the 

Flower Garden Banks were designated the nation's 

tenth National Marine Sanctuary (13 currently exist) . 
51 

SANCTUARY MANAGEMENT 

Marine Sanctuaries throughout the nation utilize 

management tools tailored to the sites. For each, the 

primary goal is resource protection . Each has unique 

regulations that address site-specific resource threats. 

Regulations may address discharges that alter water 

quality, activities that mechanically damage living 

and non-living resources (e.g . anchoring), 

molestation of marine mammals, allowable fishing 

techniques, salvaging of artifacts, or other activities . 

Sites use varying levels of education, research, and 

enforcement, which are determined by site needs . 

They also protect resources using proactive measures 

(such as mooring buoy installation and contingency 

planning). 

Even more variable are the types of cooperation each 

Sanctuary uses to accomplish its goals. A treatment 

of nationwide cooperative efforts is beyond the scope 

of this paper. Here we discuss the role of cooperation 

in management of the FGBNMS, and discuss in some 

detail the teamwork between industry, the MMS, and 

NOAA in protecting the Flower Gardens. 

COOPERATION AT THE 

FLOWER GARDENS 

The Flower Gardens Sanctuary depends heavily on 

partnerships . The Sanctuary has taken advantage of 

regional expertise among industry, federal agencies, 

academic institutions, and environmental groups . One 

illustration of this is the composition of the 

Sanctuary's advisory group, a 14-member committee 

that consists of people from each of these user groups 

(Table 1B.1). 

Table 1 B.1 . Cooperation between the Flower Gardens Banks National Marine Sanctuary and other 

organizations. 

S:anctu :ary 

S C'u 

Cooperating Organizations Activities 

F uu nctions 

F Ctio 

g t 

Ma nagement Texas A&M Sea Grant Prog. Provides reduced-cost office space and staff support 

Gulf of Mexico Foundation Established Flower Gardens Fund to raise funds to 

support all aspects of Sanctuary 

Mobil, Texaco, Shell, MMS, Each have member(s) on the Sanctuary's advisory group 

Texas A&M, Louisiana 

Univ. Marine Consort., Gulf 

of Mexico Fdn., Dive Clubs, 

Env' 1 Groups, Rinn Boats, 

volunteers 

Resource MMS Contingency Planning, industry operations policy 

Protection & development, review of development plans, oil spill drills 

Enforcement Gulf Reef Env'1 Action Installed mooring buoys and donated system to NOAA 

Team 

U.S . Coast Guard Surveillance, enforcement, contingency planning, spill 

response 

National Marine Fisheries Enforcement, conduct investigations 

Service 

Mobil E&P U.S ., Inc. Report violations 
52 

Sanctuary 

Functions 

Cooperating Organizations Activities 

i 

Texaco, Anadarko, Oryx Oil spill drills 

Rinn Boats, Inc. Charter boat operators report violations and buoy 

problems, and support damage assessment 

Education Sea Grant Assist with production of brochures, posters, and videos 

Seaspace Provides booth at annual dive show 

Houston Museum of Natural 

Science 

Host annual Night on the Flower Gardens, an educational 

anniversary celebration 

Dive Clubs & Env'1 Groups Co-sponsor Night on the Flower Gardens 

Gulf of Mexico Fdn . Publishes a Technical Series through the Flower Gardens 

Fund to keep public aware of Sanctuary activities & 

research 

Shell Contributions to Flower Gardens Fund 

Volunteers, Experts Present slide shows and talks (e.g. Elderhostel), provide 

materials for and review educational products 

Research MMS Co-fund monitoring and 1992 mass spawning cruise 

Mobil E&P U.S ., Inc. Provides platform access, lodging and logistical support 

National Fish & Wildlife 

Fdn. 

Co-fund fish censuses and Flower Gardens Fellowships 

Gulf of Mexico Fdn. Co-fund fish censuses and scholarships, and provide 

cruise support and project funding 

Mobil, Texaco, and Natural 

Gas Pipeline 

Contributions to the Flower Gardens Fund for research 

and monitoring 

Seaspace Research scholarships 

National Biological Survey Provided staff and funds for toxicology studies 

Rinn Boats, Inc. Offers ship time to conduct graduate student research 

Sea Grant, Entrix, 

Oceanographic Expedition 

Co-sponsored research cruises 

National Undersea Research 

Center/ Univ. North 

Carolina 

Sponsored research workshop to summarize research 

interest and stimulate proposals 
53 

Table 1 B.1 summarizes some of these cooperative 

efforts and indicates how the Sanctuary uses 

partnerships to 

A389A, a gas production platform in the Sanctuary. 

An inflatable is stationed on the platform for use in 

Sanctuary operations . 

reduce the costs of office management 

o raise funds for Sanctuary programs 

obtain advisory support 

enhance resource protection efforts 

conduct surveillance and enforcement 

produce and distribute educational materials 

o conduct educational programs 

o facilitate, enhance, and fund research and 

monitoring 

Two of the most important cooperating groups for 

the Sanctuary are the MMS and oil companies 

themselves . The FGBNMS works with MMS more 

than it does any other federal agency. MMS worked 

with the Sanctuary in 1992 to develop a policy on 

seismic exploration that was designed to control the 

activities of seismic vessels in certain parts of the 

Sanctuary. MMS requests NOAA review of plans for 

drilling, production, and pipeline operations in the 

Four-Mile Zone around the Sanctuary. MMS staff 

provides technical advice, when requested, during 

these reviews. They invite the Sanctuary manager to 

participate on spill drills . They assisted the FGBNMS 

in notifying companies operating in the Four-Mile 

Zone of the requirement to have permits and other 

authorizations certified. They jointly fund with 

NOAA the long-term monitoring program, and 

sponsored a 1992 research cruise . And currently, 

NOAA and MMS are collaborating on an oil spill 

risk assessment for the Flower Garden Banks. At the 

headquarters level, the two groups have periodic 

meetings to share information on current activities 

and to coordinate planning. 

Several oil companies have been valuable partners 

for the FGBNMS. Mobil, Texaco, Shell, and Natural 

Gas Pipeline have all made donations to the Flower 

Gardens Fund for Sanctuary research and education 

programs (the Flower Gardens Fund was established 

in cooperation with the Gulf of Mexico Foundation, 

a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization, to enhance 

conservation efforts at the Flower Gardens through 

increased public and private sector involvement in 

research, monitoring, education, and communication). 

Mobil, Texaco, and Shell have also have 

representatives on the Sanctuary advisory group. And 

Mobil provides transportation, lodging, and logistical 

support to scientists conducting research from HICONCLUSION 

The FGBNMS has depended on partnerships since its 

designation and will continue to do so . Staff and 

resources will simply never be adequate to 

accomplish all the tasks required for resource 

protection without help from groups with similar or 

complementary goals. Furthermore, product quality 

is enhanced through partnerships, reducing wasteful, 

unnecessary, and even counterproductive duplication 

of effort . And because of vested interest on the part 

of cooperating partners, the final products are more 

effectively and widely used. 

Comprehensive marine resource management, a goal 

of the National Marine Sanctuary Program, can only 

be attempted if regulatory agencies are willing to act 

in cooperation with other publics with vested interest 

in the resource. National Marine Sanctuary managers 

have become well aware of this fact and have made 

cooperative programs a high priority in their 

operational plans. This has had numerous positive 

effects. Resource protection has become more 

comprehensive and more effective. Education and 

outreach efforts have expanded . Research scientists 

are conducting more of their work in sanctuaries. 

And the National Marine Sanctuary Program's 

visibility has increased. In contrast to the past, 

agencies and groups have begun to approach the 

Sanctuary Program to develop cooperative programs, 

and support has grown substantially in the last 

several years. And while the outlook for future 

federal support is unclear, partnerships make the 

prospects for effective resource management much 

more promising. 

REFERENCES 

Bright, T.J ., D.W. McGrail, R. Rezak, G.S . Boland, 

and A.R. Trippet. 1985 . The Flower Gardens: A 

compendium of information. U.S . Dept. of 

Interior Minerals Mgmt. Service, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region Office, New Orleans, La. OCS 

Studies/MMS 85-0024. 103 pp. 

Gittings, S.R ., K.J.P . Deslarzes, D.K. Hagman, and 

G.S . Boland . 1992. Reef coral populations and 

growth on the Flower Garden Banks, northwest 
54 

Gulf of Mexico. Proc. 7th Int. Coral Reef Symp. 

1 :90-96 . 

Gittings, S.R., T.J . Bright, and D.K. Hagman. 1993 . 

Protection and monitoring of reefs on the Flower 

Garden Banks, 1972-1992. In Ginsburg, R.N. 

(compiler) Proceedings Collected on Global 

Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and 

History. Miami, Fla. pp. 181-187 . 

Tilmant, J.T. 1987. Impacts of recreational activities 

on coral reefs. In Salvat, T. (ed.) Human impacts 

on coral reefs: facts and recommendations. 

Antenne Museum E.P.H.E ., French Polynesia, 

pp. 195-214. 

Dr. Steve Gittings is Manager of the Flower Garden 

Banks National Marine Sanctuary, a program of 

resource protection, public education, and the 

enhancement of scientific research . He received a 

B.S . in biology at Westminster College (New 

Wilmington, PA) and M.S . and Ph.D. degrees in 

oceanography at Texas A&M University . Dr. 

Gittings is also on the graduate faculty at Texas 

A&M University, specializes in reef biology and 

ecology, and has experience in biofouling ecology, 

taxonomy and biogeography of barnacles, and deepsea ecological investigations . 

Mr. Chris Ostrom is a Senior Project Manager in the 

headquarters office of the National Marine Sanctuary 

Program and has worked with all the sanctuaries in 

the Gulf, Caribbean and Pacific regions. He received 

a B.S . in biology at the University of California at 

Santa Barbara, and an M.S . in biological 

oceanography at Florida State University . His 

experience includes natural resource management at 

the state and federal level, as well as congressional 

and legislative affairs at the national level. 

A CLOCKWORK ORANGE: 

THE TRANS-GULF MIGRATION OF 

THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY 

Dr. Gary Noel Ross 

President, Baton Rouge Audubon Society 

The monarch butterfly in eastern North America is 

world famous for its seemingly miraculous treks 

between Canada, the United States, and Mexico. 

Likewise, the overwintering roosts in the highlands 

of central Mexico have been well documented . 

Although the insect's land routes are fairly well 

known, there have been occasional reports that the 

gossamer-winged insects could not possibly navigate 

over large bodies of water, entomologists have 

concluded that the sightings were of insects blown 

out to sea by heavy offshore winds. 

Now, with data spanning nearly three decades, 

scientists have had to revamp their theories, and the 

distinguished international traveler has acquired a 

new reputation : oceanic voyager. 

My interest in monarchs began in 1965. As a 

graduate student at Louisiana State University, I 

assisted with research on migrating song birds along 

the coast of southwestern Louisiana. The work 

involved focusing high-powered field telescopes at 

the moon each moonlit night during fall and spring . 

This pioneering strategy allowed us to count the 

silhouettes of song birds as they crossed the bright 

disk . Then, using simple mathematical calculations, 

we extrapolated the total number of birds crossing 

the sky for a given period of time . The data were 

conclusive : a traps-Gulf flyway did indeed exist for 

avian migrants . 

During our night vigils, we occasionally noted other 

winged creatures in the night sky. Now commonly 

termed "angels," many of these could be identified as 

monarch butterflies (monarchs have a distinctive 

soaring flight pattern) . Not realizing the uniqueness 

of these observations we simply dismissed them as 

tangential to our research . After all, we reasoned, 

why shouldn't migrating butterflies use the same 

flyways as birds? 

The data were forgotten until the late 1970s. Then, 

while researching the natural history of southwestern 
55 

Louisiana, I noted that during each spring and fall 

masses of monarchs were taking advantage of the oak 

and hackberry trees growing on the old beach ridges 

known by the local Cajun residents as cheniers 

(French for "oak ridge"). Furthermore, my casual 

observations indicated that in the spring, many of the 

monarchs were flocking onto the cheniers directly 

from over the Gulf waters to the south; and each fall, 

many monarchs were departing the cheniers to the 

south, again directly over the Gulf. I noted with 

interest the observations, but merely filed away the 

data. 

Then, in the summer of 1990, a brief item appeared 

in a scientific newsletter claiming that "on the 17th 

and 18th of October, each year for the past 18-10 

years, monarch butterflies in immense numbers alight 

on and rest on an offshore oil and production 

platform in the Gulf of Mexico." 

How could I continue to disregard the long-term 

clues? With no more than a week of scientific 

sleuthing I was able to learn that the paradigm for 

monarch migration did not include night flying or 

navigation over large expanses of water. Monarchs 

supposedly skirted pilots and offshore workers in the 

petroleum industry stationed in an area of the 

northwestern Gulf known as West Cameron Block 

had on several occasions personally witnessed 

numbers of monarchs descending in mass upon 

production platforms and drilling rigs . 

Now, following four years of research in the 

northwestern Gulf I have compiled substantial data 

that allows me to advance new theories on monarch 

migration. 

To summarize, nearly 30 different man-made 

structures ranging from just a few miles to nearly 150 

miles offshore, repeatedly host monarchs in midOctober and to a lesser degree again in mid March. 

Although Louisiana has more than 3,000 manmade 

structures fanning out into the Gulf, the monarch 

sightings are not distributed in a random pattern. 

When plotted on an aeronautical chart, the data 

reveal a specific arrangement: a 90-100 mile swath 

extending from southwest Louisiana to (by 

extrapolation since no structures reach beyond 150 

miles, and no monarch tagged on a rig or platform 

has ever been recovered), northeastern Tamaulipas, 

Mexico. The flight path for the butterflies is 

consistently south to southwest in October and north 

to northeast in March. Although the insects seem to 

prefer moving when winds are favorable for gliding, 

the tenacious migrants are able to hold to their 

apparently prescribed course even when buffeted by 

strong head winds. The butterflies usually fly 30-130 

feet above the warm Gulf water, presumably taking 

advantage of thermal uplift . At peak migration, on an 

average of one to two butterflies per minute can be 

observed, often circling the iron structures . During 

each year, at least one platform was inundated by 

hundreds if not thousands of butterflies, usually at 

dusk. The majority remained throughout the night. 

Some, however, departed into the darkened sky after 

but a brief respite. 

I am often asked just how do the migrating monarchs 

home-in on the offshore structures? Again, the past 

four years of research offer compelling evidence. 

Over 90 percent of all butterfly records involve 

offshore structures that are yellow in color. Since 

monarchs are known to be highly sensitive to that 

color, I theorize that the fall migrants mistake the 

colorful protuberances in the Gulf for patches of 

golden-rod, a favorite source of nourishing nectar, or 

perhaps even for trees sporting autumnal foliage. In 

essence, the monarchs are exploiting the offshore 

structures as "pit stops." 

But magnetism probably plays a significant role, too. 

The body of each monarch contains small quantities 

of magnetite, a kind of biosynthetic compass that 

presumably empowers the insects with the ability to 

orient to Earth's natural geomagnetism, and 

therefore, to navigate over great distances (the record 

for one monarch tagged in Ontario and later retrieved 

in Mexico stands at 2,133 miles) . Since the offshore 

facilities continually generate substantial electromagnetic fields because of their electrical generators, 

telecommunication equipment, and massive iron 

construction, I theorize that the insects' genetic 

programs are fooled. The butterflies are probably 

literally "pulled" farther offshore by false readings 

from fine-tuning, for yellow (and possibly bright 

lights, too) dictates a descent. If darkness is 

imminent, most butterflies simply remain for the 

night. Then, with renewed vigor and in the absence 

of suitable nourishment, the instinct to migrate drives 

them onward to complete their remaining hours 

(probably 10-12) of over-water journey 

(approximately 350 miles, a saving of over 200 

miles) . 
56 

In the spring, conditions are a bit different. Primed 

for reproduction, monarchs leave their forested 

retreats in central Mexico to begin searching out 

milkweeds, their only host plants . Instinctively, the 

butterflies move in a northwesterly direction. Of 

those that reach the Mexican Gulf coast, many 

probably continue to skirt the water line northward 

since offshore waters contain very few production 

platforms or drilling rigs . Also, only terra firma 

offers the possibility for immediate reproduction . 

However, my data indicate that some monarchs must 

launch-out over the water. Furthermore, I believe that 

those that do have a decided advantage. But let me 

explain. 

Monarchs are genetically tied to breed on only 

milkweed plants mainly in the genus Asclepias. 

Relatively common along roadsides and within 

pastures, these showy plants survive because of a 

milky sap that contains chemical substances that 

render the plants more or less immune to predators. 

Monarch caterpillars throughout their evolutionary 

history have learned to not only tolerate these toxins 

but to actually sequestor and incorporate them into 

their own body chemistry. Monarch caterpillars, 

therefore are also immune to many predators. During 

metamorphosis, these same toxic alkaloids are passed 

on to the adults so that the butterflies are also 

unpalatable. (The striking colors of both the 

caterpillars and butterflies supposedly advertise this 

immunity to potential predators: "I taste bad. Leave 

me alone!") 

But not all milkweeds are equally potent . That is, 

some species contain higher concentrations of 

alkaloids than do others . As a corollary, not all 

monarchs are equally potent . [n fact, experiments 

have proven that some monarchs contain practically 

no measurable quantities of alkaloids. These 

butterflies are readily eaten by avian and mammalian 

predators. 

According to evolutionary theory, these monarchs 

that breed on species of milkweed that are well 

endowed with alkaloids will have a greater potential 

for survival than those that do not. Since genes are 

passed on only by survivors, it is these chemically 

primed individuals that over time come to dominate 

a particular population . 

Therefore, natural selection favors those butterflies 

that breed on especially toxic varieties of milkweed. 

My analysis of the vegetation of coastal Louisiana 

indicates that only one species of milkweed is 

common there. Known as green or antelope-horn 

(Asclepias viridis), the species is an early spring 

bloomer and distributed in dry woods, fields and 

prairies along the Gulf coast and then northward into 

the midwestern states. Chemical analysis of the plant 

indicates that it contains copious amounts of 

alkaloids so that it ranked as one of the most toxic of 

its kind. I reason, therefore that those monarchs that 

migrate in the spring across the waters of the Gulf 

are able to oviposit on a species of milkweed that 

virtually assures the survival of most of their 

offspring. As such, the oceanic route increases the 

survival potential for the butterfly species through 

time. 

Although I am not yet in a position to propose that 

the oil industry's development in the Gulf of Mexico 

over the past 50 years has inadvertently sparked the 

evolution of a new, more direct flyway for the 

monarch, I do believe that this "Traps-Gulf Express" 

does offer migrants a definite advantage: a shorter 

route complete with open-sea oases and access to 

breeding grounds with host plants rich in alkaloids. 

And so what may have begun as only a chance 

wandering by few wayward individuals is now being 

continually reinforced and expanded. 

22 April 1993 . Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On that day 

the monarch was accorded an unusually festive 

tribute. The Earth Day ceremony-reputed to be the 

largest in the South-initiated its new" All Species 

Parade" in which 300 school children along with at 

least another 50 supportive older folks masqueraded 

as the state's native plants and animals. The 

participants were grouped according to major 

habitats : Gulf waters first, followed by marshlands, 

swamplands, and finally pine and hardwood forests . 

Since the monarch is a migrant throughout all parts 

of the state-and now proven to fly over the Gulf as 

well-the butterfly was the lead off for the parade. 

Although all costumes sported a professional eyecatching pizzazz, the uncontested crowd pleaser was 

the colorful orange and black celebrity monarch that 

towered above the crowd. Since 1991 the parade has 
57 

increased in size and has been applauded by both the 

populace and media as a grand success. 

Association), 31st Edition (October), three 

covers . 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The following are especially acknowledged for their 

vital and most generous contributions: 

UNOCAL (Lafayette, Louisiana) 

Petroleum Helicopters, Inc. (Lafayette, Louisiana) 

Baton Rouge Chapter of the National Audubon 

Society 

Mr. Thomas Schaal (Lafayette, Louisiana) 

Mr. Chuck Williams (Lafayette, Louisiana) 

Mrs. Hylma Gordon (Hattiesburg, Mississippi) 

REFERENCES 

Malcolm, Stephen B. and Lincoln P. Brower. 1986. 

Selective Oviposition by monarch butterflies 

(Danaus Plexippus L.) in a mixed stand of 

Asclepias curassavica L. and A. incarnata L. in 

South Florida. Journal of the Lepidopterists' 

Society, Vol. 40:4, pp. 255-263 . 

Malcolm, Stephen B. and Myron P. Zalucki (eds .) . 

1993 . Biology and Conservation of the Monarch 

Butterfly. Natural History Museum of Los 

Angeles County. Science Series No. 38 

(February), 419 pp. 

Mather, Bryant. 1990. Monarch butterflies offshore 

in the Gulf of Mexico. News of the 

Lepidopterists' Society, No. 4 (July-August), 

p. 59. 

Monarch migration. 1993. Science World Magazine, 

Vol. 50:2 (September), p. 5 . 

PHI helps SU Professor track monarch butterflies. 

1993. Flight Magazine (PHI), Vol . 38:1 (Spring), 

p. 3 . 

A place to rest . 1993 . Louisiana Oil and Gas Facts. 

(Louisiana Mid-Continent Oil and Gas 

Ross, Gary N. 1993. Butterfly Round Trips (Letters), 

Natural History Magazine, Vol. 102:9 

(September), p. 3 . 

Ross, Gary N. 1993. The Trans-Gulf Express. 

Louisiana Conservationist Magazine, 45:5 

(September-October), pp. 15-17 . 

Ross, Gary N. 1994. Butterflies descend on offshore 

rigs . Louisiana Environmentalist Magazine, Vol. 

2:5 (September-October), pp. 12-15, front cover. 

Ross, Gary N. and Deborah A. Behler . 1993 . The 

Trans-Gulf express (conservation hotline) . 

Wildlife Conservation Magazine, Vol . 96:3 

(May-June), p. 8. 

Serving double duty. 1992 . Seventy Six Magazine 

(UNOCAL), Vol . LXXI: 1 (Winter), pp. 18-21 . 

Stutz, Bruce. 1993. Butterfly Flyby (Reports). 

Audubon Magazine, Vol. 95:1 (JanuaryFebruary), p. 16 . 

Urquhart, Fred A. 1987. The Monarch Butterfly: 

International Traveler . Chicago: Nelson-Hall 

Publishing Company. 232 pp. 

Walton, Richard. 1993 . Tracking North American 

Monarchs. Part 1. The East . American 

Butterflies, Vol. 1 :3 (August), pp. 11-16. 

Dr. Gary Noel Ross is a native Louisianan with B.S ., 

M.S ., and Ph.D. degrees in entomology from 

Louisiana State University . After a 24-year professional career in the Department of Biological 

Sciences at Southern University in Baton Rouge, he 

retired in 1992 to devote full time to researching and 

photographing butterflies. Dr. Ross currently is President of the Baton Rouge Audubon Society and holds 

seats on the Advisory Commission on Pesticides 

(LDAF), Baton Rouge Earth Day Committee, 

Independence Park Botanic Council, and City ParkUniversity Lakes Commission. As of October 1994, 

he is the Consultant for Educational Programming for 

the Butterflies in Flight Exhibit opening at the 

Audubon Park Zoo (New Orleans) in March 1995. 
58 

THE LOUISIANA PROGRAM: 

PROGRAMMATIC OVERVIEW 

Mr. Rik Kasprzak 

Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries 

Rigs to Reefs Program 

In 1986, Louisiana, concerned over the removal of 

offshore oil and gas structures (Reggio et al. 1986), 

proposed legislation to develop a comprehensive 

artificial reef program for the state. The Artificial 

Reef Program is responsible for siting, maintaining, 

and enhancing artificial reefs in both state and federal 

waters off the Louisiana coast, using, but not limited 

to, retired oil and gas structures . 

The Louisiana Artificial Reef Initiative (LARD 

drafted legislation modeled after the National Fishing 

Enhancement Act (NFEA). The NFEA provided 

encouragement and guidelines to states for creating 

well-developed, well-organized artificial reef 

programs . The LARI was created in 1985 and was 

composed of university, state and federal officials, 

members of recreational and commercial fishing 

interests, and representatives of Louisiana's oil and 

gas industry . The Louisiana Fishing Enhancement 

Act (Act 100), was signed into law in June 1986 and 

provided the authority to develop a comprehensive 

artificial reef program in Louisiana. 

Act 100 established Louisiana's Artificial Reef 

Development Program and named and outlined the 

duties of the three participating agencies . The act 

created the Louisiana Artificial Reef Development 

Council composed of the Secretary of the Department 

of Wildlife and Fisheries, the Executive Director of 

the Center for Coastal Energy and Environmental 

Resources and the Director of the Louisiana Sea 

Grant College Program. The Council is responsible 

for overseeing development and implementation of 

the program. The program is administered by the 

Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and 

conducted jointly with scientists from the Center for 

Coastal Energy and Environmental Resources at 

Louisiana State University . 

The Act established the State of Louisiana as the 

permittee for artificial reefs developed under the 

program's jurisdiction and appointed the Department 

of Wildlife and Fisheries as agent for the state. The 

state assumes responsibility for the reefs upon 

placement within the established reef permitted area . 

The State, donors, and other participants constructing 

a reef under NFEA and Act 100 are absolved from 

liability, provided the terms and conditions of the 

authorizing federal artificial reef permits are met. 

Act 100 mandated that a plan be drafted to establish 

the rationale and operational guidelines for the 

program, including the siting criteria for Louisiana's 

artificial reefs. The plan (Wilson et al. 1987) was 

accepted and endorsed by the 1987 Louisiana 

Legislature. With the plan in place for guidance, 

Louisiana began the lengthy process of identifying 

areas inappropriate for reef development. This 

process, known as exclusion mapping, excluded areas 

such as shipping lanes, traditional commercial fishing 

areas, pipeline corridors, restricted military zones, 

existing live bottoms, and other areas deemed 

unsuitable due to depth, bottom type, hydrological 

conditions, and preference by other user groups 

(Christian 1984; D'Itri 1985; Myatt 1985). 

Following exclusion of areas where reefs should not 

be developed, a series of public hearings were held 

across south Louisiana to outline the program and, 

with public input, to select areas where reefs should 

be located. As a result of those hearings, eight 

artificial reef planning areas were chosen where 

specific artificial reef projects could be sited in Phase 

I of the program. These planning areas facilitate 

platform abandonment planning by oil and gas 

companies and provide flexibility in specific site 

selection within the planning areas, thereby 

encouraging industry cooperation . At the suggestion 

of local fishermen, a ninth planning area (Ship Shoal) 

was added seaward of the cities of Houma and 

Morgan City . Phase Two of the Program takes 

advantage of low profile materials such as shell and 

concrete rubble to allow reef development in 

Louisiana's shallow inshore and nearshore waters. 

Louisiana Act 100 did not authorize the use of State 

general funds for the program but established the 

Louisiana Artificial Reef Trust Fund. Oil and gas 

companies that contribute structures to the program 

donate half the disposal savings realized through 

program participation for deposit into the Louisiana 

Artificial Reef Trust Fund. Based on average removal 

cost (NRCMB 1985) and the location of the state's 

artificial reef planning areas, Louisiana estimated 
59 

that, depending on water depth, the oil and gas 

industry can save up to $1 million per structure 

(compared to the cost of traditional onshore 

abandonment) by converting it into an artificial reef. 

The interest generated by the Artificial Reef Trust 

Fund is designated for program operation, including 

buoy deployment and maintenance, monitoring, 

research, and development. 

Myatt, D. 1985. Artificial reef site selection to 

maximize recreational fishing benefits in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Pages 314-321 in V.C . Reggio, 

Jr ., and W. DuBose IV (eds .) . Proceedings, 5th 

annual Gulf of Mexico information transfer 

meeting. U.S . Department of the Interior, 

Minerals Mgmt. Service, OCS Study/MMS 

85-0008, New Orleans, La. 

Since the program's inception in 1987, the program 

has created 19 offshore reefs utilizing 48 obsolete oil 

and gas platforms donated by 17 participating 

companies. Other offshore oil and gas operators have 

also expressed an interest in the program, and 

negotiations are in progress . Negotiations to obtain 

platforms and to determine the amount of donation 

are done on a case-by-case basis between the oil and 

gas operator and the State. The size, location, 

distance from shore, water depth, resale value, and 

proximity of the platform to the permitted reef site all 

affect the cost of converting a rig into a reef; thus, it 

is not always cost-effective for operators to 

participate (Pope 1988). 

In addition to the offshore reefs, three inshore reefs 

have been constructed of oyster and clam shell 

provided to the Department as mitigation for shell 

dredging activities . This low-profile material is ideal 

for inshore reef development in that it can be shaped 

in such a manner to minimize the reef's impacts on 

navigation and the inshore shrimp trawl fishery. 

Federal and state governments, the oil and gas 

industry, as well as commercial and recreational 

fishermen, have been beneficiaries of Louisiana's 

artificial reef program. However, it will take the 

continued cooperation of the various state and federal 

agencies involved and the support of the Gulf user 

groups to ensure that Louisiana's program will enjoy 

continued success. 

REFERENCES 

Christian, R. T. 1984. Transportation costs of 

artificial reef materials. Artificial Reef 

Development Center, Technical Report 4. 

Washington, D.C. : Sport Fishing Institute. 

NRCMB (National Research Council Marine Board). 

1985 . Disposal of offshore platforms . 

Washington, D.C . : National Academy Press. 

Pope, D.L . 1988. The Louisiana artificial reef 

program. Louisiana Coastlines (October):1-2 . 

Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, 

Baton Rouge, La. 

Reggio, V.C ., Jr ., V. Van Sickle, and C. Wilson. 

1986. Rigs-to-reefs. Louisiana 

Conservationist (January-February):4-7 . 

Wilson, C.A ., V.R . Van Sickle, and D.L . Pope. 1987 . 

Louisiana artificial reef plan . Louisiana 

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Technical 

Bulletin 41, Baton Rouge, La. 

Mr. Rik Kasprzak received a B.S . degree in zoology 

from Loyola College, Baltimore, Maryland . Since 

1987 he has been coordinator of Louisiana's 

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Prior to that he 

was employed as a district supervisor in the Marine 

Finfish section. His research interests include 

artificial reef development and their impact on 

community structure of fishes, resource management 

as well as fisheries ecology and population dynamics . 

D'Itri, F.M., (ed.) . 1985 . Artificial reefs: marine and 

freshwater applications . Servis, Chelsea, Mich. 
SESSION 1 C 

CHEMOSYNTHETIC COMMUNITIES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO 
63 

Session: 1C - CHEMOSYNTHETIC COMMUNITIES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO 

Co-Chairs : Dr. Robert M. Avent and Dr. James M. Brooks 

Date: November 15, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

The Chemosynthetic Ecosystems Study 

An Overview 

Chemosynthetic Ecosystems Study : Geological 

and Geophysical Characterization 

Paleontology of Seep Bivalve Communities 

Dr. Ian MacDonald 

Geochemical and Environmental Research 

Group 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. W. Sager 

Dr. C. S. Lee 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. William W. Schroeder 

Marine Science Program 

University of Alabama 

Mr. K. A. Warren 

Dr. E. N. Powell 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 
65 

THE CHEMOSYNTHETIC 

ECOSYSTEMS STUDY : AN 

OVERVIEW 

Dr. Ian R. MacDonald 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

INTRODUCTION 

In general, the study results show that the seep 

communities are a unique and important component 

of the slope ecosystem of both the regional and 

national EEZ. Although susceptible to damage 

through carelessness, this ecosystem can be protected 

through application of good scientific knowledge and 

appropriate management oversight. This presentation 

will discuss the regional and local patterns of 

occurrence evident in oil seeps and the biological 

communities associated with seeps. 

Planning for this study was initiated by MMS shortly 

after the 1984 discovery of chemosynthetic fauna at 

natural hydrocarbons seeps on the continental slope 

in the Gulf of Mexico. From a management point of 

view, the study was called for because of the 

agency's concern that energy exploration and 

production could harm an important component of 

the slope ecosystem. The Geochemical and 

Environmental Research Group (GERG) of Texas 

A&M University, was awarded the contract in July, 

1991 . GERG brought to the study a mature program 

of research that included investigators from several 

research universities in the Gulf region and 

elsewhere. As a result, the team was able to proceed 

immediately to the fieldwork stage of the program 

and to build upon a existing data base acquired 

through several previous years of field sampling and 

analysis . 

The study is tasked with determining the abiotic 

factors that determine whether communities of 

chemosynthetic fauna become established and persist 

at hydrocarbon seeps and with estimating the relative 

importance of the communities to the slope 

ecosystem. To address the question of possible harm 

due to human activity, the study has examined the 

growth rates of the major faunal groups, the record of 

the community accessible to analysis by 

paleolotologists, and the incidence and causes of 

short-term change . Because the communities occur at 

depths of 500 m or greater, and because they tend to 

be small in area, the investigations have relied 

heavily upon research submarines for sample 

collection and exploration. Initially, five sites located 

in water depths of 500 to 720 m were selected for 

study on the basis of their faunal composition and 

geographic location . MMS contracted for 18 dive 

days with the submarine Johnson Sea-Link and her 

surface support ship . 

REGIONAL OCCURRENCE 

Regionally, a map of the known seep communities 

indicates a broad belt of occurrence across the upper 

to mid-continental slope. The landward limits of seep 

communities appear to be real and increasingly to 

restrict occurrence of seep fauna in water depths less 

than about 500 m-although physiological and 

ecological causes of this restriction are very poorly 

understood. The seaward and east-west extents of this 

distribution are artificially constrained by the limits 

of exploration. Collection of oil-laden surface 

sediments by piston coring also indicates the general 

prevalence of seepage on the slope. One deep water 

(2200 m) seep has been explored in Alaminos 

Canyon and the thriving chemosynthetic community 

found in that site (Brooks et al. 1990) support the 

idea that lower slope seeps are colonized. To the east, 

the Mississippi Fan and Canyon region does appear 

to limit seepage-this is confirmed by general lack of 

surface slicks and reduction in sediment hydrocarbon 

levels . There are seep communities off Mobile Bay 

in Viosca Knoll region . The steep Florida 

Escarpment (and coincident lack of hydrocarbon 

reservoirs) also limits the eastward occurrence of 

seep communities at slope depths ; however, the first 

documented finding of tube worms and mytilids was 

at the base of the Florida Escarpment, at a depth of 

3600 m (Paull et al. 1984). The Escarpment 

communities have been linked not to thermogenic 

hydrocarbons, but to connate fluid seepage from the 

highly porous Florida Platform . Noting the oil 

reserves of the Mexican slope, and the similarities 

between the Yucatan and Florida Escarpments, it is 

clear that seep communities have a known 

distribution that indicates their presence across the 

full extent of the continental slope in the U.S . Gulf of 

Mexico and a potential distribution that is 

circumambient of the entire Gulf. 
66 

To test this theory, locations of probable oil slicks 

were compiled from a number of sources: a 

photograph taken from the Space Shuttle, a Landsat 

Thematic Maper (TM) scene, and in three European 

Radar Satellite (ERS-1) scenes, as well as collections 

of floating oil and observation of sea-floor seeps 

from submarines. These locations were ranked 

according to recurrence of evidence for natural oil 

seepage among the various data sets . As a result, it 

was possible to verify 43 biological communities that 

depend on hydrocarbon seeps and 63 locations where 

remote sensing data indicate there are sea-floor 

sources capable of producing perennial oil slicks . 

Remote detection of natural seepage confirms that the 

range of chemosynthetic communities dependent on 

hydrocarbon seepage in the northern Gulf of Mexico 

extends over the full depth range of the continental 

slope. 

This broad regional distribution, however, belies the 

local occurrence of chemosynthetic communities. 

Because the fauna depend upon geological processes, 

they are freed from the restrictions that increasing 

water depth imposes upon the photosynthetic food 

chain; thus they often form very dense aggregations 

in the otherwise food-poor deep sea. However, 

because their food supply is so specific, seep 

communities are sharply limited by the spatial and 

temporal conditions of seepage; thus seep 

communities tend to be dense, but small in area. 

FINE-SCALE PATTERNS 

Clear distribution patterns emerge at spatial scales of 

< 10 m. Spatially, seep mussels are the most 

restricted and typically occur as 1- to 5-m wide ovoid 

or linear patches, often on slope terraces or mound 

crests . Tube worms form in bush-like clusters that 

colonize surface sediments along fault zones. The 

widths of these colonies are typically 10 to 100 m, 

while the lengths often extend the entire active length 

of the faults . Vesicomyids and lucinids are spatially 

the least restricted . There is much difficulty in 

distinguishing living vesicomyids from 

accumulations of dead shells, and the infaunal 

lucinids are collected by coring. Generally, however, 

the bivalve beds occupy large flat regions up to 1,000 

m in width. These distribution patterns are the result 

of the adaptations that each faunal group has made to 

colonize and exploit seepage and will be briefly 

outlined in the following. 

Seep Mytilids 

Methane availability limits the habitat suitable to 

seep mussels. Gaseous hydrocarbon, migrating from 

depth, is relatively less restricted by sediment pore 

structure than is liquid oil (Verweij 1993). Bubbling 

gas vents are therefore relatively more localized than 

the oily sediment in seep zones. Secondary processes 

such as hydrate formation and dissociation, carbonate 

precipitation, and indeed the tightly bound mat of 

mussels, will channelize and retard gas seepage; 

overall though, the cross-section is relatively small. 

A somewhat less restrictive case occurs where 

mussels are able to exploit methane dissolved in 

seeping brine. Here, the greater density of brine tends 

to maintain it as a distinct fluid in pools of flow 

channels on the seafloor . The major restriction here 

is substrate stability, because the anoxic brine 

becomes toxic to mussels unable to extend their 

siphons into the overlying sea water. In both cases, 

gas vents and brine seeps, the habitable gradient is 

steep and the actual habitat areas is restricted . At 

brine seeps, mussels dominate, with occasional 

solitary tube worms able to exploit sediment anoxia. 

At gas vents in oil seeps, the mussels usually occur 

surrounded by more extensive tube worm bushes. 

Tube Worms 

Tube worms have two requirements that, in 

combination, limit their habitat. Their symbionts 

utilize HZS, which is probably derived from sulfate 

reduction in a sediment column made anoxic by the 

bacterial degradation of the massive carbon input 

provided by oil seepage . No measurable 

concentrations of HZS have been detected at the offbottom heights where the tube worms' gas exchange 

plumes are commonly found (MacDonald et al . 

1989). The implication is that HZS is supplied by 

diffusion across the tube wall in that portion of the 

tube that is usually buried in the anoxic sediments. 

The tube worms themselves require a hard 

attachment substrate for larval sediment-although 

this requirement may be relaxed somewhat where 

larvae can settle on adults . The combination of these 

two requirements is met along the active portions of 

faults where carbonates are exposed and sufficient 

sedimentation or mud expulsion has occurred to 

provide a sediment drape. Tube worms do occur in 

lithified crevices, but the extent of such colonies is 
67 

sharply limited and the development of the individual 

worms is generally stunted. 

Bivalves (Vesicomyidae and Lucinacea) 

Seep clams also exploit sediment anoxia: the 

vesicomyids by extending their vascularized foot 

below the surface oxidized layer while their siphon 

takes in oxygenated sea water; the lucinids by 

constructing a Y-shaped burrow within which they 

can control oxygen levels through siphon pumping or 

shifting their position (Reid and Brand 1986; Cary et 

al. 1989). Lucinids have a very wide distribution in 

the Gulf of Mexico, including shallow estaurine areas 

where sediment anoxia is clearly not related to oil 

seepage. Of the two groups therefore, the spatial 

extent of lucinids around seeps should be the greater. 

There is difficulty in confirming this, however, 

because the animal's infaunal habits tend to hide 

them from view. Vesicomyids require the shallow 

anoxia typical of a mud flow flats and have been 

confirmed to colonize areas >1 km wide. All three 

groups, mussels, tube worms, and vesicomyids, have 

been sighted together under the exceptional 

circumstances where all of the conditions of brine 

seepage, sediment anoxia, and attachment substrate 

co-occur. 

variation in water temperature can destabilize nearsurface hydrates and greatly increase local seepage. 

(MacDonald et al. 1993). Finally, rechannelization of 

fluid-flow may choke off fluid flow in a highly 

localized area ; evidence for this can be seen in the 

defunct mussel beds that are commonly found in the 

vicinity of living beds. In general, however, the 

incidence of short-term change seems to be low 

enough that likelihood of detecting it in the short 

term is reduced. 

REFERENCES 

Brooks, J. M., D. A. Wiesenburg, et al. 1990. Salt, 

seeps and symbiosis in the Gulf of Mexico. EOS 

71 : 1772-1773 . 

Cary, S. C., R. D. Vetter and H. Felbeck. 1989. 

Habitat characterization and nutritional strategies 

of the endosymbiont-bearing bivalve, Lucinoma 

aequizonata. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 55: 31 - 45 . 

Hessler, R. R., W. M. Smithey, M. A. Boudrais, C. 

H. Keller, R. A. Lutz and J. J. Childress. 1988. 

Temporal change in megafauna at the Rose 

Garden hydrothermal vent . Deep-Sea Research 

35 : 1681-1709. 

TEMPORAL STABILITY 

Life-spans of the Gulf chemosynthetic fauna, where 

they can be determined by growth experiments, are 

long-on the order of tens to possibly hundreds of 

years. Short-term change in their communities should 

therefore result from variation in fluid flow or other 

seep-related processes. Successful settlement events 

should be relatively rare and the effects of predation 

relatively limited. Comparison of seep communities 

photographed at intervals of up to three years reveals 

little direct evidence for change in either community 

composition or density. This is in marked contrast 

with the chemosynthetic communities at the 

Galapagos hydrothermal vent, where entire 

aggregations of tube worms were replaced with 

mussels over a period of less than five years (Hessler 

et al . 1988). Indirect evidence, on the other hand, 

points to change and various rates. Most rapid change 

will undoubtedly result from catastrophic events such 

as blow-outs. Upended carbonate slabs and sharp 

sided pockmarks are clear indicators that such 

blowouts do occur. Over a circa-annual time scale, 

MacDonald, I. R., G. S. Boland, J. S. Baker, J. M. 

Brooks, M. C. Kennicutt II and R. R. Bidigare . 

1989 . Gulf of Mexico chemosynthetic 

communities II : spatial distribution of seep 

organisms and hydrocarbons at Bush Hill . 

Marine Biology 101 : 235-247. 

MacDonald, I. R., N. L. Guinasso Jr, J. M. Brooks, 

R. Sassen and K. T. Scott. 1993 . Formation and 

possible dissociation of gas-hydrate outcrops on 

the seafloor (abstract) . 1993 Fall Meeting 

American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, 

Calif., EOS suppl. 

NOAA. 1992 . Atlas of NOAA's multibeam sounding 

data in the Gulf of Mexico Exclusive Economic 

Zone. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Ocean Survey . Vol. 1 . 

Map A54. 

Paull, C. K., B. Hecker, et al. 1984. Biological 

communities at the Florida Escarpment resemble 

hydrothermal vent taxa . Science, 965-967 . 
68 

Reid, R. G. B. and D. G. Brand. 1986. Sulfideoxidizing symbiosis in Lucinaceans: implications 

for bivalve evolution. Veliger 29:3-24. 29: 3-24. 

Verweij, J. M. 1993 . Hydrocarbon migration system 

analysis . New York, Elsevier . 

Dr. Ian R. MacDonald has been working with 

questions concerning marine ecology in the Gulf of 

Mexico for the past 10 years. He has been involved 

in the study of chemosynthetic communities at oil 

seeps since the first discoveries in 1985 and has 

published numerous peer-reviewed papers on related 

topics . 

CHEMOSYNTHETIC ECOSYSTEMS 

STUDY: GEOLOGICAL AND 

GEOPHYSICAL 

CHARACTERIZATION 

Dr. William W. Sager 

Dr. C. S. Lee 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. William W. Schroeder 

Marine Science Program 

University of Alabama 

INTRODUCTION 

Hydrocarbon seeps are caused by geologic factors; in 

the Gulf of Mexico, deeply buried mobile salt causes 

fracturing of the sediment pile (Worrall and Snelson 

1989) and the consequent release of mature 

hydrocarbons along fault planes . What is more, the 

seeps themselves modify the local geology of the 

seafloor (Roberts et al . 1990) and provide substrate 

and sustenance to chemosynthetic organisms 

(Kennicutt et al. 1988; MacDonald et al . 1990). 

Seeps have been studied in two main fashions : by 

submersible observations close to the seafloor and by 

geophysical remote sensing from the sea surface. 

Thus, one of the main gaps in such studies is the 

missing link from the broad scale of geophysical 

sounding to the ultra small scale of the submersible 

viewport. In this report we describe the use of a 

hybrid technique, geophysical data collected from a 

submarine, as the basis of a study of the geological 

and geophysical characteristics of hydrocarbon seeps 

in the Gulf of Mexico. These geophysical data 

provide a synoptic view on the scale of hundreds of 

meters, but with a resolution of less than a meter and 

this allows us to compare viewport-scale 

observations with broad scale seismic data. 

Furthermore, we have used ground truth data, 

collected by submersible, to better understand the 

geophysical picture. 

OBJECTIVES 

The objective of this study was to use maps of 

geophysical (mainly acoustic) characteristics of the 

seafloor and shallow subbottom at hydrocarbon seep 

sites to provide a framework for assessing the effects 

of the seeps on the seafloor and the relationship to 

chemosynthetic communities. Using the principles of 

seismic stratigraphy, we wished to classify and map 

the extent of sediments affected by seepage. Our goal 

was to ground truth these classifications with 

geologic data (cores and submersible observations) 

and to correlate these characteristics with other 

geophysical and geologic data. A major objective of 

this task was to compare the geophysical framework 

with locations of chemosynthetic communities, 

surface features, and subsurface structures, such as 

faults . In addition, we wished to use the 

observational framework developed in this study for 

implications about the geologic formation and 

evolution of hydrocarbon seeps. 

METHODS 

We studied four well-known seep sites located on the 

Louisiana continental slope in the Green Canyon and 

Garden Banks lease blocks areas (Figure 1C .1). 

These sites are located in or near lease blocks 

GC 184, GC 234, GB 386, GB 425 at depths from 

535 to 600 m. GC 234 is located along a portion of 

a tensional fault between salt diapir ridges (Behrens 

1988). The other sites are all mounds located either 

on the flank of a salt diapir (GC 386, GB 425) or on 

a fault radiating from a salt diapir (GC 184) . 

The primary data for this study were 25 kHz echo 

sounder profiles, 77 kHz side-scan sonar images, and 

bathymetry data acquired with the U.S . Navy 

research submarine NR-I . The bathymetry yielded 
69 

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panels show multibeam echosounder bathymetry in vicinity of study areas. Boxes show areas 

of detailed study. Contours labeled in meters . 
70 

the morphology of the seep sites, and the side-scan 

sonar gave a high-resolution acoustic images of 

surface features, whereas the echo-sounder probed 

the shallow subbottom sediments. The geophysical 

instruments were mounted on the lower hull of the 

submarine, which was sailed at an a more-or-less 

constant altitude of several meters above the seafloor, 

typically at a velocity of one to two knots . Most 

surveys consisted of lines spaced approximately 30 to 

100 m apart, giving more than 100% overlap of the 

side scan images from adjacent tracks . With the 

geophysical data, we constructed and compared 

bathymetric charts, sonar backscatter images, and 

maps of acoustic reflection character. 

Geologic ground truth data were provided by analysis 

of 0.5-m push cores, visual observations, and video 

photography obtained with the submersible Johnson 

Sea-Link as well as 3-m piston cores acquired aboard 

the R/V Gyre. Sea surface geophysical data were 

available for all four sites, but these data were 

diverse in type and parameters because most were 

borrowed from industry sources. 

RESULTS 

Acoustic Echo Types 

Echo sounder records were divided into six 

characteristic types (Figure I C.2), based on the 

amount and type of apparent alteration of the 

sediment layers . These types are as follows: 

Type 1 : Characterized by a strong reflector at the 

seafloor and no apparent acoustic penetration into the 

subbottom. The strong reflector is probably carbonate 

or gas hydrate at or near the seafloor and has a high 

reflection coefficient, so that most of the acoustic 

energy is reflected or attenuated near surface. Cores 

within these zones were typically short and contained 

carbonate rocks, usually within the upper 20 cm, as 

seen for example in core GB386-A from the seep 

mound in GB 386 (Figure 1C3). Side-scan mosaics 

often showed rough topography in these regions and 

when viewed by submersible, carbonate outcrops 

were often observed. 

Type 2: Shallow penetration with an abrupt 

termination of acoustic penetration. This signature 

probably represents a thin layer of mud overlying a 

hardbottom, such as carbonate or hydrate. It may 

show areas in which recent mud flows have covered 

a pre-existing hard substrate. Such zones usually 

appeared no different from surrounding sediments 

when seen in side-scan images or from a 

submersible, because of the covering of sediment. 

Cores taken in these areas, however, showed similar 

features to Type 1 area cores, but the hard layers 

were buried below the surface. Push cores from a 

Type 2 area on the seep mound in GC 184 typically 

contained mud with disseminated carbonate, but one 

had nodular carbonate at its bottom . About half of 

these push cores showed traces of oil. Core G13425-

A, from a similar zone on the flat-topped mud mound 

in GB 425, retrieved muds of two different colors, 

separated by an expansion void above which were 

small vesicles and a band of dark mud (Figure 1 C.4). 

This core seems to show the boundary between two 

layers, presumably that seen in the echo sounder 

records. Moreover, the gas expansion feature 

suggests the buried strong reflector may have been a 

gas hydrate layer. 

Type 3. Scattered subbottom echoes without 

continuous horizontal internal reflectors . Such a 

pattern probably shows non-layered sediments altered 

by oil, gas, disseminated carbonate precipitates, or 

hydrates . 

Type 4. Scattered subbottom echoes with indistinct, 

horizontally continuous reflectors . This signature 

probably represents layered sediments disturbed by 

gas, oil, or carbonate precipitates . Types 3 and 4 are 

similar, except for the existence of internal reflectors, 

which are likely related to the original deposition of 

the sediments. Core GB425-D was recovered from a 

Type 2 zone and it yielded mud permeated with 

carbonate nodules, oil stains, and shell fragments. All 

three components are potential scatterers of acoustic 

waves (particularly if the oil is accompanied by gas) 

and may therefore be the source of the apparent 

alteration of the sediments noted in reflection 

profiles . 

Type 5 . Zones in which acoustic energy is abruptly 

attenuated ; typically laterally continuous features 

disappear within these zones. Although we had no 

core samples of Type 5 acoustic wipeout zones, 

because they occurred rarely in our study areas, this 

type of acoustic behavior is widely recognized as the 

signature of gassy sediments (Behrens 1988; Hovland 

and Judd 1988; Anderson and Bryant 1990). 
71 

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. : 

TYPE I ; xh 

TYPE II . . 

**""'*"""'*""~ ." . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . ............... ... . " , , 

. 

.. .. .. .......,. : . . 

YPE III 

.~ . . ., .,. 

' . . . . {

: . v.'v: ;i . 

~.. .L~. c~. . . _. . . 

..:....~ ::::::. . :r . : : : : : 

TYPE IV 

i 

ft s~s ~ .i 

.~ -: : 

. . 

. 

. . . .: ~ . . . . . . . . . :. . x:~ . , x 

YPE V 

zX : : . . . . . . . 

. .. . . . 

.~( .~:^ ;:~: :~ :~ :~~> 

a . S . x: ` . . . . , 

. , . 

v. 

. 

. TYPE VI ~.. .o . ,~. . .. . ' ' . ~ . . . . ~Y. 

x~ f ~ 

1~ ) 

:.; . . 

f~ : 

Figure 1C.2 . Examples of echo types observed in 25 kHz subbottom-reelection profiles Nom the study sites. 

Distance between horizontal lines is 5 feet in seawater . 
72 

%Carbonate 

GB386-A 0 s 10 1s 20 2s 30 3s 

Porosity 

0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 

carbonate rock 

(diameter 4-10 cm) 

light gray-colored mud 

sharp color change 

I 

50 ---- ------- ------ ------ ~-------------- ------- --- ------- ---- 

1 

i 

II 

1 

gray or reddish brown 

-colored sin t 

n 

ar 

D 

i 

k 

150 - ----------- . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .': . . . . . . . . . . . 

i 

r 

e Porosity 

" - %Carbonate 

200 ---.----~-- -- 

I 

Figure 1C3. Description of Core GB386-A: from a Type 1 echo type (hard substrate) zone. At right are 

trends in carbonate percentage and porosity . 
73 

%Carbonate 

GB425-A o 5 1o 15 2o 25 3o 35 

Porosity 

0.4 5 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 

0 

light gray-colored mud 

vesicles 

(diameter <1mm-6mm) 

sharp color change 50 ---- ----- -- . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . ---------- - --- . . . . . ----- .---~- -----------~- -------- 

dark-colored mud 

empty space 

(gas expansion) 

--100 E -- ------- . . . . . . . . ---' ------------- ~-------------- ---- ---------- ~ ~----- . .. . .. . . . 

u 

L 

d 

N 

D 

gray gray - colored ~n 

150 --- ---------

. . . . . . . ------ ----------- . . . . . .. .. . . . . . - - -- ---------- -------------- . . . . . 

-e- Poros' 

-"- %Carbonate 

200 

Figure 1C.4 . Description of Core GB425-A: from a Type 2 echo type (buried hard substrate) zone, showing 

evidence of buried hard substrate. At right are trends in carbonate percentage and porosity . 
74 

Type 6. Parallel, continuous subbottom reflectors . 

These characteristics denote normal, undisturbed 

hemipelagic sediments. Several cores obtained from 

Type 6 zones in the GB 386 and GC 234 study areas 

contained hemipelagic muds with little evidence of 

alteration by hydrocarbon seeps and were similarly 

lacking in shell fragments and authigenic carbonates . 

Distribution of Echo Types 

Within the seep areas we studied, the echo types 

appear in two different patterns . The seeps that are 

characterized by mounds, such as GC 184, GB 386, 

and GB 425, and GC 184, are characterized by either 

Type 1 (hard substrate) or Type 2 (buried hard 

substrate) over the mound itself (Figures 1C.5, 1C .6, 

1C.7). These two reflection types show hard 

substrates at or near the surface, owing to active or 

recently active precipitation of carbonate or hydrate. 

The Type 2 signatures may indicate recent mud flows 

that have buried a previous hard substrate, as 

interpreted from submersible observations at GB 425 . 

That hard substrate is often at or near the present-day 

seafloor, suggests that with time, the covering of 

sediments is probably incorporated into the hard 

substrate, so that the hard reflector moves upward 

through the sediment column or that erosion may 

uncover the substrate. Given the uniformity of the 

burial or exposure of most hard substrate reflections, 

it seems that the upward movement is probably the 

most likely occurrence . On the other hand, the 

pattern of Type 1 and Type 2 occurrence is slightly 

different at each site . GB 386 has Type 1 over the 

mound summit and Type 2 around its edges 

(Figure iC.6), whereas the distribution on the GB 

425 mound is almost opposite (Figure 1C.7). GC 184 

appears different from the other two because the 

areas of Type 1 echoes are patchy and scattered 

(Figure 1C.5). These differences probably reflect a 

variability in the occurrence of carbonate or hydrate, 

which in turn may signify variability in the structure 

of the mounds and hence the geometry of 

hydrocarbon seepage. 

Around the mounds, the echo types are variable, 

apparently dependent on the areal extent of the 

seepage zone. GB 386 seems to be an isolated seep 

mound, as it is surrounded by undisturbed Type 6 

sediments (Figure 1C.6). Both GB 425 and GC 184 

are evidently part of extensive zones of seep 

alteration that are larger than the survey areas. In GB 

425, Type 1 and Type 4 sediments surround the 

mound (Figure I C.7), whereas in GC 184, Type 3 

sediments surround the mound (Figure 1C.5). In both 

cases, sea surface geophysical survey data indicate 

that the study areas are only small parts of larger 

zones of seepage. 

GC 234, which has no large mound structure, has 

echo type patterns that are clearly different from the 

other sites (Figure 1C .8). Here, the distribution is 

complex, but mainly consists of small patches of 

Type 1 (hard substrate), Type 3 (disturbed 

sediments), and Type 5 (acoustic wipeout) within an 

area of Type 6 (undisturbed) sediments. The 

occurrence of Type 1 and Type 5 reflections, 

scattered in patches throughout the survey area, 

seems to indicate that carbonate or hydrate formation 

and gas seepage are widespread along the fault scarp 

and not as localized as at the mound sites. 

Backscatter Mosaics 

Acoustic backscatter patterns in the side-scan sonar 

records seem to show mainly the effects of small 

scale topography; this topography is extremely 

variable in its appearance at the sites we studied. In 

some instances, the topography is apparently related 

to mound structure or formation because the 

topographic features follow the bathymetric contours, 

such as curved ridges at the edges of the mounds in 

GB 386 and G13 425. 

In some locations, the topography appears to be rock 

outcrop. In the images, such features appear as small 

scale roughness or clusters of mounds (Figure 1 C.9). 

The roughness, blockiness, and clear acoustic 

shadows cast by these features suggests they are 

outcrops . Probably these outcrops consist mainly of 

authigenic carbonate; however, in some such areas, 

rock outcrops are not apparent and the small scale 

roughness may be in part caused by clusters of tube 

worms (e .g ., at GC 234) or even by hydrate mounds 

(MacDonald et al. 1990). Our study indicates that 

these outcrop zones are often correlated with Type 1 

hard substrate reflection patterns . Furthermore, at GC 

234, at least, many of the "outcrops" are more or less 

linear and seem to be correlated with faults mapped 

in multichannel seismic data (Figure I C.10) . Thus, 

the "outcrops" may represent the effects of seepage 

along the fault traces at the seafloor . 
Figure 1C.5 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the vicinity of the seep-related mound m the GC 184 

study area . Echo types are shown in Figure 1C.2 . Observed chemosynthetic organism locations are shown by open and filled circles. 

Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. 
--1 

Figure IC.6 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, in the vicinity of the seep-related mound m the cit3 386 

study area . Echo types are shown in Figure 1C.2. Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. Core locations denoted by letters; capitals 

signify piston cores, whereas lower case represent push cores. 

27°3TN ~-- 27°3TN -t- 
77 

- -- 

V- : Active Vent Locations 

Figure 1C.7 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reelection profiles, in the vicinity of 

the seep-related mound in the GB 425 study area. Echo types are shown in Figure IC.2 . 

Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. Core locations denoted by letters. 

0 200m I A: Piston Core Location 
0 200m 

-1 00 

Figure 1C.8 . Distribution of echo types, defined from 25 kHz subbottom-reflection profiles, m the vicinity or the seep-related mounu m the cic; 234 

study area . Echo types are shown in Figure 1C.2 . Observed chemosynthetic organism locations are shown by filled circles; gas seep 

locations shown by stars. Bathymetry contours shown at 5-m intervals. 
Figure 1C.9 . Side-scan sonar mosaic of the GC 234 detailed study area. Dark areas show strong acoustic bacKSCatter, wnereas iignt areas snow weak 

backscatter or acoustic shadow. Bathymetry contours, at 5-m intervals, are overlaid . 10 
00 0 

Figure 1C.10. Comparison of the GC 234 side-scan sonar mosaic and fault traces (heavy lines) mapped with mufti-cnannei seismic aaia fir . x. xeiuy, 

personal communication, 1994). 
81 

Relationship of Geophysical Signatures and Seep 

Organisms 

Within the limitations of our data set, we note a good 

correlation among hard substrate reflections, 

"wipeout" zones, "outcrops" on side-scan sonar 

images, and the locations of chemosynthetic 

organism clusters . Comparison of echo types and 

chemosynthetic organism sitings shows that at GC 

184, 97% of tube worm bush locations and 92% of 

bivalve sitings are within areas classified as having 

Type 1 or Type 2 reflection characteristics 

(Figure 1C.5). At this site, almost all of the seep 

mound shows these two reflection types, so we could 

also say that 96% of all chemosynthetic organisms 

are on the mound. The lack of organisms off the 

mound, even within the small survey area is striking . 

At the site in GC 234, the situation is slightly 

different. No Type 2 reflections were noted, but 

much of the seep zone is characterized by Type 1 or 

Type 3. Here there is a clear clustering of organisms 

near zones characterized by these two reflection types 

(Figure 1C.8). Although 86% of the organisms are 

located on Type 1 or Type 3 reflection zones, only 

46% are located on Type 1 hard substrate reflectors, 

implying that Type 1 areas are not required as 

community sites. 

These observations indicate a clear preference of 

chemosynthetic organisms for sediments showing 

Type 1, Type 2 (both hard substrates), and Type 3 

(shallow disseminated seep products) characteristics. 

This is probably the result of two factors. First, these 

are areas where there has been a significant 

precipitation of authigenic carbonate, which may 

form a solid substrate to which organisms, such as 

tube worms, can attach themselves . Second, such 

areas also have high concentrations of seeping 

hydrocarbons, hence the massive carbonate 

precipitation, so the organisms find at such locations 

the hydrocarbons needed to produce food. 

DISCUSSION 

Hydrocarbon Seep Sediment Alterations 

upward pathway. In order that the hydrocarbons 

reach the sea floor, it is probably necessary that the 

faults are large, or genetically related to one that is 

large, and also active . Only large faults will usually 

penetrate sufficiently deep to tap a mature reservoir 

and also provide sufficient offset to break through 

impermeable formations . Likewise, only active or 

recently active faults will break through to the sea 

floor, and this is necessary to let the hydrocarbons 

escape . In our study areas, which are limited in 

geographic extent, all of the seeps occur either on the 

flanks of salt diapirs or along a fault system formed 

between two diapirs. This implies that the diapirs are 

the locus of most intense deformation and hence the 

most likely locations for seeps to occur. 

When hydrocarbons reach the seafloor, they have 

several geologic effects. The hydrocarbons change 

the characteristics of the sediments, causing 

alterations that can be imaged by acoustical methods. 

They may also entrain sediments, causing the 

formation of seep mounds. 

The effects that perturb acoustic signals can be 

divided into two classes: the results of gas within the 

sediments and the results of materials precipitated 

within the sediments. The gas causes attenuation of 

the acoustic waves and the result is a zone of 

"acoustic wipeout" (signal loss) or "turbidity" 

(reverberation) where subsurface reflections are not 

seen (Hovland and Judd 1988; Anderson and Bryant 

1990). This is the Type 5 reflection character noted 

in our study. The precipitates either cause acoustic 

"turbidity," the scattered, amorphous reflections 

within the sediment column, or a hard substrate that 

reflects most of the acoustic energy. Hard substrates 

may be caused by the precipitation of massive 

carbonate layers and blocks (Roberts et al . 1990) or 

by the formation of gas hydrate layers . We see these 

as the Type 1 and Type 2 reflections within our 

surveys. Carbonates can also be disseminated as 

macro- or micronodules (Behrens 1988; Roberts et 

al. 1990) and thus cause acoustic turbidity by the 

diffraction of acoustic energy throughout the affected 

sediment column. These effects cause Type 3 and 

Type 4 reflection characters in our study areas. 

Tensional faults are one of the primary effects of 

deep salt movement on the sediment column of the 

Gulf of Mexico continental shelf and slope. These 

faults may dissect hydrocarbon reservoirs within the 

sediment column, allowing gas and oil to escape by 

providing both a break in the reservoir seal and an 

The formation of a seep mound implies the 

localization of the seep to nearly a point source. 

Interestingly, the three mounds we studied are all 

located on the flanks of salt diapirs, whereas the one 
82 

site without a significant mound is along a fault 

system between diapirs. This may indicate that seeps 

next to diapirs are more likely to be localized, 

perhaps within a narrow fault, whereas those between 

along wider fault zones are less likely to be 

constrained and localized. 

Our observations suggest that the mounds are formed 

by flows of low viscosity mud, like a "mud volcano," 

rather than by the diapiric rise of a mud body. 

Evidence in favor of this hypothesis is as follows. 

Low viscosity and fluidized sediments are inferred 

from observations of fresh mud flows and the active 

eruption of gas and oil-charged mud from vents on 

the summit of the mound in GB 425. In addition, a 

layer of fresh, buried mussel shells in a core from 

near GC 234 indicate that the shells were quickly 

buried by a mud flow, before the shells could be 

degraded by post-mortem contact with sea water. 

That these mounds are not diapiric is inferred from 

industry multichannel seismic reflection profiles that 

appear to show continuous layers beneath the GB 

386 and GC 184 mounds. This observation implies 

that the sediments were not deformed by diapiric 

action . 

Our observations also suggest that there are at least 

two types of mounds: those with rounded summits 

and those with flat-topped summits. The one 

rounded-summit mound we studied, in GC 184, is 

asymmetric and has Type 1 reflections and 

chemosynthetic organisms occurring mainly on one 

side of the mound (Figure 1 C.5). These asymmetries 

suggest that the source of the hydrocarbons, probably 

the fault beneath the mound, lies under the west side 

of the mound. The flat-topped mounds appear more 

symmetric in cross-section. In addition, observed 

hydrocarbon venting on the GB 425 mound occurs 

only at locations along the edge of the summit 

platform. We suggest that the middle of the summit, 

which shows mostly Type 2 hard substrate 

reflections, is impermeable to hydrocarbon migration, 

perhaps because it is capped by hydrate or carbonate, 

and this causes the hydrocarbons to vent around the 

edges of the summit (Figure 1 C.11) . 

Interestingly, the flat-topped mound in GB 386, 

which has hard substrate at the surface (Figure 1 C.6), 

is not a site of abundant and varied chemosynthetic 

communities, whereas GB 425, which has a thin 

sediment covering atop hard substrate (Figure 1 C.7), 

is inhabited by many different species of 

chemosynthetic organisms. This difference may 

indicate that the GB 425 mound is more active, 

expelling more mud, gas, and oil, and hence this is 

the reason for the greater numbers and variety of 

chemosynthetic organisms. 

Chemosynthetic Organisms and 

Geophysical Signatures : Finding Seep 

Communities by Remote Sensing 

Our study suggests that geophysical techniques can 

be used to narrow the areas of detailed study needed 

to locate and classify chemosynthetic communities. 

Ultimately, there is no geophysical method that will 

allow the reliable identification of such communities 

while profiling from the sea surface. However, by 

using known geophysical signatures and affinities, 

likely locations can be localized for more detailed 

study. 

Seeps are located along faults and faults are usually 

identified in regional seismic exploration profiling 

surveys. Thus, the first step in locating 

chemosynthetic communities is to map the faults 

along which seeps could occur. The likeliest faults to 

harbor seeps are those which are active and thus 

extend to the surface and those which show a 

significant displacement. 

Having found the faults, the next step would be to 

look for seep related topography and sediment 

alteration . Topographic features would be mud 

mounds, carbonate mounds, and pock-marks . The 

mud mounds are typically more than 10 m in height 

and more than several 100 m in diameter and would 

be evident on high-resolution bathymetry maps and 

side-scan sonar images. Carbonate mounds can be 

somewhat smaller, one to a few meters high and 10 

m wide, or less . In addition, pock-marks are variable 

in size, from small shallow craters a few meters 

across to large craters many meters deep and 

hundreds of meters wide. 

Sediment alterations can usually be found using 

acoustic profiling and imaging techniques . On sidescan sonar records, the alteration can appear as an 

increase in backscatter, particularly in conjunction 

with small mounds. In 3.5 Khz and other echo 

sounder profiles, the alteration may show up as an 

attenuation of signal reflections ("wipe out"), as an 

enhancement (hard substrate), or as reverberation 

("turbidity"). These are caused mostly by gas, 
83 

0 0 0 0 0 

o 0000 

o D o o 

° o o , 0 ° ° o 0 0 0 0 o e o 0 0 , 

a - 

0 o a 

0 0 o 8 ° 0 o a o 

V 

0 a 

Figure 1 C.11 . Model for the formation of flat-topped seep-related mud mounds. Faulting associated with salt 

movement (II) creates fluid conduits (III). Fluid sediment slurry, propelled by rising gas and oil, 

vents along the fault zone and spreads radially from vent to build mound (IV) . Authigenic 

carbonate precipitation and gas hydrate emplacement form a relatively impermeable cap at the 

mound top, so that vents are localized to the edges of the summit (VI and VII) . 
84 

carbonate layers or disseminated nodules, or hydrate 

layers . In addition, if the seepage is particularly 

strong and contains much gas, the gas bubbles may 

be detected within the water column by these 

acoustic methods (Anderson and Bryant 1990). 

Having located areas of larger scale topographic 

features or sediment alterations caused by seepage, a 

more detailed examination is necessary. To locate 

chemosynthetic communities, various ultra-high 

resolution imaging methods are needed . Side-scan 

sonar images will show carbonate outcrops, and may 

even show tube worm bushes or bivalve clusters if 

the resolution is high enough and the organisms are 

dense enough. Typically, this will require a deeptowed sonar or sonar affixed to a submersible, so that 

the acoustic source and target are not greatly 

separated . However, many chemosynthetic 

organisms, such as bivalves, may be invisible. 

Underwater photography, such as with a camera sled 

or a laser line-scan device can provide visual sitings, 

as can submersible dives. Although these last are 

slow and painstaking techniques, presumably they 

can be directed, using a nested search technique 

employing increasingly higher resolution methods, so 

that the time consuming visual searches can be 

minimized. 

REFERENCES 

Anderson, A. L., and W. R. Bryant . 1990. Gassy 

sediment occurrence and properties : northern 

Gulf of Mexico . Geo-Mar. Lett ., 19 :209-220. 

Behrens, E. W. 1988. Geology of a continental slope 

oil seep, northern Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bull ., 

72:105-114. 

Hovland, M. and A. G. Judd. 1988 . Seabed 

pockmarks and seepages. London: Graham and 

Trotham. 293 pp. 

Kennicutt II, M. C., J. M. Brooks, R. R. Bidigare, 

and G. J. Denoux, 1988, Gulf of Mexico 

hydrocarbon seep communities-I . Regional 

distribution of hydrocarbon seepage and 

associated fauna. Deep-Sea Res., 35:1639-1651 . 

MacDonald, I . R., N. L. Guinasso, Jr., J. F. Reilly, J. 

M. Brooks, W. R. Callender, and S. G. Gabrielle. 

1990. Gulf of Mexico hydrocarbon seep 

communities: VI. Patterns in community 

structure and habitat. Geo-Mar. Lett ., 10:244-

252. 

Roberts, H. H., P. Aharon, R. Carney, J. Larkin, and 

R. Sassen . 1990. Sea floor response to 

hydrocarbon seeps, Louisiana continental slope. 

Geo-Mar. Lett., 10 :232-243 . 

Worrall, D. M., and S. Snelson. 1989. Evolution of 

the northern Gulf of Mexico, with emphasis on 

Cenozoic growth faulting and the role of salt . 

In Bally, A. W., and A. R. Palmer (eds .) . The 

Geology of North America: an overview . The 

Geology of North America Ser., vol . A, GSA, 

Boulder, CO, pp. 97-138 . 

Dr. William Sager is an Associate Professor in the 

Department of Oceanography at Texas A&M 

University . His research interests include marine 

geology and geophysics, paleomagnetism, 

environmental magnetism, seismic straitigraphy, and 

global tectonics. He received a B.S . in physics at 

Duke University (1976) and M.S . and Ph .D degrees 

(1979 and 1983) in geology and geophysics from the 

University of Hawaii . 

PALEONTOLOGY OF SEEP 

BIVALVE COMMUNITIES 

Mr. K.A. Warren 

Dr. E.N . Powell 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

Chemoautotrophic benthic assemblages have been 

discovered on the continental slope of Louisiana in 

the Gulf of Mexico. These communities are 

associated with petroleum seepage, and resemble 

those assemblages found at hydrothermal vents 

(Kennicutt et al . 1985 and Brooks et al. 1987). 

Callender and Powell (1992) describe the prominent 

features of petroleum seep assemblages as high 

density, high abundance of large organisms, 

dominance by a single taxon, and low diversity. Six 

distinct biofacies have been recognized from 

petroleum seep assemblages; dominated respectively 

by mytilid mussels, vesicomyid clams, Lucinoma 
85 

clams, thyasirid clams, vestimentiferan tubeworms, 

and the normal slope fauna. The long-term history of 

these seep assemblages is not well known. This study 

was designed to examine the long-term record of 

seep assemblages by comparing guild and tier 

structure, paleoenergetics, and changes in community 

composition of the six biofacies at a number of 

petroleum seep sites. 

Seep assemblages from five sites, GC-184, GC-234, 

GC-272, GB-386, and GB-425, were sampled by 

submersible grabs and surface vessel box cores and 

piston cores. The grab and boxcore samples were 

used for guild and tier structure and paleoenergetics 

analysis . The piston core samples were sectioned at 

five centimeter intervals and are being used to 

investigate changes in community composition over 

thousands of years of accumulation, in addition to 

paleoenergetics and guild and tier structure analyses . 

where AU is the energy assimilated over the 

individual's life span, PgLt is the portion of net 

production devoted to somatic growth, PrLt is the 

portion of net production devoted to reproduction, 

and RU is the amount of energy respired over the 

organism's life span . The two important products of 

the hindcasting model are paleoproduction and 

paleoingestion . Paleoproduction is equal to the 

individual's biomass-at-death, while paleoingestion 

is the assimilated energy divided by the assimilation 

efficiency, 

ILt - AU (A/I)-1~ 

Hindcasting of energy demand based on the observed 

biomass as preserved and an estimate of 

sedimentation rate shows that energy demand by the 

community exceeds the supply from planktonic rain 

in seep communities, a crucial verification of the 

adequacy of the hindcasting model. 

Autochthonous seep assemblages are characterized 

by a unique tier and guild structure, size-frequency 

composition, and animal density that together 

identify the paleoenergetics structure of these 

communities and distinguish them from other 

autochthonous assemblages of the shelf and slope. 

All seep assemblages were dominated by primary 

consumers, whereas the non-seep assemblage was 

dominated by carnivores. Carnivore dominance 

seems to be typical of shelf (or euhaline) death 

assemblages. Seep assemblages, in contrast, retain 

the theoretically-expected rarity of predaceous forms 

in fossil assemblages. The infaunal tier was well 

represented in most petroleum seep assemblages 

because a large fraction of the shelled biota were 

infauna or semi-infauna. Dominance by shelled 

infauna is unusual. Local enrichment of food 

resources and the dominance of shelled primary 

consumers explain the guild and tier structure of seep 

assemblages . Nearby autochthonous and 

parautochthonous assemblages relying on planktonic 

production are substantially different in each of these 

criteria. The non-seep autochthonous assemblages 

were dominated by epifauna and semi-infauna as is 

typical for continental shelf and slope assemblages. 

A hindcasting paleoenergetics model was used to 

estimate the energy demand of both seep and 

non-seep assemblages. The basic paleoenergetics 

equation is as follows: 

Bathymodiolus sp ., Lucinoma atlantis, and Thyasira 

oleophila shells were radiocarbon dated from the 

seep sites at GC-234, GC-184, and GB-425, 

respectively . A calibration curve of amino acid dating 

was used to increase the number of lucinids and 

thyasirids that could be aged. Piston cores from the 

"Mussel Beach" area of GC-234 recovered two 

buried mussel beds . The first bed, centered at about 

95 cm depth, contained shells estimated to be 

between 2,000 and 3,000 years old. Mussels from the 

deeper bed, at about 195 cm were estimated to be 

between 3,000 and 4,000 years old. Thus, the two 

mussel beds were approximately 1,000 years apart in 

age. Both of these beds contained individuals in life 

position, and some of the mussels still had byssal 

thread attachments, indicating the importance of 

catastrophic burial in the preservation of mussel beds. 

The lucinids from GC-184, at 68 centimeters depth, 

were calculated to be over 3,500 years old, while the 

GB-425 thyasirids at 40 cm depth were 500 to 1,000 

years old. The lucinids from a depth of 10 

centimeters at GC-272 were found to be modern in 

age, and no deeper individuals were encountered. 

We also developed a computer program designed to 

reconstruct the original abundance and size-frequency 

distribution from a collection of bivalve fragments. 

The need for this shell reconstruction program comes 

from the fact that many seep bivalves are obtained in 

fragmented condition due to taphonomic processes. 

AU - PgLt + PrLt + RLt 
86 

A primary attribute of the program design was the 

use of simple readily measured characters (shell 

length, width, thickness, weight) allowing rapid 

analysis of shell fragments. The program was tested 

using a mussel, two lucinids, and an arc shell . In each 

case, the whole shells were measured, broken into a 

minimum of three to four pieces, and then 

remeasured. Numerical abundance was slightly 

overestimated and size-frequency skewed slightly 

towards smaller size classes. In terms of 

paleoproduction and paleoingestion, these errors 

proved of little consequence. This computer program 

was then applied to the seep mussel, lucinid, and 

thyasirid fragments from the piston cores. The 

size-frequency distributions of the reconstructed 

thyasirid populations were similar to those of the 

whole shells present in the cores, with most 

individuals being over 50% of the species maximum 

size . The reconstructed seep mussel size-frequency 

distributions, on the other hand, revealed that there 

were both very small and very large individuals, but 

most were in the middle-size classes . 

Combining detailed sampling of cores, reconstruction 

of fragmented individuals and paleoenergetics 

analysis permits the study of the persistence and 

resilience of seep communities. Some sites retained 

optimal habitat for some species continuously over 

geologically-long time periods of time . More 

commonly, however, habitat optimality varied 

substantially over time scales of 300 to 500 years. 

Local extinctions and recolonizations occurred, and 

these seemed to occur fairly rapidly in the context of 

the time span represented by the entire core or a 

portion of the core recording times conducive to a 

selected fauna. Thresholds of optimality seem to be 

present. Triggering mechanisms producing the rapid 

faunal changes are unknown, but could include small 

changes in sediment chemistry. 

In the case of mussel beds, catastrophic burial was 

implicated in preservation, but the importance of 

catastrophic burial in fostering local extinctions 

seems to be minor. Most extinctions occurred 

quickly, but without hiatuses of faunally depauperate 

sediments that might be typical of catastrophic 

sedimentary events . Thus, one important 

characteristic of these sites was the degree of 

persistence of the chemosynthetic biota. A fauna was 

typically persistent over a time span of a few hundred 

years, but was typically not persistent over a time 

span of 300 to 500 years. 

Faunal succession was not observed. When local 

extinctions occurred in the chemosynthetic biota, the 

biota was replaced by the normal slope biota or a 

mixture of a normal slope biota and the juveniles of 

chemosynthetic species that failed to survive to 

adulthood. Thus the only faunal transitions were 

between chemosynthetic and non-chemosynthetic 

faunas . Not one distinctive faunal transition between 

two chemosynthetic species was observed. Sites were 

always recolonized by the chemosynthetic species 

that had previously become locally extinct. 

Accordingly, the chemosynthetic faunas were 

resilient over long time scales, time scales of 

geological importance . The inescapable conclusion is 

that sites are more or less permanently conducive to 

only one, or at most two, chemosynthetic species. 

Site specificity is retained over geologically-long 

time frames. This suggests that site chemistry 

remains within a narrow range for geologically-long 

times and that the local variations in site chemistry 

are sufficient to control the presence or absence of 

the locally preferred chemosynthetic fauna at the 

expense of the background heterotrophic fauna. 

The relatively low persistence but high resilience of 

the seep faunas indicates that sites retain a degree of 

uniqueness in their capacity to support seep faunas 

over geologically-significant time periods. In this 

study, only the Lucinoma sp . biofacies was found at 

more than one site . Significantly, this species was 

rarely persistent over long time spans and rarely did 

a significant number of individuals attain 

near-maximum size, so that this species was simply 

more capable of surviving in a variety of suboptimal 

habitats than were the other species. At least as 

important was the failure to sample habitats optimal 

for several important chemosynthetic species, namely 

the solemyids (a few were taken at GB-386), 

Lucinoma atlantis (occasionally collected at GB-425) 

and Vesicomya cordata. We suggest that at least 

three additional unique habitats remain unsampled 

and unsurveyed. Given the uniqueness of sites, we 

would expect these biofacies to dominate sites that 

are as yet unexplored rather than to be present but 

unsampled within already explored sites. 

REFERENCES 

Brooks, J.M., Kennicutt, M.C .,II, Bidigare, R.R., 

Wade, T.L ., Powell, E.N., Denoux, G.J ., Fay, 

R.R ., Childress, J.J ., Fisher, C.R ., Rossman, I ., 
87 

and G. Boland. 1987. Hydrates, oil seepage, and 

chemosynthetic ecosystems on the Gulf of 

Mexico slope: An update . EOS, 68 : 498-499. 

Callender, W.R ., and E.N. Powell. 1992. 

Taphonomic signature of petroleum seep 

assemblages on the Louisiana upper continental 

slope: recognition of autochthonous shell beds in 

the fossil record . Palaios, 7: 388-408 . 

Kennicutt, M.C .,II, Brooks, J.M., Bidigare, R.R., 

Wade, T.L ., and T.J . MacDonald. 1985. 

Vent-type taxa in a hydrocarbon seep region on 

the Louisiana slope. Nature, 317: 351-353 . 

Mr. Kenneth A. Warren is a graduate research 

assistant in the Department of Oceanography at 

Texas A&M University . His current research is 

concerned with the paleoecology of hydrocarbon 

seep communities. Mr. Warren received his B.S . in 

marine science from the University of South 

Carolina . 

Dr. Eric N. Powell is a Professor of Oceanography at 

Texas A&M University where he has been a faculty 

member for 17 years. He has published extensively 

in the fields of paleoecology, benthic ecology, and 

oyster ecology and physiology. His research 

experience includes studies on molluscan community 

preservation and paleoecology. Dr. Powell received 

his B.S . in zoology from the University of 

Washington, and his M.S . and Ph .D . in oceanography 

from the University of North Carolina . 
SESSION 1 D 

GIS APPLICATIONS TO OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING 

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO 
91 

Session: 1D - GIS Applications to Oil Spill Contingency Planning in the Gulf of Mexico 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Norman Froomer and Dr. Shea Penland 

Date: November 15, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction 

MMS Gulfwide Information System (GWIS): 

A Consistent Regional GIS Database for 

Oil Spill Contingency Planning Based on 

Interagency and Industry Consensus 

Mississippi Oil Spill Planning GIS : 

Current Status and Future Plans 

Development and Application of the Florida 

Marine Spill Analysis System 

Dr. Norman Froomer 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Shea Penland 

Ms. Karen Ramsey 

Mr. Ed Vigil 

Ms. Lynda Wayne 

Ms. Karen Westphal 

Mr. Chris Zganjar 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Norman Froomer 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Mr. Stephen M. Oivanki 

Mississippi Office of Geology 

Mr. Christopher A. Friel 

Florida Marine Research Institute 
93 

INTRODUCTION 

Dr. Norman Froomer 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

MMS GULFWIDE INFORMATION 

SYSTEM (GWIS) : 

A CONSISTENT REGIONAL GIS 

DATABASE FOR 

OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY 

PLANNING BASED 

The Geographic Information System session at this 

year's ITM was associated with a cooperative effort 

between the MMS and Louisiana State University, 

Center for Energy and Environmental Research. The 

purpose of this project, which has been developed as 

part of the MMS Coastal and Marine Initiative 

(CMI), is to develop a GIS database for use in oil 

spill contingency planning in the Gulf of Mexico 

region . An important step in the project is to develop 

consensus among users on what data categories to 

include in the database and on sources of data . The 

MMS and LSU have established a Steering 

Committee for the project to help guide these, and 

other, decisions. The Steering Committee includes 

representatives of the major user groups of the 

database, including state and federal regulatory and 

resource protection agencies, and industry . 

The ITM session was divided into two parts. During 

the first part, Dr. Shea Penland, LSU project director, 

presented an overview of project accomplishments to 

date and future objectives . He was followed by Steve 

Oivanki, Mississippi Office of Geology, and Mr. 

Chris Friel, Florida Marine Research Institute, who 

presented overviews of GIS database development 

and applications underway in their respective states . 

The second part of the session was used for a 

Steering Committee meeting. The objective of the 

meeting was to develop a prioritized list of data 

categories for inclusion in the data base . A list that 

resulted from the meeting is included in the ITM 

proceedings. 

ON INTERAGENCY AND INDUSTRY 

CONSENSUS 

Dr. Shea Penland, Ms. Karen Ramsey, 

Mr. Ed Vigil, Ms. Lynda Wayne, 

Ms. Karen Westphal, 

and Mr. Chris Zganjar 

Center for Coastal, Energy, and 

Environmental Resources 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Norman Froomer 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

ABSTRACT 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

established the Coastal Marine Institute (CMI) at 

Louisiana State University as part of the Center for 

Coastal, Energy, and Environmental Resources 

(CCEER) to promote environmental research related 

to the oil, gas, and mining industries . One of the 

primary initiatives of CMI is to create an 

environmental information program to support 

government and industry oil spill contingency 

planning needs in order to fulfill the Oil Pollution 

Act of 1990 and MMS compliance regulations. The 

MMS/Gulfwide Information System (GWIS) 

database will contain critical information about the 

location and character of environmental resources, 

infrastructure, and administrative boundaries that 

occur within the coastal region of the U.S . Northern 

Gulf of Mexico. Information needed to support the 

program will be collected from state and federal 

resource agencies, industry, and other data providers . 

INTRODUCTION 

Accurate, current information and base maps are 

essential to successful oil spill contingency planning 

and environmental analysis in the Gulf of Mexico 

(GOM). The GOM coastal zone will face an 
94 

increasing risk of a major oil spill impacting the 

shoreline over the next decade as oil imports 

continue to increase and domestic oil and gas 

activities continue. The GOM will be one of the few 

regions in the United States where offshore oil and 

gas leasing will continue to pose new environmental 

challenges in the future . The environmental pressures 

on the coasts and waters of the Gulf of Mexico will 

continue to accelerate as population increases present 

greater demands for resources. Environmental data 

are therefore crucial to the accurate assessment of 

risks posed to these resources by the exploration, 

production, and transport of hydrocarbons in the 

GOM, and to the development of adequate oil spill 

contingency plans. In addition, conflicts in response 

actions and damage assessments can be minimized by 

developing needed data sets in cooperation with both 

government and industry . Over the past five years, 

government and industry have debated the accuracy 

and resolution of information on resources at risk 

used in oil spill contingency planning . All parties 

through the regulatory process agree on the need to 

develop a common system to distribute 

environmental information that meets the regulatory 

requirements and needs of both government and 

industry . The objective of the Minerals Management 

Service (MMS) Gulfwide Information System 

(GWIS) database is to create and manage mutually 

agreed-upon data sets for use by government and 

industry in meeting oil spill contingency planning 

and environmental analysis requirements . 

The Regional Technical Working Group (RTWG) of 

the MMS Gulf Region also recognizes the 

importance of accurate environmental data and the 

need to establish an information center to support oil 

spill contingency planning and GIS environmental 

analysis by government and industry . In 1992 RTWG 

nominated a project to develop a regional center for 

oil spill contingency planning and environmental 

analysis (Regional Study No. GOM-A008). This 

project was ranked in the top five projects for the 

1993 Regional Study Plan of the Environmental 

Studies Program (ESP). In addition, the Oil Pollution 

Act of 1990 and Executive Order 12777 have 

mandated a greater role for the MMS in oil spill 

contingency planning and environmental analysis . 

The MMS GWIS database project will develop an 

information system for oil spill contingency planning 

and environmental analysis to support the 

requirements of government and industry . Vast 

amounts of environmental, infrastructure, and 

administrative and political information will be 

required to support the intended activities . To 

compile and manage such a complex data set, it will 

be necessary to utilize the advanced spatial data 

management capabilities of geographic information 

systems (GIS) technology, which enables users to 

map critical information with geographic positional 

accuracy . More important, however, a GIS provides 

a highly efficient framework for storing, retrieving, 

and analyzing both the maps and associated 

databases of information used to describe the maps. 

GIS technology also provides a mechanism for 

maintaining spatial data in dynamic environments 

and enables the power of spatial associations to be 

more fully realized . By utilizing this advanced 

technology, the system will provide a substantial 

environmental data base that can be accessed by the 

MMS, other government agencies, and industry for 

various analyses and products that may be used for 

contingency planning, environmental assessments, 

leasing activities, regulatory decision-making, and 

other general management purposes. 

GULFWIDE SUPPORT AND CONSENSUS 

FOR DATABASE 

The objective of GWIS is to develop an authoritative 

database that will be used by MMS for oil spill 

contingency planning, as mandated by the Oil Spill 

Act of 1990, and by industry and other regulatory 

and resource protection agencies for oil spill planning 

and response . The current practice of using disparate 

data sources for oil spill planning and response 

fosters inconsistent interpretations and contention 

among the involved parties. To encourage consensus, 

GWIS has established a Steering Committee with 

members from industry, Federal agencies, and each 

Gulf state. The Steering Committee is involved in all 

major decisions concerning the design and 

composition of the database (Table 1D.1). 

Furthermore, many Steering Committee members 

have contributed cash and in-kind resources to the 

project. The Steering Committee members of the 

GWIS program are listed in Table 1D.2 . 

REGIONALLY COMPLETE AND CONSISTENT 

'BOTTOM UP' DATABASE 

The Gulf of Mexico coastal states are providing 

much of the data for the project. MMS and LSU are 
95 

compiling and augmenting the data using an 

enhanced environmental sensitivity index (ESI) 

mapping framework to assure regional completeness 

and consistency. The enhanced ESI concept includes 

additional items in the database, expanded offshore 

geographic coverage, metadata for each geographic 

feature, information on level of effort and area 

covered by surveys, and procedures to assure 

regional consistency and completeness from local 

data sources. 

APPLICATION INDEPENDENT DATABASE 

While the primary purpose of GWIS is to develop a 

database to support oil spill contingency planning, 

another important objective is to compile a database 

that can be used for other environmental and 

planning applications . To assure this capability, the 

project, to the extent that resources permit, 

emphasizes the robustness of the data itself, not the 

specific application for which the data will be used. 

The objective is to have GWIS serve as a model and 

a first step toward developing a flexible and complete 

Gulf of Mexico database based on primary data . 

Table 1D.1 . The GWIS priority data layers for oil spill contingency planning identified by interagency and industry 

consensus. 

L Level One Priority Layers 

A. Base Maps 

1 :2,000,000 

1 :100,000 

Texas 1 :24,000 

Louisiana 124,000 

Mississippi 1 :24,000 

Alabama 1 :24,000 

Florida 1 :40,000 

Enhanced - ESI Base Map 1 :24,000 

B. Shoreline Habitat Type 

exposed vertical rock shoreline/seawall 

sheltered/rock platform 

exposed rock platform 

exposed rip-rap 

sheltered rip-rap 

gravel beaches 

mixed sand and gravel beaches 

shell beaches 

coarse sand beaches 

fine sand beaches 

exposed mud flats 

sheltered mud flats 

mangroves 

salt-brackish marsh 

fresh flotant marsh 

fresh marsh 

swamps 

developed upland 

C. Aquatic Habitat Type 

sea-grass beds 

oyster reefs 

coral reefs 

artificial reefs 

D. Terrestrial Biological Resources 

mammals 

birds 

reptiles 

E. Aquatic Biological Resources 

mammals 

fish 

mollusc 

crustaceans 

reptiles 

F. Regulated Endangered & Threatened 

Species 

type and distribution 

G. Recreational Areas 

beaches 

marinas 

boat ramps 

diving areas 

boating/fishing 
96 

II. Level Two Priority Data Layers 

A. Location of Protected Areas 

special management areas 

state parks 

state preserves 

state wildlife refuges 

federal preserves 

federal wildlife refuges 

B. Coastal Marine Processes 

wave data 

currents 

hydrography 

water temperature 

meteorology data 

climatic data 

C. Transportation Infrastructure 

roads 

airports 

helipads 

D. USCG Area Contingency Plans 

MSO boundaries 

MSO Protection Priorities 

MSO Response Strategies 

E. Access and Staging Areas 

ramps 

hoists 

F. Modern, Historical, and Prehistorical 

Cultural Resources 

G. Bathymetry 

III. Level Three Priority Data Layers 

A. Sources of Public/Commercial Water 

Supplies 

water in-takes 

B. Oil and Gas Infrastructure 

platforms 

wells 

pipelines 

facilities 

service bases 

terminals 

refineries 

gas processing plants 

ports 

C. Political and Administrative Boundaries 

and Locations 

federal 

state 

municipal 

federal lease block 

state lease block 

D. Pre-Approved Zones 

dispersant 

in-situ burning zones 

exclusion areas 

E. Navigable Shipping Routes/Channels 

navigable shipping routes/channels 

navigation markers 

anchorage 

lightening zones 

F. Response Equipment Location 

sources 

inventory 

G. Topography 

minimum 5' contours 

H. Place Names 

names from USGS quads (GNIS) 

I. Permitted Waste Disposal Sites 

incinerators 

landfills 

IV. Not Prioritized 

A. Land Use 

USGS landuse/landcover 

B. Database of Historical Spills 

risk analysis 

location of spill source 

spiller 

C. Utilities 

lines 

generation stations 

power plants 

phone 

power cable crossings 

D. Population Data 

census data 

residences 

camps 
97 

Table 1D.2 . Steering Committee members of the MMS GWIS program. 

Minerals Management Services 

Louisiana State University 

Texas General Land Office 

Louisiana Oil Spill Coordinator's Office 

Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality 

Alabama Department of Environmental Management 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection 

U.S . Coast Guard 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Clean Gulf Associates 

Marine Industry Response Group 

Marine Spill Response Corporation 

Aramco 

Exxon 

Chevron 

Amoco 

MISSISSIPPI OIL SPILL 

PLANNING GIS : 

CURRENT STATUS AND 

FUTURE PLANS 

Mr. Stephen M. Oivanki 

Mississippi Office of Geology 

INTRODUCTION 

of Marine Resources (formerly the Bureau of Marine 

Resources) in 1984. The "Contingency Guide to the 

Protection of Mississippi Coastal Environments from 

Spilled Oil" was prepared by Cornell M. Ladner and 

James S. Franks with numerous contributions of data 

and expertise from personnel at other scientific and 

academic institutions in the state. The Guide is in a 

large, atlas format with the entire Mississippi coastal 

environment divided into a series of 11 maps. Each 

map is based on the NOAA nautical chart for the 

area at that time . 

Oil spill response in Mississippi is handled by the 

Emergency Services Division of the Department of 

Environmental Quality (DEQ). Personnel from 

Emergency Services act as on-scene coordinators to 

direct clean-up activities and evaluate post-spill 

remediation. Oil spill planning in Mississippi is also 

seen as a tool for field response, and therefore efforts 

are under way to build a Geographic Information 

System (GIS) at DEQ which meets both planning and 

response requirements . 

CURRENT OIL SPILL 

PLANNING/RESPONSE DATA 

The only oil spill planning and response data 

currently available in Mississippi are found in a 

document developed by the Mississippi Department 

The Guide was designed to rate the protection 

priorities for oil spill response from high to low 

according to the degree of negative impact an oil 

spill would have on a particular section of coastline 

and its interior environments . Seven protection 

priority levels from 1 (highest) to 7 (lowest) are 

identified, and within each level several smaller 

rankings are subdivided . The highest priority 

identified is IA, openings to rivers, bays and 

estuaries leading to sheltered salt marshes. The 

lowest priority, 7R, is given to the concrete seawalls, 

bulkheads, and wharves. In the case of unusually 

high tide conditions, some priorities would move 

from lower to higher levels based on the exposure of 

interior habitats under those conditions . 
98 

The entire shoreline of the mainland and the barrier 

islands is both color-coded and labeled to correspond 

with the matching priority level given to the 

particular section of shoreline. Offshore habitats, 

such as oyster beds and grass beds, are also ranked 

and located on the maps, as are the locations of 

seasonal or migratory waterfowl habitats . 

Appendices in the Guide provide tables of spawning 

seasons for all commercial and recreational species 

and areas and seasons for relative abundance of those 

species in coastal waters . Vital descriptions and lifecycle highlights for representative species are also 

given, as are endangered species known to occur in 

the coastal environment. Tides, currents, and other 

oceanographic information are listed with references 

for further research . 

This Guide has served as an excellent planning and 

response tool since its publication ; however, much of 

the data is now out of date, and the coastal 

environment and economic climate in Mississippi 

have changed. The current effort to produce a 

comprehensive oil spill planning/response GIS will 

remedy these deficiencies . 

FUTURE OIL SPILL 

PLANNING/RESPONSE GIS 

The Office of Geology, Coastal Section, of the 

Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality 

currently maintains a large GIS operating in 

ARC/Info on a SUN Sparc Station. Base map data 

include the most recent digitized USGS 124,000 

topographic quadrangle maps with shoreline 

positions for the mainland and the islands updated 

annually by GPS surveys. Geomorphic characteristics 

of the mainland and island shorelines are classified 

and cataloged utilizing interpretation of oblique video 

surveys flown periodically along the coast. Land 

use/land cover classifications for all the USGS 

quadrangles in the coastal zone of Mississippi have 

been identified and mapped using a condensed 

Cowardin interpretation of 1991-92 color-infrared 

vertical photography. Bathymetric data for the 

Mississippi Sound are updated using in-house 

bathymetric mapping equipment. 

At the request of the DEQ Emergency Services 

Division, this GIS will be modified to incorporate 

additional data necessary for oil spill planning and 

response . Additional data layers planned include the 

following: 

Offshore grass beds and shellfish beds (1) (2) 

Migratory waterfowl habitats (1) 

Endangered species habitats (1) (2) 

Seasonal marine species nesting areas (1) (2) 

Habitat and wildlife management areas (1) 

Boat ramps and staging areas 

Critical transportation facilities and routes 

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) 

Cultural/economic priority areas 

Key response personnel notification data 

Critical boom lengths for estuary protection 

Critical water depths for boat operations 

Up-to-date census data 

Data supplied by: (1) Department of Marine 

Resources, (2) National Park Service. 

Other data layers will be updated and added as 

needed or specified by users of the GIS. 

The Environmental Sensitivity Index for Mississippi 

shorelines will be designed according to NOAA 

standards in cooperation with their ongoing national 

ESI mapping effort . Mapping will be done within the 

next year using the geomorphic shoreline mapping 

system already developed for Mississippi. GPS base 

map accuracy along the shorelines of +/- 2 meters 

will allow detailed large-scale maps of critical 

response areas to be developed for use in field 

activities . 

Future access to the GIS will be available either by 

export through ARC/Info files to other systems, or 

through ArcView II on personal computers. Data will 

be subdivided into manageable segments for easy 

access through ArcView, either on a desk-top PC in 

the office or on a portable PC in the field during 

actual spill response activities. Hard-copy maps and 

documents will also be produced for distribution to 

industry and regulatory personnel as needed . By 

maintaining the GIS at DEQ in the Office of 

Geology, the Emergency Services Division can have 

quick and hands-on access to and input into the 

database . 
99 

DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION 

OF THE FLORIDA MARINE SPILL 

ANALYSIS SYSTEM 

Mr. Christopher A. Friel 

Florida Marine Research Institute 

Successful emergency management is highly 

dependent upon the availability of succinct 

information that accurately describes the crisis 

conditions at hand. In 1992, the Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection's (DEP) Florida Marine 

Research Institute (FMRI) received a legislative 

appropriation to develop an "automated marine spill 

sensitivity atlas" to generate targeted information for 

oil spills emergency response decision . After 

soliciting proposals, CAMRA contracted with 

Environmental Systems Research Institute's (ESRI) 

Application Development Group to initiate 

development of the Florida Marine Spill Analysis 

System (FMSAS). 

The principal goal of the FMSAS project was to 

design and develop a prototype GIS application that 

integrates a variety of information (digital maps, 

imagery, and tabular data) with targeted analytical 

routines needed to implement an oil-spill contingency 

planning, response, and damage assessment strategy 

focused on natural resource protection . An additional 

requirement was to implement a selected set of these 

requirements for a pilot study area in the Florida 

Keys and develop a strategy for expanding the 

prototype to a statewide, fully operational system. 

The project included a needs assessment, conceptual 

and physical application design, database integration, 

interface development, and the formulation of a 

user's guide, program maintenance manual, and 

statewide implementation plan . 

A specific requirement of the FMSAS project was the 

ability to portray real-time spill conditions relative to 

marine resources at risk such as bird rookeries, turtle 

nesting beaches, or prime fisheries habitat. From an 

information content perspective, environmental 

sensitivity index (ESI) maps provide the fundamental 

base map series of the FMSAS. Prior to the FMSAS 

development the only available map series that 

targeted oil spills was the "Sensitivity of Coastal 

Environments and Wildlife to Spilled Oil in Florida" 

series, developed in 1979-80. These atlases consist of 

7.5-minute United States Geological Survey (USGS) 

topographic maps annotated with Environmental 

Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline types, wildliferesource areas, and spill-response staging areas and 

strategies . The ESI rankings of shorelines is critical 

because it cartographically indicates the vulnerability 

of specific shorelines to oil spills . Explosive 

urbanization and coastal alteration over the last 

decade in Florida rendered these ESI ranking 

obsolete in many areas. 

From the onset of the project, FMRI decided that at 

a minimum the FMSAS should be capable of keeping 

the ESI maps relatively current and should provide 

the ability to combine traditional ESI information 

with other spill-related information. ESRI conducted 

interviews at the FMSAS with various 

representatives from selected agencies involved in 

marine spill management in Florida and the United 

States, including the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Marine 

Spill Response Corporation (MSRC), and the United 

States Coast Guard (USCG) to define these 

requirements . These interviews were made during a 

week-long "rapid prototyping" workshop in which 

the existing application software and geographic 

databases developed by ESRI for spill management 

groups in the United States and abroad were utilized. 

The needs expressed during the rapid-prototyping 

process were used several ways. They helped us 

determine the functional requirements of and formed 

the basis for the FMSAS database design . 

In July 1993, one year after contract initiation, FMRI 

took final delivery of a user-friendly prototype spill 

analysis system that included over 30 natural 

resource and spill response-related databases for 

South Florida including threatened and endangered 

species, ESI shorelines, benthic habitats, bathymetry, 

managed area boundaries, National Wetland 

Inventory (NWI), satellite imagery, aerial 

photography, and on-line tabular reference material 

with response strategies for specific shoreline types. 

A potentially catastrophic oil spill in Tampa Bay in 

1993 provided the ultimate test of the FMSAS 

design . Coast Guard officials received a distress call 

the morning of 10 August 1993 after an outbound 

freighter collided with two inbound tugs a few miles 

from the Sunshine Skyway Bridge near St . 

Petersburg, Florida. One barge, carrying 8 million 

gallons of Jet A fuel, burst into flames and burned for 

more than 14 hours while the other barge lost an 
ioo 

estimated 388,000 gallons of Number 6 fuel oil 

before the leaking slowed and stopped. A bulk carrier 

transporting phosphate was also damaged and began 

taking on water. The leaking chemicals moved with 

the tides toward some of Florida's ecologically 

sensitive habitats and pristine beaches. 

Technological advances enabled several divisions 

and bureaus of the DEP teamed with local, state, and 

federal agencies to respond to the spill in an 

unprecedented manner. From almost the moment the 

ships collided, responding officials wanted very 

detailed information on the bay's natural resources 

such as bathymetry, sea grass beds, mangroves, 

marshes, turtle nesting sites, and sites of endangered 

wildlife, displayed in conjunction with the current 

location and extent of the spill. GIS and Global 

Positioning Systems (GPS) played an important role 

in generating real-time maps for analyzing changing 

spill conditions, logistical alternatives, resources-atrisk, and environmental sampling strategies . Many 

data resources were combined to create maps for 

simultaneous evaluation and monitoring efforts of the 

response . 

To assimilate spill-boundary information in real time, 

FMRI staff used GPS receivers in helicopters to 

record locations of the vessels and the changing 

perimeter of the spill. GPS files were immediately 

imported into the FMSAS. The first map was plotted 

just hours after the spill occurred and hand-carried to 

the Coast Guard command center so each agency 

could formulate its response plans. Maps produced 

during the first three days were considered critical 

aids in developing possible scenarios. The helicopterbased GPS cres flew several times a day throughout 

the project and as the spill continues, air-to-plot time 

decreased significantly. Various databases and 

images were combined to create maps that were used 

by command center staff, the media, and individuals 

involved in response, environmental sampling, and 

damage assessment . 

Many of the lessons learned during the Tampa Bay 

spill are being used to further refine the conceptual 

design and physical characteristics of the FMSAS. 

Assumptions made during the design process were 

tested in a crisis setting, and additional databases and 

functionality were identified. For instance, it would 

have been helpful to have all licensed landfills and 

incinerators in the vicinity in the system to identify 

disposal options for recovered product and soiled 

clean-up materials. To focus future refinements, the 

Institute is holding debriefings of involved parties to 

identify functions the FMSAS performed well and 

those that need enhancements. Unanticipated uses for 

the system continue to emerge. 

Following the successful response in Tampa Bay, the 

DEP is investing considerable resources to refine the 

FMSAS by adding databases, enhancing 

functionality, equipping DEP field offices, and 

implementing mobile oil spill response capabilities . 

The FMSAS full-scale implementation report 

prepared by ESRI described a long-term plan for the 

incremental development of a statewide, GIS-based 

oil spill response system for Florida. The plan 

prioritizes key databases, and the challenge is to 

assemble and automate the data for each region of the 

state before a spill occurs there. Several paths for 

extending the functionality of the FMSAS are also 

included in the plan . Several governmental agencies, 

utility companies, and private firms have obtained the 

FMSAS. The DEP is exploring the possibility of 

cooperative agreements and Memorandums of 

Understanding (MOU) with other agencies such as 

the Minerals Management Service (MMS), to foster 

a collective investment so that the FMSAS design 

and prototype application can be shared and 

improved without redundant expenditures . It has 

become apparent that the basic design, natural 

resource sensitivity databases, and "resources-at-risk" 

analyses that form the basis of the FMSAS have 

widespread utility for analyzing a variety of marine 

and coastal impacts such as dredge-and-fill and 

coastal construction proposals. Significant database 

development efforts are underway stateside and 

resources are being dedicated to enhance the 

modeling functionality of the FMSAS. The long-term 

goal is to continue the development of the FMSAS to 

provide maximum protection from oil spills for 

Florida's natural resources statewide. 

As a research administrator, Mr. Friel directs 

geographic information systems (GIS) and remote 

sensing activities at the Florida Marine Research 

Institute headquartered in St . Petersburg, Florida. 

Prior to this appointment, he used GIS for 

environmental research at many levels of government 

in Michigan, Illinois, and Florida. His areas of 

research interests are automated cartography, spatial 

analysis, and GIS applications for environmental 
101 

management. Mr. Friel received his B.S. in 

geography from Northern Michigan University and 

his M.S . in geography from Western Illinois 

University. 
SESSION 2A 

GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART I 
105 

Session: 2A - GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART I 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Pat Roscigno and Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Date: November 16, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction Dr. Pat Roscigno 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Geochemical and Environmental Research 

Group 

Texas A&M University 

The GOOMEX Phase I Study Design and Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Progress to Date Geochemical and Environmental Research 

Group 

Texas A&M University 

Results of Statistical Analyses Based on Dr. Roger H. Green 

the GOOMEX Study Design Department of Zoology 

University of Ontario 

London, Ontario, Canada 

Hydrocarbon Contaminants Associated with Dr. Terry L. Wade 

GOOMEX Study Sites Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Geochemical and Environmental Research 

Group 

Texas A&M University 

Trace Metal Contaminants Associated with Dr. Paul N. Boothe 

GOOMEX Study Sites Dr. Bobby J. Presley 

Trace Element Research Laboratory 

Texas A&M University 

Meiofauna Ecology at GOOMEX Study Sites Dr. Paul A. Montagna 

Marine Science Institute 

The University of Texas at Austin 

Macroinfauna Ecology at GOOMEX Study Sites Dr. Donald Harper 

Marine Laboratory 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 
107 

INTRODUCTION TO THE 

GOOMEX STUDY 

effluents, site clearance, mandated sea-bottom 

surveys and archaeological surveys, have resulted 

from previous studies. 

Dr. Pasquale R. Roscigno 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

The aim of the Minerals Management Service's 

(MMS) Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 

Environmental Studies Program is to characterize the 

effects of offshore oil and gas development. This 

characterization has been done either through a 

comparison of current ecosystem data with earlier 

benchmark data or through special studies oriented 

towards monitoring specific parameters . These 

studies have shown that the acute impacts of OCS 

development are localized. There is less certainty 

regarding the nature of consequences of the subtle, 

chronic, long-term stresses that may be associated 

with OCS development in areas with a history of 

activity . 

The MMS awarded a competitive contract to the 

Geochemical and Environmental Group (GERG) of 

Texas A&M University for a study entitled Gulf of 

Mexico Offshore Operations Monitoring Experiment 

(GOOME,Y) - Phase I. GOOMEX study sties are all 

off the coast of Texas. These are Matagorda Island 

Field Block 686, Mustang Island Area East Addition 

Block A-85, and High Island Block A389 (which 

includes the East Flower Gardens). 

GOOMEX Phase I is a multidisciplinary 

investigation to examine the impacts of sublethal, 

chronic exposure to discharges from oil and gas 

production facilities on marine ecosystems . The 

initial phase seeks to develop a suite of 

environmental indicators that will be refined in 

subsequent phases . This information will be useful in 

the preparation of Environmental Impact Statements 

and provide future guidance for stipulated activity on 

the OCS. GOOMEX can lead to the creation of 

mitigation measures and the modification of the 

scope of proposed lease sales in the Gulf of Mexico. 

GOOMEX will feed directly into the operational 

aspects of OCS. Activities such as the discharge of 

GOOMEX attempts to quantify natural variability 

associated with Gulf marine ecosystems so that 

perturbations caused by chronic exposure to 

contaminant discharges can be measured . In the 

future, early warning indicators developed from 

studies such as GOOMEX can alert managers and 

operators before damages to marine ecosystems 

become obvious. Some levels of interaction 

examined in this study range from responses at the 

molecular up to the community level. 

The information generated from this study is 

analyzed and synthesized in a comprehensive final 

report . This information provides a database on the 

fate and effects of hydrocarbons and metals from the 

operations of platforms on the OCS. The 

environmental benefits that will result from the 

incorporation of knowledge learned from GOOMEX 

will benefit the daily operations on the OCS, making 

them more environmentally safe . 

Presented in this session are a series of papers that 

report on the results of last year's efforts. 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno is a program manager in 

the MMS Environmental Studies Section in New 

Orleans. Previously, he held several positions in the 

Department of the Interior's Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Senior Research 

Scientist, is Chief Chemist of the Geochemical and 

Environmental Research Group with the College of 

Geosciences and Maritime Studies at Texas A&M 

University . Dr. Kennicutt has expertise and research 

interests in marine chemistry, environmental 

chemistry, and organic geochemistry. He received a 

B.S . in chemistry in 1974 from Union College and a 

Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas A&M University 

in 1980. Dr. Kennicutt has published over 100 peerreviewed papers, numerous book chapters, and has 

made scientific presentations world-wide. 
108 

THE GOOMEX PHASE I STUDY 

DESIGN AND PROGRESS TO DATE 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

The objective of GOOMEX Phase I is to assess 

sublethal effects associated with chronic exposure of 

marine organisms to contaminants derived from 

offshore oil/gas exploration and development 

activities . A chronic impact is defined as an effect on 

the biota that is caused by exposure to the "longterm" accumulation of chemicals in the environment. 

"Long-term" is defined as locations with a ten-year or 

longer history of production after exploration. 

Sedimentology, chemistry, and oceanographic work 

elements describe the areal and temporal distribution 

of contaminants, sediment characteristics, and water 

quality. Biological work elements identify responses 

to chronic chemical contamination as reflected in 

induction of detoxification enzymes, life history, 

reproductive success, reproductive effort, community 

structure and genetic diversity. The sampling plan 

was designed to detect and describe nearfield impacts 

and contaminant gradients extending out from each 

site . All study components are linked by a common 

statistical design. 

The field program includes four sampling activities 

conducted over a one-and-one-half year period. The 

study initially evaluated five test sites and narrowed 

the longer-term study to the three most appropriate 

sites. The sampling design included a radial pattern 

with sample stations at 30-50, 100, 200, 500, and 

>_3000 m. Station locations were chosen based on a 

dose-response model and used to test the hypothesis 

that chemical and biological parameters vary with 

distance from the platform . Comparisons of data 

from stations close to platforms (<_2000 m) to stations 

distant from platforms (>_3000 m) are used to 

evaluate the significance of the observed variations. 

Sediment collection was by boxcore and megafauna 

were collected by otter trawl. 

The study includes the analysis of contaminants in 

sediments, pore waters, and biological tissues (trace 

metals and hydrocarbons). All trace metal and 

hydrocarbon analytical protocols are those used in 

the NOAA NS&T program. The associated QA 

activities were similar in scope to those of the NS&T 

program. 

Biological effects were monitored in a wide range of 

important species from meiofauna to megafauna 

including infauna, epifauna, mobile invertebrates and 

demersal fish . The biological measurements cover a 

range of potential markers of impact from induction 

of detoxification enzymes to traditional assemblage 

analysis . Assemblage information was collected for 

meiofauna and macroinfauna. Reproduction and life 

history studies for meiofauna emphasized 

harpacticoids. Megafauna (invertebrate) reproductive 

effort and health was also assessed . All biological 

studies were coordinated with measurements of tissue 

contaminants. Demersal fish were examined for 

chronic impacts at several levels of detail including 

necropsies (gross pathology), histopathology of 

representative tissues, stomach content food analysis, 

liver and stomach content contaminant analysis, and 

biliary PAH metabolites. Megafauna (invertebrates) 

were also examined for histopathologies . 

Biological exposure to contaminants was evaluated 

using a series of biochemical biomarkers that 

measure P4501A induction. In vivo biomarkers 

included catalytic enzyme assays for ethoxyresorufinO-deethylase (EROD) and aryl hydrocarbon 

hydroxylase (AHH) activities . Levels of P4501A 

mRNA in fish livers were also assessed . PAH 

metabolites were measured in the bile of demersal 

fish as an indicator of PAH exposure. Highly Ahresponsive in vitro cell bioassays (i .e., rat hepatoma 

H4IIE cells) were also used to determine the 

inductive potency (as measured by EROD activity) of 

extracts from invertebrates . 

Additional work elements were added to the core 

program to (1) assess pore water toxicity based on 

sea urchin embryological development tests and (2) 

develop an immunological probe to estimate 

reproductive effort in megainvertebrates. A series of 

other techniques are also being developed including 

measures of meiofauna genetic diversity, utilization 

of more appropriate organisms for bioassays, and 

evaluation of various in vitro toxicological assays 

presently utilized for mammalian systems. 

Data synthesis includes contour maps of important 

physical, chemical, and faunal characteristics, 

correlations, regressions, and plots of dependent 
109 

versus independent variables. Variations in benthic 

faunal assemblages are described by power diversity 

(rare fraction curves) and multivariate analysis . 

Principal component analysis (PCA), analysis of 

variance (ANOVA), multivariate analysis 

(MANOVA), covariate analysis (ANCOVA) and 

general linear modeling (GLM) form the basis for the 

statistical interpretations. 

At present (November 1994) all field activities have 

been completed. All of the data has been collected 

and collated into a central database for synthesis. 

Data synthesis emphasizes cross work element 

interpretations and rigorous statistical hypothesis 

testing. 

and oceanographic characteristics of each of the 

platforms. 

The original general null hypothesis for the study is 

as follows: 

Ho: There are no differences in any of the 

sedimentological, chemical and/or biological 

parameters measured among platform sites 

(at distances less than 2,000 m from the 

platform, or platform group) and comparison 

sites (located a minimum distance of 3,000 

m from any present or historic platform, or 

platform group). 

Many variables are being measured, and biological 

responses can be related to aspects of the 

environment that may be causing the response. We 

can think of the biological response variables as 

dependent variables, and the environmental variables 

that may be causing the responses as independent 

variables. However one can also think of the 

ANOVA design variables (P = platform, C = cruise, 

D = distance from platform, R = radius (direction) 

from platform) as predictors . Thus the environmental 

variables, as well as the biological variables, can be 

thought of as response variables predicted by the 

design variables. However, as far as causality is 

concerned, we visualize a pattern of contaminants 

determined by direction and distance from a platform 

at a given time (i .e . the design variables), whereas the 

biological variables measure a biological response 

caused by the contaminant concentration rather than 

by position relative to the platform per se (Technical 

Proposal June 1991, Figures 2.1-2 .3, p.9). Therefore 

the logical analysis sequence is to first examine 

relationships of contaminant concentrations to the 

design variables, then (given that those relationships 

provide evidence of "platform-centered" 

spatial/temporal pattern) evaluate the importance of 

time (among-cruise variation) in those relationships, 

and finally (given that among-cruise variation is 

relatively unimportant whereas among-platform 

variation is meaningful) pool over cruises, and 

examine relationships between biological variables 

and contaminant environmental variables (with 

"natural" environmental variables e.g. sediment type, 

water chemistry taken into account) 

platform-by-platform, in the context of the 

within-platform design variables (D and R). If 

among-cruise variation is meaningful and cannot be 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Senior Research 

Scientist, is Chief Chemist of the Geochemical and 

Environmental Research Group with the College of 

Geosciences and Maritime Studies at Texas A&M 

University . Dr. Kennicutt has expertise and research 

interests in marine chemistry, environmental 

chemistry, and organic geochemistry. He received a 

B.S . in chemistry in 1974 from Union College and a 

Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas A&M University 

in 1980. Dr. Kennicutt has published over 100 peerreviewed papers, numerous book chapters, and has 

made scientific presentations world-wide. 

RESULTS OF STATISTICAL 

ANALYSES BASED ON THE 

GOOMEX STUDY DESIGN 

Dr. Roger H. Green 

Department of Zoology 

University of Western Ontario 

London, Ontario, Canada 

THE GOOMEX STUDY DESIGN REGARDING 

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 

A primary concern in the design of the GOOMEX 

Phase I study was to collect a data set that would 

provide a statistically rigorous test of the major 

hypotheses. The study design facilitates the 

description of patterns in space and time of the 

biological, toxicological, chemical, sedimentological, 
110 

ignored, then the last step in the sequence would 

have to be done for each platform-by-cruise 

combination. 

The outermost distance category (FAR = >3,000 m) 

was intended to provide a control in the sense that it 

was chosen to be beyond any likely platform-related 

impacts. Thus it represents natural, baseline 

conditions . Our design does not allow for an a priori 

test to answer the question : how far away from 

platforms do effects extend? This would have to be 

answered with a post hoc test, e.g ., a multiple 

comparison test where distance from the platform is 

treated as a categorical variable . In fact, the actual 

distance of a sample from a platform is available as 

a continuous variable so that the pattern of effects 

can be modeled and graphed. The sampling plan was 

designed to detect near-field impacts and 

contaminant gradients extending out from a platform . 

Oversampling within the near field ( <3,000 m) is 

designed to define the spatial scale of the impact 

based on an exponential decline in contaminant 

concentrations . The sampling design includes S radii, 

5 distances per radius, and n pseudoreplicates (e .g . 

n=2 from a boxcore) per each R-by-D combination. 

The study design is based on a dose-response model. 

Contaminant concentrations should decline 

exponentially with distance away from the platforms. 

Biological responses should be a function of the 

contaminant gradient ; thus a detectable response 

would dissipate with distance from a platform also . 

The basic form of a dose response model is : 

Y = e-kx 

Where Y is the response, and X is the dose. This 

non-linear response can be transformed so that linear 

models can be used to analyze the data with the 

following formula: 

log y=a+bX 

This suggests that contaminant and organism 

abundance variables should be transformed 

logarithmically. One would also come to the 

conclusion to use log transformation on most 

variables from an entirely different line of logic. An 

important assumption for using ANOVA is 

homogeneity of sample variances. Based on the data 

from the first two cruises, it has been found that the 

variances of contaminant variables and organism 

abundances are stabilized with log transformations. 

All data from boxcores; e.g ., contaminant 

concentrations, grain size, meiofauna, macrofauna, 

and pore water toxicity tests are analyzed using the 

same statistical procedures . Data from trawls are a 

subset of the same design, since there are just two 

stations per platform (NEAR and FAR on one 

radius). Some data elements require additional 

analyses that are unique to their particular area of 

science (e .g ., size frequency analysis). 

There are four different categories of study design 

within the overall GOOMEX sampling scheme. 

These are summarized in the following table. Any 

cruise-by-platform subset of the data could be 

analyzed by itself (Case 1) . Platforms could be 

compared on any given cruise (Case 2) . The total 

design can be analyzed with all C*P*R*D 

interactions (Case 3) . If among-cruise variation is 

relatively unimportant whereas among-platform 

variation is meaningful, we can pool over cruises and 

do analyses platform-by-platform (Case 4). In all 

four cases, if D is treated as a continuous variable 

(i .e ., an ANCOVA) and Y is a log-transformed 

variable, then we are using the dose-response model. 

Platforms 

Cruises 1 >1 

1 Case 1 : Case 2: 

Unique C*P analyses Unique C analyses 

>1 Case 4: Case 3 : 

Unique P analyses Total design analyses 

Case 1 implies that there is no generality : every C*D 

combination is unique and has to be analyzed by 
111 

itself. In SAS notation the analysis would be by the 

model : Y = R D R*D; BY C P. The residual error 

(among pseudoreplicates at each R*D) would be used 

as the error to test R, D, and R*D. There is really no 

other choice . 

Case 2 implies that we can generalize over platforms, 

but not over cruises. This is unlikely ; it is much more 

likely that the reverse will be true (Case 4). The R 

are unique to particular P, so R is nested within P. 

The D, on the other hand, are crossed with both P 

and R(P). The SAS analysis model is: Y = P R(P) D 

P*D D*R(P). P is tested against R(P) which tacitly 

assumes R are random within a P. R(P), D and P*D 

are tested against D*R(P). D*R(P) is tested against 

replicate error. 

Case 3 implies full generality, over platforms as well 

as cruises. In other words it implies that patterns of 

effects re . D and R can be described independent of 

which platform it is or which cruise it is . This is 

unlikely, but it is our starting point. Its use will 

probably demonstrate that platforms are 

heterogeneous, and then we will move on to Case 4. 

Again R is nested within P. Here D and C are crossed 

with both P and R(P). The SAS model is : Y = C P 

C*P R(P) C*R(P) D P*D D*R(P) D*C P*D*C 

D*C*R(P), P is tested against R(P), and D and P*D 

against D*R(P). C and P*C are tested against 

C*R(P). R(P) is tested against a composite error 

term. D*R(P) and C*R(P) are tested against 

D*C*R(P), which is tested against replicate error. 

THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS FLOW & 

EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS RESULTS 

The data analysis flows in the following sequence: 

Input phys/chem and design variable data, 

and label levels of some design variables. 

Sort data by design variables. 

Check data by determining minimum & 

maximum values for variables. 

Evaluate variables for appropriate 

transformations. 

Transform the variables as appropriate. 

o Do a PCA and interpret results, regarding 

original variables and regarding the design 

variables. 

o Keep dominant Principal Components as 

new synthetic predictor variables. 

Input biological data. 

Do as in lines 2-5 above for the biological 

data. 

o Merge the phys/chem data with the 

biological data . 

Case 4 implies that we can generalize over cruises 

but not over platforms, which is likely . Cruises may 

be "significantly different" but we hope that 

among-cruise variation is relatively unimportant 

(whereas we expect among-platform variation to be 

substantial and meaningful) so that we can pool over 

cruises, and examine relationships platform-byplatform in the context of the within-platform design 

variables D and R. The SAS model is : Y = C R C*R 

D C*D R*D C*R*D, When R is declared as random, 

C is tested against C*R, R is tested against a 

composite error term, and D is tested against R*D. 

The double interaction terms, C*R, C*D, R*D are 

tested against C*R*D. Only the triple interaction 

term is tested against replicate error. 

Do Case 3 GLM analyses (ANOVAs & 

ANCOVAs). 

Do Case 4 (or Case 1) GLM analyses 

(ANOVAs & ANCOVAs). 

Do descriptive analyses to show what is 

going on at each platform (e .g. tables of 

means and SEs for each D*R combination, 

bivariate scatterplots labeled by D and R, 

model predictions of response variable 

values plotted against distance from 

platform as a continuous variable, P-by-P 

contour plots for variables with positions of 

D*R stations shown). 
112 

The need for and the choice of transformations of 

variables was assessed by determining the 

relationship of residual variance to residual mean 

(and thus the transformation needed to stabilize the 

variance), using the Taylor's Power Law model. The 

results agreed with the common practice and logic of 

transforming such data, so we recommend the 

following routine transformations: All contaminant 

concentration and organism abundance data should 

be log-transformed, or log(Y+1) transformed if zero 

values are present. Recall that log transformation of 

response variables also allows use of linear models to 

describe the non-linear (exponential decay) 

dose-response model. Percentage data (SANDP, 

SILTP AND CLAYP) should be "arcsin square root" 

transformed. Transformations are either inappropriate 

or unnecessary for the variables REDOX and 02. 

The PCA performs several functions here . It can be 

used to provide guidance in selection of a subset of 

variables. It can also provide new synthetic variables, 

the "PC scores," which can be used as response or 

predictor variables in GLM models . And PCA 

efficiently and effectively displays the multivariate 

data in relation to the design variables, i .e . as "PC2 

vs . PC1" plots with points coded by CRUISE, 

DCODE, SITE or RADIUS. Such plots can show 

some obvious patterns, even before formal 

hypothesis-testing statistics are done. They do so 

here and examples are shown. It is clear that cruises 

differ trivially if at all, that platforms differ a great 

deal and mostly on PC2 and PC3, that distances 

differ mostly on PC 1 and fall out in the order that 

would be expected. Properly interpreted PCA results 

can help tease apart confounded environmental 

gradients, such as contaminant concentrations versus 

substrate types. Here among-platform variation in 

substrate type loads heavily on PC2, and the 

distance-from-platform gradient in substrate type on 

PC 1 . 

Case 3 analyses show that platforms have 

meaningfully different patterns of response variables 

re . distance and direction from the platform, but that 

cruises - though often statistically significant in 

various regards - account for a relatively small 

amount of the variation. We then show some 

examples of Case 4 (and some Case 1) analysis 

results. For example, ANOVAs done at a platform 

with D and R as design variable predictors typically 

show significance for the D*R interaction, indicating 

that contaminants go different distances from the 

platform depending on the direction. This is shown in 

contour plots, and also in plots of model predictions 

against distance as a continuous variable, with points 

labeled by R. We also show that ANCOVAs done to 

predict a biological response variable from various 

contaminant variables (the covariates), in a D- by-R 

ANOVA design context, typically show a highly 

significant interaction between D and the covariate. 

This indicates among ring (distance category) 

differences in the relationship between the biological 

response and the contaminant. We then use plots of 

model predictions against distance as a continuous 

variable, with points labeled by R, to show that the 

source of the interaction is a strong and consistent 

negative relationship between biological response 

and contaminant at the NEAR distance category (the 

innermost ring) but no relationship further away from 

the platform . For example, above-baseline 

contaminant concentrations go out to 500-1,000 m 

from the platform (e.g . for Cd at HI-A389), but a 

relationship between harpacticoid copepod 

abundance and [Cd] is seen only at the innermost 

(NEAR) ring, i .e . distances of 30-50 m from the 

platform, and one can see that the relationship is 

driven by the highest [Cd] values . The same pattern 

is seen for harpacticoid abundance versus [Pb] and 

[Zn] . 

Dr. Roger Green is a Professor of Zoology at the 

University of Western Ontario, Canada. He has over 

25 years of experience in the biological sciences . His 

specialty is environmental biology/ecology and 

biostatistics. He has written a total of 49 refereed 

papers on the subject and one book entitled Sampling 

Design and Statistical Methods for Environmental 

Biologists . He has been invited to participate in 

numerous technical conferences and workshops 

concentrating on he design and analysis for 

environmental monitoring and study. He is currently 

consulting with seven governmental and/or industrial 

agencies on the environmental effects of chemical, 

noise, and nuclear pollution. 
113 

HYDROCARBON CONTAMINANTS 

ASSOCIATED WITH GOOMEX 

STUDY SITES 

Dr. Terry L. Wade 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

As a consequence of offshore oil/gas exploration, 

development and production activities, contaminants 

are released to the environment. Discharges of muds 

and cuttings during the drilling phase contain 

chemical contaminants including hydrocarbons, 

barium, and other trace metals . In addition to 

contaminants discharged during drilling activities, 

chronic long-term discharge and releases during the 

development and production phases may result in the 

accumulation of contaminants in the surrounding 

benthos. One objective of the GOOMEX program 

was to test the hypothesis that contaminants and 

other chemical parameters are not significantly 

different near to as compared to far from platforms. 

Sediment contaminant distributions were also used to 

support studies of biological effects related to 

chronic, sublethal contaminant exposure. An 

extensive field program was conducted at three sites, 

High Island A389 (HIA-389), Mustang Island A85 

(MU-A85), and Matagorda Island 686 (MAI-686). 

Sediment samples were collected by boxcore on a 

radial pattern with sampling stations at 30-50, 100, 

200, 500, and >_3,000 m. Megafauna were collected 

by otter trawl. The ?3,000 m stations served as 

controls in the study design. 

Compared to marine settings impacted by spills and 

coastal areas that experience long-term chronic 

contamination, hydrocarbon sediment concentrations 

were low at the platform sites studied. Indicators of 

petroleum contamination are highest near, and 

decrease rapidly with distance away from, a platform. 

The contaminant field in general exhibits a 

significant directional orientation in response to 

bottom current transport processes. These effects are 

most apparent at MU-A85 and HIA-389. Based on 

the barium concentration and grain size distribution 

(high sand content), the high sediment hydrocarbon 

concentrations appear to be caused by disposal 

practices during the drilling phase. Pyrolytic 

hydrocarbons are more generally distributed over the 

study areas, indicating possible atmospheric transport 

and deposition of these PAH. 

Selected megafauna were also analyzed for 

contaminants including PAHs. Generally, only low 

concentrations of PAH, near the method detection 

limits were observed in these organisms. The low 

contaminant burdens in tissues may reflect the low 

sediment PAH concentrations detected as well as the 

ability of vertebrates (i .e ., demersal fish) to 

metabolize PAH. Statistical testing supported the 

hypothesis that invertebrates and vertebrates tissue 

contaminant concentrations were not significantly 

different at control stations (>_3,000 m) as compared 

to organisms collected close (less than 100 m) to a 

platform . No significant increase in bioaccumulation 

related to proximity to a platform was apparent . The 

lack of an indication of induction of detoxification 

enzyme systems in demersal fish in close proximity 

to platforms also confirms that biotic exposure is 

minimal if present at all. 

Hydrocarbon concentrations in sediments, pore 

waters, and biological tissues were determined . 

Hydrocarbon analyses were performed by protocols 

developed for the NOAA National Status and Trends 

(NS&T) Program and EPA Environmental 

Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) and 

include aliphatic (i .e ., n-C,o C isoprenoids) and 

polycyclic aromatic (i .e ., Co C4 alkylations) 

hydrocarbons . The associated analytical quality 

assurance program was similar in scope to NOAA 

NS&T and EPA EMAP programs and included the 

analyses of blanks, surrogates, internal standards, 

matrix spikes, calibration checks, and Standard 

Reference Materials with sample batch of samples. 

Hydrocarbon contamination associated with the 

platforms studied is low and localized within the 

immediate vicinity (< 200 m) of the platform. "The 

localization of contaminants at MU-A85 and HIA389 is attributable to the practice of bottom shunting 

of platform discharges during drilling and the low 

energy (deeper water) environment. MAI-686 

exhibited little or no hydrocarbon gradient related to 

the platform probably due to a combination of 

surface shunting of the platform discharges and the 

high energy (shallower water) setting. The volume of 

discharges during drilling and the discharge history 

of the location must also be considered in 

interpreting the resultant contaminant distributions . 

Sediment PAHs contained two and three ring PAH 
114 

and little of the higher molecular weight, more 

carcinogenic PAHs. The PAH detected in sediments 

can in large part be attributed to hydrocarbons 

indigenous to cuttings and not platform additives, 

discharges, or spills . 

Principal component analysis allows for the 

description of a consortium of independent variables. 

The first principal components which explains 35.4% 

of the variance, is related positively to several 

contaminants including aliphatic hydrocarbons, 

alkylated PAH, Ag, Ba, Cd, Hg, Pb, Zn and 

negatively to AI. The second principal component, 

which explains 13 .2% of the variance, is positively 

related to sediment parameters including pyrogenic 

PAH, grain size, Al, Fe, Cr, Ni, and Se and 

negatively related to sand content. The use of 

principal components shows that many of the 

contaminants measured co-vary and that the observed 

differences in sediment contaminants at near versus 

far stations are statistically significant. 

Dr. Terry L. Wade, Senior Research Scientist, is 

Associate Director for Environmental Chemistry at 

the Geochemical and Environmental Research Group 

in the College of Geosciences and Maritime Studies 

at Texas A&M University . Dr. Wade has been active 

in the field of marine organic environmental 

chemistry for over 20 years and is a respected 

international expert in environmental chemistry. He 

has more than 90 environmentally related 

publications which deal with the sources and 

environmental fate of trace contaminants in air, 

water, sediments, soils and organisms. Dr. Wade has 

presented the results of his research at national and 

international meetings. 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Senior Research 

Scientist, is Chief Chemist of the Geochemical and 

Environmental Research Group with the College of 

Geosciences and Maritime Studies at Texas A&M 

University . Dr. Kennicutt has expertise and research 

interests in marine chemistry, environmental 

chemistry, and organic geochemistry. He received a 

B.S . in chemistry in 1974 from Union College and a 

Ph.D . in oceanography from Texas A&M University 

in 1980. Dr. Kennicutt has published over 100 peerreviewed papers, numerous book chapters, and has 

made scientific presentations world-wide. 

TRACE METAL CONTAMINANTS 

ASSOCIATED WITH GOOMEX 

STUDY SITES 

Dr. Paul N. Boothe 

Dr. Bobby J. Presley 

Trace Element Research Laboratory 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

Trace metals are added to the sediment column in 

significant amounts by discharges from offshore 

petroleum drilling activities . The metals represent a 

source of enhanced, chronic contaminant exposure 

which can potentially impact both infauna and 

epifauna in the vicinity of drilling platforms. 

GOOMEX is a large-scale study aimed at rigorously 

evaluating near and far field differences at petroleum 

drilling sites. The purpose of the trace metal work 

element was to determine the spatial and temporal 

distribution of trace metals in sediments and 

interstitial waters around each GOOMEX study site, 

and to rigorously define statistically significant 

differences in the inorganic exposure regime between 

near (< 2,000 meters) and far (? 3,000 m) fields at 

each site . In addition, trace metal levels were 

determined in resident biota (fish and invertebrates) 

to look for statistically significant differences in 

bioaccumulation between near and far fields . 

Five drilling sites were sampled during the first 

winter cruise (January 1993). Sediment samples were 

collected in a radial pattern from 30-50 to >_3,000 m 

around each site (2 replicates at 25 stations = 50 

samples). Approximately 60 megafauna samples (30 

near field and 30 far) were collected by trawling at 

each site . The three study sites with the strongest 

chemical gradients (MAI-686, MU-A85, HI-A389) 

were sampled in the same way three more times 

(June 1993, January and June 1994). Over 800 

sediment samples (818) and 847 biota samples were 

analyzed. Thirty selected pore water samples from 

each of the first two cruises were also analyzed. 

Most of the trace metals selected for analysis are 

priority pollutants (Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, 

Sb, Se, Zn) which are known to be toxic to 

organisms. Tin (Sn) was also included because of its 

potential toxicity . Barium (Ba) was selected because 

it is sensitive tracer of the particulate, settleable 

fraction of drilling discharges . Barium (as barite) is 
115 

the dominant component of drill mud (up to 90% on 

a dry weight basis) and the background concentration 

of sediment Ba in the Gulf of Mexico is low (200-

500 ppm dry weight). Aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) 

were chosen because they vary as a function of grain 

size (i .e . high in clay, low in sand) and can be used 

to characterize variations in sediment type around 

each platform. Vanadium (V) was included because 

it can occur in high concentrations in crude oil. All 

16 elements were measured in sediment, 14 in biota 

(except Al, Sb) and seven in pore water (Ba, Cd, Cu, 

Hg, Pb, V, Zn). 

Analytical methods, proven and accepted through use 

in national environmental monitoring programs 

(NOAA NS&T and EPA EMAP), were used in this 

study. These are sensitive methods capable of 

accurately determining actual trace metal 

concentrations even in uncontaminated, pristine 

areas. To insure the highest data quality, a 

comprehensive quality assurance (QA) program was 

conducted as part of the study. This QA effort 

involved extensive additional field and laboratory 

QA samples as well as stringent QA acceptance 

criteria . 

Since Ba is the major elemental tracer in drilling 

muds, much of the data interpretation focuses on 

inter-relationships with Ba. Figure 2A.1 shows the 

average spatial distribution for Ba. 

Ba trends observed in this study are highly 

significant (except MAI-686) with distance (<_ 500 m) 

and consistent with previous platform studies. 

Sediment Ba levels vary greatly among the study 

sites. These differences are a function of both the 

amount of barite discharged and the degree of 

sediment transport (scouring) at each site (Boothe 

and Presley 1985). Analysis of sediment cores shows 

that the Ba is mixed deeper in the sediment column 

at the shallow water sites (MAI-686, MLT-A85, ? 20 

cm) than at HI-A389 (10-15 cm). Mass balances of 

excess Ba, using sub-surface Ba profiles, show that 

only 1-10% of the Ba discharged is retained in near 

field (< 500 m) sediments (Boothe and Presley 1985). 

The spatial distribution of Ba is highly directional at 

all sites. The contaminant field appears to be 

temporally stable despite inter-cruise differences. 

Pore water data showed little correlation with 

corresponding solid phase trace metal levels . 

Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to 

assess systematically inter-relationships among the 

numerous contaminant, sedimentology and water 

quality parameters in the large GOOMEX data set. 

One component (PC 1) includes Ba, several covarying 

metals (Ag, Cd, Hg, Pb and Zn), hydrocarbons and 

sand. The positive correlation between coarse 

sediment and contaminants is unusual but reflects the 

drill cuttings "halo" present at each site. A second 

1000000 

3 MAI-686 

100000 E3 MU-A85 

a 

" HI-A389 

10000 -- 

1000 - 

10 100 1000 10000 

Distance (m) 

Figure 2A.1 . Mean surficial (0-2 cm) sediment Ba as a function of distance at the final GOOMEX study sites. 
116 

component (PC2) includes Al, Cr, Fe which track 

fine-grain sediment. 

Invertebrate soft tissue (278 samples; shrimp, crabs, 

bivavlves, polychaetes), fish livers (248) and fish 

stomach contents (321) were analyzed from both near 

field (- 100 m) and far field (>_ 3,000 m) trawls made 

at each study site during all four sampling cruises. 

Contaminants in organism tissues exhibited 

significant inter-cruise and inter-site variability due 

in part to variability in the species composition. Few 

significant differences due to distance (i .e . near vs . 

far ) were observed. The stomach contents of fish 

collected in near field trawls at HI-A389 exhibited 

significantly higher Ba concentrations than those of 

far field fish . Ingestion of Ba-enriched sediments is 

the most likely explanation for this observation. Iron 

levels were higher in certain types of organisms (e .g . 

stomach contents, invertebrates) collected in the far 

field trawls at MAI-686 and HI-S389. Again, 

ingestion of iron-rich sediments at these sites is the 

likely cause. The elevated far field Fe trend has been 

observed in a previous study (Boothe and Presley 

1987). 

REFERENCE 

Boothe, P.N. and B.J . Presley. 1985 . Distribution and 

behavior of drilling fluids and cuttings around 

Gulf of Mexico drilling sites. Washington, D.C . : 

American Petroleum Institute. 140 pp. 

Dr. Paul N. Boothe is a research scientist in the 

oceanography department (chemical section) and 

manager of the Trace Element Research Laboratory 

at Texas A&M University . He received his Ph.D. 

degree in marine science from Stanford University in 

1978 and has been on the research staff and graduate 

faculty at Texas A&M since that time . His research 

interest include trace element biogeochemistry and 

environmental chemistry and the application of clean 

chemistry techniques to pollutant monitoring. Dr. 

Boothe has conducted research on the environmental 

implications of offshore petroleum production since 

coming to Texas A&M and is a recognized expert on 

the dispersion and fate of drilling mud barite in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. 

Dr. Bobby J. Presley is a Professor of Oceanography 

at Texas A&M University and has been active in 

marine geochemical research for more than 15 years. 

He has been the Principal Investigator on more than 

25 different research projects, funded by NSF, 

NOAA, BLM, COE, API, and ONR. These projects 

have addressed fundamental problems concerning the 

behavior of chemicals in the environment and 

pollutant effects of inorganic chemicals. Dr. Presley 

was a Principal Investigator on the original (1971) 

NSF/IDOE Pollutant Baseline Survey in the Gulf of 

Mexico, and since that time he has directed numerous 

pollution-related studies. He is currently conducting 

the trace metal component of an American Petroleum 

Institute on the "Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluid 

and Cutting Discharges in Shallow, Nearshore 

Waters." 

MEIOFAUNA ECOLOGY AT 

GOOMEX STUDY SITES 

Dr. Paul A. Montagna 

Marine Science Institute 

The University of Texas at Austin 

The goal of GOOMEX is to develop and recommend 

sensitive and appropriate techniques to assist 

monitoring activities of offshore oil and gas 

production . To accomplish this goal, a range of 

biological, biochemical and chemical methodologies 

are being tested to detect and assess chronic sublethal 

effects of offshore oil and gas production. 

Documentation of detoxification response to 

contaminant exposure is defined as the primary 

objective of GOOMEX. A secondary objective is to 

document the impacts of any contaminant exposure 

at the organism, population, or community level. 

Benthic infauna studies are designed to fulfill the 

secondary objective. 

The benthic infauna component of the GOOMEX 

program focuses on organisms that live in sediments. 

Both meiofauna and macrofauna are being studied. 

Meiofauna are the smallest living metazoans, passing 

through a 500 pm sieve and retained on a 63 pm 

sieve. Macrofauna are larger, being retained on a 500 

pin sieve. Although the operational definition of 

these two groups is based on sieve sizes, the groups 

are dominated by different taxa. The meiofauna are 

composed primarily of nematodes and harpacticoids. 
117 

Macrofauna are composed primarily of polychaetes 

and amphipods. 

Samples for meiofauna come from subcores of box 

cores. As described previously (Kennicutt), the box 

core stations are located at five distances from the 

platform along five different aces, yielding 25 

stations per platform in a radial design . The boxcore 

is subdivided into 25 subcores. Two meiofauna cores 

(area=2.8 cm') are taken from two different subcores 

of each boxcore. Samples are preserved in the field 

and analyzed back at the laboratory . Five separate 

meiofauna studies are being performed: community 

structure (abundance and diversity), harpacticoid life 

history and reproduction, harpacticoid toxicity, 

harpacticoid genetics, and nematode feeding guilds 

and trophic dynamics . We are testing hypotheses to 

detect changes in benthic infauna with respect to 

distance from the platforms. Abundance changes are 

detected using analysis of variance procedures 

(Green). Community structure changes are detected 

using diversity and eveness indices, cluster analysis, 

and multivariate statistical procedures . Meiofauna 

data is compared and correlated to changes in other 

biological and environmental data. Relevant 

biological data are abundance of macroinfauna and 

sea urchin pore water toxicity test results. Relevant 

environmental data are water depth, bottom water 

salinity, temperature, and oxygen content; and 

sediment grain size, total organic carbon, trace metals 

and hydrocarbons. 

During the first cruise, two stations at each platform, 

designated "near" and "far," were oversampled to 

examine sampling statistics . Cores were also split 

into 2 sections at 0-2 and 2-4 cm to verify the 

adequacy of using just the top two cm of sediment. 

The majority of organisms (82% of the meiofauna) 

were concentrated in the top 2 cm of sediment. 

Generally, fewer organisms were found in surface 

sediments near the platforms indicating a platform 

affect on vertical distributions. An analysis was 

performed to determine the power of our sampling 

design . The overall average density was 722 

individuals core-1, and the mean square error was 

62,983 . The break in the power curve appears after 

four samples, meaning more than four samples does 

little to increase resolving power. A test for near 

versus far effects would be based on 20 samples (=2 

replicates 5 radii 2 distances), and we could detect a 

40% change with this design with 0.80 power 

(=0.20) . With just two samples, we can detect a 

100% change (a doubling) among stations . Variance 

components analysis was performed to determine if 

using subcores as replicates from one box core is 

sufficient . Alternatively, one subcore from 2 

boxcores might be a better sampling design . Most of 

the variability in the study is among platforms (54%) 

and the platform* station interaction (33%). 

Practically, none of the variability is due to replicate 

boxcores (0 .1%). Therefore, one boxcore per station 

and using replicate subcores is a sufficient sampling 

protocol . 

The overall average density at all study sites during 

for all cruises was 1,170 individuals core-1 (which is 

equivalent to 4,127 10 cm-2) to a sediment depth of 

2 cm. This density is much higher than previously 

reported in the Gulf of Mexico. Overall, nematodes 

comprise 69% of the organisms, harpacticoids are 

15%, and 11 other taxa represent the remaining 16%. 

None of these "other" taxa occur in large numbers. 

Eight different variables were examined : total 

meiofauna density, Nematoda density, Harpacticoida 

density, other meiofauna taxa density, the 

Nematode : Copepod ratio, nematode biomass, 

nematode diversity, and harpacticoid diversity. 

The first statistical analysis was performed to test the 

sample design to detect interactions among cruises, 

platforms and distances from platforms. Interactions 

among cruises, platforms and distances mean that 

overall analyses can't be interpreted simply, i .e ., the 

overall test for a distance effect would not be valid. 

Harpacticoid diversity was the only variable where 

no interactions were present. All interactions were 

related to uniqueness of platforms. Therefore, all 

meiofauna response variables had to be analyzed by 

platform, except for harpacticoid diversity. 

Harpacticoid diversity exhibited statistically 

significant cruise, platform and distance differences. 

A Tukey test revealed that the inner ring (50 in) from 

the platform had lower diversity than at all other 

rings. The highest diversity was found at the 

outermost ring (>_3 km distance from the platform). 

There was a significant linear increase in 

harpacticoid diversity with respect to distance from 

the platform (linear contrast). These results indicate 

that harpacticoids were the only response variable for 

which a general statement about all platforms can be 

made. 
118 

The second statistical analysis performed was an 

analysis of covariance for each platform, where the 

actual distance from the platform is a covariate in the 

model . The advantage of using this model is that it 

removes interactions due to platform, distance, and 

radial uniqueness . Directionality of a response is 

tested by the distance*radii interaction. The specific 

null hypothesis being tested is that there is a 

logarithmic change with respect to distance from a 

platform. 

Platform effects are clearly evident at HI-A389 

(Table 2A.1). Every variable, except the density of 

other meiofauna taxa exhibited a statistically 

significant response with respect to distance from the 

platform. Platform MAI-686 had significant 

differences for all abundance measures and 

harpacticoid diversity. Platform MU-A85 had only 

one significant measure: nematode biomass. Total 

abundance measures and harpacticoid diversity were 

significant at the two platforms where effects were 

found. 

A factor analysis was performed on the species 

composition data for nematodes and harpacticoids 

todetermine what was correlated with changes in 

community structure. For nematodes, differences 

were mainly due to platforms. There were also 

differences due to inner ring at all platforms. For 

harpacticoids, differences were due to platforms and 

to inner rings at all platforms except MUA85.Harpacticoid body length and reproduction 

studies were also performed. If animals have to divert 

energy for growth and maintenance to detoxification 

then there should be smaller body sizes and less 

reproductive effort as a sublethal response. 

Two species were chosen and adult body lengths 

were measured . Because individuals were not found 

at every station, body length measurements were 

pooled into near and far categories by comparing the 

inner ring (>50 m) versus all outer rings (>50 m). 

There were no interactions for cruises, platforms and 

stations (near and far) . There were also no significant 

distance effects for body lengths. 

All gravid harpacticoid females found were reserved ; 

egg numbers were counted and egg diameters were 

measured . There were no significant distance effects 

for clutch size . However, there was a significant 

difference for total reproductive effort (clutch 

volume) at two platforms (MAI-686 and MU-A85). 

Since, egg numbers were the same among stations, 

differences in reproductive effort are due to smaller 

egg sizes near platforms. Statistical relationships are 

Table 2A.1 . Summary of analyses covariance by platform . Asterisks (*) indicate significance levels for the test that 

there are no significant distance effects at platforms. Abbreviations: *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, 

****P<0.0001 . 

Variable HI-A389 MAI-686 MU-A85 

Total meiofauna density 

Nematode density * * * * * * - 

Harpacticoid density * * * * * - 

Other meiofauna taaca density 

Nematode : Copepod ratio ** - - 

Nematode biomass ** - *** 

Nematode diversity ** - - 

Harpacticoid diversity * ** - 
119 

related to sample size. It appears that at least 100 

females must be included to detect change. 

Toxicity of pore water extracted during the first 

cruise was estimated using nauplii of the harpacticoid 

species Longipedia americana. There were no 

significant difference in survival after 96 hours at 

platforms MU-A85, GA-288, MAI-686, and MAI622. At HI-A389, there were significant differences 

in the number of surviving nauplii between near and 

far sites (P=0.0001). These results are similar to the 

results obtained using sea urchin gametes. 

Meiofauna, particularly Harpacticoida, are restricted 

to the surface of Gulf of Mexico shelf sediments. 

Therefore, meiofauna are affected by deposition of 

contaminant materials associated with platforms. The 

current sampling regime has sufficient power to 

detect small changes in the meiofauna community. 

Harpacticoids are the best indicators of platform 

effects. This is true for both total abundance and 

species diversity and reproductive effort . 

Harpacticoid abundance, diversity, reproductive 

effort and survivability declines as we sample nearer 

the platforms. Nematode diversity does not appear to 

be useful for detecting platform effects, since there 

was only one no discernable trend at HI-A389. The 

nematode :copepod ratio was only an effective 

indicator at the HI-A389 platform, suggesting that 

this is not a good general index of platform affects. 

All platforms have completely different abiotic 

characteristics in terms of depth, oxygen content, and 

sediment grain size (except for the two MAI 

platforms, which are identical) . Within a platform 

area, factor analysis using PCS of environmental 

measurements indicates that there seems to be little 

influence due to these environmental characteristics 

on community structure, but most differences among 

platforms can be attributed to natural variation and 

gradients in theses abiotic components . 

Changes in meiofaunal responses are noticeable only 

within 50 m of platforms. Strongest response was 

found at MAI-686, probably due to local hypoxia 

events during the summer sampling seasons. The 

response at HI-A389 is probably due to shunted 

effluent . There was no community response at 

MU-A85. 

The best indicators of change are the following: total 

meiofauna density (which indicates potential lethal 

responses (if other hypotheses, e.g., fish predation 

and sediment grain size effects are rejected), 

harpacticoid diversity (which indicates a sublethal 

community response), harpacticoid genetic diversity 

(Street; which indicates response at the population 

level) and harpacticoid reproductive effort (which 

indicates a sublethal organism response). The ability 

to detect differences in harpacticoid community, life 

history, and reproductive parameters demonstrates 

that we will be able to develop reliable indicators of 

sublethal responses. Coupled with genetic and 

toxicity studies, the study of the biology of the 

Harpacticoida should prove to be a powerful tool 

monitoring purposes. 

Dr. Paul A. Montagna is a benthic ecologist with 

more than 20 years' experience . He has worked at the 

University of Texas at Austin since 1986 and is 

presently an Associate Professor in the Department 

of Marine Science and Research Scientist at the 

Marine Science Institute in Port Aransas, Texas. Dr. 

Montagna received his B.S . in biology from State 

University of New York at Stony Brook, a M.S . in 

biology from Northeastern University, and a Ph .D . in 

biology from the University of South Carolina. 

MACROINFAUNA ECOLOGY AT 

GOOMEX STUDY SITES 

Dr. Donald Harper 

Marine Laboratory 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

Macroinfaunal samples were collected from three 

subcores in each box core . The subcores to be used 

for macroinfauna were randomly assigned prior to 

collecting the samples. The sediment in each subcore 

was extruded to a depth of 10 cm. The sediment was 

washed on a 0.5 ~im mesh sieve, placed in a prelabeled jar, and fixed with 5% seawater-formalin. In 

the laboratory, samples were rinsed with fresh water 

and preserved in rose bengal-stained 70% ethanol. 

They were subsequently examined using low power 

magnification. All specimens were removed, sorted 

to polychaete and non-polychaete categories, and 

placed in clean 70% ethanol. Specimens were 

subsequently identified and counted. 
120 

A factor that may confound the results of this study 

to some extent is the small size of the sub-cores --

100 cmZ each. In the course of data analysis, it was 

determined that in 11% of the stations (30 of 330) the 

species composition of each of the three subcores 

was unique, i .e., there was no co-occurrence of 

species. Very often there was only one individual of 

each species present. The number of stations at which 

no co-occurrence occurred were Cruise 1 - 17, Cruise 

2 - 5, Cruise 3 - 2, Cruise 4 - 12. 

Seasonal trends in macroinfaunal abundance were 

similar at MU-A85 and MAI-686. Raw numbers of 

infauna were in the 700-900 range during Cruises 1 

and 2, increased to 1,600-1,800 during Cruise 3 and 

then decreased to about 600 individuals by Cruise 4. 

At HI-A389 infaunal numbers increased only slightly 

from Cruise 1 to Cruise 3 (900 to 1200 individuals) 

and then decreased again to 600 during Cruise 4. 

The areal distribution of total numbers of species at 

each site suggested that no trends could be detected. 

Comparison of abundances along radii indicated no 

consistent trends . However, when the data for each 

ring was summed and averaged, a distinct trend 

emerged. At all three sites, the 50-m ring had a 

slightly depressed number of species compared with 

the 100-m stations . Mean numbers of species per ring 

were similar at MAI-686 and HI-A389: numbers of 

species were in the mid-40 range at the 50-m ring, 

increased to the low-50 range at the 100-m ring, and 

then decreased to near or below the 50-m ring totals 

with increasing distance from the platforms. 

Although the pattern was similar at MU-A85, 

numbers were higher . The number of species 

increased from 63 on the 50-m ring to 78 on the 100-

m ring . The number then decreased to 56 at the 200-

m station and then returned to 63 by the 5,000-m 

station. 

Plots of areal distribution of macroinfauna at each 

site indicate that all three platforms had halos of 

various sizes surrounding them in which infaunal 

abundances were greater than in the far-field region. 

In order of increasing halo size, the sites were MAI686, MU-A86 and HI-A389 . MAI-686 had elevated 

abundances of 200 individuals or more at four 

stations close to the platform . There were also farfield stations to the south with 200 or more 

individuals. Between 100 and 200 individuals were 

collected at most of the stations . MU-A85 had 11 

stations with 200 or more individuals in the nearfield region . Most of the remaining stations yielded 

between 100 and 200 individuals. The largest 

abundances were found at HI-A389. This site also 

displayed a nearly symmetric pattern of decreasing 

abundances with increasing distance . Total 

abundances of >400 individuals were collected at 

three near-field stations . Abundances between 200 

and 400 occurred at four slightly more distant 

stations . Abundances between 100 and 200 

individuals occurred at nine near- and intermediatefield stations . Stations at 500-m and 5,000-m 

distances yielded <100 individuals. Comparison of 

abundances along radii indicated a fairly uniform 

trend. The 100-m and/or the 50-m station had larger 

numbers of individuals than the more distant stations. 

When data from rings are summed and averaged, a 

similar pattern emerges at all three sites. Near-field 

abundances were generally higher than at more 

distant rings. At MU-A85 abundances were slightly 

higher at the 100-m ring, while at MAI-686 and HIA389, abundances were highest at the 50-m station. 

The numerically dominant species differed at each 

platform . At the shallower MAI-686 site 

Mediomastus californiensis, a sob bottom dwelling, 

direct deposit-feeding polychaetous annelid was the 

numerical dominant at most stations . Paraprionospio 

pinnata (Polychaeta) and Ampelisca agassizi 

(Amphipoda) were numerically dominant at two 

stations . At MU-A85, Paraprionospio pinnata was 

the numerical dominant species at most stations. P. 

pinnata, a polychaetous annelid which typically 

inhabits temporary tubes in muddy to sandy mud 

sediments, is a surface deposit/suspension feeder 

which extends its palps over the substrate or into the 

water column to collect detrital and sediment 

particles. Tharyx annulosus, Foram A and 

Xenanthura brevitelson were each dominant at one 

station, all at 5,000-m distance . At site HI-A389, no 

species was numerically dominant throughout the 

study area . At four stations on the 50-m and 100-m 

rings cirratulid polychaetes (Cirratulus cirratus and 

Cirriformia sp. A) were numerically dominant ; these 

two species accounted for the very large (>400 

individuals) abundances found in the near-field 

region at this site . Cirratulids inhabit the surficial 

sediments and use palps and tentacular filaments for 

surface-deposit feeding. The HI-A389 site was also 

unusual in that 11 of the 25 stations had no species 

which was numerically dominant . Eight of these 

stations occurred on the 500-m and 5,000-m rings, 
121 

and were characterized by having relatively small 

numbers of individuals. 

The numerically dominant taxa were the Polychaeta, 

Amphipoda, Nemertea, Bivalvia, Decapoda, Isopoda 

and Foraminifera . These groups comprised about 

85% of all individuals collected. The data for each 

group was summed and averaged for each ring to 

determine if trends could be detected. The Polychaeta 

were more abundant at the 50-m and 100-m rings 

than at more distant stations ; at HI-A389 the 

abundances were considerably higher because of the 

contribution of cinatulid polychaetes. Amphipod 

abundance distribution was essentially the inverse of 

the polychaete distribution . Very low numbers were 

collected at the 50-m stations and the largest numbers 

mostly occurred at the 500-m and 5,000-m stations . 

Nemertean abundance trends were similar to the 

polychaete trends . Highest numbers were collected in 

the near-field area and lowest numbers in the far-field 

area . Bivalves showed no consistent distribution 

trend between sites. Largest numbers were collected 

on the 500-m ring at MAI-686 and MU-A85, but on 

the 50-m ring at HI-A389 . Decapod trends were 

likewise mixed. Numbers were low on all rings at 

MAI-686 . Largest abundances occurred on the 50-m 

ring at HI-A389 and on the 100-m ring at MU-A85 . 

Isopods were absent at MAI-686 and present in very 

low numbers at HI-A389 on all rings. At MU-A85 

the largest numbers were collected on the 50-m ring 

and the abundances decreased almost logarithmically 

to the 5,000-m ring . Foraminiferans were absent at 

MAI-686. At the other two sites, foram abundances 

were low in the near-field region and increased 

toward the far-field region, similar to the amphipod 

distributional patterns . 

Cluster analysis, using the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity 

index, flexible sorting and log transformation of 

abundance data, was used to produce site group 

dendrograms. If all data at one station (e .g . station 

IA) are summed over all cruises and all platforms, 

two site groups are produced . One group contains all 

500-m and 5000-m ring stations, and some of the 

200-m ring stations . The second group, which is 

quite distinct from the first, contains 50-m and 100-m 

ring stations and the remaining 200-m ring stations . 

All data summed for site HI-A389 produced 

essentially the same dendrogram, except that only 

one 200-m ring station was included with the 50-m 

and 100-m ring stations . MU-A85 data produced a 

two-group dendrogram in which the second group 

contained only 50-m and 100-m ring stations . MAI686 was quite different. Again, two major site groups 

were produced, but one 50-m and one 100-m ring 

stations were included with the far-field stations, 

while the near-field group contained one 5,000-m 

station and two 200-m stations . 

COMPARISON WITH DATA FROM OTHER 

STUDY COMPONENTS 

Low oxygen occurred at MAI-686 during both 

summer cruises. There is no evidence that the oxygen 

levels decreased enough to drastically affect the 

benthos. Abundance trends at both MAI-686 and 

MU-A85 were similar. Furthermore, abundance 

trends were downward at all three sites during 

summer 1994. 

All three sites had sand halos around, or near, the 

platforms; sand content in the sediments decreased 

with distance from the platform . The sands at MUA85 and HI-A389, both deep-water stations, were 

large and angular, typical of cuttings . 

Contaminants at MAI-686 were in low 

concentrations and did not vary significantly with 

distance from the platform, while at MU-A85 and 

HI-A389 hydrocarbon contaminants were 

significantly elevated in sediments collected near the 

platforms. The increase in hydrocarbon contaminants 

from site to site correlates with the increased 

macroinfaunal abundances on the 50-m ring from site 

to site . The highest concentrations of hydrocarbons 

were observed close to HI-A389. This site is also 

where the largest numbers of near-field infaunal 

organisms were collected. It is possible that 

microbiological assemblages in the sediment, which 

utilize hydrocarbons, may be providing a food source 

for the macroinfauna. 

Pore water toxicity tests (defined as success of 

fertilization of sea urchins eggs and normal larval 

development) were conducted on pore water 

extracted from sediments. Pore water from several 

stations in the HI-A389 near-field region showed 

toxic effects. Most of these stations coincided with 

large populations of cirratulid polychaetes. The 

"toxicity" does not appear to inhibit the settlement 

and survival of the infauna at these sites. Ophiuroids, 

the only echinoderm present in large enough numbers 

to permit averaging, were generally most abundant at 

the 50-m and 100-m rings. HI-A389 assemblages 
122 

contained the smallest numbers of ophiuroids of the 

three sites. 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY 

Select the one or two sites where abiotic 

variables (i .e . hypoxia, scour, etc.) have 

minimum impact. 

2. Reduce the number of stations sampled for 

biological components . 

3 . Establish a microbiologial program to investigate 

the possibility that hydrocarbon degrading 

bacteria are supporting the large populations of 

macroinfauna near the platforms. 

4. Collect at least three replicate samples of at least 

300 cm' each at each station for macroinfaunal 

analysis . 

5 . Remove meiofaunal and microbiological samples 

from the macroinfaunal samples. 

6. Continue monitoring the various taxa of 

macroinfauna 

7. Conduct experiments on selected taaca that show 

a negative correlation with the near-field area, 

e.g . amphipods. Establish breeding populations. 

Expose amphipods to newly collected sediment. 

Determine if, in the absence of predation, 

mortalities occur. 

Dr. Donald E. Harper, Jr . is an Associate Professor of 

Marine Biology at Texas A&M University at 

Galveston. Dr. Harper has been studying 

macrobenthic assemblages in the northern and 

western Gulf of Mexico since 1968. These research 

projects have had two major aims: to determine the 

long-term natural changes in species composition and 

abundances in relation to changes in physical, 

chemical and geological characteristics, and to 

determine the effects of man-made perturbations on 

the biota. He has participated in several field studies 

pertaining to petroleum production, including the 

Buccaneer Field Study (Harper et al. 1981), the 

Texas Bays Study (Mackin 1971), and the New 

Bayou Study (Nance 1984), and has conducted 

literature reviews and synthesis on unpublished 

reports pertaining to oilfield brine disposal (Harper 

1986). He has also studied the effects of dredging 

and spoil disposal and brine disposal . 
SESSION 2B 

INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO MARINE AND ENERGY EDUCATION 
125 

Session : 2B -INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO MARINE AND ENERGY EDUCATION 

Co-Chairs : Dr. Robert Rogers and Ms. Gail Rainey 

Date: November 16, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Innovative Approaches to Marine and Energy 

Education: Introduction and Overview 

The Gulf of Mexico Program's Approach to 

Environmental Stewardship Through Public 

Education 

Energy Education for the 90s and Beyond 

Marine Minerals : America's Undiscovered 

Treasure 

Teaching Science for the 21st Century 

Stimulating Knowledge of Marine Ecology 

Through Innovative Strategies 

Dr. Robert Rogers 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Ms. Belinda Duke 

Extension Environmental Specialist 

Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service for 

the Gulf of Mexico Program 

Mr. Gerard Katz 

National Energy Education 

Development Project (NEED) 

Martha Wise Hall 

Dr. John Dindo 

Assistant Director 

Dauphin Island Sea Lab 

Dr. Robert Thomas 

Vice President for Environmental Policy 

Audubon Institute 
127 

INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO 

MARINE AND ENERGY EDUCATION : 

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 

designed to provide a framework for environmental 

research of joint interest to the state of Louisiana and 

the MMS on OCS oil and gas and marine mineral 

issues . 

Dr. Robert Rogers 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) needs 

more emphasis on public education. As has often 

been mentioned during this year's Information 

Transfer Meeting, the MMS has an extensive 

program of information-gathering through the 

environmental studies program and an extensive 

network of users who utilize this information in lease 

sale decisions, oil and gas operations, stipulations 

formulation, and emphasis on safety in production 

and development activities . 

Despite the fact that the MMS has an extensive 

environmental studies program that began in 1973 

and covers a wide variety of disciplines, the public 

knows very little about the program and about the 

knowledge accumulated. Over $150 million has been 

invested in this program, making it one of the largest 

in the Gulf of Mexico. More emphasis is needed on 

educating the public about this information base . 

In the interest of fostering exchange of information, 

the MMS has entered into a number of projects 

emphasizing cooperation between decisionmakers 

needing the information and academicians 

researching the technical disciplines. The University 

Research Initiative is a cooperative agreement 

between the Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium (LUMCON) and the MMS. This 

program emphasizes the long-term impacts of OCS 

activities . MMS has benefitted not only from the 

information gathered but also from an infusion of 

information to the academic community on issues 

related to the oil and gas industry . A significant 

number of researchers, graduate students, and 

technicians have been trained in research related to 

these issues and sensitized to the complexities of oil 

and gas activities, from exploration through 

production and development. 

More recently, a similar program has been initiated 

with Louisiana State University . This program, the 

Coastal Marine Institute, is in its second year and is 

Historically the MMS has used its information base 

in decisionmaking related to a variety of in-house 

decisions. Clearly in a time of reinventing 

government and information highways, information 

must be shared not only for internal utilization but 

also for information exchange with users outside of 

MMS and outside of the federal government . 

The need for more effectively reaching the public 

with an understanding of the MMS, its studies 

program and its mandate for existence, is the purpose 

of this ITM session. This is the first time that we 

have had an ITM session designed expressly for 

emphasizing the need for public education. 

Presentations during this session will be made by 

individuals who are active in outstanding programs 

of public education emphasizing marine or energy 

awareness. These programs reach a wide variety of 

target audiences, from individual citizens and 

students to state and federal decisionmakers . What 

makes them effective will be discussed in this 

session. 

Dr. Robert Rogers is a Biological Oceanographer 

serving on the Environmental Studies Staff of the 

Gulf of Mexico Regional Office, Minerals 

Management Service. In this position he has 

participated in the development and administration of 

many ecological surveys of the Gulf of Mexico. This 

has included studies of the Flower Garden Banks of 

the Western Gulf, coastal wetlands of the Central 

Gulf, and seagrass beds of the Eastern Gulf. 

Dr. Rogers received his undergraduate and masters 

degrees from Louisiana State University and his 

Ph.D, from Texas A&M University . He has been 

involved in ecological research on the continental 

shelf and coastal wetlands of the Gulf of Mexico. 
128 

THE GULF OF MEXICO PROGRAM'S 

APPROACH TO ENVIRONMENTAL 

STEWARDSHIP THROUGH PUBLIC 

EDUCATION 

Ms. Belinda Duke 

Extension Environmental Specialist 

Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service for the 

Gulf of Mexico Program 

The Gulf of Mexico is undeniably one of the most 

valuable ecosystems in the world. The Gulf, 

"America's Sea," covers over 600,000 square miles. 

Its commercial fisheries annually produce nearly two 

billion pounds of seafood, and almost 90% of U.S . 

offshore oil and gas comes from Gulf waters . Four of 

our nation's busiest ports are on the Gulf, and other 

nations of the world fish its waters. 

But our treasure is troubled . The health and vitality 

of the Gulf has declined-in part because of 

increasing population along its coast and the 

accumulation of years of abuse, neglect and depletion 

of its resources. By ignoring the Gulf's limitations, 

we have reduced its ability to regenerate in the way 

that nature intended . 

In 1988, the Gulf Program (GMP) was established by 

the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency in 

response to public concern expressed about certain 

environmental issues in the Gulf of Mexico--

specifically the designation of a site in the Gulf for 

the incineration of toxic wastes . 

Other Federal partners also recognized the need to 

protect this treasure and joined the EPA in its 

response . Federal agencies involved currently in the 

Gulf of Mexico Program include Soil Conservation 

Services ; Army Corp of Engineers; U.S . Fish and 

Wildlife ; NOAA/National Marine Fisheries; U.S . 

Food and Drug Administration . State staff 

participation is provided by Mississippi Cooperative 

Extension Service and Mississippi Soil and Water 

Conservation Commission for the five Gulf states . A 

number of other agencies, citizen groups, and 

organizations make up the membership of the 

varying Gulf of Mexico issue committees. 

"The Gulf of Mexico Program's vision is of a Gulf 

flourishing in all its natural beauty; but the beauty 

and the resources of the Gulf are threatened . Our 

challenge is to meet this threat by interweaving the 

diverse interests of the various pertinent entities and 

focusing on the Gulf to protect, preserve, and restore 

America's Sea. 

To address this challenge, the Gulf of Mexico 

Program focuses its attention on the eight most 

crucial concerns involving the Gulf. Technical issue 

committees were established to develop strategies for 

implementing solutions to these environmental 

problems : Coastal and Shoreline Erosion; Freshwater 

Inflow ; Habitat Degradation; Living Aquatic 

Resources; Marine Debris ; Nutrient Enrichment; 

Public Health ; and Toxics and Pesticides . In addition 

to the issue committees, a Data and Information 

Transfer and a Public Education and Outreach 

Committees were established as operating 

Committees . 

The goal of the Public Education and Outreach 

Committee is to format the technical data and 

information gathered from the technical committees 

into "citizen-friendly" outreach and educational 

materials and presentations. This information is to be 

disseminated to every county and parish in the five 

Gulf coast states to create greater public awareness of 

environmental issues for the Gulf of Mexico. 

In recognition of the need to achieve greater public 

awareness of the issues the Gulf faces, the Gulf 

Program recently established the "The Gulf of 

Mexico Public Information Center." 

The Gulf Program's Public Information Center (PIC) 

is located at NASA, Stennis Space Center, 

Mississippi, along with the NASA Visitor Center. 

Over 100,000 visitors per year visit the NASA 

facility from all 50 states and over 60 countries. This 

center offers educational programs, tours, displays, 

and demonstrations for all ages . 

The Gulf of Mexico Public Information Center is a 

distribution center for materials concerning Gulf 

environmental issues . These materials, such as 

brochures and pamphlets, are made available by EPA 

and the other Gulf of Mexico Program Federal 

Agency partners . The Public Information Center 

provides an excellent point of exchange and is the 

focal point for Gulf of Mexico Program technical and 

characterization information. 
129 

Currently under formation, the Public Information 

Center will be open, providing visitors with a "handson" approach to Gulf environmental learning . 

Visitors will have the opportunity to view displays 

and demonstrations, interact with high tech 

equipment, have outreach and educational materials 

available, and receive instruction on the computer online Bulletin Board System (BBS). Tours for 

students, teachers and the general public can be 

arranged. 

Contacts for GMP/PIC are as follows: GMP/PICLynn York, Information Coordinator, Johnson 

Controls, (601) 688-7940 ; BBS Sysop-Kay 

McGovern, System Operator, Lockheed, (601) 688-

7671 ; Workshops, Outreach and Educational 

Programs-Belinda Duke, Extension Environmental 

Specialist, MS Cooperative Extension Service for the 

Gulf of Mexico Program, (601) 688-1519. 

REFERENCE 

Other available outreach activities include the 

Electronic Bulletin Board System . Available by 

dialing the BBS 1-800 number to the on-line Bulletin 

Board System (BBS) is a Gulf of Mexico Program 

Specialists Directory and Catalog of Environmental 

Databases. Gulf-related information can be obtained 

through this directory and catalog, which provides 

over 8,000 contacts, 2,000 organizations, and over 

100 databases. A wide array of environmental 

outreach and educational materials are available for 

downloading by use of the BBS. These materials are 

currently in English, but plans are in the works for 

the materials to be also available in Spanish. 

The Gulf of Mexico Symposium, celebrated 

biennially, is a report card to the nation highlighting 

innovative projects and programs throughout the Gulf 

region . The next Symposium will be in Corpus 

Christi, Texas, from 29 March to 1 April 1995 . There 

will be an educator's track, a student track and a 

challenge track (technical participation) . International 

involvement is being highlighted. 

"Gulfwatch,"our bi-monthly publication/newsletter, 

is available by mail or by dialing the BBS. The 

purpose of this newsletter is to inform interested 

agencies and individuals of current activities and 

findings related to the Gulf of Mexico. 

Workshops are conducted in coordination with 

NASA to teach environmental education to teachers 

and other interested groups. These consist of specific, 

topic-related seminars or Gulf general information 

seminars and are held at the facility . Continuing 

education workshops are coordinated with schools, 

aquariums, senior citizen groups, 4-H, minority 

groups, and other environmental 

organizations/associations or agencies, at those 

particular sites. 

The Gulf of Mexico Program-A Partnership for 

Action Document, 1992. Gulf of Mexico 

Program, Stennis Space Center, Miss., EPA 

Document . 

Belinda Duke is an Extension Environmental 

Specialist at the Mississippi Cooperative Extension 

Service for the Gulf of Mexico. Ms. Duke has been 

with the Gulf of Mexico Program since July 1993. 

She is a member of the Public Education and 

Outreach Committee and the Technical Advisory 

Committee and will serve as Education's Track 

Leader for the 1995 Symposium . 

ENERGY EDUCATION FOR THE 90S 

AND BEYOND 

Mr. Gerard Katz 

National Energy Education 

Development Project (NEED) 

The National Energy Education Development 

(NEED) Project is the flagship organization in the 

country dedicated to implementing comprehensive, 

non-biased energy education programming in the 

nation's schools. Established by Congressional 

Resolution in 1980, the NEED Project is now a vital 

force in more than 5,000 schools nationwide. 

Networks of educators, students, and government and 

industry leaders have been established in 28 states 

and the program is expanding every year. 

The NEED Project's goal is to prepare the next 

generation to make responsible energy decisions by 

developing the critical thinking and leadership skills 

of students . NEED's educational philosophy is to 
130 

encourage students to take responsibility for their 

own learning and that of others through hands-on 

activities and cooperative learning groups. 

The NEED Program provides teachers with 

comprehensive, up-to-date resources on all the major 

energy sources and activities to use with these 

resources. The activities are designed to encompass 

different learning styles, using art, drama, music, 

language arts, math and science skills. All students 

are given opportunities to be leaders and to work in 

groups as they learn about energy issues and their 

economic and environmental consequences. 

Student leadership is one of the key components of 

the NEED program. Students are encouraged to 

become involved in the training of others and in the 

implementation of their programs . Several state 

programs are run by veteran NEED students, and 

students serve as staff at all NEED training and 

awards conferences. 

The NEED Project also publishes Energy Exchange 

magazine three times a year . This magazine provides 

the most current information and discusses the latest 

issues in energy. Articles are written for teachers and 

students at different reading levels, with suggested 

activities for further exploration. NEED also 

conducts a national Youth Awards Program for 

Energy Achievement to recognize outstanding energy 

programs throughout the country. State programs 

submit their best school programs to the national 

judging and all outstanding schools are invited to 

attend the four-day National Recognition Ceremonies 

held in Washington, D.C . each June. 

The NEED Project has been working with MMS to 

implement partnership programs in several coastal 

regions, including Alaska, California, Texas, Florida, 

Alabama, and North Carolina . These programs 

provide teachers and students with leadership training 

workshops, class sets of materials to implement three 

to six week energy units, hands-on experiment kits, 

and evaluation tools. 

In Panama City, Florida, one of the training programs 

included a Let's Talk Energy Show dealing with the 

issue of oil and gas exploration on the OCS. A 

representative from MMS was one of the panelists on 

the show. Teachers and students were surveyed 

before and after the 45 minute activity to ascertain 

any changes in their knowledge and opinions about 

the issue. The survey results dramatically illustrate 

how information and education can make an impact 

on emotional energy issues. A copy of the survey 

results is attached . 

This year, in addition to implementing these school 

programs, the NEED Project is working with 

INTERMAR to develop an activity for high school 

students dealing with non-energy marine minerals . 

This activity should be available for distribution in 

the spring of 1995. The fall issue of Energy 

Exchange magazine, scheduled for distribution in 

early December, will feature an article for teachers 

and high school students on marine minerals in the 

EEZ. A draft of this article is also included here . 
131 

Panama City - Middle School Workshop 

16 February 1994 

"Let's Talk Energy Show" OCS Survey 

Students and teachers were asked to respond to each question with responses from 0 - 10, as 

follows : 

Strongly Disagree Not Sure Strongly Agree 

0 5 10 

1 . Efforts should be made to increase the supply of domestic energy sources. 

Before 7.2 

After 7.6 

2. Efforts should be made to increase the supply of domestic, clean burning, natural gas. 

Before 7.0 

After 7.0 

3. Exploration and production of natural gas should be undertaken in the panhandle area 

of Florida. 

Before 2.2 

After 3.6 

4. The development of offshore energy resources will hurt the fishing industry in the 

Florida panhandle. 

Before 7.9 

After 5.6 

5. The construction of offshore drilling and production platforms will be an ugly site when 

viewed from the shore. 

Before 8.5 

After 5.8 

6. The construction of offshore drilling and production platforms will have a bad 

environmental effect on the quality of the beaches. 

Before 8.3 

After 5.0 
132 

MARINE MINERALS: AMERICA'S 

UNDISCOVERED TREASURE 

Martha Wise Hall 

Draft of Article for 

Energy Exchange 

EEZ AND OCS-THE LIE OF THE LAND 

When most people think of the United States, a map 

of the country comes to mind. Everyone recognizes 

the outline of the USA and its borders. But our 

resources aren't confined to those borders-they 

reach much farther. Our borders extend 200 miles 

into the water from our coastlines and encompass an 

area bigger than the country itself. The submarine 

area claimed by the United States includes 3 .9 billion 

acres, whereas the land area of the country includes 

only 23 billion acres. 

This vast underwater area is called the Exclusive 

Economic Zone (EEZ) of the United States . By 

proclamation of the President in 1983, the United 

States claimed jurisdiction over all the areas within 

the EEZ and is responsible for protecting and 

developing its natural resources, both living and 

non-living . Other countries are free to travel and fish 

in the international waters of the EEZ to within 12 

miles of the coast, where territorial waters begin. The 

U.S . has exclusive jurisdiction over this area and 

foreign vessels cannot enter without permission . 

The undersea world extending away from the shore 

is a fascinating place. In most places, the continent 

extends into the ocean on a broad shelf that gradually 

descends to a sharp drop, called the continental slope. 

This continental shelf can be as narrow as 20 

kilometers along the west coast and as wide as 400 

kilometers along the northeast coast. The water on 

the continental shelf is shallow, rarely exceeding a 

depth of 150 to 200 meters . 

This shelf drops off dramatically at the continental 

slope, ending in abyssal plains that are three to five 

kilometers below sea level . Many of the plains are 

flat and featureless, while others are marked with 

jagged mountain ridges, deep canyons, and valleys. 

The tops of some of these mountain ridges form 

islands where they extend above the water. Some 

ridge crests contain hydrothermal vents-underwater 

geysers. Rich deposits of minerals and amazing 

plants and animals have been discovered around 

these vents. 

The EEZ regions surrounding the Pacific and 

Caribbean islands have different topographies . The 

island shelves are composed of volcanic rock on 

which coral reefs or carbonate sediments have 

developed. These shelves are very narrow and 

shallow, dropping off sharply to abyssal plains or 

deep ocean trenches . The Hawaiian Archipelago, for 

example, is a chain of volcanic mountains rising from 

plains five to 7.5 kilometers deep. 

Much of this submarine world has not been 

explored-it is the Earth's last frontier-but scientists 

do know about some of the resources in many areas. 

Most of us are aware of the rich deposits of oil and 

gas on the outer continental shelf (OCS), especially 

off the coasts of California and in the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

OIL, GAS, AND PHOSPHORITE 

Oil and gas reserves on the OCS are located in 

sedimentary rock basins, where organic matter settled 

millions of years ago. If the sediments that contained 

this organic matter produced the proper conditions of 

temperature and pressure, petroleum and/or natural 

gas was formed . Thirty basins in the EEZ have been 

identified that could contain enormous oil and gas 

reserves . Several of these basins have been explored 

and are producing oil and gas at this time. 

There are other marine minerals in the EEZ that can 

provide a wealth of resources to the United States in 

the future . They are located in or on the sediments of 

the subseabed and underwater mountain ridges . There 

are even resources in the muds and oozes, and 

dissolved in the seawater itself. 

The most important marine minerals are sand and 

gravel, shell, phosphorite, placer minerals such as 

gold and platinum, and heavy minerals such as 

titanium, chromium, and magnetite (Placers are 

minerals that were deposited in the ocean by the 

movement of water or glaciers .) Sand, gravel, and 

shell are widely distributed along the OCS. The other 

minerals are found only in certain areas or 

formations . 
133 

Phosphorite is found in deep depressions and 

sedimentary basins along stable regions of the 

continental shelf. It is mainly used in fertilizers, but 

is also an important ingredient in feed supplements, 

fireworks, and water treatment. At the present time, 

there are abundant onshore resources, and the U.S . 

exports some of its production . By the turn of the 

century, however, it is predicted that we will need to 

import phosphorite, based on remaining onshore 

reserves and consumption estimates . As onshore 

resources become more difficult and costly to extract 

and the land is valued more for other uses, offshore 

deposits may become an important resource . 

GOLD, PLATINUM, AND HEAVY MINERALS 

Gold is used for many purposes. Jewelry accounts for 

70% of U.S . use, but gold is also important to the 

electronics and aerospace industries, as well as to 

medicine and dentistry. Currently, the United States 

is the second leading producer of gold after South 

Africa and exports a small amount to other countries. 

Two dozen gold mines account for most of the gold 

production in the United States today. 

In today's economy, there is little incentive to recover 

offshore resources of platinum, chromium, and gold. 

Considering the limited onshore resources and the 

political instability of major suppliers, however, they 

may become important resources for the United 

States in the future . 

Deposits of placer minerals and heavy minerals are 

also located in pockets throughout the OCS. The 

United States has limited onshore deposits of most of 

these minerals and must import a significant 

percentage of its demand. Titanium is the only 

important mineral in this group that the U.S . exports 

in significant amounts, and its supplies are limited. 

Titanium is an essential mineral in the aerospace 

industry because of its ability to withstand high 

temperatures and is widely used as the white pigment 

in paints, paper, and plastics . There is no effective 

and economical substitute for titanium at this time . 

The United States imports almost 100% of the 

platinum we use, mostly from South Africa and the 

former Soviet Union. Most people think of jewelry 

when platinum is mentioned, but 97% of its demand 

is for industrial applications, especially in the auto 

industry . With the federally mandated phase-out of 

leaded gasoline, the demand for platinum has 

increased dramatically in the last few years. 

Automobiles that run on unleaded gasoline require 

catalytic converters, which are made with platinum. 

The demand for platinum will continue to increase in 

the near future, unless breakthroughs occur in 

experimental technologies for catalytic converters . 

Chromium is another mineral essential to the 

economic welfare of the country. Chromium is used 

in the manufacture of stainless steel and for other 

industrial purposes. It is considered a National 

Defense Stockpile item because of its importance in 

the production of cars, planes, and trains . At present, 

the U.S . imports more than 80% of the chromium it 

requires, mostly from South Africa . 

METALLIC SULFIDE ORES 

The hydrothermal vents located along volcanic ridges 

contain metallic sulfide deposits that are rich in zinc, 

manganese, iron, lead, and silver . Active vents 

(smokers) produce new deposits whenever they erupt. 

These minerals are used in many products, including 

batteries, paint, weights, crystal glass, jewelry, 

photographic and electronic equipment, plastics, and 

in the construction and transportation industries . 

Recently, deposits have been discovered off the coast 

of Oregon and around the Pacific Islands. Most of 

these deposits are located in water as deep as 10,000 

feet and are considered uneconomical to mine at the 

present time, but their potential is significant. 

The crust deposits associated with hydrothermal 

vents are rich in cobalt, manganese, and phosphorite. 

Cobalt is especially important to the aviation industry 

to make lightweight superalloys that can withstand 

high temperatures . The United States produces no 

cobalt-we import 75 percent of our supply and the 

remaining fourth is recycled from scrap. There has 

been some interest in recovering cobalt from offshore 

deposits near Hawaii . 

Manganese is also found in nodules on the Blake 

Plateau off the southeast coast and on the abyssal 

plains of the Pacific Ocean floor. It is used 

extensively in the manufacture of steel and in other 

industrial products, and is considered critical to 

national security . Nearly 100 percent of U.S . supply 

is imported and there is no satisfactory substitute . 
134 

SAND AND GRAVEL 

The most abundant and important marine mineral 

resource for the near future is sand and gravel . These 

minerals are found in large quantities along the 

seabed of the OCS. The sand and gravel can be 

mined using several types of dredges that remove it 

from the ocean floor and deposit it on barges or even 

pipe it directly to shore. Some dredges use suction to 

bring the sand and gravel to the surface, while others 

raise it in large buckets or scoops. 

Mixtures (aggregates) of sand and gravel are used in 

huge quantities in the construction of buildings, 

roads, railroad beds, dams, and airports, and in the 

restoration of shorelines . Historically, construction 

aggregate has been produced onshore in the United 

States because land resources have been plentiful and 

cheap. This situation is changing, however, for 

several reasons: economical sources are being 

depleted, lands with resources are more valuable for 

other uses, environmental concerns preempt use, and 

available resources are too far from markets. 

Construction aggregate is a low-cost item . A very 

small increase in price per ton can add dramatically 

to the total construction cost of a project. 

Transportation of the aggregate from the production 

site to the construction site is the largest cost-most 

aggregate is transported by truck. Therefore, to keep 

the transportation cost down, the aggregate must be 

produced locally. In many areas, there will soon be 

no local, land-based deposits, especially in big cities . 

The greatest demand for construction aggregate is in 

major metropolitan areas, where land prices are high 

and land use is restricted . Land development has 

made many of the local deposits unreachable; 

furthermore, the land is so valuable that communities 

don'twant to use it for aggregate production . In New 

York City, for example, aggregate costs are now 

three times the national average and researchers have 

predicted that available resources will be completely 

depleted within ten years. 

New York is not an isolated case . In the United 

States today, half of the population now lives within 

50 miles of a U.S . coastline, mostly in metropolitan 

areas. Since 1980, the biggest increase in population 

growth has been in the coastal states . And where 

population increases, construction increases. Where 

will the construction industry get the materials it 

needs at reasonable prices? 

One answer is from the oceans . The United States 

extracts very little sand and gravel from the OCS 

right now, but other countries have been doing it for 

years. Almost 25 percent of the sand and gravel 

produced in Japan comes from off-shore mining. The 

United Kingdom has been mining sand and gravel 

from the ocean since 1925 ; 15 percent of their total 

production is from marine mining . The Netherlands 

and Denmark also obtain much of their sand and 

gravel from off-shore sites. These countries have 

developed sophisticated mining equipment and have 

conducted numerous studies to determine the impacts 

of marine mining on the fishing industry and the 

environment. 

The technology is available to recover sand and 

gravel from the OCS economically, but the United 

States' sand-dredging industry is comparatively small 

and designed for near-shore work. Federal law at this 

time requires that any equipment used to mine 

minerals in the EEZ or transport them must be built 

in the United States ; therefore, America's ship 

builders may have to adapt equipment for deeper 

water projects . U.S . companies cannot buy the barges 

and dredges from countries already well-skilled in 

the business . 

Transportation of the aggregate is another 

consideration. Transportation costs will continue to 

increase for land-based mines, as production sites are 

located farther from metropolitan areas. Marine 

transportation by barge, on the other hand, costs 

about one-third as much per ton as trucking . 

TODAY AND TOMORROW 

One established area in which the United States uses 

marine sand is in the restoration of beaches. A 

substantial portion of the nation's coastline is eroding 

severely, causing damage to beaches, wetlands, and 

coastal properties . The traditional approach of 

building jetties has become very expensive and has 

often proved ineffective in the long run. 

Many coastal communities have been restoring their 

beaches using sand dredged from the ocean or from 

nearby navigational channels as part of their 

maintenance programs . Restoring the beaches with 

sand from the ocean is a cost-effective approach, 
135 

though studies are showing that sand cannot be 

dredged too near the shoreline without altering the 

current and wave patterns, which could intensify 

erosion. 

Crushed shell from the OCS is also used in some 

areas as a foundation for roadbeds and in the 

manufacture of fertilizer. Shell is not evenly 

distributed along the OCS, but in areas where it is 

abundant, it can be an economical alternative to 

onshore products. 

ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL 

IMPACTS 

Of course, the mining and transport of marine 

minerals does have an impact on the environment of 

the oceans, just as land-based mining affects the 

environment. During the period of active mining, 

there are disturbances of the water, with an increase 

in turbidity and noise. (Turbidity is the amount of 

sediment suspended in the water.) These disturbances 

may affect the plant and animal populations near the 

site . 

more economical and less damaging to the 

environment than the effects of recovering the same 

resource from the land. 

The EEZ contains an underwater treasure of 

resources for the United States . With careful 

management, these resources can be wisely and 

economically used and protected. 

As the founder of the National Energy Education 

Development (NEED) Project, Gerard (Jerry) Katz 

has guided the project's growth since its inception in 

1978. Jerry received his B.A. in physics from Herbert 

H. Lehman College in New York in 1973 and he 

completed graduate courses in education, curriculum 

development, and instruction from the State 

University at Albany and New Paltz. He taught 

physics and directed student activities for five years 

at Greenville High School in Greenville, New York, 

before dedicating himself full-time to the 

development of the NEED Project into a national 

organization . 

Effects that should be considered before permitting 

any dredging activity might include changes to the 

topography of the sea floor and changes to marine 

plant and animal communities on the site, as well as 

broader changes to the composition of the area's 

ecological systems. Studies are being conducted to 

determine how quickly the plant and animal 

communities in dredged areas reestablish themselves . 

Sometimes alterations caused by the mining cause 

problems for the local fishermen; discarded mining 

equipment and rough terrain can damage their nets . 

Fish populations can also be disturbed, at least during 

the time of active mining, and breeding grounds can 

be affected . Studies have shown that many of the 

changes to the marine environment appear to be 

short-term or can be mitigated with careful 

management. 

The ecology of the different areas of the EEZ is 

varied and complex. Marine mining in some areas 

will produce completely different effects than in 

others . Site by site environmental impact studies will 

need to be undertaken to protect the integrity of the 

EEZ, as is required of land-based mine sites. In many 

cases, the effects of marine resource recovery will be 

TEACHING SCIENCE FOR THE 

21ST CENTURY 

Dr. John Dindo 

Assistant Director 

Dauphin Island Sea Lab 

Dr. Bruce Alberts, a former president of the National 

Academy of Sciences states, "Schoolchildren should 

learn science the way scientists do, not by 

memorizing definitions in boring textbooks, but by 

doing science." Vice President Gore and Commerce 

Secretary Brown are trying to find support for a 

national information network utilizing fiber optics, 

yet the majority of all Americans have trouble 

programming their own VCR. Carl Sagen writes, 

"Less than half of all Americans know that the Earth 

moves around the Sun and takes a year to do it ." It is 

true today that there are scientist in the 

unemployment ranks, yet the United States still ranks 

seventh in science and math when compared to other 

industrialized nations. 
136 

Teaching science teaches the pathways to critical 

thinking . We are told today that our value system is 

lost, both at home and in schools. Mr. Hunter wrote 

a book in 1990 titled A Question Of Values : Six Ways 

We Make The Personal Choices That Shape Our 

Lives. In his book Lewis points our that we use six 

different cognitive methods to establish our value 

judgments: 

1 . Authority taking someone else's 

work, having faith in that 

work 

2. Logic subjecting beliefs to the 

variety of consistency 

tests/deductive reasoning 

3. Senses gaining direct knowledge 

through our own five 

senses 

4. Emotion feeling something is right 

although we do not know 

it 

5. Intuition unconscious thinking 

6 . "Science" synthetic technique 

relying on sense 

experience to collect 

observable facts, intuition 

to develop a testable 

hypothesis about the facts, 

logic to develop the test, 

and sense to complete the 

test 

Science allows us to utilize all five of Lewis's lenses 

to help shape our lives. If used at an early critical 

thinking stage, techniques can be established as a 

foundation for education. George Will, a Washington 

Post syndicated columnist wrote an article titled 

"Educators Place Children At Risk." The article 

referenced the Chicago late openings in 1993 and the 

1,069 schools closed on opening day of the academic 

year in New York this year due to asbestos testing. 

These days add up to fewer and fewer days in the 

classroom . The United States already has the lowest 

number of classroom days per year as compared to 

the rest of the industrialized world. As we move 

closer to the twenty-first century our children 

graduating today will not be able to cope with the 

world of technology that lies ahead of them. As a 

scientist and an educator I know that to truly be able 

to understand the life sciences, mathematics, and 

technology we must invest in time, a commodity that 

will continue to be the most limiting as we move into 

the twenty-first century. Going back to the basics is 

not the answer, only a convenient one for politicians. 

No one in the twenty-first century will be doing long 

division by hand, but a student must still understand 

the principles of long division . 

We have long assumed that true science should be 

taught when a student matures, so we leave it for 

middle school . Middle school is too late to be 

teaching the principles of conceptual thinking and 

application of trial and error experimentation. The 

inquisitiveness of early childhood, including 

kindergarten, is the time that science should be 

initiated. Young children love to ask why, and show 

me, and how did you do that? Teachers can introduce 

science techniques and the concepts of scientific 

investigation at this age because the students are 

eager to learn. Dr. Alberts, National Academy of 

Sciences, states, "We subject millions of American 

children every year to this mindless curricula of 

memorization ." It becomes so boring that it 

discourages them from pursuing science and leaves 

them with the belief that science is nothing but 

memorization at an age that sets standards and 

initiatives for the future . Students learn by doing 

experiments they do every day in their play, yet we 

fail to apply it in the classroom. 

Students of all ages are fascinated by the oceans and 

the life that they hold. By capitalizing on this 

fascination, we teach the principles of scientific 

investigation using the marine environment as our 

focal point. As a consortium of 22 colleges and 

universities, we were founded to conduct marine 

research and education at the undergraduate and 

graduate level. But for the past 15 years we have 

expanded our educational program to include 

offering marine education to over 15,000 K-12 

students a year . Nine thousand of these students are 

in the elementary grades . Our teaching centers on the 

scientific approach to understanding the environment 

and the plants and animals that coexist in that 

environment. By using hands-on learning at all grade 

levels we stimulate the critical thinking pathways that 

help establish a foundation for the future . Our classes 

involve both instruction within a classroom as well as 
137 

instruction out in the environment, not just a showand-tell but rather total involvement by the students 

themselves . It may involve watching the movement 

of a hermit crab along the shallow bottoms or 

measuring wind-derived waves, but students are 

challenged to ask the questions and seek answers to 

what ever aspect they are studying . In addition we 

constantly try to emphasize that this process of 

utilizing critical thinking skills can be applied 

anywhere, from a drainage ditch next to the school, 

to the city park, or a lake or stream . It only takes 

imagination and stimulus by the teacher to capture 

the interest of students . The best way to understand 

science is to experience it first-hand by doing it . It is 

not enough just to read about past scientists and what 

they did; it is important to challenge students to think 

about science and then go about the learning process 

of doing science. Utilizing Eisenhower monies from 

the federal government, we teach teachers how to 

teach science better and how to introduce science at 

an early level. 

A USA/Times report indicates that by the year 2000 

over 14,000 jobs will be available for individuals 

who have a Ph.D. in science, math, or engineering, 

yet only about half of those positions will be filled 

with students from the Unites States . The 21st 

century will be one of technology-based information 

and learning techniques . We must advance our 

teaching beyond the old methodologies and stimulate 

students early. Just because a methodology worked in 

the past does not mean its applicable now or in the 

future . Ron Kreigel has written a book titled If It 

Ain't Broke, Break It, which highlights change in our 

teaching to prepare our students better for the future . 

I believe that our approach to teaching science at the 

Dauphin Island Sea Lab establishes a foundation of 

inquisitiveness that can carry forth into the future . 

Dr. John J. Dindo is Assistant Director of the 

Dauphin Island Sea Lab, where he has worked for 18 

years. He received is B.S . in fisheries ecology from 

the University of Alaska, his M.S . in physiology and 

biochemistry and his Ph.D. in marine ecology from 

the University of Alabama at Birmingham. His 

research interests include artificial reefs, hardbottom 

reefs, and coastal ecology. 

STIMULATING KNOWLEDGE OF 

MARINE ECOLOGY THROUGH 

INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES 

Dr. Robert Thomas 

Vice-President for Environmental Policy 

Audubon Institute 

Project CEED is a multidimensional educational 

effort taking place in coastal Louisiana. Its focus is 

expressed in the acronym: Coastal Education for 

Economic Development. The concept is that citizens 

who understand that their livelihood is dependent on 

a healthy coastal ecosystem will be motivated to 

show stewardship toward the environment. In 

Louisiana, as in all coastal states, children who drop 

out of school are likely to seek employment in the 

coastal zone, usually in a fisheries related field. As a 

consequence, Project CEED is directed toward that 

group that is most likely to drop out of school : 

middle school at-risk students . 

Project CEED is a collaborative effort between the 

staffs of the Audubon Institute (operator of the 

Louisiana Nature Center) and faculty members from 

the Department of Special Education and Habilitative 

Services of the University of New Orleans. Project 

CEED's educational approach combines the talents 

and expertise of hands-on environmental educators 

(who know what to teach) and special educators 

(who know how to teach atypical learners). A wide 

variety of materials has been developed to 

accomplish the objectives of Project CEED. Many 

local teachers participated as members of the writing 

team. Business involvement guarantees that the 

economic perspective is maintained (the first program 

in this area of Project CEED is under development) . 

Project activities are "teacher friendly," i .e ., they do 

not require massive preparation time for use, and the 

teacher does not have to be science-oriented . The 

activities are designed for use in several different 

disciplines such as English, math, art, and history. 

Teaching elements include concept mapping, 

decision making, asking provocative questions, 

Bloom's taxonomy, Taylor's Multiple Talent Model, 

poetry, scamper, synectics, and more. A videotape 

(Wetlands Blues) with accompanying teacher's guide, 

and a Macintosh computer game that models a 

wetland are available. Several independent teacher's 
138 

guides have been developed, each of which focuses 

on a wetlands related topic (e .g ., beaches, wetland 

values, etc.) and a specific student-generated product 

(e .g ., designing a bumper sticker, designing t-shirts, 

etc.) . 

Project CEED is a continuing program, with many 

new phases being considered . For information about 

acquiring the program products, contact: Office of 

Environmental Policy, The Audubon Institute, P.O. 

Box 4327, New Orleans, LA 70178-4327 . 
SESSION 2C 

COASTAL MARINE INSTITUTE PROGRESS REPORTS, PART I 
141 

Session : 2C - Coastal Marine Institute Progress Reports, Part I 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Richard Defenbaugh and Dr. Robert S. Canvey 

Date: November 16, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction Dr. Richard Defenbaugh 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Robert S. Carney 

Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

A Numerical Modeling Study of the Gulf of 

Mexico Under Present and Past Environmental 

Conditions 

Digital High Resolution Acoustic Data for 

Improved Benthic HabitadGeohazard Evaluations 

A Socioeconomic Outer Continental Shelf Issue 

Analysis of Stakeholders in the Central Gulf of 

Mexico 

Characteristics and Possible Impacts of a 

Restructured OCS Oil and Gas Industry in 

the Gulf of Mexico: Preliminary Results 

Ms. Susan E. Welsh 

Department of Geology and Geophysics 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue 

Department of Oceanography and 

Coastal Studies 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Harry H. Roberts 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Robert Gramling 

University of Southwestern Louisiana 

Dr. Ruth Seydlitz 

Mr. John W. Sutherlin 

University of New Orleans 

Dr. Thomas R. Hammer 

Dr. Edward M. Bergman 

University of North Carolina 

A Management Overview for Resource Development Dr. Robert S. Carney 

in Continental Slope Habitats Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Development and Application of Sub-Lethal Mr. Gui Lotufo 

Toxicity Tests to PAH Using Marine Harpacticoid Dr. John Fleeger 

Copepods Department of Zoology Physiology 

Louisiana State University 

Modeling the Behavior of Integrated Producers and Dr. Allan G. Pulsipher 

Independent Producers: Implications for Offshore Dr. Wumi O. Iledare 

Oil and Gas Development and Policy Center for Energy Studies 

Louisiana State University 
142 

Role of Bottom Sediment Redox-Chemistry 

Near Oil Production Facilities on the Sequester/ 

Release and/or Degradation of Metals, 

Radionuclides and Organics 

Mr. B.C . Banker 

Mr. T.Z . Guo 

Dr. J .H . Pardue 

Dr. R.D. DeLaune 

Dr. C.W. Lindau 

Wetland Biochemistry Institute 

Louisiana State University 
143 

INTRODUCTION 

Dr. Richard Defenbaugh 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Robert S . Canvey 

Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

on which MMS and LSU are equally represented. 

The LSU participants include Drs. Robert Carney and 

Chip Groat. The MMS members include Dr. Richard 

Defenbaugh, Acting Regional Supervisor of the 

Office of Leasing and Environment, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region, and Dr. Ken Turgeon, Chief, 

Environmental Studies Branch. Dr. Carney, who 

serves as the CMI director, administers the daily 

activities of the program from LSU's Baton Rouge 

campus. 

On 30 September 1992 the MMS and the State of 

Louisiana signed a Cooperative Agreement 

establishing the first Coastal Marine Institute (CMI). 

This CMI addresses the parallel OCS information 

needs of both parties in a timely, cost effective 

manner, while taking full advantage of the academic 

talents in the immediate OCS planning area. 

Under the terms of this agreement, the MMS and the 

State of Louisiana provide matching funds to conduct 

environmental research of joint interest . The State, 

through Louisiana State University (LSU), provides 

matching funds of at least one dollar for each dollar 

provided by the MMS (up to $10 million over a fiveyear period). All funds obligated are used to support 

studies that fall within a general framework. 

The CMI framework provides broad boundaries for 

guidance in the development of specific research 

projects . This framework was designed to include the 

following : technologies for extracting and 

transporting non-energy resources; environmental 

responses to changing energy extraction and transport 

technologies and spills; analyses and synthesis of 

existing data information from previous studies; 

modeling of environmental, social, and economic 

processes and systems; new information about the 

structure/ function of affected systems via application 

of descriptive and experimental means; and projects 

that improve the application and distribution of 

multisource information. 

The framework also serves to foster the continuing 

education and training of the academic and the 

regulatory communities, as well as MMS 

professional and management staff (e .g ., short 

courses, workshops, seminars, etc.) 

Studies proposed for support under the CMI are 

reviewed by the CMI Technical Steering Committee, 

This session and its continuation (Session 3C) reflect 

the diversity of issues and interests that are of mutual 

concern to the State of Louisiana and to the MMS. 

The range of topics extends from socioeconomics to 

the development and application of sub-lethal aquatic 

toxicity tests. The information resulting from these 

and other CMI research efforts will provide managers 

at both the federal and state levels with some of the 

information necessary to develop the oil, gas, and 

mineral resources of our outer continental shelf in an 

environmentally sound manner. 

Dr. Richard Defenbaugh is Acting Regional 

Supervisor for Leasing and Environment within the 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office . His graduate 

work at Texas A&M University on the natural 

history and ecology of Gulf of Mexico estuarine and 

continental shelf invertebrates led to a M.S . in 1970 

and a Ph.D. in 1976. He previously worked in the 

Bureau of Land Management's New Orleans OCS 

Office . At MMS he served as Chief, Environmental 

Studies Section for ten years and then moved to the 

position of Deputy Regional Supervisor for Leasing 

and Environment. He was appointed Acting Regional 

Supervisor in July 1993, following the accidental 

death of Mr. Ken Adams. Dr. Defenbaugh serves as 

one of two MMS representatives on the CMI 

Technical Steering Committee. 

Dr. Robert Carney, an associate professor in LSU's 

Department of Oceanography and Coastal Studies, 

has served as director of LSU's Coastal Ecology 

Institute since 1986 and has been director of the 

LSU-MMS CMI program since its inception. He 

received his M.S . from Texas A&M University and 

his Ph.D . from Oregon State University . Prior to 

LSU, Dr. Carney was employed at Moss Landing 

Marine Labs, the National Science Foundation, and 

the Smithsonian Institution. 
144 

A NUMERICAL MODELING STUDY 

OF THE GULF OF MEXICO UNDER 

PRESENT AND PAST 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 

A NUMERICAL MODELING STUDY 

OF THE GULF OF MEXICO UNDER 

PRESENT AND PAST 

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 

Ms. Susan E. Welsh 

Department of Geology and Geophysics 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Department of Oceanography and Coastal Science 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) is a highly suitable 

domain for paleoceanographic study using an eddyresolving, ocean circulation model. This modeling 

project features two distinct phases . The circulation 

in the Gulf of Mexico is first modeled under present 

environmental conditions in order to calibrate model 

parameters and verify model output . This part of the 

project is of significance not only as a necessary step 

in creating a model for past environmental 

conditions, but it also provides a valuable tool in the 

study of Loop Current behavior and general 

circulation in the Gulf of Mexico. The next step is to 

lower sea level in the Gulf of Mexico to 

approximately that which occurred during the Last 

Glacial Maximum. New surface boundary conditions 

will be applied that reflect the glacial environmental 

conditions . The circulation generated by the 

paleoceanographic model will be compared to 

circulation inferred by several paleontological and 

sedimentological studies of the Gulf of Mexico. This 

paleoceanographic model should help interpret the 

distribution of glacial fauna and sedimentation 

patterns found in the geologic record . 

NUMERICAL MODEL DESCRIPTION 

The bathymetry of the Gulf of Mexico features 

several broad, gently sloping shelves, steep escarpments and relatively shallow sill depths in the 

Yucatan and Florida Straits. Circulation in the Gulf 

of Mexico is dominated by the presence of the Loop 

Current (LC) and anticyclonic eddies that are shed 

from the LC . The Modular Ocean Model (MOM), a 

three-dimensional primitive equation model, allows 

us to include the effects of bottom topography as 

well as adequately resolve eddy dynamics . 

During the 20-plus years that MOM has been under 

development, it has been thoroughly tested and 

improved . The Bryan/Cox/GFDL model is the precursor to MOM and was described in detail by 

Semtner (1986) . The MOM version, produced by R. 

Pacanowski, K. Dixon and A. Rosati (1991) at the 

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory at Princeton 

University, retains the basic physics of the BryanCox code, but it has been modified for more efficient 

use with a UNIX operating system. The model was 

most recently updated and available for use in 

August 1993 . 

The finite-difference method was used to construct 

the model on a staggered grid referred to as the 

Arakawa B-grid . Temperature, salinity, actual depth 

and transport stream-function lie at the center of the 

grid box, and velocity points lie at the centers of the 

vertical edges. The model grid is derived from the 

ETOPOS 1/12° resolution, world topography data set 

available from the National Ocean Data Center 

(Figure 2C.1). The bathymetric values are interpolated to 1/8o and then smoothed using a coastlinepreserving scheme to prevent topographicallyinduced instabilities in the numerical solution . 

The model grid extends outside the GOM into a 

synthetic return flow region that links the Straits of 

Florida with the Yucatan Straits. The bathymetry in 

this region has been altered to connect the Florida 

Straits with eastern portion of the Caribbean and does 

not represent actual bathymetry. The inflow into the 

GOM is achieved by forcing the flow through the 

western Caribbean to acquire the observed 

geostrophic values, thus eliminating the need to 

model the entire North Atlantic . Another benefit of 

allowing the flow to recirculate around Cuba is to 

avoid the implementation of open boundaries . 

A factor in the choice of the 15 model depths is the 

preferred use of evenly-spaced levels, which results 

in a higher-order computation of the vertical modes. 

It was necessary to use bimodal spacing of the depth 

levels, such that the upper 4 levels are 75-meters 
145 

GULF OF MEXICO MODEL GRID 

DEPTH CONTOURS (METERS) 

r 

250, ~J u 

q 

50 

o ~J a 

O a v 

CONTOUR FROM 500 TO 3500 BY 500 

Figure 2C .1 . Contour plot of model depths (meters) superimposed on an outime or griaaea iana values for 

model domain. 
146 

thick and the lower 11 levels are 300-meters thick for 

a total depth of 3,600 meters . These depth levels still 

allow for higher vertical resolution on the shelf. 

The initial runs of the model simulate present-day 

environmental conditions in order to calibrate the 

model and determine the ability of the model 

accurately to simulate the GOM circulation. The 

three-dimensional annual mean temperature and 

salinity fields used to initialize the model have been 

interpolated from the Levitus Climatological Atlas of 

the World Ocean (Levitus 1982). The surface 

temperature and salinity fields are restored to Levitus 

annual mean values with a relaxation time scale of 

six weeks. The surface wind stress field has been 

interpolated from the Hellerman and Rosenstein 

(1983) annual mean wind data . 

The volume flux through the Yucatan Straits is 

controlled by adjusting the barotropic u-component 

of velocity along a longitudinal band center at 

82375°W in the Caribbean. The desired vertical 

shear is achieved by relaxing the temperature and 

salinity along this same vertical cross section to the 

observed values on a time scale of one week. The 

temperature and salinity fields used for this purpose 

are derived from the Levitus climatology. The inflow 

condition into the Gulf of Mexico is illustrated by a 

contour plot of the v-component of velocity with 

depth across the Yucatan Straits (Figure 2C .2) . 

Maximum velocities of 100-105 cm/s occur in the 

upper level (37.5 meters) in the Yucatan Straits. The 

volume flux through Yucatan fluctuates between 25 

and 29 Sverdrups with an average of approximately 

27 Sverdrups . 

RESULTS 

The model has been successfully initialized with the 

three-dimensional temperature and salinity fields, 

wind forcing, quadratic friction, a 5-point conjugate 

gradient solver, a surface boundary condition on 

temperature and salinity and adjustment of the flow 

to geostrophic values in the Caribbean. The values of 

viscosity and diffusivity are 20 mZ/s and 10 m2/s 

respectively . Bottom stress is applied with a 

coefficient of Cp =.001 . This case was run for over 

eight years of model time on an IBM 3090 . The cpu 

time per time step is approximately 4.3 seconds 

(using 30-minute time steps) or 21 cpu hours per 

model year of simulation . 

Approximately three years of model integration were 

necessary for the model to become sufficiently spunup. At this point a five-year integration was made to 

verify the results. A snapshot of the model output 

was made every twelve weeks that included the 

transport stream function, u- and v-components of 

velocity, temperature, and salinity at every grid point. 

These snapshots are used to look at model output in 

extreme detail . Velocity vectors are plotted at several 

levels to determine circulation patterns . A map of 

temperature contours and velocity vectors for the LC 

and a detached eddy is provided in Figure 2C3. The 

vertical temperature and salinity structure of these 

same features are provided in Figures 2C.4 and 2C.5 . 

The difficulty with analyzing the output from a threedimensional model such as MOM is the tremendous 

amount of model data that is generated. We have 

been fortunate to obtain software that uses the 

graphics capabilities of our Silicon Graphics Indigo 

workstation to animate the temperature fields generated by the model. This animation/visualization 

software was written by Lingsong Bi of the 

Computer Science Department at LSU as part of his 

Master's thesis and is call Data Viz. These animations are extremely useful tools for describing the 

process of LC eddy formation, as well as their 

westward migration and final dissipation. The surface 

temperature and total velocities were saved every 

three days during the five-year integration for use in 

the animation software . 

The temperature and velocity signals of the eddies 

are easily traced into the Western Gulf where the 

eddies appear to be entrained by the northwardflowing current. The eddies are about 450 km in 

diameter at the surface after they become detached 

from the Loop Current. Time series of temperature at 

several locations around the Gulf were analyzed to 

determine the eddy shedding period, which is 

approximately every 30 weeks. 

The model was then run for another 60 weeks for the 

purpose of saving some of the lower level data for 

analysis using the animation software . Temperature 

and velocity fields were saved for levels 1, 3, 5, and 

6 with depths of 37.5m, 187.5m, 450m and 750m, 

respectively . Animation of the lower level 

temperature fields is interesting because the 

temperature signal of the eddies is very large 

compared to the ambient fluid. 
147 

ZONAL V COMPONENT SLAB (CM/SEC) ROW = 48 

CASE IOA WEEK = 306 .0 

40 

0 

0 20-0L0--",-0 

CONTOUR FROM 0 TO 64 BY 4 

Figure 2C.2 . Contour plot of the v-component of velocity (cm/s) looking northward across the Yucatan 

Straits. 
148 

--- - 

------ 

- 

------- -- 

!r , ~~ \\ ~~~ ill I ~ 

I 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . it . . ._ . . . . . . . ,.~ . . . 

- - - - 

- 

- 

- - 

- - 

- - - 

- ----- - - 

---------------- ------ 

--- ----------- ------- ----- 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

~ . . . . . . '~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . I I . . . : . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . it I , . . . . . . .___ : :~~ . : : . . . . . . 

: : :

. :. : : . . . . .---- --- 

__ ` 

. . . . . . . 

- --------- ------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - 

- 

--- ------ --- 

CASElOA WEEK = 204.0 CONTOUR FROM 22 .5 TO 27 BY .5 

DEPTH = 37 .5M LEVEL = 1 a .+05 -e3 

MAXIMUM CTOR 

Figure 2C3. Velocity vector plot (cm/s) superimposed on temperature contours (°C) for level 1 at week 204 

of model integration showing the Loop Current and detached eddy. 
ZONAL TEMPERATURE SLAB (CELSIUS) ROW = 69 

CASE lOA WEEK = 204 .0 

Figure 2C .4 . Contour plot of temperature (°C) versus depth from west to east through the cores of the detached eddy and the Loop current at week 

204 of model integration. 

CONTOUR FROM 5 TO 26 BY 1 
ZONAL SALT SLAB (PPT - 35) ROW = 69 

CASE l 0A WEEK = 204.0 

=-

1 .5 

- H 1 .471 

-.152 

0 

CONTOUR FROM -.2 TO 1 .5 BY .1 

0 

Figure 2C.5 . Contour plot of salinity (PPt - 35) versus depth for week 204 of model integration. 
151 

The next step in modeling the Gulf of Mexico for the 

present environmental conditions is to include the 

annual cycle in the forcing. The Hellerman monthly 

mean wind stress fields will be used to force the 

model. The surface boundary condition on 

temperature and salinity as well as the inflow 

condition in the Caribbean will be based on the 

Levitus monthly mean climatology. 

error estimates. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 13 :1093-

1104. 

Kutzbach, J.E . and P.J . Guetter. 1985 . The influence 

of changing orbital parameters and surface 

boundary conditions on climate simulations for 

the past 18,000 years. J. Atmos. Sci. 43(30): 

1726-1758. 

The final stage of this project is to repeat the 

seasonal calculations with a bathymetry representing 

sea level at 124 meters below present and forcing 

with glacical surface boundary conditions . Seasonal 

wind stress and fresh water flux are available from 

the glacial atmospheric model of Kutzbach and 

Guetter (1985) . The sea-surface temperature 

estimates made by CLIMAP (CLIMAP Project 

Members, 1976) are available on a 2° by 2° grid for 

summer and winter seasons. Output from these model 

runs will be compared with circulation inferred from 

studies of the distribution of glacial planktonic 

foraminifera and sedimentological studies made in 

the Florida Straits. 

SUMMARY 

The first stage of this GOM modeling project is 

necessary to develop and validate a model for use in 

paleoceanographic modeling of the GOM. The 

present-day simulations of the GOM will be of value 

to the GOM modeling community due to the 

increased grid resolution, a unique method of forcing 

that eliminates the use of open boundaries and 

implementation of one of the latest state-of-the-art 

numerical models. The model integration appears 

quite stable and the simulation of the Loop Current 

and associated eddies is very realistic. The 

implementation of the annual cycle in the forcing 

should produce even more realistic results. The goal 

of the second stage is to learn about the GOM 

circulation during lowered sea level and help 

interpret Late Quaternary sedimentological and 

paleontological studies of the GOM. 

REFERENCES 

CLIMAP Project Members. 1984 . The last 

interglacial ocean. Quat. Res, 21 : 123-224. 

Levitus, S. 1982. Climatological atlas of the world 

oceans . NOAA Prof. Pap. 13, U.S . Government 

Printing Office, Washington, DC. Pacanowski, 

R., K. Dixon, and A. Rosati . 1991 . The GFDL 

modular ocean model users guide version 1 .0 . 

GFDL Ocean Group Technical Report #2. 

Semtner, A.J . 1986. Finite-difference formulation of 

a world ocean model. In J.J . O'Brien (ed.) . 

Advanced Physical Oceanographic Numerical 

Modelling. D. Reidel . Norwell, Mass., 187-202. 

23(2) :250-268. 

Susan Welsh is currently a doctoral candidate in the 

Department of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana 

State University . She received her B.A . in earth and 

planetary science at the Johns Hopkins University in 

1983 and her M.S . in oceanography at Florida State 

University in 1986. Ms. Welsh has worked on 

numerical modeling projects as a scientific 

programmer at both Florida State and Louisiana State 

Universities . 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue has worked at the Florida State 

University and at Australian Institute of Marine 

Science. He has been at Louisiana State University 

for the past eight years and is Associate Professor at 

the Coastal Studies Institute and in the Department of 

Oceanography and Coastal Sciences . His research 

interests include modeling ocean circulation and 

transport processes. Dr. Inoue received his B.E . in 

naval architecture from Tokai University in Japan, 

his M.S . in ocean engineering from the University of 

Rhode island, his M.E . in civil engineering and his 

Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas A&M University . 

Hellerman, S. and M. Rosenstein . 1983. Normal 

monthly wind stress over the world ocean with 
152 

DIGITAL HIGH RESOLUTION 

ACOUSTIC DATA FOR IMPROVED 

BENTHIC HABITAT/GEOHAZARD 

EVALUATIONS 

Dr. Harry H. Roberts 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

Both the petroleum industry and the Minerals 

Management Service (MMS) are mandated to 

understand the physical-biological-geological 

complexities of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 

and Upper Continental Slope region of the northern 

Gulf of Mexico because of the combined demands 

for resource utilization and management. Within 

simple geologic frameworks, the tasks of both 

resource extraction-utilization and rational environmental management of these efforts are reasonably 

well understood. However, in extremely complex 

settings like the northern Gulf of Mexico OCS, MMS 

must anticipate environmental management problems 

in a geographic region that has received the least 

financial support to determine physical-biologicalgeological characteristics and spatial-temporal 

variability of these properties . With continuing 

interest in oil and gas exploration beyond the continental shelf edge, industry has met the challenge with 

innovative engineering concepts and design for 

drilling-production facilities and resource transport 

systems. In order to effectively manage OCS 

activities, MMS must incorporate the best possible 

information from industry and academia to develop 

new concepts and technologies for environment 

assessment . This document proposes to utilize 

digitally acquired and processed high resolution 

acoustic data to improve OCS habitat mapping, 

geohazards detection/evaluation, and chemosynthetic 

community identification/ classification . 

The Outer Continental Shelf and slope of the 

northern Gulf of Mexico is arguably the most 

complex such setting in today's oceans. This region 

is an extremely valuable resource for the United 

States since it has produced more oil and gas than 

any shelf-slope complex in the world. However, 

exploration and production in this region has not 

been easy or inexpensive because of the region's 

extreme sea-floor and subsurface complexity. This 

intricate geologic framework has been imposed on 

the system by processes forced by high-volume 

sediment input and the compensating effects of thick 

and malleable underlying salt deposits (the Jurassic 

Louann Salt). Since Late Cretaceous times, the 

northern rim of the Gulf of Mexico has been 

receiving large volumes of river-borne sediments that 

collectively have prograded the shelf edge hundreds 

of kilometers to its present position (Woodbury et al. 

1973 ; Worzel and Watkins 1973). As is now widely 

recognized by the geologic community, sediment 

input to the outer shelf and continental slope is 

strongly modulated by sea level changes (Suter and 

Berryhi(I 1985 ; Berryhill et al. 1986). During periods 

of lowered sea level, fluvial systems entrenched 

themselves as they prograded across the shelf 

eventually to deposit their sediments in thick and 

widespread shelf-edge deltas (Suter and Berryhill 

1985; Roberts et al . 1991 ; Sydow and Roberts 1994) . 

Sediment was deposited directly to the slope from 

these systems by turbid flows and delta-front 

instabilities . In addition, these rapidly deposited 

deltas loaded the shelf margin, an inherently unstable 

area, frequently causing large shelf-edge failures that 

contributed large volumes of sediment to downslope 

depositional sites (Coleman et al. 1983). The 

interplay between intense periods of sedimentation, 

largely at low sea level, and compensating salt 

tectonics has resulted in a present-day slope 

configuration that is characterized regionally by 

numerous domes and basins (Martin 1980). The 

domes are the topographic responses to 

allochthonous salt that can take many forms 

(Figure 2C.6). Their depositional counterparts, the 

sedimentary basins are the results of salt withdrawal 

or local deformation of shallow salt lobes or massifs 

(Figure 2C.6). These basins can be divided into 

interdomal (between salt domes, ridges and/or 

massifs), interlobal (between allochthonous salt 

lobes), and supralobal (above allochthonous salt 

lobes) (Simmons 1992). 

Superimposed on the regional dome and basin 

topography are smaller scale features that reflect the 

extremely complicated nature of both the modern sea 

floor and the subsurface . Ironically, it is this high 

level of geologic complexity that provides the 

northern Gulf OCS with numerous reservoirs and 

hydrocarbon traps as well as a difficult arena in 

which to operate with regard to exploration, 
153 

BASIN 

CONTINENTAL SLOPE FLOOR 

SALT DOMES AND SALT ISOLATED SALT 

MASSIFS SALT CANOPY WEDGE DOME 

SIGSBEE 

ESCARPMENT 

1 

-CORED 

SUPRA LOBAL FOLD 

- BASINS 

INTERDOMAL ' 

BASINS 

- - VACUATION BOUNDA 

EVACUATION BOUNDARY 

--~~ SOURCE LAYER-__ 

Figure 2C.6 . Distribution of salt-related structures across the northern Gulf of Mexico continental slope. 

production, and environmental management. 

Processes such as faulting, erosion-redeposition, 

sediment mass movement, fluxes of fluids and gases 

to the sea floor, hydrate formation, carbonate 

precipitation/diagenesis, and intense localized benthic 

community development impose an unmatched 

variability to the northern Gulf of Mexico slope. This 

myriad of surface processes and associated response 

features provide unique habitats for benthic 

communities, including specifically protected 

chemosynthetic communities that develop at sites of 

hydrocarbon seepage. In addition, these surface to 

near-surface processes produce conditions of variable 

geotechnical sediment properties over short distances, 

gas-charged sediments, substrates with highly 

variable small-scale topography, and other conditions 

that present practical problems for resource 

development. The challenge is to obtain, synthesize, 

and interpret the best data sets available in order to 

develop predictive capability about the modern sea 

floor. The goal is to transfer the criteria established 

by this means to standard forms of acoustic data that 

can be collected at a reasonable price and over large 

areas. Regional mapping of sea-floor type (e .g ., 

Berryhill's MMS 84-0028 OCS Map Series) is not 

sufficient to add much information about the slope 

that we haven't known for a number of years. This 

proposal is the first step in developing a new and 

"higher resolution" and more in-depth understanding 

of surficial habitats, bottom features of various 

scales, and sedimentary characteristics of the slope 

by both directly acquiring new digital acoustic data 

and calibrating these data sets with five years of 

direct observations/sampling as well as results 

published by others (e .g . MacDonald 1992) from test 

areas. Results of this new approach will be compared 

to existing geohazards data sets in order to specify 

sea-floor conditions requiring new technologies for 

reliable interpretations. 

Questions being asked by this research project are 

(1) Can we improve on our current level of 

understanding and predictability of the OCS sea floor 

by employing digitally acquired and processed high 

resolution acoustic data coupled with the best 

possible observations-samples collected by research 

submersible? (2) Can a set of interpretation criteria 

be derived from project activities that may be applied 

to existing and future surface-tow geohazards data 

(the industry standard) and deep-tow data as well as 
154 

for improving our interpretive and predictive 

capability of sea-floor characteristics and conditions 

in this complex setting? If these questions are 

positively answered in view of project results, both 

MMS and industry will benefit. For example, 

although geohazards evaluations have traditionally 

been viewed by MMS as the responsibility of 

industry, for the first time MMS will have a rigorous 

and well-calibrated set of criteria for judging the 

geohazards interpretations of lease block areas 

submitted prior to drilling and production activities . 

In a management framework, a specific goal of this 

work is to produce new criteria for benthic habitat 

recognition with special emphasis on habitats 

supporting chemosynthetic communities (for 

compliance with MMS NTL 88-11). 

THE PROJECT 

Project Objective: To apply state-of-the-art digital 

data acquisition processing technology to high 

resolution acoustic data for the purpose of developing 

better criteria for geohazards and benthic habitat 

evaluations. The work will be carried out in three 

geologically distinct areas of the upper slope where 

standard geohazards data sets already exist and are 

available for comparison. The goal for this work is to 

develop a more reliable and objective set of criteria 

for identifying and evaluating sea floor 

characteristics that can be applied to operational and 

environmental management problems . The 

establishment of such criteria coupled to digitally 

acquired data could greatly increase the reliability of 

surface-tow data for geohazards evaluations and may 

be suitable for compliance to MMS regulations for 

chemosynthetic communities without the added 

expense of bottom video and/or photographic 

surveys. The hypothesis to be tested is this : 

acquisition and processing of digital high-resolution 

acoustic data coupled with submersible-acquired data 

can produce a set of interpretation criteria that will 

significantly improve capability to predict the 

character of the modern OCS sea floor. 

Approach : The approach involves synthesis of 

existing analog data, high resolution acoustic digital 

data acquisition, acoustic vs digital data comparisons, 

research submersible verification of sea floor 

features, and development of criteria for feature 

detection from surface-tow data sets . Three areas off 

central Louisiana in the Green Canyon Lease Area 

(Area 1 - Blocks 52 and 53, Area 2 - Blocks 140 and 

185, Area 3 - Block 272) and are in the Garden Bank 

Lease Area (Area 4 - Blocks 338, 382, 426, 427, 470, 

and 471) were selected as test sites. These areas were 

surveyed by Conoco and Shell in preparation for 

their Juliette and Anger platforms and pipelines. 

These companies have given access to these data sets 

for the purposes of this project. In addition, five 

cruises funded by NOAA's National Undersea 

Research Program (NURP) have provided specific 

observations and samplings utilizing highly 

maneuverable research submersibles to provide a 

working understanding between signatures on 

acoustic data sets and detailed characteristics of 

bottom features . The proposed project builds on these 

invaluable data sets by proposing a test utilizing 

newly acquired high resolution digital data against 

standard analog data sets acquired in surface-tow 

mode. These new data sets will be acquired with 

three different acoustic sources (ORE Geopulse, 15 

in' water gun, and 50 in' air gun) using the DELPH 

2 digital acquisition and processing system linked to 

differential GPS navigation/survey software 

developed at Coastal Studies Institute. Digital sidescan sonar data will also be acquired over test sites 

coincident with high resolution seismic data . An 

added bonus is that TAMU-2 (a medium-range sidescan sonar/subbottom imaging system developed at 

Texas A&M) data have been acquired as a test over 

Area 1 . In addition to a test of standard surface-tow 

data, this project will allow evaluation of TAMU-2 

data with permission of Dr. Richard Carlson, of the 

Geodynamics Research Institute. The four study 

areas contain a variety of sea floor conditions and 

features to make project comparisons a 

comprehensive test and a data set from which feature 

detection criteria can be reliably derived. Features 

found in these areas are (a) carbonate mounds, (b) 

regions of coarse carbonate sediments on the sea 

floor, (c) a variety of faults illustrating various levels 

of activity, (d) collapse depressions, (e) active and 

inactive mud volcanos, (f) hydrate mounds, (g) thick 

hemipelagic sediments, (h) lush and sparce chemosynthetic communities, (i) mud flows, (j) mass 

movement features, and (k) areas of sea floor erosion. 

Progress and Future Work: The project was funded 

as a three-year study. Year 1 involved two major 

tasks: (1) collection, review, and archiving of 

existing high resolution acoustic data to be used in 

developing sea floor features interpretation criteria, 

and (2) field testing of digital data acquisition 

systems for three separate high resolution seismic 

systems as well as a digital side-scan sonar system . 

Year two focuses on acquisition of high resolution 
155 

acoustic data over specific features in the test areas 

(primarily Areas 1 and 4) utilizing the DELPH 2 

system for comparison with standard analog data 

sets . Year 3 involves data collection with the DELPH 

2 system primarily for Area 2 and 3 . Feature-byfeature comparison of new and existing analog data 

sets, comparison of high resolution acoustic data plus 

submersible observations with surface amplitude data 

derived from 3D seismic surveys, development of a 

comprehensive set of criteria for improved feature 

identification, and the formulation of recommendations to both MMS and industry for future acquisition, processing, and interpretation of high 

resolution acoustic data sets are all part of the final 

year's activities . 

REFERENCES 

Suter, J.R . and H.L . Berryhill. 1985 . Late Quaternary 

shelf margin deltas, northwest Gulf of Mexico. 

AAPG Bulletin, v. 69 part 1, p. 77-91 . 

Sydow, J. and H.H . Roberts. 1994 . The stratigraphic 

framework of a Late Pleistocene shelf-edge delta, 

northeast Gulf of Mexico. AAPG Bulletin, v. 78, p. 

1276-1312. 

Woodbury, H.O., I.B . Murray, Jr., P.J . Pickford, and 

W.H. Akers. 1973 . Pliocene and Pleistocene 

depocenters, outer continental shelf, Louisiana and 

Texas. AAPG Bulletin, v. 57, p. 2428-2439. 

Worzel, J.L . and J.S . Watkins. 1973 . Evolution of the 

northern Gulf Coast deduced from geophysical 

data . Transactions GCAGS, v . 23, p . 84-91 . 

Berryhill, H.L ., J.R . Suter, and N.S . Hardin. 1986. Late 

Quaternary facies and structures, northern Gulf of 

Mexico: Interpretations from seismic data. AAPG 

Studies in Geology No. 23, p. 131-189. 

Coleman, J.M., D.B . Prior, and J.F . Lindsay. 1983. 

Deltaic influences on shelf edge instability process. 

In Stanley, D.J . and G.T. Moore (eds .) . The 

shelfbreak : Critical interface on continental 

margins. SEPM Special Publication 33, p. 121-137. 

MacDonald, I .R. 1992. North Gulf of Mexico 

chemosynthetic ecosystems study, literature review 

and data synthesis. OCS Study MMS 92-0033, 

Texas A&M University, 3 volumes. 

Martin, R.G. 1980. Distribution of salt structures in the 

Gulf of Mexico. U.S . Geological Survey, Map 

MF-1213, 8 p. 

Roberts, H.H., R.F . Fillon, B. Kohl, A.H. Bouma, and 

J . C. Sydow. 1991 . Lithostratigraphy, 

biostratigraphy, and isotopic investigation of a 

boring in Main Pass area, Block 303 : A calibration 

of high resolution seismic stratigraphy . Coastal 

Depositional Systems in the Gulf of Mexico, 

Quaternary Framework and Environmental Issues, 

Twelfth Annual Research Conference, Gulf Coast 

Section. SEPM Foundation, p. 217-222. 

Simmons, G.R . 1992. The regional distribution of salt 

in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico: Styles of 

emplacement and implications for early tectonic 

history. PhD Dissertation, Oceanography 

Department, Texas A&M University, 180 pp. 

Dr. Harry H. Roberts is a marine geologist/ 

sedimentologist who is currently serving as director 

of the Coastal Studies Institute at Louisiana State 

University . His current research interests focus on 

geologic processes and products associated with the 

modern continental slope of the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. Studies of geologic impacts of hydrocarbon 

seeps comprise part of the continental slope research . 

He is also actively involved with studies of deltaic 

geology in Indonesia (Mahakam Delta) and the Gulf 

of Mexico. Both modern high sea level deltas and 

their low sea level shelf edge equivalents are under 

investigation . He received a B.S . in physics from 

Marshall University and M.S . and Ph.D . degrees in 

geology from Louisiana State University . 

A SOCIOECONOMIC OUTER 

CONTINENTAL SHELF ISSUE 

ANALYSIS OF 

STAKEHOLDERS IN THE CENTRAL 

GULF OF MEXICO 

Dr. Robert Gramling 

University of Southwestern Louisiana 

INTRODUCTION 

This project will identify the levels of support for, 

and opposition to, Outer Continental Shelf oil and 

gas activities, by the various stakeholder groups in 
156 

the coastal central Gulf of Mexico (Alabama, 

Mississippi, and Louisiana) ; the social and economic 

issues and concerns that are seen as being important 

by these groups ; the underlying assumptions held by 

various stakeholders concerning the effects of Outer 

Continental Shelf activities ; and suggest ways to 

focus research and management efforts effectively on 

significant issues of public policy . 

The current project, an issue analysis of the Gulf of 

Mexico, was a high priority recommendation that 

came out of a Minerals Management Service funded 

workshop (see Gramling and Laska 1993), which was 

held in New Orleans in September of 1992. The 

workshop was designed to produce a recommended 

research agenda that could move toward addressing 

the appraisals made by the National Research 

Council (1989; 1992). 

An issue analysis which can identify the social and 

economic issues and concerns of the major 

stakeholders, connected to the Gulf of Mexico oil and 

gas activity in the central Gulf of Mexico is 

important for two reasons. First, as noted above, the 

array of various levels of opposition to, and support 

for, the Outer Continental Shelf leasing program is 

not a simple one. The delineation of the various 

levels of support and opposition, and how they are 

distributed within the central Gulf, is the first step 

toward understanding this complex phenomenon. 

Second, and more importantly, an issue analysis will 

uncover the reasons behind the various levels of 

support for, or opposition to, Outer Continental Shelf 

activities . What are the assumptions that the various 

stakeholders and stakeholder groups make about the 

nature, both positive and negative, of various Outer 

Continental Shelf activities that lead to their support 

or opposition? This is a critical question not only for 

understanding the phenomenon, but also for 

predicting the socioeconomic impacts of various 

activities that potentially take place on the Outer 

Continental Shelf. As Gramling and Freudenburg 

(1992; see also Freudenburg and Gramling 1992) 

have shown, human social systems respond not only 

to alterations in the physical environment, such as 

those produced by various development projects, but 

also to changes in the social environment, such as 

those produced by new information concerning 

proposed actions. While there has been no physical 

development activity (e .g ., exploratory or 

development drilling) associated with the federal 

leasing program in the vicinity of the Florida Keys 

since the 1950s, significant, empirically verifiable 

changes in the human environment have resulted 

simply from proposing these activities ; changes 

which have had dramatic effects on the leasing 

program itself, including a Presidential moratorium . 

In short, knowing the assumptions that underlie the 

support or opposition to Outer Continental Shelf 

activities allows for a better understanding of what 

the effects of those activities will be, and 

consequently to more informed decision making. 

Specifically, the objectives of this research are 

" To identify and describe the various stakeholder 

groups in the coastal central Gulf of Mexico, 

define their interests degree of concerns about 

Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas activities . 

" To identify the specific social and economic 

issues and concerns related to the central Gulf of 

Mexico oil and gas activity that are seen as being 

important by different major stakeholders and 

other knowledgeable individuals. 

" To identify the underlying assumptions held by 

various stakeholders concerning the effects of 

Outer Continental Shelf activities, which 

determine the positions they take on the social 

and economic issues . 

" To suggest ways to further enhance research 

initiatives by ensuring their relevance to 

stakeholders' concerns. 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

With an issue analysis the research strategy is 

different from standard surveys where the interest is 

focused primarily on representativeness . With 

surveys the researcher wants to be able to statistically 

generalize to the public at large or some element of 

that public from the sample collected. But this 

presupposes you know what to ask them. Simple 

questions like do you support offshore oil aren't 

going to give much predictive power about what 

particular stakeholder groups will do. Issue analysis 

targets the issues as they are expressed by those who 

will later potentially act on the basis of their stand on 

the issue. In effect the population the researcher is 

interested in becomes the array of issues and 

positions on those issues of interest, rather than the 

individuals who hold positions on those issues . 

Another way to think of this is : with a standard 

sampling methodology the researcher must be very 

careful to sample all the elements of the population 

they want to generalize to, however, with issue 

analysis the researcher must be very careful to 
157 

sample across all of the issues and positions on the 

issues of interest . In order to do this a "theoretical" 

sampling procedure (often called snowball sampling) 

is used, which allows the researcher to target issues . 

Snowball sampling is a method through which the 

researcher develops an ever-increasing set of sample 

observations . One respondent in the population under 

study is asked to recommend others for interviewing, 

and each of the subsequently interviewed participants 

is asked for further recommendations (Babble 1992). 

This is the only feasible type of sampling procedure 

which will fit the requirements of the project to : 1) 

identify various stakeholder groups through a referral 

process and, 2) retain flexibility in the field to 

identify and sample stakeholder groups as they are 

"discovered" through the sampling process. Sampling 

continues until the investigation exhausts the issues 

(i .e . no new ones are being found) when a content 

analysis of the interviews will allow the relative 

strength (i .e . proportionately how many individuals 

hold particular positions, and how strongly do they 

hold them), of the positions to be determined. 

4 

This type analysis is most useful in identifying the 

strength and organization of various stakeholder 

groups that may support or oppose an activity or 5 

identifying appropriate categories for use in a type of 

data collection that uses standard methodology where 

the interest is statistical generalization . 

Specifically the research has nine major components 

1 . A review of existing information on key 

stakeholder groups and their concerns. This 

involved both a literature review and initial 

telephone interviews with currently known key 

informants, in the central Gulf of Mexico. 

2. The creation of a data base that allowed the 

comparison of employment, industrial sector, 

occupational, income, and household data at the 

state, county, and community level across the 

entire three central Gulf states using the recently 

available U.S . Census summary tables available 

on CD ROM. The data base covered the three 

central Gulf of Mexico states Louisiana, 

Mississippi, and Alabama, all counties/parishes 

in these states, and all "places" (cities) reported 

by the census. 

3 . The selection of relevant sample communities, 

and/or regions, based on the information 

obtained from components 1 and 2 above. After 

examination of the communities in the data base, 

6. 

7 

8 

initial contacts in the communities, and 

consultation with representatives from Minerals 

Management Service the target communities 

were selected . The area chosen for investigation 

ranged from Cameron to Gulfshore, and included 

the communities of Cameron, Lafayette, Morgan 

City, Grand Isle, Gulfport, Biloxi, Mobile (very 

limited sampling), Fairhope, Dauphin Island, 

Orange Beach and Gulfshore. Data collection 

was begun with a letter of authorization to spend 

funds, in June 1993 using Grand Isle as a test 

community. 

The identification of additional key informants : 

In each of the selected communities key 

stakeholder informants were identified . In each 

community these informants were the start of the 

"snowball" sampling procedure. In each 

community or region our first key informants 

were public officials/community leaders who had 

detailed knowledge about the area. We asked 

these individuals what groups have interests 

concerning OCS activities in order to : 1) test and 

potentially expand our initial assumptions 

concerning stakeholder groups; and 2) obtain 

references as to specific individuals within these 

groups in order to interview them. 

Key informant interviews . We interviewed a 

wide variety of individuals across oil, gas, and 

support sectors of the economy, commercial 

fishermen of various types, recreational 

fishermen and boaters in the sample 

communities during july and August of 1993 . 

These interviews solicited information as to the 

important issues and concerns with respect to 

OCS activity, and how it is believed OCS 

activities have or will affect the community. 

Examination and copy of relevant local 

documents noted by key informants . This was 

limited to instances where the position(s) of 

specific stakeholders have been put forth in 

writing (e .g ., position papers, correspondence, 

reports), or the documents could provide 

important information about the group or the 

community. 

Transcription of interviews . The interviews are 

currently being transcribed. When this process is 

completed the data will be loaded into an 

analytical software program for analysis . 

Content analysis of interviews and relevant local 

documents. Content analysis is a process by 

which specific concepts that appear in the 

documents to be analyzed (here the transcripts of 

the interviews and the local documents) are used 
158 

9 

to generate coding categories, and the resulting 

appearance of the concepts across categories of 

individuals or groups is analyzed. This is not 

simply a counting procedure. The key to content 

analysis is the identification of the appropriate 

concepts that are embedded in the relevant 

documents (in this case transcripts), and the 

analysis of the ways in which the concepts 

appear across the interviews . For example, a key 

concept that might emerge is that of "economic 

development." Once identified as a key concept 

in the interviews a variety of words would be 

chosen (e .g ., economic, jobs, training, etc.) that 

would allow the researcher to electronically 

search the interviews for these key words, and 

determine if economic development is an issue 

in that document, and to what extent that issue 

dominates the transcript . Once instances of 

economic development have been identified then 

the researcher can (for example) see if this 

concept is more likely to be raised by individuals 

familiar with OCS activities than those relatively 

unfamiliar with OCS activities, or with certain 

stakeholder groups, and not with others . 

Analysis of results and report writing. 

PRELIMINARY FINDINGS 

Although no formal analysis of the data has yet 

occurred, as the transcription is not complete, several 

trends seem to be emerging 

1 . Outer Continental Shelf activities are generally 

supported in Louisiana for most stakeholder 

groups. The exception to this are several 

environmental groups, and some of the alternative users of coastal waters . Most common 

among this latter group are shrimpers who 

contend that some areas (e .g ., east of the mouth 

of Bayou Lafourche) can't be shrimped due to 

the amount of discarded oilfield trash on the 

bottom . Some of these areas appear to be in state 

waters, and some in the vicinity of some of the 

earliest Outer Continental Shelf development. In 

general it is somewhat difficult to tell without 

more careful analysis of the data the level of 

problems that shrimpers have with Outer Continental Shelf activities, because of the extent of 

the conflict and opposition that has arisen in the 

shrimping community over the use of TEDs. 

2 . Most business interests in coastal Mississippi 

aren't excited about offshore oil, but they aren't 

focused on the issue. Community leaders in 

Gulfport and Biloxi have in the past opposed 

Outer Continental Shelf activities, but they are 

currently so focused on gambling as an 

economic activity that Outer Cotinental Shelf 

concerns have shifted into the background . 

3 . Mobile Bay appears to be the dividing line for 

real opposition to offshore activity . Baldwin 

county took the state to court to stop the sale of 

state leases, and community residents in Orange 

Beach and Gulfshore voice frequent, strong 

opposition to offshore development. It is 

probably not coincidental that beach oriented 

tourism really begins west of the mouth of 

Mobile Bay and continues into Florida. 

4. In general, most of the people we interviewed 

were ignorant of Minerals Management Service 

and its role in offshore development. 

REFERENCES 

Babble, Earl . 1992. The Practice of social research . 

Belmont, California : Wadsworth 

Freudenburg, William R. and Robert Gramling . 

1992. Community impacts of technological 

change: Toward a longitudinal perspective. 

Social Forces 70: 937-57 . 

Gramling, Robert and William R. Freudenburg. 

1992. Opportunity-threat, development, and 

adaptation : Toward a comprehensive framework 

for social impact assessment . Rural Sociology 

57: 216-234. 

Gramling, Robert and Shirley Laska. 1993 . A social 

science research agenda for the Minerals 

Management Service in the Gulf of Mexico. 

New Orleans : U .S . Department of 

Interior/Minerals Management Service. 

National Research Council. 1989. the Adequacy of 

environmental information for Outer Continental 

Shelf oil and gas decisions : Florida and 

California . Washington, D.C . : National Academy 

Press, National Academy of Sciences . 

National Research Council. 1992. Assessment of the 

U.S . Outer Continental Shelf Environmental 

Studies Program: III social and economic 

studies. Washington, D.C . : National Academy 

Press, National Academy of Sciences . 
159 

Dr. Robert Gramling is Director of the Center of 

Socioeconomic Reserach at the University of 

Southwestern Louisiana in Lafayette, Louisiana. He 

received his Ph.D. in sociology from Florida State 

University . Dr. Gramling's principal research 

interests include socioeconomic impact assessment, 

microsociology, and the sociology of marriage and 

the family . He is particularly familiar with the south 

Louisiana "cajun" culture and has conducted and 

published research on the impacts of offshore oil and 

gas and OCS activities on the people and 

communities of southern Louisiana. CHARACTERISTICS AND POSSIBLE 

IMPACTS OF A RESTRUCTURED 

OCS OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IN 

THE GULF OF MEXICO : 

PRELIMINARY RESULTS 

Specifically, we are planning to do the following. 

First, we will describe the current business 

characteristics and environment of companies 

operating in the Gulf of Mexico and examine how 

the characteristics and environment have changed 

since 1986. Second, we will portray the present 

business practices of companies active in the Gulf, 

examine how these practices have changed since 

1986, and investigate how changes since 1986 in the 

business characteristics and environment are related 

to changes in practices. Third, we will compare the 

business characteristics, environment and practices 

and the changes since 1986 in these three factors by 

type of company-major or independent. Fourth, we 

will compare the characteristics, environment, 

practices and changes since 1986 across the type of 

independent company-large integrated, small 

integrated, large nonintegrated, and small 

nonintegrated. (These four types of independents will 

be discussed below.) 

Dr. Ruth Seydlitz 

Mr. John W. Sutherlin 

University of New Orleans 

Dr. Thomas R. Hammer 

Dr. Edward M. Bergman 

University of North Carolina 

The restructuring of the OCS oil and gas industry in 

the Gulf of Mexico began shortly after the crash in 

oil prices in 1986. This restructuring consists of two 

shifts in the industry : a shift from the majors to 

independents and a shift from focusing on exploration and development as well as production to a 

focus on production . The first shift is seen in the 

decline in the majors' share of overall activity in the 

Gulf and the concomitant increase in the independents' portion of the operations . Between 1987 and 

1991, the majors' share of production dropped slightly from 74 to 70% while their portion of exploratory 

wells has fallen from 40 to 21% and their part of 

developmental wells has decreased from 63 to 49% 

(Dodson and LeBlanc 1993). The second shift is also 

demonstrated by these numbers in that the majors' 

share of production has not declined as much as their 

share of exploratory and developmental wells. 

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 

The purpose of the study is to examine the OCS oil 

and gas industry and to document evidence of a shift. 

DATA AND METHODS 

The study consists of two data collecting stages . In 

the first phase, in-depth face-to-face interviews of 

representatives of 11 companies active in the Gulf 

were conducted. These 11 enterprises included three 

majors, five large integrated independents, one large 

nonintegrated independent and two small nonintegrated independents . In the second phase, we 

conducted structured phone interviews of executives 

in about 40 companies active in the Gulf-nine 

majors, nine large integrated independents, five small 

integrated independents (there are only five of these), 

nine large nonintegrated independents, and nine small 

nonintegrated independents . 

The four groups of independents were determined 

using the following information . First, the 

independent companies were sorted by whether they 

are involved in downstream activities or not. The 

integration status of the companies is published in 

documents concerning oil and gas companies. Then, 

these companies were classified by size based on the 

number of employees; their exploration and development funds; and rankings of their assets, revenues, 

and world reserves . The companies selected for the 

phone interview were chosen using simple random 

sampling within each of the five categories of companies active in the Gulf. It was not possible to use 

stratified random sampling due to the distribution of 

businesses in the five categories (discussed below) . 
160 

The procedure for the structured interviews was as 

follows. We faxed two letters describing the 

study-one from us and one from MMS-and a copy 

of the interview instrument to each of the chosen 

companies. In our letter, we asked the company 

representative to either call us and arrange an 

appointment for the interview or to delegate the 

interview to another person and have that person call 

us to arrange the appointment. This method worked 

quite well ; we have had only two refusals thus far 

despite the oil and gas industry's reputation for 

secrecy. We suspect that our approach elicited a good 

response rate for the following reasons. First, the respondents could arrange a time for the interview that 

was convenient for them. Second, they had all of the 

questions in advance which enabled them to ascertain 

that the questions were not too sensitive and allowed 

them to prepare their answers in advance, thus reducing the amount of time to complete the interview. 

The respondents needed time to prepare their answers 

since some questions ask for specific information for 

1986, and they were not likely to know these details 

without referring to company documents. 

The structured interview collected data about the 

following. (1) We obtained information for 1986 and 

the present about company characteristics, such as 

the type of resource extracted (oil or gas or both), the 

amounts produced, exploration activities, spending 

on research and development, locations of regional 

offices, number and distribution of employees, and 

participation in joint ventures . (2) We got details 

about the companies' use of service companies in 

1986 and the present. (3) We asked the respondents 

about their outlook concerning the future of activity 

in the Gulf. (4) The company representatives 

provided information about the impact of policies, 

technology, and regulations on their operations . 

Preliminary Findings 

Only stage one of the project, in-depth face-to-face 

interviews, has been completed. These interviews 

revealed the following. (1) The two categories of 

companies usually referred to when discussing the oil 

and gas industry-majors and independents-are not 

adequate . (2) There is too much diversity among 

independents in their production, reserves, integration, and staff, to discuss them as one group. 

Second, the majors do not appear to be abandoning 

the Gulf of Mexico, with the exception of Tenneco. 

Instead, they are changing the manner in which they 

operate by engaging in asset rationalization, 

corporate restructuring, and downsizing. Asset 

rationalization refers to the establishment of core 

areas of operations . The majors are divesting 

properties outside their core areas and acquiring 

properties within these areas. Corporate restructuring 

is enabling the majors to become more efficient by 

altering their management structure, reporting 

relationships and geographic dispersion . They are 

giving divisions greater autonomy while they are also 

consolidating management and technical functions 

within the divisions. 

The third finding from in-depth interviews concerns 

independents . Three factors enabled independents to 

become active in the Gulf of Mexico. The change 

from nominated leasing to area wide leasing and the 

reduction of the minimum bid enabled the independents to acquire properties in the Gulf. In addition, 

the infrastructure was already created by the majors; 

therefore, independents did not need the capital to 

develop the infrastructure necessary to participate in 

offshore extraction . Moreover, independents now 

have increasing access to new technology such as 

that used in subsalt exploration and deepwater 

drilling . Overall, independents are lean, efficient, and 

opportunistic; they contract out most activities ; and 

they vary greatly in size and orientation. 

Fourth, the majors and independents were found to 

differ in the following ways. On the whole, the 

majors incur higher operating costs and they contract 

out fewer activities than do most independents. The 

majors have financial advantages including greater 

access to capital, but large independents also have 

greater access to capital than do small independents. 

Further, typically, independents are more concerned 

about environmental regulations than the majors, 

particularly the financial responsibility provisions of 

OPA 90, the increases in lease bonding to cover 

plug-and-abandon liabilities, and the implications of 

the Clean Water and Clean Air Acts. 

Yet there are many similarities among the majors and 

the independents . Like the independents, the majors 

are acquiring producing properties and are developing smaller fields, although they prefer larger fields . 

Similar to the majors, independents are doing subsalt 

exploration and are involved in deepwater projects . 

Further, majors and independents are complying 

similarly with environmental and safety regulations 

with a few caveats . Three of the respondents 

mentioned problems that the independents were 
161 

having in terms of complying with the regulations. 

They stated that independents might have more difficulty complying and expend fewer resources to 

comply, have less ability to cope with infrequent 

crises, and be lax about reporting problems such as 

very small spills . 

REFERENCE 

Dodson, J .K . and L. LeBlanc. 1993 . U.S . Gulf activity 

reviving, but drilling insufficient to halt declining 

reserves . Offshore/Oilman January: 23-25. 

Fifth, the respondents expect a decline in production 

and activity in the western and central Gulf in the 

near future ; however, this decline depends on 

deepwater technology and projects, subsalt 

exploration, and the viability of exploration and 

production in the eastern Norphlet Trend. Moreover, 

the respondents assessments about the likely future of 

oil and gas in the Gulf varied widely from 

pessimistic to optimistic . Pessimists portrayed the 

Gulf in 1998 as having low prices of oil ($15) and 

gas ($2 .20) ; less exploration and production activity 

than exists at present; and lower employment in the 

majors, independents, and service and supply 

companies. Optimists predicted higher oil ($22) and 

gas ($3.00) prices ; greater exploration and production 

activity than there is currently; the same employment 

in the majors and higher employment in the 

independents and service and supply companies. 

The endeavors necessary to conduct the structured 

phone interviews resulted in the following findings . 

First, there are about 103 companies with telephones 

currently operating in the Gulf: 17 majors, 19 large 

integrated independents, 5 small integrated 

independents, 14 large nonintegrated independents, 

and 46 small nonintegrated independents . This distribution of independent companies across the four 

categories is reasonable . It is logical that most 

independents would be small and nonintegrated given 

that many of the companies are extracting from fields 

the majors left due to the small amount of oil and 

gas. Most large companies could not maintain a profit while obtaining small amounts of oil and gas. In 

addition, it is rational that there would be few small 

integrated companies since downstream integration 

represents additional activities that the company must 

undertake and this requires staff and resources that a 

larger company is more likely to have. 

Current Status of the Project 

We have completed 37 interviews and most of these 

have been coded. Interviewing and coding should be 

finished by 1 1994 December. The initial report will 

be submitted to Minerals Management Service at the 

end of May, 1995. 

Dr. Ruth Seydlitz is Associate Professor of Sociology 

and Associate Director of the Environmental Social 

Science Research Institute at the University of New 

Orleans. Her research interests include the social and 

economic impacts of energy development and 

resource extraction . She has conducted research on 

this topic since 1991 and has published two articles, 

one research report, and two chapters in another 

report in this field. She received her B.S . in sociology 

and psychology from the University of Tulsa in 1979 

and her Ph.D . in sociology from Washington 

University in St . Louis in 1986. 

John W. Sutherlin is Project Manager for the 

Environmental Social Science Research Institute. 

Prior to initiating his graduate studies at the 

University of New Orleans' Political Science 

department, Sutherlin worked in the oil and gas 

industry as a public relations representative for an 

independent company. He received his B.A. in 

political science and history at Louisiana Tech 

University in 1990 and M.A . in international 

relations at the University of New Orleans in 1994. 

Dr. Thomas R. Hammer is President of Bergman and 

Hammer, Ltd. and has been a full-time principal of 

Bergman and Hammer, Ltd. since its incorporation in 

1990. He has conducted several industry studies as 

both an in-house consultant and a regional 

development specialist. In his capacity as an industry 

consultant, he has conducted investigations for 

companies such as General Motors, General Electric, 

Paradyne Corporation, and Sandia National 

Laboratories . As a public agency consultant, he has 

completed studies for machinery manufacturers in 

Northeastern Michigan, the Michigan Department of 

Commerce, and the U.S . Navy. He received his B.A . 

in economics from Harvard College in 1965 and his 

Ph .D . in regional science from the University of 

Pennsylvania in 1971 . 

Dr. Edward M. Bergman is Secretary of Bergman 

and Hammer, Ltd., Director of the Institute for 

Economic Development at the University of North 

Carolina, and Professor of City and Regional 
162 

Planning at the University of North Carolina . In his 

capacity as a consultant to mission organizations and 

as a researcher concerned with basic inquiry, he has 

conducted numerous studies of industrial location, 

labor requirements, economic development policy 

and business incentives . He has completed research 

for the Mary Reynolds Babcock Foundation, the U.S . 

Department of Transportation, Arkansas Governor 

Clinton, the North Carolina Rural Economic 

Development Center, and the U.S . Department of 

Energy . He received his B.S . in urban planning from 

Michigan State University in 1966, his MCP in city 

and regional planning from the University of 

Pennsylvania in 1968, and his Ph.D . in city and 

regional planning from the University of 

Pennsylvania in 1972. 

A MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW FOR 

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN 

CONTINENTAL SLOPE HABITATS 

Dr. Robert S. Carney 

Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

world ocean due to the consumption of nutritive 

detritus during transit from the photic zone to the 

bottom (Carney, 1989) . This fundamental pattern has 

a variety of management consequences . 

1 . For equal areas shallow and deep, in most 

instances the number of animals threatened by 

environmental impact will be less in the deep 

sea. However, there are two complicating issues, 

one known and one speculative. Known is that 

while overall abundance may be low in deep 

water, diversity of organisms can be higher than 

in shallow water. Thus, more kinds of animals 

will be at risk . Speculation based upon this 

diversity pattern is that deep ecosystem structure 

is more complex and more sensitive to 

perturbation . 

2. It is unlikely that secondary production in the 

deep-sea can support sustained commercial 

exploitation of fish stocks, thereby minimizing 

conflicts between fishing and seafloor 

development. A few deep water fisheries, 

however, must be considered . Orange roughy, 

Hoplostethus altanticus, common is U.S . is 

fished at 1500m and deeper (Anon . 1994). 

FAUNA CHANGES WITH DEPTH 

As the oil and gas industry moves into progressively 

deeper water, regulatory agencies are faced with 

important questions. What is necessary? Devise a 

new environmental perspective? Modify the approaches taken at continental shelf depths? Or, 

simply manage deeper seafloor just like shallower? 

The review undertaken in this CMI project takes 

three approaches to these questions. First, not 

discussed here, is a review of previous U.S . efforts to 

address deep ocean environmental concerns. None 

were especially successful for a host of reasons. 

Second is to consider what we know about the deep 

Gulf of Mexico. In fact, we know a good deal . Third 

and the focus of this presentation, what is known 

about deep ocean ecology that is relevant to environmental regulation? Much of this presentation is based 

upon Gage and Tyler's (1991) excellent general 

reference on the deep ocean. 

Four general patterns are seen in the deep sea. 

BIOMASS DECREASES WITH DEPTH 

This has been seen in all areas so far studied. As with 

all zoogeographic gradients, causes of the change are 

linked to environmental difference . There has been 

considerable energy expended worrying about the 

exact nature of the change (see Carney et al. 1989), 

but the general pattern is clear. As you progress 

down the continental slope, each depth or depth zone 

is characterized by a distinctive combination of 

species. The management consequences are complex. 

1 . Species-specific concerns cannot be the same 

from shallow to deep, and they may even differ 

between sites on the continental slope. There 

will probably be less emotional attachment to 

deep-sea organisms on the part of the public . 

However, novel species, such as those at chemosynthetic communities, may attract public 

concern. 

2. There may be more habitat specificity in deep 

water than in shallow, meaning that deep 

seafloor should not be managed as part of a very 

wide whole. 

The biomass of the deep-sea benthos decreases exponentially as a function of depth over most of the 

If deep-sea species are adapted to a relatively 

uniform environment, they may be more 

sensitive to perturbation . 
163 

SPECIES DIVERSITY IN DEEP WATER IS 

UNEXPECTEDLY HIGH 

problematic. None of these categories of explanation 

provide much management guidance. 

Modern ecological and evolutionary theory tells us 

that to have many coexisting species we need moderately high productivity and a combination of factors 

that prevent competition displacing species. The key 

aspect about such factors is heterogeneity. The physical environment, the food, etc., must be complex. 

Given this theoretical perspective, oceanographers 

were quite surprised when sampling along a depth 

transect between Woods Hole and Bermuda revealed 

a dramatic increase in overall species richness 

beyond the shelf-slope break (Sanders and Hessler, 

1969). Explaining this has been an important topic in 

benthic ecology ever since. Although authors have 

proposed various explanations, the fact is that the 

pattern remains unexplained. 

The diversity problem facing resource managers 

stems from lack of an explanation for a pattern that 

challenges widely held scientific points of view. 

Since we really do not know why the deep ocean is 

so diverse, we can neither accept nor refute hypothetical impact scenarios. The deep abyss may be 

robust in the face of impact or it may be especially 

fragile. We have little to base a conclusion on. 

Real progress in explaining the causes of deep high 

diversity may come about when considerable effort 

is expended to describe the pattern found at many 

places in the world ocean. The few scattered studies 

now available provide only a sparse base for comparison. There is, however, indication that distinct 

global patterns exist (Rex et al. 1993). Until then, we 

can speculate about the few data available. Such 

speculation falls into general categories . First, the 

reporting of high diversity can be challenged on 

sampling and analytical grounds (Gray 1994). There 

is validity to some of this attack, but the fact remains 

that the deep sea is not a species poor environment. 

Second, theory can be amended. This was Sanders' 

(1969) original approach when he proposed the 

stability-time hypothesis . Third, we can say theory is 

correct but our perceptions are wrong; the deep 

environment is really highly heterogeneous. Since 

this heterogeneity is hard to demonstrate, it is sometimes postulated in quite complex ways involving 

transitory mosaics (Grassle and Maciolek 1992). 

There are also some well documented examples of 

temporal and spatial heterogeneity (Thistle et al. 

1985), but their relevance on the larger scale is 

THERE ARE UNIQUE DEEP HABITATS 

Over the decades in which the three above generalities about the deep ocean were developed, oceanographers thought of the deep benthos as a soft mud 

system. Rocks had been seen, but encrusting fauna 

was extremely rare at depths below 1000m. This 

view changed radically with discovery of chemosynthetic communities now known to be common at 

hydrocarbon seeps in the Gulf of Mexico. The results 

of a MMS study on these systems is underway at the 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group, 

GERG, at Texas A&M, but a few preliminary observations can be made. These systems are reef-like in 

many regards and will probably be protected in a 

similar manner. Perturbations associated with sampling persist over at least five years, indicating slow 

recovery from disturbance. Finally, although these 

systems provide food for large predators and scavengers in the slope environment, links with surrounding 

benthos are poorly understood (Carney 1995). 

CONCLUSIONS 

In many respects the deep sea is different from 

shallow water and may be regulated according to different policies . Aesthetics and recreation will be 

minimal issues . Conflicts with bottom fisheries will 

be minimal or non-existent . Special habitats are there 

and will be afforded protection . However, limited 

understanding of the system makes it impossible to 

predict the overall sensitivity to perturbation . 

REFERENCES 

Anon. 1994. Orange roughy ; the king of the abyss. 

France Ecopeche, Feb. :26 . 

Carney, R.S . 1989. Examining the relationship 

between organic carbon flux and deep-sea deposit feeding. Chapter 2 in G. Lopez, G. Taghon, 

and J. Levington (eds .) . Lecture Notes on Coastal and Esturaine Studies 31 . Ecology of Marine 

Deposit Feeders. Springer-Verlag. pp 24-59. 

Carney, R.S . 1995. Consideration of the oasis 

analogy for chemosynthetic communities at Gulf 

of Mexico hydrocarbon vents. Geo-Marine 

Letters 14 : 149-159. 
164 

Carney, R., R. Haedrich, and G. Rowe. 1983. 

Zonation of fauna in the deep sea. Chapter 9 . In 

G.T. Rowe ed. Deep-Sea Biology, The Sea Vol. 

8 . pp 371-398 

Gage, J.D . and P.A . Tyler. 1991 . Deep-sea Biology: 

a Natural History of Organisms at the Deep-Sea 

Floor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Grassle, J.F . and N. Maciolek . 1992 . Deep-sea 

species richness : regional and local diversity 

estimates from quantitative bottom samples. 

American Naturalist 139:313-341 . 

Gray, J.S . 1994. Is the deep-sea species diversity 

really so high? Species diversity of the 

Norwegian continental shelf. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 112:205-209. 

Rex, M.A ., C.T . Stuart, R.R . Hessler, J.A. Allen, 

H.L . Sanders, and G.D.F . Wilson. 1993. Globalscale latitudinal patterns of species diversity in 

the deep-sea benthos. Nature 365:636-639 . 

Sanders, H.L . and R.R . Hessler. 1969. Ecology of the 

deep-sea benthos. Science 163 :1419-1424. 

Sanders, H.L . 1969. Benthic marine diversity and the 

stability-time hypothesis . Brookhaven 

Symposium in Biology 22 :71-81 . 

Thistle, D., J. Yingst, and K. Fauchald. 1985. A 

deep-sea benthic community exposed to strong 

near-bottom currents on the Scotian Rise . Marine 

Geology 66 :91-112. 

DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION 

OF SUB-LETHAL TOXICITY TESTS 

TO PAH USING MARINE 

HARPACTICOID COPEPODS 

Mr. Gui Lotufo 

Dr. John W. Fleeger 

Department of Zoology Physiology 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

Petroleum drilling and production operations in the 

Gulf of Mexico have made a substantial impact on 

the local environment. A broad range of chemicals is 

used and largely discharged as produced water or as 

spills. As a result, the biota have been exposed to 

crude and refined oil for many years. Among all 

petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbons (PAHs) occur in high concentrations 

and are among the most carcinogenic, mutagenic, and 

toxic compounds of the pollutants discharged to the 

marine environment. An estimated 2 .3 x 10 5 metric 

tons of PAH enter the aquatic environment annually 

(Kennish 1992). PAHs are highly hydrophobic 

compounds and strongly bind to the organic fraction 

of sediment particles. Therefore, the PAH 

concentrations in sediments are typically much 

higher than those in the overlying water. 

We propose to develop sub-lethal toxicity tests for 

sediment-associated PAH using harpacticoid 

copepods . Harpacticoids are wide-spread epibenthic 

and infaunal members of the meiofauna 

(invertebrates passing a 1 mm sieve but retained on 

a 0.063 mm sieve) . They are very abundant in most 

marine sediments, second, among metazoans, only to 

nematodes. Harpacticoids play a significant role in 

food webs of juvenile fish and shellfish. Upon 

hatching, copepods mature through six naupliar 

stages, then metamorphose to six distinct copepodite 

stages, the last of which is the mature adult (Hicks 

and Coull 1983). Many benthic harpacticoids spend 

their entire cycle in the sediment. Their short life 

cycle (a few weeks) and easily distinguishable life 

stages facilitate rapid assessment of population 

growth and sublethal effects on reproduction (Coull 

and Chandler 1992). Harpacticoids have been used in 

toxicological studies of sediment-bound metals and 

PCBs and other pesticides (e .g . Green et al. 1993; 

DiPinto et al. 1993; Chandler et al. 1994); however 

few data are available on PAH effects. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

Selection of PAH 

From the long list of PAH single compounds, two, 

phenanthrene and fluoranthene were selected to asses 

the toxicity of PAH to harpacticoids and for 

developing protocols of sub-lethal sediment tests for 

hydrophobic compounds. Both are medium molecular 

weight PAH and usually constitute a high percentage 

of total PAH in sediments. Sediment quality criteria 

(SQC) obtained from the equilibrium partitioning 

theory were derived for these two compounds using 

marine invertebrates (USEPA 1993 a, b). For a more 
165 

realistic approach concerning natural PAH 

contamination in sediments, diesel fuel, a complex 

mixture of hydrocarbons, was also used. 

Test Animals 

Developing a toxicity test is very labor intensive. A 

series of experiments to evaluate and select several 

factors involved in detecting hazardous effects in 

living organisms must be performed. The main goals 

are to achieve maximal discriminatory power and 

repeatability. It is desirable to have high performance 

in the controls (i .e ., good survivorship) and low 

variability within treatments . An "unlimited" supply 

of test organisms was made available by culturing 

one species of sediment-dweller harpacticoid 

representative of the local estuarine copepod 

assemblage from the Louisiana coast. Schizopera 

knabeni is a member of the Diosaccidae, the most 

speciose and diverse family in Harpacticoida. It has 

been cultured sediment-free at room temperature in 

static conditions in 2 L Erlenmeyer flasks . The water 

is partially renewed frequently and the culture fed 

with diatom paste mixed in water. Although cultured 

in the absence of sediment, the copepods always 

burrowed instantly when transferred to dishes 

containing sediment. 

Contamination Procedures 

Mud-flat sediment was sieved through a 125 ~im 

mesh, cleaned and condensed after Chandler (1986). 

This sediment was homogenized with artificial 

seawater (25 %o), sieved through a 45 ~im mesh and 

allowed to settle for 24 h. The supernatant was 

removed via aspiration leaving reconstituted test 

sediment (solids content =14 %, total volatiles = 9 

%). PAH (phenanthrene or fluoranthene) carried in 

200 pl of acetone was spiked dropwise on a 

vigorously stirring slurry of 150 g wet-weight 

sediment. Mixing was maintained for 4 h and the 

PAH-amended sediment was stored at 4°C in the 

dark. The amount of PAH spiked was calculated on 

a dry weight basis. The expected concentrations for 

single compounds were: 0 (control), 0 acetone (200 

~t1, no PAH), 60, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg 

(ppm). Contaminated sediments were stored for at 

least 5 days before use in the experiments to assure 

equilibration between PAH bound to organic carbon 

(of sediment particles) and PAH in solution in the 

pore water. 

Diesel fuel was mixed with autoclaved mud-flat 

sediment and after tumbling for a week, was 

thoroughly washed with water to remove nonadsorbed hydrocarbons. The final total PAH 

concentration measured was 660 mg/kg (stock 

sediment). This full-concentration sediment was 

diluted with clean sediment from the same site on a 

dry weight basis and vigorously stirred for 12 hours. 

The resulting expected total PAH concentrations in 

300 g of wet sediment (mg/kg) were: 5, 10, 25, 50, 

100, 200 and 400. 

Analytical Chemistry 

PAH from all concentrations of phenanthrene, 

fluoranthene and diesel will be extracted from 

sediment and chemical analysis performed with a 

GC-FID. Definitive values are not available yet; 

however, this spiking procedure was tested with a 

freshwater sediment and found to be effective. 

Toxicity data are therefore reported as expected 

(nominal) concentrations . 

Toxicity Test Protocols 

Three toxicity tests were performed using Schizopera 

knabeni, each having a different end point: mortality, 

reproductive output, and grazing activity . Copepods 

were withdrawn from the culture flasks and sorted 

under a dissecting microscope. The same test 

chambers and procedures were used in all experiments. The chambers consisted of a 15 ml 

scintillation vials filled with 10 ml of 25 %o filtered 

artificial seawater . One ml of test sediment at each 

concentration was gently spread on the bottom of 

each chamber with minimal disturbance using a 1 ml 

Finnpipette to create a 2- to 3 mm sediment layer. 

Three hours later copepods were added to test 

chambers . Test chambers were placed in plastic 

storage containers in 2 cm of water. The containers 

were kept in the dark in an incubator at 25 °C during 

each experiment. At the end of each experiment, the 

contents of each chamber were sieved through a 45 

pm mesh and retained copepods were enumerated 

and scored as live or dead. 

To generate LCso values for sediment-associated 

phenanthrene, fluoranthene and diesel fuel, copepods 

were exposed for 96 h to test-sediments and assessed 

for mortality. Thirty adult copepods in each test 

chamber in four replicates were used per treatment. 
166 

Two chronic or sub-lethal tests, in which mortality is 

not the endpoint, were developed and applied to 

Schizopera knabeni. The first assessed the effects of 

PAH on the reproductive capacity, by determining 

the average number of offspring produced by one 

fertile female. A second test explored PAH effects on 

grazing activity, by quantifying the amount of algae 

grazed on by copepods in a given period of time. 

The reproductive-output test was performed by 

exposing one mating pair (sub-adult female and adult 

male) to PAH-contaminated sediment for the period 

of 14 days. This period of time was enough for the 

offspring produced from the first brood to develop 

into late copepodite stages and for the females to 

produce a second brood. Each sediment concentration 

was replicated with ten test chambers containing one 

mating pair in each . Each unit received a dose of 

food consisting of 0 .2 mg of Microfeast Plus larval 

diet (yeast) after 24 h. At the end of the experiment, 

all life stages were recovered from the sediment, 

adult mortality was assessed and egg clutch size, 

nauplii and copepodites produced were enumerated. 

In the grazing activity experiment, five adult females 

were placed and kept unfed for 24 h in the test chambers . Radiolabeled algae (the dinoflagellate Isocrysis 

galbana cultured in '4C bicarbonate) was offered in 

a known amount and copepods were allowed to graze 

for a period of 3 h. Grazing was terminated by 

washing the copepods from the sediment and 

transferring to 4% formalin . Copepods from each 

experimental unit were solubilized in scintillation 

vials and radioactivity incorporated through ingestion 

of algae was measured in a scintillation counter. 

RESULTS 

In all phenanthrene and fluoranthene experiments, the 

carrier (acetone) treatment was never significantly 

different from the acetone-free control. 

96-h Survivorship 

Excellent performance in the controls was achieved, 

with survivorship close to 100% in both control 

treatments . There was a direct positive relationship 

between mortality and sediment PAH concentrations 

in the sediment with phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and 

diesel fuel (Table 2C.1). Significant mortality was 

observed at sediment PAH concentrations as low as 

250 mg/kg of phenanthrene and fluoranthene, and as 

low as 100 mg/kg of diesel fuel . 

14-Day Reproductive Output 

Total offspring produced in 14 days by one fertile 

female was determined by enumerating eggs in the 

egg sac, and larval (nauplius) and juvenile 

(copepodite) stages . Nauplii and copepodites together 

comprised the so-called realized offspring, individuals that hatched from egg and survived until 

experiment termination. In the fluoranthene experiment (Figure 2C .7), a significant reduction in the 

total offspring produced was detected at 250 mg/kg. 

However, a significant reduction in the realized 

offspring was detected at a lower concentration, 125 

mg/kg. In the phenanthrene experiment (Figure 

2C.8), no statistically significant difference was 

observed in the total offspring between the control 

and all PAH treatments . But again, a significant 

reduction in the number of nauplii and copepodites 

occurred at 125 mg/kg. In the diesel experiment 

(Figure 2C.9), total reproduction and realized 

offspring were significantly reduced at 50 mg/kg, 

whereas total number of copepodites was reduced at 

10 mg/kg. It was evidenced by the three experiments 

that besides an overall adverse effect on offspring 

production, PAH had a stronger impact on the normal 

development of eggs into nauplii and copepodites. 

Grazing Activity 

As determined by the total radiolabel incorporation in 

copepods via ingestion of radioactive algae, grazing 

activity was adversely impaired by phenanthrene in 

the sediment (Figure 2C .10) . A mean decrease in 

grazing was observed in the 60 mg/kg treatment, but 

a significant decrease was detected at 125 mg/kg and 

higher . Incorporation of label into dead control 

copepods was minimal, indicating that the radioactivity in copepods is due to active ingestion of 

radiolabeled cells. Sub-lethal toxicity tests usually 

require long term exposures to contaminants, as for 

the reproductive output experiment described above. 

An adverse effect on feeding, an important physiological activity, was detected after a short term 

exposure of only 24 hours applying the test protocol 

developed in this project. Tests using fluoranthene 

and diesel fuel will be performed shortly. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The first part of this project provided test protocols 

that proved useful in detecting adverse effects of 

PAH on copepods, a ecologically important group of 

estuarine metazoans. 
167 

Table 2C.1 . Mean percentage survivorship and corresponding standard deviation in the fluoranthene, 

phenanthrene and diesel 96-h survivorship experiments. 

Treatment (mg/kg) Mean survivorship (%) Standard deviation 

Fluoranthene 

p 10 0 

60 100 0 

125 96 0 

250 87.5 6.16 

500 67.5 9.88 

1000 24 11 .25 

Phenanthrene 

p 99.25 1 .5 

60 97.75 1 .5 

125 96.75 2 .87 

250 77.5 33.93 

500 34.25 23 .21 

1000 8 .25 16 .5 

Diesel 

p 99.25 1 .5 

25 99.25 1 .5 

50 91 .5 835 

100 58.5 7.05 

200 4 4.25 

Four basic conclusions were drawn from the 

experiments performed with the harpacticoid 

Schizopera knabeni: 

* PAH in the sediment phase had an adverse 

impact on survival, reproduction, development 

and feeding of a harpacticoid copepod. 

* Sub-lethal tests, more sensitive than acute 

exposures, detected toxicity of sedimentassociated PAH at lower concentrations . 

* Diesel fuel, a complex mixture of PAH, had a 

more significant impact at lower concentrations 

than the single compounds phenanthrene and 

fluoranthene . 

* The grazing activity test, performed first with 

meiobenthos, proved more sensitive and timeeffective when compared to the reproductiveoutput test . 

FUTURE RESEARCH AND TEST 

APPLICATIONS 

adverse effects on three of the most abundant species 

of harpacticoids in the estuaries of the Gulf of 

Mexico. We also propose to test the hypothesis that 

pre-exposure to PAH increases tolerance to this 

compounds. This will be accomplished by comparing 

the sensitivity of two populations of the same 

species: one from Louisiana, subjected to historical 

chronic exposure to hydrocarbons; the other from a 

more pristine estuary, potentially in Florida. We will 

also test the hypothesis that PAH in the sediment 

may exert a selective pressure towards development 

of resistance . Laboratory experiments will be 

performed to compare the tolerance across generations of a population of harpacticoid chronically 

exposed to PAH in laboratory-controlled conditions . 

REFERENCES 

Chandler, G.T. 1986. High density culture of 

meiobenthic harpacticoid copepods within a 

muddy sediment substrate. Can . J. Fish . Aquat. 

Sci. 43 : 53-59. 

Our future research will focus on performing the 

developed test protocols to detect and compare PAH 
Fluoranthene 

14-day reproductive output 

45 

Eggs 

ao ~ Nauplii 

~ Copepodites 

35 

CD 

30 

w 

25 - 

x 

V- LO 

0 

15 - 

F'I 

10 - 

5 - 

0 i 

0 Oac 60 125 250 

mg PAH / kg dry sediment 

Figure 2C.7 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean 

number of offspring produced by one mating pair in the 

fluoranthene 14-day reproductive output experiment 

with Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractionated into 

number of eggs, nauplii and copepodites. Oac = acetone 

control. 

Phenanthrene 

14-day reproductive output 

45 

Eggs 

40 - ~ Nauplii 

~ Copepodites 

35 - 

d 

30- E 

w 

v~ 25 - 

rn 20 

o 

15 - 

5 

0 ij 

0 Oac 60 125 250 

mg PAH / kg dry sediment 

Figure 2C.8 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean 

number of offspring produced by one mating pair in the 

phenanthrene 14-day reproductive output experiment 

with Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractioned into 

number of eggs, nauplii and copepodites. Oac = acetone 

control. 

o, 00 
Diesel 

14-day reproductive output 

45 

~ Eggs 

40 ~ Nauplii 

~ Copepodites 

35 

30 

w 

25 

c 

15 - 

10 

5 

0 

0 5 10 25 50 100 

mg PAH l kg dry sediment 

Figure 2C.9 . Histogram of total reproductive output in terms of mean 

number of offspring produced by one mating pair in the 

diesel fuel 14-day reproductive output experiment with 

Schizopera knabeni. Total is fractioned into number of 

eggs, nauplii and copepodites. Oac = acetone Control. 

Grazing 

Phenanthrene 

500 

400 

300 

c 

a 200 

i 

100 

i 

c ; 

c ac 60 125 250 500 1000 do 

mg PAH / kg dry sediment 

Figure 2C.10. Histogram of the radioactivity incorporated in 

Schizopera knabeni after grazing for 3 hrs on '° C 

Radiolabeled Schizopera galbana. c = control; ac = 

acetone control; do = dead control; dpm = disintegration 

per minute. 
170 

Chandler, G.T ., B.C . Coull and J.C . Davis. 1994. 

Sediment-phase and aqueous-phase fenvalerate 

effects on meiobenthos - implications for 

sediment quality criteria development. Mar 

Environ. Res 37 : 313-327. 

Coull, B.C . and G.T . Chandler. 1992. Pollution and 

meiofauna: field, laboratory and mesocosm 

studies. Oceanogr . Mar. Biol . Ann. Rev. 30: 

191-271 . 

Dipinto, L.M ., B.C . Coull and G.T . Chandler . 1993. 

Lethal and sublethal effects of the 

sediment-associated PCB aroclor 1254 on a 

meiobenthic copepod. Environ. Toxicol . Chem. 

12 : 1909-1918 . 

Green, A.S ., G.T . Chandler and E.R . Blood. 1993. 

Aqueous-phase, pore-water, and sediment-phase 

cadmium - toxicity relationships for a 

meiobenthic copepod. Environ. Toxicol . Chem. 

12: 1497-1506. 

Hicks, G.R.F . and B.C . Coull. 1983. The ecology of 

marine meiobenthic harpacticoid copepods . 

Oceanogr. Mar. Biol . Ann . Rev. 21 : 67-175 . 

Kennish, M.J . 1992. Polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbons . pp. 133-181 . In Ecology of 

estuaries: Anthropogenic effects. CRC Press. 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency. 1993a. 

Sediment quality criteria for protection of 

benthic organisms : phenanthrene. U.S . EPA, 

Washington, D.C . EPA 822-R-93-014 . 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency. 1993b. 

Sediment quality criteria for protection of 

benthic organisms: fluoranthene . U.S . EPA, 

Washington, D.C . EPA 822-R-93-012 . 

Mr. Gui Lotufo has worked towards his Ph.D at 

Louisiana State University, Department of Zoology, 

for the past two years. His research focuses on the 

toxic effects of PAH on benthic organisms . His areas 

of research interest also include the taxonomy of 

copepods . Mr. Lotufo received both his B.S . in 

biology and M.S . in zoology from the University of 

Sao Paulo, Brazil . 

Dr. John W. Fleeger has worked at Louisiana State 

University for the past 17 years and serves as 

Professor and Chairman of the Department of 

Zoology. His areas of research interest include 

ecology of estuarine benthos and meiofauna biology. 

Dr. Fleeger received his B.S . in biology from 

Slippery Rock University, his M.S . in zoology from 

Ohio University, and his Ph.D. in biology from the 

University of South Carolina . 

MODELING THE BEHAVIOR OF 

INTEGRATED PRODUCERS AND 

INDEPENDENT PRODUCERS : 

IMPLICATIONS FOR OFFSHORE OIL 

AND GAS DEVELOPMENT AND 

POLICY 

Dr. Allan G. Pulsipher 

Dr. Wumi O. Iledare 

Center for Energy Studies 

Louisiana State University 

Major oil and gas companies are shifting their 

exploration and production (E&P) investment from 

the United States to foreign countries. As they do so, 

smaller companies, "independents," are expected to 

play a more prominent role in domestic E&P. Within 

both industry and government circles the 

apprehension is widespread that such a shift from the 

majors to the independents will cause domestic oil 

and gas resources to be developed less aggressively 

and less efficiently. 

This project addresses such concerns by attempting 

to discern and quantify differences in behavior and 

success among firms of different sizes (majors, large 

and small independents) operating on the Gulf of 

Mexico OCS. Indicators such as 1) exploration and 

development effort, 2) wildcat success ratio, 

3) drilling productivity and 4) wildcat drilling as 

percent of total drilling effort are derived and used to 

compare performances of majors and independents. 

An economic model of the process of hydrocarbon 

reserve additions also has been developed and used 

to test the hypothesis that majors have explored for 

and developed petroleum resources more efficiently 

or aggressively on the Gulf OCS than have independents. The model is used to study differences 

between majors and independents in the responsive- 
171 

ness of their drilling to changes in : 1) economic 

factors, 2) resource depletion, and 3) taxation . 

Our findings to-date are as follows: 

1 . Over the past ten-years, independent operators 

accounted for 57% of cumulative wildcat permits 

issued to search for new hydrocarbon reservoirs/ 

fields on the OCS and 70% of total exploratory 

wells drilled on the OCS. Moreover, small 

independents accounted for more than 40% of all 

exploratory wells drilled by independents and 

28% of total exploratory wells. 

2. Independents have been more willing to assume 

the higher risk inherent in exploration than the 

majors. More than 55% of independents' total 

drilling effort was exploratory drilling in 

comparison to the 21% wildcat ratio for the 

majors. And while only one in every four 

wildcat wells drilled by the majors was 

successful during the period 1983-1992, one in 

every three wildcat wells drilled by independents 

was successful at finding new reserves during 

the same period . 

3. Contrary to conventional thinking, the upstream 

oil and gas industry indicators we have 

developed indicate that independents have been 

both more aggressive and more successful than 

the majors in exploration, while the majors have 

only been moderately more successful than independents in development drilling on the OCS. 

4. In the aggregate, large, medium-sized, and small 

independents have all been more effective than 

the majors in adding hydrocarbon resources per 

successful foot drilled. If success is measured by 

b arre 1 s-of-oi 1-equivalent(BOE)-added-per-footof-successful-wells-drilled, on average, 

independents were more successful than the 

majors--adding 267 BOE per successful foot 

drilled over the 1983 to 1993 period compared to 

226 BOE per successful foot drilled for the 

majors. If total footage drilled, rather than 

successful footage, is used, the difference 

narrows. Majors added 108 BOE per foot drilled 

while independents as a group added 110 BOE. 

Within the independent classification, large 

independents added 117 BOE per foot, middlesized independents 114 BOE per foot and small 

independents 103 BOE per foot drilled. 

To investigate these differences more carefully, we 

developed a hydrocarbon model of reserve additions 

on the Gulf of Mexico OCS. The hydrocarbon mode( 

views drilling as the primary means of generating 

new reserve additions; subject to resource 

availability, economic and policy incentives, 

cumulative geological knowledge and technical 

progress . The model structure is a combination of 

econometric descriptions of drilling behavior and 

geologic-engineering specifications of the 

effectiveness of drilling at adding new hydrocarbon 

reserves . The model is estimated using pooled, crosssection (majors, large and other independents) and 

time series data (for the period 1978 through 1992). 

Empirical estimates made with our hydrocarbon 

model confirm the inferences drawn from descriptive 

analysis . 

We found no statistical evidence of significant 

differences in the responsiveness of gross find-rate of 

hydrocarbon-reserves to technical progress among 

firms of different sizes operating on the OCS. We did 

find that resource depletion (or the growing maturity 

of the Gulf of Mexico OCS) more negatively affects 

majors' ability to add new reserves (per foot of 

successful wells completed) than it affects independents. Responsiveness of gross find-rate to cumulative drilling (a proxy measure for resource depletion) 

on the Gulf of Mexico OCS is estimated, on average 

as -0 .81, -0 .64 and -0 .61, respectively, for majors, 

large independents and other independents . 

Further, we found no differences among firms of 

different sizes in the responsiveness of drilling effort 

on the OCS to before-tax net cash flow (economic 

incentives) or the effective tax rate . Estimates of the 

hydrocarbon drilling equation suggest a highly 

negatively elastic response of drilling to the effective 

tax rate and a positively inelastic response of drilling 

effort to economic benefits . Drilling response to 

resource depletion is also more negatively elastic for 

majors than it is for independents . 

This report covers the first six months of project 

activity . During the remainder of the project we will 

Assemble and organize data from the Louisiana 

Department of Natural Resources (LDNR) files 

necessary to replicate the analysis summarized 

here for the Louisiana state jurisdiction . The 

principal problem in doing this is estimating 

reserves and reserve additions because the 

LDNR data does not provide such data . 
172 

2. Compare the results for the OCS we have 

described in this report with the results for the 

Louisiana jurisdiction . 

Dr. Allan G. Pulsipher is the Director of the Policy 

Analysis Program at the Center for Energy Studies at 

Louisiana State University . He as a B.A . from the 

University of Colorado and a Ph.D. from Tulane 

University, both in economics 

Dr. Wumi O. Iledare is a Research Assistant 

Professor in the Center for Energy Studies at 

Louisiana State University . He has a B. S . in 

petroleum engineering from University of Ibadan, 

Nigeria, an M.S . in energy resource technology and 

policy from the University of Pittsburgh, and a Ph.D. 

in mineral resource economics from West Virginia 

University . 

ROLE OF BOTTOM SEDIMENT 

REDOX-CHEMISTRY NEAR OIL 

PRODUCTION FACILITIES IN THE 

SEQUESTER/RELEASE AND/OR 

DEGRADATION OF METALS, 

RADIONUCLIDES AND ORGANICS 

Mr. B. C. Banker, Mr. T. Z. Guo, Dr. J . H. Pardue, 

Dr. R. D. DeLaune, Dr. C.W. Lindau 

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute 

Louisiana State University 

SUMMARY 

Bottom sediment was collected from a brackish site 

in coastal Louisiana. The sediment had been exposed 

to produced water discharge from several wells for a 

number of years (St. Pe, 1990). The sediment 

contained radium and elevated levels of selected 

metals and petroleum hydrocarbons. The influence of 

sediment redox chemistry on the partitioning of 

metals and radium and the degradation of petroleum 

hydrocarbons at the site was examined . 

Adsorption isotherms for selected metal including 

barium was determined in sediment incubated in 

microcosms (Patrick et al. 1973) under various 

sediment redox conditions ranging from +450 mV to 

-170 mV. 

Freudlich isotherms were used to determine 

metal/elemental adsorption at the various redox 

levels . Results obtained have shown the importance 

of sediment geochemistry on metal adsorption . We 

determined the adsorption capacity for Cu, Zn, Cd, 

As, Pb, Cr, Ni and Ba. We were particularly 

interested in Barium because of its presence in 

drilling muds. Under oxidized condition, Fe" and 

Mn" hydroxides were the main components 

responsible for sediment adsorption capacity at the 

study site . Under reduced condition, sediment humic, 

fulvic materials, and Fe(II), Mn(II) sulfides 

controlled metal adsorption . 

Shown in Figures 2C.11 and 2C .12 are results of 

cadmium and barium adsorption at various sediment 

redox conditions (-Eh) which depict the importance 

of sediment redox chemistry on the adsorption or 

release of metals in bottom sediment at the site. 

When sediment redox condition (Eh) was +430 mV 

(highly oxidized) the adsorption capacity of the 

sediment for Cd was high due to high adsorption 

capacity by oxidized Fe(III) and Mn(IV) 

oxyhydroxides. As the sediment became moderately 

anaerobic (-80 mV) the adsorption capacity 

decreased. This decrease was attributed to the 

dissolution of Fe(III) and Mn(IV) oxyhydroxides. 

As more anaerobic condition developed (-130 mV) 

the adsorption capacity of the sediment for Cd 

increased. At this redox level, sulfate was reduced to 

sulfide (SZ-) which precipitated Mn" and Fe" to form 

insoluble sulfides . At the initial stage of sulfide 

formation, the degree of supersaturation was low . 

The attraction between SZ- and Fez' or Mn" was only 

sufficient to cause these ions to bind together 

forming amorphous precipitates . These newly formed 

amorphous precipitates (FeS and MnS) have high 

surface areas. Therefore the sediment under these 

conditions had a high adsorption capacity for Cd. 

When intense reducing conditions were reached 

(Eh=-160 mV) the adsorption capacity of the sediment for Cd decreased. At this range, the sulfide ion 

(SZ-) concentration increased and the degree of supersaturation was great. The formation of FeS and MnS 

precipitates on the surface of amorphous FeS and 

MnS particles formed larger crystal lattice particles . 

These large FeS and MnS particles contained less 

surface area and were less active . Therefore the 

sediment at these redox levels containing such 

particles have less adsorption capacity for Cd. 
173 

1 .75 

1 .5 

1 .25 

co 0 

1 

0.75 

0. . 

-- 

Figure 2C .11 . Adsorption of Cadmium as influenced by sediment Eh (mV) 

S = Concentration of adsorption Cd, C = Concentration in solution 

2.5 

,_ ._ ._ ._ ._ ._ ._ ._ .----,~~--- -D 

0.... . . ..... . . .... . .... . ..u . ..... .... . .. 

..... . ..... ....... . . .... . . ..... . . ..0 

O-. 

-O 

--C~--- 430 mV 

. . . . . . . .0 . . . . .... 0 mV 

----0---- - 80 mV 

---~---- -100 mV 

---EEI--- -130 mV 

-~-~ "-~-~ -150 mV 

---~--- -160 mV 

--V-- -170 mV 

-o-- 430 m' 

. . . .... . p.. . .... -80 MN 

. . .-0- -- -100 m 

-130 R 

-"EEI-'- -150 R 

-~-~0-~-~ -160 n 

__9___ _170 

0.5 

-1 .25 -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 

log C 

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1 .25 

log C 

2 

en 1 .5 0 

1 

Figure 2C.12 . Adsorption of Barium as influenced by sediment Eh (mV). 

S = Concentration of adsorption Ba, C = Concentration in solution . 
174 

Barium adsorption rate was also influenced by 

sediment redox condition. At highly oxidized 

conditions (Eh=430 mV) the sediment had a high 

adsorption capacity for Ba due to the greater 

adsorption capacity by Fe(IV) and Mn(IV) 

oxyhydroxides contained in the sediment. When 

sediment became anaerobic, the adsorption capacity 

decreased due to the dissolution of Fe(IV) and 

Mn(IV) oxyhydroxides. 

Factors affecting the solubility and mobility of zz6Ra 

in the sediment at the site was also evaluated using 

sequential extraction procedure adopted from 

Shannon et al. (1991). The sediment collected 

contained significantly high zz6Ra activity was 

incubated in microcosms under controlled conditions . 

Results indicate that ZZ6Ra solubility was controlled 

by co-precipitation of radium within sulfate minerals 

(e .g . barite and gypsum). Very little was in available 

or potentially available forms. In biologically-active, 

contaminated bottom sediments, conversion of sulfate 

to sulfide results in the dissolution of some barite 

releasing small amounts of radium to other available 

forms. Key results include: 

1 . Selective extractions of the sediment indicated 

that very low activities of radium are present in 

"available" or "potentially available" forms. 

Nearly all of the radium activity (>95%) can 

only be extracted using strong acids. 

2. The modified MINTEQ geochemical speciation 

model indicated that sediment porewater is 

unsaturated with respect to pure radium minerals 

but supersaturated with respect to other sulfate 

minerals such as barite (BaS04) and gypsum 

(CaS04. 2Hz0). Radium can co-precipitate 

within these minerals . 

3. In the biologically-active bottom sediment under 

anaerobic conditions, conversion of sulfate to 

sulfide results in the dissolution of some barite, 

redistributing small amounts of radium 

(approximately 5% of the total activity) to 

available and potentially available forms. 

Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon as influenced 

by sediment redox condition at the site was also 

determined. It is apparent from our initial analyses 

that the sediment at this discharge site were not 

enriched with lighter petroleum hydrocarbon 

fractions particularly aromatics. This suggested that 

there was either rapid degradation of these fractions 

or the solubility of these components was conducive 

to mobility . The rate of degradation in the sediment 

was determined by the use of an internal marker 

(Hopane) . Historically the ratio of heptadecane: 

pristane and octadecane : phytane have been used as 

a reference of degradation (Bertrand et al . 1983). A 

problem is that pristane and phytane are somewhat 

biodegradable; therefore, the ratio are useful only in 

the early stages of biodegradation . Hopanes are very 

resistant to biodegradation (Peters and Moldowan 

1993) and serve as an excellent internal marker for 

this degradation. Hopanes are the molecular fossils of 

bacterial hopanoids and may be the most abundant 

chemically defined organic species on earth 

(Ourisson and Albrecht 1992 ; Prince et al. 1987). 

Hopane has been shown to be neither generated no 

degraded in the time frames of laboratory 

experiments on biodegradation (Prince et al. 1994). 

Sediment obtained from the discharge site was 

incubated in microcosm at various redox levels (Eh) . 

The initial sediment added to the microcosm was 

found to contain primarily long chained branched 

fractions (e .g ., isoprenoids) . This suggests that the 

lighter molecular weight fractions are rapidly 

degraded or leached from the sediment. To estimate 

the time or capacity for degradation of lower 

molecular weight fractions (aromatic etc.) at various 

redox levels south Louisiana crude oil was added to 

the microcosm. Hopane was shown to be an excellent 

internal standard for determining petroleum 

hydrocarbon degradation rate . Samples were 

periodically removed and then analyzed on a HP MSGC to determine degradation. Results using hopane 

internal standards shows that sediment redox 

conditions were also important in petroleum 

hydrocarbon degradation. 

In conclusion, sediment redox chemistry at the 

produced water discharge site was shown to be very 

important in determining release, mobility of metals 

and radium and in the degradation of hydrocarbons . 

REFERENCES 

Bertrand, J.C ., E. Ramberloarisoa, J.F . Rontani, G. 

Giusti, and G. Mattei . 1983 . Microbial 

degradation of crude oil in sea water in 

continuous culture. Biotechnol . Lett . 5: 567. 

Ourisson, G. and P. Albrecht . 1992. Hopanoids 1 . 

Geohopanoids : The most abundant natural 

products on earth? Acc. Chem. Res. 25: 298 . 
175 

Patrick, Jr ., W.H . et al. 1973 . A simple system for 

controlling redox potential and pH in soil 

suspension . Soil Sci . Am. J. 37: 331-332. 

Peters, K.E . and J.M . Moldowan. 1993 . The 

biomarker guide: Interpreting molecular fossils 

in petroleum and ancient sediment. Englewood 

Cliffs, N.J . : Prentice Hall. 

Dr. C.W. Lindau has worked for LSU for the past ten 

years and serves as an associate professor in the 

Department of Nuclear Science and Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute. He received his M.S . in oceanography and his Ph.D . in soil science from Texas 

A&M University . His interests include soil and 

sediment chemistry and stable isotope research . 

Prince, R.C . 1987. Hopanoids: The world's most 

abundant biomolecules? Trends Biochem. Sci. 

12 : 455-456 . 

Shannon, R.D . et al . 1991 . The selectivity of a 

sequential extraction procedure for the determination of iron oxyhydroxides and iron sulfides in 

lake sediments. Biogeochem. 14 : 193-208 . 

St . Pe, Kerry, M. 1990 . An assessment of produced 

water impacts to low-energy brackish water 

systems in southeast Louisiana. Report Louisiana 

Dept. of Environ. Quality Water Pollut . Control 

Div. pp. 199. 

B.C . Banker is a graduate student at LSU working 

toward his M.S . in agronomy. He also received a 

B. S. LSU. His research interests include 

environmental chemistry of wetlands. 

T' .Z . Guo is a Ph.D. student at Louisiana State 

University, Department ofOceanography and Coastal 

Science. He received his undergraduate degree from 

Fuzhou University and his M.S . from Xiamen 

University, China. His research interests include 

mental chemistry in sediment. 

Dr. J.H. Pardue is an assistant professor at LSU 

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute. Dr. Pardue 

received his Ph.D. in civil engineering from 

Louisiana State University . His area of research 

interests are mobility and transportation of pollutants 

in the environment. 

Dr. R.D . DeLaune has worked for LSU for over 25 

years and serves as a professor in the Wetland 

Biogeochemistry Institute. He received his Ph .D . 

from Wageningen University, The Netherlands. His 

research interests are wetland environmental 

chemistry and global biogeochemical cycles . 
SESSION 2D 

AIR QUALITY ISSUES ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 
179 

Session: 

Co-Chairs: 

Date: 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Photochemical, Meteorological, and Emissions 

Modeling Results of the Gulf of Mexico Air 

Quality Study 

A Study of SO, Concentration and Dispersion 

Meteorology in a Class I Area 

Measurements of SO, and NO, Concentrations 

and Related Meteorological and Limnological 

Parameters in a Class I Area in Summer 1994 

2D - Air Quality Issues on the Outer Continental Shelf 

Mr. William S. Steorts and Dr. Mark Yocke 

November 16, 1994 

Dr. Mark A. Yocke 

Gary Z. Whitten 

Nina K. Lolk 

Marianne C. Causley 

Systems Applications International 

ICF Kaiser Engineers 

Mr. William S. Steorts 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. S. A. Hsu 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. S. A. Hsu 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 
181 

PHOTOCHEMICAL, 

METEOROLOGICAL, AND 

EMISSIONS MODELING RESULTS 

OF THE GULF OF MEXICO AIR 

QUALITY STUDY 

Dr. Mark A. Yocke 

Gary Z. Whitten 

Nina K. Lolk 

Marianne C. Causley 

Systems Applications International 

ICF Kaiser Engineers 

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

The overall goal of this study was quantitatively to 

determine through modeling (emissions, 

meteorological, and photochemical) the effects of 

current and future OCS development in the Gulf of 

Mexico on the nonattainment areas for ozone in 

Texas and Louisiana delineated above. 

PROJECT ELEMENTS AND CHRONOLOGY 

The project was divided into eight major tasks 

conducted in the following sequence: 

Mr. William L. Steorts 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA) 

specifically mandate that the U.S . Department of the 

Interior's Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

conduct a research study to assess the potential for 

certain types of onshore impacts of air pollutant 

emissions from offshore oil and gas exploration, 

development and production in the Outer Continental 

Shelf (OCS) regions of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Furthermore, the study was to assess the need for 

further control of offshore air pollution emissions. 

This mandate grew out of widely expressed concerns 

regarding the cumulative impacts onshore of air 

pollutant emissions from more than 3,000 offshore 

oil and gas production and development facilities in 

the central and western Gulf of Mexico. The impacts 

of greatest concern are ozone concentrations in 

onshore areas not attaining the National Ambient Air 

Quality Standard (NAAQS) for one-hour average 

ozone (120 parts per billion [ppb]) . These 

nonattainment areas include the region from Baton 

Rouge to the Gulf of Mexico, two parishes around 

Lake Charles in Louisiana, the 

Houston-Galveston-Beaumont-Port Arthur area, and 

Victoria County in Texas. 

Accordingly, MMS undertook sponsorship of the 

Gulf of Mexico Air Quality Study (GMAQS), which 

is intended to evaluate the effects of the development 

of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) petroleum 

resources on onshore ozone concentrations . The first 

stages of this three-year project began in May 1992. 

1 . identification of representative historical ozone 

episodes ; 

2. development of appropriate emissions 

inventories for these historical episodes 

(including OCS and onshore emissions, and 

growth control in calendar years of interest); 

3. preliminary emission, meteorological and 

photochemical modeling of selected historical 

episodes ; 

4. design and conduct of a field study to collect 

appropriate meteorological and air quality data 

during the summer of 1993 ; 

5. development of emission inventories for the 

1993 ozone episodes and projection of future 

year emission inventories. 

6 . meteorological and photochemical modeling of 

ozone episodes selected from the 1993 field 

study; assessment of the ozone impacts of 

alternative OCS future development scenarios in 

the Gulf Coast area on the on shore ozone 

nonattainment areas; 

characterization of the uncertainty in the model 

estimations; 

evaluation of the needs for future research or 

data collection efforts to improve understanding 

of the OCS effects on ambient ozone onshore. 

The principal elements of the study were the field 

study, data analyses, emissions inventory 

development, meteorological modeling, and 

photochemical modeling . This paper describes the 

emission, meteorological, and photochemical 

modeling procedures and interim results of the 

GMAQS for a high ozone episode that occurred 

throughout the study region on 17-21 August 1993 . 
182 

OVERVIEW OF EMISSION INVENTORY 

MODELING 

Comprehensive gridded, hourly emissions inventories 

were prepared for the entire study area, for the 1993 

ozone episodes. These inventories cover an area of 

nearly one million square kilometers, encompassing 

the OCS and onshore ozone nonattainment areas 

(Houston, Beaumont, Lake Charles, and Baton 

Rouge). 

Air pollutants inventoried include NO, NO,, 

speciated VOC, and CO. These inventories were 

converted to formats suitable for input to the 

photochemical model using the Emissions Processing 

System (EPS2.0). Quality assurance guidelines and 

procedures were developed, applied, and documented 

throughout the emissions inventory process to assure 

traceable emissions processing with minimal errors . 

The emission inventories prepared included both 

onshore and offshore emissions and OCS related 

emissions. All relevant emissions from anthropogenic 

and natural (i .e ., biogenic and geogenic) sources were 

considered, with special attention focused on offshore 

anthropogenic sources. Emissions from onshore 

anthropogenic sources were estimated based on 

information obtained from the USEPA 1990 Interim 

State Implementation Plan (SIP), the Louisiana 

Department of Environmental Quality (LADEQ), and 

the Texas Natural Resources Conservation 

Commission (TNRCC). 

A special survey was conducted to inventory offshore 

emissions sources. In conjunction with MMS, three 

survey forms were designed to solicit the information 

needed to estimate emissions from OCS production 

platforms, crew/supply boats and crew/supply 

helicopters. A software package was designed and 

developed for this study to estimate platform 

emissions by accessing the survey database, 

assigning quality assurance tracking codes, making 

quality control checks and data corrections, 

calculating emissions, and preparing the emissions 

data files in the format required by EPS 2 .0 . The 

emission calculations performed by the software 

reflect recent updates to the methodology given in 

EPA's Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors 

(AP-42, Supplement E). Fugitive emissions were 

estimated using factors from a recent MMS Pacific 

OCS Study (MMS 92-0043,44). Estimates of 

emissions were also prepared for other OCS sources, 

including pipeline and military vessels, and 

helicopters, using available information from a 

variety of sources. 

OVERVIEW OF METEOROLOGICAL 

MODELING 

Following preparation of the geographical and 

meteorological input data files required by the 

SAIMM, several test applications of the model were 

performed to establish the most appropriate set of 

input parameters and modeling procedures . For 

coarse grid resolution simulations, the SAIMM was 

exercised for the 17-21 August episode day using 

episode-specific temperature and moisture profiles 

and Four Dimensional Data Assimilation (FDDA) 

and variable surface characteristics. 

A procedure for extracting information from the 

coarse-grid SAIMM simulations to provide time- and 

space-varying boundary conditions for fine-grid 

resolution simulations was developed and tested for 

the Houston domain using the coarse-grid simulation 

results. The SAIMM was exercised for the fine-grid 

domain using domain-wide initial temperature and 

moisture profiles, FDDA, and variable surface 

characteristics . Information from the coarse-grid 

simulation was transferred to the fine-grid simulation 

using the FDDA procedure; the FDDA analyses were 

prepared by incorporating observations into a coarsegrid-simulation-derived first-guess field. Several finegrid simulations were run to determine how to best 

achieve the one-way nesting (i .e ., which of the 

prognostic variables to nudge and the optimum 

strength of the nudging coefficients) in the fine-grid 

simulations. The one-way nesting procedure was 

successfully applied to the generation of 

representative meteorological fields for episodes on 

17-21 August 1993. 

OVERVIEW OF PHOTOCHEMICAL 

MODELING 

An advanced photochemical air quality model, the 

Urban Airshed Model (UAM-V), was set up and 

tested for the 17-21 August 1993 ozone episode. The 

episode was selected on the basis of extensive 

analysis of 1993 field study data. The gridded model 

inputs were developed under the emissions inventory 

and meteorological modeling procedures described 

above. A nested grid was employed with the finest 

grid spacing over the Houston/Beaumont 
183 

industrialized urban areas, and the coarse-grid nest 

covering the balance of the roughly 1,OOOkm by 

1,OOOkm modeling domain. 

Evaluation of the model's performance for this 

episode was completed using available air quality 

measurements, and the model was found to perform 

reasonably well, based on both quantitative statistical 

tests and qualitative comparisons. Sensitivity tests 

were carried out to examine the model's responses to 

uncertainties in inputs and to changes in the OCS 

emissions inventory. 

onshore the following day. Therefore, this September 

period may offer greater potential for commingling of 

onshore and onshore emissions than did the August 

episode. For these reasons, it was decided that the 

remaining modeling efforts on this project will focus 

on this September episode. The final report, to be 

completed by 1 August 1995, will present the results 

of the September modeling, focusing on the potential 

for OCS ozone impacts onshore. 

The UAM-V modeling results for this episode 

suggest that the effect of transient emission likely 

played an important role in the formation of the 

highest ozone levels . In particular, a spill of gasoline 

in the Ship Channel area of Houston on morning of 

19 August appears to have contributed to the highest 

ozone levels measured during the episode. The model 

appears to be sensitive to both NO, and VOC 

emissions depending on the region and the mix of 

local emissions, suggesting that a mixed NO, and 

VOC emissions control strategy may be required . 

Furthermore, sensitivity tests suggest that the existing 

emissions inventory in the Houston/Bay 

City/Beaumont areas may be inadequate for dayspecific photochemical modeling, due perhaps to 

unresolved day-to-day variations in emissions. 

Results from running UAM-V for this episode with 

and without the OCS emissions showed virtually no 

onshore impacts on ozone concentrations and only 

relatively small impacts (9-39 ppb ozone) in some 

areas well offshore . 

NEXT STEPS 

Since the meteorology for the 17-21 August 1993 

showed little penetration of air from over the Gulf 

into either the Baton Rouge or greater Houston 

regions, the episode does not reveal significant OCS 

impacts in the areas of high ozone. Nevertheless, the 

modeling of this episode was instructive about the 

general meteorological, air quality, and emissions 

issues surrounding the ozone problems in the study 

region . A later summer 1993 episode, 6-11 

September, was characterized by high ozone (albeit 

not as high as during the August episode) along the 

Gulf coastline. Air flow during this period also 

suggests that onshore emissions could have been 

transported well offshore overnight and returned 

A STUDY OF SOZ CONCENTRATION 

AND DISPERSION METEOROLOGY 

IN A CLASS I AREA 

Dr. S. A. Hsu 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

ABSTRACT 

Owing to energy productions from oil platforms in 

the Gulf of Mexico, it is unavoidable that sulfur 

compounds such as SO2, HZS, and HZSO, are 

affecting nearby coastal areas. On the other hand, the 

most recent Clear Air Act does not allow Class I 

areas such as National Seashores and Wildlife 

Refuges to be polluted . In the offshore region east of 

the Mississippi River, for example, there are very 

active areas of energy production and therefore many 

potential sources for the emissions of SO, and other 

sulfur compounds. Unfortunately, downwind from 

these emission facilities are the Gulf Islands National 

Seashore (including Petit Bois, Horn, and Ship 

Islands) and Breton and Delta National Wildlife 

Refuges. In the summer of 1993, three SO, 

measurement stations were in operation on both 

Delta and Breton National Wildlife Refuges. Our 

results show that the maximum 24-hour and 1-hour 

SO, concentrations in these wilderness areas were 12 

and 6 ppb, respectively, as compared to the 

corresponding NAAQS values of 500 and 140 ppb. 

Even if one adds the respective 10 and 2 ppb for the 

prevention of significant deterioration increments (for 

Class I areas) for these sampling periods, the 

maximum SOZ concentration is still less than 6% of 

the NAAQS value. It is also found that after the 

passage of a weak cold front on 11 September 1993, 
184 

when the wind blew from the land to the Gulf, the 

SO, concentration was at least twice as high as when 

the Bermuda High Pressure System resumed its 

normal influence, i .e ., when the wind blew from the 

Gulf toward the land . Therefore, the SO, 

concentration in our area may be due to sources from 

both the land and the offshore region . 

INTRODUCTION 

The most recent Clean Air Act requires that Class I 

areas such as national parks and wildlife refuges are 

subject to the Prevention of Significant Deterioration 

(PSD) doctrine. For PSD areas, maximum 

"increments" of SO, and total suspended particles 

have been established. Sulfur compounds are a 

necessary by-product of offshore oil and natural gas 

production . The region east of the Mississippi Delta 

contains not only large amounts of offshore 

petroleum production, but also the Gulf Islands 

National Seashore and the Breton and Delta Wildlife 

Refuges. Therefore, a study of the SO, concentration 

and its impact in these wilderness areas has been 

initiated by the U.S . Minerals Management Service 

since 1993 . Some results of our SO, measurements 

are presented in this paper. 

FIELD EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS 

The concentration of atmospheric pollutants is 

inversely proportional to the wind speed. Generally 

speaking, the wind speeds are lower in the summer 

than in other seasons. With this in mind, we have 

been funded by the Minerals Management Service 

since 1993 to measure the SO, concentration in the 

summer of 1993 and again in the upcoming summer 

of 1994 in the Breton Wilderness area . Some results 

from 1993 are shown in Figure 2D.1 . Note that the 

highest SO, concentrations in the summer of 1993 

are incorporated in the figure so that they can be 

compared to the National Ambient Air Quality 

Standards (NAAQS). Since the maximum 24-hour 

NAAQS for SO, is 140 ppb for both primary and 

secondary standards, we use this value for our brief 

discussion here . In the summer of 1993 the averaged 

maximum 24-hour was 3 ppb, which is 

approximately 2% of the 140 ppb allowable once a 

year. Figure 1 also delineates the PSD increments of 

the SOZ for 24-hour maximums, which is 

approximately 2 ppb. The Breton Wilderness area is 

also a Class I area, so the PSD values must be 

applied. Therefore, we have about 5 ppb for the 24-

hour maximum, which is below 5% of the maximum 

24-hour value of 140 ppb allowable once per year . 

In our area, atmospheric frontal systems become 

active in September. An example of the S02 

measurements in the fall is provided in Table 2D.1 . 

It shows that after the passage of a weak cold front 

on 11 September 1993, when the wind blew from the 

land to the Gulf, the SO, concentration was at least 

twice as high as when the Bermuda High Pressure 

System resumed its normal influence, i .e ., when the 

wind blew from the Gulf toward land . Therefore, the 

Table 2D.1 . A comparison among calibrated measurements of SO, concentrations (in ppb) in the Breton 

Wilderness Area when the wind blew from land to Gulf on 11 September and vice versa on 13 

September 1993 (in parentheses) . 

Location Maximum 3-hour average Maximum 24-hour average 

Gosier Island 8.5 (3.2) 5.8 (2.3) 

Breton Island 11 .9 (2.0) 6.3(l .7) 

Pass-A-Loutre 2.3 (1 .0) 2 .0 (1 .0) 

EPA Standards* 500 140 

Not to be exceeded more than once per year. 
185 

1 mm Smin tOmin 30 min 1hr 3Ar 24M 

GS 

r /0 

TOE,! 

5.000 

10 .000 44, 

eF E CAF FO,~q 0 

yOqF t ~~r Y 

T 

~ F n F~,p F O 1,000 

4 00 

500 f, .ooo TI 

7jn Ci /C, :(t2 /tl ~-o .ei 

(1300K9/T 3 ) 

(S00 D90) 

O z s 

o 

T~ , ? IIf. (SECONDARY STANDARD) 

,`r (iq (NO PRIMARY STANDARD) 

o ~f lO h ~y F'~' ts ~ 

~ 

100 

~to~ ~h SG 2a hr 4" 

bF (385Pq/m3) 

o 

~<Q~~ ~ 7993 (140 DPbI 50 H 

o 100 

~F 

qF~ G (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STANDARDS) 

a C 

H 

f S 

222vob 

~110ob C2/C' =t2/tj)-0.6.1 10 

10 .4 ppb BppD 

HIGHEST SO, CONCENTRATIONS : 1 - 5 

10 1M w PASS-A-lOUTRE 

GRAND GOSIEA ISLAND 

BRETONISLANO pgp yOPb 

0.6 ppb ' 

NOTE: For SOZ 

1 DOba2.0 pp/rr11 

iSD 

1.8ppb 

1 

0.01 0 .1 1 10 100 

AVERAGING TIME, HOURS 

Figure 2D.1 . Measurements of the SOZ concentration in the Breton Wilderness Area in the summer of 1993 

and their pollution levels relative to the NAAQS and PSD. 
186 

SO, concentration in our area may be due to sources 

from both the land and the offshore region . 

CONCLUSIONS 

On the basis of our SO, measurements in the summer 

of 1993 in the Breton and Delta Wildlife Refuges, the 

SO, concentration in these Class I areas was only 2% 

of the national maximum allowable once per year . 

However, we also found that when the wind blew 

from the land to our Class I area offshore, the SOZ 

concentration was more than twice as compared to 

the meteorological condition when the wind blew 

from the Gulf toward the land . Therefore, it is 

recommended that detailed (hourly) measurements of 

the SOZ concentration for an entire one-year period 

be made in order to separate the contributions from 

the offshore region vs. land sources. In addition, an 

SOZ transport trajectory climatology should be 

thoroughly investigated for the Gulf Coast region . 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This study was supported by the U.S . Minerals 

Management Service under Contract 14-35-0001-

30720 to the Coastal Studies Institute, L.S .U. The 

contributions that Bill Steorts of the MMS has made 

towards the success of this project are appreciated. 

MEASUREMENTS OF S02 AND NOX 

CONCENTRATIONS AND RELATED 

METEOROLOGICAL AND 

LIMNOLOGICAL 

PARAMETERS IN A CLASS I AREA 

IN SUMMER 1994 

Dr. S. A. Hsu 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

In the summer of 1994 both SOZ and NO. 

concentrations were measured at Pass-A-Loutre in 

the Delta Wildlife Refuge and at both Gosier and 

Breton Islands in the Breton Wilderness area . 

Related limnological and surface meteorological 

parameters were also measured . In addition, upper-air 

radiosoundings were made to determine the mixing 

height in these Class I areas. Some preliminary 

results are summarized as follows (see example 

figures as attached): 

When the wind direction shifted from south to 

west (mainly from the Gulf of Mexico) to the 

north (mainly from coastal regions of 

LA/MS/AL), both SO, and NO, concentrations 

increased at least by a factor of two. For SO,, the 

concentration at Gosier increased from 1 to 2 

ppb, at Breton from 4 to 16 ppb, and at Pass-ALoutre from 2 to 13 ppb. For NO., it increased 

from less than 25 to 75 ppb with a maximum of 

175 ppb at Breton and from less than 5 to 25 ppb 

at Pass-A-Loutre. These results are very similar 

to those obtained in the summer of 1993 after the 

passage of a cold front. 

2. The mixing height ranged approximately from 

300 to 400 m in the morning and from 400 to 

700 m in the afternoon. The climatological 

summer mean of approximately 1,200 m for both 

morning and afternoon over our study area as 

compiled by Holzworth (in EPA-AP-101) is thus 

overestimated by a factor of two to three. It is 

shown that, based on the free-convective theory, 

the mixing height over our study area in the 

afternoon should be around 600 m rather than 

1,200 m. The results of our radiosoundings over 

the deep Gulf in the summer of 1993 also 

showed that the mean mixing height was 

approximately 600 m with a standard deviation 

of 100 m. 

The salinity in the pond adjacent to our air 

quality measurement site on Gosier Island in the 

summer of 1994 ranged from 8 to 14 ppt. The 

pH values were from 8 to 8.5 . Diurnal variations 

in salinity, water temperature, and pH were 

pronounced . The diurnal range of salinity was 

about 3 ppt, pH 0.5, and water temperature 5°C. 

Dr. Hsu received his B.S . degree in meteorology 

from the National Taiwan University, Taipei, in 

1961, his M.S . in environmental health engineering, 

and his Ph.D . in meteorology from the University of 

Texas at Austin, in 1967 and 1969, respectively . 

Since 1969, he has been a professor at the Coastal 

Studies Institute, Louisiana State University . Dr. Hsu 
Figure 2D.2 . Gosier Island, 24 July - 3 August 1994. 00 

~1 
- ---- 16 

12 

I j i 

.rte . j 

rs., ~ 

a. 8 - - 

I, I 

o 

co 4 ! 

0- - I ~ j---- . y~ ~- ~ - ~- ~-- - - . --j--, - -- 

- - - -- - - 200 ------------ ~ r ; - , 

150 

100 - 

i ~ 

5 0 - - ' i 

--, 

p - -- ---- --- --r--- ~ 

250 

200 

150 

0 100 z 

U 50 I 

-- - ---- --_ 300 --- , 

i 

250 

a., 200 ! I 

150 

100 - - 

' 

50 

, 

205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 

00 

Figure 2D3. Chandeleur Island . 
14 T 

12 

.n 10 

i 

- i 

8 - 

o 

g 

zn 4 

2= 

- Aill J, 'l l u 

-- - 

_

.-I --- I--i--I---I - - I --F--- I-- I I--- I I 1 -- I -- E- -I- I + --- I-- 

30 

25 

N a. 2 0 

15 

10 

0 5 Iq O 11, 11 11 ~ 

0 

70 

60 

X50 

X 

p-' z 

30 

2 0 

10 

0 

-- f 100 

80 

a 6~ - 

o" 4 0 

z 20 

p ---+ --- --f -- i- -i ----

205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 

Figure 2D.4 . Pass-A-Loutre. 
190 

Project: MMS-CMI 1994 

Profile: CSI STA 1 RSO 1 

24 August 1994 1216 CDT 

gig 

goo ~~o ~~o ~~o ~~o 

26 .0 27 .0 28 .0 29 .0 30 .0 

Theta, °C 

1000 

800 

600 

Height, m 

400 

200 

~- Theta 

-~- w 

Figure 2D.5 . 24 August 1994. 
15 ---- 

14 II 

a, 13 

I 12 

11 

10 

~--, ~ 9 - w 

8 - 

I - 

~ - ~ - I i ~ --+~ -+----- f --- i - - -- 

- 

- --+ - 

-~_ _ - T - 9 0 --T _ 

_. . 

8 .8 - 

CIO 

c~ .~ 

8.6 i 

0

.8.4 - j 

cIZ5 8 .2 - 

~ . 8 .0 ---- + I - I - --- 1 f- - I - - -I_ ' I-- I - 1 I ! I-- - - f-- - - I -- - -- 

~ ~ 

O g g ----- -- - ---- - 

O - 36 

3 4 - ~ 

,~ F.., 3 2 

3 0 - 

28 - - i i 

,-, CIO

26 

`-' 16 

12 

O 8 

. . 

4 

f-{----i + - ~------ -I-- I ---{ -- - I-- _~~-- f - _ -i---- }--- f--- 

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

Figure 213.6 . Gosier Island Limnological Data, July 1994. 
192 

has published over 100 technical articles including a 

textbook entitled Coastal Meteorology (published in 

1988 by Academic Press, London). His major 

research interests are boundary-layer and airpollution meteorology. 
SESSION 3A 

GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART 11 
195 

Session: 

Co-Chairs: 

Date: 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Size Structure and Health of Macroinvertebrate 

Populations at GOOMEX Sites 

Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure at 

GOOMEX Study Sites - Toxicological 

Indicators 

GOOMEX Porewater Toxicity Testing 

Histopathology of Demersal Fishes at 

GOOMEX Study Sites 

Meiofauna Genetic Variability 

Status of Macro invertebrate Reproduction 

and Histopathology at GOOMEX Sites 

3A - GOOMEX PROGRESS REPORTS, PART II 

Dr. Pasquale Roscigno and Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II 

November 16, 1994 

Dr. Eric N. Powell 

Dr. Elizabeth Wilson-Ormond 

Mr. Matthew S. Ellis 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. S. H. Safe' 

Dr. S. J. McDonald2 

Ms. K. L. Willett' 

Ms. K. Beatty2 

'Department of Veterinary Physiology 

and Pharmacology 

Texas A&M University 

ZGeochemical and Environmental Research 

Group 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. R. Scott Carr 

Mr. Duane C. Chapman 

Mr. James M. Biedenbach 

National Biological Survey 

Dr. John W. Fournie 

Mr. Lee A. Courtney 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency 

Gulf Breeze, Florida 

Mr. Greg Street 

Marine Science Institute 

University of Texas at Austin 

Dr. Eric N. Powell 

Dr. Elizabeth A. Wilson-Ormond 

Mr. Matthew S. Ellis 

Ms. Shue Li 

Mr. Yung-Kul Kim 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 
196 

Advanced Toxicological Techniques Applied 

to the GOOMEX Study 

Ms. K. L. Willett' 

Dr. S. J. McDonald2 

Ms. K. BeattyZ 

Ms. J. Thomsen' 

Dr. S. H. Safe' 

Dr. M. C. Kennicutt IIZ 

'Department of Veterinary Physiology 

and Pharmacology 

Texas A&M University 

ZGeochemical and Environmental 

Research Group 

Texas A&M University 
197 

SIZE STRUCTURE AND HEALTH OF 

MACROINVERTEBRATE 

POPULATIONS AT GOOMEX SITES 

Dr. Eric N. Powell 

Dr. Elizabeth A. Wilson-Ormond 

Mr. Matthew Ellis 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

One component of the Gulf of Mexico Offshore 

Operations Monitoring Experiment (GOOMEX) 

project involves the assessment of macroinvertebrate 

population structure and health . Little information is 

available concerning how population structure and 

health is affected in these species by oil and gas field 

development. We have utilized several different 

methods to assess differences in macroinvertebrate 

population structure in species living near by and far 

from gas-producing platforms. Differences in catch 

per unit effort (CPUE), size-frequency distribution 

and health (determined by the presence of parasites 

and pathologies), were used as indicators of possible 

sublethal effects of exposure to chemical 

contaminants or other gas field-associated factors in 

target species. 

Animals were collected by trawling from locations 

close to (near-field) and far from (far-field) three 

platforms, MAI-686, MU-A85, and HI-A389, to 

assess the effect of oil and gas field development on 

macroinvertebrate population structure and health . 

After collection, all individuals of target species were 

measured to determine size-frequency distribution 

and CPUE. Specimens of target species were 

preserved and returned to the laboratory for complete 

histological analysis . Each tissue section was 

analyzed for the presence and intensity of parasites 

and pathologies. Intensity of parasitism was 

determined by counting every occurrence of specific 

parasites or pathologies in each individual tissue 

section . Target species were : the shrimp 

Trachypenaeus similis, Penaeus aztecus, and 

Solonocera atlantidis, the crabs Callinectes similis, 

Portunus gibbesii, and Portunus spinicarpus, the 

starfish Astropecten duplicatus, and Astropecten 

cingulatus, the stomatopods Squilla empusa, Squilla 

chydaea, and Squilla edentata, and the scallop 

Amusium papyraceum. 

CPUE was calculated by dividing the number of 

individuals of a specific species collected in a trawl 

by the length of that trawl as determined by 

shipboard navigation . CPUE can be used as an 

indicator of species abundance; for example, high 

values of CPUE indicate that more individuals were 

collected per trawl, hence the species is probably 

present in higher abundance. Although few species 

had significantly different CPUE between the near 

and far-field stations, starfish, scallops and penaeid 

shrimps were all more abundant at some far-field 

stations . Only species of mantis shrimp had 

significantly higher abundance at near-field stations . 

Differences in patterns of size-frequency distribution 

of target species between the near and far-field 

stations were frequently observed and were platform 

specific . Analysis by sex showed that size differences 

were not simply produced by site discrimination 

according to sex. For example, size-frequency 

distributions at MAI-686 show that nearly as many 

species are larger near the platform as far from the 

platform . Female P. aztecus and most crabs were 

larger in the far-field. Both sexes of T. similis and all 

starfish were larger in the near-field . At MLJ-A85, 

species were only significantly larger far from the 

platform . These included shrimps, crabs, stomatopods 

and scallops. Starfish were unaffected . In contrast, 

species at HI-A389 were larger only near the 

platform . These included female (but not male) crabs 

and female stomatopods. Size-frequency distribution 

varied by cruise . Some species were consistently 

larger on the spring cruises than on the winter 

cruises. Combining the results of CPUE analysis and 

the size-frequency distributions show that not only 

are some species larger far from the platform, but 

they are also present in higher abundance. For others, 

abundances do not change, but size-frequencies do. 

Common parasites and pathologies in shrimp were 

nematodes, cestodes, gut inflammations, cf. 

Baculovirus, and cysts in connective and muscle 

tissue . Crabs had nematodes and several gill 

pathologies. Starfish were frequently parasitized by 

nematodes. Shrimp were heavily parasitized and 

larger individuals had higher intensities of most 

parasites and pathologies. Infection intensity was 

often related to sex. At least one viral epizootic (cf. 

Baculovirus) was sampled at MiJ-A85, and viral 

infections were also observed at MAI-686. In 

contrast to shrimp, crabs were relatively free of 
198 

parasites and pathologies, but starfish were heavily 

parasitized by nematodes. Stomatopods, scallops and 

hermit crabs had very few parasites, always at low 

prevalences. 

Some parasites and pathologies varied according to 

position from the platforms. At MAI-686, some 

parasites were more intense in the near-field (e .g . 

nematodes in crabs), and some were more intense in 

the far-field (e .g . Baculovirus in shrimp, and 

nematodes in starfish). However, at MU-A85, 

essentially all significant differences included higher 

incidences in the near-field. This included cestodes 

and cysts in shrimp, gill maladies in crabs, and 

nematodes in starfish . 

Proximity to the platforms influences the catch per 

unit effort and size-frequency distributions of some 

species. Abundance, as determined by CPUE is 

higher at the far-field stations when differences exist. 

Changes in size structure were frequently observed. 

At MAI-686, these changes were complex. Some 

species were larger in the near-field, others larger in 

the far-field. At MU-A85 and HI-A389, size structure 

changes were consistent . Affected species were larger 

in the far-field at MU-A85 and larger in the nearfield at HI-A389. Accordingly, each platform 

exhibited a uniquely different pattern. 

The platform-specific pattern in differences in sizefrequency distribution could be related to differences 

in the chemical environment at those platforms. For 

example, MAI-686 has a recurring summer increase 

in SiO2 and decrease in oxygen in the near-field . 

Possibly increased productivity at that platform 

allows larger individuals of some species to be 

common near the platform while decreased Oz drives 

other species away. Unlike, MAI-686, MU-A85 has 

a contamination gradient (heavy metals and 

hydrocarbons). Like MAI-686, sedimentary TOC 

declines in the near-field. For one or both of these 

two reasons, nearly all species are larger in the farfield. HI-A389 had the strongest contaminant 

gradient but no TOC gradient . Several species are 

larger at the near-field station. Differences in 

sediment type or local food availability may control 

population structure there. 

In general, differences in species abundance and sizefrequency distributions, with small individuals 

typically found near the platform and higher 

abundances at the far-field station, might be 

explained by (1) decreased growth in near-field 

individuals; (2) higher mortality of adults nearer the 

platform ; or (3) migration with age. The relative 

importance of each cannot evaluated. Causative 

factors might include differences in food resources 

near the platforms, increased exposure to 

contaminants that detrimentally affect growth and 

health, or differences in the predator abundance near 

the platform . Forcing factors might be water column 

chemical anomalies, contamination gradients, and 

naturally-occurring sedimentary chemical gradients. 

Evidence exists suggesting the importance of each of 

these in selected cases. 

In most populations of invertebrates, prevalence and 

intensity of parasites and pathologies is usually 

higher in older individuals. Older individuals should 

have a greater possibility of being parasitized or 

diseased by virtue of their longer life . Size can be 

used as a surrogate for age in most invertebrate 

species. Therefore, since we analyzed the largest 

individuals we collected, we should have analyzed 

the oldest, and because the individuals at the far-field 

station are typically larger, they should also be older. 

Higher prevalence and intensity of parasitism then, 

may result from individuals being older at the near or 

far-field stations . However significant gradients 

existed, even taking size into account. In this study, 

species collected from the far-field typically had 

higher prevalence and intensity of parasites and 

pathologies. This suggests a difference in population 

health on scales of three kilometers . At MAI-686, the 

distribution of infection was complex. Some parasites 

were present in higher intensities near the platforms, 

while others were present in high intensities in the 

far-field. This complexity was also seen in the size 

structure of the populations. At MU-A85, parasitism 

was much heavier in the near-field despite the fact 

that larger individuals were consistently more 

abundant in the far-field. Histopathology shows 

strong evidence for a near-field decrease in 

population health at MU-A85 where a contamination 

gradient exists . At MAI-686, the presence of TOC 

and water column chemical gradients produces a 

complex relationship between location and 

parasitism pathology. 

The results obtained identify physiological impacts 

on populations living in close proximity to gas 

platforms in some developed fields . In general, 

individuals tend to be smaller, tend to be found in 
199 

lower abundance, and tend to have higher intensity 

and prevalence of specific parasites at near-field 

sites. Each platform exhibits a different pattern of 

differences in size-frequency distributions and 

parasitism, probably due to its own unique chemical 

and physical environment. Further statistical 

analyses, particularly correlations between the body 

burdens of chemical contaminants and differences in 

size and intensity of parasitism, may help to clarify 

the effect of offshore gas production on these species. 

Dr. Eric N. Powell is a Professor of Oceanography at 

Texas A&M University where he has been a faculty 

member for 17 years. He has published extensively 

in the fields of oyster ecology and physiology, 

benthic ecology, and paleoecology. His research 

experience has included studies on reproductive 

effort and condition, and the effects of pollutant body 

burdens on the health and physiology of invertebrate 

species. Dr. Powell received his B.S . in zoology from 

the University of Washington, and his M.S . and 

Ph.D. in oceanography from the University of North 

Carolina . 

Dr. Elizabeth Wilson-Ormond is a post-doctoral 

Research Assistant in the Department of 

Oceanography of Texas A&M University . Her 

research interests in benthic ecology include smallscale processes affecting productivity, disease and 

parasitism, and the sub-lethal effects of pollutants in 

invertebrate species. Dr. Wilson-Ormond received 

her B.S . in biology from Westminster College (PA), 

and her M.S . and Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas 

A&M University . 

Mr. Matthew S. Ellis is a Research Assistant in the 

Department of Oceanography of Texas A&M 

University . His research interests include carbon and 

sulfur cycling in marine sediments and the uptake 

and fate of pollutants by benthic invertebrates . Mr. 

Ellis received his B.S . in biology from Benedictine 

College (KS) and his M.S . in oceanography from 

Texas A&M University . 

AROMATIC HYDROCARBON 

EXPOSURE AT GOOMEX STUDY 

SITES - TOXICOLOGICAL 

INDICATORS 

Dr. S. H. Safe' 

Dr. S. J. McDonaldZ 

Ms. K. L. Willett' 

Ms. K. BeattyZ 

'Department of Veterinary Physiology 

and Pharmacology 

Texas A&M University 

ZGeochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

The detoxification work element was designed to the 

meet the primary objective of the GOOMEX project, 

namely, to assess the sublethal effects of potential 

chronic exposure of marine organisms to organic 

contaminants derived from offshore oil/gas 

exploration and development activities . 

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) mixtures 

are a major class of organic contaminant in the 

marine environment. PAHs released as the result of 

drilling activities are considered to be a likely 

contaminant in the Gulf of Mexico. PAHs are 

typically derived from spills of crude oil and refined 

petroleum, runoff, and combustion sources (Boucart 

et al. 1961 ; Hites et al . 1977; Suess 1970; and 

Huggett et al. 1987). PAHs are susceptible to 

biodegradation and their presence in water, sediment, 

and organisms is usually due to relatively recent 

petroleum spills and/or chronic exposure from nonpoint sources. Numerous studies have demonstrated 

that organic contaminants, such as PAHs, are 

probable etiologic agents (Tanabe 1989; Tanabe et al . 

1989; Kannan et al . 1989 ; and Tillitt et al . 1992) . 

Historically, hydrocarbon contaminant studies 

measured ambient concentrations in water, sediments, 

and tissues using highly sensitive analytical methods 

to quantify these chemicals. However, these mixtures 

are invariably complex, and it is difficult to identify 

and quantitate all components . Even if the 

concentrations of all components of these mixtures 

are obtained, the extrapolation of this data in terms of 

potential adverse effects is difficult. Thus, the use of 

biomarkers and bioassays for evaluating 

environmental contamination are potentially powerful 
200 

alternatives to historical analytical (chemical) 

approaches . 

The biomarkers utilized in this study include 

P450IA-dependent catalytic enzyme activities 

[ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) and aryl 

hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH)], P450IA mRNA 

levels, in vitro cell bioassay responses (rat hepatoma 

H4IIE), and the production of biliary PAH 

metabolites. This report presents data from all four 

cruises conducted as part of the GOOMEX project at 

three platforms (MAI-686, MU-A85, and HI-A389). 

Both fish and invertebrates were collected by 

trawling . All specimens were maintained alive until 

dissection . After dissection, fish livers were 

immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen until analysis . 

Invertebrate tissues were frozen at -20°C until 

extraction . Bile was frozen at -20°C until analysis. 

Microsomes were prepared from fish livers by 

homogenization followed by differential 

centrifugation . EROD and AHH activities were 

determined fluorometrically from hepatic microsomal 

preparations . Total RNA was isolated from hepatic 

samples by subcellular fractionation and extraction . 

P450IA mRNA was determined by Northern Blot 

analysis using a cDNA probe for rainbow trout 

P450IA . Naphthalene, phenanthrene, and 

benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) equivalent metabolites were 

measured in bile by high performance liquid 

chromatography (HPLC) and fluorescence detection. 

Invertebrate tissues were extracted with methylene 

chloride and purified by column chromatography and 

HPLC. The methylene chloride extracts were 

transferred into DMSO. Subsequently, rat hepatoma 

H4IIE cells were treated with aliquots of tissue 

extracts, and the induction of EROD activity was 

measured and used to determine 2,3,7,8-

tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) toxic 

equivalents (TEQs; Safe 1990). 

Study results are based on those species of fish 

captured at both the near and far stations . Table 3A.1 

lists the 14 species collected at both near and far 

stations for at least one platform . 

Table 3A.1 . Species of fish collected at both near and far stations for at least one platform . 

Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name 

Ancyclopsetta dilecta 3-eyed founder Caulolatilus intermedius the fish 

Centropristis rock sea bass 

philadelphica 

Cyclopsetta chittendeni mexican flounder 

Ogcocephal us 

declivirostris 

bat fish 

Pontinus longispinis scorpion fish 

Syacium gunteri shoal flounder 

Cynoscion arenarius sand sea trout 

Lagodon rhomboides pin fish 

Paralichthys lethostigma southern flounder 

Pristipomoides wenchman 

aquilonaris 

Synodus foetens lizard fish 

Trichopsetta ventralis sash flounder Urophycis spp. hake 

Five hundred and ninety fish were analyzed for the 

detoxification element of the GOOMEX project. Of 

these, biliary PAH metabolite concentrations were 

determined on 376 samples and EROD and AHH 

activities were determined for 543 and 268 fish 

livers, respectively . Additionally, approximately 150 

P450IA mRNA analyses were completed on hepatic 

samples. Eighty-one AHH assays were conducted on 

invertebrate digestive tissues from Cruise 1 . 

Although in vitro assay were conducted using 

samples collected on Cruise 1, the data was not used 

for final analyses because of analytical problems 
201 

associated with small sample size . For subsequent 

cruises in vitro assays were conducted using extracts 

of 99 invertebrates to assess potential contaminant 

exposure. 

The levels of biliary BaP equivalent metabolites were 

typically low and no significant differences in 

near/far station comparisons were observed. The 

presence of BaP metabolites indicates exposure to 

pyrogenic PAH and the low levels of BaP 

metabolites observed in this study are consistent with 

analytical data in which pyrogenic PAH levels were 

typically below method detection limits . The 

presence of naphthalene and phenanthrene equivalent 

metabolites in bile indicates exposure to low 

molecular weight PAHs. Although naphthalene and 

phenanthrene metabolites were detected no consistent 

significant near/far station comparisons were 

observed. However, species differences were 

observed in biliary PAH metabolite concentrations 

which indicates intrinsic species variations . However, 

nearly 40% of the biliary metabolite data were 

excluded from data analyses because chromatograms 

from these samples indicated that the data was 

compromised. Bile collected from fish captured at 

HI-A389 and MU-A85 were particularly prone to 

degradation presumably due to the length of trawl 

recovery and water depth related stresses . 

AHH activity was only measured in fish hepatic 

samples collected on cruises I and II ; whereas, 

EROD activity was measured in all hepatic fish 

samples. AHH activity was not measured in fish 

collected on subsequent cruises because generally a 

good correlation between the two assays had been 

established and the EROD assay was found to be 

more sensitive. However, a few species of fish (i .e ., 

Lagodon rhomboides and Synodus foetens) did not 

exhibit a coordinated induction of bith AHH and 

EROD activities which suggests that these species 

may express an altered CYPIA protein compared to 

most other fish species. No significant cruise, 

platform, or near/far station differences in EROD and 

AHH activities were observed for any species of fish . 

However, significant species differences were 

detected. The highest mean EROD activity was 

measured in pin fish (145 pmol/min/mg). Elevated 

EROD activities were also measured in the fish (51 

pmol/min/mg), bat fish (28 pmol/min/mg), and shoal 

flounder (26 pmol/min/mg) . 

Extracts of invertebrate tissues collected on Cruises 

2, 3, and 4 (Table 3A.2) were analyzed using an in 

vitro cell bioassay (i .e ., rat hepatoma H4IIE cells) to 

determine their CYPIAI induction potency as 

measured by EROD activity and to derive TEQs. 

Table 3A.2 . Invertebrate species collected on Cruises 2, 3, and 4. 

Scientific name Common name 

Trachypenaeus similis shrimp 

Sguilla empusa mantis shrimp 

Penaeus aztecus brown shrimp 

Callinectes similis crab 

Amusium papyraceum scallop 

Solencera atlantidis shrimp 

Portunus spinicarpus crab 

The bioassay-derived TEQ values for brown shrimp 

captured at MAI-686 near were significantly higher 

than the TEQ values for brown shrimp collected at 

MAI-686 far. No other significant near/far station 

differences were noted; however, species differences 

were observed. The TEQs for scallops (136 ng/g) 

were significantly higher than those for any other 

species (<037 ng/g). This is consistent with the 

expected higher levels of contaminant 

bioaccumulation in bivalves . 
202 

In summary, the biomarker data showed few 

significant differences in near/far station comparisons 

and indicate that fish and invertebrates are only 

minimally exposed to PAHs, which is consistent with 

the chemical data. 

REFERENCES 

Boucart, J., C. Lalous, and L. Mallet . 1961 . About 

the presence of BP-type hydrocarbons in the 

coastal muds and beach sands along the coast of 

Ville-france (Alpes-Martimes). Cr. R. Acad. Sci. 

(Paris) 253 :640 . 

Hites, R.A., R.E . LaFlamme, and J. W. Farrington . 

1977 . Sedimentary polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons : the historical record. Science 

198:829-831 . 

Hugget, R.J ., M.E . Bender, and M.A . Unger. 1987. 

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the 

Elizabeth River, Virginia . pp. 327-231 . In Dixon, 

K.L., Maki, A.W., and Brungs, W. (eds .) . Fate 

and Effects of Sediment-Bound Chemicals in 

Aquatic Systems. Pergammon Press, Oxford . 

Kannan, N., S. Tanabe, M. Ono, and R. Tatsukawa. 

1989. Critical evaluation of polychlorinated 

biphenyl toxicity in terrestrial and marine 

mammals: increasing impact of non-ortho and 

mono-ortho coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls 

from land to ocean. Arch. Environ. Contamin. 

Toxicol. 18 :850-857. 

Safe, S.H. 1990. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 

dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans 

(PCDFs) and related compounds : environmental 

and mechanistic considerations which support 

the development of toxic equivalency factors 

(TEFSO. CRC Crit . Rev. Toxicol. 21 :51-88 . 

Suess, M.J . 1970. Presence of polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbons in coastal waters and the possible 

health consequences. Rev. Int. Oceanogr. Med. 

18 :181 . 

Tanabe, S. 1989. A need for reevaluation of PCB 

toxicity . Mar. Poll . Bull . 20:247-248. 

increasing toxic potential of non-ortho and 

mono-ortho coplanar PCBs from land to ocean. 

Chemoshphere 18 :485-490. 

Tillitt, D.E ., G.T . Ankley, J.P . Giese, J.P . Ludwig, H. 

Kurita-Matsuba, D.V. Weselho, P.S . Ross, C.A. 

Bishop, L. Sileo, K.L . Stromborg, J. Larson, and 

T. J. Kubiak. 1992. Polychlorinated biphenyl 

residues and egg mortality in double crested 

cormorants from the Great Lakes. Environ. 

Toxicol . Chem. 11 :1281-1288 . 

Dr. S. H. Safe joined the faculty of Texas A&M 

University in 1981 and is a Distinguished Professor 

in the Department of Veterinary Physiology and 

Pharmacology . His areas of research interest include 

environmental and biochemical toxicology . Dr. Safe 

received a B.S . and M.S . in chemistry from Queens 

College, Canada and his Ph.D . in bioorganic 

chemistry from Oxford University, United Kingdom. 

Dr. S. J. McDonald has worked at the Geochemical 

and Environmental Research Group for 9 years. She 

is an Assistant Research Scientist and is involved 

with several research projects . Her areas of research 

interest include biomarkers of organic xenobiotic 

exposure in marine fauna. Dr. McDonald received 

her B.S . and M.S . in biology from Old Dominion 

University and her Ph.D. in oceanography from 

Texas A&M University . 

Ms. K. Willett is a second-year graduate student in 

the toxicology program at Texas A&M University . 

Her area of research interest is environmental 

toxicology . Ms. Willett received her B.A. in 

chemistry from the University of North Carolina. 

Ms. K. Beatty is a Research Assistant at the 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group. 

Ms. Beatty's research interest include fisheries 

biology and environmental toxicology . She received 

her B.S . in biology from Southwest Oklahoma State 

University and her M.Ag. in fisheries sciences from 

Texas A&M University. 

Tanabe, S ., N. Kannan, M. Ono, and R. Tatsukawa. 

1989. Toxic threat to marine mammals: 
203 

GOOMEX POREWATER TOXICITY 

TESTING 

Dr. R. Scott Carr 

Mr. Duane C. Chapman 

Mr. James M. Biedenbach 

National Biological Survey 

As part of the multidisciplinary GOOMEX program 

to assess the impacts associated with offshore oil and 

gas exploration and production activities, a series of 

toxicity tests with sediment pore water was 

conducted. During the first cruise, five platforms 

were sampled using a radial array design with 25 

stations per platform arranged on five radii. Three of 

the original five platforms were sampled during the 

second cruise using the same sampling design. A 

total of 200 stations, therefore, were sampled 

concurrently for sediment chemistry and toxicity 

during the first two cruises.The samples were kept 

refrigerated until they were delivered to the 

laboratory, and the pore water was extracted 

immediately using a pneumatic extraction device . 

The toxicity of the sediment pore waters was 

determined using two different tests with the sea 

urchin Arbacia punctulata; the fertilization test and 

the embryological development test . Both tests were 

performed on samples from the first cruise . Only the 

embryological development test was performed on 

samples from the second cruise, as this proved to be 

the more sensitive of the two assays for these 

samples.Significant toxicity was observed at four of 

the five platforms sampled during the first cruise . No 

toxicity was observed at Mustang Island-A85 and the 

six most toxic stations were observed at High IslandA389. Significant toxicity was observed at 14 

stations overall with the sea urchin embryological 

development assay but at only three stations with the 

sea urchin fertilization test. The stations showing 

reduced fertilization also exhibited impaired 

development in the embryological development 

assay. All but three of the toxic stations were within 

150 meters of a platform . Significant toxicity was 

observed in the vicinity of two of the three platforms 

in the second cruise . Three of the five stations closest 

to the platform were observed to be toxic at 

Matagorda Island-686 . Three stations near the 

platform exhibited significant toxicity at High IslandA389 and corresponded with four of the six stations 

observed to be toxic from the first cruise . Significant 

toxicity was observed at eight stations overall with 

the sea urchin embryological development assay for 

the 75 samples from the second cruise . All of the 

toxic stations (except one station at Mustang IslandA85) were within -75 meters of a platform. Highly 

significant statistical associations have been observed 

between porewater toxicity and the bulk sediment 

concentrations of several metals (e .g ., zinc, lead, 

mercury and silver) at the High Island site . 

MacDonald (1993) determined a "probable effects 

level" (PEL) for zinc in whole sediments to be 300 

mg/Kg. All of the toxic High Island stations were 

near or exceeded this concentration. The PELs for 

lead (160 mg/Kg), cadmium (7 .5 mg/Kg), mercury (1 

mg/Kg), and silver (2 .5 mg/Kg) were also exceeded 

at some stations . However, since the PEL of zinc is 

far exceeded at all of the sites where the PEL of 

other elements are exceeded, it is possible that the 

toxicity of the High Island sediments is largely 

controlled by zinc alone or in combination with other 

metals .In order to assess the relative sensitivity of the 

sea urchin assays as compared with meiobenthic 

organisms, the response of two meiobenthic 

invertebrates to selected pore waters from High 

Island A-389 was also evaluated. One species, 

Dinophilus gyrociliatus, a small polychaete, has been 

previously used in toxicity testing. The techniques 

for culture and testing with this organism are well 

established . The other species, Longipedia 

americana, a benthic harpacticoid copepod, has 

notbeen cultured previously or used in toxicity 

testing. There was excellent agreement among the 

results of three tests (i .e ., copepod vs . polychaete vs . 

sea urchin development) . All stations which were 

toxic in the meiobenthic animal tests were also toxic 

in the sea urchin embryological development test .The 

sea urchin embryological development test appears to 

be similar in sensitivity, or slightly more sensitive, 

than the two meiobenthic tests and is considerably 

more reliable, cost efficient, and simpler to conduct. 

"There was a high degree of agreement between the 

two meiobenthic tests and the sea urchin 

embryological development test . For these reasons 

we would recommend that the urchin assay be used 

as a surrogate for assessment of the potential impacts 

of contaminated pore water on meiobenthic 

invertebrates from the Gulf of Mexico. 
204 

HISTOPATHOLOGY OF DEMERSAL 

FISHES AT GOOMEX STUDY SITES 

Dr. John W. Fournie 

Mr. Lee A. Courtney 

U.S . Environmental Protection Agency 

Gulf Breeze, Florida 

While gross fish pathology is a potential response 

indicator of environmental status that is easy and 

economical to measure, it will not allow the 

identification of important contaminant-associated 

pathological abnormalities . Histopathological 

examination of select tissues is widely recognized as 

a reliable method for assessing the adverse effects of 

exposure to anthropogenic contaminants in marine 

fishes . For example, certain pathological conditions 

in the liver of wild fishes morphologically resemble 

lesions induced in fishes by experimental exposure to 

a variety of toxicants, including carcinogens. 

Furthermore, some of these lesions have also been 

shown to be positively associated with exposure to 

xenobiotic chemical contaminants in field studies. 

Macrophage aggregates (MAs), particularly those in 

the spleen, also appear to be a good histopathological 

indicator of contaminant exposure. MAs are focal 

accumulations of macrophages found in the spleen, 

liver and kidney of fishes and they contain the 

pigments hemosiderin, ceroid/lipofuscin, and melanin 

(Wolke 1992). Occurrence of MAs may vary 

depending on the size, nutritional status, or health of 

a particular fish species (Agius 1980; Wolke et al . 

1985). In addition, the number and size of MAs 

increase with age in some species (Brown and 

George 1985; Blazer et al . 1987). Suggested 

functions for these aggregates include the 

centralization of foreign material and cellular debris 

for destruction, detoxification or reuse. 

Changes in splenic MA parameters (e .g., number, 

size) in relation to environmental contamination have 

been noted by several investigators (Kranz and Peters 

1984; Wolke et al. 1985; Spazier et al. 1992). Hence, 

it has been suggested that these structures may be 

sensitive but non-specific indicators of stress . 

Preliminary studies from the Environmental 

Monitoring and Assessment Program in the Gulf of 

Mexico demonstrated an increase in splenic MA 

number and percent of tissue replaced in most 

species from contaminated sites. Some species were 

good indicators of elevated tissue contaminants while 

others were good indicators of sediment 

contaminants (Blazer et al . 1993). 

Samples of liver and spleen were taken from all 

specimens and processed for histopathological 

analysis . Tissue samples were processed for routine 

paraffin histology. Sections were cut at 6 gym, stained 

with Harris' hematoxylin and eosin and examined 

microscopically by experienced fish pathologists . 

Splenic MA analysis was performed on tissue 

sections of spleen prepared for histological 

evaluation as described above. Data are generated 

using a true color (HSI imaging) Particle Analysis 

package (MicrocompO Image Analysis System with 

Sony 3CCD color video camera input) . (Mention of 

commercial tradenames does not imply endorsement 

by the U.S . Environmental Protection Agency.) The 

system is calibrated and data collected at lOx 

magnification. Three fields of view (screens) are 

randomly selected and analyzed from each spleen 

sample. Analysis is performed on images generated 

by computer produced masks of the MAs in each 

screen with the number of MAs per screen and the 

area in pmZ of each MA recorded and stored . A size 

discriminator is used to eliminate objects < 50 [Lm2 

(size of 3 aggregated macrophages) . Total screen 

area counted is also determined for calculation of 

percent area occupied by MAs. 

Histopathological evaluations were performed on 

liver and spleen samples taken from 543 fish 

specimens examined from GOOMEX Phase 1 

collections. This reflected 189, 126, 122 and 106 

fishes from cruise 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively . Species 

collected for histopathological examination were 

Syacium gunteri (site MAI-686 all cruises), 

Trichopsetta ventralis (site HI-A389 cruises 2-4 and 

site MU-A85 all cruises) and Pontinus longispinis 

(site HI-A389 cruise 1) . 

No contaminant related liver lesions (e .g ., hydropic 

vacuolation, hepatic megalocytosis, hepatocellular 

neoplasms) were observed in any of the tissues 

examined . However, a number of other pathological 

findings were noted (Table 3A3). Parasitic infections 

were the most common abnormalities, with 

microsporidians being the most prevalent. Two other 

prevalent lesions included inflammatory foci and 
205 

granulomatous inflammation. These lesions were 

usually associated with parasitic infections (e.g ., 

nematodes) and were not related to the study sites. 

Splenic MA analysis was performed on 416 flatfishes 

collected from sites MAI-686, HI-A389 and MU-A85 

during Phase 1 sampling . The number of MAs per 

mm Z and percent area occupied by MAs for each 

site/station and cruise are summarized in 

Figure 3A.1 . Analysis of the data indicates four main 

points : (1) fish from site MAI-686 had a statistically 

greater number of MAs per mm2 during all cruises 

except the third cruise, (2) MAs from fish at site 

MAI-686 were generally smaller than those from the 

other two sites (3) when analyzed by near/far station 

grouping, no significant difference was noted among 

samples, and (4) the MA size and percent area 

occupied by MAs at site HI-A389 were significantly 

greater than the MAs at either site MAI-686 or MUA85 . 

Table 3A3. Pathological abnormalities in liver and spleen . 

Prevalence for Cruise 

Site Station Species Lesion 1 2 3 4 

MAI-686 N Syacium gunteri Granulomas 5 .0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Inflammatory foci 35 .0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Microsporidians 35 .0 64.7 21 .1 40 .0 

Nematodes 5 .0 17 .6 10.5 6.7 

Sporozoan (?) 10.0 0.0 53 6.7 

F Syacium gunteri Granulomas 0.0 0.0 10.5 0.0 

Inflammatory foci 15 .0 0 .0 10.5 0.0 

Microsporidians 0.0 54.2 52.6 25 .0 

Nematodes 0.0 4 .2 5.3 10.0 

Sporozoan (?) 0.0 12.5 10.5 10.0 

HI-A389 N Trichopsetta ventralis Granulomas - 15 .0 25 .0 10.0 

Inflammatory foci - 10 .0 15 .0 40.0 

Microsporidians - 10 .0 0.0 0.0 

Nematodes - 0 .0 5.0 5.0 

Sporozoan (?) - 0.0 10.0 0.0 

F Trichopsetta ventralis Granulomas - 5 .0 273 10.0 

Inflammatory foci - 5 .0 18.2 0.0 

Microsporidians - 25.0 13 .6 0.0 

Nematodes - 15 .0 9.1 5.0 

MU-A85 N Trichopsetta ventralis Granulomas 30.0 31 .8 30.0 10.0 

Inflammatory foci 0.0 13 .6 5.0 20.0 

Microsporidians 20.0 27 .3 60.0 0.0 

Nematodes 25.0 5 .5 10.0 0.0 

Sporozoan (?) 10 .5 10.0 20.0 0.0 

F Trichopsetta ventralis Granulomas 31 .6 21 .7 34.8 38.1 

Inflammatory foci 47.4 34.8 26.1 19 .0 

Microsporidians 10 .5 26.1 26.1 19 .0 

Nematodes 5 .3 8.7 43 0.0 

Sporozoan (?) 0.0 43 13 .0 0.0 

N = near station ; F = far station 
206 

Percent Area Occupied by Macrophage Aggregates 

16 

14 

12 

Number of Macrophage Aggregates ` 

10 

30 

b 

20 

15 

m 

m 

n 

" M4eMN tiwee6F HA'iSN weje6F Nt0esN rouoebf 

91eswtfm 

Cruise 

I (7 Z 

j33 li 

t4 

Figure 3A.1 . Splenic macrophage aggregate analysis . 

Histopathological evaluation of tissues sampled from 

GOOMEX study site fishes revealed no lesions 

attributable to contaminant exposure. Parasitic 

infections, predominantly microsporidians and 

nematodes, were commonly found in fishes at all 

sites/stations. All pathological findings from these 

fishes (i .e., granulomas and inflammatory foci) were 

associated with parasitic infections . 

The reason fish from MAI-686 had a greater number 

of MAs per mm' during three of the four cruises and 

that MAs in those fish were generally smaller was 

probably due to species differences. Syacium gunteri 

was the only species collected at site MAI-686, 

whereas T. ventralis was the only species collected at 

the other 2 sites. Since no other data on MAs from S. 

gunteri are available for comparison, no difference 

between near and far sites at site MAI-686 was seen, 

and no apparent correlations were noted with 

contaminant data and the MA parameters at site 

MAI-686, little can be said regarding these findings . 

The lack of near/far differences may be related to the 

relative proximity of these sites. The far site is only 

3,000 meters from the platform (near site), while this 

may be sufficient separation when looking at 

sediment contaminants, it may be likely that the fish 

sampled range over an area greater than the site 

separation and are actually members of the same 

population . 

Point four above should be viewed as two separate 

observations, a statistical difference in MA size and 

percent area occupied by MAs between sites HIA389 and MAI-686 and between sites HI-A389 and 

MU-A85 . Examination of the data then indicates that 

the HI-A389 and MAI-686 site differences reflect the 

cross-species comparison discussed earlier and 

therefore cannot be compared. The differences 

between the samplings at sites HI-A389 and MUA85 however, are statistically significant site 

differences within a single species (T. ventralis). 

These differences were also consistent in 

observations from three cruises (no comparisons were 

possible between these two sites during cruise 1 

because no flatfish were collected from HI-A389). 

The observations did not correlate with organics or 

metals sediment contaminant data and therefore, did 

not indicate any obvious contaminant effects relative 

to the GOOMEX study sites and are presently 

unexplained. 
207 

REFERENCES 

Agius, C. 1980 . Phylogenetic development of 

melano-macrophage centers in fish . J. Zool., 

London 191 :111-132. 

Blazer, V.S ., R.E . Wolke, J. Brown and C.A. Powell. 

1987. Piscine macrophage aggregate parameters 

as health monitors: Effect of age, sex, relative 

weight, season and site quality in largemouth 

bass (Micropterus salmoides) . Aquat. Toxicol. 

10:199-215 . 

Blazer, V.S ., D.E . Facey, J.W. Fournie, L.A . 

Courtney and J.K. Summers. 1993. Macrophage 

aggregates as indicators of environmental stress . 

pp. 169-185 . In J.S . Stolen and T.C . Fletcher . 

Modulators of Fish Immune Responses: Volume 

1, Models for Environmental Toxicology, 

Biomarkers, Immunostimulators. Fair Haven, 

NJ: SOS Publications . 

Brown, C.L . and C.T . George. 1985 . Age-dependent 

accumulation of macrophage aggregates in the 

yellow perch Perca flavescens (Mitchell) . J. Fish 

Dis. 8 :135-138 . 

Dr. John W. Fournie has worked at the U.S . 

Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental 

Research Laboratory for eight years and is presently 

a fish pathologist in the Pathobiology Branch . His 

research interests include parasitic and neoplastic 

diseases of fishes and the development of fish 

histopathological biomarkers of contaminant 

exposure. Dr. Fournie received his B.A. and M.S . in 

biology from St . Louis University and his Ph.D. in 

biology from the University of Mississippi and the 

Gulf Coast Research Laboratory . 

Mr. Lee A. Courtney has worked at the U.S . 

Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental 

Research Laboratory for 21 years and is presently a 

fish pathologist/electron microscopist in the 

Pathobiology Branch . His research interests include 

non-neoplastic and neoplastic diseases of aquatic 

organisms and the development of histopathological 

and immunohistochemical biomarkers ofcontaminant 

exposure in aquatic organisms. Mr. Courtney 

received his B.S . in science interdisciplinary from the 

University of West Florida. 

MEIOFAUNA GENETIC VARIABILITY 

Kranz, H. and G. Peters . 1984. Melano-macrophage 

centers in liver and spleen of ruffle 

(Gymnocephalus cernua) from the Elbe estuary. 

Helgol. Meeresunters. 37:415-424. 

Spazier, E., V. Storch and T. Braunbeck. 1992. 

Cytopathology of spleen in eel Anguilla anguilla 

exposed to a chemical spill in the Rhine River. 

Dis. Aquat. Org. 14:1-22 . 

Wolke, R.E . 1992. Piscine macrophage aggregates : A 

review. Ann. Rev. Fish Dis. 2 :91-108. 

Wolke, R.E ., R.A . Murchelano, C.D. Dickstein and 

C.J . George. 1985 . Preliminary evaluation of the 

use of macrophage aggregates (MA) as fish 

health monitors. Bull . Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 

35:222-227. 

Mr. Greg Street 

Marine Science Institute 

The University of Texas at Austin 

One possible sublethal response to contaminant 

exposure is a loss of population genetic variability. 

Such a loss might occur if certain phenotypes were 

selected against during the onset of the 

contamination. If some phenotypes were selected 

against, there would be a tendency for the entire 

population to shift towards a more adaptive 

phenotype under the new selection regime imposed 

by the contaminants. This situation is described as a 

"bottleneck" where selection creates a narrow space 

through which only certain genotypes may pass 

(Barton and Charlesworth 1984). In order to assess 

whether such a bottleneck occurred at the stations in 

the program, the population genetic variability in 

harpacticoid copepods was compared "near" a 

platform (at ring two, approximately 30-50 m from 

the platform) to populations of the same species "far" 

from a platform (at ring five, ?3 km from the 

platform). The hypothesis that there are stronger 
208 

selective pressures at near field stations than at far 

field stations due to the identified contamination 

gradients around each platform . If these pressures 

exist, they should cause near-field populations to 

show a loss of genetic variability relative to far-field 

populations, which are under less rigorous stress . 

Five species of harpacticoid copepods were chosen 

for this study. Harpacticoids are ideal organisms for 

a genetic study. They are ubiquitous in marine 

systems, and therefore easy to sample. They have 

short generation times, which suggests a rapid 

response to changing conditions (Hicks and Coull 

1983). They also have low dispersal capabilities due 

in part to small size, the characteristic of brooding 

their eggs, and possessing larvae with direct benthic 

development (Hicks and Coull 1983). Furthermore, 

harpacticoid abundance, diversity, life history and 

toxicology are all being studied for Phase I of the 

GOOMEX project. The five species chosen were 

selected because they were abundant at all platforms 

and because they were easy to identify . The latter 

prevents confounding population effects with 

differences between cryptic species. The species 

included Normanella sp.15, Enhydrosoma 

pericoense, Cletodes sp.17, Robertsonia sp .l and 

Tachidiella sp. 86. Of these, only E. pericoense has 

been previously described, and therefore assigned a 

species name. 

The basic procedure involved extracting the DNA 

from individual copepods, amplifying the 16S rRNA 

region of the mitochondria) (mtDNA) by the 

polymerase chain reaction (PCR; Bucklin et al. 

1992), comparing restriction fragment length 

polymorphisms (RFLPs), and calculating an index for 

haplotype diversity. Mitochondria) DNA was used 

because it evolves at a rapid rate, has been well 

characterized by decades of research on population 

genetics, and is directly maternally inherited, thereby 

prohibiting any confounding effects of recombination 

events (Avise et al. 1987). PCR was necessary in 

order to generate enough DNA from single copepods 

for analysis using RFLPs. Four restriction enzymes 

were used for the RFLPs, Rsa I, Hae III, Msp I, and 

Taq I . After the restriction fragments were run on 

electrophoresis gels, an index of genetic variability 

was calculated from each station: 

h = 1 - Yx? 

where h = haplotype diversity, x; = the frequency of 

the ith haplotype, and i = the number of haplotypes 

(Avise 1994). A haplotype is a particular 

configuration of restriction fragments. 

A MANOVA was performed on h for each species, 

using distance (near vs. far), platform (HI-A389, 

MAI-686 and MU-A85), and cruise (two vs. three) as 

covariates . There were no differences between any 

platforms or cruises. However, three of the species 

had mean h values which were significantly less near 

a platform than they were far (p = 0.0001 for 

Normanella, p = 0.025 for Enhydrosoma, and p = 

0.014 for Cletodes). While the other two species 

(Robertsonia and Tachidiella) showed the same 

general trends, they were not significantly different 

from near to far. This is thought to be a function of 

the sample size, which was greater than 300 

individuals for the three species which showed 

significance, and less than 300 for the two species 

which were not significant (n = 206 and 103 for 

Robertsonia and Tachidiella, respectively). The fact 

that there were no differences in h values at the far 

station for any species or platform suggests that it is 

the platforms themselves which are having an effect 

and not merely local geographic variation 

This supposition was supported by using a logistic, 

linear regression to attempt to explain variance in 

genetic variability based on platform effects. In 

nearly all cases, a population was dominated by a 

single, nearly ubiquitous haplotype, and a series of 

unique haplotypes . Therefore, the dependent side of 

the logistic model took the form of number of 

individuals not conforming to the dominant 

haplotype, divided by the total number of individuals 

measured equal to the three. This value was set equal 

to the results of a principal components analysis 

performed on all the physical and chemical variables 

measured for the GOOMEX program. The first three 

principal components account for 57.8% of 

variability in the data set. 

PC 1 accounted for a significant amount of variation, 

and therefore was included in the model for 

Normanella (p = 0.006), while PC2 was significant 

in the regression models for both Cletodes (p = 

0.009) and Enhydrosoma (p = 0.0002) . There was no 

linear relationship between any factors and the 

species Robertsonia and Tachidiella since sample 

size was lower than the 300 individuals per species 
209 

needed to see near vs. far differences. One possible 

explanation why genetic variability in Cletodes and 

Enhydrosoma showed a linear relationship to PC2, 

has to do with the lifestyles of these two species. 

Both are members of the family Cletotidae, and are 

long and vermicular in shape. These are burrowing, 

infaunal harpacticoids that would be expected to be 

sensitive to such factors as grain size (Hicks and 

Coull 1983). Grain size has a heavy loading value for 

PC2 . Normanella is a larger, epifaunal harpacticoid, 

that might be expected to show less of a response to 

sediment characteristics. 

genetics and systematics. Annu. Rev. Ecol . Sys. 

18 :489-522. 

Barton, N.H. and B. Charlesworth. 1984. Genetic 

revolutions, founder effects, and speciation . 

Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 15 :133-164. 

Bucklin, A., B.W. Frost and T.D. Kocher. 1992. 

DNA sequence variation of the mitochondria) 

16S RNA in Calanus (Copepoda; Calanoida) : 

intraspecific and interspecific patterns . Mol. 

Mar. Biol . and Biotech. 1(6) : 397-407. 

In conclusion, comparison of population haplotype 

diversity suggests that offshore oil and gas 

production can cause a sublethal response in 

populations of harpacticoid copepods . In at least 

some species, there is linear relationship between 

variability and concentrations of potentially toxic 

contaminants (heavily loaded for PC1). For this 

reason, measuring population genetic variability does 

seem to be a useful management tool . However, it is 

unlikely that significant results will be found unless 

a sample size of at least 300 individuals is used per 

treatment. 

Estimating genetic variability has several advantages 

over more traditional means of sampling populations, 

such as comparisons of estimates of abundance, 

diversity and life history characteristics. Measuring 

genetic variability does not require as much skill in 

taxonomy, so long as target species can successfully 

be delineated . Furthermore, because comparing 

RFLPs is a measure of genotypic variation, it is 

superior to measurements of phenotypic variation, 

which can be confounded with a number of other 

factors. Finally, because molecular biological 

techniques are currently being refined, improved and 

automated, the technology will become increasingly 

rapid, less expensive, and user-friendly . 

REFERENCES 

Avise, J.C . 1994. Molecular Markers, Natural 

History and Evolution. New York: Chapman and 

Hall . 511 pp. 

Avise, J.C ., J. Arnold, R.M . Ball, E. Bermingham, T. 

Lamb, J.E . Neigel, C.A. Reeb, and N.C . 

Saunders. 1987. Intraspecific phylogeny: The 

mitochondria) DNA bridge between population 

Hicks, G.R .F . and B.C . Coull . 1983. The ecology of 

marine meiobenthic harpacticoid copepods. 

Oceanogr . Mar. Biol . Ann. Rev. 21 :67-175 . 

Greg Street is a Ph.D . student in marine science at 

the University of Texas at Austin. His major research 

interest is benthic ecology, with a focus on 

population changes in soft bottom communities that 

experience an alteration in environmental conditions . 

He received his B.A . in biology and philosophy at 

Western Maryland College in Westminster, 

Maryland . 

STATUS OF 

MACROINVERTEBRATE 

REPRODUCTION AND 

HISTOPATHOLOGY AT GOOMEX 

SITES 

Dr. Eric N. Powell 

Dr. Elizabeth A. Wilson-Ormond 

Mr. Matthew S. Ellis 

Ms. Shue Li 

Mr. Yung-Kul Kim 

Department of Oceanography 

Texas A&M University 

One component of the Gulf of Mexico Offshore 

Operations Monitoring Experiment (GOOMEX) 

project involves the assessment of macroinvertebrate 

reproduction . Very little is known about the 

reproductive effort of most continental shelf 

invertebrates . Accordingly, whether reproductive 

effort is affected in these species by oil and gas field 
210 

development is also largely unknown. We have 

utilized several different methods to assess 

differences in the reproductive effort of invertebrate 

species living near by and far from oil and gas 

producing rigs . Differences in male-to-female ratios, 

percent gravid females (in crabs), and stage of 

reproductive development determined visually, 

histologically and by immunological probe were used 

as indicators of possible sublethal effects of exposure 

to chemical contaminants or other oil and gas fieldassociated factors on reproductive effort . The 

relationship between health (as described by the 

prevalence and intensity of parasitism and 

pathologies) and reproductive stage was also 

examined. 

Animals were collected by trawling from locations 

close to (near-field) and far from (far-field) the 

platforms, to assess the effect of oil and gas field 

development on macroinvertebrate reproduction . 

Animals used were the shrimp Trachypenaeus 

similis, Penaeus aztecus, and Solonocera atlantidis, 

the crabs Callinectes similis, Portunus gibbesii, and 

Portunus spinicarpus, the starfish Astropecten 

duplicatus, and Astropecten cingulatus, the 

stomatopods Squilla empusa, Squilla chydaea, and 

Squilla edentata, and the scallop Amusium 

papyraceum . After collection, individuals of target 

species were measured . Reproductive development 

for most species was evaluated by two methods; 

visual inspection and histological analysis . In crabs, 

an immunological probe was also used. Visual 

inspection provides immediate results and a large n, 

but stage identification is less precise and fewer 

stages can be discriminated. Histological examination 

provides more detail and a relationship with 

parasitism and pathology, but quantification is still 

difficult and only a few individuals can be assayed. 

The immunological probe provides quantification and 

a higher n and can also be used on samples 

homogenized for chemical analyses, but 

histopathology cannot be assessed . Hence, all three 

approaches provide useful, and different, views of 

reproductive status . 

Immediately after collection, individuals were sexed, 

and a visual determination of the reproductive stage 

of females was made based on the development and 

color of the ovary. Whole specimens were preserved 

and returned to the laboratory for complete 

histological analyses . Tissue sections were analyzed 

for sex, stage of reproductive development, and 

presence and intensity of parasites and pathologies. 

The reproductive cycle of most of the species 

involved in this study has not heretofore been 

studied; therefore a semi-quantitative reproductive 

scale was developed for each species based on the 

appearance of the gonads and the quantity of gametes 

present for both methods. The immunological probe 

was developed using eggs obtained from egg masses . 

A New Zealand white rabbit was selected as a host 

animal for antibody production . Mancini's radial 

immunodiffusion method was used for the 

quantification of egg or sperm protein (the more 

sensitive ELISA assay is not normally needed). A 

gonadal-somatic index was calculated as the ratio of 

the total dry weight of gametic tissue to total 

biomass. Comparison of gonadal weight in animals 

ready to spawn, measured by the probe, to the weight 

of egg masses in gravid females yielded equivalent 

results, indicating that the probe satisfactorily 

measured total egg concentration in gonadal tissue . 

At both the near and far-field sites individuals 

collected were overwhelmingly female, with 

male:female ratios as high as 17 :1 (Trachypenaeus 

similis, MAI-686, far) . That the majority of 

individuals collected were female may result from the 

fact that females are larger for many of the species 

(particularly shrimp species) and may be retained 

more easily by the net. Percent gravid females was 

determined for each species of crab collected at both 

the near and far-field stations . A gravid crab was a 

female collected `in sponge'; that is, with a visible 

egg sac. If differences existed in the percent gravid 

females between the near and far-field station, more 

gravid females were typically collected at the farfield station; however, no significant trends were 

observed. 

Stage of reproductive development was determined 

through visual inspection for all females of shrimp 

and crab species. Reproductive development may be 

delayed by exposure to contaminants and may be 

related to the size (age) of the individual . Few 

relationships between distance from the platform and 

size or stage of reproductive development were 

found. However, in three of the four significant 

cases, females were more reproductively advanced in 

the far-field. Three species of shrimp showed a 

relationship between location and stage of 

reproductive development. Solonocera atlantidis and 
211 

Parapenaeus similis at HI-A389 both had higher 

stages of reproductive development at the far-field 

station, where the larger females were collected. 

Solonocera atlantidis also had a higher stage of 

reproductive development at the near-field station 

even though the larger individuals were collected at 

the far-field station at MU-A85 and Trachypenaeus 

similis had a higher stage reproductive development 

at the far-field station at MAI-686 even though the 

larger individuals were collected at the near-field 

station. These results suggest that the largest 

individuals are not always the farthest along in 

reproductive development. 

Stage of reproductive development was determined 

through histological examination for both males and 

females of target species. If differences in 

reproductive development existed between the near 

and far-field stations, those individuals collected 

from the far-field station were typically farther along 

in their reproductive development. This was true in 

four of the five cases showing significant results. 

No significant trends were observed when 

reproductive status was quantified by weighing egg 

masses or by immunological probe not explained by 

size differences. Wherever size structure was 

significantly altered, a significant effect in fecundity 

could be expected by this result alone, however. 

Preliminary results also indicate significant 

differences in egg quality. Protein and percent water 

analysis conducted on the egg sacs of gravid crabs 

show differences related to the proximity to the 

platform at MAI-686. Differences in egg quality may 

indicate differences in egg viability at this site . 

Results are not yet available for MU-A85 AND HIA389. 

Evidence for an impact of proximity to the rig on 

reproductive development is not as strong as trends 

noted in population size structure. Environmental 

stresses such as exposure to contaminants can affect 

reproductive activity by delaying reproductive 

development or by decreasing the quantity of 

gametes produced . In some cases the far-field station 

had a higher proportion of gravid female crabs than 

the near-field. Histological analysis follows the trend 

in gravid females, with more reproductively 

advanced individuals found far from the platforms. 

For these stations, it is possible that exposure to 

contaminants has slowed reproductive development 

in those organisms near the platform, so that the 

population at the far-field station was more advanced . 

Alternatively, near-field individuals may have 

spawned earlier. Differences in egg quality are not as 

ambiguous to interpret. Egg quality may be affected 

by proximity to the platform . At MAI-686, crab eggs 

had different proportions of water and protein at the 

near and far-field stations . Therefore, differences in 

both reproductive effort and quality of spawn 

produced may be affected by the chemical or 

physical characteristics at the platforms sites. 

Sampling frequency may be inadequate to 

differentiate these two possibilities. The stress of 

parasitism and diseases also affects reproductive 

development in many species of invertebrates by 

slowing reproduction or decreasing the quantity of 

spawn produced . At MU-A85, levels of parasitism 

and disease were related to stage of reproductive 

development. At this platform, the stage of 

reproductive development was significantly higher in 

the far-field station for starfish, scallops and all 

shrimp species; and parasitism was higher in nearfield individuals. These results suggest that 

reproductive development was higher in individuals 

with less intensity of parasitism at this site . The 

individuals at the far-field station were all 

significantly larger suggesting that they were also 

older than those collected at the near-field station, but 

size did not explain either the trend in reproduction 

or parasitism/pathology . MU-A85 has a chemical 

contamination and TOC gradient such that 

contaminants are higher and TOC lower near the 

platform . Either gradient could affect reproductive 

stage, but it is unlikely that lower TOC would impact 

the intensity of parasitism/pathology . No such trend 

was observed at MAI-686 where a TOC gradient 

exists, but where a contaminant gradient was not 

observed, lending support to the possible role of the 

contamination gradient in explaining the trends at 

MU-A85 . Insufficient data are available to test this 

hypothesis at HI-A389 where a contaminant gradient 

also exists . 

Dr. Eric N. Powell is a Professor of Oceanography at 

Texas A&M University where he has been a faculty 

member for 16 years. He has published extensively 

in the fields of oyster ecology and physiology, 

benthic ecology, and paleoecology. His research 

experience has included studies on reproductive 
212 

effort and condition, and the effects of pollutant body 

burdens on the health and physiology of invertebrate 

species. Dr. Powell received his B.S . in zoology from 

the University of Washington, and his M.S . and 

Ph.D. in Oceanography from the University of North 

Carolina . 

Dr. Elizabeth Wilson-Ormond is a post-doctoral 

Research Assistant in the Department of 

Oceanography of Texas A&M University . Her 

research interests in benthic ecology include smallscale processes affecting productivity, disease and 

parasitism, and the sub-lethal effects of pollutants in 

invertebrate species. Dr. Wilson-Ormond received 

her B.S . in Biology from Westminster College (PA), 

and her M.S . and Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas 

A&M University . 

Mr. Matthew S. Ellis is a Research Assistant in the 

Department of Oceanography of Texas A&M 

University. His research interests include carbon and 

sulfur cycling in marine sediments and the uptake 

and fate of pollutants by benthic invertebrates . Mr. 

Ellis received his B.S . in Biology from Benedictine 

College (KS) and his M.S . in oceanography from 

Texas A&M University . 

Ms. Shue Li is a graduate Research Assistant in the 

Department of Oceanography of Texas A&M 

University . Her research interests include 

experimental shellfish ecology, aquaculture and 

invertebrate reproductive activities of invertebrates 

on the continental shelf. She actively participated in 

shellfish aquaculture in China. Ms. Li received her 

B.S . in marine biology from Ocean University of 

Qingdao, P.R. China, and her M.S . in oceanography 

from the Institute of Oceanology Academia Sinica . 

Mr. Yung-Kul Kim is a graduate Research Assistant 

in the Department of Oceanography of Texas A&M 

University. His research interests include the 

relationship between disease, environmental 

condition and contaminant body burden in marine 

invertebrate species. Mr. Kim received his B.S . in 

marine biology from the National Fisheries 

University of Pusan, Korea. 

ADVANCED TOXICOLOGICAL 

TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO THE 

GOOMEX STUDY 

Ms. K. L. Willett' 

Dr. S. J. McDonaldZ 

Ms. K. Beattyz 

Ms. J. Thomsen' 

Dr. S. H. Safe' 

Dr. M. C. Kennicutt IIZ 

Department of Veterinary Physiology 

and Pharmacology 

Texas A&M University 

ZGeochemical and Environmental Research Group 

Texas A&M University 

A toxicological assessment of demersal fish and 

invertebrate exposure to contaminants associated 

with offshore oil and gas production was pursued as 

an objective of the GOOMEX project. Assays 

developed to serve as biomarkers for detecting the 

presence of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons 

(PAHs) were measured at the GOOMEX study sites. 

A multi-pronged approach to assessing exposure was 

taken. High molecular PAH (four or more rings) can 

act as aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor agonists much 

like 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and 

related halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (Safe, 

1990). PAHs bind to the intracellular Ah receptor and 

form a ligand-induced nuclear transcription factor 

which binds to specific regions of the genomic DNA 

thereby initiating transcription. Induction of the 

CYP1A gene is one of the most sensitive indicators 

of exposure to PAHs and is characterized by 

increased P4501A mRNA levels and P4501A 

dependent catalytic enzyme activities . Biomarkers 

related to the CYPIA induction response utilized in 

the GOOMEX study include: P4501A-dependent 

enzyme activities [ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase 

(EROD) and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH)], 

P4501A mRNA levels, and the nuclear Ah receptor 

complex. Benzo[a]pyrene and ethoxyresorufin are 

used as substrates in the AHH and EROD enzyme 

assays, respectively . They are generally accepted as 

equivalent substrates for P4501A in most organisms. 

A good correlation (r'=0.64) was observed in EROD 

and AHH activities for most fish species sampled for 

the GOOMEX project. However, pin fish, Lagodon 

rhomboides, and lizard fish, Synodus foetens, 
213 

exhibited high EROD:AHH (5 and 17, respectively) . 

The lack of microsomal enzyme activities could be 

due to the expression of CYP1A (P4501A) gene 

products which exhibit different catalytic activities or 

the induction of multiple forms of CYPIA. To 

investigate these differences other parameters 

associated with the induction response including 

identification of the nuclear Ah receptor complex and 

CYP1A mRNA levels were determined in these fish . 

The Ah receptor is a soluble protein for which the 

endogenous ligand and normal physiologic function 

are unknown. The Ah receptor has been previously 

identified in the cytosolic fraction of two fish 

hepatoma cell lines (RTH-149 and PLHC-1). The 

photoaffinity labeled Ah receptor was also identified 

in the hepatic cytosol of seven species of teleost and 

elasmobranch fish including scup, winter flounder, 

killifish, rainbow and brown trout, and dogfish (Hahn 

and Stegeman 1992). To date there is no reported 

evidence for the nuclear Ah receptor necessary for 

transcriptional activation in fish . In order to 

characterize the receptor in pin fish and lizard fish, 

ten individuals of each species were treated with 2 .5 

gg/kg ['H]TCDD, a compound known to have the 

high affinity for the Ah receptor . Ten fish were also 

dosed with ['H]TCDD in the presence of a 100-fold 

excess of unlabeled TCDD to determine the 

specificity of ligand binding. After four hours, the 

fish were sacrificed, their livers removed, 

homogenized, and the nuclear extract was isolated. 

Samples were layered onto sucrose density gradients 

and centrifuged. Thirty fractions were collected from 

each gradient and the radioactivity was determined 

by liquid scintillation counting. ['4C] labeled bovine 

serum albumin (4 .4S) and catalase (113S) were used 

as external standards. The Ah receptor profiles for 

both pin fish and lizard fish showed a specifically 

bound Ah receptor complex which sedimented at 

5 .4S. Similar Ah receptor profiles were found in 

laboratory experiments using the killifish Fundulus 

grandis. Although cartilaginous fish diverged 

evolutionarily 450-550 million years ago (Carroll 

1988), the sedimentation characteristics of the 

nuclear Ah receptor in these fish were similar to the 

mammalian Ah receptor from several different 

species including humans. 

Quantitation of P4501A mRNA levels was also 

utilized to characterize Ah receptor-mediated 

responses in fish . Total RNA was isolated from 

homogenized liver samples by subcellular 

fractionation and extraction by a modification of the 

method of Chomczynski and Sacchi (1987). P4501A 

mRNA levels were determined by Northern Blot 

analysis using a cDNA probe developed in rainbow 

trout (courtesy of Dr. John Lech). CYP1A levels 

were standardized relative to B-tubulin mRNA. 

CYP1A mRNA were identified in GOOMEX fish 

and the gel electrophoretic transcripts were similar 

for the different species. No significant differences 

were observed for species (i.e . lizard fish and hake) 

that were sampled at near and far stations . Because 

no significant near/far station differences were 

observed, the CYP1A levels in fish are believed to be 

constitutive or background responses. A dose 

response induction of CYP1A mRNA was observed 

in laboratory studies in which killifish were dosed 

with increasing concentrations of BaP. 

In contrast to data from teleost and elasmobranch 

fish, no cytosolic or nuclear Ah receptor has been 

identified in agnathan fish or marine invertebrates 

(Hahn and Stegeman 1992). This is consistent with 

the findings that there was low to non-detectable 

AHH activities in invertebrates . In order to assess the 

CYP1A induction potency of PAHs which may 

accumulate in invertebrates, extracts of invertebrate 

tissues were obtained and bioassayed in cultured rat 

hepatoma H4I1E cells. This cell line is highly 

P4501A responsive. Using this technique, PAH 

induction equivalents (TEQs) can be derived in 

relation to TCDD, a toxic reference standard . 

Extracts from GOOMEX invertebrates yielded very 

low TEQs. Significantly higher TEQs were 

calculated for scallops compared to the other 

GOOMEX invertebrates . 

The results of these studies indicate that the exposure 

of marine fish and invertebrate species to PAHs at 

selected offshore oil and gas production platforms is 

low. This was evidenced by the low TEQs observed 

for invertebrate extracts in in vitro assay and the low 

P4501A dependent activities in fish sampled at near 

and far stations at each GOOMEX platform. 

REFERENCES 

Carroll, R.L . 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and 

Evolution. New York: W.H. Freeman and 

Company. 698 pp. 
214 

Chomczynski, P., and N. Sacchi. 1987. Single step 

method of RNA isolation by acid guanidium 

thiocyanatephenol-chloroform extraction . Anal. 

B iochem . 162 :156-159. 

Hahn, M.E ., and J.J . Stegeman . 1992. Phylogenetic 

distribution of the Ah receptor in nonmammalian species: implications for dioxin 

toxicity and the Ah receptor evolution. 

Chemosphere 25 :931-937. 

Safe, S.H. 1990. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 

dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans 

(PCDFs) and related compounds : environmental 

and mechanistic considerations which support 

the development of toxic equivalency factors 

(TEFs) . Crit . Reviews in Toxicol. 21, 1 :51-88 . 

Varanasi, U., and D.J . Gmur. 1981 . Hydrocarbons 

and metabolites in English sole (Parohyrus 

vetulus) exposed simultaneously to ['HI 

benzo[a]pyrene and ['4C] naphthalene in oil 

contaminated sediment. Aquatic Toxicol. 1 :49-

67. 

Dr. S. H. Safe joined the faculty of Texas A&M 

University in 1981 and is a Distinguished Professor 

in the Department of Veterinary Physiology and 

Pharmacology . His areas of research interest include 

environmental and biochemical toxicology . Dr. Safe 

received a B.S . and M.S . in Chemistry from Queens 

College, Canada and his Ph.D . in Bioorganic 

Chemistry from Oxford University, United Kingdom. 

Dr. S. J. McDonald has worked at the Geochemical 

and Environmental Research Group for 9 years. She 

is an Assistant Research Scientist and is involved 

with several research projects . Her areas of research 

interest include biomarkers of organic xenobiotic 

exposure in marine fauna. Dr. McDonald received 

her B.S . and M.S . in Biology from Old Dominion 

University and her Ph.D . in Oceanography from 

Texas A&M University . 

Ms. K. Willett is a second year graduate student in 

the Toxicology Program at Texas A&M University . 

Her area of research interest are environmental 

toxicology . Ms. Willett received her B.A. in 

Chemistry from the University of North Carolina . 

Ms. K. Beariy is a Research Assistant at the 

Geochemical and Environmental Research Group. 

Ms. Beatty's research interest include fisheries 

biology and environmental toxicology . She received 

her B.S . in Biology from Southwest Oklahoma State 

University and her M.Ag. in Fisheries Sciences from 

Texas A&M University . 

Ms. J. Thomsen is a Research Associate in the 

Toxicology Program at Texas A&M University. Ms. 

Thomsen's research interest include the interactions 

of estrogen and TCDD in cancer cell lines. She 

received her M.A . in Molecular Biology from the 

University of Copenhagen, Denmark. 

Dr. Mahlon C. Kennicutt II, Senior Research 

Scientist, is Chief Chemist of the Geochemical and 

Environmental Research Group with the College of 

Geosciences and Maritime Studies at Texas A&M 

University . Dr. Kennicutt has expertise and research 

interests in marine chemistry, environmental 

chemistry, and organic geochemistry. He received a 

B.S . in chemistry in 1974 from Union College and a 

Ph.D. in oceanography from Texas A&M University 

in 1980. Dr. Kennicutt has published over 100 peerreviewed papers, numerous book chapters, and has 

made scientific presentations world-wide . 
SESSION 3C 

COASTAL MARINE INSTITUTE PROGRESS REPORTS, PART 11 
217 

Session : 3C - Coastal Marine Institute Progress Reports, Part II 

Co-Chairs: Dr. James J. Kendall and Dr. Robert S. Carney 

Date: November 16, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction 

Development of Bioremediation for Oil Spill 

Cleanup in Coastal Wetlands 

Coastal Marine Environmental Modeling 

Socioeconomic Baseline Study for the Gulf 

of Mexico, Phase I 

Are Coastal Fauna Chronically Exposed to 

Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Hypoxia Better 

Adapted to These Factors? 

Dr. James J. Kendall 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Robert S . Carney 

Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. I. Mendelssohn' 

N. Atilla' 

Ms. K. Debusschere' 

Mr. C. Henry' 

Dr. Q. Lin' 

Dr. E. Overton' 

Mr. R. Portier' 

Dr. N. Rabalais2 

Ms. P. Roberts' 

Ms. M. Walsh' 

'Louisiana State University 

Z Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium, Cocodrie 

'Coastal Environments, Inc., Baton Rouge 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Dr. William J. Wiseman, Jr . 

Department of Oceanography & Coastal Studies 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Joachim Singlemann 

Dr. Forrest A. Desearan 

Dr. Charles M. Tolbert 

Dr. Natsumi Aratame 

Department of Sociology and Rural Sociology 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. William B. Stickle, Jr. 

Dr. Tapash Das 

Department of Zoology and Physiology 

Louisiana State University 
218 

Seasonal and Spatial Variation in Density and 

Size Distribution of Fishes Associated with 

a Petroleum Platform in the Northern Gulf of 

Mexico 

Characterization of Sea Anemones as Bioindicators 

of Offshore Resource Exploitation 

Dr. David R. Stanley 

Dr. Charles A. Wilson 

Coastal Fisheries Institute 

Center for Coastal, Energy and 

Environmental Resources 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Gary W. Winston 

Ms . Linda Heffernan 

Mr. Robin Ertl 

Department of Biochemistry 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. William B. Stickle, Jr . 

Department of Zoology and Physiology 

Louisiana State University 
219 

INTRODUCTION 

Dr. James J. Kendall 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Robert S. Carney 

Director, Coastal Marine Institute 

Louisiana State University 

MMS Gulf of Mexico Region, provides the MMS an 

additional means of meeting its own information 

needs, as well as those of one of its most important 

regional customers. 

The session includes topics ranging from the development of bioremediation techniques for oil spill 

cleanup to physical oceanography . 

This is a continuation of Session 2C, CMI Progress 

Reports, Part I . As noted previously, the CMI, a 

cooperative agreement between the MMS and the 

State of Louisiana, was established to address the 

parallel OCS information needs of both parties in a 

timely, cost effective manner, while taking full 

advantage of the academic talents in the immediate 

OCS planning area. 

Under the terms of this agreement, the MMS and the 

State of Louisiana provide matching funds to conduct 

environmental research of joint interest . The state, 

through Louisiana State University (LSU), provides 

matching funds of at lest one dollar for each dollar 

provided by the MMS (up to $10 million over a fiveyear period). All funds obligated are used to support 

studies that fall within a general framework. 

The CMI framework, which provides broad boundaries for guidance in the development of specific 

research projects, was designed to include the following: technologies for extracting and transporting nonenergy resources; environmental responses to changing energy extraction and transport technologies and 

spills ; analyses and synthesis of existing 

data information from previous studies; modeling of 

environmental, social, and economic processes and 

systems; new information about the structure/ 

function of affected systems via application of 

descriptive and experimental means; and projects that 

improve the application and distribution of 

multisource information . 

Projects proposed for support under the CMI are 

reviewed by the CMI Technical Steering Committee, 

on which MMS and LSU are equally represented. 

The daily activities of the program are administered 

from LSU's Baton Rouge campus by the CMI 

Director, Dr. Robert Carney . Dr. James J. Kendall, 

Chief of the Environmental Studies Program for the 

Dr. James J. Kendall is the Chief of the 

Environmental Studies Section, MMS, Gulf of 

Mexico Regional Office . His research interests 

include the effects of contaminants on the physiology 

of corals, the behavior of reef animals, and 

procedures for aquatic toxicity testing. Dr. Kendall 

has conducted research and monitoring programs in 

the Gulf of Mexico, Galveston Bay, the Florida Keys, 

and the Gulf of Eilat, Red Sea. He received his B.S . 

in biology from Old Dominion University and his 

Ph.D . in oceanography from Texas A&M University . 

Dr. Robert Carney, an associate professor in LSU's 

Department of Oceanography and Coastal Studies, 

has served as director of LSU's Coastal Ecology 

Institute since 1986 and has been director of the 

LSU-MMS CMI program since its inception . He 

received his M.S . from Texas A&M University and 

his Ph.D . from Oregon State University . Prior to 

LSU, Dr. Carney was employed at Moss Landing 

Marine Labs, the National Science Foundation, and 

the Smithsonian Institution. 

DEVELOPMENT OF 

BIOREMEDIATION FOR OIL SPILL 

CLEANUP IN COASTAL WETLANDS 

Dr. I . Mendelssohn', N. Atilla', Ms. K. 

Debusschere', Mr. C. Henry', Dr. Q. Lin' 

Dr. E. Overton', Mr. R. Portier', Dr. N. RabalaisZ, 

Ms. P. Roberts', Ms. M. Walsh' 

'Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 

'Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium, Cocodrie 

'Coastal Environments, Inc., Baton Rouge 
220 

Bioremediation, the act of adding materials to contaminated environments to cause an acceleration of 

natural biodegradation processes, is a promising 

means by which oil released into salts marshes can 

be removed with little impact to the habitat. However, neither the ecological effect nor the efficacy of 

introducing oil-degrading bacteria or fertilizers into 

the salt marsh has been determined . The objectives of 

the first year of our multi-disciplinary study are (1) to 

determine the ecological effects of the microbial and 

fertilizer products on wetland plant, infaunal and 

microbial communities and (2) to determine whether 

these bioremediation agents enhance oil biodegradation in intact salt marsh mesocosms. The experiment designed to meet the first objective has been 

completed; the experiment examining the second 

question is nearing completion. 

Sods of marsh soil and vegetation approximately 30 

cm in diameter and 25 cm deep were collected from 

a salt marsh in south Louisiana and used in a greenhouse mesocosm study. Half of the mesocosms 

received a dose of oil typical of an offshore spill that 

has moved ashore. Five oiled and five unoi(ed 

mesocosms were sprayed with a commercial bacterial 

inoculum ; another set of five each received the 

manufacturer's recommended dose of slow-release 

fertilizer designed to stimulate natural oil biodegradation ; a third set of each was left without treatment 

to serve as controls . 

The effect of various treatments on the plants was 

monitored during the course of the three-month 

experiment using three variables: leaf elongation, 

photosynthesis, and aboveground biomass. Soil 

response was determined by measuring respiration, 

Eh, pH, salinity, micronutrient and macronutrients . 

The effect of the biromediation treatments on meiofauna was monitored by enumeration of nematodes, 

copepods, copepod nauplii and oligochaetes at day 0, 

1 week, 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 12 weeks. General 

microbial biomass and several key microbial components, including yeast, filamentous fungi, chitinutilizing bacteria, actinomycetes, chitin-degrading 

bacteria, and petroleum-utilizing microbes, were also 

tracked by sampling at day 3, 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 

12 weeks. 

Results from plant and soil response monitoring 

indicate that fertilization significantly increased plant 

growth and soil respiration, that oil had no significant 

effect on plant growth and significantly increased soil 

respiration, and that microbial inoculum had no 

significant effect on either plant growth or soil 

respiration. Examination of three of the five meiofauna sample replicates indicates that there is no 

evidence of depressed fauna due to application of 

either bioremediation product. Nematodes positively 

responded to both bioremediation products and oil. 

Among the various microbial populations there is no 

statistically significant difference among treatments 

for either day 3 or week 4, indicating that microbial 

communities are not adversely affected by any of the 

bioremediation products. 

The greenhouse experiment designed to meet the 

second objective, the determination of whether 

bioremediation products enhance oil biodegradation 

in salt marshes, is ongoing. The mesocosms are being 

sampled for (1) petroleum hydrocarbon chemistry to 

identify and quantify the degree of oil biodegradation, (2) oil morphology, which will be related to oil 

chemistry, as an inexpensive means of evaluating oil 

biodegradation, (3) soil microbial response to determine the effect of the bioremediation products on the 

microbial communities that are performing the oil 

biodegradation, (4) soil chemistry to determine the 

effect of the bioremediation products on those factors 

that limit the growth of microbe and plants, and (5) 

plant response to evaluate the combined effect of the 

oil and products on plant vigor and growth . 

Dr. Irving Mendelssohn is a professor of 

oceanography and coastal ccology at LSU conducting 

research through the Wetland Biogeochemisty 

Institute. Educated at Wilkes College, VIMS, and 

North Carolina State University, he came to LSU in 

1979. His primary research interests are: the 

influence of environmental constraints on plant 

distribution and productivity and ecophysiological 

adaptation . His research experience includes natural 

perturbations as well as those associated with oil 

spills in marsh habitats . 

A native of Belgium, Dr. Karolien Debusschere 

received her undergraduate training at 

Rijksuniversiteit in Ghent and her doctoral training at 

LSU in geography with a minor in agronomy. As a 

research associate with the Louisiana Geological 

Survey and the LSU Center for Coastal Energy and 

Environmental Resources, she has participated in oil 

spill and coastal morphology research . 
221 

Charles Henry has been a research associate in the 

Institute for Environmental Sciences at LSU since 

1985 specializing in analytical chemistry. He is a 

graduate student at LSU, having received a B.S . in 

environmental science. He is highly experienced in 

oil spill studies ranging from the Persian Gulf to the 

Exxon Valdez and the Mega Borg. 

COASTAL MARINE 

ENVIRONMENTAL MODELING 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Edward Overton is director of the Institute for 

Environmental Sciences at LSU. Educated at Spring 

Hill College and the University of Alabama, he came 

to LSU in 1984 . His area of expertise is trace organic 

analyses using high resolution separation techniques . 

He is principal architect and chief chemist for 

NOAA's Hazardous Materials Response Branch 

Chemical Hazard Assesment Team. His research 

activities include oil spill related work around the 

world. 

Dr. Ralph J. Portier is professor in the Institute for 

Environmental Sciences at LSU and director of the 

Aquatic/Industrial Toxicology Lab. Educated at 

Nichols State and LSU, he joined the faculty in 1983. 

His parimary area of expertise is microbial 

physiology of ectreme marine environments and the 

application of this information to bioremediation . 

Dr. Nancy Rabalais is an associate professor at the 

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, 

LUMCON. Educated at Texas A&I and the 

University of Texas, she began participation in the 

founding of LUMCON in 1983 . Her professional 

expertise includes continental shelf ecosystems and 

the effects of oil and gas operations . She has 

extensive experience along the Gulf Coast and in 

China. 

Dr. Maud Walsh is a research scientist in the Institute 

for Environmental Sciences at LSU. Educated at 

Bryn Mar and LSU, she began environmental 

research in 1989. She works in the laboratory of 

Dr. Ralph Portier on a wide variety of microbial and 

bioremediation topics . 

Dr. William J. Wiseman, Jr . 

Department of Oceanography & Coastal Sciences 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

This program builds on the results of a recent study 

of physical processes responsible for land-loss in 

coastal Louisiana. The first year of the present study 

has dealt extensively with exercising and learning 

from a two-dimensional depth-integrated model 

initially developed during this previous study. 

METHODS 

The two-dimensional depth-integrated hydrodynamic 

model was developed and applied to study circulation 

in the Tenebonne/Timbalier and the Four League 

Bay systems (Figure 3C .1). The fully-nonlinear 

model equations include horizontal eddy viscosity 

and the bottom friction represented by a Manning's 

coefficient. At land boundaries, no normal flow and 

no-slip boundary conditions are applied. At open 

boundaries, the sea-level height is specified. The 

wind forcing is assumed to be spatially uniform over 

the model domain. The model equations are discretized on the staggered mesh grid C of Arakawa 

(Mesinger and Arakawa 1976). The numerical 

scheme adopted here is Grammeltvedt C scheme 

(Grammeltvedt 1969) which conserves mass and total 

energy . Leapfrog scheme is used for time integration 

with Euler scheme inserted at regular time step to 

eliminate the computational mode due to the central 

time differencing . The frictional terms are lagged in 

time for numerical stability. The model bottom 

bathymetry was taken from the Nautical Charts 

(Scale 1 :80,000), and the coastal boundaries were 

approximated on the model grid as closely as possible (see Figures 3C.2 and 3C3). The model grid 

spacing between like variables is taken to be 463 m, 

and the time step used is 10 s. The horizontal eddy 

viscosity used is 10 m2/s . The Terrebonne/Timbalier 

Bay Model includes both Terrebonne Bay and 
222 

t .,i. .. .~.._..~. ..~~.. .....~ ...._ ..~ . ~.. ..... ...~.~... .__..~...~... ... __ .~.~... ~ __ .. . 

91" 9O° 89 

1~BATON ROUGE 

.,,. 

JS`R E N 

~ ~p~"le),1: ~y- o 

E~ ~11 CITY 

~.pN L1 ~ , Q ~-

ATCHAFALAYA 

BAY 

FOUR LEAGUE TIMBALIER 

BAY BAY 

TERREBONNE 

BAY 

O ~_ f 

--10A 

f `~` 

O° i'-LSO0~ f--

80 0~00 

Figure 3C.1 . Location map of the study sites. 

Timbalier Bay (see Figure 3C.3). In addition, the 

southern boundary of the model domain is taken 

outside the bay in order to permit less restrictive 

model simulation of flow field near the entrances to 

the bay. The Four League Bay model includes not 

only Four League Bay but also a portion of 

Atchafalaya Bay and a portion of the open Gulf to 

the south (see Figure 3C.3). 

RESULTS 

Since our main objective is to simulate circulation in 

bays and the coastal ocean as realistically as possible, 

an extensive model calibration is carried out using 

the field data recently collected (Wiseman and Inoue 

1993). The model is forced by the observed wind and 

the sea-level height . Wind stresses acting on the sea 

surface were estimated from wind measurements 

made at Isles Dernieres for the Terrebonne/Timbalier 

Bay Model and from those made in Four League Bay 

for the Four League Bay Model (Hsu personal 

communication). An empirical relationship derived 

for Four League Bay (Hsu personal communication 

1992) is used to convert from wind speed to wind 

stress . Sea-level heights along the open boundaries 

are estimated from the observations . For the 

Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model, the bottom pressure records collected at the main entrance to the bay 

are used to specify sea-level height along the 

southern open boundary. For the Four League Bay 

Model, the sea-level height measurements collected 

by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers at AmeradaHess platform located just outside the northwest open 

boundary of the model domain are used to specify 

sea-level height along the northwest open boundary . 

The lack of sea-level height measurements near the 

southwest open boundary presented a major problem 

in defining proper open boundary conditions along 

this open boundary . After a series of model calibration runs, it was decided to use the same sea-level 

height at the Amerada-Hess platform to specify 

boundary conditions along the southwest open 

boundary without any changes in amplitude and 

phase. 
223 

Figure 3C.2 . Top: Model geometry of the Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model. the southern boundary is open. 

Bottom: Model bathymetry of the Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model . 
224 

Figure 3C.3 . Top: Model geometry of the Four League Bay Model. the northwestern and southwestern 

boundaries are open. Bottom: Model bathymetry of the Four League Bay Model. 
225 

r=0.9274 

20 

y 

10- 

.. 

E 

U ({ ; i 

-10 

.l 1 ',f 

V J 

-'~I1 22 23 24 25 26 

Time in day 

30 

r=0.9531 

20 

'1 ,w 

. ., 10- 

I 

V 

`i 1

Q 7~, ' I u~, 

I',~ 

. (1 

IIJ 

C_j ~ ~ 

-10 

-20-

-3 Z1 22 23 24 25 26 

Time in day 

Figure 3C .4 . Observed (solid line) and simulated (dashed line) currents at Station 3 located in the middle or 

Terrebonne Bay for the period 03/21/90-03/27/90. East-west component (top), and north-south 

component (bottom) . r is correlation coefficient between the observed and modeled currents . 
226 

- a 

Q; n" 

1 

.~ . . . ,~ ., . . ~ . . .~1 

`'\C . 

. . . . ._ . . .___. . I . ti . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . " ' .,, r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

._~ 3,02 

MAXIMUM VECTOR 

bl 

. .~ . . . . 

.~~ . . ., . 

, . . . ., ., 

. . . . . .~i 

. . . . ~_ . . . . .,,,_ 

. ` 

' . . . . ., 

. . . . ., 

.520 +02 

MAXIMUM VECTOR 

Figure 3C.5 . A: Simulated currents within Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay at 6 hr on 05/02/90. Maximum reference 

vector shown is 82 cm/s. B: Simulated currents within Four League Bay at 16 hr on 08/05/92. 

Maximum current vector shown is 52 cm/s. Numbered dots indicate mooring locations . 
227 

A series of calibration experiments was carried out to 

identify realistic bottom friction parameters . 

Manning's values of 0.07 for the Terrebonne/ 

Timbalier Bay Model and of 0.10 for the Four 

League Bay Model were found to produce currents in 

close agreement with the those observed. These 

values are two or three times larger than those typical 

of other estuaries. This may result from the 

shallowness of the bays giving rise to enhanced 

bottom friction due to the combined effect of currents 

and the surface wave field, which is not accounted 

for in the model formulation. Large bottom friction 

identified for Four League Bay could be due to the 

high concentrations of suspended sediments observed 

inside the bay that could reach as high as 1600 mg/1 

(Day, personal communication). Mean correlation 

coefficients between observed and simulated currents 

computed for east-west and north-south components 

at each of the five mooring sites in Terrebonne/ 

Timbalier range from 0.70 to 0.95. An example is 

shown in Figure 3C.4 . The higher correlations found 

in the Terrebonne/Timbalier Bay Model highlight the 

well-posedness of this bay system, i . e., outside 

influence coming from the Gulf of Mexico is well 

accounted for by the specification of sea-level height 

along the open boundary that was actually measured 

at the nearby main entrance . In contrast, correlations 

between the observed and simulated currents in the 

Four League Bay Model are not as good. This is 

mainly due to the artificial specification of the open 

boundary conditions used along the southwest open 

boundary . Various previous measurements of sealevel height in this region suggest that sea-level 

heights south of the Four League Bay are different 

from those coming from the north (Rouse personal 

communication 1994). Despite this deficiency in the 

model setup, various model simulation runs using the 

Four League Bay Model produced reasonable 

currents in comparison to the observations . Only 

exception is in and near the Oyster Bayou that is 

strongly affected by the sea-level signal coming from 

the south (Rouse, personal communication, 1994). 

Currents in and near Oyster Bayou are significantly 

underestimated in the model. 

Using the observed sea-level height and wind, the 

model was used to simulate circulation in those bays . 

Examples of current field simulated are presented in 

Figure 3C.5 . It is evident that in those both bays, 

stronger currents are always found in deeper parts of 

the bay system. Due to the general shallowness of 

those bays, relatively small tidal range in Louisiana 

forces strong tidal currents in those bays. Significant 

currents could develop in narrow entrances to those 

bays. In terms of relative dominance of each pass 

into Terrebonne/Timbalier, Wine Island Pass-Cat 

Island Pass dominates, accounting for nearly 60% of 

the total inflow into the bay, while the remaining 

inflow is equally split between Whisky Pass and 

Little Pass Timbalier, each accounting for 20% of the 

total. For Four League Bay, the northern entrance 

connecting the Four League Bay to the Atchafalaya 

Bay appears to dominate over Oyster Bayou. However, the role of the northern entrance is probably 

overestimated in the model due to the artificial 

specification of the southwestern open boundary 

condition. 

In contrast to Terrebonne/Timbalier, that is open to 

the Gulf of Mexico only to the south, circulation in 

Four League Bay is primarily along the orientation of 

the bay due to the configuration of Four League Bay, 

which is connected to the Gulf of Mexico at both 

northern and southern ends. Significant throughflow 

circulation could develop through Four League Bay 

due to occasional passages of cold fronts, associated 

with strong wind stresses in the direction of the 

orientation of the bay. 

A significant progress has been made in visualizing 

and analyzing the model output . We have been using 

Data Viz, a computer animation/visualization software, on our Silicon Graphics Indigo workstation to 

animate the sea-level height field generated by the 

model . This animation/visualization software was 

developed in collaboration with Mr. Lingsong Bi . 

The most unique feature of Data Viz is its 3-D 

display capability with a light source in 3-D space, 

allowing detailed texture of the 3-D surfaces to be 

visible. This added capability allows us to examine 

not only the general gross features of the model 

output but also its details. 

Our future efforts will include applications of a threedimensional model, the Princeton model, to the 

Terrebonne/Timbalier and the Four League Bay 

systems. Testing of the Princeton model code has 

been initiated using simplified model configurations . 

REFERENCES 

Grammeltvedt, A. 1969. A survey of finite-difference 

schemes for the primitive equations for a barotropic fluid. Mon. Wea. Rev., 97: 384-404. 
228 

Mesinger, F., and A. Arakawa. 1976 : Numerical 

methods used in atmospheric models . GARP 

Publ. Ser. 17. World Meteorological Organization, 64 pp. 

Wiseman, Wm . J., Jr . and Masamichi Inoue, 1993: 

Salinity variations in two Louisiana estuaries. 

Proceedings Coastal Zone '93, 8th Symposiumn 

Coastal and Ocean Management. O.T . Magoon, 

W.S . Wilson, H. Converse and L.T . Tobin, 

(eds .) . New Orleans, La. v . 1, p . 1230-1242 . 

Dr. Masamichi Inoue had worked at the Florida State 

University and at Australian Institute of Marine 

Science. He has been at Louisiana State University 

for the past eight years and is Associate Professor at 

the Coastal Studies Institute and in the Department of 

Oceanography & Coastal Sciences . His research 

interests include modeling ocean circulation and 

transport processes. Dr. Inoue received his B.E. in 

naval architecture from Tokai University in Japan, 

his M.S . in ocean engineering from the University of 

Rhode island, his M.E . in civil engineering and his 

Ph .D . in oceanography from Texas A&M University. 

Dr. William J. Wiseman, Jr., has worked at Louisiana 

State University for the past 23 years and serves as 

Assistant Director of the Coastal Studies Institute and 

as Professor at the Coastal Studies Institute and in the 

Department of Oceanography & Coastal Sciences . 

His areas of research interest are shelf and estuarine 

dynamics, sediment transport processes, and biological/physical interactions in coastal waters . 

Dr. Wiseman received his B.E .S . and M.S . in electrical engineering, his M. A. in oceanography, and his 

Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University . 

SOCIOECONOMIC BASELINE 

STUDY FOR THE GULF OF MEXICO : 

PHASE I 

Dr. Joachim Singelmann 

Dr. Forrest A. Deseran 

Dr. Charles M. Tolbert 

Dr. Natsumi Aratame 

Department of Sociology and Rural Sociology 

Louisiana State University 

PURPOSE 

The purpose of this project is to build a data base for 

analyzing the socioeconomic impact of OCS development for the period 1930-1990 in the five coastal 

states of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and 

Florida (1970-1990 only). Although offshore drilling 

in the Gulf of Mexico has a history exceeding fifty 

years, the socioeconomic impact of that activity has 

not been examined systematically . The present 

project has the following objectives : (1) to identify 

counties/parishes that have been directly impacted by 

offshore activities, and to examine changes in this 

impact over the period 1930-1990; (2) to build a data 

base for indicators of socioeconomic impact of 

offshore activities, focusing on the following broad 

areas: demographic, economic, public services, and 

fiscal ; and (3) to analyze the effects of offshore 

activities on these socioeconomic factors separately 

for directly impacted and non-impacted counties/ 

parishes. 

We give special attention to the spatial linkages of 

counties/parishes by identifying the labor-market 

boundaries of the coastal counties/parishes in the five 

states . The coastal counties/parishes have many ties 

with communities further inland through extensive 

commuting flows . These flows are patterned by the 

work schedule in the OCS, which often requires 

alternating periods of seven days on/off the job. This 

schedule permits longer commutes than would be the 

case with daily commuting patterns . Changes in OCS 

activity thus have repercussions beyond the coastal 

parishes . 
229 

DIRECT ECONOMIC IMPACT OF OCS 

ACTIVITY ON COASTAL COUNTIES 

Offshore activities have affected many coastal 

counties/parishes during the past 60 years. However, 

the extensive coast of the Gulf of Mexico, the differential infrastructure of coastal parishes, and the 

differences in human capital and industrial specialization make it unlikely that all coastal counties/ 

parishes are equally impacted by offshore activities . 

Centaur (1986) conducted a survey in the 1980s 

among the largest producers in the Gulf of Mexico to 

measure the direct economic impact of offshore 

activities on counties/parishes which showed substantial variation among counties/parishes . While the 

methodology used in that study is not applicable to 

the historical baseline study, there are several alternative ways to assess direct economic impacts. For 

reasons of comparability over time, we will analyze 

industry-occupation matrices for each county/parish, 

making use of the most detailed industry and occupation categories (about 400 industries and 450 occupations) supplied by the U.S . Bureau of the Census. 

These matrices, which require special tabulations, are 

available for the period 1980-1990. We will analyze 

these industry-occupation matrices to develop a 

classification of counties by degree of direct 

economic impact from OCS activity . 

THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT OF OCS 

ACTIVITY ON COASTAL COUNTIES 

Once the database has been created and those 

counties/parishes identified that have been directly 

impacted by offshore activities, the project will 

analyze the socioeconomic impact by offshore 

activities in coastal areas by comparing directly 

impacted and non-impacted counties/parishes . The 

socioeconomic impact of OCS activity will be 

conceptualized in terms of four broad areas: 

demographic, economic, public services, and fiscal . 

Demographic: Economic development has a 

number of demographic consequences, and we 

expect them to occur in response to OCS activity 

as well . The demographic consequences affect 

population growth as well as population structure . Regions that experience economic growth 

typically experience above-average population 

growth resulting from net in-migration . Age 

selectivity is a universal characteristic of migration ; migrants tend to be concentrated in the age 

group IS-34 years of age. Migration can also 

affect the sex ratio of the population . In the case 

of OCS activities, it is likely that net in-migration into the Gulf Coast region is dominated by 

males, which would increase the sex ratio. While 

the linkage between development and 

race/ethnicity is not clear, we will include information about the racial/ethnic composition in the 

database . 

2. Economic : Economic development tends to 

increase the demand for labor, although this 

demand can vary substantially, depending on the 

capital-output ratio of the industries providing 

the economic stimuli. Although OCS activity is 

very capital intensive, we nevertheless expect it 

to create a demand for labor that should be 

reflected in above-average rates of growth in 

civilian employment and nonfarm payroll . The 

increased labor demand should also raise the percapita income in areas affected by OCS activity . 

3 . Public Services : Economic development usually 

creates a demand for labor and net in-migration, 

resulting in population growth . Growing areas 

often face the need to provide for additional 

police and fire protection, utilities services, 

education, and health services . Where population 

growth coincides with an increase in the tax 

base, such services can usually be offered with 

few problems . Where economic growth does not 

lead to increased income and a larger tax base, 

however, the provision of these services can 

strain the fiscal capacity of many municipalities 

and counties . 

4. Fiscal : Development and population growth 

directly affect the structure of revenues and 

expenditures, as noted above in the context of 

public services . It is thus essential for any baseline study to include information on municipal/county revenues and expenditures by fiscal 

category . It is likely that there is a time lag 

between the infrastructure needs of an area and 

its ability to provide resources for these needs, 

since a growing area often requires services 

before the tax base has developed to meet them. 

The more important question, however, is the 

magnitude of this time lag, i .e., the length of 

time during which the gap between service needs 

and fiscal capacity exists . 
230 

The project will assemble a database for the period 

1930-90 that contains county/parish-specific and 

labor-market-area-specific information about the 

indicators (defined below) of direct economic impact 

and of the four broad areas of socioeconomic impact 

(Table 3C .1). That database will permit us to identify 

those counties/parishes and labor markets areas that 

are directly impacted in economic terms by OCS 

activity . The impact/non-impact distinction will then 

be used to assess the socioeconomic impact of OCS 

activity on the levels of counties/parishes and labor 

market areas. The results of our analyses will not 

change the content of the database, since other 

researchers might want to focus on issues not 

addressed by our anticipated analyses . Moreover, the 

content of the database has to remain unchanged in 

Table 3C .1 . Data sources for socioeconomic baseline study for the Gulf of Mexico, Phase I (as of November 

1994). 

FISCAL GOVT EMPLOYMENT CIVIL EMPLOYMENT DEMOGRAPHY 

Items Revenue by source Health, public welfare, Industry, occupation Age, sex, race, 

Expenditures by purpose police, fire, etc. Income, establishments (including migration, 

farming) marital status, 

education 

1930 Financial statistics 1932 NA Census (M) Census (0003) 

Tax commission 

Annual report 

1940 1942 CG (M) NA Census (M) or Census (0003) 

Industry (7) < --CCDB (7736) 

Occupation (12) < --Census (0003) 

1950 1957 CG (M) 1957 CG (M) Census (M) or Census (0003) 

Industry (9) < --CCDB-52 (0003) 

or CCDB (7736) 

Occupation (12) < --Census (0003) 

1960 1962, 67 CG (0017) 1962, 67 CG (0017) Census (M) or Census (0003) 

CCDB-62, 67 (0003) CCDB-62,67 

or CCDB 7736 (0003) or CCDB 

(7736) 

1970 1972, 77 CG (8117, 1972, 77 CG (8117, 8118) Census (M) or Census (9694) 

8118) Industry (11), Occupation (13) 

< --Census (9694) 

1980 1982 CG (8395, 8394) 1982 CG (8395, 8394) Census (M) or Census (9693) 

1988 CG (6069, 9484) 1988 CG (6069, 9484) Industry (11), Occupation (13) 

< --Census (9693) 

1990 NA NA Census (M) or Census (6054) 

Industry (17), Occupation (13) 

< --Census (6054) 

Note : NA: Not available as of November 1994 

(M): Need to key-in manually 

CG: Census of Government 

CCDB : City and County Data Base 

(xxx) : ICPSR Data Tape number 
231 

order to give other researchers the opportunity to 

replicate our analyses . 

Dr. Joachim Singelmann is professor and chair of the 

Department of Sociology and Rural Sociology at 

Louisiana State University . He is the author of From 

Agriculture to Services (1978), co-author of Das 

Ende der Klassengesellschaft? [The End of Class 

Society?] (1990), and co-editor of Inequalities in 

Labor Market Areas (1993) . His research interest are 

economic sociology, labor markets, development, and 

demography. After university studies at the University of Hamburg, Dr. Singelmann received his Ph .D . 

in sociology from the University of Texas at Austin. 

Dr. Forrest A. Deseran is professor of sociology and 

rural sociology and Director, Louisiana Population 

Data Center at Louisiana State University . He coedited Inequalities in Labor Market Areas (1993) and 

is the outgoing editor of the Rural Studies Series 

published by Westview Press for the Rural Sociological Society. His current research focuses on 

household structure, local labor markets, and the 

labor force in the United States . Dr. Deseran received 

his B.A. in sociology from the University of California in Santa Barbara and his Ph .D . in sociology 

from Colorado State University . 

Dr. Charles M. Tolbert is professor of sociology and 

rural sociology at Louisiana State University . He 

recently co-authored Work in the Fast Lane: Flexibility, Division of Labor, and Inequality in High-Tech 

Industries (1992). His ongoing research interests 

include labor markets, industrial organization, and 

labor force issues . He just completed a new analysis 

of 1990 labor market areas in the United States . Dr. 

Tolbert received his B.A. in sociology from Baylor 

University and his Ph.D. in sociology from the 

University of Georgia. 

Dr. Natsumi Aratame is postdoctoral fellow in the 

Department of Sociology and Rural Sociology at 

Louisiana State University . He obtained his Ph.D . 

from the University of Chicago. Besides his work on 

the CMI/MMS project Socioeconomic Baseline Study 

for the Gulf of Mexico: Phase 1, he is examining 

patterns of migration and social mobility in the 

United States . 

ARE COASTAL FAUNA 

CHRONICALLY EXPOSED TO 

PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS 

AND HYPOXIA BETTER ADAPTED 

TO THESE FACTORS? 

Dr. William B. Stickle, Jr . 

Dr. Tapash Das 

Zoology and Physiology 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

Marine and estuarine fish are sensitive to short term 

exposure to the water soluble fraction of crude oil, 

but their tolerance does not change much after 12-24 

h because of the presence of an inducible cytochrome 

P-450 enzyme system for metabolizing aromatic 

hydrocarbons. In contrast to this pattern, invertebrates tolerate high concentrations (ppm range) in 96 

hour bioassays; however, their tolerance declines 

during a 28-day exposure period (Stickle et al . 1987; 

Wang and Stickle 1987). 

Water column concentrations of 20-1,000 ppb aromatic hydrocarbons have been monitored in the 

Barataria Bay to the Louisiana Offshore Oil Platform 

(LOOP) transect . Oil spills and discharge from 

produced water also impact fauna of the continental 

shelf and coastal embayments along the Louisiana 

coastline. Animals from this area may be adapted to 

chronic exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons . We 

know that the 21-day LCso of a population of the blue 

crab Callinectes sapidus collected from a locale near 

Ocean Springs, Mississippi was 3,927 ppb aromatic 

hydrocarbons in the WSF of South Louisiana crude 

oil (Wang and Stickle 1987, 1988). This concentration is considerably higher than found for the pink 

shrimp, Pandalus borealis from southeastern Alaska 

(Stickle et al . 1987) with a 28-day LC, of 28 ppb 

aromatic hydrocarbons. 

Several sublethal stress indices have been shown to 

be sensitive indicators of physiological stress in 

marine fauna exposed to the Water-soluble fraction 

(WSF) of petroleum hydrocarbons including the 

determination of induction of a form of the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system, scope for growth 

(energy budget) and RNA:DNA ratios . Induction of 
232 

several families of cytochrome P-450 enzymes have 

been documented in fish, but their functional significance in enhancing physiological fitness of the fish 

has not been demonstrated. Induction, as determined 

by enhanced cytochrome P-450 activity and estimated from induction of 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylation (EROD) activity, is a useful biomarker of 

environmental contamination. Parallel experiments 

on the activity of this system in killifish exposed to 

petroleum hydrocarbons and those from a pristine 

habitat will allow us better to assess the relationship 

of this detoxification/toxication system to tolerance 

and sublethal responses. 

The most sensitive biomarkers used with various 

species of invertebrates are the determination of 

scope for growth (an energy budget) and the determination of the RNA:DNA ratio. Scope for growth has 

been shown to decline in a concentration related 

manner with the WSF of petroleum hydrocarbons in 

the molluscs Mytilus edulis (Widdows et al . 1982 ; 

Stickle et al. 1985) and Thais lima (Stickle et al. 

1984) as well as in the crustaceans Pandalus borealis 

(Stickle et al . 1987) and juvenile Callinectes sapidus 

(Wang and Stickle, 1987). The primary component of 

the scope for growth to decline in a concentration 

related manner with WSF of petroleum hydrocarbon 

exposure in all of these studies was their feeding rate . 

Actual growth was correlated with scope for growth 

in the blue crab as was the protein:DNA and 

RNA:DNA ratio (Wang and Stickle 1988). 

OBJECTIVES 

One of our objectives is to test the hypothesis that 

populations of the Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, 

and the blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus and C. similis, 

from the oil-exposed coastal Louisiana have become 

more tolerant and better adapted to chronic petroleum 

hydrocarbon pollution than populations of this 

species from more pristine locations. 

A second objective is to determine possible interactions between prior exposure in the Gulf killifish, and 

the blue crabs to the WSF of South Louisiana crude 

oil with simultaneous exposure to hypoxic water. 

How does the Gulf killifish and blue crab tolerance 

of the WSF of South Louisiana crude oil vary as a 

function of the level of hypoxia to which they are 

exposed? Induced cytochrome P-450 enzymes will 

require oxygen as a substrate in the metabolism of 

aromatic hydrocarbons and previous studies have 

indicated that the metabolic rate of fish exposed to 

WSF of crude oil (Thomas and Rice 1979) exhibit 

elevated metabolic rates at 30% of the 4 day LCso 

and 63% of the 21 day LC, respectively . Since 

killifish cannot tolerate depressed metabolic rates for 

long when exposed to hypoxia there should be 

competition for oxygen by the cytochrome P-450 

system enzymes and the electron transport system 

which will result in reduced tolerance of petroleum 

hydrocarbons when also exposed to hypoxic seawater. 

PROGRESS TO DATE 

Progress to date with experiments performed and 

measurements done is shown in Table 3C.2 . 

Hypoxia Exposure System and Bioassay 

Tolerance to hypoxia has been measured so far for 

the blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus and C. similis, and 

the killifish, Fundulus grandis, collected from the 

produced water site near Pass Fourchon . The hypoxia 

exposure system consisted of four sets of 12 flowthrough aquaria . Two aquaria were assigned for each 

experimental oxygen tension for each species . Each 

experimental aquarium (38 liter) consisted of an 

undergravel filter overlaid with oyster chips. Water 

was pumped from a large filtration unit into each 

aquarium by a peristaltic pump at a rate sufficient to 

provide two exchanges per day. Target oxygen 

tensions of 115, 90, 50, 25 and 0 torn (74%, 58%, 

32%, 16% and 0% of air saturation and 5 .47, 4.17, 

231, 1 .16, and 0 ppm dissolved oxygen) were 

created and maintained by mixing bottled nitrogen 

and oxygen with Matheson gas mixers (model 

7402T) along with 0.03% carbon dioxide to maintain 

the pH at approximately 7.8 . Experimental conditions 

(temperature, salinity, PO2, pH, ammonia) were 

checked daily. Ammonium concentration never 

exceeded 25~tM. LCSO values were calculated for 

each day using the Spearman-Karber technique 

(Hamilton et al. 1977). Figure 3C .6 shows the LC, 

for all three species plus the southern oyster drill 

from the produced water site . 

Concentration of DNA, RNA and RNA:DNA ratio 

was measured for each species exposed to constant 

levels of hypoxia. DNA analysis was performed 

according to the procedure developed by Munro and 
233 

Table 3C .2 . Experiments performed and measurements done. 

Experiments Performed Measurements Done 

28 days hypoxic exposure on Callinects l . Survival 

sapidus,C. similis, Stramonita haemastoma and 2. Feeding rate 

Fundulus grandis 3. Growth 

4. RNA:DNA ratio 

28 days starvation on C. sapidus, C. similis 1 . Feeding rate for 3 days after 7, 14, 21 and 

28 days of starvation 

2. Metabolic rate after starvation and subsequent feeding 

3. RNA:DNA ratio 

28 days exposure to the water soluble fraction of 1 . Survival 

South Louisiana crude oil on C.similis from Port 2 . Feeding rate 

Fourchon (polluted site) and C. sapidus from 3 . Growth 

Florida (pristine site) 4 . RNA:DNA ratio 

Fleck (1966). RNA content of the pellet was determined using the modified Schmidt-Thannhauser 

procedure recommended by Munro and Fleck (1966). 

We did not observe any significant changes in the 

concentration of DNA and RNA or in the RNA: DNA 

ratio in the muscle tissue after 28 days of exposure to 

constant hypoxia in the killifish. A slight increase in 

the RNA synthesis activity was observed in the fish 

exposed to the higher levels of hypoxic water. 

Significant increase in the RNA and DNA concentration has been noticed in the liver tissue of killifish at 

the more severe levels of hypoxia after 28 days of 

exposure (Table 3C3). 

(t985) . Water was pumped via a submersible pump 

from the appropriate dosing compartment through a 

manifold, with excess water returned to a separate 

reservoir via a return tube . Ten side ports from the 

manifold were connected to separate flow-through 

respiration chambers (250 ml .) so that a blank 

(control) chamber was placed at each end. Water was 

pumped from the reservoir into the distribution 

manifold at a low flow rate (-20m1/min). Two hours 

were allowed between loading crabs and the initiation of the respiration determinations to allow for 

crab adaptation to the chambers . Oxygen consumption in each chamber was calculated using the following equation : 

Starvation caused a higher RNA synthesis in killifish 

after 7 days, which declined to the control level after 

14 days. All the fish died after 14 days of starvation . 

Analyses of DNA and RNA concentration due to 

starvation in crabs and oyster drills are yet to be 

performed. The liver tissue of killifish showed a 

considerably higher concentration of DNA after 14 

days of starvation . The concentration of RNA did not 

change significantly after starvation . 

Measurement of Oxygen Consumption 

Oxygen consumption rates of the two species of 

crabs and the oyster drills were measured using the 

flow-through system described by Stickle et al. 

VI O2. hr' _ % oxygen used by the crab 

flow rate (l . hr-') * 1000 * oxygen content in 

water at that partial pressure . 

Oil Exposure System 

A flow-through oil extraction apparatus (developed 

by National Marine Fisheries Services, Auke Bay, 

Alaska) is being used to expose all the species to the 

water soluble fraction of South Louisiana crude oil . 

The apparatus (Figure 3C.7) consists of a oil generator made from a pvc pipe section (4" inside diameter, 

3' length) which is filled with pea gravel . The pea 

gravel was sprayed with a mixture of equal volume 

of heated South Louisiana crude oil (Eugene Island 

Block) and pentane at different proportions to gener- 
155 

O 124 

TI T 

U 

J 

93 

C 

N 

X 

O 

62 

vO 

L 

L 

31 T- W- -j7 

O 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 

Day 

c. sapidus T T T T T T T T TT T . - . -. - . -. -. - . -. - . - . 

Tjl l ll llll l ll l ll 

T 

Tj 1 

C. simil is 

\ \y 

F. grandi s 

~-~_.- " -~ "

~ ~- 

i- 

" I"~~- 

T T T -r/ 

T~ "- 

T T Tj ~ ~ 

~- "- 

~ ~- 

" 

1- S. haemastoma -- ~ "- " -"-"- " -"-" 

T T T- ~-~- 

/ 1 

N 

w 

A 

Figure 3C.6 . LC50 of Callinectes sapidus, C. similis, Fundulus grandis and Stramonita haemastoma as a function of hypoxia. 
235 

ate a series of exposure concentrations . The oil was 

heated previously at 85°C for 48h to remove the low 

molecular weight fractions. After spraying the pea 

gravel with equal volumes of oil and pentane mixture 

it was air dried for 4-5 days. A reservoir located 

above the oil generator feeds water through gravity 

via an inlet located at the bottom of the oil generator. 

The flow of water through the line can be controlled 

by a needle valve. Water percolates through the 

gravel and exits at the top through an outlet which 

supplies the water into an aquarium . 

within the first three days of the experiment at the 

four higher oil dosage . About half of the crabs died 

in the lowest oil concentration after three days . From 

this experiment we can conclude that water soluble 

fraction of oil and hypoxia in combination can be 

fatal to the above two species of crabs. We are in the 

process of planning an experiment at hypoxic exposures representing 67% and 33% of the difference 

between normoxia and the 28 day LC, for hypoxia 

at various concentrations of the water soluble fractions of South Louisiana crude oil. 

In order to determine various concentrations used to 

measure the tolerance of all three species we used 

two different oil concentrations to spray the gravel . 

Water was flowed through the four generators at two 

different flow rates for 20 days. Water samples were 

extracted with methylene chloride for water soluble 

fraction of crude oil on day 4, 10 and 20 and were 

analyzed for the aromatic fractions of hydrocarbon by 

using High Performance Liquid Chromatography . 

Individual aliphatic and aromatic components are 

being analyzed at present. We have monitored the 

tolerance of two species of crabs from Port Fourchon, 

Louisiana (polluted site) and Turkey Point, Florida 

(pristine site) to the water soluble fraction of oil . In 

another experiment two species of crabs (Callinectes 

sapidus and C. similis) were exposed to five different 

concentrations of oil at a constant hypoxia (115 torn 

oxygen or 74% oxygen saturation). All the crabs died 

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED 

At the beginning of June there was an occurrence of 

asbestos release in the basement of the Life Sciences 

Building, at LSU, where all of our hypoxic and oil 

exposure facilities are located. Since then the basement was sealed off for almost three and a half 

months for asbestos cleanup and subsequent renovation of the air handling system. Therefore, we could 

not perform any of the experiments planned for those 

three and a half months. 

REFERENCES 

Hamilton, M.A., R.C . Russo, and R.V. Thurston. 

1977. Trimmed Spearman-Karber method for estimating median lethal concentrations in toxicity 

bioassay . Environ . Sci. Technol. 11 : 714-719. 

Table 3C3. Fundulus grandis. Changes in the RNA and DNA concentration and RNA:DNA ration in 

the gulf killifish after 28 days of hypoxic exposure as compared to the control killifish from 

day 0 . Nucleic acid concentration is given in pg/mg dry body wt. 

Treatment Day RNA % of day DNA % of RNA:DNA % of 

0 day 0 Ratio day 0 

155 Torr 0 64.77 100 22.89 100 2 .88 100 

28 50.91 79 13 .17 56 3 .98 138 

115 Ton 28 57.0 88 11 .18 48 5 .06 176 

90 Torr 28 48.94 76 15 .49 68 3 .15 109 

50 Torr 28 56.56 87 13 .56 59 4.07 141 

25 Ton 28 57.12 88 13 .10 57 4.53 157 
Water Soluble Fraction of Crude Oil 

Generator 

II 

_WATER 

Incoming 

Water Overflow 

-WATER - -

Experimental 

Tank 

N 

w 

Figure 3C.7 . Water Soluble fraction of the crude oil generator used to expose different species to oiled water for 28 days. 
237 

Munro, H.N. and A. Fleck. 1966. Recent 

developments in the measure of nucleic acids in 

biological materials. Analyst. 91 : 78-88. 

Stickle, W.B ., M.A. Kapper, T.C . Shirley, M.G . Carls 

and S.D. Rice . 1987. Bioenergetics and tolerance of 

the pink shrimp (Pandalus borealis) during long 

term exposure to the water soluble fraction and 

oiled sediment from cook inlet crude oil. pp.87-

106. In Vernberg, W.B ., A. Calabrese, F.P . 

Thurberg and F.J . Vernberg, (eds .) . Pollution 

Physiology of Estuarine Organisms, Columbia, 

S.C . : Univ. South Carolina Press. 

Stickle, W.B ., S .D . Rice and A. Moles. 1984. Bioenergetics and survival of marine snail, Thais lima, 

during long-term oil exposure. Marine Biology. 80: 

281-289. 

Stickle, W.B ., S.D . Rice, C. Villars, and W. Metcalf. 

1985 . Bioenergetics and survival of the marine 

mussel, Mytilus edulis L., during long-term 

exposure to the water-soluble fraction of Cook Inlet 

crude oil . pp. 427-446. In Vernberg, F.J., F.P 

Thurberg, A. Calabrese, and W.B . Vernberg, (eds .) . 

Marine Pollution and Physiology : Recent 

Advances, Columbia, S.C . : Univ. South Carolina 

Press. 

Thomas, R.E . and D.D . Rice. 1979. The effect of 

exposure temperatures on oxygen consumption and 

opercular breathing rates of pink salmon fry 

exposed to toluene, naphthalene, and water-soluble 

fractions of Cook Inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil. 

pp. 39-52 . In Vernberg, W.B ., F .P Thurberg, A. 

Calabrese, and F.J . Vernberg, (eds .) . New York: 

Academic Press . 

Wang, S.Y. and W.B . Stickle. 1987. Bioenergetics, 

growth and molting of Caliinectes sapidus exposed 

to the water soluble fraction of south Louisiana 

crude oil. pp. 107-126 In Vernberg, W.B ., A. 

Calabrese, F.P. Thurberg, and F.J . Vernberg, (eds .) . 

Pollution Physiology of Estuarine Organisms, 

Columbia, S.C . : Univ. South Carolina Press. 

Wang, S.Y. and W.B . Stickle. 1988 . Biochemical 

composition of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, 

exposed to the water-soluble fraction of crude oil. 

Mar. Biol . 98 :23-30 . 

Widdows, J., T. Bakke, B.L . Bayne, P. Donkin, D.R . 

Livingstone, D.M. Lowe, M.N . Moore, S.V . Evans, 

and S.L . Moore. 1982. Responses of Mytilus edulis 

on exposure to the water-accommodated fraction of 

North Sea oil. Mar. Biol . 67 : 15-31 . 

Dr. William B. Stickle is a professor in the Department of Zoology and Physiology, Louisiana State 

University . His areas of interest involve environmental physiology and toxicology of marine animal, 

population genetics and zoogeography of marine 

invertebrates. He received hi Ph.D. from the University of Saskatchewan, Regina, Canada, in 1970. 

Dr. Tapash Das is working as a postdoctoral associate with Professor W. B. Stickle on an MMS funded 

project. He received his Ph.D. from Louisiana State 

University in 1993 . His areas of interest involve 

environmental physiology and toxicology of marine 

invertebrates. 

SEASONAL AND SPATIAL 

VARIATION IN DENSITY AND SIZE 

DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES 

ASSOCIATED WITH A PETROLEUM 

PLATFORM IN THE NORTHERN 

GULF OF MEXICO 

Dr. David R. Stanley 

Dr. Charles A. Wilson 

Coastal Fisheries Institute 

Center for Coastal, Energy and Environmental Resources 

Louisiana State University 

INTRODUCTION 

The large number and extensive nature of offshore 

structures in the northern Gulf of Mexico has undoubtedly influenced the marine environment and its 

inhabitants. Past research has emphasized environmental impacts of petroleum production, focusing on 

the effects of discharges such as produced waters, 

drilling fluids, and spills (Boesch and Rabalais 1987). 

The ecological significance of habitat modification 
238 

provided by the petroleum platforms is, however, 

unknown, and much is left to speculation. 

The placement of these structures has significantly 

increased the available hard substrate within the area 

(Reggio and Kasprzak 1991). Researchers have 

estimated that natural reefs constitute only 1 .6% or 

2,571 km2 (737 to 6,385 km2, 95% CL) of the total 

substrate, which is dominated by clay, silt and sand, 

from Pensacola, Florida, to Pass Cavallo, Texas 

(Parker et al . 1983). Hard substrate provided by 

petroleum structures is estimated to be 5,000 km2, 

increasing available reef habitat by 78% to 195% in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico (Gallaway et al. 1981). 

Fish populations are thought to be limited by recruitment, competition, available energy and habitat, and 

predation (Menge and Sutherland 1987, Doherty and 

Williams 1988, Bohnsak 1989, Bohnsak et al. 1991). 

The additional habitat provided by petroleum platforms can potentially influence all of these processes. 

Information on population dynamics acquired from 

the measurement of fish assemblages associated with 

offshore structures may help to determine whether 

these structures aggregate prey or predators, or 

provide critical habitat for reproduction and/or 

survival of fragile life history stages . 

Petroleum platforms are an important component of 

recreational and commercial fisheries along the Gulf 

Coast and have long been recognized as defacto 

artificial reefs by fishermen. Petroleum platforms are 

the destination of over 70% of all recreational fishing 

trips in the Exclusive Economic Zone off coastal 

Louisiana (Reggio 1987), and it is estimated that 

30% of the recreational fish caught off Louisiana and 

Texas coasts, approximately 15 million fish, are 

caught near petroleum platforms each year (Avanti 

1991). Although these resources are important to 

fishermen, there is little information upon which 

fisheries scientists can base management decisions. 

This paucity of available information is primarily due 

to the difficulty of sampling these habitats with 

traditional fisheries sampling methods. 

METHODS 

Between 1990 and 1992 we conducted research in 

cooperation with Mobil USA Inc. to demonstrate the 

utility of the relatively new fisheries sampling technique, dual-beam hydroacoustics, in conjunction 

with standard visual reef fish assessment techniques. 

The purpose of this research was to document the 

abundance, size distribution, and species composition 

of fishes associated with a petroleum platform in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. Monthly dual-beam hydroacoustic and visual surveys were conducted from 

September 1990 to June 1992 at petroleum platform 

West Cameron 352 (WC 352), located approximately 

80 km south of Cameron, Louisiana in a water depth 

of 22 m (Stanley 1994). 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

The coupling of two fisheries independent techniques, dual-beam hydroacoustics and visual point 

count surveys, provided the best description of the 

fish population associated with a petroleum platform 

to date . Fish size ranged from 2 .5 cm to 1 .1 m in 

length and did not change significantly (P>0.01) with 

depth or time of day, however, significant differences 

were detected (P<0.01) between platform sides and 

months (Figure 3C.8). Detected fish were smaller 

during spring and summer, increased in size through 

late summer and fall, and reached a maximum in the 

winter. This pattern suggests recruitment of smaller 

fish to the platform in the spring and summer, and 

either growth of fishes remaining around the platform 

or immigration of larger fish to the platform through 

the fall and winter . Fish were consistently larger on 

the south side of the platform and smallest on the 

north and east sides. 

Fish density around the platform was highly variable 

with space and time. Fish density varied significantly 

(P<0.01) with side of the platform as highest densities were found on the north and east sides. Fish 

density also varied with depth; fish densities were 

significantly higher (P<0.01) from 2 to 12 m than 

from 16 to 20 m (Figure 3C.9). Perhaps the most 

interesting results were the large and significant 

changes (P<0.01) in fish density from month to 

month . Monthly densities varied by up to a factor of 

5 and did not appear to follow any pattern (Figure 

3C .10) . No change in fish density was detected over 

24 hour periods . Fish density decreased significantly 

(P<0 .01) with distance from the platform . We calculated that the near-field effect of WC 352 on fishes 

was 16 m from the platform . Fish densities were 

greater from 2 to 16 m than from 16 to 72 m away 

from the platform (Figure 3C.11) . 
239 

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G7 

v 

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C6 -40 - _ . . . .~. 16 

04 

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a 

F -45 . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . 9 Rl 

S -50 

Jan Mgr Apr May 7nlr As$ 8ept Oct Nor Die Lm FA Mgr Ayr 6(q 

1991 1992 

Figure 3C.8 Mean target strengths (dB) and 95% CL and estimated length (cm) of fishes associated with 

petroleum platform WC 352 by month for the study period of January 1991 to May 1992. 

I 

Figure 3C.9 . Estimated fish density (number / m') and 95% CL by depth at WC 352 from January 1991 to May 

1992, based on dual-beam hydroacoustics . 
240 

0.6 

,n 0.5 

w 0.4 

0.7 

a 

01 

0.1 

0 

_ . . ._ . .f . . . .. .x, . .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. 

s y 

.__ ._ . ._ .i

.____

.._ . . . . _ . . . . " . 

. 

. . r T

f r .. . .. .. . . . i 

1 . . . _ . . . ~ .. . . 

_ _f 

. . .. . . . 

i F 

_ . .. . ". 

1' 

.. . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . 

. i 

tan Mar Apt May July Au` Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mgr Apt May 

1991 1992 

Figure 3C.10. Mean density of fish (number / m') and 95% CL around WC 352 from January 1991 to May 

1992 based on dual-beam hydroacoustics . 

0.35 

^ North -West 

03 - -South -East 

0.25 

v 0.2 . . . .. . .. .. . . . . .. .. . . . .. . 

"~ 0.15 

q 

0.1 

;y 0.03 

w 

0 

0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 

Distance from Platform (m) 

Figure 3C.11 . Mean fish density (number / m') with distance from the WC 352 platform over the study period 

of January 1991 to May 1992 for each side of the platform . 
241 

The total abundance of fish at WC 352 was estimated 

based on the volume occupied by platform, the 

near-field area of influence of the platform, and 

densities of the associated fishes . Total abundance 

estimates followed the pattern of density estimates 

with high variation from month to month. Total 

abundance estimates varied from 1988 ± 413 (± 95% 

CL) for January 1991 to a high of 28138 ± 5532 in 

February of 1992. The average number of fish around 

WC 352 by month was approximately 12470 ± 3251 . 

Canyon lease area (water depth 225 m). This research 

effort is being sponsored by the Coastal Marine 

Institute with MMS funding and Mobil USA Inc. Our 

objectives over the next several years are to : 

1 . measure the abundance, size distribution and 

species composition of fishes at these sites; 

2. determine the effect of temporal, physical and 

environmental variables on abundance and size 

distribution of fishes at the platforms; 

A total of 19 species were observed during visual 

point count surveys with SCUBA divers or the ROV; 

of these, seven species made up 97% of the fish 

observed. The seven most common species were 

Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), blue 

runner (Caranx crysos), bluefish (Pomatomus 

saltatrix), gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus), 

greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili), red snapper 

(Lutjanus campechanus), and sheepshead 

(Archosargus probatocephalus). The abundance of 

individual species changed with time, as some 

species (e.g . red snapper and blue fish) were most 

abundant in the fall and winter while others (e.g . blue 

runner) were more abundant during warmer months. 

Economically important species such as red snapper, 

greater amberjack and gray triggerfish constituted an 

average of 21 .2%, 2.4% and 0 .2% of the fishes 

around the platform . Averaged numerically there 

were 2,644 ± 689 red snapper, 299 ± 78 greater 

amberjack, and 25 ± 7 gray triggerfish around WC 

352 at any one time. 

Based on this first study, we concluded that fishes 

associated with the petroleum platform were highly 

transient. While the fish may be dependent on the 

structure for habitat, they exhibit migration to other 

areas. The higher abundance of fishes detected at WC 

352 than described during other studies was probably 

due to our usage of dual-beam hydroacoustics that 

did not influence fish behavior, was not limited by 

visibility, and measured the entire area of influence 

of the reef. 

The obvious next step in determining the effect of 

platforms on fish populations was to expand our 

research efforts to gain insight into the fish communities around other platforms. We are using the 

technology developed at WC 352 to study the fish 

population around a platform in the Grand Isle lease 

area (water depth 65 m) and a platform in the Green 

3. define the near-field area of influence of each 

platform . 

Research began in July 1994, and preliminary results 

will be available during 1995 . Results from this and 

future research will enable researchers and managers 

better to understand how artificial reefs function in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico and evaluate their 

effectiveness as potential management tools. Since 

the fisheries resources associated with petroleum 

platforms are not currently included in management 

plans, and given the current emphasis on reef fish 

management, information collected from this work 

may provide estimates of abundance and species 

composition of fishes near petroleum platforms and 

ultimately improve management of the resource . 

REFERENCES 

Avanti Inc. 1991 . Environmental assessment for the 

regulatory impact analysis of the offshore oil and 

gas extraction industry proposed effluent guidelines. Volume 1 - Modeled impacts. EPA Contract No. 68-C8-0015 . 

Boesch, D.F . and N.W. Rabalais . 1987. Long-term 

environmental effects of offshore petroleum 

development. New York: Elsevier Applied 

Science. 

Bohnsak, J.A. 1989. Are high densities of fishes at 

artificial reefs the result of habitat limitation or 

behavioral preference? Bulletin of Marine 

Science 44:631-645 . 

Bohnsak, J.A ., D.L . Johnson and R.F . Ambrose. 

1991 . Ecology of artificial reef habitats, pp. 

61-108. In W. Seaman Jr . and L.M. Sprague, 
242 

(eds .) . Artificial habitats for marine and freshwater fisheries. New York: Academic Press. 

Doherty, P.J . and D. McB. Williams. 1988. The 

replenishment of coral reef fish populations. 

Oceanography and Marine Biology 26:487-551 . 

Gallaway, B.J ., L.R. Martin, R.L . Howard, G.S . 

Boland, and G.D . Dennis. 1981 . Effects on 

artificial reef and demersal fish and macrocrustacean communities, pp. 237-299 . In B.S . 

Middleditch, (ed.) . Environmental effects of 

offshore oil production : The Buccaneer gas and 

oil field study. Marine Science Volume 14 . New 

York: Plenum Press. 

Menge, B.A . and J.P . Sutherland . 1987. Community 

regulation : Variation in disturbance competition 

and predation in relation to environmental stress 

and recruitment. American Naturalist 

130:730-757 . 

Parker, Jr., R.O, D.R . Colby and T.P . Willis . 1983. 

Estimated amount of reef habitat on a portion of 

the U.S . South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 

continental shelf. Bulletin of Marine Science 

33:935-940 . 

Reggio, V.C ., Jr . 1987. Rigs-to-reefs : The use of 

obsolete petroleum structures as artificial reefs. 

OCS Report/MMS87-0015. New Orleans. U.S . 

Department of the Interior . Minerals Mgmt. 

Service. Gulf of Mexico OCS Region . 

Reggio, Jr ., V.C . and R. Kasprzak . 1991 . Rigs to 

reefs: fuel for fisheries enhancement through 

cooperation. American Fisheries Society Symposium 11 : 9-17 . 

Stanley, DR. 1994. Seasonal and spatial abundance 

and size distribution of fishes associated with a 

petroleum platform in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. Ph.D. Dissertation . Louisiana State 

University and Agricultural and Mechanical 

College. 123 pp. 

Dr. David Stanley is a senior research associate in the 

Coastal Fisheries Institute of Louisiana State University . Dr. Stanley has investigated the dynamics of 

petroleum platforms as artificial reefs and has 

adapted acoustics to assess the fisheries resources 

associated with these structures. 

Dr. Charles Wilson is a professor in the Coastal 

Fisheries Institute at Louisiana State University . He 

was a co-author of the Louisiana "Rigs to Reefs" 

Program. His research interests include the use of 

artificial reefs by fishes, age and growth techniques 

for fishes and the reproductive biology of fishes . 

CHARACTERIZATION OF SEA 

ANEMONES AS BIOINDICATORS OF 

OFFSHORE RESOURCE 

EXPLOITATION 

Dr. Gary W. Winston 

Ms. Linda Heffernan 

Mr. Robin Ertl 

Department of Biochemistry 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. William B. Stickle, Jr . 

Department of Zoology and Physiology 

Louisiana State University 

The overall objective of this work is to characterize 

the biochemical reponsiveness of sea anemones for 

use in environmental monitoring programs . To this 

end we have examined specific known stress-related 

parameters that can provide environmental managers, 

researchers and regulatory agencies with : (1) sublethal, early warning detection signals of environmental stress ; (2) a means of demonstrating, assigning and delineating zones of ecological impact from 

point- and nonpoint-source pollution ; and (3) quantifiable biomarkers of integrative stress load and 

ecological health through characterization of biochemical responses with high potential for assessing 

the limits of natural and inadvertant stress . 

A biomarker is a change in a biological response that 

can be related to an exposure to, or toxic effect of, an 

environmental chemical or chemicals (McCarthy and 

Shugart 1990). Detection and evaluation of biological 

changes caused by exposures to various chemicals 

are of the utmost importance with respect to the 

significance of contaminant exposure. In this regard, 

certain biological changes can indicate exposure to 
243 

specific chemicals or adverse effects of exposures. A 

biological response can range from molecular (biochemical) reponses, through behavioral responses, to 

changes in species composition affecting populations 

and ecosystems (Table 3C .4). 

Thus biomarker research at the biochemical, organism, population or communitiy levels is equally 

valid. The use of biomarkers to assess the impact of 

contaminants or natural perturbations, e.g . anoxia 

associated with an increase in chemical or biological 

oxygen demand, that are potentially hazardous to 

biological organisms is under intensive investigation 

throughout the world. 

Biomarkers have potential for a number of applications that could benefit regulatory agencies. The use 

of biomarkers might be envisaged on several levels : 

(1) establishing cause associated with an observed 

malady in organisms, populations or communities; 

(2) documenting exposure to organisms including the 

range and zones of delineation of that exposure; (3) 

documenting the effects (reversible or irreversible) 

caused by contamination to organisms, populations or 

communities. 

The basis of biomarker research may have its roots in 

the biochemistry, physiology, behavior, systematics 

and population dynamics of organisms. These integrated relationships are illustrated in Table 3C.4 in 

the context of the limits of understanding that biomarker research can provide. Thus, for any given set 

of response parameters under any level of organization (biochemical, organismic, population or community), there is an inverse heirarchy of the sensitivity of the response and the ecological relevance of 

the response. Thus, information on the ecological 

relevance of a response may be at the sacrifice of 

sensitivity and vise versa. 

There are two major advantages of using biochemical 

level changes as biomarkers of environmental contamination 1) they are generally the first responses to 

contamination that can be detected and quantified, 

and 2) biochemical changes can reflect both exposure 

and effect, i .e. a change in the biochemistry of an 

organism upon exposure to a chemical is an effect. In 

this presentation we examine the responsiveness of 

two classes of proteins to organic and metal exposures. The first class of proteins are those of the 

cytochrome P450-dependent microsoma! monooxygenases, a complex membrane-associated, multienzyme family that is of critical importance in both 

the detoxification and activation of xenobiotic chemicals. A classical feature of cytochromes P450 in 

many organisms is their induction by xenobiotic 

chemicals. Induction of P450 by chemicals involves 

de novo synthesis of mRNA and its translation to 

P450 protein. This ability to be induced by chemicals 

has prompted great interest in the characterization of 

cytochromes P450 as potential biomarkers for environmental pollutants (Stegeman et al. 1992). The 

other class is the stress proteins or heat shock proteins, which are also induced by various chemical 

agents and as well by other stress factors such as heat 

or oxidative stress . There is growing evidence that 

these proteins protect other proteins and nucleic acids 

from environmental damage. Their usefulness as 

biomarkers, therefore, are as determinants of the 

degree to which the organism is trying to protetct 

itself from environmental stress (Sanders 1990). 

The present summary is of preliminary studies of the 

cytochrome P450 and heat shock protein response in 

certain species of sea anemones to the model polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, 3-methylcholanthrene 

and to Cd. All biomarkers of exposure and effect 

ultimately have to meet two important criteria . First, 

the response must be of sufficient sensitivity to be 

detectable and quantifiable at environmentally 

relevant exposure levels . Second, the biomarker 

response must be sustained over time. Before such 

criteria are met in field studies it is necessary first to 

identify whether certain chemicals can indeed elicit 

a biochemical response. To that end, initial studies 

used acute exposures to concentrations of toxicant 

that may be higher than in specific environmental 

situations but are well below that which causes 

noticeable stress at the organismic level. 

Sea anenomes have several advantages as sentinels 

for pollution exposure; they actually inhabit oil 

platforms, are stationary (sessile), are ubiquitous and 

perhaps most importantly, can be easily cloned in the 

laboratory to generate genetically homogeneous 

populations thus, eliminating genetic variability in 

biomonitoring responses. Furthermore, because 

anenomes have evolved to only the tissue level of 

development, biochemical responses in this organism 

reflect that of only a few cell types. By analogy, the 

response would be similar to an organism with one 

basic organ type . Thus, the whole organism is used 
244 

Table 3C.4 . Integrated relationships of biomarkers and levels of biological organization . 

Biochemical Organismic Population Community 

MFO behavior energy flow abundance 

Response hsp growth interspecific diversity 

Parameter interactions 

SOD reproduction abundance 

DNA survivorship 

Response 

Time hrs hrs/days weeks/mos/yrs mos/yrs 

for biochemical assays rather than having to dissect 

specific organs and characterize each within several 

species. Sea anenomes in particular, through their 

action of pumping water throughout their bodies, are 

continually replenishing the body burdon and thus, 

continually bioaccumulating pollutants . 

Western blot (immunochemical) analysis of microsomal fractions on Aiptasia pallida, Anthapleura 

elegantissima and Bunodosoma cavernata has been 

studied to characterize the presence of specific 

antigenic proteins in microsomes of these anemone 

species. Anti-trout P450 LMC2 (CYP 2K1), a P450 

isozyme involved in steroid and fatty acid metabolism, recognizes a very intense band in sea anemone 

microsomes (10 Ag per well), at approximately 39 

KDa in two of the species, i .e . Anthapleura elegantissima and Bunodusoma cavernata. Aiptasia palluda 

contains a protein that is strongly recognized by 

anti-LMC2 at about 67 KDa with a fainter band also 

seen at about 50 KDa. Further, an antibody to another trout P450 involved in sex steroid metabolism, 

LMCS, does NOT recognize a 39 nor a 67 KDa 

protein in these anemones. However, a 31 KDa band 

is recognized by anti-LMCS, although it is much 

fainter, even with a load of 33 Ag per well, then we 

see with 10 /ig per well with anti-LMC2. Anti-LMC2 

also recognized a doublet in rat liver microsomes in 

the 50 KDa range, i .e . the expected range for cytochrome P450. These data suggest very unique proteins in sea anemones with epitope regions similar to 

those of higher vertebrates, e.g ., fish and mammals. 

Future studies will focus on the responsiveness of 

these proteins to xenobiotic challenge. 

Analyses of cytosolic fractions were conducted to 

assess the presence of possible stress or heat shock 

proteins in these organisms. Results of these studies 

will help to focus on target proteins as potential 

biomarkers of environmental contamination. Exposure of anemones to the model polynuclear aromatic 

hydrocarbon, 3-methycholanthrene (3MC) and 

cadmium caused an increase in a protein band of 

approximately 70KDa which was recognized in 

anemone cytosolic fractions by a monoclonal 

anti-Heat Shock Protein 70 IgG (Figure 3C .12) . 

As far as we know, this is the first demonstration of 

induction by a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and 

cadmium in the sea anemone. A protein of about 

90KDa that cross-reacted with a monoclonal antiheat shock protein 90 IgM was also present in 

anemone cytosol (data not shown), although this protein did not appear to be induced by exposure to 

either 3MC or cadmium. A striking result was the induction of an immunoreactive protein band of about 

90 KDa by exposure to 25 and 250 pg/liter of CdCIZ 

that was recognized by a monoclonal antibody raised 

against scup CYP l Al . Cadmium also induced aprotein of about 96 KDa that was recognized by a trout 

polyclonal antibody to CYP 3A1 . This isoform is 

steroid-inducible in mammals. Further studies will 

explore effects of metal exposure on these proteins . 
245 

Figure 3C .12. Western blot of A. elegantissima cytosol probed with anti-HSP-70 IgG: Induction by 3MC. 

Finally, we have measured and characterized the 

presence of a ferricytochrome c reductase activity in 

the microsomal fraction of the sea anemone Anthapleurazanthogramica (Figure 3C.13) . This protein is 

a rate-limiting component of the microsomal mixed 

function oxygenase system and to date the only MFO 

component shown to be induced by environmental 

organic pollutants in marine invertebrates 

(Livingstone 1988). 

In conclusion, sea anemone species show significant 

potential as sentinel organisms with respect to 

biological endpoints. Although biochemical 

responses are the most rapid to obtain and the most 

Figure 3C.13 NAD(P)H-cytochrome c reductase activity of A. xanthogramica microsomes . 
246 

sensitive, it is recognized that they are of limited 

ecological relevance. Thus, a suite of biomarkers 

would promote the most comprehensive evaluation of 

the impact of environmental upsets, whether natural 

or inadvertant. This is important if regulatory 

agencies are to be able to assess the impact of 

ecological perturbations on the higher levels of 

ecosystem development such as the population or 

community level. Conversely, ecosystem diversity 

has highly ecological relevance but suffers 

disadvantages in the time-frame to collect 

information and in the sensitivity of the response. 

REFERENCES 

Livingstone, D.R. 1988. Responses of microsomal 

NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity and 

cytochrome P-450 in digestive glands of Mytilus 

edulis and Littorina littorea to environmental and 

experimental exposure to pollutants : 46: 37-43. 

Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 

McCarthy, J., and L. Shugart. 1990. Environmental 

Biomarkers. Chelsea, MI. : Lewis Publishers 

Sanders, B.M. 1990. Stress proteins : Potential as 

multitiered biomarkers. pp. 165-191 . In Shugart, 

L., McCarthy, J., (eds .), Chelsea, MI. : Lewis 

Publishers 

Stegeman, J.J ., M. Brouwer, R.T . Di Giulio, L. 

Forlin, B.A. Fowler, B.M. Sanders, and P.A. 

Van Veld. 1992. Molecular responses to environmental contamination: Enzyme and protein 

systems as indicators of chemical exposure and 

effect . pp. 235-335 . In Hugget, R.J., Kimerle, 

R.A ., Mehrle, P.M ., Jr., Bergman, H.L . (eds .) . 

Chelsea, MI. : Lewis Publishers 

Dr. Gary Winston has worked for Louisiana State 

University for the past ten years and serves as Chairman of the Department of biochemistry . His research 

areas include xenobiotic metabolism, chemical 

carcinogenesis and biomarkers of environmental 

contamination. He was an invited participant and 

facilitator to the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Biological Markers, Netherlands Institute for 

Sea Research, Texel, the Netherlands, May, 1991 . Dr. 

Winston received his B.S . in biology and chemistry 

from the University of Florida, his M.S . in human 

behavior from Florida Atlantic University, and his 

Ph.D. in Biochemistry at the University of Nevada. 

Ms. Linda Heffernan is a graduate student in the 

Department of biochemistry Ph.D. program at Louisiana state University . She received her B.S . in biology 

and biochemistry from the University of Maine. 

Mr. Robin Ertl is a Ph .D . candidate in the Department of Biochemistry at Louisiana State University. 

He is presently working on the metabolism of xenobiotics in estaurine organisms. Mr. Ertl received his 

B.S . in chemistry from Rochester Institute of Technology. 

Dr. William B. Stickle, Jr ., has been a member of the 

faculty of the Department of Zoology and Physiology 

at Louisiana State University since 1972 . His research interests include the effects of anoxia and 

hypoxia on bioenergetic processes in marine and 

estuarine organisms. He received his B.S . in biology 

at Slippery Rock State College, his M.S . in zoology 

from the University of South Dakota and Ph.D . in 

Biology and Physiology from the University of 

Saskatchewan . 
SESSION 3D 

AGING INFRASTRUCTURE : PIPELINES AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES 
249 

Session: 

Co-Chairs 

Date: 

31) - Aging Infrastructure : Pipelines and Offshore Structures 

Mr. Gary Rutherford, Mr. Alex Alvarado, and Mr. Felix Dyhrkopp 

November 16, 1994 

Presentation 

No manuscript submitted 

No manuscript submitted 

No manuscript submitted 

Is Age a Major Factor in Pipeline Failures? 

No manuscript submitted 

Author/Affiliation 

Mr. Felix Dyhrkopp 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Charles Smith 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Mr. Paul Versowsky 

Chrevron U.S .A., Inc. 

Mr. Jay Mandke 

Southwest Research Institute 

Mr. Larry Broussard 

Tenneco Gas 
251 

IS AGE A MAJOR FACTOR IN 

PIPELINE FAILURES? 

design life becomes uneconomical, and the pipeline 

operators eventually abandon these old lines. 

J. S. Mandke 

Consultant 

San Antonio, Texas 

INTRODUCTION 

The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) includes close to twenty 

thousand miles of submarine pipelines. Many of 

these pipelines are old and are approaching towars 

the end of their design lives. As a pipeline becomes 

older, it will be more susceptible to failure. Our 

experience with onshore steel structures supports 

such a statement. Hence, it is natural to expect that 

age may have a significant influence on the pipeline 

failures . This implies that a large portion of the total 

number of pipeline failures may be attributed to 

increase in the age of the associated pipelines. To 

verify this hypothesis, it is necessary to examine the 

historical data on pipeline failures . Minerals 

Management Service (MMS) maintains the most 

comprehensive data base on pipeline failures in the 

Gulf of Mexico available in the public domain 

(Minerals Management Service. "Pipeline Leaks and 

Breaks." New Orleans, Louisiana) . This database 

contains information on pipeline failures in the GOM 

since 1967. An examination of a limited subset of 

this data was performed in order to investigate the 

correlation between the pipeline age and the number 

of failures . This paper presents these results. 

Typical offshore pipeline is designed for a service 

life of about 30 to 35 years. It is worth noting that 

the only explicit calculations relating to design life 

that enter the design procedure are those relevant to 

corrosion protection of the line . In most cases this 

includes sizing of the cathodic protection system or 

anodes and determines the wall thickness allowance 

to accommodate loss from internal corrosion/erosion. 

These design measures protect the pipeline in a less 

than perfect manner, and with aging the pipelines do 

deteriorate and show signs of external or internal 

corrosion, erosion, pitting, and material strength 

degradation due to fatigue and in service conditions . 

Also, with the increasing age, the pipeline has an 

increased exposure to the factors that influence the 

risk of failure. Repairing a line that is at or beyond its 

To understand the influence of age on the potential 

for pipeline failure during their useful service lives, 

it is necessary to recognize the different causes of the 

pipeline failures and the factors that contribute 

towards such failures . 

FAILURE CAUSES 

The MMS database includes information on all 

recorded pipeline failures along with the causes for 

these failures . These causes can be grouped in to the 

following principal categories : 

- Corrosion, Erosion 

- Natural Hazards: Storms, Mud slides 

- Third Party Damage: Trawling, Anchors, 

Construction, Supply Boats 

- Material : Weld Failure, Fatigue, Fabrication 

Defects 

- Structural : Valves, Gaskets, Clamps, 

Connectors, Flanges 

- Operational: Pigging, Pressure Surge, 

Fire/Explosion 

Previous work by Mandke on the analysis of failure 

data for the GOM has shown that corrosion is the 

greatest source of pipeline failures (J .S . Mandke, 

"Corrosion Causes Most Pipeline Failures in the Gulf 

of Mexico," Oil & Gas Journal, October 29, 1990.) 

Other leading sources of failures include storms/mud 

slides and third party damage. 

FACTORS INFLUENCING FAILURES 

The key factors that influence the failures among the 

submarine pipelines are as follows : 

- Pipeline Age 

- Pipe Size 

- Location (Risers, Proximity to Platform, 

Shore etc.) 

- Product (Gas, Oil, Multiphase etc.) 

- Design and Construction Procedures 

- Operation, Inspection and Maintenance 

Procedures 

- Water Depth 

Not all of these factors could be evaluated in this 

study. Only the influences of pipe age and pipe size 

have been evaluated and reported . 
252 

FAILURE DATA & ANALYSIS 

The MMS data for the years 1988 to 1994 have been 

evaluated. The database is being continuously 

updated and did not include all failures that occurred 

from 1988 and 1994. The subset considered here 

includes 1,143 reported pipeline failures . Those lines 

whose age could not be determined were deleted 

from the sample . This left 1,007 cases of failures 

analyzed. Figure 3D.1 shows the number of failures 

reported and analyzed for the years during the period 

1988 to 1994 . The high number of failures during 

1992 are attributed to Hurricane Andrew. Figure 

3D.2 shows the effect of grouping these failures into 

main cause categories . As reported earlier, corrosion 

is the major source of pipeline failures . The pipeline 

failures due to Hurricane Andrew are currently being 

studied under a separate project sponsored by MMS. 

The failure database includes pipes in sizes ranging 

from 2 inches to 36 inches . For the sake of 

discussion, it is convenient to divide pipelines in to 

three groups based on the nominal pipe outside 

diameter (OD). These are: small (2"-6" OD), medium 

(8"-16" OD) and large (18"-36" OD). The total 

lengths of the lines installed in the GOM are 

respectively, 8,167 miles, 8,332 miles, and 3,776 

miles for the small, medium and large size pipe 

groups. About 2,166 miles of these lines have been 

abandoned or put out of service. Thus, by grouping 

failure data according to pipe sizes and the failure 

cause, it is possible to ascertain the influence of the 

pipe age on the different sources of failures . These 

results are described next . 

Corrosion 

About 370 failures from 1,007 were attributed to 

corrosion. They include 37 in large pipe size, 134 in 

medium pipe size, and 199 in small pipe size . The 

average age of the pipeline at failure has been around 

19 years. Figure 313.3 shows the percentage 

distribution of failure data for each pipe size group 

according to age which is again grouped in to four 

categories : 0-10, 11-20, 21-30 and 31-40 years. This 

figure shows that for the large size pipes, the largest 

percentage of failures occurred during 21-30 years 

age of the lines, and the failure percentage increases 

with the age group. The medium size lines show a 

similar pattern except for a small percentage of lines 

that failed in the 31-40 years of age. Hence, for both 

groups, the pipe age seems to have a significant 

influence on corrosion failures . For small size pipes, 

the largest percentage of failures occurred during 

11-20 years of age and a significant number failed 

during 0-10 years of age. For this group, pipeline age 

does not appear to have a significant influence on 

corrosion failures . If corrosion failures for all sizes 

are combined and grouped as per the age group of 

failed lines, the result is as shown in Figure 3D.4 . 

This figure shows that for all pipe sizes, a majority of 

corrosion failures have occurred in the first 20 years 

of service life. "There is no proportional correlation 

between the pipe age and the percentage of corrosion 

failures . 

Third Party Damage 

Sixty-six failures occurred from third party damage 

to pipelines. They include 7 among large size 

(average age 17 years), 18 among medium size 

(average age 12 years) and 41 among small size 

(average age 8 years) lines. Figure 313.5 shows the 

failure data distribution for different size lines 

according to age group. This shows that for small and 

medium size lines, the largest number of failures 

have occurred within 10 years of age. The same trend 

exists when data for all pipe sizes is combined and 

grouped as per age (Figure 3D.6). 

Storm/Mud Slides 

The data included 418 failures due to storm and mud 

slides . Most of the damage has been among small 

size lines (352 cases) . The large and the medium size 

lines had 16 and 53 failures, respectively . The 

average age of the failed lines was 16 years for large 

size, 15 years for medium size and 10 years for small 

size lines. Figure 3D.7 shows that for the small size 

lines, the majority of failures occurred within 10 

years of age. For the large and the medium size lines, 

most of the failures occurred in the age group 11-20 

years. Figure 3D.8 shows that the overall storm 

failures for all pipe sizes decrease with the increasing 

age group. 

Structural Failures 

Out of 59 structural failures in the analyzed sample, 

33 were among medium size lines and 18 among 

small size lines. The majority failures (59%) occurred 

in the pipeline age group 11-20 years, 20% among 

the 0-10 years age group and the remaining 13% 

among the 21-30 years age group. 
253 

PIPELINE FAILURES 

soo - -- 

N 

0 

O 

f 400--- " Listed 

Analyzed 

a 

i 

I 200--

u 

r 

s 

0~ 

1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 

Year 

Figure 3D.1 . Pipeline failures . 

Figure 313.2 . Failures per cause category . 
254 

CORROSION FAILURES BY AGE GROUP 

so - 

F 50 

a M Large i q 

I / Medium 

u 30 - D Small r 

e 

s 

1 ~ 04 

0-10 11-20 21-30 3140 

Age (Years) 

Figure 3D3. Corrosion failures by age group. 

Figure 313 .4 . Overall corrosion failures . 
ass 

3rd PARTY DAMAGE BY AGE GROUP 

100- 

F 

a 80 / Large i 

I 60 / Medium 

C~ Small 

r 40 

e 

s 20 

0---

0-10 11-20 21-30 

Age (Years) 

Figure 313.5 . 3rd party damage by age group. 

Overall 3rd Party Damage 

so - 

F 

50 

I 40 

u 30 

20 e 

10- 

0- 

0-10 11-20 21-30 

Age Group (years) 

Figure 313.6 . Overall 3rd party damage. 
256 

Storm Failures By Age Group 

100- 

F 

a 80 / Large 

i 

I 60 ---- / Medium 

Small 

r 40- 

e 

s 20-

0- 

0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 

Age Group (years) 

Figure 3D.7 . Storm failures by age group. 

Overall Storm Failures 

60- 

F 

a 

40 

I 

u 

r 

20- 

s 

0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 

Age Group (years) 

Figure 313.8 . Overall storm failures . 
257 

Material Failures 

Twenty-nine cases of material failures were analyzed . 

They included 5 in the large size, 18 in the medium 

size and 6 in the small size lines. About 35% of 

failures occurred in the age group 0-10 years and 

62% among the age group 11-20 years. Thus, like 

structural failures, most of the material failures 

occurred within the first 20 years of pipeline service 

life. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Obviously, the age is a determining factor in deciding 

when to abandon the pipeline . Most pipelines are put 

out of service after 30 to 35 years . But during their 

service lives, the failure frequency does not seem to 

have a strong correlation with the pipeline age. 

Only for corrosion failures in large and medium size 

lines, pipe age seems to be an important factor . In all 

other cases of failures analyzed, the influence of age 

on pipeline failures is not a major factor. In these 

cases, most of the failures have occurred within the 

first 20 years of pipeline life . 

For the data analyzed, largest number of pipeline 

failures have occurred among small size lines. Thus, 

pipe size has a more significant influence on failures 

than the pipe age. 
SESSION 4A 

LATEX-SEASONDE COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENT 
261 

Session : 4A -LATEX-SEASONDE COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENT 

Co-Chairs : Dr. Alexis Lugo-Fernandez and Dr. Murray Brown 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction 

TexSonde '94: Project Overview 

Satellite Observations During the TexSonde 

Experiment 

Current Meter Observations During the 

TexSonde Experiment 

Tracking Buoys for Oil Spills 

TexSonde '94: Current Prediction 

MMS and the TexSonde Field Experiment 

Dr. Alexis Lugo-Fernandez 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins 

Seaconsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

Dr. Lawrence J. Rouse 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Ms. Sally E. Tinis 

SeaConsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

Mr. Edward T. Weeks, IV 

Dr. Stephen P. Murray 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Dr. Ron Goodman 

Imperial Oil Resources Ltd. 

Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Ms. Debra Simecek-Beatty 

NOAA HAZMAT 

Hazardous Materials Response and 

Assessment Division 

Seattle, Washington 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins 

Ms. Sally E. Tinis 

Seaconsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

Dr. Walter Johnson 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Headquarters 

Environmental Operations and Analysis 
263 

INTRODUCTION 

Dr. Alexis Lugo-Fernandez 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

TexSonde '94 was a multi-agency study of the local 

circulation in the Gulf of Mexico off Galveston, 

Texas using SeaSonde HF radar technology. The 

experiment took place in March and early April 

1994 . The objectives of the experiment were to 

characterize the high-frequency variability of surface 

currents (spatial scales of < 1 km and time scales of 

2 - 120 hours), gained a better understanding of the 

factors governing the currents in the approaches to 

Galveston, and examine the performance of the 

SeaSonde Radar technology in terms of accuracy and 

utility for use as oil spill mode input. This session's 

presentations addressed the logistical aspects of the 

experiment and the results obtained that helped 

achieve the objectives of the experiment . This 

experiment was a successful first step in evaluating 

the usefulness of SeaSonde radar technology for oil 

spill response and track prediction capabilities . 

rapidly in the past 10 years, and it is now possible to 

routinely collect hourly surface current maps 

showing circulation features with spatial scales of 

1,000 m and less (Hodgins 1994). TexSonde '94 was 

a multi-agency study of the local circulation in the 

Gulf of Mexico off Galveston, Texas, conducted in 

March and early April 1994 using the 12 .5 MHz 

SeaSonde HF radar. The project objectives were to 

1) characterize the high-frequency variability 

in surface currents (spatial scales of 1 km 

and time scales of 2-120 hours), 

2) provide a better understanding of the factors 

governing currents in the approaches to 

Galveston Bay, in particular, the behavior of 

estuary outflows as they interact with the 

coastal current, 

3) examine the performance of the SeaSonde 

radar in terms of the accuracy of measured 

currents and the utility of the data for oil 

spill model input. 

OBSERVATIONS 

The field program provided a comprehensive data 

set, consisting of 

Dr. Alexis Lugo-Fernandez is an oceanographer with 

the Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region . His primary interest are physical 

processes on coral reefs and shelf circulation. 

Dr. Lugo-Fernandez obtained his B.S . in physics and 

his M.S . in marine sciences from the University of 

Puerto Rico and his Ph .D . in marine 

sciences-physical oceanography-from Louisiana 

State University . 

TEXSONDE '94: PROJECT 

OVERVIEW 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins 

Seaconsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

BACKGROUND 

Remote sensing of ocean currents using 

high-frequency shore-based radars has advanced 

1) hourly surface current maps for one month 

averaging 40 km in offshore range and 25 

km alongshore, measured with the SeaSonde 

HF radar; 

2) AVHRR imagery on all clear days (14 

images); 

3) overwater winds at buoy 42035 ; 

4) water level at Galveston (Gulf of Mexico 

side); 

5) current meter mooring with instruments at 4, 

9 and 14 m; 

6) CTD data along three transects at 5-km 

spacing; 

7) current observations using GPS-positioned 

surface drifters during a one-day intensive 

program (24 March); 

8) current observations using 

satellite-positioned drifters (various designs) 

collected as part of MMS's SCULP 

program. 

The location of the various instruments is shown in 

Figure 4A.1 . The objective was to obtain data 

suitable for evaluating the radar current maps, and as 

far as practical instruments were positioned to allow 
264 

10 km 

N 

.30 ------------ ----------------------- - 

---------- 

-----------------------------

C 4stal ry Beach 

~ ., 

.water level +' .o area of drifters 

Pirates Beach +-' *.42035 (wind) 

~. 

I 

MEOC (current meters) 

, . 

~~ . 

-29000'N - -- ----------- ---------------------------- r ----- -----------------------

% 

i 

I " 

AAA / 

-

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 1 

I 

I I 

I I 

95°00'W 94°30'W 

Seaconsult Marine Research : 14 :00 Z, March 25, 1994 . 

Figure 4A.1 . Disposition of instruments for TexSonde '94. 
265 

Figure 4A.2 . SeaSonde coverage area for the first deployment . 
266 

March 1994 April 1994 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 1617 18 19 20 2122 23 24 23 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 3 6 

wind buoy 42035 

water level 

Flagship Pier 

SeaSonde 1 

Crystal Beach 

SeaSonde 2 

P tsB c g ' ~ict ~~cte~ v 

current meter 1 

current meter 2 

current meter 3 

CTD 

AVHRR 

Drifters 

chips 

GPS 

Argos 

MSRC 

IR/UV SLAR 

1 2 3 4 3 6 7 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 1617 18 19 20 212213 24 23 26 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 

March 1994 April 1994 

Figure 4A.3 . Periods of data recovery for TexSonde '94. 
267 

1 I 1 I 1 

1 1 1 , 

I ~ 

~ 

I 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 

10 -- - ; ---~---;ac- ~------- ;---- ; - , - :----

. 

5 --- -i -r--- r- -~---- ----'---- -i- -- . ----i ---r- i -- r---- 

y 

o . . . o . . . 

-- --- 

., . . . . . . . i -s --------~----~--'- ~ . ----

o 

U -10 -- -------- i--- ---r---i----T----r_______- 7 ----r----i --- -r----r'--i- 'i----

-15 

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 

t° 

1C 

.r, 

Or 

-\ 

0 

. . . 

, . . . . . 

. . . .. .. ~~ 

~// . . . . . . . . //~{~/~ 

----- ---- --- 

. , . . . 

. . ~ . i---- r- --r ----I ---- t---- r---i---i---- r---- r------- r---- --- . ---i----r--- ~---- 

i 

Time (days from March 1, 1994, time zone = GMT) 

0.6 

0.4 ---~----~---- " - 

, . . , . . 

.Z ' 

V Y o . . 

. . . . . . d 

~ -0.4 

. , 

- ~ - . . . . . : _o.s . . --------- ____ . ___ _r ------ -- ,r 

-0.8 

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 

Time (days from March 1, 1994, time zone = GMT) 

Figure 4A.4. Wind and water level records for TexSonde '94. 
268 

Figure 4A.5 . Surface currents aunng OI15IlU1G wiuua. 
269 

15 :00 Z, April 03, 1994 

N 

.--r--.--r--r-, 

10 km 

' . . ~i~ 1~1 ! I ------------------------------- T t -~- --201 --- ------ 

~.~ -----

~ I I t 

o ' 

\ \ 1 " ~ 

1 

1f1/} 

r I 

A 

------------

-------------- 

~i 

---"~i 

200 cm/s -------------- ;----------------------------------,--------------------- 

40' 94°20'W 

Figure 4A.6 . Galveston Bay bet now aurmg ousnurC willub . 
zoo 

intercomparison between measurements . The SCULP 

drifters generally moved steadily through the radar 

coverage area (Figure 4A.2), providing only a few 

data points near Galveston. 

The data recovery periods are summarized in 

Figure 4A.3 . The radar was deployed in three 

congifurations, and, hence, the surface current maps 

are presented in three groups. Antenna pattern 

distortion reduced the reliability of the second group 

of maps compared with the first and third, which 

were nearly optimal in terms of antenna siting on the 

beach. 

PRELIMINARY INTERPRETATION 

The data provide insight into the mechanisms 

producing local changes in the coastal current. The 

wind record is shown in Figure 4A.4, rotated to 

illustrate along-shore and cross-shore flows. The 

arrowheads show the times of the AVHRR images. 

March is generally a windy month in Galveston, with 

a prevailing onshore, moist flow from the southeast 

broken intense episodes of offshore flow generated 

by transitory continental weather systems. The wind 

stress time-series is highly correlated with the water 

level record, showing a rise in level for the onshore 

wind and a fall in level for the offshore flow (wind 

surge) . These low-frequency water level variations 

are larger than the local tide, which is less than 1 m. 

Figure 4A.5 is typical of conditions during onshore 

winds. The surface currents are predominantly 

directed onshore and to the southwest, and the 

influence of the discharge jet from Galveston Bay, 

which is weakly modulated by the tide, is scarcely 

evident. The record-length mean surface current was 

35 cm/s alongshore, and approximately 5 cm/s 

onshore. During offshore winds brackish water from 

the bay flow out through Bolivar Roads and forms a 

jet penetrating into the coastal current some 15-20 

km (Figure 4A .6). This jet deflects the alongshore 

flow further offshore, and creates a localized eddying 

motion behind the jet. 

This jet can be explained by the effect of the wind 

stress . As the water level falls offshore, a pressure 

head is set up through Bolivar Roads that drives the 

bay water out. Although the tidal modulation is 

present it does not always change the direction of the 

pressure gradient, and the outflow persists for a day 

or more. The gradient is also maintained by the wind 

stress across Galveston Bay itself, which tends to pile 

water up along the barrier islands. 

Once the wind changes back to the prevailing 

condition, the surface current flow is restored and the 

coastal current moves back closer to the shoreline. 

CONCLUSIONS 

The TexSonde '94 dataset provides valuable insight 

into the causes and strength of fluctuations in the 

surface current within 50 km of the coast, at periods 

of a few hours to a few days. The HF radar system 

yielded reliable data during the first and third 

deployments. Reception was found to be sensitive to 

the wind direction, and during periods of rapid wind 

reversal the current coverage was reduced through 

the absence of backscattering waves. The surface 

current maps and the AVHRR images showing 

contrasting water mass and fronts were found to be 

correlated (the current fields aided interpretation of 

the water masses distinguished in the imagery in 

terms of their sources and movement). 

REFERENCE 

Hodgins, D.O., 1994. Remote sensing of ocean 

surface currents with the SeaSonde Radar. To 

appear Spill Science and Techn. Bull . 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins is a physical oceanographer 

and Research Director for Seaconsult Marine 

Research Ltd. His interests include ocean circulation 

observation and modeling and satellite remote 

sensing. Over the past six years he directed 

Seaconsult's research leading to the development of 

the SeaSonde HF radar, and he has been the principal 

scientist on the coastal current studies carried out 

using this radar system. 
271 

SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS 

DURING THE TEXSONDE 

EXPERIMENT 

Dr. Lawrence J. Rouse 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

Ms. Sally E. Tinis 

SeaConsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

During March 1994, we collected AVHRR imagery 

of the east Texas shelf in support of the TexSonde 

Experiment. The AVHRR imagery was collected by 

the Earth Scan Lab, Coastal Studies Institute, 

Louisiana State University . The data were calibrated, 

registered, and converted to sea surface temperature. 

The imagery were analyzed to enhance the structure 

of the sea surface temperature. The images were also 

subjected to a Sobel Filter to enhance frontal edges in 

the thermal imagery. Unfortunately, March 1994 was 

a cloudy month in the vicinity of Galveston, and we 

were able to acquire only 14 images of the sea 

surface between 1 March and the end of the 

experiment in early April. 

The second pair of images, on 10 March, were 

separated by a little less than eight hours. The surface 

temperature estimates for the first image (14252) 

indicated only weak thermal fronts south of 

Galveston. This weak thermal front seems to 

correlate with what appears to be a convergence front 

in the SeaSonde data acquired at 14002. The second 

image on 10 March (22202) has no corresponding 

SeaSonde data, but a moderate front appears to be 

present at the location of the weak front in the earlier 

image. 

The third pair of images was acquired on 17 March. 

This image pair, separated in time by a little more 

than 11 hours, had the best examples of a coastal 

front. By tracking the movement of locations on 

these fronts, we estimated velocities to be on the 

order of 10 to 15 cm/s, to the southwest (230°) . No 

SeaSonde data are available for the first image 

(11152). The nearest (in time) broad coverage 

SeaSonde data set for the second image (22352) was 

acquired at 21002. The SeaSonde data indicated a 

front about 20 km offshore and a hint of a front at 

about 40 km offshore . Between these two fronts, the 

flow is indicated to the northeast. At the front 40 km 

offshore, the velocities are very low, and it is this 

front that appears to be moving to the southwest in 

the imagery. 

As part of the analysis, we attempted to relate frontal 

positions and velocities determined from the AVHRR 

imagery with similar measurements acquired by the 

SeaSonde System of SeaConsult Marine Research, 

Ltd. In some cases there was no SeaSonde vector 

concurrent with the imagery or the concurrent field 

data set was extremely limited. In these cases, the 

closest (in time) vector map with broad coverage was 

compared with the satellite imagery. 

Three image pairs were obtained-during the month 

of March. (Image pairs means two images of the area 

acquired within a 12 hour period). These image pairs 

were acquired on 3, 10, and 17 March, with 

separation times ranging from approximately 3 to 12 

hours. No SeaSonde data were acquired coincident 

with the 3 March images (separated in time by two 

hours and 45 minutes). These images have the best 

examples of bay discharge plumes in the data set. By 

measuring the displacement of these plume fronts, 

the surface velocities were estimated to be on the 

order of 60 to 70 cm/s to the west-southwest (220°) . 

In the context of the TexSonde study, we find that 

the satellite imagery complements the data acquired 

by the HF radar and can aid in the interpretation of 

the data and extend it to a larger area . The small 

number of coincident images and HF radar derived 

surface current maps limits the reliability of the 

conclusions that can be drawn, but the combination 

of satellite imagery and HF radar data can provide 

information that can be useful in monitoring and 

predicting the movement of oil spills . 

Dr. Lawrence J. Rouse is an Associate Professor with 

the Coastal Studies Institute and the Department of 

Oceanography and Coastal Sciences at Louisiana 

State University . His research interests are in the area 

of shelf and coastal physical oceanographic processes 

and remote sensing of these processes. He is 

presently a principal investigator on several funded 

research projects including Task B of the LouisianaTexas Shelf Physical Oceanographic Program 

sponsored by the Minerals Management Service. 
272 

CURRENT METER OBSERVATIONS 

DURING THE 

TEXSONDE EXPERIMENT 

Mr. Edward T. Weeks, IV 

Dr. Stephen P. Murray 

Coastal Studies Institute 

Louisiana State University 

The TexSonde Experiment was conducted in the 

coastal waters off Galveston, Texas (Figure 4A .7) in 

March and April 1994 to evaluate the "SeaSonde" 

instrumentation, a system that uses ground-wave 

radar to map near-surface ocean currents . 

Concurrently, Coastal Studies Institute (CSI) at 

Louisiana State University (LSU) deployed a threelevel current meter mooring near the center of the 

radar footprint. Endesco large impeller current meters 

were positioned at 4, 9, and 14 meters below the 

surface in water 17 m deep. Data return was close to 

100 percent over the one-month observation period . 

Mid-deployment CTD casts showed a two-layer 

hydrologic structure in the test area . The upper 

current meter (CM1) is embedded in a low salinity 

surface mexed layer that reads from the surface down 

to about eight meters . The lowest current meter 

(CM3) resides in the high salinity (32 psu) lower 

layer, while CM2 is in the transitional zone 

(halocline) between the two layers . 

Vector stick plots (Figure 4A .8) of CM1 in the 

surface layer show a persistent southwesterly current 

with nominal speeds of 40 cm/s. Thus, the 

predominant flow is topographically constrained in 

the along-shore direction. This persistent current is 

interrupted by one- to-two-day periods of weak and 

even reverse currents . Tidal and intertidal current 

fluctuations are present but of considerably smaller 

magnitude. In contrast, CM2 and CM3 in the lower 

layers show considerably smaller nominal speeds of 

15 cm/s, also to the southwest. Tidal or inertial 

oscillations are more apparent in these records. 

Winds from a contiguous buoy indicate that wind 

energy, in contrast to the surface currents, is highly 

polarized in the north-south direction. A persistent 

southerly wind regime is interrupted at three- to-fiveday intervals with northerly wind episodes associated 

with migrating pressure systems. Surprisingly, the 

upper layer currents and the local winds appear 

poorly correlated . For example, strong southwest 

currents on 14-17 March are coincident with a period 

of weak variable southerly winds. Similarly, the 

strongest frontal passage of the month, on 28 March, 

produced north-northeasterly winds of approximately 

20 knots that had little effect on the already 

prevailing southwestward current. The longshore 

flow this time is apparently not driven by local wind 

forcing but rather by remote events on large scale 

pressure gradients. 

Figure 4A.9 compares the SeaSonde radar current to 

the upper current meter record over a three-week 

period . Both records indicate a persistent 

southwestward flow interrupted by several-day 

periods of weaker and more variable currents . These 

are periods of reasonably good agreement between 

the radar and the current meter observations, such as 

on 24-27 March when both showed southwest 

currents of 40-50 cm/s. In general, radar currents 

appear to be about 1.5 times stronger than the current 

meter, which is perhaps related to vertical shear in 

the upper four meters . There are also periods of 

rather poor correlation, such as on 15 March and 1-4 

April when the current showed southwest currents of 

60-70 cm/s and the radar showed much weaker 

westward currents . Comparison of 40-hour low-pass 

time series of the U and V components also indicates 

only a general agreement between radar and current 

meter observations . 

Progressive vector diagram plots of the current 

meters and the radar current are shown in Figure 

4A.10 . The persistently southwestward flow is 

evident in all traces, but the apparent displacement of 

the SeaSonde falls considerably short of the upper 

current meter. 

The deployment of the current meters was supported 

by a cooperative agreement between the Minerals 

Management Service and Louisiana State University, 

entitled "Drifter Study in the Mississippi River 

Plume." 

Mr. Edward T. Weeks, IV, is a Research Associate at 

Louisiana State University in the Coastal Studies 

Institute. He received a B.S . in atmospheric science 

from Northeast Louisiana University in 1992, and he 

has been working on Louisiana coastal currents since 

then . 
273 

r-Tr, 

20 km 

--------- -----Crystal Beach 

Flagship Pier '`. ,-~,. . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . .~ 

Pocket Cove ~' ~ , " " . . . . " . .~ " . . . . . . . . . . 

Pirates Beach-~- : a 

r. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

I " " )J.~~.rt~tiTl J 

i i 

* 0 . . .~ 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i -------------------- - ------- 

--28°30'N---------

95°00'W 30' 

. r ~ - 

Seaconsult Marine Research 

i 

i i 

1 i 

1 

i 

i 

i 

I 

i 

i i 

i 

i i 

94°00'W 

Figure 4A.7 . Location of mooring array, showing radar coverage. 
0 

Cunud Mclcr (4m) o 

0 

Girrcnl Mcla (9m) 

0 

~~~\!\ b dl . 

l 1 I I I -1 L 1--~------L ---J --1 ----~----- 

I

.---~----~--~ 

I I I-~--- 

I 

I 

i 

Current Meter (14m) 

0 

i 

N 

v 

Figure 4A.8 . Stick vector plots of three current meters, at depths of 4, 9, and 14 meters . 
0 Radar Data 

a Current Meler (4m) 

o 

jilt, 

--~ -L~-----~-- ~-~ 

~ 1--- I 1 -1- -- 

3/14 03/15 0316 03/17 03118 03/19 03/30 03Q1 03/2 03/23 U3124 03i25 03Q6 03R7 03128 0329 03i30 03/31 04/01 04/02 04/03 04/04 

Figure 4A.9 . Stick vector plots of radar data and the 4-meter current meter data for 14 March-4 April 1994. 

N 

N 
Progressive Vector Diagram 

A2o00oo -1oooooo -8ooooo -6ooooo -4ooooo -200000 0 200000 

---- - -- 100000 

a 

-tooooo 

_zooooo 

_300000 

-aooooo 

_500000 

-600000 I 

I 

-700000 

SeaSonde 

- - . ~- - ~ , 

CM3 

CM2 

CM1 

J 

N 

J 

Figure 4A.10. Progressive vector diagram of the current meters and radar current. 
277 

Dr. Stephen P. Murray has 25 years of research 

experience in coastal and shelf waters . He is past 

Director of the Coastal Studies Institute at Louisiana 

State University, where he is pesently employed 

working on research projects on the physical 

oceanography of shelf, sea straits, and coastal waters. 

Dr. Murray received his Ph.D. in dynamical 

oceanography from the Department of Geophysical 

Sciences, University of Chicago in 1966. 

shape. This means that the buoy interaction with 

winds, waves and currents is quite different from that 

of an oil slick. Second, the oil is dispersing, often 

becoming a collection of sub-slicks, each one seeing 

a different micro-current regime . A single drifter 

cannot duplicate this dispersion . Third, the slick-drift 

properties are changing as the oil weathers so that a 

drifter, calibrated to follow fresh oil, may not be able 

to track weathered oil correctly. Buoy designers 

attempt to overcome or minimize these problems by 

careful design of the buoy hull and proper ballasting . 

TRACKING BUOYS FOR OIL SPILLS 

Dr. Ron Goodman 

Imperial Oil Resources Ltd. 

Calgary, Alberta, Canada 

Ms. Debra Simecek-Beatty 

NOAA HAZMAT 

Hazardous Materials Response and 

Assessment Division 

Seattle, Washington 

INTRODUCTION 

In order to respond to an oil spill, it is necessary to 

know where the oil is and to be able to predict its 

possible motion. This can be accomplished by using 

visual observations, following the oil from the source 

of a spill, and using various remote-sensing 

techniques . In situations where such methods do not 

work due to poor visibility or the lack of equipment, 

the use of tracking buoys provides an alternate 

method of following the oil slick. 

Data from drifter buoys is useful in relocating the 

slick after the weather has cleared or to provide 

information which is used as input into trajectory 

models. For tracking buoys to be effective, they must 

simulate the motion of an oil slick over a wide range 

of wind, waves and ocean currents . This is an 

extremely difficult task for several reasons. First, the 

slick is quite thin, a tenth of a millimeter to a few 

millimeters, while the drifters are, of necessity, 

orders of magnitude thicker. Due to the requirement 

to carry a power supply and transmitting equipment, 

drifter buoys have a minimum weight of several 

hundred grams. The heavier battery pack for power 

increases the mass and places limits on the hull 

This presentation will describe a series of 

experiments conducted in the Gulf of Mexico and 

Galveston Bay to measure the response of a number 

of buoy configurations . An oil simulator (wood 

chips) was used as a reference. 

GALVESTON BAY AND GULF OF 

MEXICO TESTS 

One component of the TexSonde'94 program was the 

testing of a number of oil-spill tracker buoys for a 

period of about six hours. Two experiments were 

performed: one in Galveston Bay and the other in the 

offshore area of the Gulf of Mexico, near Galveston, 

Texas. 

The buoys were tracked visually from the surface and 

their location determined, using a hand-held GPS 

receiver (± 100 meter accuracy). In addition to the 

GPS measurements from the vessel, most of the 

drifters had internal systems to determine the buoy 

location . During the field test, five different hull 

designs and buoy location systems were tested. 

1) Orion Hull 

This hull is about 25 cm in diameter and 16 cm high. 

A 2-3 cm high stabilizing ring extends around the 

centre of the drifter. The hull is essentially flat with 

an upper and lower dome housing the electronics and 

power supply . The design of the hull is about ten 

years old. Recently, a number of different electronic 

packages have been designed around this hull shape. 

Some packages include only a pulsed transmitter, and 

the unit is tracked, using bearing measurements from 

a vessel . More recent designs include a GPS receiver 

and VHF telemetry system (Costanzo 1994). Both 

types were tested in these trials . The receiver for the 

bearing measurement was damaged in shipment, and 

these hulls were tracked visually . 
278 

2) Argospheres 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the 

U.S . Department of the Interior has developed a 

program to study the use of oil-tracking buoys to 

simulate the movement of spilled oil. As a result of 

a number of field tests performed in the Norwegian 

Sea, two drifter designs were selected for further 

testing (Reed et al. 1991). The first is a 30 cm. 

diameter sphere equipped with an ARGOS 

transmitter and tracked using TIROS satellites . 

Depending on the latitude at which the drifters are 

deployed, the satellites can provide a position 

determination approximately four or more times a 

day with an error of ±1 kilometer. In addition, two of 

the spheres were equipped with more accurate (± 100 

meter) GPS receivers. The electronics in these 

spheres were programmed to collect GPS positions 

every 30 minutes, store the position locations, and 

relay a set of readings through the ARGOS satellite 

system. Ideally, for oil-spill emulation, the 

Argospheres are used without drogues and are 

ballasted to keep the drifter upright and floating at its 

equator. During this field test, the GPS feature 

worked correctly; however, the wind drift factor on 

the spheres was increased due to improper ballasting . 

As a result, the buoys moved faster than the 

simulated slick. 

3) Draper or Discus Hull 

A second drifter evaluated by MMS consists of two 

20 cm diameter hulls of a concave shape which are 

fastened together to form a thick disk. The interior of 

this disk contains the electronics and power supply 

(Reed et al. 1991). Depending on the model of the 

buoy, the antenna was either external or moulded into 

the hull . Some versions of this buoy were tracked, 

using the ARGOS satellite system, while others used 

GPS location and VHF telemetry. 

4) Davis-type Drifter 

This drifter is based on a design by Davis (1985) and 

consists of a vertical 1-meter tube that contains a 

transmitter and batteries, as well as supporting an 

external antenna. Four sections of plasticized cloth, 

extending 0.5 meters from the tube, are supported by 

four small floats . Since the effects of wind drift and 

surface waves on this drifter are negligible, it is a 

very accurate method for measuring near-surface 

currents . Two Davis-type drifters were deployed, 

during the field tests, to provide an indication of how 

the oil-tracking buoys moved, in relation to surface 

currents . The drifters were tracked visually from the 

surface and through the ARGOS satellite system . 

5) Tire Drifter 

"This buoy consists of a small tire and drogue system, 

and has been developed by a group in the Galveston 

Bay area . 

RESULTS 

The Galveston Bay and Gulf of Mexico field tests 

illustrated the differences in the drift behaviour of the 

various types of buoys designed to simulate the 

motion of oil slicks . However, due to the short 

duration of the field studies, several difficulties 

occurred when evaluating the performances of the 

drifters . First, in the Gulf of Mexico, the movement 

of the Davis-type drifters indicated that there was a 

weak current flow and on-scene winds were very 

light. Most of the drifters probably stayed with the 

wood chips because there was very little net 

movement. Second, the wood chips showed some 

drift characteristics of an oil spill (e .g . windrow 

formation) . There is no data on whether the wind 

drift factor for wood chips is the same as for oil. 

Within a couple of hours after the release, the drift 

factor changed as the wood chips absorbed water 

later in the experiment . An additional error was 

caused by the hand-held GPS receiver which was 

used for position measurements . The error in location 

was of the same order of magnitude as the scale of 

the experiment . Visual observations of the drifter 

location relative to the wood chips are probably more 

reliable than the coordinates recorded by the handheld GPS. One of the tire buoys and all the Orionshaped hulls stayed in the same location and 

followed the motion of the wood chips. The discusshaped buoys moved away from the area of the wood 

chips and the Orion buoys, in a few hours. The 

Argospheres moved in the same direction as the 

discus buoys but deviated from the wood chip 

position more rapidly. 

In the Galveston Bay component of the program, the 

Davis-type drifters moved into the prevailing wind 

and in the opposite direction of the simulated slick 

and the other buoys. Since the Davis-type drifter is 

designed to track the motion of the upper one meter 
279 

of the water column, it is presumed to move with the 

surface current. It is likely that the movement of the 

Davis-type drifters was probably the result of tidal 

influences inside the bay. 

During the Gulf of Mexico field test, the Davis-type 

drifters lagged considerably behind the simulated 

slick and other buoys, but did slowly move in the 

same general direction. The observation is consistent 

with the field experiments conducted in the Gulf of 

Oman with the same type of buoy (Simecek-Beatty 

1994). One of the tire buoys moved more slowly than 

the slick. The receiver of one of the GPS systems did 

not work, while the other two systems worked well . 

One system had higher power and hence greater 

range. 

A summary of these observations is shown in Table 

4A.1 . 

Table 4A.1 . Summary of Experimental Observations . 

Buoy Hull Shape Location Telemetry Battery Life Weight 

Tire Tracker Small tire with Visual tracking None N/A Medium 

flag and weight 

Orion Plate shaped Triangulation Chirp transmitter Two-Three Light 

with top and or bearing to Weeks 

bottom edges visual sighting 

Radio Discus shaped GPS VHF Data Link Weeks Medium 

Satellite Draper hull 

Integrators 

Trimble Same as Orion GPS VHF Data Link Days Light 

Met Ocean Same as Orion Not tested Not tested Not Light 

determined 

Argospheres Sphere Satellite Satellite Months Light 

Davis Cylinder with Satellite Satellite Months Medium 

Drifter curtains Difficult 

Handling 

CONCLUSIONS 

The Orion-hull based systems appeared to move in a 

similar manner to the wood chips. This is consistent 

with information obtained in 1993, during an 

experiment in the Straits of Juan de Fuca (Hodgins 

1993). The discus-shaped buoys moved out of the 

wood chip area in a few hours. Again, a similar result 

was obtained in the Juan de Fuca experiment. The 

Argospheres consistently moved in a different 

manner to the wood chips. This was probably due to 

the ballast of the units, which rode high in the water 

and therefore had a higher wind-drift factor . 

Figure 4A .11 shows the data from Galveston Bay for 

all the buoys, and Figure 4A.12 gives the same data 

for the Gulf of Mexico. 

Both the wood chips and cottonseed hulls acted in a 

manner similar to an oil slick. Some time after 

deployment they formed into windrows. Both drifted 

in the same manner and moved in concert. Both 

materials remained on the water for the duration of 

the experiment. 
ORION HULLS 

29 .63 

29 .626 ~ 

29 .52 i 

N 

29.515 Position 

29 .61 ~ Error 

J 

29.606 

29 .6 

29 I .496 I1 F ~ 

94.866 34.866 94.864 X4 .863 94A62 94.861 94.86 94 .869 

Longitude 

i- Chips -v- Cotton - #1 + #2 -w- #3 -~ #5 $ #6 

29 . 635 TIRES 

29.63 Position 

29 .526 Error 

a, 29.62 

v 

29 .616 

J 29.61 

29 .606 

29.6 

~-~`------------------------ 

I 

--- 

94 .866 X4 .865 9d.864 94.8Ci 94 .862 X4 .861 .94.86 94 .859 

Longitude 

- Chips -4,- Tire Alpha -:-Tre Beta 

ARGOSPHERES AND LCD 

29 . 64 

29 .63 P osition 

Error 

29.62 

7 

(029.61 

29 .6 ------- 

----------- - 

-04.866 94.864 94 .862 X4.88 -04.858 

Longitude 

- Chips -w- GPS14691 + GPS14711 -m- GPS17457 $ MMS3925 

RSI Buoys 

30 I 

zs .s ~ 

ss .s Off- Position Chips 

'D 29 .7 Error 

3 

J 29 .6 

29 .6 

29 .4 

Z9 3 -I~ ITI1 I -r-1 TI I -94.92 -94.9 -94.88 -94.88 -94.84 .94.82 -94.8 .94.78 -94.76 

Longitude 

-Chips }RV5054-NB0012-NB0014 

N 

O 

Figure 4A.11 . Galveston Bay oil tracker data. 
ORION HULLS 

29206 

292 a29.196 I t 

N 1 

29.19 

29.186 

J 

29.18 7 1 

Position 

Effor 29.175 

i 

29.17 

X4.62 X4.61 X4.6 X4.69 X4.68 94.67 X4.66 

Longitude 

Chips -4e,- #2 - #3 -a- #5 { #6 -A~ ME~Trimble 

RSI BUOYS 

Z9 .6 

29 .6 

Positi on! 

ror -4)29.4 Furor 

J 29 .3 i Chips 

29 .2 

29 .1 I--------------------------

94.82 94.57 94.60 X4.58 X4.53 94.60 494.47 94.52 494.63 

Longitude 

Chips -RV5054 y NB0012 ;- NB0014 } 012 { 014 

ARG4SPHERE AND LCD 

292M 1 

292 I F---r 

29.195 

29.19 

X29.185 

J 

29.18 (a 

Position 

29.176 FarOT 

29.17 ~ - - `` 

34.606 X4.6 X4.696 X4.69 X4 .686 94.68 94.676 94bT 94 .666 

Longitude 

Chips - 14689 + 14691 - LCD - 3924 -w 3925 

Figure 4A.12. Gulf of Mexico buoy data . 

N 

00 
282 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The lack of overall movement, and the limitations of 

the location system, resulted in data that is difficult 

to interpret. Future field tests should last longer in 

order to provide more differentiation between the 

various buoys. A 24-hour experiment would be more 

realistic. The drifters that were painted a bright 

fluorescent orange were easier to track visually . 

During both drills and spills, a number of drifters 

should be deployed so that some understanding of the 

dispersion of the buoys can be obtained . 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors would like to thank the sponsors of 

TexSonde'94 (U.S . Minerals Management Service, 

Texas General Land Office, Marine Spill Response 

Corporation and Exxon) for their assistance with this 

test program. The support services provided by the 

Oil Spill Training School of Texas A&M were an 

essential component of the experiment and are 

gratefully acknowledged . All the manufacturers of 

the oil-tracker buoys (RSI, Trimble, and MetOcean) 

provided the buoys, support equipment, and staff at 

no cost to the project. Without this effort, the 

experiment could not have been conducted. The 

authors would like to thank their respective 

organizations for their support of this oil-spill 

research activity . 

REFERENCES 

Costanzo, D. 1994 . Trimble/ORION GPS oil spill 

tracking buoy initial field trials, pp. 1219-1225. 

In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Arctic and 

Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP) Technical 

Seminar. Ottawa, Canada: Environment Canada. 

Davis, R. 1985 . Drifter observations of coastal 

surface currents during CODE: The method and 

descriptive view . J . Geophys. Res . 

90 :4741-4755 . 

Goodman, R. H. 1992. Overview and future trends in 

oil spill remote sensing, pp. 98-108. In 

Proceedings of MTS'92 Conference, 

Washington, D.C . 

in Juan de Fuca Strait using the SeaSonde radar, 

pp. 1083-1094. In Proceedings of the Sixteenth 

Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP) 

Technical Seminar. Ottawa, Canada: 

Environment Canada,. 

Reed, M., C. Turner, A. Odulo and T. Isaji. 1991 . 

Field test of satellite tracked buoys to simulate 

oil drift, pp. 619-628 . In Proceedings of the 1991 

Oil Spill Conference. Washington, D.C . : 

American Petroleum Institute. 

Simecek-Beatty, D. 1994. Tracking of oil spills by 

ARGOS-satellite drifters : A comparison, pp. 

432-434. In Proceedings of the Second Thematic 

Conference on Remote Sensing for Marine and 

Coastal Environments . Ann Arbor, Mich. : 

ERIM. 

Dr. Ron Goodman has worked at Imperial Oil 

Resources in Calgary, Alberta for the past sixteen 

years and for the last ten has been head of an 

environmental research team. He has more than 

twenty years' experience in oil spill response 

techniques . He has been involved in a number of 

responses to oil spills including the Exxon Valdez. 

His major interests are the remote-sensing of oil on 

water and the use of models in spill response. Current 

interests include the use of dispersants and in-situ 

burning in spill clean-up operations . Ron Goodman 

has a PhD. in physics from McMaster University in 

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 

Debra Simecek-Beatty is a member of the spill 

response group for the Hazardous Materials Response 

and Assessment Division of the National Oceanic 

andAtmospheric Administration (NOAH/HAZMAT) 

in Seattle, Washington . Debra has participated in a 

number of drifter buoy experiments around the 

world. She is currently finishing her M.S . in marine 

affairs at the University of Washington in Seattle. 

Hodgins, D.O ., R.H. Goodman, M.F. Fingas and R. 

Overstreet . 1993 . Surface current measurements 
283 

TEXSONDE '94 : CURRENT 

PREDICTION 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins 

Ms. Sally E. Tinis 

Seaconsult Marine Research Ltd. 

Vancouver, Canada 

8-10 cm/s in u and 11-13 cm/s in v. A comparison of 

the predicted and measured current components for 

this model are shown in Figure 4A.15 for s=0 (no 

white noise) . Higher orders (> 15 ) led to instabilities 

in the predictions. The five-day input time-series 

provided the lowest error. 

CONCLUSIONS 

OBJECTIVE 

As shown in TexSonde '94 and previous 

experiments, it is now possible to measure surface 

current maps in real time at a regular frequency (e .g., 

hourly). These maps cover a few hundred square 

kilometres of ocean with resolution scales of 1,000 m 

and 1-2 hours. In order to utilize these data for oil 

spill response it is desirable to predict 24-48 hours of 

flow field information using readily available data; 

specifically, the surface current information from the 

past few days and the local wind. 

One of the simplest data-based models that can be 

applied for this purpose is an auto-regressive (AR) 

model utilizing the SeaSonde data collected for 1-10 

days, the local overwater wind record for the same 

period, and the wind forecast for the prediction 

interval . As part of the TexSonde '94 study an AR 

model was applied to current and wind measurements 

from the end of March and the first two days of 

April. 

METHODS AND RESULTS 

The AR model incorporated the correlation between 

measured current components and between the 

current and the local wind (Figure 4A.13) after 

removal of the tide by harmonic filtering. The 

correlation coefficients were determined for input 

intervals of three, five and seven days . The input 

current time-series is shown in Figure 4A.14 : the 

solid lines denote the input record, and the dashed 

lines are the measurements over the prediction 

interval against which the predicted currents were 

compared. The AR model was tested for various 

orders of current and wind up to a maximum order of 

32 . The optimum order of the process was 

determined by minimizing the rms error between the 

measurement and prediction . Orders of i=5 for 

current and j=4 for wind were found to be about 

optimum, giving rms errors of approximately 

Simple AR models were shown to capture 

successfully some of the pertinent characteristics of 

the non-tidal surface current features off Galveston. 

These models were based on three-seven days of 

measured input (current+wind) and two days of wind 

forecast data. RMS errors were of the order of 10 

cm/s in flows ranging up to 40 cm/s. While the 

model obviously exhibits some time-series prediction 

skill, the magnitude of the flow errors is large 

relative to typical current speeds . The consequence of 

such errors in terms of oil spill prediction under 

emergency conditions (i .e ., with frequent 

re-initialization) is presently unknown, and should be 

determined as the next step in evaluating the 

usefulness of an AR class of model. 

Dr. Donald O. Hodgins is a physical oceanographer 

and Research Director for Seaconsult Marine 

Research Ltd. His interests include ocean circulation 

observation and modeling and remote sensing using 

radar and satellite sensors. 

Ms. Sally Tinis is a remote sensing analyst with 

Seaconsult and has been responsible for the analysis 

of the AVHRR data from TexSonde '94. 
TexSonde '94 

Current Prediction 

iAR model correlating current components 

and wind components 

ut = a1(UC-) -F- a2(Ut-2) -f- . .

.+ ai(Ut-q) 

-Fgo(Wc) + a1(Wt-1) + 02(Wc-z) +. . .+ /3j(Wc_j) + 

+ y,Et-, + 7zEt-Z + . . .+ 

3, 5, 7-day input series, various model orders 

0 predicted 48 h 

9 rms error in prediction 

N 

00 

A 

Figure 4A.13. Description of the AR model. 
20 

y 

-20 

w -40 

-60 

-80 

. 

. 

. . 

J______1__ L____________ 

1 1 1 1 I ~/ y 1 1 ~~ I 

1 I I I I 1 Y r(~' 1 I ~ ~I I 

I I I 1 I I 1 1/ l~~ h 1~ I 

1_____ _____J___ ._ ___L_____J__ 1~`~ 

I N 1 I I ~_ __I 

~-- t1~ ~lll ;T I-I~l 

v I / I I 1 I ~ ~ I ~ I 

'r` I ~ 1 I 1 I ~ 1 I 

~~~ 1 I/ -1 I 1 I 1 1 I 

IL 

1 I 

___________I------ 1______ 

y~- 

_____J___ ______L_____ ----- 1______L_____J______1______L______ 

I I 1 1 I I 1 1 1 I I 

I I I I I I 1 I I I I 

I I 1 I 1 1 I I I 1 1 

I 1 1 I I I I 1 I I I 

n oa AA '71 aft »n I u iaa tu7 916 240 264 288 

Time step (hours) 

40 

20 

N 

-20 

-40 

-so 

-ao 

-100 

------t------I ------r-----~------Y------r-----,----- ------r------r-----t------

i 

----- 

- ----- 1---- -~--- - ~------1- -~- -- - ---- - --- - ----1J 

I 1 I I 1 1 I 1 ----- _-

1 1 I 1 I W 1 I ~, , 1 ~ ~1 V 

\ 1 I 1 I 1 I V 1 1 ~~1 "~ t 

_ 1-/ ~ . . . . F __~______~ . . .. . 1_ . . . .{- _____f_---__I ~i------

~ . . . ~ . ', 

1______L____ -1 -~ F_____J______1____-_1-______1______1_ .____ 

~ . ~ 

~ 

-----~------T------ r----- ------T------ r----- 1------T------ r------i------- I------ 

24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 

Time step (hours) 

Figure 4A.14 . Sample surface current time-series used for input to the AK model. 1ne soda line denotes the input aata perioa, ana the aasnea ime 

represents the measured current during the prediction interval . The three solid bars between the panels show the three input records lengths 

N 

for the AR model. 

00 
286 

20 

I I 

10 --------------- L_____________L------------- L ____________L_____________ 

1 I I 1 

I 1 1 1 

1 I I I 

. . . . _ . _ . . . . . . 

1 1 I 

r-------------r-------------r ' - 

- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ r-------------

i 

"~ -10 - -- ---- ---'--------------'-------- - ' - - y , - - - --- ^ -_'---------- --

r \ . ~ n I 

K 

., 

-30 r--------- ---r r------------- r---- 

i 

-40 

217 229 241 253 265 277 

Time step (hours) 

et 20 

I I ' ' ' ' 

01 

0 10 r----------- r- r------------- r----- ~r--

i i i 

u 

0 -------------r ------ --+--fit- ------- ~-------------' -------~~ -- II 

Q A/ 

- . 

Al N 

-20 , , ------- - 4~-~----- ; -------~- - , ~------ 

i i 

V I ' ` ' 

iL/ V 1 

-" -----------~-------------~------ 

.

. . .. 

i --- ~- --r--~ ---L ------------- 

i 

-------------L--------------------------L-+`1 1/1 -----i-------------

I IL I 

1 i I ~ ~ I 

1 I I ~ 1 

-50 

217 229 241 253 265 277 

Time step (hours) 

Observed current 

------------------- 3-day input prediction 

- - - - - - - - - - 5-day input prediction 

- - - - - - - 7-day input prediction 

Figure 4A.15. Comparison of the measured and predicted current time-series (48 h) for an AR model of order 

5 for current and 4 for wind. 
287 

MMS AND THE TEXSONDE FIELD 

EXPERIMENT 

Dr. Walter Johnson 

U.S . Minerals Management Service Headquarters, 

Environmental Operations and Analysis 

Branch (NOAA HAZMAT) as part of their data 

gathering during the response to the spills . These 

tests are still ongoing, and additional trials with oil 

and other proxies for oil will be conducted. The 

MMS expects that limited oil-spill-risk 

characterization of specific sites may be possible by 

using these "oil-following" drifters in addition to the 

traditional methods of trajectory modeling . 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) 

participated in the TexSonde field experiment 

because it brought together several research 

initiatives being pursued under separate efforts . The 

ONDE experiment included an ocean currentmeasuring radar system, drifting buoys, wood chips 

as proxy for spilled oil, and "oil-following" drifting 

buoys employed to help track the hypothetical spill. 

The MMS has funded radar systems designed to 

measure ocean surface currents for several years, 

with varying success . In the past three years, the 

MMS has been a cooperating partner in three 

deployments of radar systems: (1) off Cape Hatters, 

North Carolina, with the University of Miami, funded 

by the Office of Naval Research ; (2) off Galveston, 

texas, with SeaSonde, funded by the Texas General 

Land Office and oil companies ; and (3) off Monterey 

Bay, California, with the Naval Postgraduate School 

and other organizations as part of the Monterey Bay 

Consortium . These projects have used a variety of 

measuring systems and ONDE was the only one 

using simulated oil spills . 

The MMS has been involved in several major ocean 

drifter studies in the past several years. The projects 

with the largest number of deployments are the 

Surface Current Langrangiandrift Program (SCULP) 

in the Gulf of Mexico and the Santa Barbara Channel 

study off California . The purpose of these studies is 

to use drifting buoys as primary instruments to 

determine the ocean surface circulation and then 

augment the statistical analyses with fixed current 

meter time series . This approach will give additional 

understanding of the general circulation . 

Besides the drifting buoy studies, the MMS has been 

studying the use of small satellite-tracked drifters as 

proxy for spilled oil. The so-called "oil-following" 

drifters were tested in experimental oil spills off 

Norway and were also deployed in several accidental 

spills by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Hazardous Material Response 

The ONDE experiment was supported by the MMS 

because of the interest in all of the measurements 

being brought together and because our drifting 

buoys in the SCULP project were drifting through 

the operating area of the experiment. "Oil-following" 

buoys were deployed during the experiment by Debra 

Simecek-Beatty of NOAA HAZMAT and Cort 

Cooper of Chevron. Plots of the tracks of these 

drifters appear in Figure 4A.16. 

Plots of velocity vectors derived from the drifting 

buoy positions are shown in Figure 4A.17. We plan 

to compare these velocities to those of the current 

meter and SeaSonde data . The analysis of these data 

is not complete, but the field report stated that the 

"oil-following" buoys separated from the wood chips 

(oil proxy) rapidly. This separation probably was due 

to a lack of ballast in some types of the buoys, 

causing increased wind forcing of the buoys. 

The data will require additional analysis . The 

calculations we intend to perform are: 

(1) Comparison of the SCULP drifters in the 

vicinity of Galveston to the SeaSonde 

velocities . 

(2) Comparison of the MMS drifters to the 

other drifters deployed. 

(3) Comparison of the oil-following drifters to 

the wood chips and the estimate of the 

wind-drift . 

When these calculations have been performed, we 

will communicate the results to the other TexSonde 

participants . 
TEXSONDE Buoy Tracks 

o Beginning Houston 

Port Arthur 

- SCULP drifter -. I 

oil-following drifter 

Galveston 0 

D 

Freeport 4k 

--

3/26/94 0:001 

N 

00 

00 

i~iswc -rtl .iv. 11~~ _V .. .~~.v..... w.a. v..- ....~v .. ...s ... ......b ......)~ ....~..... .. ...». . ..~~...y . ...~....~ ........b ..... . .... ..., .~ . ...~ . . .. . .t,.,. ......... 

two days or less are shown. 
Vectors of TEXSONDE Buoys 

Houston Port Arthur . 

1 m/sec 

Galvesto 

V

Freeport 

i 

ER 

3/26/94 9:00 

Figure 4A.17. Vectors indicate the velocity of buoys in the T'EXSONDE experiment offshore Galveston, Texas. 

N 

00 

110 
SESSION 4B 

MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, 

PART I 
293 

Session: 4B - MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, PART I 

Co-Chairs : Mr. Villere Reggio and Mr. Dave Moran 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Mariculture Associated with Oil and Gas 

Structures 

Mariculture from Offshore Oil and Gas 

Leases 

Oil and Gas Industry Views on Use and Reuse 

of Petroleum Structures for Mariculture 

Mariculture in the Gulf of Mexico: Sea Pride 

Industries' Sea Trek and Sea Star Systems 

The Engineering of Mariculture Pens in 

Association with Oil and Gas Structures 

Mr. Villere C. Reggio, Jr . 

Mr. Dave Moran 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico Region 

Mr. John Mirabella 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Headquarters 

Herndon, Virginia 

Mr. David A. Dougall 

Agip Petroleum Company 

Dr. Edwin Cake, Jr ., Chief Science Officer 

Mr. John D. Ericsson, Chief Executive Officer 

Sea Pride Industries, Inc. 

Gulf Breeze, Florida 

Mr. Clifford A. Goudey 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Sea Grant College Program 
295 

MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH 

OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES 

Mr. Villere C. Reggio, Jr . 

Mr. Dave Moran 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico Region 

INTRODUCTION 

Increasing competition and regulation along with 

declining economic success of ocean capture fisheries 

portends increasing interest and opportunities for 

aquaculture and mariculture. Growing public demand 

for a consistent source of quality, healthful seafood 

has already stimulated offshore fish culture proposals 

in the quality, temperate offshore waters of the 

Central and Western Gulf. Notwithstanding the legal 

uncertainties of open ocean mariculture, researchers 

and entrepreneurs are keying on the potential 

availability of extant petroleum structures to test the 

feasibility and potential for fish husbandry in the 

Gulf of Mexico. 

In the spirit of reinvention MMS organized a session 

designed to bring together regulators, researchers, 

and aspiring offshore fish culturist to evaluate the potential and problems of dedicating offshore petroleum 

structures to growing fish for market. Buoyed by the 

long-term success of Ecomar's harvest of marketable 

shellfish from OCS structures in the Santa Barbara 

Channel, representatives from MMS, the oil and gas 

industry, academia, the fishing industry, and the 

private sector offered visionary concepts, thoughtful 

opinions, and serious constraints to extended 

economic development of ocean resources tied to the 

multiple use potential of offshore petroleum 

structures . The documentation that follows should 

serve as a useful source of information to all who can 

see the wisdom of developing fuel and fish from a 

common base of operations . 

coastal environment throughout the Gulf region . For 

the past 20 years Mr. Reggio has had a special 

interest in evaluating the fisheries value and potential 

of oil and gas structures . 

Mr. Dave Moran is a General Biologist under the 

Regional Supervisor for Leasing and Environment, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region. Dave's primary responsibility encompasses 

environmental assessment of offshore oil and gas 

operations . 

MARICULTURE FROM OFFSHORE 

OIL AND GAS LEASES 

Mr. John Mirabella 

U.S . Minerals Management Service Headquarters 

Herndon, Virginia 

Oil and gas operations have been occurring in 

offshore waters, bringing jobs to the area and oil and 

gas to the country. We have tended to ask the 

question, "Can we conduct oil and gas operations 

without interfering with other users of the offshore 

waters?" The parties involved have worked to solve 

most problems encountered, and, for the most part, 

the oil and gas companies have been good neighbors 

to the other offshore users. However, mariculture 

provides a new opportunity. We are now asking, 

"Can a functioning oil and gas facility provide an 

offshore platform for launching a new industry?" 

Rather than having oil and gas operations and 

mariculture activities just "not interfere" with each 

other, these two activities are looking to assist each 

other. If the expense of maintaining an offshore 

platform can be shared between two users-then 

maybe a mariculture enterprise that would otherwise 

be marginal can become profitable, and an oil and 

gas operation can continue production long after the 

field would have otherwise been abandoned. 

Mr. Villere C. Reggio, Jr., is an Outdoor Recreation 

Planner with the Minerals Management Service, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region. His responsibilities include 

assessment, research, and reporting on the 

interrelationship of the OCS oil and gas program 

with the recreational elements of the marine and 

From the start, MMS believed this to be a worthwhile 

and interesting project and assembled aworkgroup to 

evaluate the potential project and determine what 

further information was needed . The MMS also 

facilitated communications with the National Marine 

Fisheries Service, the Department of Energy, the 

Corps of Engineers, the Environmental Protection 
296 

Agency, the oil and gas industry, and the Congress ; 

all showed an interest . 

Much progress has been made-but questions remain 

concerning extra stress on platforms, the effect on 

current and future production from the platform, 

liability for damage and end-of-lease obligations, and 

involvement of other government agencies at the 

federal, state, and local levels . Some of these issues 

are straightforward. For example, MMS regulates the 

design, construction, and installation of all platforms 

in the OCS. If a new platform is to be built, MMS is 

prepared to work with the Corps of Engineers or 

other agencies to help develop and implement 

appropriate regulations. 

Once a platform is constructed, the lessee must 

perform periodic inspection and maintenance. With 

regard to some aspects of maintenance, annual costs 

are independent of the level of production . The MMS 

must ensure that if minimal production operations 

continue to prevent the lease from expiring, then 

maintenance and inspection also continue . 

Other agencies will also need to add their experience 

to facilitate the establishment of mariculture projects. 

The Corps of Engineers has responsibility for 

prevention of obstructions to navigation, and the U.S . 

Coast Guard has responsibility for ensuring that 

platforms and artificial islands are marked so as not 

to be a hazard to navigation . Marking may be more 

complex if large nets are placed adjacent to 

platforms. The Corps of Engineers and the U.S . 

Coast Guard have extensive experience with their 

respective areas and problems are not anticipated. 

Regulation of worker safety is less clear. The U.S . 

Coast Guard and the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration have a Memorandum of 

Understanding covering the working conditions for 

oil and gas activities . What happens when 

mariculture activity takes place on the same 

platform? This is an area the two agencies would 

need to work out. 

Consideration of end-of-lease obligations and 

bonding issues is important. In the event of a request 

for reassignment, MMS will evaluate the ability of 

the new company to satisfy all end-of-lease 

obligations. Just as with requests for assignment to 

oil and gas producing companies, MMS will 

cooperate with all parties to explore ways to protect 

the Government without undue burden on small 

companies. 

Where do we go from here? Clearly a number of 

questions still exist. The MMS will need to work 

within its governing laws and regulations to search 

for solutions. One important key will be 

communication. The MMS will work with other 

government agencies and mariculture companies; oil 

and gas companies will need to work with each other 

and with the government agencies . The meetings that 

have already occurred and this session are good 

starting points . 

OIL AND GAS VIEWS ON USE AND 

REUSE OF PETROLEUM 

STRUCTURES FOR MARICULTURE 

Mr. David A. Dougall 

Agip Petroleum Company 

INTRODUCTION 

Harvesting fish and shellfish has been a major source 

of food throughout the history of civilization. Recent 

over-harvest of our ocean resources has raised 

concern about the future of our fish stocks . In the 

United States, the authorities have evolved a system 

of allocating fisheries resources through a 

combination of seasonal closures, zone closures, and 

catch limits, administered by the National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS). 

Cultivating fish and shellfish has also been with us 

since long before Christ. Today, aquaculture is a 

major business . Farm raised trout, catfish, and 

crawfish are familiar to most of us. These 

commercial operations take place in ponds and 

raceways from the extremely large to the quite small . 

Within the last few years, considerations have been 

given to the use of oil and gas structures to aid in 

marine aquaculture-mariculture. This paper is 

provides an industry perspective on the opportunities 

and obstacles presented by the use of petroleum 

structures in mariculture operations . 
297 

PERSPECTIVE 

This paper is prepared from the perspective of an 

offshore oil and gas operator. While the paper deals 

with fisheries issues, the author claims no fisheries 

expertise. Information presented herein is based upon 

limited literature review and discussion with other oil 

and gas operators. Views expressed in this paper are 

those of the author . 

OIL & GAS PLATFORMS 

There are nearly 4,000 oil and gas platforms in the 

Gulf of Mexico. These structures range in age from 

brand new to roughly 30 years old; in size from 

single well caissons to large, multi-pile ; in water 

depths from a few feet to over 1,000, and in distance 

from shoreline to more than 130 miles. Platforms 

consist of a supporting structure (jacket or caisson) 

and a topside structure (deck), which supports 

production, processing and safety equipment, 

quarters (if any), and helideck (if any). 

PROJECTS 

A Santa Barbara, California firm, Ecomar, presents a 

real success story and an object lesson relevant to 

considering oil and gas structures for mariculture. 

Ecomar contracts with a number of oil and gas 

operators offshore of the California coast to remove 

what is considered biofouling by oil and gas 

operators from their platforms. "The substantial 

buildup of sea life attached to the underwater support 

for the platforms causes enough wave and current 

drag to present structural concerns. To alleviate this 

problem, operators pay up to a few hundred thousand 

dollars every few years for divers to remove the 

growth . 

One man's biofouling is another's gourmet dinner, 

and Ecomar has for about ten years been separating, 

cleaning, and marketing mussels removed from 

platforms to an increasing list of restaurants. 

Two things to bear in mind about the Ecomar 

harvesting operation : 

Platforms present some obvious opportunities for 

mariculture operations : 

They would provide a more or less permanent, 

solid platform from which to conduct operations . 

The decks would provide a stable place for 

storage, feed delivery equipment, and utilities 

(power, navigation aids, communications, and 

environmental monitoring). The structure would 

provide support for anchoring containment and 

winching systems. Further, the offshore oil 

service infrastructure (service boats, air 

transportation, and port facilities) offers an 

existing transportation system for personnel, 

supplies, and products. 

* Platforms are well known as artificial reefs, 

providing healthy ecosystems which are major 

destinations for recreational fishing. This 

abundance of associated sea life suggests a 

healthy environment suitable for cultivation of 

fish and shellfish. 

* The offshore location tends to moderate swings 

in water temperature, and water currents make 

the system essentially self-cleaning, providing 

new, oxygenated water and removing wastes 

from fish and feeding. 

Operators view this as a very good way to 

conduct essential platform maintenance. Because 

Ecomar is able to market the product, the 

operators get a cost break on the removal 

operation. An additional benefit is showcasing 

the healthy environment that surrounds these 

platforms. 

In spite of what should seem an obvious win-win 

proposal, it took Ecomar's owner, Bob Meek, 

the better part of ten years to sell the idea to the 

oil and gas operators and the regulatory 

authorities. Operators' reluctance can be 

summed up in two issues : liability and 

interference in operations . 

A related success story is the Rigs-to-Reefs Program 

in Texas and Louisiana. At the end of a platform's 

useful life, oil and gas operators are required to plug 

and abandon all the wells, sever all structures below 

the mud line, and physically remove the structure 

from the lease. Simply stated, the Rigs-to-Reefs 

Program offers an operator the opportunity to move 

the structure to a designated reef site rather than 

hauling it all the way to shore for scrap. 
298 

From the oil and gas operators' point of view, the 

Rigs-to-Reefs Program is highly successful for two 

very good reasons: 

Liability: The Rigs-to-Reefs Program presents 

the operator with an opportunity to fulfill his 

responsibilities in clearing the oil and gas lease 

in such a way that long term liability for the 

structure is transferred to another financially 

responsible entity (i .e ., a government agency). 

2. Economics: The cost to clear a platform from a 

lease can be anywhere from $'/z to $15 million 

or more, depending on water depth, location, 

condition and configuration of the structure, and 

salvage value of parts. This cost can sometimes 

be dramatically reduced by participation in the 

Rigs-to-Reefs Program . One-half of the 

estimated savings goes to the agency to pay for 

long-term maintenance of the reef and for 

accepting liability. 

Mariculture around oil and gas platforms in the Gulf 

of Mexico has been discussed and conceptualized for 

over 10 years. To date, only one mariculture project 

has been conducted in association with oil and gas 

platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. This project, funded 

by an oil company, in cooperation with Texas A&M, 

has been ongoing for several years. The project team 

has raised redfish, but not as a commercial success. 

The project began on a producing platform and is 

now based on one that is no longer active . 

The operator of this project has indicated a number 

of obstacles, institutional as well as technical, which 

must be overcome before large-scale mariculture 

operations at offshore oil and gas platforms are likely 

to become a reality. The validity of these concerns 

was largely confirmed in discussions with other 

operators not presently involved in mariculture 

activities but with whom proponents would probably 

deal . 

INSTITUTIONAL OBSTACLES 

The following issues are of an institutional nature . 

Some should be addressed by the appropriate 

regulatory authorities; others should be considered by 

mariculture proponents when they are fashioning 

proposals. 

LIABILITY 

The greatest concern expressed by oil and gas 

operators is liability, liability for accidents and 

liability for lease abandonment. Whether mariculture 

operations are conducted on a producing or an 

inactive platform, the issue of liability for personal 

injury, properly damage, and environmental damages 

must be resolved. Not only are authorized personnel 

working on and under the platform at risk, so are 

intruders, on and under the platform . Risk of injury, 

property and environmental damages from collision 

and natural disasters also must be resolved. 

The longer term and probably more difficult issue is 

liability for lease clearance. If an inactive platform is 

to be used for mariculture operations, somehow the 

ultimate fate of the structure and eventual cost for 

dealing with it must be resolved . 

In light of what most consider the "deep pockets" 

theory, the willingness of a somewhat tentatively 

financed entrepreneur to accept the liabilities 

associated with a platform-based mariculture 

operation is not likely to be adequate. Aquaculture in 

the United States has a history of failures. Companies 

that fail quite often file bankruptcy, in this case, 

possibly leaving the previous operator with the 

liabilities . Somehow, the oil and gas operator has to 

be relieved of liability as a previous owner. 

Finally, there are requirements for maintaining a 

platform . Navigation aids, cathodic protection, and 

minimal repair and upkeep of the structure are 

expense items which must be factored into the 

economics of such an operation. Together, these 

costs can exceed $10,000 per year . 

OPERATING PRIORITIES 

Another major concern is interference with the 

operations of the platform. Operations on these 

facilities are entirely focused on production of oil and 

gas. Any activities which do not fall within that focus 

will be met with reluctance unless they can be shown 

to be: (1) valuable and (2) conducted in a manner 

that will not be "under foot ." 

PERMITTING 

Oil and gas operators are accustomed to working 

within a tightly regulated environment. However, the 
299 

agencies with which we work generally have welldefined and understood areas of authority. 

Reportedly, working through the regulatory 

framework to obtain all the necessary authorizations 

to conduct a mariculture operation from an oil and 

gas platform can be a major challenge. Conflicts 

include overlapping areas of authority and standards 

to be applied to the operations . 

SPATIAL CONFLICTS 

in nearshore operations . Cage construction and 

anchoring/retrieval systems must be well-designed, 

adapted, and field tested for this environment. 

Target Species 

The high cost of marine farming in comparison with 

onshore aquaculture suggests that high dollar species 

must be cultivated to achieve the necessary profit 

margin . Successful spawning and stocking of high 

dollar species is reported to be a major problem. 

Oil and gas operators lease mineral rights from the 

U.S . or a state government and obtain authorization 

to temporarily place structures on those leases and 

produce the mineral resources. Conducting 

mariculture operations in association with oil and gas 

structures opens up new issues of private use of 

public resources. A new "user group" conflict may 

arise with commercial fishing operations and with 

recreational fishing and diving interests, all 

accustomed to benefitting from the presence of these 

structures . 

FINANCING 

Finally, there is an inclination on the part of 

proponents of projects relating in some way to oil 

and gas facilities to anticipate major investment, if 

not outright underwriting of the project, by the 

petroleum company involved. Oil companies, large 

and small, have been trimming budgets and focusing 

investments on core business . Project proponents 

should not make grand assumptions about financial 

participation on the part of the oil companies in these 

ventures . If companies do get involved, they will be 

likely to consider the platform infrastructure to be a 

major investment in itself. 

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Certainly, persons who have been engaged in 

research and applied aquaculture activities are the 

technical experts in this area . However, discussion 

with other operators suggested the following items in 

need of improvement. 

Cage Construction 

A number of approaches have been designed for 

containment of fish in cages. However, placement of 

cages in association with oil and gas platforms 

presents current forces far beyond those experienced 

SOLUTIONS/SUGGESTIONS 

Ultimately, the obstacles enumerated above will be 

favorably resolved . From the perspective of an oil 

and gas operator, the following are some suggestions 

which, if implemented, would help move mariculture 

toward commercial reality. 

Relief from Lease Responsibilities 

Long term liabilities and lease clearance 

responsibilities are a major obstacle to mariculture on 

oil and gas platforms. Proponents are most likely to 

be entrepreneurs without the financial backing to 

adequately take on these responsibilities ; at the same 

time, oil and gas operators will not be veiling to 

retain long term liabilities . A possibility to consider 

is a mechanism for site clearance to be funded up 

front and placed in an appointed trust and the oil and 

gas operator provided with a legally binding release 

from future liabilities . 

Streamline Permitting Requirements 

Some means of simplifying the permitting process is 

essential. Use a lead agency approach, and work 

between the agencies to clarify roles, eliminate 

overlap, and streamline the process. 

Grant Lease Rights to the 

Mariculture Operations 

Some means should be established to protect the 

mariculture operator from damages to his crop from 

other fishing and diving activities . Since a process 

exists to set zone and species closures, the NMFS 

should be able to create some sort of lease rights for 

the mariculture operation. 
300 

CONCLUSION 

Oil and gas operators consider offshore platforms to 

be sort of an idyllic microcosm of sea life . We 

provide structure where one did not previously exist, 

and sea life is attracted and thrives. It makes a great 

deal of sense that these circumstances should 

somehow be capitalized upon. The Rigs-to-Reefs 

Program is a positive step . Commercial farming in 

association with these structures appears to be an 

additional opportunity. Over time, the obstacles, both 

institutional and technological, will probably be 

resolved, and mariculture could evolve into a major 

business and a major food source contributor. 

Mr. David A. Dougall is Manager of Environmental 

Affairs & Safety for Agip Petroleum Company, with 

drilling and production operations in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Mr. Dougall's background includes 

consulting for Pilko & Associates, where he 

conducted environmental risk assessments, 

compliance audits and permitting activities . His 

background also includes corporate and field 

assignments for Phillips Petroleum Co., including 

several years coordinating Phillips' permitting and 

compliance efforts in California. He received his 

M.S . degree in Environmental Science and B.S . 

degree from the University of Oklahoma and is a 

registered professional engineer in Oklahoma and 

Arkansas. 

MARICULTURE IN THE GULF OF 

MEXICO : SEA PRIDE INDUSTRIES' 

SEA TREK AND SEA STAR 

SYSTEMS 

Dr. Edwin Cake, Jr ., Chief Science Officer 

Mr. John D. Ericsson, Chief Executive Officer 

Sea Pride Industries, Inc. 

Gulf Breeze, Florida 

Sea Pride's innovative plans for mariculture in 

federal waters of the U.S . Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS) include (1) installation and operation of the 

Sea Trek Ocean Farming Systems for cage-culture of 

native finfishes in the open sea and (2) operation of 

the Sea Star Oyster Relaying System for cleansing 

and improving of oysters from inshore waters that 

may not meet federal water-quality criteria . Sea Pride 

has spent hundreds of thousands of dollars 

researching, designing, developing, and permitting 

these systems for use in the Gulf of Mexico. 

The patented Sea Trek System (Figure 413.1) will 

consist of a ballastable, concrete platform (similar to 

those already in use by the oil and gas industry on 

the Gulf of Mexico OCS) that rests on the sea floor 

and six ballastable, net-covered, barrel cages arrayed 

radially around the platform. The inner end of the 

cages will be chained to the platform and the outer 

end will be anchored to the sea floor. The barrel 

cages will be ballasted vertically and/or rotated 

horizontally to facilitate fish harvesting, net 

cleansing, biofouling reduction, and storm protection . 

Systems for feeding, aeration, and vacuum transfer of 

the fishes will link each cage with the platform via an 

umbilical connection . 

The Sea Trek System will be located four miles 

southeast of the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama, in 

50 feet of water on the south-western corner of 

Exxon Energy Company's OSC Lease Block 827 . 

The five-acre U.S . Army Corps of 

Engineers-permitted mariculture site will be 

surrounded by a floating AquaFenceO that encloses 

13 acres and reduces floating hazards and user 

conflicts. The Sea Trek System has been designed to 

rear up to three million pounds per year of native 

finfishes including red drum, red snapper, hybrid 

striped bass, and mahimahi (dolphin fish) and will be 

supported by a land-based or platform-based hatchery 

facility . The Sea Trek platform will be manned 24 

hours a day except during hurricane conditions when 

the cages will be ballasted to the sea floor and/or 

released on independent anchoring arrays for fish and 

cage protection. 

Sea Pride received its U.S . Army Corps of Engineers 

(USACOE) permit (#AL93-01004-M) under Section 

10 of the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act in October 

1993. Sea Pride received its U.S . Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA) Ocean Discharge Permit 

(#AL0067237) under Section 403 of the amended 

1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act on 20 

September 1994. To our knowledge, these are the 

first permits issued for mariculture operations and 

related ocean discharges anywhere in U.S . Federal 

OCS waters . 
Figure 4B.1 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Trek Ocean Farming Systems resting in 5U feet of water snowing the central 

platform and the six semisubmerged barrel cages. The cages will be 170 feet in length and 40 feet in diameter. The octagonal platform 

w 

will be 112 feet in diameter and will rise 125 feet from the sea bed. o 
302 

The patent-pending, Sea Star Oyster Relaying System 

(Figure 413 .2) is a ballastable device for holding, 

deploying, cleansing, enhancing, and recovering 

oysters to be relaid from coastal waters that do not 

meet federal water-quality criteria for shellfish 

growing areas. Oysters that are relaid from 

contaminated coastal waters to "approved" waters of 

the open Gulf of Mexico will purge themselves of 

potentially-pathogenic bacteria and viruses during the 

required 14-day relaying periods. The oysters will 

also be enhanced by increasing their internal salt 

content (or "salty" flavor). 

Each Sea Star unit will hold approximately 60,000 

3-inch-plus oysters in 288 plastic trays. A fullyloaded unit will contain eight racks (two stacked 

racks per side x four sides), and each rack will 

contain 36 trays of 200+ oysters each . The Sea Star 

units will rest on the bottom near the Sea Trek site 

off Alabama and/or at an OCS site approximately 3 

miles south of Ship Island, Mississippi. As many as 

12 Sea Star units will be utilized at each site and will 

be deployed and recovered via jack-up vessels or 

other marine equipment. USACOE permits (Rivers & 

Harbors Act, Section 10) are pending for commercial 

oyster-relaying operations at the two OCS sites. 

Public notices were issued by the USACOE Mobile 

District on 6 February 1995, and the permits should 

be granted in March 1995 if no conflicts arise. 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the 

U.S . Department of the Interior facilitated Sea Pride's 

contacts with and ultimate "letter-of-agreement" from 

Exxon for the operation of the Sea Trek Ocean 

Farming System. At present, the MMS has no 

specific regulatory authority or policies relative to 

mariculture activities or operations on the OCS in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Between now and the year 2000 

hundreds of OCS platforms that will be abandoned in 

the nearshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico may be 

suitable for mariculture applications . The MMS will 

have an opportunity to facilitate additional 

mariculture ventures and may exert some regulatory 

authority over such ventures when the abandoned 

platforms are converted for mariculture rather than 

removed as required by current MMS regulations. 

Sea Pride Industries chose its permitted Sea Trek/Sea 

Star site off-Alabama for many reasons, including 

excellent prevailing water-quality conditions (high 

salinity and dissolved oxygen, low nutrient loading, 

acceptable current flows, lack of pollution sources, 

etc.), geological bottom stability, and close proximity 

of ports, infrastructure, and seafood processing 

facilities . Other positive aspects of the nearshore 

Alabama site included the "accepted" presence of 

natural gas exploration and production platforms, 

reduced user-conflict issues, and the pro-mariculture 

philosophy of the Alabama Marine Resources 

Division which operates the Claude Peteet 

Mariculture Center at nearby Gulf Shores. 

The acquisition of requisite USEPA and USACOE 

permits for Sea Pride's mariculture activities has 

been a long and cumbersome, yet successful process . 

At the outset, Sea Pride tried to anticipate the 

environmental information needs of the various 

federal and state regulatory agencies . Sea Pride 

prepared and submitted environmental assessments 

and monitoring proposals to the USEPA knowing 

that its Region-IV staff had never considered a 

permit for ocean discharges from a mariculture 

facility in federal waters. Sea Pride and the USEPA 

negotiated in good faith, and all permit issues were 

resolved satisfactorily . 

Sea Pride has designed and will operate 

environmentally-sound systems in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Sea Pride cannot afford to adversely impact 

the area's water quality because to do so would 

adversely affect the finfish and shellfish stocks that 

will be cultured and/or cleansed . 

The presence of the Sea Trek and Sea Star Systems 

will attract numerous commercially- and 

recreationally-important finfishes and shellfishes to 

the area . Those fishes will in turn attract sports 

fishermen and increase fish catches in the immediate 

vicinity of the platform . The aqueous finfish and 

shellfish wastes that will be diluted and disseminated 

by tidal currents will increase general primary 

production over adjacent areas of the OCS. 

Sea Pride recognizes the worldwide and areawide 

reductions of finfish and shellfish landings and is 

attempting to solve some of the fish shortage via 

mariculture. It has plans to fabricate and deploy Sea 

Trek Ocean Farming Systems in Micronesia and 

other international areas where native finfish 

populations are being depleted via overharvesting, or 

shellfish populations are being threatened by 

increasing human "pollution ." 
303 

Figure 4B.2 . Horizontal view of computer-assisted drawing of the Sea Star Oyster Relaying System showing 

eight oyster racks around the central ballast tank . The system size will approximate a 12-foot 

cube. 
304 

Finally, Sea Pride's believes that its Sea Trek and 

Sea Star operations in the Gulf of Mexico will start 

a new mariculture industry similar to the $75-

million-a-year salmon-culture industry in the U.S . 

Pacific Northwest. A successful Gulf of Mexico 

mariculture industry would reduce U.S . dependence 

on imported fishery products, thereby reducing the 

Federal deficit; increase the availability of highquality finfish and shellfish products ; increase job 

opportunities for underemployed or out-of-work 

fishermen and newly-trained mariculturists ; expand 

the market for regional grain products that will be 

needed for feed formulation; and develop new culture 

systems (platforms, cages, racks, etc.) that can be 

fabricated and serviced by existing industries along 

the Gulf coast, thereby boosting local economies . 

THE ENGINEERING OF 

MARICULTURE PENS IN 

ASSOCIATION WITH OIL AND GAS 

STRUCTURES 

Mr. Clifford A. Goudey 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Sea Grant College Program 

SUMMARY 

Many oil and gas structures in the Gulf of Mexico 

are no longer producing energy and present attractive 

sites for offshore mariculture. By incorporating the 

existing structure into a fish pen system, its removal 

cost can be avoided and the overall system cost can 

be reduced. However, the exposed locations of 

candidate structures are unlike anything experienced 

by conventional, sheltered-water mariculture 

operations and present new challenges . 

Techniques for the design and performance 

prediction of oil and gas structures are well 

established. The prediction of pen system behavior 

and the estimation of loads generated by waves, 

currents, and extreme events have only recently 

received attention. The flexible nature of most pen 

systems is essential to their survivability but it 

complicates their analysis since their geometry is 

variable . Of the many engineering issues confronting 

the mariculture system designer seeking to exploit an 

existing structure, predicting the loads imposed on 

the structure by the pen system is of prime 

importance . 

This presentation describes the use of scale models 

and wave basins as a means of both predicting loads 

and understanding the behavior of complex pen 

systems under simulated environmental exposure. 

MODEL TESTS OF MARICULTURE SYSTEMS 

Many of the practices that have been developed for 

the model testing of ships and structures can be 

applied directly to mariculture systems. The scaling 

of geometry, weight, speed, wave heights, and 

frequencies all follow rules established by Froude . As 

with most conventional model tests, attention to 

model details can be important and the use of as 

large a model as possible is always important. In 

addition, the netting and tension-member portions of 

a pen system require the use of modeling practices 

which have been developed in trawl net testing 

programs . Netting geometric parameters must be 

accounted for as well as the elastic moduli of 

materials used in the netting and load-bearing lines. 

Figure 413.3 is an example of an experimental set-up 

in a circulating water channel aimed at predicting the 

resistance of a pen system in a current. It is important 

to note that the resistance determines the shape and 

the shape determines the resistance : these are highly 

non-linear systems. Such a test set-up is also useful 

in determining netting deformation, water flow, and 

feed pellet trajectories . 

A proper test protocol will call for the introduction of 

netting of several different blockage ratios . In this 

way the effects of biofouling on netting can be 

determined with respect to increased loads and 

reduced water flow. The latter factor can be 

important in determining stocking densities. 

The performance of a mariculture system in waves 

can be predicted through the use of a wave basin. 

Due to the dynamic nature of such tests, the 

contribution of all elements of the system must be 

included such as anchor lines. Figure 413 .4 is an 

example of a test setup in a wave basin of a pen 

designed for full ocean exposure. In such a test, load 

cells are places at a variety of locations within the 

system to determine wave-induced loads and help 
~ two 1250 H .P . 

honey comb At, en ." u- f- inn hri'4nn GlGr frir mn tAV`f 

Figure 4B3. Fish pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin circulating water channel. 

W 

0 

- --- -- - 147' - - ---- --- -----
Rectangular Ocean Spar Buoy 

Surface float pen 

Regular waves 

Damper plate 

Tom weight 

Anchor Tank bottom 

"; ;;;;;";"; ;;," ,  , 

W 

O 

Figure 4B.4 . Ocean Spar pen tests in the David Taylor Model Basin maneuvering and seakeepmg basin. 
CARRIAGE 

DIRECTION 

WAVE 

DIRECTION 

--- -- - ~ -

---- ,\\ 

MODEL & CARRIAGE 

ELEVAIION 

Figure 4B.5 . Combined wave and current tests at trhe David Taylor Modes t3asin maneuvering and seatceepmg nasm. 

w 

0 ~l 
308 

"------- EXISTING OFFSHORE 

OIL RIG 

-LE VA TI ON 

Figure 4B.6 . The tent pen mariculture system . 
309 

identify areas where cyclic loading and snapping are 

potential problems . A test regimen of regular waves 

over a range of frequencies is useful in identifying 

resonant behaviors and associated peak loads. 

Breaking waves are useful in understanding the 

performance of the system under extreme conditions . 

In a unique series of tests further described below, 

the combined effects of current and waves were 

found to be different than the simple summation of 

current and wave results determined separately . This 

is attributable to the non-linearity of these flexible 

systems and provides a strong argument for doing 

combined tests. Figure 413.5 is the experimental 

set-up for a combined current/wave test where the 

entire model and a false bottom is suspended below 

the wave basin carriage to allow its movement 

through the water. 

AN OIL STRUCTURE BASED 

MARICULTURE SYSTEM 

In a collaborative effort by the author and NET 

Systems of Bainbridge Island, Washington, a 

mariculture system sited around an oil structure has 

been designed and evaluated at the model scale. This 

work, sponsored by an SBIR grant, explored a wide 

range of system geometries, finally focusing on a 

concept which offered unique economic appeal . 

An important measure of a pen system's merit is the 

cost of the system versus the enclosed growing 

volume. A further measure is the amount of growing 

volume that is away from the air/water interface and 

the associated wave-induced stress . From a simple 

geometric perspective the concept of a tent-shaped 

pen was quickly identified as attractive . An important 

feature of this concept was the utilization of the 

structure as the central support for the tent pen. It 

was critical, therefore, to determine the loads that 

would be generated by such an installation since that 

would ultimately determine the size and economy of 

the approach. 

A candidate design using a 45V angle for the netting 

was used as the basis for model testing. A 1/10 scale 

model of such a tent pen system surrounding a 

structure in 50 feet of water was evaluated. 

Figure 413.6 shows the model configuration. Model 

wave frequencies ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 Hz in 0 .1 

Hz intervals. Currents (carriage speeds) of 03, 0.5, 

0.7, and 1 .0 were used. These ranges correspond to 

ocean wave frequencies from 0.095 to 0.22 Hz. or 

wave periods from 10 .5 to 4.5 seconds. The 

corresponding full-scale currents range from 0.95 to 

3.16 knots. 

Measurements of anchor loads and structure 

attachment loads were made at selected locations 

within the system. Load data was measured using 

small strain gage load cells and recorded on a 

PC-based data acquisition system . Angle 

measurements of structure attachment lines were 

made manually during each run. Data was analyzed 

and presented in terms of load verses speed or wave 

frequency. Wave data was normalized to a model 

wave height of one foot and presented in terms of 

both average values and amplitudes . 

From the model data, full-scale load predictions can 

be made. Tension members of the systems can be 

determined and anchors and attachment padeyes 

sized. In addition, structural attachment loads and 

their angles can be combined to determine the 

resultant load on the structure and its foundation 

pilings. Through these techniques it was determined 

that, depending on the adequacy of the candidate 

structure, the tent pen concept was both economically 

attractive and feasible from an engineering 

standpoint. 

The ultimate success of an offshore mariculture 

operation will depend on its ability to compete with 

existing sheltered-water operations and wild harvest 

fisheries . Offshore sites offer economies of scale but 

introduce challenges to the designer . Through the use 

of logical design, performance prediction through 

model tests, and the specification of components 

adequate for the task, a tent pen system has been 

introduced which will cost between $7 and $9 per 

cubic meter, including installation but exclusive of 

structure costs. This compared favorably with today's 

protected-water systems which are priced at $10 to 

$20 per cubic meter. 

Industry partners are currently being sought for the 

further development of the tent pen design . Systems 

can be engineered for structures in water depths from 

40 to 100 feet . Interested parties should contact the 

author or Gary Loverich at Net Systems. 
SESSION 4C 

MMS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES REPORTS 
313 

Session: 4C - MMS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES REPORTS 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Pasquale Roscigno and Ms. Carla M. Langley 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction to Reports from MMS Environmental Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno 

Studies Program Ms. Carla M. Langley 

Environmental Studies Section 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Environmental and Economic Assessment of 

Discharges from Gulf of Mexico Region Oil 

and Gas Operations 

Dr. David A. Gettleson 

Dr. Alan D. Hart 

Mr. Bruce D. Graham 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 

Jupiter, Florida 

USDOE Study: Human Health and Ecological 

Risk Assessments for Produced Water Discharges 

Fisheries Impacts of Explosives Used in 

Platform Salvage 

An Assessment of Effects and Remediation of Oil 

Spills in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean 

Ms. Anne F. Meinhold 

Dr. Seymour Holtzman 

Mr. Michael DePhillips 

Dr. Leonard D. Hamilton 

Biomedical and Environmental 

Assessment Group 

Analytical Sciences Division 

Department of Applied Science 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

Mr. Gregg Gitschlag 

Galveston Laboratory 

Southeast Fisheries Center 

Dr. Edward Proffitt 

Louisiana Environmental Research Center 

McNeese State University 

Benthic-Pelagic Coupling in the Gulf of Mexico: Dr. Robert R. Twilley 

Implications for the Fate of Organic Matter on the University of Southwestern Louisiana 

Continental Shelf Dr. Brent A. McKee 

Louisiana Universities Marine Center 
315 

INTRODUCTION TO REPORTS 

FROM MMS ENVIRONMENTAL 

STUDIES PROGRAM 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno 

Ms. Carla M. Langley 

Environmental Studies Section 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC 

ASSESSMENT OF DISCHARGES 

FROM GULF OF MEXICO REGION 

OIL AND GAS OPERATIONS 

Dr. David A. Gettleson 

Dr. Alan D. Hart 

Mr. Bruce D. Graham 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 

Jupiter, Florida 

This session reflects the diversity of topics and 

interests that are of concern to MMS in the Gulf of 

Mexico Region. The range of topics extends from 

human health effects from platform discharges to the 

benthic-pelagic coupling of organic matter . These 

environmental studies are attempts to address the 

many challenges confronting MMS' mission to 

develop our non-renewable natural resources in an 

environmentally sound manner. 

All of these studies look at different aspects of oil 

and gas operations and attempts to examine the 

extent of the impact and offers recommendations on 

mitigating the impacts. While these impacts have 

different scales and probability of occurrence, they 

are concerned with an activity, or consequence of an 

activity, that is characteristic of OCS oil and gas 

operations . The information produced from these 

studies can provide managers and operators with 

timely information which can be used to operate the 

facilities and to protect the environment in a better 

manner. 

OVERVIEW 

In June 1992, the U.S . Department of Energy (DOE) 

contracted with Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 

(CSA) and its team of subcontractors and 

independent consultants to conduct the multi-year 

study entitled Environmental and Economic 

Assessment of Discharges from Gulf of Mexico 

Region Oil and Gas Operations. CSA's 

subcontractors include Arthur D. Little (ADL), 

Battelle Ocean Sciences, Core Laboratories, Florida 

Institute of Technology (FIT), ICF Resources 

Incorporated (ICF), and Steimle and Associates, Inc. 

(SAI); independent consultants include Drs. Bruce 

Honeyman and Wayne Isphording. This research 

effort is being supported under DOE Contract 

Number DE-AC22-92MT92001 . This presentation 

outlines the technical approach being used to meet 

DOE study objectives and summarizes the current 

status of each technical task. 

GENERAL TECHNICAL APPROACH 

Dr. Pasquale F. Roscigno is a program manager in 

the MMS Environmental Studies Section in New 

Orleans. Previously he held several positions in the 

Department of the Interior's Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

Ms . Carla M. Langley is an environmental scientist 

in the MMS Environmental Studies Section in New 

Orleans where she oversees publications coordination 

and information transfer . She is a graduate of the 

University of New Orleans in Louisiana. 

The study is designed to increase the present state of 

scientific knowledge concerning the following topics : 

The fate and environmental effects of 

pollutants found in produced water; 

The economic impacts of current and 

potential future regulations on offshore oil 

and gas producers of the Gulf of Mexico 

region ; and 

The catch, consumption, and human use 

patterns of seafood species collected from 

coastal and offshore waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

The research implemented to address these topics 

will allow for creation of data bases pertaining to : 
316 

The fate and environmental effects of 

naturally occurring radioactive materials 

(NORM), trace metals, and organics in 

water, sediment, and biota near several 

offshore oil and gas facilities ; 

The characteristics of produced water and 

produced sand discharges as they pertain to 

NORM, trace metals, and organics variably 

found in association with these discharges ; 

The recovery of three terminated produced 

water discharge sites located in wetland and 

high energy open bay environments of 

coastal Louisiana; 

The economic and energy supply impacts of 

existing and anticipated Federal and State 

offshore and coastal discharge regulations; 

and 

The catch, consumption, and human use 

patterns of seafood species collected from 

coastal and offshore waters . 

Guidance and expert technical input has also been 

provided by the DOE Contracting Officer's 

Representative, members ofthe scientific community, 

other agencies, and experts on the program team to 

further refine various aspects of the program, 

particularly the field component. Based on DOE's 

data needs, an eight-task research plan was 

implemented in mid-1992. 

SUMMARY AND STATUS OF 

TECHNICAL TASKS 

Task 1 : Organize and Coordinate a Scientific 

Review Committee 

The objective of this task is to organize and 

coordinate a Scientific Review Committee (SRC), 

whose main purpose is to review and critically 

evaluate all aspects of the research program. The 

SRC was established in July 1992. A total of 25 

members comprise the SRC, representing industry 

groups, the scientific community, and the 

government sector (Federal and state agencies). As 

one of their first official duties, the SRC reviewed 

and commented upon the Sampling and Analysis 

Plan (Task 2), submitted in August 1992. SRC 

comments were pertinent to a series of topics, 

including 1) data needs for the human health and 

ecological risk assessments, both of which will be 

completed separately by Brookhaven National 

Laboratory ; and 2) suggested revisions to study 

design . The SRC also supported enhanced 

coordination between CSA, DOE, and other Federal 

agencies or interests. 

Task 2 : Preparation of the Sampling and 

Analysis Plan 

The objective of this task is to develop a Sampling 

and Analysis Plan which describes the research to be 

conducted in Task 3 (Environmental Field Sampling 

and Analysis of NORM, Heavy Metals, and 

Organics), Task 4 (Monitoring of the Recovery of 

Impacted Wetland and Open Bay Produced Water 

Discharge Sites in Coastal Louisiana), and Task 5 

(Assessment of Economic Impacts of Offshore and 

Coastal Discharge Requirements on Present and 

Future Operations in the Gulf of Mexico Region). 

The draft Sampling and Analysis Plan was issued in 

August 1992 and reviewed by the SRC. Based on 

SRC comments, as well as comments and 

recommendations from DOE and other agencies and 

individuals, further revisions to the Sampling and 

Analysis Plan have been completed and integrated 

into the study design. 

Task 3: Environmental Field Sampling and 

Analysis of NORM, Heavy Metals, and Organics 

The objective of this task is to gather data necessary 

to characterize the extent of radionuclide 

contamination in water, sediment, and biota at 

produced water and produced sand discharge points . 

Heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbon data are 

also being collected. NORM, heavy metal, and 

petroleum hydrocarbon data are to be used to 

evaluate the risks associated with produced water and 

produced sand discharges to human health and the 

environment. This risk assessment process involves 

following the discharge of pollutants from the source 

through its transport in the receiving environment, 

including indigenous fauna and humans. 

Eight platform sites and six reference sites (Table 

4C.1) located in OCS waters off Texas and Louisiana 

were selected following a rigorous review of 53 

candidate offshore facilities . Task 3 sampling was 

initiated in June 1993 and continued into the summer 

months. The numbers and types of samples collected 

at primary and secondary platform sites and reference 

sites are summarized in Table 4C.2 . A matrix 

summary of the analyses performed on these samples 

is provided in Table 4C3. Radionuclides of interest 
317 

include RaZ26 RaZZB PbZ'° Po2'° and ThzzB while a 

total of 14 metals, three petroleum hydrocarbon 

classes (VOA, SHC, PAH), and six other elements 

are also to be determined in effluent, water, 

sediments, and tissues according to the analyses 

outlined in Table 4C3. All analyses will be 

completed in 1994 with a report to follow in 1995. 

An additional element of this task involves the 

pollutant removal efficiency of produced sand 

washing technologies . Samples of produced sand are 

being analyzed for NORM, heavy metal, and 

petroleum hydrocarbons both before and after 

treatment by mechanical/chemical washing devices. 

1993 and spring 1994) and Bay de Chene (spring and 

fall 1994). The first post-termination survey at Bay 

de Chene was delayed due to a delay in the 

termination schedule. No post-termination surveys 

have been conducted at Four Isle Dome as the 

discharge has not been terminated . A final survey 

(spring 1995) is planned with a report to follow in 

late 1995/early 1996. 

Task 5 : Assessment of Economic Impacts of 

Offshore and Coastal Discharge Requirements on 

Present and Future Operations in the Gulf of 

Mexico Region 

Task 4: Monitoring of the Recovery of Impacted 

Wetland and Open Bay Produced Water 

Discharge Sites in Coastal Louisiana 

The objectives of this task are to 1) identify and 

characterize the rates of ecological recovery at 

terminated produced water discharge sites located in 

select coastal wetlands and open bay environments of 

Louisiana; and 2) study the geochemical mobility of 

radionuclides, heavy metals, and organics in 

sediment and water. In addition, samples of water, 

sediment and commercially- and recreationallyimportant fish and shellfish tissues have been or will 

be taken in the vicinity of terminated discharges and 

analyzed for radionuclide content; results of these 

analyses will be used to support a separate health and 

environmental risk assessment for radionuclides 

discharged in produced water and sand. 

Oil and gas facilities located in wetland and bay 

environments of Texas and Louisiana were screened 

as potential sampling locations using similar methods 

to those employed in establishing Task 3 sampling 

sites. Candidate facilities included those which had 

proposed the termination of their respective produced 

water discharges coincident with the current program 

schedule . A review of facility-specific produced 

water discharge data was also completed. Based on 

these evaluations, three sites in coastal Louisiana 

(i .e ., one canal site, two open water bay sites) were 

selected for sampling (Table 4C.4). The numbers and 

types of samples collected at each coastal site are 

summarized in Table 4C .5 . A matrix summary of the 

analyses being performed is provided in Table 4C.6 . 

Pre-termination sampling was completed in spring 

1993 at Delacroix Island and Bay de Chene, and in 

fall 1993 at Four Isle Dome. Two post-termination 

surveys have been conducted at Delacroix Island (fall 

The objective of this task is to assess the economic 

and energy supply impacts of recent effluent 

limitation guidelines and New Source Performance 

Standards (NSPS) on oil and gas operations in 

offshore and coastal areas, both alone and in 

comparison to other regulatory requirements at the 

State and Federal level. These impacts are to be 

assessed and presented in terms of the cost to the 

petroleum industry, current offshore oil and gas 

production which could be abandoned, future 

potentially recoverable oil and gas reserves that could 

become uneconomic, and future leasing in the Gulf 

of Mexico that could be diminished . A draft report 

will be submitted to DOE in January 1995. 

Task 6: Synthesis of Gulf of Mexico Region 

Consumption and Use Patterns 

The objective of this task is to gather and assemble 

information regarding the seafood catch, 

consumption, and use patterns for the Gulf of Mexico 

region . In meeting this objective, descriptive field 

surveys (e .g., via interviews, questionnaires) and a 

detailed review of pertinent general literature and 

government and research data are being conducted to 

develop the database. A draft report will be submitted 

to DOE in January 1995. 

Task 7: Technology Transfer Plan 

The objective of this task is facilitate dissemination 

of the information collected during this study. To this 

end, the program has adopted a three-tiered approach 

to make data available quickly and in a useable form. 

The three primary elements of technology transfer 

include 1) preparation of short, succinct progress 

reports or public abstracts; 2) presentation of 

progress reports and study results at MMS 
318 

Table 4C.1 . Platform and reference sites, Task 3. 

NORM 

Water Loading 

Depth ZZ6Ra & ZZgRa 

(feet) (pCi/day) 

Primary Platform Sites 

South Marsh Island 130B 215 1,411 

South Marsh Island 236A 20 1,758 

Vermilion 214A 127 1,022 

High Island 595CF 400 1,280 

Secondary Platform Sites 

Eugene Island 313A 236 75 

High Island 382F 341 345 

High Island 323A 235 38 

Matagorda Island 703A 167 6 

Reference Sites (platform -

no produced water discharge) 

South Marsh Island 229C 18 ---

Vermilion 298 and 305 66 ---

(Sonnier Bank) 

Reference Sites (non-platform) 

West Cameron 448 120 ---

South Marsh Island 195 210 ---

Galveston 90 132 ---

Galveston 204 210 --- 
319 

Table 4C.2 . Types of samples and data, Task 3 . 

Primary Platform Sites 

Produced Water 

initial collection (6 collections) 

monthly for 6 months 

Sediments 

25 stations (replicates at selected 

stations) 

Produced Sand 

3 replicates 

Pore Water 

3 stations 

Hydrography and Currents Biological Tissues 

profiles and continuous N 1 invertebrate biofouling species 

2 invertebrate soft bottom species 

Discharge Plume Water m 4 fish species 

3 replicates at 5 distances-5, 10, 30, 

50, and 100 m Harvestable Biota 

3 trawls 

Secondary Platform Sites 

Produced Water Biological Tissues 

1 collection of 3 replicates E 1 invertebrate biofouling species 

2 invertebrate soft bottom species 

4 fish species 

Reference Sites (non-platform) 

Ambient Water Sediments 

1 collection of 3 replicates 0 1 station with 3 replicates 

Reference Sites (platform - no produced water discharge) 

Ambient Water Biological Tissues 

1 collection of 3 replicates N 1 invertebrate biofouling species 

2 invertebrate soft bottom species 

4 fish species 
320 

Table 4C3. Analyses, Task 3. 

Produced Produced Discharge Ambient Pore Biological 

Water Sand Plume Water Sediments Water Tissues 

Radionuclides 

RaZZb X X X X X X X 

RaZZ$ X X X X X X X 

Pb 210 X X X X X X X 

P0210 

-228 X ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ --- 

Metals 

A1 --- X --- 

As X X --- X X --- X 

Ba X X --- X X --- X 

Cd X X --- X X --- X 

Cr --- X --- --- X --- X 

Cu X X --- X X --- X 

Fe X X --- X X --- X 

Pb X X --- X X --- X 

Mn X X --- X X --- X 

Hg X X --- X X --- X 

Mo X X --- X X --- X 

Ni X X --- X X --- X 

V X X --- X X --- X 

Zn X X --- X X --- X 

Hydrocarbons 

VOA X --- X X --- --- --- 

SHC X X --- --- X --- --- 

PAH X X --- X X --- X 

Other Elements 

Calcium --- --- --- --- X --- --- 

Chloride X --- --- X --- --- --- 

DOC X --- --- 

Sulfate X --- --- --- --- --- --- 

Grain Size --- X --- --- X --- --- 

TOC --- X --- 
321 

Table 4C .4 . Study sites and sampling, Task 4. 

Radionuclide 

Termination RazZb and RazZB Discharge 

Site of Discharge Environment (pCi/1) (bbl/day) 

Delacroix Island May 1993 Saline, Open-Water 273 --- 1,397 

Tank Battery # 1 

Bay de Chene October 1993 Saline, Open-Water 106 --- 4,016 

Four Isle Dome Canal 295 448 1,340 

Table 4C.5 . Types of samples and data, Task 4 

Produced Water 

pre-termination survey only 

Sediments 

10-17 surficial sediment stations (7 stations with 3 replicates) 

m 3 deep sediment stations (pre-termination and second post-termination surveys only, three replicates at 20 to 

25 and 35 to 40 cm depths) 

Pore Water 

m 3 stations (pre-termination and second post-termination surveys only, three replicates at 0 to 5, 20 to 25, and 

35 to 40 cm depths) 

Biological Tissues 

m 3 stations (pre-termination and second post-termination surveys only) 

m 3-5 species (fish, shrimp, and crab) 

Macroinfauna 

10-17 stations (6 replicates collected with 3 replicates analyzed) 

Harvestable Finfish and Shellfish 

m gill net, cast net, and trawl (if possible) 

crab traps 

oysters (presence/absence within 500 m of discharge) 
322 

Table 4C.6 . Analyses, Task 4. 

Produced Surficial Sediments Deep Pore Water Biological 

Water' (SSZ) (SS') SedimentsZ 0-5 cm 20-25 and TissueS2 

35-00 cm 

Radionuclides 

RazZb X X X X X X X** 

RaZZB X X X X X X X** 

Pb 210 X --- --- --- --- 

--- 

P0210 

Thzzs X --- --- --- --- --- --- 

Metals 

A1 --- X X --- --- --- 

As X X X 

Ba X X X 

Cd X X X 

--- X X --- --- --- --- 

CUu X X X 

Fe X X X 

Pb X X X 

Mn X X X 

Hg X X X 

Mo X X X 

Ni X X X 

V X X X 

Zn X X X 

Hydrocarbons 

VOA X X* --- --- --- --- --- 

SHC X X X --- --- --- --- 

PAH X X X X X --- --- 

Other Elements 

Calcium --- X X --- --- --- --- 

Chloride X --- --- X X X --- 

DOC X --- --- X X X --- 

Si --- --- --- --- --- 

Sulfate X --- --- X X --- --- 

Grain Size --- X X --- --- --- --- 

TOC --- X X X --- --- --- 

* - Only at discharge during pre-termination survey 

** - Pending available funds 

' - Pre-termination survey 

- Pre-termination and second post-termination surveys 

3 

- First and third post-termination surveys 
323 

Information Transfer Meetings (ITM); and 3) 

presentation of study results at scientific conferences 

and preparation of study results for publication in 

peer-reviewed literature . 

Task 8 : Project Management and Deliverables 

Preparation 

The objective of this task is to ensure proper project 

management, including routine oversight of CSA and 

subcontractor staff, strict adherence to established 

quality assurance and quality control procedures and 

protocols, and timely and thorough preparation of 

technically sound deliverables . Given the modified 

technical approach realized since June 1992, revised 

management and cost plans and milestone schedule 

have been developed. An expanded quality 

assurance/quality control program specific to 

radioactive nuclides has also been developed. 

Dr. David Gettleson is President and Scientific 

Director of Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA), 

located in Jupiter, FL. He has 17 years of scientific 

management experience with major research 

programs for federal, state, and industrial clients. He 

has been involved in the preparation of numerous 

environmental assessment documents covering a 

wide range of human activities in the marine 

environment, including oil and gas operations, 

dredging and dredged material disposal, beach 

restoration, artificial reef siting, power plant 

effluents, sewage outfalls, and waste incineration . Dr. 

Gettleson received a B.A. degree in biology from 

Rollins College in 1971 and earned his Ph.D. degree 

in biological oceanography from Texas A&M 

University in 1976. 

Dr. Alan Hart has worked at Continental Shelf 

Associates, Inc. (CSA) for 12 years, presently as a 

Senior Scientist. He has been involved in the study 

design, field, laboratory, data analysis, and data 

interpretation phases of numerous projects conducted 

for private, industry, and government entities . He 

received his Ph.D. degree in oceanography from 

Texas A&M in 1981 . 

state, and industrial clients and has served as Project 

Manager and/or Chief Scientist on numerous marine 

sampling projects . He has been involved in various 

projects including oil and gas lease block 

photodocumentation, dredge disposal monitoring, 

beach restoration, power plant effluents, and oil and 

gas biological monitoring. Mr Graham received his 

M.S . degree in biological sciences from Florida 

Institute of Technology in 1983. 

USDOE STUDY: HUMAN HEALTH 

AND ECOLOGICAL RISK 

ASSESSMENTS FOR PRODUCED 

WATER DISCHARGES 

Ms. Anne F. Meinhold 

Dr. Seymour Holtzman 

Mr. Michael DePhillips 

Dr. Leonard D. Hamilton 

Biomedical and Environmental Assessment Group 

Analytical Sciences Division 

Department of Applied Science 

Brookhaven National Laboratory 

INTRODUCTION 

Produced water generated during the production of 

oil and gas can contain high concentrations of 

radionuclides, organics and heavy metals . There are 

concerns about potential human health and ecological 

impacts from the discharge of these contaminants to 

the Gulf of Mexico. 

Data collected in the United States Department of 

Energy (USDOE) field study (Gettleson et al. 1994) 

are being used in a series of human health and 

ecological risk assessments. These assessments will 

support scientifically-based regulation and risk 

management. 

This presentation summarizes risk assessments 

performed for produced water discharges ; describes 

how uncertainties in these assessments are guiding 

data collection efforts in the USDOE field study; and 

outlines ongoing risk assessment studies . 

Bruce Graham is a Marine Biologist/Senior Staff 

Scientist at Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA) 

located in Jupiter, Florida. He has 10 years' 

experience with major research programs for federal, 

In these studies, risk assessment is treated as an 

iterative process. An initial screening-level 

assessment is performed to identify important 
324 

contaminants, transport and exposure pathways, and 

parameters . These intermediate results are used to 

guide data collection efforts and refinements to the 

analysis . At this stage in the analysis, risk is 

described in terms of probabilities; the uncertainties 

in each measured or modeled parameter are 

considered explicitly . 

PHASE I - COASTAL RISK ASSESSMENT 

A screening-level assessment of health and 

environmental risks associated with the discharge of 

radium in produced water to coastal Louisiana was 

performed for the American Petroleum Institute 

(Hamilton et al . 1992). This Phase I screening-level 

analysis was based on simple models and 

conservative, worst-case assumptions . The analysis 

concluded that no detectable impacts to fishes or 

shellfish would result from the discharge of radium 

in produced waters. The study also small risks to 

human health, but possible important risks 

(individual lifetime fatal cancer risk greater than 1 x 

10' ) for an individual ingesting a large amount of 

seafood harvested near a produced water discharge 

point over a lifetime . Estimated population risks were 

similar to those expected for background radium 

concentrations in the Gulf of Mexico. 

PHASE II - OFFSHORE RISK ASSESSMENT 

discharges to the Gulf of Mexico (Meinhold et al. 

1993). The subpopulation most at risk from radium 

discharged offshore is recreational fishermen and 

their families . The exposure route of greatest concern 

is the ingestion of radium in fishes caught near the 

platforms. 

The analysis was less dependent on simplistic and 

conservative assumptions than the Phase I coastal 

risk assessment and used Monte Carlo methods and 

distributions of parameters to produce a probabilistic 

analysis of risk . 

Two approaches were used: direct assessment and 

predictive modeling analysis . Direct assessment was 

based on measured concentrations of radium in 

edible fish near three shallow offshore platforms and 

is assumed to represent a "worst-case" analysis . 

Predictive modeling analysis estimated risks 

associated with representative offshore platforms . 

Radium in Water and Fish 

In the direct assessment, uniform distributions of 

radium concentrations in fish were based on field 

data (Continental Shelf Associates 1992; Steimle & 

Associates 1992) for three shallow (17, 19 and 22 m 

depth) offshore platforms in the Gulf of Mexico 

(Table 4C.7). 

This human health risk assessment was supported by 

USDOE and focused on radium in offshore oil field 

For the predictive analysis, a data base for 125 

produced water platforms in the Gulf of Mexico 

Table 4C .7 . Uniform distributions of radium concentrations used in direct risk assessment for the Eugene Island, 

Ship Shoal and South Timbalier platforms (Continental Shelf Associates 1992; Steimle & Associates 

1992). 

Platform Ra-226 (pCi/g) Ra-228 (pCi/g) 

mean range mean range 

Eugene Island 0.08 0 - 0.16* 0 .365 0 - 0.73* 

Ship Shoal 0.135 0 - 0.27* 0.89 0 - 1 .78 

South Timbalier 0.005** 0-0.01 135 0-2.7 

Background 0.005 0-0.01 0.005 0-0.01 

* maximum value based on 1/2 a reported "less than quantitation limit" value. 

** no Ra-226 was detected in fishes at South Timbalier, distribution used is assumed background distribution . 
325 

(Stephenson and Supernaw 1990; USEPA 1993) was 

used to describe the range of discharge rates and 

radium discharge concentrations in the Gulf of 

Mexico. The Offshore Operators Committee (OOC) 

model (Brandsma 1983) was used to estimate the 

average dilution achieved within a 50 m radius for 

outfalls in 67 m of water, discharging 5,000, 15,000 

and 25,000 bbl/d. Model results were used to derive 

an empirical relationship between discharge rate 

(bbl/d) and average dilution . 

distribution of the calculated intake rates for 

recreational fishermen. 

Lognormal distributions of the risk factors for Ra226 and Ra-228 (individual lifetime fatal cancer risk 

per pCi/day) were derived from values developed by 

the United States Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA; Federal Register 1991). 

Results 

In the predictive assessment, a distribution of radium 

concentration factors was used to estimate the range 

of radium concentrations in fishes . These 

concentration factors were derived from a field study 

conducted near coastal discharges in the Gulf of 

Mexico (Continental Shelf Associates 1991). Figure 

4C.1 shows the predicted distribution of Ra-226 

concentrations in fishes living in the plume. 

Exposure Parameters and Risk Factors 

Fish intake rates for recreational fishermen and their 

families were derived from data collected by the 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS 1991). 

The parameters and distributions used in the 

estimation of intake rates for recreational fishermen 

are given in Table 4C.8 . Figure 4C.2 shows the 

In the direct risk assessment, median individual 

lifetime fatal cancer risks to recreational fishermen 

ranged from 2.8 x 10' to 7.0 x 10', and the upper 

95% confidence limit ranged from 1 .2 x 10' to 4.0 x 

10-0 . Individual lifetime risks associated with 

background radium concentrations in fishes were 

approximately one order of magnitude smaller. 

Figure 4C3 shows the predicted individual lifetime 

fatal cancer risk distribution for the platform with the 

highest median individual lifetime fatal cancer risk 

(South Timbalier, median: 7.0 x 10') . 

In the predictive risk assessment, the median 

incremental individual lifetime fatal cancer risk for 

the ingestion of fishes living in the plume was 1 .7 x 

10-' and the upper 95% confidence limit was 2.0 x 

10'. The risk distribution calculated for ingestion of 

fish living in the total cylinder of water surrounding 

the platform had a median value of 6.5 x 10-'°. 

Table 4C.8 . Summary of parameters used to estimate the rate of ingestion for fishes caught near offshore platforms 

(means and standard deviations are arithmetic). 

PARAMETER DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION 

No. of Fish Caught lognormal, mean : 5.4, sd: 9 .2, range: 0 .011-116 

Weight of Fish (kg) lognormal, mean: 1 .9, sd : 3 .0, range: 0.1-24.6 

No. Days Fished (d/yr) lognormal, mean: 19.5, sd : 29.6, range: 1-251 

Edible Fraction 03 

Family Size data for southern U.S . from USDOC (1989) 

Maximum Ingestion Rate (g/d) 150 
326 

.166 

.08 

a 0 

a- .04-

.00 

0.000 0 .061 0 .122 0.183 0.244 

pCi/g 

Figure 4C .1 . Predicted Ra-226 concentration deistrbution in fishes living in the plume. 

.17 

.08 -

0 

L 

°- .04 

.00 

0 37 .5 75 .0 112 150 

gVd 

Figure 4C .2 . Calculated distribution of ingestion rates for recretional fishermen (g/d). 
327 

.35 

.18 

0 

.09 

.00 

0 .00 1 .00E-4 2 .00E-4 3 .00E-4 4.00E-4 

Individual Lifetime Fatal Cancer Risk 

Figure 4C3. Predicted individual lifetime fatal cancer risk distribution for recrenonai nsnermen at :!)ouin 

Timbalier. 

The results of the predictive assessment represent 

estimates of the risk distribution for deep water 

offshore platforms in Louisiana. These estimates are 

smaller than the risks that were estimated in the 

direct risk assessment because of the following: 

1) the platforms studied in the direct assessment were 

in shallower water and larger impacts are expected; 

and 2) the direct analysis was based on field data that 

required conservative assumptions to allow the use of 

values that were coded as "less than" the quantitation 

limit. 

UNCERTAINTIES AND THE USDOE 

FIELD STUDY 

An uncertainty/sensitivity analysis was performed to 

assess the importance of major uncertainties to the 

final risk estimates and to guide further research and 

data collection efforts. The most important 

contributors to uncertainty in the final risk estimates 

are 1) the parameters that contribute to the estimate 

of the radium concentration in fish ; and 2) the 

amount of fish caught near produced water 

discharges that is then ingested by recreational 

fishermen. 

Data collection in the USDOE field study is guided 

by the need to reduce these important uncertainties . 

This field study will improve the data base for human 

health and environmental risk assessments by 1) 

reducing the quantitation limit for radium 

measurements in water and edible seafood; 2) 

increasing the number of replicate samples; 

3) defining background concentrations in water and 

biota; and 4) surveying seafood consumption patterns 

of recreational fishermen. 

DATA FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND 

ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENTS 

Current work is aimed at reviewing and synthesizing 

data for use in human health and ecological risk 

assessments for radionuclides, metals and organics in 

produced water discharged to coastal and offshore 

Louisiana. Data collection and review are focused on 

three areas that will support the planned risk 

assessments: 1) data describing ingestion rates for 
328 

recreational fishermen; 2) dose-response relationships 

for human health risk assessment ; and 3) data to 

support quantitative and qualitative ecological risk 

assessments. 

Ingestion Rates for Recreational Fishermen 

The USDOE field study includes a survey of 

recreational and commercial fishermen in Louisiana 

and Texas. The survey and associated statistical 

analyses are being done by Steimle and Associates, 

Inc. Results from this study will be used to develop 

distributions of the amount of fish caught near 

coastal and offshore platforms that is ingested by 

recreational fishermen. 

Dose-response for Human Health Risk 

For contaminants of potential concern, USEPA slope 

factors and reference doses will be documented and 

reviewed to identify excessive conservatisms. Where 

appropriate, more realistic and up-to-date doseresponse relationships and uncertainty distributions 

will be developed from the available literature . 

Ecological Risk 

The current emphasis in this area is to develop a 

review and synthesis of the available data to support 

both quantitative and qualitative ecological risk 

assessments. The emphasis is on data relating to 

impacts on the Gulf of Mexico. 

This data synthesis and review is focused on several 

kinds of information: 

" studies of produced water toxicity ; 

" USEPA water quality criteria and toxicity 

studies for individual contaminants ; 

" sediment quality criteria and toxicity 

studies; 

" dosimetry for radionuclides; 

" effects on benthic communities; 

" histopathologic and genotoxic effects in 

fish ; 

" commercially important fisheries; and 

" endangered species and sensitive 

ecosystems. 

ONGOING AND FUTURE RISK 

ASSESSMENTS 

Risk assessments planned for 1995 and 1996 include 

an assessment of the human health and 

environmental impacts associated with the continuing 

discharge of produced water to Louisiana open bays, 

and offshore . An analysis based on field studies of 

the recovery of several sites is also planned to 

estimate the risk reduction achieved through the 

elimination of produced water discharges to coastal 

Louisiana. 

These assessments will be supported by data 

collected in the USDOE field study and by the 

previously described data review. The first 

assessment performed will be for the continuing 

discharge of produced water to Louisiana open bays . 

Initial steps in this assessment include: 1) describe 

available discharge data and discharging platforms; 

2) estimate environmental concentrations of metals, 

radionuclides and organics ; and 3) perform a 

conservative screening analysis (both human health 

and ecological) to identify important contaminants, 

pathways and endpoints. For important contaminants 

and pathways, a more detailed probabilistic 

assessment will be performed. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This work was supported by the United States 

Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, with 

guidance from Dr. Brent Smith as project officer. 

Work Performed Under Contract No. DE-AC02-

76CH000 with the U.S . Department of Energy . 

REFERENCES 

Brandsma, M.G. 1983. A state of the art review of 

modeling of drilling fluids and cuttings . In 

Proceedings of the workshop on an evaluation of 

effluent dispersion and fate models for OCS 

platforms, Santa Barbara, Calif. February 7-10, 

1983, Volume 2 pp. 24-34, MBC Applied 

Environmental Sciences . 

Continental Shelf Associates . 1991 . Measurements of 

naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) 

at three produced water outfalls . Continental 

Shelf Associates, Inc., Jupiter Fla. Prepared for 
329 

Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Association, Baton 

Rouge, La. 

Continental Shelf Associates . 1992. Measurements of 

naturally occurring radioactive material at two 

offshore production platforms in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico, preliminary data report . 

Prepared for the American Petroleum Institute, 

Washington, D.C . 

Stephenson, M.T. and I.R . Supernaw. 1990. Offshore 

operators committee 44 platform study, 

radionuclide analysis results. Texaco, Inc. 

USDOC. 1989. American housing survey for the 

United States in 1987 . United States Department 

of Commerce, U.S . Department of Housing and 

Urban Development, Washington, D.C . H-150-

87. 

Federal Register. 1991 . Environmental Protection 

Agency, National Primary Drinking Water 

Regulations ; Radionuclides, 40 CFR Parts 

141,142, 56:138 :33050. 

Gettleson, D., A. Hart and B. Graham. 1994. USDOE 

study: environmental and economic assessment 

of discharges from the Gulf of Mexico region oil 

and gas operations . In Proceedings: fifteenth 

annual Gulf of Mexico information transfer 

meeting, November 1994 . U.S . Department of 

the Interior, Minerals Mgmt. Service, New 

Orleans, La. 

Hamilton, L.D., A.F . Meinhold and J. Nagy. 1992. 

Health risk assessment for radium discharged in 

produced waters . In J.P . Ray and F.R. Engelhart. 

(eds .) . Produced Water. New York : Plenum 

Press pp. 303-314. 

Meinhold, A.F ., L.D . Hamilton, S. Holtzman and S. 

Baxter . 1993. Human health risk assessment for 

radium discharged in produced water offshore 

Phase II, prepared for Metairie Site Office, U.S . 

Department of Energy, Metairie, La., 

Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New 

York 11973, BNL-60107 . 

NMFS. 1991 . Marine recreational fishery survey, 

Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 1987-1989. U.S . 

Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Silver Springs, MD. Current 

Fisheries Statistics Number 8904. 

Steimle & Associates . 1992. Fate and effects of 

radionuclides, data report, prepared for the 

American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C . 

USEPA. 1993. Produced water radioactivity study, 

final draft. Office of Science and Technology, 

Office of Water, United States Environmental 

Protection Agency, Washington, D.C . 

Ms. Anne Meinhold is an Environmental Research 

Associate in the Department of Applied Science at 

Brookhaven National Laboratory . She has a B.S . in 

biology from the State University of New York at 

Stony Brook, and a M.S . in environmental science 

from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . 

Her research interests focus on environmental risks. 

Dr. Seymour Holtzman has worked in the Biomedical 

and Environmental Assessment Group at Brookhaven 

National Laboratory since 1990, specializing in 

health and environmental risk assessments. He 

received his B.S . and M.A. in biology from the City 

College of New York, and his Ph.D. in biology 

(comparative animal physiology) from the City 

University of New York. 

Mr. Michael DePhillips has been working as an 

Associate Environmental Scientist at Brookhaven 

National Laboratory for the past four years, 

researching and assessing a variety of environmental 

issues with regard to energy production, policy and 

regulation . Mr. DePhillips received a B.A. in political 

science and an M.S . in environmental sciences from 

the State University of New York at Stony Brook. 

Dr. Leonard Hamilton was head of the Biomedical 

and Environmental Assessment Group at Brookhaven 

National Laboratory for 20 years, and is Professor of 

Medicine at the State University of New York at 

Stony Brook, and World Health Organization focal 

point on Energy and Health . His major area of 

research interest is environmental risks. Dr. 

Hamilton, a physician, received his D.M. from 
330 

Oxford University and his Ph.D. in experimental 

pathology from Cambridge University . 

FISHERIES IMPACTS OF 

EXPLOSIVES USED IN PLATFORM 

SALVAGE 

Mr. Gregg Gitschlag 

Galveston Laboratory 

Southeast Fisheries Center 

INTRODUCTION 

This report describes preliminary results of the fish 

kill resulting from the explosive removal of three 

platforms between August 1993 and August 1994. A 

typical platform is constructed with three 

components : an upper deck above the water line, a 

jacket resembling an oil derrick in appearance which 

sits on the sea floor, and long pilings inside each 

hollow corner of the jacket driven into the sea floor 

down to 30 meters (100 ft) or more. Most platform 

removals begin when the upper deck is cut off with 

torches and lifted onto a materials barge. Explosives 

are then lowered into the hollow legs of the jacket to 

a minimum depth of five meters (15 ft) which is a 

requirement of Minerals Management Service. 

Explosives are detonated to sever the pilings which 

are then pulled with a large crane. The jacket is lifted 

out of the water and loaded onto a materials barge for 

shipment back to shore or to an artificial reef dump 

site . One inevitable result of underwater explosives 

is a negative impact on marine life in the immediate 

area . 

OBJECTIVES 

The objectives of the study include 

1 . Estimating the number of fish at risk at 

study platforms. 

2. Estimating the mortality of fish at study 

platforms. 

3 . Estimating the total at-risk fish population in 

the Gulf of Mexico. 

4. Estimating the effects on the productivity of 

at-risk populations (especially red snapper). 

5. Compare these effects with those from other 

sources of mortality. 

6. Evaluate mitigation strategies for impacts on 

reproduction . 

7. Assess need for additional sampling in order 

to improve the precision of the 

determinations of the impacts. 

This report focuses on the second of these objectives : 

the estimation of finfish mortality after explosions . 

METHODS 

Several sampling procedures were employed to 

collect data for assessing finfish mortality. First, we 

collected all dead fish floating at the surface after the 

explosion. Field crews operating from two inflatable 

Zodiacs picked up fish with dip nets . The fish were 

transferred from the Zodiacs to utility vessel where 

fish were measured and identified to species. 

Selected species were also weighed. A sample of 

dead fish that settled to the sea bottom was collected 

using three techniques . The first utilized frame nets 

placed beneath the platform . These nets were 

constructed of trawl mesh secured to 3 x 3 meter (10 

x 10 ft) galvanized pipe frames . Approximately 20-

30% of the footprint area immediately under the 

structure was sampled with this technique. Transect 

lines were used to sample the open water area around 

the platform . SCUBA divers collected fish in defined 

corridors on either side of transect lines radiating 100 

meters (328 ft) out from the structure. Frame nets 

similar to those placed beneath the platform were 

also used to sample the open water area at the first 

study site . At subsequent sites these nets were 

replaced with circular surveys in which divers 

collected fish within 6.7 meter (22 ft) diameter 

circles within a 100 meter (328 ft) radius of the 

platform (Figure 4C.4). This provided a larger survey 

area than the frame nets and reduced sampling time . 

A straightforward approach was used to analyze the 

data . The area within 100 meters (328 ft) of the 

platform was subdivided into geometric regions 

similar to those delineated in Figure 4C .4 by 

concentric circles and transect lines. The number of 

fish present in a sample was divided by the sample 

area to obtain fish density. The total area of each 

geometric region was then multiplied by fish density 

of the samples to estimate the number of fish killed 

within that region . This procedure was applied 

independently to data from transect lines, circular 

surveys, and frame nets . 
100 m 

'50m 25 

i 

[3 Platform 

- Transect - - - - " 

" Circular survey 

4C.4 . Transect and circular survey placement at SMl 23 Platform A. w W 
332 

RESULTS 

During the past two field seasons three explosive 

platform removals were monitored to assess impacts 

on finfish. These included a 24-pile platform in 14 

meters (45 feet) of water in West Delta Block 30 

located about 3 km (6 nm) from the Louisiana coast 

near Grand Isle . Two four-pile platforms were also 

studied, one in South Marsh Island Block 23 in 17 

meters (55 ft) of water and another in Ship Shoal 

Block 158 in 25 meters (82 ft) of water. The 24-pile 

structure was 39 years old and was in very poor 

condition with holes rusted through some of the 

structural members. The four-pile platforms were 12 

and 33 years old. At the 24-pile platform, 291 kg 

(640 lb) of explosives were detonated 6-9 meters (20-

30 feet) below the mudline on the first of 3 

detonation events . Intensive sampling was only 

conducted after the first series of detonations 

although observers estimated the surface fish kill 

resulting from the two subsequent detonation events . 

Intensive sampling was conducted at the two fourpile structures which were removed with single blast 

events involving 159 and 73 kg (350 and 160 lb) of 

explosives each . 

Results from all three removals combined showed the 

vast majority (617) of fish mortalities were collected 

within 25 meters (82 ft) of the platform with 57 fish 

taken from 25-50 meters (82-164 ft) and six fish 

from 50-100 meters (164-328 ft). 

At the first four-pile platform (SS 158 Platform C) 

studied 109 fish were collected at the surface, 162 in 

frame nets under the platform, 44 from transects, and 

111 from circular surveys for a total of 426 fish . Of 

these 33 were red snapper and 22 were other snapper 

species. The estimated fish kill under the platform 

was 540. Estimates for open water areas obtained 

from transect and circular surveys were comparable 

at approximately 4,400 and 3,900, respectively . The 

total estimated fish kill ranged from 4,600-5,000. 

The total fish kill at the second four-pile platform 

(SMI 23 Platform A) was nearly identical at 4,800-

5,000 fish, but the distribution by sampling gear was 

quite different. Nearly 1,300 fish were collected at 

the surface compared with 109 at the previous fourpile platform. Over 700 of these were red snapper. 

One hundred eighteen were taken under the platform, 

201 from transects, and 210 from circular surveys for 

a total of approximately 1800 fish. Of these nearly 

800 were red snapper and 59 were other species of 

snapper. There was great similarity in open water 

estimates of fish mortality derived from transect 

(3,100) and circular surveys (3,000). 

At the 24-pile platform a total of 641 fish were 

collected. None of them were red snapper. Eighty 

were other species of snapper, primarily gray 

snapper. The total estimated fish kill was 1,300-1,800 

for the first of three detonation events . The combined 

surface kill at these subsequent blasts was visually 

estimated at about twice that of the surface kill after 

the first blast. Post-detonation conditions were much 

different at this location . Divers observed hundreds 

of live fish after the first detonation at this structure 

but reported virtually no live fish swimming in the 

water column after the explosions at the two four-pile 

platforms. 

Estimated fish kill was categorized by species for 

each structure removal. At the Ship Shoal platform 

59% of estimated mortalities were spadefish, 23% 

were blue runner, 8% were sheepshead, and 6% were 

red snapper. Total mortality of red snapper was 

estimated at approximately 300 at this site. At the 

second four-pile platform spadefish was again the 

dominant species killed (46%) followed by red 

snapper (26%), blue runner (11%), sheepshead (7%), 

and a few other species. An estimated 1300 red 

snapper were killed . Sheepshead (59%) topped the 

list at the 24-pile platform followed by spadefish 

(25%), gray snapper (14%) and blue runner (1%). 

Length-frequency distributions for red snapper were 

very different at the two four-pile platforms. The vast 

majority (94%) of the 33 red snapper were larger 

than 35 cm in total length at the Ship Shoal site while 

most (89%) of the 795 collected at the South Marsh 

Island platform measured less than 40 cm. One 

explanation for this difference relates to the history 

of the latter structure. This four-pile platform was 

previously part of a larger complex consisting of 

another four-pile and six-pile platform connected by 

catwalks . Eleven months earlier these two structures 

were removed using over 318 kg (700 lb) of 

explosives . It is hypothesized that these initial 

explosions decimated the snapper population and the 

remaining platform was repopulated with small 

snapper over the past 11 months. 

Another area of interest was to determine if there was 

a consistent ratio between the number of dead fish 
333 

that sank to the sea floor versus the number that 

floated to the surface after explosions . Such a ratio 

would be very useful because it is relatively easy and 

inexpensive to get accurate estimates of the surface 

fish kill but much more difficult to estimate fish 

mortalities on the sea bottom . The resulting ratios 

were 3, 3.5 and 40 which did not indicate a simple, 

consistent relationship between floaters and sinkers. 

Predicting the fish kill at platforms is a complex 

issue. Any factor influencing the presence of fish at 

platforms will also affect the fish kill at platforms. A 

partial list of potential factors includes water depth, 

salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, season, 

structure size, structure age, number of nearby 

structures, amount of explosives, time (days) between 

blast events, and depth below mudline at which 

explosive charge is placed . 

SUMMARY 

The species most impacted by underwater explosions 

at platforms included, in descending order, spadefish, 

sheepshead, red snapper, and blue runner . The 

platforms studied were in relatively shallow water 

ranging from 14-25 meters (45-82 feet) because of 

their accessibility to divers for sampling the sea floor. 

It is expected that removals in deeper water will have 

a greater impact on red snapper than the shallow 

water removals studied thus far. 

Gregg Gitschlag has worked for NOAA's Southeast 

Fisheries Center, Galveston Laboratory, for the past 

16 years as an oceanographer and fishery biologist. 

His research interests include sea turtle behavior and 

migration as well as recreational and commercial 

impacts on red snapper. Mr. Gitschlag completed his 

B.S . in zoology at the University of Michigan and his 

M.S . in biological oceanography at Florida State 

University . 

AN ASSSSSMENT OF EFFECTS 

AND REMEDIATION OF OIL SPILLS 

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND 

CARIBBEAN 

Dr. Edward Proffitt 

Louisiana Environmental Research Center 

McNeese State University 

INTRODUCTION 

In July of 1994, a two-day symposium entitled Gulf 

of Mexico and Caribbean Oil Spills in Coastal 

Ecosystems : Assessing Effects, Natural Recovery, 

and Progress in Remediation Research was held in 

New Orleans, LA . The meeting was sponsored by the 

U.S . Minerals Management Service, the Louisiana 

Environmental Research Center at McNeese State 

University, and the Spill Remediation Research 

Consortium . 

The meeting agenda included the following sessions : 

1 . Experiments and case studies on the effects 

of oil spills on seagrass, tidal marsh, and 

mangrove ecosystems . 

2 . Remediation techniques : reviews and 

current research . 

3 . Overview of bioremediation studies in the 

Gulf of Mexico. 

4 . Continued overview of bioremediation 

studies in the Gulf of Mexico. 

5 . Discussion and planning: recommending the 

best approaches for the study of the effects 

and remediation of oil spills in coastal 

ecosystems. 

In sessions one-four invited speakers presented case 

studies, on-going or just beginning research, and 

reviews on various topics related to effects of spills 

and such remediation techniques as dispersants, 

microbial inoculants, in-situ burns (at sea and in 

marshes), microbial stimulation via nutrient addition, 

and a critique of various methods used in upland 

remediation. In Session 5 speakers and meeting 

attendees broke into groups (marshes, mangroves, 

seagrasses, and dispersants) to discuss ways to more 

effectively assess the effects of oil pollution in the 

different ecosystems, remediation techniques that 

appeared promising for various systems, and needs 

for future research . Each group had a leader (one of 
334 

the invited speakers) and an assistant who served as 

note-taker so that discussion highlights could be 

incorporated into the proceedings of the meeting. 

The proceedings of the meeting will include text of 

papers presented and summaries of notes taken 

during the discussion groups. The proceedings, E. 

Proffitt and P. Roscigno (eds .), will be published by 

MMS and should be available by the summer of 

1995 . 

The list of papers presented at the meeting is 

presented below. Written papers will be included in 

the proceedings provided these are submitted to the 

proceedings editors by February 1995. 

Experiments and case studies on the effects of oil 

spills on sea grass, tidal marsh, and mangrove 

ecosystems 

Experimental Analysis of the Effects of Oil on 

Mangrove Seedlings and Saplings - C. E. Proffitt and 

Donna J. Devlin. Louisiana Environmental Research 

Center, McNeese State University . 

The 1993 Tampa Bay Spill: Preliminary Assessment 

of Natural Resources - Jane Urquhart-Donnelly and 

George Henderson, Florida Marine Research 

Institute. 

The 1993 Tampa Bay Spill: Tracking the Fate of Oil 

- Richard Pierce', Ted S. Van Vleetz, Dana L. 

Wetzel2, , P.M. Sherblom', and M. Henry' . 1 Mote 

Marine Lab (Sarasota, FL), 2 Dept. of Marine 

Science, University of South Florida (St. Petersburg, 

Florida) . 

Effects of Oil on Salt Marshes - James Webb, Texas 

A&M University at Galveston. 

The Panama Spill : Effects of Oil and Natural 

Recovery : Seagrass Communities - Michael 

Marshall, Mote Marine Laboratory 

The Panama Spill: Effects and Natural Recovery : 

Mangroves - Sally Levings, Coastal Zone Analysis, 

Inc. 

Genetic Degradation of Mangroves a Consequence of 

Petroleum? -Edward Klekowski' and Jorge Coredor2, 

1 Univ. of Mass and 2 University of Puerto Rico. 

Remediation techniques : Reviews and current 

research 

Evaluating Remediation Performance: Statistical and 

Analytical Needs - James Catallo, Louisiana State 

University . 

Dispersants: Current Toxicology Research - Carol 

Daniels, U.S . Environmental Protection Agency. 

Critique of Upland Soil Remediation Techniques and 

their Application to Marine Spill Situations - Paul 

Kostechi, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. 

Cleanup Techniques in Marshes: The Fine Line 

Between Help and Hindrance - Ms. Rebecca Hoff, 

NOAA. 

An Overview of Bioremediation Studies in the Gulf of 

Mexico 

Fate of Oil in Salt Marsh Sediments and Stabilization 

of Oil Residue - Edward Overton, Louisiana State 

University . 

Microbial Inoculants for Oil Bioremediation 

Evaluated Using Salt Marsh Mesocosms - Richard 

Weaver, B Crites, S. Neralla, A. Wright, and J. 

Webb, Texas A&M University (College Station) and 

Texas A&M University at Galveston. 

Mitigating an Oil Spill in Timbalier Bay, LA: 

NOAA's Damage Assessment and Restoration 

Program in Action -T. Osborn, E. Zobrist, R.D. 

Hartman, B. Julius, and M. Newell . 

Enhancement of Growth of the Marsh Natural 

Microbial Community - Ralph Portier, Louisiana 

State University . 

A Preliminary Assessment of the Toxicity of 

Bioremediation Agents on Salt Marsh Mesocosms: 

Vegetation - Irving A. Mendelsshon, Louisiana State 

University . 

Effects on the Marsh Infaunal Community - Nancy 

N. Rabalais, Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium . 
335 

Use of In Situ Burning as an Oil Spill Remediation 

Technique - Gus Stacey, Marine Spill Response 

Corp. 

Evaluation of Burning as an Oil Spill clean-up 

Technique in a High Marsh Community Along the 

South Texas Coast - Beau Hardegree, D. W. Hicks, 

and J.W. Tunnell, Jr ., Center for Coastal Studies, 

Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. 

BENTHIC-PELAGIC COUPLING IN 

THE GULF OF MEXICO: 

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FATE OF 

ORGANIC MATTER ON THE 

CONTINENTAL SHELF 

Dr. Robert R. Twilley 

University of Southwestern Louisiana 

Two additional meetings on this general theme are in 

the planning stages . These meetings will entail 

"working groups" to follow up on the ideas and 

recommendations from the symposium . It is 

anticipated that each working group will produce a 

technical report that more clearly documents 

problems and best known solutions as well as needs 

for future research . The first of these workshops will 

be held in the summer of 1995 on the campus of 

McNeese State University in Lake Charles, 

Louisiana. The site and date for the second workshop 

have yet to be picked. Interested parties can contact 

the author for further information. 

Dr. Edward Proffitt is Associate Professor of 

Environmental Research and Director of the 

Louisiana Environmental Research Center at 

McNeese State University . His research interests 

include plant and animal ecology of mangrove, salt 

marsh, and shallow benthic systems. Dr. Proffitt 

received his B.S . (biology) from the University of 

Miami, a M.S . (botanical thesis) from East Carolina 

University, and a Ph.D. (marine invertebrate zoology 

dissertation) from the University of South Florida. He 

organized and conducted the symposium discussed in 

this paper. 

Dr. Brent A. McKee 

Louisiana Universities Marine Center 

INTRODUCTION 

The interrelationships among rates of material 

cycling through both benthic and water-column 

communities play an important role in the ultimate 

fate of inorganic nutrients and organic matter within 

land margin ecosystems (Nixon 1981, Glibert 1982, 

Harrison et al . 1983, Kemp and Boynton 1984, Aller 

et al. 1985). The coupling of benthic and pelagic 

processes contributes to elevated rates of primary 

productivity in land margin ecosystems by 

sequestering nutrients in the coastal zone (Zeitzschel 

1980, Boynton et al. 1982, Fisher et al . 1982, Klump 

and Martens 1983, Boynton and Kemp 1985). Rates 

of in situ nutrient remineralization maybe equivalent 

to allochthonous inputs of inorganic and organic 

nutrients (Fisher et al . 1982, Nixon and Pilsen 1983, 

Pennock 1987). Over short time scales, nitrogen 

remineralization from the sediments and water 

column may provide a significant proportion of the 

nitrogen required to support primary production . 

However, nitrogen that is reduced to nitrogen gas in 

sediments is excluded from use in the biotic cycle 

and no longer contributes to the carbon cycle 

(Twilley and Kemp 1986, Seitzinger 1988). Over 

longer time periods, the balance between sediment 

deposition and remineralization rates determines the 

burial and loss of organic nutrients from the 

ecosystem (McKee et al. 1983, DeMaster et al . 

1985). Quantifying the time and spatial scales of 

these major water column and sediment processes 

that influence the availability of nitrogen and fate of 

carbon (eg. mineralization, denitrification, and burial) 

are therefore essential to understanding the utilization 

of organic matter in the Louisiana shelf ecosystem 

(Dagg et al. 1991). 
336 

The major emphasis of this proposed project is to 

determine the role of water column and benthic 

processes in affecting the fate of carbon and nitrogen 

in a river dominated shelf ecosystem. The goal of 

these studies is to understand the coupling of the fifth 

largest river system in the world to coastal margin 

ecosystems in the Mississippi River Bight. Proposed 

products in the form of a technical summary include 

manuscripts describing the input, deposition, and 

regeneration of nitrogen and carbon in the seabed and 

water column in the plume region of the southwest 

discharge of the Mississippi River to the continental 

shelf. This continental shelf region of the Gulf of 

Mexico is a rich reserve of gas and oil exploration. I 

will focus this presentation on one of the research 

products from this MMS study that describes 

sedimentation and carbon burial in the sediments of 

the Mississippi River Bight. 

Nutrient concentration and production/sediment trap 

data indicate that nutrient inputs stimulate high rates 

of primary production and that these nutrients are 

quickly sequestered into organic matter in the watercolumn. Individual studies indicate that the fate of 

this organic matter appears to vary, at times fluxing 

to the sediments and undergoing remineralization or 

transport, while at other times appearing to be 

efficiently grazed and remineralized in the water 

column. Previous studies of deposition suggest that 

the proximal region of the Mississippi River plume is 

a zone of extreme input of allochthonous particulate 

material to the seabed . The fate of this organic matter 

is largely unknown in the Mississippi River Bight, as 

well as for other deltaic continental shelves . The 

objective of this presentation is to determine area 

weighted carbon storage of sediments in this region 

of the Gulf of Mexico, and document the contribution 

of terrigenous particulate organic carbon to this 

carbon sink . We will compare these results with other 

deltaic shelf ecosystems to evaluate the importance 

of these coastal margins to global carbon cycle. 

METHODS AND RESULTS 

This study utilized naturally occurring ("4Th and 

.. . Pb) radionuclides to determine rates of deposition 

and sedimentation . These radionuclides are very 

particle-reactive (i .e ., rapidly sorbed onto particle 

surfaces) and have proven to be very useful as 

particle tracers (Broecker et al . 1973; Santschi et al. 

1980). Because of natural radioactive decay, these 

radionuclides are particularly useful in examining 

rates of sedimentary processes at two time scales 

based on their half-lives . Z"Th (24 day half-life) is 

used to examine processes that occur on a time scale 

of days to months (e .g ., sediment deposition related 

to flood and storm events), while 21 'Pb (22 year halflife) is used to examine processes that integrate over 

a period of 10 to 100 years (e .g ., sediment 

accumulation during the past century) . 

Box core samples were collected from 42 stations in 

the Mississippi River plume region (Figure 4C.5). 

Additional cores were collected from selected 

stations within this grid after high and low discharge 

periods for measurements of Z34TI7 . Large diameter 

(16.5 cm) subcores were taken from box cores at 

each sampling station. Each core was carefully 

extruded and simultaneously subsectioned at precise 

0.5-1 .0 cm intervals. Yield tracers (2'ZU/ZZ$Th, 2°gPo) 

were added to the dried core samples, then leached 

with a combination HNO HC1 and HC10, solution . 

Thorium and uranium are isolated and purified via 

ion exchange methods, plated onto stainless steel 

planchets and counted on a low-background beta 

detection system (McKee et al. 1986). 2'°Po is 

spontaneously deposited onto silver planchets and 

Z'°Pb is measured via the polonium method (Nittrouer 

et al. 1979). The deposition and accumulation 

(burial) of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus in bottom 

sediments was calculated from the following 

equation (Hatton et al . 1983): A = Cd x R x D x 10' 

(g M-2 yr') ; where A is the rate of nutrient deposition 

or burial, Cd is the dry mass nutrient concentration, 

D is bulk density, and R is the sedimentation rate 

(determined by 2"Th or Z'°Pb) . 

The plume region of river-dominated land margin 

ecosystems are sites of high sedimentation of 

allochthonous carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. 

However, nutrient retention may vary within the 

plume region, particularly during high flow, 

depending on differences in depth and circulation. A 

common observation in river-dominated 

environments is that most of the sediment discharge 

is initially deposited near the river mouth; 

sedimentation rates decrease with increasing distance 

from the river (DeMaster et al. 1985; Nittrouer et al. 

1987). Deposition rates calculated from samples 

collected in April of three consecutive years range 

from 69 to 436 gdw in-' d-' near the mouth (station 

B50) of southwest pass . This interannual variation 
29.60 

29.40 

29 .20 

s O 

" 300 

N , tt' 

1QP 

, . 

29 .00 

50 

25 Gulf of 

Mexico -- 

28.80 

0 km 44 

C BURIAL 

(gc m-2 Yr-' ) ~ 

28 .60 

28.40 -I--

90. 40 90 .2n 90 .00 89 .80 89.60 89.40 89 .20 89 .00 

l d. . . 

0 N 

sediments. Contour lines represent the rates of carbon burial in gC m-' yi" . w 
338 

reflects differences in cumulative discharge during 

the three to four months prior to sampling. Rates of 

deposition for similar discharge periods were 

generally less at downfield stations . During the low 

flow period, river discharge decreases by about 85%, 

resulting in reduced riverine input to the shelf. 

The corresponding supply of POC to this site was 1 .6 

to 8.7 gC m-2 d-1, based on sediment deposition 

rates and riverine POC contents of 1 .97 to 2.41 %. On 

a seasonal time scale, the organic carbon content of 

sediments stored at B50 (asterisk in Figure 4C.5) 

ranged from 1 .36 to 1 .61% and the resulting organic 

carbon deposition rates (l . l to 63) were 28-34% less 

than the riverine carbon supply. Thus, approximately 

30% of the terrestrial carbon was remineralized 

within four months. However, deposition rates (100-

day time scale) within the plume region of the 

Mississippi River (Figure 4C.5) are 5-10 times 

greater than the sediment accumulation rates (100-

year time scale) determined using 2'°Pb. The contrast 

in fate of materials deposited to the seabed based on 

relative rates of deposition and burial indicate that a 

substantial portion of these materials may be 

redistributed . Redistribution may occur from the shelf 

to shelf slope, or to more distal parts of the dispersal 

system along the shelf. Redistribution of materials 

delivered during high river flow leads to a more 

uniform distribution of particulates throughout the 

dispersal system. 

Coastal and shelf sediments may be considered large 

reservoirs of deposited nutrients that are not 

regenerated to the water column. The relative 

magnitude of burial is controlled by the quantity and 

quality of particulate material supplied to bottom 

sediments (Zeitzschel 1980 ; Klump and Martens 

1983). The annual sediment discharge estimate for 

the Mississippi River is averaged over the last 100 

years taking into account the effects of reservoirs 

constructed in the Mississippi River watershed (preand post- 1963 annual estimates) and considering 

30% of the river discharges through southwest pass 

(Malcolm and Durum 1976). Riverine inputs of 

carbon are calculated based on 2.0% content of 

sediment load (Trefry et al. 1991). The annual input 

of sediment and carbon (7 .14 x 10" and 0.114 x 10", 

respectively) were divided by study area to determine 

loading in units of g M-2 yr' . About 50% of the 

sediment input from the river can be accounted for 

by the accumulation of sediment in the study area of 

the Louisiana shelf. Rates of carbon burial in the 

study area ranged from 1 to 494 gC m-Z yr', with 

higher rates of carbon burial occurring in the 

proximal regions of the dispersal area (Figure 4C.5). 

We have divided the study area into 5 regions based 

on organic carbon burial (Figure 4C.5) with rates 

ranging from >300 gC M-2 yr' to < 25 gC m-2 yr' . 

The area weighted organic carbon burial rate is 64 

gC m-2 yr' for the study area . We have estimated the 

percentage of the buried organic carbon that is of 

tenigenous origin based on natural isotope studies. 

Overall, about 40% of the organic carbon preserved 

in the study area is allochthonous in origin (Hedges 

and Parker 1976), resulting in 26 gC m-2 yr' of 

riverine POC buried on the shelf (Figure 4C .6). 

Therefore, 67% of the particulate organic carbon 

supplied by the river over the past century has been 

remineralized, resulting in the burial of only 33% of 

the terrestrial supply. 

SUMMARY 

The interrelationships among rates of material 

cycling through both benthic and water-column 

communities play an important role in the ultimate 

fate of inorganic nutrients and organic matter within 

land margin ecosystems (Fig 4C.7). The coupling of 

benthic and pelagic processes contributes to elevated 

rates of primary productivity in land margin 

ecosystems by recycling nutrients in the coastal zone. 

High concentrations of suspended sediments and 

nutrients introduced from the river are quickly 

deposited to the seabed in the near proximal zone of 

the plume region . Autotrophic production in this zone 

is limited by turbidity and remineralization in the 

water column is minor compared to the loading of 

organic nutrients. This zone is represented by high 

deposition rates to the seabed, particularly from 

March to July, but dependent on the timing of 

maximum river discharge. Estimates of burial range 

from 1-2 cm/yr, compared to deposition rates of 1-4 

cm/month . This difference suggests that a large 

percentage of this allochthonous material, both 

sediment and nutrients, is redistributed to other areas 

of the shelf. 

REFERENCES 

Aller, R.C ., J.E . Mackin, W.J . Ullman, C.H. Wang, 

S.M . Tsai, J.C . Jin, Y.N . Sui and J.Z . Hong. 

1985. Early chemical diagenesis, sediment-water 

solute exchange, and storage of reactive organic 
339 

Organic Carbon Burial in Mississippi River Bight 

gC m-2 yr-1 

River Input Mississippi 

81 

Terrigenous Marine 

(40%) (60%) 

26 38 

64 

Figure 4C .6 . Mass balance of carbon accumulation (gC M-2 yr' ) in shelf sediments of the Mississippi River 

Bight including the riverine input, and the relative contribution of terrigenous and marine carbon 

to total accumulation rates. 
MISSISSIPPI RIVER PLUME/LOUISIANA SHELF ECOSYSTEM 

/ PLUME REGION / Mm-SHELF REGION 

l 

Low Production New Production Regenerated Production 

(0-10 ppt) (10-20 ppt) (20-30 ppt) 

INPUT 7mv TURBID ZONE 

REG~TION 

N,P,Si 

DEPOSITION 

02 

SEDIMENT 

REGENERATION 

(C,D Stations) 

REG RATION 

DEPOSITION 

REDISTRIBUTION 

(E,F,G Stations) 

REGENERATION 

REGENERATION 

N,P,Si 

DEPOSITION 

02 REDISTRIBUTION 

REGENERATION 

N,P,Si 

oz 1 011 

DENITRIFICATION DENTTRIFICATION -40 DENITRIFICATION 04 

BURIAL BURIAL BURIAL 

W 

A 

O 

r figure 4C.7 . conceptual model of the late of organic matter in the plume and mid-shelf region of the Louisiana shelf ecosystem. 
341 

matter near the mouth of the Chang Jiang, East 

China Sea. Cont.Shelf Res. 4: 227-251 . 

Boynton, W.R ., W.M. Kemp. 1985 . Nutrient 

regeneration and oxygen consumption by 

sediments along an estuarine salinity gradient . 

Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 23 : 45-55 . 

Boynton, W.R ., W.M. Kemp, and C.W. Keefe. 1982. 

An analysis of nutrients and other factors 

influencing estuarine phytoplankton . pp. 69-90. 

In V.S . Kennedy (ed.) Estuarine Comparisons. 

New York: Academic Press. 

Broecker, W.S ., A. Kaufman and R.M . Trier. 1973. 

The residence time of thorium in surface waters 

and its implication regarding the fate of reactive 

pollutants . Earth and Planetary Science Letters 

20: 35-41 . 

Dagg, M., C. Grimes, S. Lohrenz, B. McKee, R. R. 

Twilley and W. Wiseman, Jr . 1991 . Continental 

shelf food chains of the northern Gulf of 

Mexico, pp. 67-106 . In I . Sherman, L.M. 

Alexander, and B.D. Gold, Food Chains, Yields, 

Models, and Management of Large Marine 

Ecosystems . Boulder: Westview Press. 

Hatton, R.S ., DeLaune, R.D . and W.H. Patrick, Jr. 

1983. Sedimentation, accretion and subsidence in 

marshes of Barataria Basin, La. Limnol. 

Oceanogr . 28: 494-502 . 

Hedges, J.I ., and P.L . Parker. 1976. Land-derived 

organic matter in surface sediments from the 

Gulf of Mexico. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 40: 

1019-1029. 

Kemp, W.M. and W.R. Boynton. 1984. Spatial and 

temporal coupling of nutrient inputs to estuarine 

primary production : the role of particulate 

transport and decomposition . Bull . Mar. Sci . 35: 

522-535. 

Klump, J.V . and C.S Martens. 1983 . Benthic 

nitrogen regeneration, pp. 411-457. In E.J . 

Carpenter and D.G . Capone (eds .), Nitrogen in 

the Marine Environment. New York: Academic 

Press. 

Malcolm, R.L ., and Durum, W.H. 1976. Organic 

carbon and nitrogen concentrations and annual 

organic carbon load of six selected rivers of the 

United States . USGS Water Supply Paper 

1817 F. 

DeMaster D.J ., B.A . McKee, C.A. Nittrouer, J. Qian 

and G. Cheng. 1985. Rates of sediment 

accumulation and particle reworking based on 

radiochemical measurements from continental 

shelf deposits in the East China Sea. Cont. Shelf 

Res. 4: 143-155 . 

Fisher, R.R ., P.R. Carlson and R.T . Barber. 1982. 

Sediment nutrient regeneration in three North 

Carolina estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf 

Science : 14: 101-116. 

Glibert, P.M . 1982 . Regional studies of daily, 

seasonal and size fraction variability in 

ammonium remineralization . Mar. Biol. 

70: 209-222. 

Harrison, W.G ., D. Douglas, P. Falkowski, G. Rowe 

and J. Vidal . 1983. Summer nutrient dynamics of 

the Middle Atlantic Bight: nitrogen uptake and 

regeneration. J. Plank. Res. 5 : 539-556. 

McKee B.A ., C.A. Nittrouer and D.J. DeMaster. 

1983 . The concepts of sediment deposition and 

accumulation applied to the continental shelf 

near the mouth of the Yangtze River. Geol. 11 : 

631-633. 

McKee B.A ., D.J . DeMaster and C.A . Nittrouer. 

1986. Temporal variability in the partitioning of 

thorium between dissolved and particulate 

phases on the Amazon shelf: implications for the 

scavenging of particle-reactive species. Cont. 

Shelf Res. 6: 87-106 . 

Nittrouer C.A ., R.W. Sternberg, R. Carpenter, and 

J.T . Bennett. 1979. The use of lead-210 

geochronology as a sedimentological tool : 

Application to the Washington continental shelf. 

Marine Geol . 31 : 297-316. 

Nittrouer C.A ., D.J . DeMaster, S .A . Kuehl and B.A . 

McKee. 1987. Association of sand with mud 

deposits accumulating on continental shelves. 

pp. 17-27. In R.J . Knight and J.R . McLean 
342 

(eds .), Shelf Sands and Sandstones . Calgary 

Canada: Canadian Society of Petroleum 

Geologists . 

Nixon, S.W. 1981 . Remineralization and nutrient 

cycling in coastal marine ecosystems, pp. 111-

138. In B.J . Neilson and L.E. Cronin (eds .) . 

Nutrients and eutrophication . Clifton, N.J . : 

Humana Press. 

Nixon, S.W. and M. Pilsen . 1983. Nitrogen in 

estuarine and coastal marine ecosystems. pp. 

565-648. In E. Carpenter and D. Capone (eds .), 

Nitrogen in the marine environment. New York: 

Academic Press. 

Pennock, J.R . 1987. Temporal and spatial variability 

in phytoplankton ammonium and nitrate uptake 

in the Delaware estuary. Est.Coast . Shelf Sci. 

24:841-857 . 

Santschi P.H ., D.M. Adler, M. Amdurer, Y.H . Li and 

J. Bell . 1980. Thorium isotopes as analogues for 

particle-reactive pollutants . Earth and Planetary 

Science Letters 47: 327-335. 

Seitzinger, S. 1988. Denitrification in freshwater and 

coastal marine ecosystems : Ecological and 

geochemical significance . Limnol . Oceanogr . 33 : 

702-724. 

Trefry, J., R. Trocine, S . Metz, T. Nelson, N. 

Hawley. 1991 . Suspended particulate matter on 

the Louisiana shelf: concentration, composition 

and transport pathways, pp. 126-130. Workshop 

Proceedings of the Nutrient Enhancement 

Coastal Ocean Productivity program. LUMCON, 

October. Texas Sea Grant Program. 

Twilley, R. and W.M. Kemp. 1986. The relation of 

denitrification potentials to selected physical and 

chemical factors in sediments of Chesapeake 

Bay. pp. 277-294. In D.A. Wolfe, (ed.) Estuarine 

Variability. New York: Academic Press. 

Zeibschel, B. 1980. Sediment water interactions in nutrient 

dynamics. pp. 195 -218 . In Tenore, K.R., B.C . Coull 

(eds.) Marine Benthic Dynamics. Columbia, S.C . : 

University of South Carolina Press. 

Dr. Robert R. Twilley has been on the faculty in the 

Department of Biology at University of Southwestern 

Louisiana for eight years where he is presently 

Associate Professor. His area of research interest is 

the biogeochemistry of coastal ecosystems, 

particularly tropical and subtropical regions. Dr. 

Twilley received his B.S . and M.S . degrees from East 

Carolina University in biology, and his Ph.D. from 

the University of Florida in botany and system 

ecology. He worked for five years in coastal ecology 

at University of Maryland Horn Point Environmental 

Laboratory . 

Dr. Brent A. McKee is Associate Scientist with the 

Louisiana Universities Marine Center where he has 

been working for seven years. Dr. McKee also has 

academic appointments at University of 

Southwestern Louisiana (Department of Biology) and 

Louisiana State University (Department of Geology) . 

His research interest is the geochemical properties of 

major river interactions with continental shelf 

environments. Dr. McKee received his Ed.B . from 

the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, and 

B.A ., M.S . and Ph.D. from North Carolina State 

University in marine geochemistry. 
SESSION 4D 

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, PART I 
345 

Session : 4D - DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, PART I 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Robert Avent and Dr. Randall Davis 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Introduction and Overview of the GulfCet 

Program: Distribution and Abundance of 

Marine Mammals in the North-Central and 

Western Gulf of Mexico 

Historical Overview of Cetaceans in the Gulf 

of Mexico: A Synopsis 

GuIfCet Aerial and Ship Surveys: Survey 

Design, Methods, and Preliminary Results 

Estimating the Abundance of Sperm Whales 

Using Passive Sonar 

Behavior of Cetaceans Relative to Census 

Vessels in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico, 

1992-1994 

Dr. Randall Davis 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

Mr. Thomas A. Jefferson 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. Keith Mullin 

Mr. Larry Hansen 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Southeast Fisheries Science Centers 

Mr. Thomas A. Jefferson 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. Robert H. Benson 

Dr. William E. Evans 

Dr. J . C. Norris 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. Bernd Wursig 

Mr. Spencer Lynn 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 
347 

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF 

THE GULFCET PROGRAM: 

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 

OF MARINE MAMMALS IN THE 

NORTH-CENTRAL AND WESTERN 

GULF OF MEXICO 

University at Galveston. His research interests are the 

diving physiology of marine mammals, the 

rehabilitation of oiled wildlife, and the conservation 

of endangered and threatened species. He received 

his B.S . in biology from University of California, 

Riverside and his Ph.D. in physiology from the 

University of California, San Diego. 

Dr. Randall Davis 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) has the 

responsibility to assure that oil and gas operations on 

the Outer Continental Shelf Leases in the Gulf of 

Mexico are conducted in a manner that reduces risks 

to the marine environment. To meet their 

responsibilities under the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 

1973, the MMS must understand the effects of oil 

and gas operations on marine mammals. The purpose 

of the GulfCet study is to determine the distribution 

and abundance of cetaceans in the areas potentially 

affected by future oil and gas activities along the 

continental slope in the north-central and western 

Gulf of Mexico. The GulfCet Program is a 3 .25-year 

project that commenced on 1 October 1991 and will 

end in the spring of 1995. The study is restricted to 

the area bounded by the Florida-Alabama border, the 

Texas-Mexico border, and the 100 and 2,000 m 

isobaths . The major part of the GulfCet Program's 

field research consists of seasonal, line transect 

surveys to determine the distribution and abundance 

of cetaceans in the study area. Three types of surveys 

are being conducted: 1) visual surveys from an 

aircraft, 2) visual surveys from a ship, and 3) 

acoustic surveys using a linear hydrophone array 

towed behind the visual survey ship . The 

hydrographic portion of the program was designed to 

sample the meso-to-large scale features in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Stennis Space Center is providing remote 

sensing and geographic information system support 

for the GulfCet project. Finally, tagging and tracking 

of sperm whales using satellite telemetry was 

attempted. 

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 

OF CETACEANS 

IN THE GULF OF MEXICO: 

A SYNOPSIS 

Mr. Thomas A. Jefferson 

Texas A&M University 

This paper reviews and summarizes what is known of 

the distribution and seasonal occurrence of offshore 

cetaceans in the Gulf of Mexico. Offshore cetaceans 

are defined here to include all those members of the 

order Cetacea found in the Gulf of Mexico, with the 

exception of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops 

truncatus) . This species is not included because it is 

primarily a coastal species (although there are an 

increasing number of outer continental shelf and 

slope records), and its distribution in the Gulf has 

been comparatively well-studied . The analyses in this 

paper are based on all available records, published 

and unpublished, except those resulting from the 

GulfCet program, which form a continuous, 

homogeneous database based on systematic surveys. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Sources of Data 

All available records of strandings, sightings, and 

captures of cetaceans from the waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico were compiled . The records from the 

GulfCet project are not analyzed here, except for 

those that have previously been published: Fraser's 

dolphins (Leatherwood et al. 1993), melon-headed 

whales (Mullin et al. 1994a), and Clymene dolphins 

(Mullin et al . 1994b). A total of 1,223 records were 

available for this analysis . 

Dr. Randall W. Davis is a Professor and Head of the 

Marine Biology Department at Texas A&M 
348 

Verification of Species Identification 

For each record, the species identification was 

questioned, and an attempt made to verify it . 

Verification could come in one of several ways: 

location of photographs, drawings, or detailed 

descriptions of the animals demonstrating diagnostic 

features ; examination of voucher materials, such as 

skulls collected from specimens stranded or captured ; 

identifications made by highly-trained observers; or 

identifications made by relatively inexperienced 

observers, but of highly distinctive species. Of the 

total of 1,223 records, 1,044 were considered to be 

verified, 104 were questionable, and 75 could only be 

identified to genus. 

RESULTS 

Baleen Whales 

There are only two confirmed records of northern 

right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in the Gulf of 

Mexico, a spring sighting off Florida and a winter 

stranding in Texas. It is concluded that the northern 

right whale is not a normal inhabitant of the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

All five species of rorquals (genus Balaenoptera) 

have been recorded from the Gulf of Mexico, 

although mostly from strandings for most species. 

The only species that is represented by a substantial 

number of sightings is the Bryde's whale (B. edeni) . 

This is the most common baleen whale in the Gulf, 

and is probably the only species that normally occurs 

there. 

There are seven Gulf of Mexico records of humpback 

whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) that have been 

considered reliable . It seems likely that some 

humpbacks stray into the Gulf of Mexico during the 

breeding season or on their return migration 

northward from the Caribbean. 

Sperm Whale 

There are numerous records of sperm whales 

(Physeter macrocephalus) in the Gulf of Mexico 

(189 reliable records), more than for any other 

species of offshore cetacean, except the Atlantic 

spotted dolphin. It appears likely that there is a 

resident population of sperm whales in the Gulf of 

Mexico. There is no doubt that sperm whales are, by 

far, the most common large whales in the Gulf, and 

that they can be found there are at any time of year. 

Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales 

Both species of the genus Kogia have been recorded 

in the Gulf of Mexico. Despite the small number of 

sightings for both species, strandings indicate that 

they may not necessarily be rare in the Gulf. 

Beaked Whales 

Cuvier's beaked whale is probably the most common 

beaked whale in the Gulf of Mexico. Gervais' beaked 

whale (Mesoplodon europaeus) is probably the most 

common mesoplodont in these waters ; however, this 

conclusion must be considered tentative. There are 

only three confirmed records of Blainville's beaked 

whale (M. densirostris) from the Gulf. Sowerby's 

beaked whale (M. bidens) is represented in the Gulf 

of Mexico by only a single record, a stranding in 

Florida, and is considered extralimital . 

"Blackfish" 

From the small number of records and repeated 

resightings of individuals, it seems likely that there 

are a small number of pods of killer whales (Orcinus 

orca) that use the offshore waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico as all or part of their normal range. 

Based on historical records, the short-finned pilot 

whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) would be 

considered to be one of the most common offshore 

cetaceans in the Gulf of Mexico. However, recent 

aerial and shipboard surveys in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico have not borne out the conclusion that pilot 

whales are common in the Gulf; they have only 

occasionally been sighted. 

There are a small number of records of false killer 

whales (Pseudorca crassidens), pygmy killer whales 

(Feresa attenuata), and melon-headed whales 

(Peponocephala electra) in the Gulf of Mexico, 

suggesting that none of these species is very 

abundant in this body of water. 
349 

Small Delphinids 

Eight species of offshore dolphins have been 

recorded from the Gulf of Mexico. Other than the 

bottlenose dolphin, the Atlantic spotted dolphin 

(Stenella frontalis) is the only species that regularly 

occurs over the continental shelf. There are more 

records (194) of Atlantic spotted dolphins than there 

are for any other species of offshore cetacean in the 

Gulf. 

dedication of a small group of interested individuals. 

Recent increases in funding for studies of offshore 

cetaceans of the Gulf of Mexico have allowed us to 

add greatly to the efforts of those early workers who 

painstakingly documented strandings and occasional 

sightings of these relatively poorly-known animals. 

Only with continued funding and dedicated study, 

can we provide the information on the biology of 

these animals that is needed to protect them from 

human-caused threats, and thus ensure their 

continued existence in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus) have been 

commonly recorded in some continental slope areas 

of the northern Gulf of Mexico, and there is no doubt 

that this species is more commonly than previouslybelieved . 

Rough-toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis) and 

Fraser's dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei) have both 

been recorded from the Gulf in relatively small 

numbers. Neither of these species appears to be 

highly abundant in the Gulf. 

Common dolphins (Delphinus delphis and D. 

capensis) have been reported from the Gulf of 

Mexico in previous years. However, many of these 

records appear to be cases of mistaken identity, and 

all of the remaining records are highly questionable . 

It is concluded that there is currently no solid 

evidence that common dolphins occur in the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

Besides the continental slope species, Stenella 

frontalis, the other four species of the genus Stenella 

have been recorded from the Gulf as well . The 

pantropical spotted dolphin (S. attenuata) is highly 

abundant, and appears to be the most common small 

cetacean in deep waters throughout the Gulf of 

Mexico. Striped dolphins (S. coeruleoalba) and 

Clymene dolphins (S. clymene) are moderately 

common in the Gulf, and the spinner dolphin (S. 

longirostris) is represented by the fewest records, 

indicating that it is the least common of the Stenella 

species in this body of water. 

CONCLUSION 

Although our knowledge is still rudimentary, a great 

deal has been learned in the past decade, and the pace 

of this rise in knowledge is still increasing . This has 

come about only through the hard work and 

REFERENCES 

Leatherwood, S., T. A. Jefferson, J. C. Norris, W. E. 

Stevens, L. J. Hansen, and K. D. Mullin. 1993. 

Occurrence and sounds of Fraser's dolphins 

(Lagenodelphis hosei) in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Texas Journal of Science 45 :349-354. 

Mullin, K. D., T. A. Jefferson, L. J. Hansen, and W. 

Hoggard. 1994a. First sightings of melon-headed 

whales (Peponocephala electra) in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 10:342-348 . 

Mullin, K. D., L. V. Higgins, T. A. Jefferson, and L. 

J. Hansen. 1994b. Sightings of the Clymene 

dolphin (Stenella clymene) in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 10:464-470. 

Thomas Jefferson is a Ph.D. candidate at Texas 

A&M University, in the Department of Wildlife and 

Fisheries Sciences . He has a B.A . in biology from the 

University of California, Santa Cruz, and his M.Sc. 

is from Moss Landing Marine Laboratories . Tom has 

been involved in studies of marine mammals for over 

10 years. He has conducted research on a variety of 

dolphin, porpoise, whale, seal, and manatee species 

throughout the North Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, 

Caribbean Sea, and Peruvian Amazon. 
350 

GULFCET AERIAL AND 

SHIP SURVEYS 

SURVEY DESIGN, METHODS, AND 

PRELIMINARY RESULTS 

Dr. Keith Mullin 

Mr. Larry Hansen 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Southeast Fisheries Science Centers 

Mr. Thomas A. Jefferson 

Texas A&M University 

The objectives of aerial and ship surveys were to 

provide data for estimating the relative abundance of 

cetaceans, and for correlating their distributions with 

oceanographic features in the GulfCet study area . 

The GulfCet study area, about 210,000 km2, was 

bounded by the Florida-Alabama line, the U.S .-

Mexico border, and the 100 m and 2,000 m isobaths . 

While ship surveys covered the entire study area, 

aerial surveys extended only to the 1,000 m isobath 

west of 90° W and covered a total area of 85,850 

km2. Line transect sampling methods were used. 

Aerial surveys were conducted from a Twin Otter 

modified with large bubble windows. Ship surveys 

were conducted from NOAA Ship Oregon II and R/V 

Pelican. Shipboard observers searched for cetaceans 

using 25X150 binoculars . Eight seasonal aerial 

surveys were conducted from Summer 1992 to 

Spring 1994. Each season, 74 transects with a total 

length of about 6,300 km were surveyed. Ship 

surveys were conducted from the Oregon II during 

Spring 1992, 1993 and 1994 and Winter 1993, 

averaged 30 days each, and surveyed a total of 

16,100 km; and from the Pelican during seven 

seasonal surveys that averaged 12 days each from 

Spring 1992 to Winter 1993 and surveyed a total of 

about 6,000 km . 

Eighteen cetacean species were sighted in 404 groups 

during aerial surveys. The overall abundances (and 

CV, the coefficient of variation) of all cetaceans in 

the aerial survey study area was 16,986 animals 

(14%). Cetacean abundance varied seasonally: 

Summer, 14,959 (24%); Fall, 6,051 (32%); Winter, 

21,894 (27%); and Spring, 19,215 (24%). The overall 

abundances and CV of the most commonly sighted 

species were: bottlenose dolphin, 2,890 (20%); 

pantropical spotted dolphin, 5,251 (22%); Risso's 

dolphin, 1,214 (24%); dwarf/pygmy sperm whale, 

176 (30%); and sperm whale, 87 (27%). Except for 

the sperm whale, the seasonal abundances of most 

species were generally similar for Summer, Winter 

and Spring, but were much lower for Fall . Average 

groups sizes were less than three animals/group for 

physeterids (e.g ., sperm whale) and ziphiids, 50-100 

for fast, small oceanic dolphins (e.g ., spinner 

dolphin), and 10-20 for small whales and larger 

dolphins (e.g ., Risso's dolphin) . The mean depth of 

species sightings ranged from less than 300 m (e .g ., 

bottlenose dolphins and Atlantic spotted dolphins) to 

greater than 100 m (e .g ., pantropical spotted 

dolphin) . 

During the ship surveys, about 300 cetacean groups 

were sighted in the GulfCet aerial survey study area. 

The species sighted from the ships, the relative 

proportion of groups of each species, and their mean 

group sizes were similar to those sighted from the 

aircraft . In the entire GulfCet study area, the overall 

abundances and CV of the most commonly sighted 

species from the ships were: bottlenose dolphin, 

2,761 animals (31%); pantropical spotted dolphin, 

11,950 (23%); Risso's dolphin, 1,658 (26%); dwarf 

sperm whale, 198 (37%); sperm whale, 321 (37%), 

Atlantic spotted dolphins, 1,718 (47%), and striped 

dolphin, 3,816 (55%) . 

Dr. Keith D. Mullin (Ph.D., Mississippi State 

University) is a Research Fishery Biologist with the 

NMFS, Southeast Fisheries Science Center (SEFSC) 

in Pascagoula, Mississippi. His research interests are 

the distributional ecology of marine mammals and 

the estimation of marine mammal abundance. He has 

conducted research on Gulf of Mexico marine 

mammals since 1985. 

Mr. Larry J. Hansen (B.S ., M.A ., California State 

University, Sacramento) has been conducting marine 

mammal research for the National Marine Fisheries 

Service for the last 17 years, and is currently a 

Research Fishery Biologist in charge of the Marine 

Mammal Research Program at the SEFSC Miami 

Laboratory . His research interests are cetacean 

population assessment and biology, and in modeling 

dolphin population health parameters . 

Thomas Jefferson is a Ph.D. candidate at Texas 

A&M University in the Department of Wildlife and 
351 

Fisheries Sciences . He has a B.A . in biology from the 

University of California, Santa Cruz, and his M.Sc. 

is from Moss Landing Marine Laboratories . Tom has 

been involved in studies of marine mammals for over 

10 years. He has conducted research on a variety of 

dolphin, porpoise, whale, seal, and manatee species 

throughout the North Pacific Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, 

Caribbean Sea, and Peruvian Amazon. 

ESTIMATING THE ABUNDANCE 

OF SPERM WHALES USING 

PASSIVE SONAR 

Dr. Robert H. Benson 

Dr. William E. Evans 

Dr. Jeff C. Norris 

Texas A&M University 

Conventional methods of estimating the abundance 

of cetaceans have focused on both aerial and 

shipboard surveys using line transect methods (Gates 

1969, Burnham et al. 1980, and Buckland et al. 

1993). Although these approaches are highly 

valuable, they exhibit important limitations. For 

example, shipboard and aerial surveys are only 

conducted during daylight and are effected by 

weather and sea state. Additionally, only animals at 

or near the surface are counted. 

Acoustic surveys using passive sonar methods offer 

the possibility of extending activities throughout the 

night, detecting animals far below the surface, and 

operating in marginal weather. Furthermore, a 

physical record of the acoustic survey is provided in 

the form of audio tape recordings . Owing to these 

advantages, we have undertaken the development of 

new procedures for conducting passive sonar surveys 

of sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus, with the 

objective of estimating population density and 

abundance. 

The work described here was completed using a 

towed linear hydrophone array. The array is made up 

of three sections ; a deck cable, a tow cable, and a wet 

section that contains the active elements. The active 

section of the array is composed of fore and aft high 

frequency elements with depth and temperature 

sensors, and a middle low-frequency section . There 

are 195 hydrophones organized into 18 groups. These 

groups are tuned to six different frequency bands. 

There are eight low-frequency groups tuned to 30 Hz, 

one group tuned to 480 Hz, one group tuned to 3 .84 

kHz, and fore and aft groups tuned to 5, 10, and 15 

kHz (Thomas et al . 1986). Data were collected 

during a cruise aboard the University of Texas RV 

Longhorn and during six cruises aboard the 

LUMCON RV Pelican. The array and study area in 

the North-Central and Western Gulf of Mexico are 

described in detail in the GulfCet Interim Report 

(Fargion and Davis 1994). 

Standard line transect methods require the 

measurement of perpendicular distances (or angles 

and radial distances) from the trackline of the vessel 

to the position of the target animals. Perpendicular 

distances to vocalizing sperm whales cannot be 

determined with sufficient accuracy using a towed 

linear array. Consequently, we have developed 

alternative methods to allow the estimation of 

population density in our study area . 

The hydrophone array was calibrated by projecting 

various acoustic signals (including recordings of 

sperm whale clicks) from measured distances 

broadside to the array. Distances between the array 

and the projector were determined by using two GPS 

receivers; one at the projector and one aboard the RV 

Pelican. The projector was a calibrated type F56 

transducer leased from the Naval Research 

Laboratory at Orlando, FL. Additionally, the 

transducer source level was measured during 

operations using a calibrated B&K SPL meter. Sperm 

whale recordings were projected at 171 dB re 1 juP, 

the published source level for sperm whale clicks 

(Levenson 1974). Under the noise conditions present 

during the calibration of the array, a transmission loss 

model was developed in the form: TL = 20 log r + ar 

where r is the range to the source and a is an 

attenuation coefficient. Fifty random samples of 

background noise from cruises two through seven 

were measured to adjust the loss model to the 

averaged conditions over the entire data collection 

phase of the project. It was determined that a sperm 

whale signal of at least 67 dB re 1 [tP must be 

present (on average) at the array in order for the 

animal to be detected . Based on the transmission loss 

model, the average maximum detection range for 

sperm whales was determined to be 11 .125 km (6 

nm) 
352 

The total number of "on effort" sperm whale groups 

encountered during the cruises was calculated to be 

63. Contacts separated by at least 11 .125 km were 

considered to be separate groups. In a few cases, 

signals from separate groups overlapped but these 

were resolved by looking at the arrival times of the 

clicks in the fore and aft sections of the array. Under 

the assumption that all whales heard were within 

11 .125 km from the array, a rough density estimate 

could be calculated by dividing the number of groups 

encountered by the product of the "on effort" 

distance times twice the maximum detection distance . 

The problem with this rough calculation is that 

several factors associated with the psychoacoustics of 

listening to a "boring" noise background limits the 

ability of humans to make detections when the signal 

to noise ratio is small . This is analogous to the 

problem of determining the detection function in 

standard line transect methods. In other words, some 

of the whales' signals that could have been heard by 

the acoustic crew were likely missed owing to lack of 

concentration and the fatigue of long shifts at the 

headphones . To correct for this error, we required 

knowledge of the shape of the sperm whale acoustic 

detection function that had not previously been 

determined. 

Using the digital audio workstation at the Center for 

Bioacoustics, at Texas A&M University in College 

Station, we created an audio tape recording to 

simulate the experience of listening to the 

hydrophone array described above. We recorded 43 

minutes of background noise (without detectable 

sperm whale clicks) from one of the cruises. We 

digitally mixed 34 sequences of sperm whale clicks 

into the background at random spacing in time . The 

levels of clicks were adjusted to simulate a random 

distribution of animals along a simulated transect 

line . A computer program was written to allow 

listeners to press the spacebar on the keyboard when 

they heard a sequence of clicks . When the spacebar 

was depressed, the elapsed time written to a 

computer disk file . After two training sessions, 

twenty-four participants completed the experiment of 

listening to the 43-minute tape and coding sperm 

whale contacts . From these data (Figure 4D.1) a 

model for the psychoacoustic sperm whale detection 

function was developed. As expected, participants 

had little trouble detecting clicks with marginal or 

higher signal to noise ratios. A rapid drop off in the 

ability to detect clicks occurs only after the signal to 

noise ratio became very small. This suggests that 

very few contacts out to the maximum detection 

range were missed during hundreds of hours of 

listening. Based on the model described here, we 

predict that only 3 .7 percent of the detectable sperm 

whale clicks were missed and the density estimate 

should be multiplied by a correction factor of 1 .039 . 

Based on the work to date, we estimate the density of 

sperm whale groups in the study area to be 2.56 X 

10~° groups/kmz. For perspective, this means that one 

sperm whale group should be found in a square with 

a side of 62.49 km. From visual observations and 

considerations of the clustering rule stated above, we 

estimate that the average group size is 73 individuals 

per group. With a defined study area of 154,621 km', 

a group density of 2.56 X 10' groups/kmZ, and a 

group size of 73, we estimate the abundance of 

sperm whales in the study area to be 289 individuals. 

We are presently calculating the estimated variance 

associated with this abundance estimate and this will 

appear in the draft final GulfCet technical report 

expected to be completed by spring of 1995 

REFERENCES 

Buckland, S. T., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham, 

and J. L. Laake. 1993 . Distance Sampling . 

London: Chapman and Hall . 

Burnham, K. P., D. R. Anderson, and J. L. Laake. 

1980. Estimation of Density from Line Transect 

Sampling of Biological Populations. Wildlife 

Monographs #72. 

Fargion, G.S . and R.W. Davis. 1994. Distribution 

and Abundance of Marine Mammals in the 

North-Central and Western Gulf of Mexico. 

Interim Report. Volume 1 : Technical Report. 

U.S . Department of the Interior, Minerals Mgmt. 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region . 

Gates, C. E. 1969. Simulation study of estimators for 

the line transect sampling method. Biometrics 

25(2):317-328. 

Levenson, C. 1974. Source level and bistatic target 

strength of the sperm whale (Physeter catodon) 

measured from an oceanographic aircraft. J. 

Acoust . Soc. Am., Vol . 55, No. 5, May 1974. 

Thomas, J. A., S . R. Fisher, and L. M. Ferm. 1986. 

Acoustic detection of cetaceans using a towed 
1 

0 .8 

c 0 

.6 

O 0.4 

0.2 

0 

-l 

3.0 4.0 4 .5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9 .0 9.5 10.0 1v.5 11 .U 11 .0 il 

Distance from Ship in Kilometers 

Figure 4D.1 . Acoustic detection function for sperm whales. W w 
354 

array of hydrophones. Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 

(Special issue 8) p. 139-148. 

Dr. Robert Benson is a member of the Engineering 

Technology faculty at Texas A&M University at 

College Station and is the Director of the Texas 

Engineering Experiment Station's Center for 

Bioacoustics . His areas of research interest are the 

analysis and classification of animal vocalizations 

and the application of modern technology to 

problems in ecology. Dr. Benson received his B.S . in 

physics from Southwest Texas State University and 

his Ph.D. in cosmic-ray physics from Texas A&M 

University . 

Dr. William E. Evans is a Professor in Oceanography 

and Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences and is President 

of the Texas Institute of Oceanography . He has been 

active in psychoacoustic and bioacoustic research 

since 1954. He has specialized in the effects of noise 

on animals, especially in the marine environment, 

psychophysics of hearing, biological sonar systems, 

and oceanographic correlates of marine vertebrates. 

Dr. Evans received his B.S . from Bowling Green 

State University in science education, his M.A . from 

Ohio State University in audiology, and his Ph.D. 

from the University of California at Los Angeles in 

biology and biophysics . 

Dr. Jeff Norris is a Research Associate at the Texas 

Engineering Experiment Station's Center for 

Bioacoustics . His research interests include the 

bioacoustics of both primates and cetaceans and 

animal communication in general. Dr. Norris 

received his B.A . in philosophy and fisheries/wildlife 

at Michigan State University, his M.S . in biology at 

San Diego State University and his Ph.D . in wildlife 

and range sciences from the University of Florida. 

BEHAVIOR OF CETACEANS 

RELATIVE TO CENSUS VESSELS IN 

THE NORTHWESTERN GULF OF 

MEXICO, 1992-1994 

Dr. Bernd Wursig 

Mr. Spencer Lynn 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

INTRODUCTION 

There is great variability in morphology, group sizes, 

and behavior of the approximately 20 cetaceans that 

are commonly found in the northwestern Gulf of 

Mexico (Jefferson et al. 1993). The ranges are from 

small delphinids of 2.5 meters to the sperm whales, 

at over 15 meters ; from groups of single individuals 

to groups of hundreds; and from those animals that 

habitually approach boats and even bowride to those 

that ignore or avoid vessels (Leatherwood and 

Reeves, 1983, provide an excellent summary). It is 

intuitively obvious that differing characteristics can 

result in differing abilities to detect, identify, and 

accurately count animals ; but descriptive 

characteristics of detection variables, especially those 

stemming from different behaviors, have been given 

only rarely (Barlow, in press) . 

There are often differences in the distances at which 

cetaceans are first seen, first identified, and most 

accurately counted. These differences in distances are 

determined by morphology and behavior, and also by 

the variability of weather, or sighting, conditions . For 

example, sperm whales can often be seen, identified, 

and counted quite a bit over one kilometer distant 

from the survey vessel, and often in rather inclement 

weather. Ziphiids or Kogia sp ., on the other hand, 

may or may not be seen at distance, and their often 

cryptic behavioral nature of avoiding or at least 

ignoring a vessel may preclude identification. A 

major difficulty in the present study was our inability 

to deviate consistently from course once a distant 

marine mammal group was sighted. This restriction, 

due to overall survey time available, precluded 

identification and counting of many sighted animals, 

and thus decreased the overall data base . 

By and large, most marine mammal surveys have not 

taken into account variabilities in morphology and 

behavior related to sighting conditions . Weather has 
355 

been addressed, and on-transect animals are counted 

only with certain weather conditions, such as 

Beaufort Sea State 3 or less (for example, Barlow 

and Lee 1994). However, we know from personal 

experience that there are strong differences in initial 

sightability of at least smaller cetaceans between 

Beaufort Sea State 0-l, and 2-3. A particularly 

dramatic example confronted us on 23 August, 1994, 

when we experienced Beaufort Sea State 0-1 for 

three hours in the afternoon. During that time, we 

saw at least five small cetacean groups greater than 

five kilometers from the vessel, with some of these 

probable resights as we meandered back and forth 

(for sperm whale acoustic tracking and photographic 

recognition studies) in the area . Before and after 

these excellent sighting conditions, when sea state 

was greater than 2, we saw no small odontocetes in 

the same area, despite the same vigilance of 

observation. We are convinced, although it is 

difficult to put onto numerical basis, that the change 

in sea state caused our change in sightability of at 

least some of these more distant cetaceans. 

The present brief analysis does not attempt to 

augment discussion of the complex issues of 

weather-related (as well as observer-related) 

differences in sightability (See Breese and Tershy 

1993, for a laudable example) . We do, however, 

address differences in sightability and identifiability 

of species or species groups according to their 

morphology and behavior. 

METHODS 

We searched for cetaceans from the upper decks of 

the vessels Oregon II, 32 m, 10 .1 m above sea level; 

Longhorn, 32 m, 7.7 m above sea level; and Pelican, 

32 m, 8.9 m above sea level. Methods are given in 

Mullin, et al ., this session. Notes on apparent 

responsiveness of each sighting were transferred to a 

separate data file . Behavioral reactions could not be 

determined for many sightings. But for those for 

which adequate behavioral notes were made, 

categories of avoidance (-), no reaction (0), approach 

to vessel (+), and bowriding (b) were given . It was 

often very difficult to categorize potential reaction to 

disturbance, and our analyses only included clear 

reactions, for which the authors could unequivocally 

assign behavioral response . A (-) assignation was 

earned when an individual or group moved away 

from the vessel or appeared to dive in response to the 

vessel, in either case making it more difficult to 

identify the animal(s) than with a neutral or positive 

response . A (0) designation means that the animal(s) 

showed no apparent response relative to the approach 

or pass-by of the vessel . This is to be distinguished 

from the many cases during which we could not tell 

whether or not there was a response; none of these 

cases are presented. A (+) indicates that the animal(s) 

approached the vessel during at least some time of 

their observation, and it is likely that a positive mark 

would have enhanced identifiability if the animals 

were seen at distance. However, a (+) response was 

earned even if the animals were not identified 

because of the positive response; only their actions 

were of importance . Finally, a (b) for bowriding is an 

extreme case of (+) response ; all such animals 

encountered during regular daylight on-transect 

watches were identified . 

Some species were pooled according to the criteria 

and justification for pooling for estimates of abundance. We believe that for heuristic comparisons of 

the estimates and our behavioral data base, the same 

pooling regime should be followed. Briefly, we 

pooled 1) Kogia sp. and ziphiids, 2) Small 

delphinids, 3) and 4) Bottlenose Dolphins/ Atlantic 

Spotted Dolphins; 5) Larger delphinids, and 6) Sperm 

Whales. However, we also discuss separate species 

or species groups within pooled groupings as these 

relate to differences in morphology, behavior, and 

hence potential sightability . Due to a presently small 

data base of behavioral reactions, we made no formal 

attempts to separate reactions relative to the three 

observation vessels. However, our judgment was that 

differences among vessels, if they exist, were much 

smaller than differences among species and species 

groups . Because of the broad categorizations of 

behavioral reactions described above, analyses of 

differences were by simple chi-square, and Fisher's 

tests of comparisons of initial sighting distances. 

RESULTS 

Distance estimates were described for 655 sightings 

for which the cetaceans were identified to species or 

species group (Figure 4D.2). Initial sighting distance 

was 2.3 + s.d . 1 .77 km (n=655), with mean sightings 

as close as 1 .6 + s.d . 1 .50 km (n= 384) for Tursiops, 

1 .6 + 133 km (n=46) for Ziphius sp ., and as far as 

4.2 + s.d . 1 .46 km (n=6) for Orcinus. A summary for 

all species is found in Figure 4D3. 
356 

4 5 

n = 655 sightings 

40 

35 

X30 c 

t 

25 

0 

~ 20 

m 

U 

a 15 

10 

5 

0 

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 

Initial Sighting Distance (m) 

Figure 413.2 . Initial distance of all sightings. 

Group 1 . Kogia sp . and Ziphiids 

This group of cetaceans was first sighted at a mean 

of 1 .7 + s.d . 1 .28 km (n=86, Figure 4D.4). Eleven of 

15 sightings (73%) involved animals reacting negatively to the vessel by orienting away; in no instance 

did members of this group appear to react positively 

to the vessel . None bowrode (Table 4D.1). The designation of "cryptic" is certainly correct. It is unknown 

how many Kogia sp . and ziphiids were unseen, 

unidentified, and uncounted because of their crypsis. 

Group 2. Small Delphinids 

Initial sighting distance of this group was 2.4 + s.d . 

1 .83 km (n= 264, Figure 4D.4). All Stenellids except 

for S. coeruleoalba habitually approached the vessel 

and rode the bow, at 83% for S. attenuata, 14 of 14 

sightings (100%) of S. longirostris, and 22 of 24 

sightings (92%) of S. clymene (Table 4D.2). The 

overall reaction for S. coeruleoalba was dramatically 

different, however, with only 14 of 27 sighted groups 

(52%) riding the bow, and 9 of the 13 (-) reactions of 

the entire continental slope small delphinid group 

exhibited by this species (Table 4D.2). Positive 

reactions and bowriding combined occurred for 90% 

of group 2. 

This group of delphinids, mainly of the continental 

slope, for which we obtained reaction information 

consisted of pantropical spotted dolphins (Stenella 

attenuata), Clytnene dolphins (S. clymene), striped 

dolphins (S. coeruleoalba), spinner dolphins (S. 

longirostris), melon-headed whales (Peponocephala 

electra), rough toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis), 

and two groups of Fraser's dolphins (Lagenodelphis 

hosei) . 

Groups 3 and 4. Bottlenose Dolphins/Atlantic 

Spotted Dolphins 

The two species of dolphins that occur over the broad 

continental shelf of the present study area have 

similar sighting characteristics and at times school 

together . They were first seen at 1 .6 + s.d . 1.58 km 

(n=138, Figures 413.3 and 4D.4) distance ; and, 

overall, members of 79% (a similar 77% for Tursiops 

and 85% for Stenella frontalis) of sighted groups 
~ (IQ 

;a 

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N 

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a ~s 

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a 

.a 

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O 

N 

a 

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0 

c 

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m 

a 

a 

a 

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co 

a. 

Ziphiids 

Lagenodelphis hosei 

Peponocephala electra f~lcc 

Stenella attenuata ~~~-- 

iv Stenella clymene 

Stenella coeruleoalba 

Stenella longirostris 

Steno bredanensis 

Srenella frontalis 

-0. 

1 

Tursiops truncatus 

0 

Feresa ai[enuata I-' 

Globicephala macrorhynchus cfl 

Grampus griseus 

00 

Orcinus orca 

Pseudorca crassidens a 

Physeter macrocephalus 

LSE 
358 

6000 

5000 87 

264 655 

4000 

28 

° 

110 

3000 n=86 

41 

L 

N 2000 

.C Y 

1000 

0 N M ~ 

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a 

Figure 4D.4 . Initial sighting distances by six pooled groups. Data presentation as in Figure 4L).3 . 

came to the ship and rode the bow pressure wave for 

at least one minute, and-at times-for over one-half 

hour (Table 4D3). Fourteen of 88 behavioral 

descriptions of Tursiops and two of 22 of S. frontalis 

were classed as (0) reaction, and none were classed 

as (-) throughout the study (Table 4D.3). Overall, 

positive reactions and bowriding combined occurred 

for 86% of this group. 

Group 5 . Large Delphinids and Small Whales 

smallest member of the group, the pygmy killer 

whale (Feresa attenuata) . The mean distance of first 

sighting was 2.7 + s.d . 1 .65 km (n=80, Figure 4D.4), 

with killer whales sighted at greater distance, of 4.1 

+ s.d . 1 .46 km (n=6), than any other species 

(Figure 4D3). Pilot whales and Risso's dolphins 

exhibited the least attraction to the vessel, with only 

one of six in the former and 12 of 30 in the latter 

species moving towards the vessel or bowriding 

(Table 4D.4). 

This group consisted of short-finned pilot whales 

(Globicephala macrorhynchus), Risso's dolphins 

(Grampus griseus), false killer whales (Pseudorca 

crassidens), killer whales (Orcinus orca), and the 

Group 6. Sperm Whale 

Sperm whales were sighted at an average distance of 

3 .0 + s.d. 1 .86 km (n=87, Figures 4D3 and 4D.4). 
359 

Table 4D.1 . Behavioral reactions* of Group 1 relative to the census vessel . 

Reaction 

Species (-) (0) (+) (b) %(b) Total 

Kogia spp. 6 1 0 0 0 7 

Ziphiids 5 3 0 0 0 8 

Total 11 4 0 0 - 15 

* (-) indicates animal orienting away from vessel or abrupt diving 

(0) indicates no reaction 

(+) indicates approach 

(b) indicates bowriding 

%(b) = percentage of bowriding per total reactions 

Table 413.2 . Behavioral reactions of Group 2 (smaller delphinids) relative to the census vessel . Reaction 

designations as in Table 4D.1 . 

Reaction 

Species (-) (0) (+) (b) %(b) Total 

Lagenodelphis hosei 1 0 0 1 50% 2 

Peponocephala electra 1 1 2 3 43% 7 

Stenella attenuata 1 9 18 137 83% 165 

S. coeruleoalba 9 2 2 14 52% 27 

S.longirostris 0 0 0 14 100% 14 

S. clymene 1 0 1 22 92% 24 

Steno bredanensis 0 0 2 6 75% 8 

Total 13 12 25 197 - 247 
360 

Table 4D.3 . Behavioral reactions of Groups 3 and 4 relative to the census vessel . Reaction designations as in 

Table 4D.1 . 

Reaction 

Species (-) (0) (+) (b) %(b) Total 

Stenella frontalis (Group 3) 0 2 2 22 85% 26 

Tursiops truncatus (Group 4) 0 14 6 38 77% 88 

Total 0 16 8 90 - 114 

Generally, sperm whale reaction was not described in Sperm whales were unlikely to be mis-identified 

the sighting notes, but our overall impression was even at several kilometers distance, due to their 

that reactions tended to be non-existent for all but characteristic bushy, single-spouted, blow at the very 

approaches to within several hundred meters . Eleven front of the head; and due to their unique head-toof 15 sightings with behavioral notes were labeled as dorsal-hump surface profile. However, sperm whales 

(0) reaction ; none as (+) reaction ; and 4 as (-), dive for long times, often greater than one-half hour, 

consisting of the whales diving abruptly in apparent and counts of animals in an area are therefore 

response to the vessel, all within 200m . difficult. 

Table 413.4 . Behavioral reactions of Group 5 (larger delphinids) relative to the census vessel . Reaction 

designations as in Table 4D.1 . 

Reaction 

Species (-) (0) (+) (b) %(b) Total 

Feresa attenuata 1 0 0 0 1 

Globicephala macrorhynchus 1 4 0 1 17% 6 

Grampus griseus 5 13 7 5 17% 30 

Orcinus orca 0 2 0 4 67% 6 

Pseudorca crassidens 0 1 1 3 60% 5 

Total 7 20 8 13 - 48 
361 

Group 7 . General Comparisons 

Overall, killer whales were initially sighted at 

greatest distance from the census vessels (n=6, see 

above). Despite the low sample size, this distance 

was significantly greater than for all other animals, 

except for melon-headed whales (at 3.2 + s.d . 0.83 

km, n=9; Fisher's PLSD, p<0.0001 for all 

comparisons). The cryptic Kogia sp . and ziphiids, 

group 1, were not sighted at distances significantly 

different from the Stenella frontalis and Tursiops 

truncatus groups (groups 3 and 4) . These three 

groups were sighted closer to the ship than the small 

delphinids, large delphinids, and sperm whales 

(groups 2, 5, and 6, respectively) . There was a slight 

significant difference between small and large 

delphinid distances (Fisher's PLSD, p = 0.005), but 

not between the small delphinids and sperm whales 

(p = 0 .09), and the large delphinids and sperm whales 

(p = 0.41 ; Table 4D.5). 

Overall, the Kogia sp . and ziphiids showed the 

greatest percentage (79%) of negative (-) reactions, 

with the large delphinids at 16%, the small 

delphinids at 5%, and the Atlantic spotted and 

bottlenose dolphins at 0% each. Risso's dolphins of 

the large delphinids reacted negatively five of 30 

(17%) of the time, and striped dolphins of the small 

delphinids reacted negatively nine of 14 (64%) of the 

time . Spinner dolphins, rough-toothed dolphins, 

bottlenose dolphins, killer whales, and false killer 

whales never appeared to react negatively towards 

the vessel . On the other hand, Kogia sp ., the ziphiids, 

and the pygmy killer whale (with only one sample 

for it, however) never showed positive reactions, 

including bow-riding. 

DISCUSSION 

Sperm whales are easy to sight and identify, and 

reactions relative to the vessel may be unimportant in 

Table 4D.5 . Paired comparisons (Fishers LSD) of initial sighting distances for the six groups . "S" denotes 

comparisons (P<_0.05) . 

Comparison 

Mean 

Difference 

Critical 

Difference P-Value 

Group 1 vs. Group 2 -724.427 414.556 0.0006 S 

Group 1 vs . Group 6 -1312.496 507.709 <0.0001 S 

Group 1 vs . Group 5 -1096.615 518.633 <0.0001 S 

Group 1 vs . Groups 3 & 4 58.121 458.708 0.8036 

Group 2 vs . Group 6 -588.068 412.755 0.0053 S 

Group 2 vs . Group 5 -372 .187 426.121 0 .0868 

Group 2 vs . Groups 3 & 4 782.549 350.729 <0 .0001 S 

Group 6 vs. Group 5 215 .881 517.195 0.4127 

Group 6 vs . Groups 3 & 4 1370.617 457.081 <0.0001 S 

Group 5 vs . Groups 3 & 4 1154.736 469.185 <0.0001 
362 

estimating abundance. However, a caveat must be 

made: it is possible that sperm whales that hear an 

approaching or passing vessel change their dive 

times, by remaining submerged longer than they 

would otherwise, or shortening their surface time in 

response to the vessel, at some distance from the 

vessel . Neither of these possibilities is indicated by 

present information, however, and we assume that 

behavioral reactions do not consistently cause over or 

undercounts of sperm whales. It is, however, very 

likely that whales of a subgroup are undercounted in 

an area simply because of their normally long 

submergences, and this surface/dive ratio must be 

assessed with further work. 

Bottlenose dolphins and Atlantic spotted dolphins are 

relatively easy to sight and identify, in large part 

because of their habit of approaching vessels. Their 

behavior patterns relative to vessels are quite similar 

for the two species, and we conclude that population 

estimates are not likely to be skewed between the 

species due to behavioral reactions. However, their 

proclivity for bow-riding may result in overcounts 

relative to other less attracted species. 

The continental slope small delphinids are probably 

also rather similar in reaction, except for the striped 

dolphin and perhaps the lesser seen and known 

Fraser's dolphins and melon-headed whales. For the 

striped dolphin, we have strong indication of 

avoidance reaction, and apparent leaping away from 

the vessel at distances as far as 3 km. All nine 

negative reactions that were scored nevertheless 

resulted in species identifications simply because the 

dolphins were leaping at distance, and therefore 

allowed their clearly marked flanks to be seen . We 

have no numbers on how many times S. coeruleoalba 

avoided the vessels and were thereby not seen or-if 

seen-not identified to species group or species. It is 

probable that striped dolphins are undercounted 

relative to other stenellids . 

A similar problem may exist for Fraser's dolphins 

and melon-headed whales, each of which were only 

identified two and seven times, respectively . Fraser's 

dolphins bow-rode once of two times (50%) and 

melon-headed whales showed positive reaction or 

bow-rode five of seven times (71%). These data 

would indicate that positive and other reactions might 

balance out, but the numbers of identified sightings 

are simply too small, and the possibility exists that 

these delphinids are more cryptic than indicated. 

Further work, including detailed comparisons with 

aerial surveys, may shed light on this question . 

The mid-sized blackfish of the large delphinid group 

are probably seen with approximately equal 

frequency, with varied reactions to the vessel . They 

are also large and identifiable enough to be seen and 

counted from well over one kilometer. The killer 

whales are probably "overcounted" relative to others, 

with killer whales in approximately the same 

category as the easily-seen sperm whales. On the 

other side of this scale are the ziphiids and especially 

Kogia sp . Ziphiids are often not identifiable to 

species, but at least can be placed into the beaked 

whale category much of the time. Kogia are smaller 

and generally behaviorally cryptic, and we must 

assume that we seriously undercount these two 

species of physeterids. 

We assume that the noise of the census vessel, both 

from the engines and propeller cavitation, alert 

cetaceans to the vessel's presence (Richardson et al . 

1991). Cetaceans that react positively are probably 

either curious or are gauging the possibility of riding 

bow or stern pressure waves of the vessel . The 

exuberant forward leaps of spotted dolphins, for 

example, as they race towards the bow, can be 

described as a play activity which makes these 

animals very easy to see indeed . Cetaceans also 

habituate to vessels, and much "ignoring" of our 

census vessels is probably due to habituation in a 

propeller-noisy environment such as the northern 

Gulf of Mexico. It is unclear why some cetaceans, 

even those not known to have been harassed or killed 

by humans on any large scale, are habitually or at 

times evasive. Perhaps the noise of the vessel is 

disruptive to feeding or resting or other activities . 

Distances at which ship noises are heard are variable 

by ship, weather (sea state and rain) conditions, 

oceanography, depth of dive of the target species, 

frequencies of sensitivity, general ambient noise 

conditions, and angle of species from the bow 

(Greene 1991, Malme 1991). These variable factors 

make it very difficult to summarize distances of 

potential noise influence. However, we know that 

supply vessels of the approximate sizes of our survey 

vessels have sound levels in the range from 20 Hz to 

1,000 Hz of about 120 to 150 dB re . 1 uPa at a 

distance of 0.2 km, and about 105 to as high as 125 
363 

dB re . 1 uPa at a distance of 9 to 10 km, while 

underway (Greene 1985, Greene and Moore 1991). 

The major sensitivities of hearing of the toothed 

whales of the present study are well above 100 Hz, 

with the smaller delphinids doing almost all 

communicating and echolocating well above 1,000 

Hz. (Evans 1969, Au 1993). 

The sighting and identification of cetaceans can 

change by weather and variable behavior of species 

or species groups. However, behavior is even more 

variable than summarized in this chapter, with 

potential differences by group size, age and sex, time 

of day, season, weather, and other factors. For 

example, we know that spinner dolphins of Hawaii 

are more shy and cryptic while resting in early 

morning, and more aerially demonstrative in the 

afternoon (Wursig et al. 1994). Dusky dolphins 

(Lagenorhynchus obscurus) of the southern hemisphere attune their human interactions, including 

approaches to boats, closely to group size and 

whether or not they have fed in the previous several 

hours (Wursig and Wursig 1979). They show marked 

differences in human interaction responses relative to 

age and sex, and to seasonality (Wursig et al . 1989). 

Sperm whales and several species of baleen whales 

may increase their aerial activity prior to and in the 

initial stages of a drastic weather change (personal 

observation) . It is likely that similar differences exist 

for the cetaceans of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico, 

but our behavioral data base, gleaned literally while 

transiting past the animals, is at present too meager 

for more definitive statements . 

attempting to find ways to mitigate ecological 

problems to near shore and river dolphins . 

Spencer Lynn is currently a graduate student of 

Dr. Bernd Wursig's at the Marine Mammal Research 

Program of Texas A&M University, Galveston. His 

work involves photo-identification, behavioral 

observation, radio-tracking, genetic biopsy sampling, 

and acoustic recording of free-ranging bottlenose 

dolphins along the Texas coastline, as part of social 

affiliation and environmental monitoring studies. 

Before moving to Galveston in 1991, he assisted in 

research on the behavior, communication, and 

cognition of captive bottlenose dolphins in San 

Francisco, California . 

REFERENCES 

Not submitted with manuscript . 

Dr. Bernd Wursig is a professor at Texas A&M 

University, and Director of the university's Marine 

Mammal Research Program. His main interests are in 

behavioral ecology and social strategies of whales 

and dolphins, with special emphasis on comparisons 

among species and habitats . Dr. Wiirsig's research, 

much of it in coordination with his graduate students, 

is centered on the Gulf of Mexico, but also takes him 

on a regular basis to sites in the Amazon, Costa Rica, 

Hawaii, the Bahamas, the Arctic, New Zealand, and 

central China. He is especially interested in 
SESSION 5B 

MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, 

PART 11 
367 

Session: SB - MARICULTURE ASSOCIATED WITH OIL AND GAS STRUCTURES, PART II 

Co-Chairs: Mr. Villere Reggio and Mr. Dave Moran 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Mariculture Potential, Problems & Perspective 

Nearshore & Offshore Texas and throughout the 

Gulf of Mexico 

The Watermark Corporation 

High Seas Mariculture 

Open Ocean Mariculture and the Significance of 

Petroleum Structures to Fisheries 

Mr. Tim Moore 

Texas Aquaculture Association 

Mr. Gregg Creppel 

The Watermark Corporation 

Mr. Michael C. Kacergis 

Maryland Shrimp Company, Inc. 

Mr. Steve Kolian 

Tulane University 
369 

MARICULTURE POTENTIAL, 

PROBLEMS & PERSPECTIVE 

NEARSHORE & OFFSHORE 

TEXAS AND THROUGHOUT THE 

GULF OF MEXICO 

Mr. Tim Moore 

Texas Aquaculture Association 

gap because population is growing much more 

rapidly than the industry is able to keep up with. 

We can simply no longer catch enough fish or 

aquatic animals to meet the demand of these 

products. With the population growth and changing 

diets of health-conscious consumers, aquaculture 

facilities have begun to respond by expanding to help 

fill the gap. 

Gulf of Mexico offshore aquaculture is defined as the 

rearing of marine organisms under controlled 

conditions in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 

the United States ; that is, from the three mile 

territorial limit of the coastal states to 200 miles from 

shore. There currently is no federal policy with 

respect to regulating offshore aquaculture. 

While marine aquaculture has focused on the 

production of fish, shellfish and algae in recent years, 

it is the raising of aquatic animals for food that has 

seen the truly explosive growth in the last twenty 

years, with most of that growth taking place in the 

last ten years. 

Why this sudden interest in mariculture? The global 

catch of fish in 1990 was less than 100 million metric 

tons . This quantity is simply not adequate to meet the 

demand that exists today, let alone the demand that 

will exist in the future . 

And regretfully, the oceans of the world will 

probably never produce more fish than that 100 

million metric tons . If anything, a scenario of less 

and less appears likely . The Food and Agriculture 

Organization (FAO) has projected that the industrialized nations of the world will require an additional 22.5 million and the non-industrialized nations 

another 5.9 million metric tons of fish and seafood 

products by the year 2000. That's a total of 28.4 million metric tons or nearly 60 billion pounds . If the 

oceans of the world are not going to produce more 

seafood in the years immediately ahead, that 60 billion pounds must come from aquaculture worldwide. 

As most of you are acutely aware, fish landings from 

the worlds' oceans have lagged far behind the 

population growth . So not only are we seeing the 

absolute demand of those in the market now pulling 

ahead of the supply but we're seeing an additional 

Mariculture dwarfs the expectations for the future . 

Mariculture promises to become the dominant factor 

in the world seafood industry in the next twenty 

years but only if the capital necessary to ensure its 

growth becomes available. 

With all of that as background let's look a little more 

closely at some of the things occurring in the mariculture world and how they may impact on investments in mariculture. 

If current state and federal regulatory trends continue 

to dominate the environmental agendas, several 

trends are apparent. We are either going to grow 

marinefish on shore in systems that are environmentally correct, i .e ., those that emphasize water 

reuse and conservation, minimal impingement and 

negligible effluent impacts, and build facilities that 

fully consider competing users of the available 

resources, or we will grow marinefish offshore in 

open waters where potential impacts are less controversial and environmental impact statements and 

routine monitoring are not required . 

One thing is certain. World demand for seafood 

appears insatiable . We know that because what 

started in just a few countries is now truly worldwide 

and nearly every nation on earth, industrialized or 

third-world is not only participating in aquaculture 

but is increasing their annual production and their 

number of species produced . 

Along with globalization, we are seeing a gradual 

sorting out and relocation by species of aquaculture 

production areas . More and more aquaculture 

activities are closing down in geographic areas which 

are inhospitable for cultural, climactic or economic 

reasons and are moving closer and closer to more 

hospitable sites. Aquaculture now is beginning to 

migrate to places where greater opportunity for 

ongoing profitability exists, places with warmer 
370 

climate, inexpensive land, abundant water, minimal 

effluent discharge problems, low labor cost . 

The primary reasons for interest in offshore 

mariculture are 

" Existing structures such as drilling platforms can 

be used during and beyond their capable years of 

extracting oil and gas from the seabed below as 

growout sites. 

" Most pollution from sewage, pesticides, 

petroleum spills and industrial wastes that occur 

in coastal waters can generally be avoided in 

offshore sites . 

" Nutrient loading from waste feed and fecal 

material can be avoided in offshore areas where 

water volumes and movements will rapidly 

disperse the waste products . 

" Offshore water quality is traditionally more 

stable than inshore areas. These very enticing 

benefits are balanced and possibly overbalanced 

with serious constraints. 

" Offshore facilities must endure the harshness of 

the Gulf. Structures must be engineered to 

routinely withstand high winds and wave actions 

that peak at 15-20 feet . 

" Modeling structures for the Gulf of Mexico 

cannot be modeled in the David Taylor Wave 

Tank. Engineers that design projects for the Gulf 

cannot easily go from the toothpick model to a 

full scale ocean structure. Engineers have not 

been able to accurately predict the force of X 

height wave times the current when every ninth 

wave doubles or even quadruples in force. The 

base line data does not clearly indicate whether 

offshore structures like rigs should defy nature or 

work in some sort of unison with nature in the 

Gulf environment. 

Conventional wisdom says : 

" Eliminate anchors from the mooring system of 

any net pen design . They are expensive, 

unreliable and could interfere with shrimp 

trawling operations . 

A reliable automated water flush feed delivery 

system which can be used on either active, 

unmanned platforms or non-producing rigs has 

been developed and tested with success. 

" Containment nets should in fact not be netting 

but rather panels of molded fiberglass with 1-2" 

square grids standardized for all pens and easily 

replaced by divers as the material becomes 

biofouled. 

" Annual production for any cage system can be 

increased utilizing supplementing water 

circulation via a platform mounted pump during 

high DO demand (i .e., adult fish, mid-summer). 

Every project that I am aware of in the Gulf of 

Mexico incorporating mariculture concludes that 

all viable future facilities must be built as much 

as 20 feet below the surface in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Conventional wisdom is that "Hostile 

Environment" only moderately describes the 

challenges presented mariculturists in Gulf of 

Mexico. 

If it is true that systems have had more success 

submerged, and thereby removed from the most 

extreme wave action, then the ability to raise and 

lower cages in the water for maintenance and harvest 

must become key components to any system. One of 

the most simplified versions utilized an exchange of 

air and water volume inside an octagon flotation 

collar attached to the pen. 

Submerged structures require automation to surface 

and harvest, requiring additional cost in construction . 

It appears beneficial to build pens outside the 

platform legs to allow for expansion of cage volume 

to an economically viable size . This outside the leg 

location eliminates the need for anchors, which have 

been problematic in many systems. The rigidity of 

units appears to allow for more simplified and 

reliable feed delivery system. 

Current U.S . and international law and offshore lease 

agreements require the complete removal within one 

year of offshore structures at the end of the intended 

useful life . In testimony to Congress, The Marine 

Board of the National Research Council projected 

that by the year 2000, two-thirds of the existing 

offshore structures will have become commercially 

unproductive and subject to removal and onshore 

disposal . 
371 

Let's be realistic and look at it from the oil and gas 

companies' perspective: 

In consideration of this time-line utilization of offshore structures, oil & gas companies find it nearly 

impossible and downright unattractive to contribute 

surplus equipment to anyone but an authorized 

artificial reef program, such as Louisiana's. Of course 

the same liability concerns combined with 

engineering and operational issues dissuade oil and 

gas companies from considering mariculture 

agreements involving active production structures . 

Other limitations to consider : 

Offshore production activities require vastly different 

approaches and technologies from those utilized in 

coastal or inland waters . Currents in excess of seven 

knots, wave actions exceeding 15 feet and seasonal 

hurricanes dictate utilization of materials and 

engineering approaches that are inherently more 

expensive than those in protected waters . Information 

on engineering requirements for such facilities is 

developing but have not as yet proven economically 

competitive. 

Anti-fouling has not been comprehensively factored 

into design criteria materials. Fish biology and fish 

behavior in cage or net culture is only nominally 

understood . 

" Federal oil and gas leases for the OCS do not 

authorize the conduct of any sort of commercial 

activities . e.g ., no casinos, no restaurants, no 

vendor warehousing and no mariculture. 

" Mariculture is not related to the core business of 

oil and gas production . Most oil and gas companies continue to divest non- core, non-strategic 

assets and activities to cope with increasing 

compliance costs and foreign competition. 

" Oil & gas companies are unwilling to increase 

their exposure to lawsuits stemming from ANY 

source . 

" Safety concerns discourage oil and gas 

companies from considering mariculture on 

active structures, and they are legally bound to 

remove inactive ones. 

" Oil and gas companies would never warrant the 

suitability or serviceability of offshore structures 

for uses other than their intended use. 

" If oil and gas companies were in a position to 

accommodate mariculture activities on offshore 

structures they would require the operator to post 

performance bonds for both installation and 

removal of equipment, maintain sufficient 

insurance to cover all foreseeable damages, and 

ensure that no structural modification could 

interfere with either normal or emergency oil and 

gas operations, including evacuations. 

These six major constraints must be overcome for 

ANY oil and gas company to participate in a 

mariculture project now or in the future . 

High-value species must be economically feasible in 

offshore culture. Species most favored for offshore 

production include yellowtail snapper, ling and mahi 

mahi. These species have achieved complete life 

cycles in captivity, and larval rearing techniques as 

well as prepared diets continue to improve. By its 

very nature, offshore cage culture and its appropriate 

technologies make it ahigh-risk high-cost production 

method. Marginally valued species simply are not 

cost effective. Some research indicates that until we 

in the United States adopt an Asian mindset that 

allows for an $8-9 dollar per pound average price, 

mariculture production models will fail to be 

sustainable and profitable . 

With the best technologies available to the industry, 

we must remember that the agriculture policy in this 

country has always supported a cheap and affordable 

food policy . 

The risk/reward ratios for platform culture have not 

been fairly assessed . If pricey fish products prove to 

be the only viable species, we still haven't 

determined market demand for these products . 

As offshore cage culture commercial production of 

these high-priced fish increases, per unit cost will be 

driven downward. This forces us to produce more 

fish in the same systems to maintain profitability. 

We know that dolphins (mahi mahi) experience rapid 

growth on a cut fish and shrimp diet, but there is no 

known feed ingredient mix of like nutrition currently 

developed for open sea culture. Mahi Mahi are 

symptomatic with schooling behavior and experience 

less than desirable growth conversion rates when the 
372 

culture environment experiences rapid and fast 

current flows. Rapid flows force rapid swimming 

action in the culture species . This action always 

increases rapid oxygen intake and contributes to 

oxygen depletion. 

We know that in warm water culture, dissolved 

oxygen levels can and do fluctuate greatly in the hot 

summer months. We do not know optimal 

dimensions for cage culture for each species and in 

what densities. 

We do know that with maximum fish biomass there 

are many situations in the open seas where large fish 

in the middle of culture cages will demand 

supplemental aeration . Supplemental aeration 

requires additional pumps and energy and additional 

operational costs. 

We know that 70% of all saltwater sportfishing trips 

made by coastal residents beyond three miles from 

shore made their trips to oil and gas structures . What 

does this mean for offshore mariculture? It probably 

means that fully automated, manned platforms will 

be required for security and economic reasons. 

Poaching and theft will demand unique and 

innovative solutions. The fact that these offshore 

structures lie in public U.S . waters makes them 

especially vulnerable and accessible . Video 

surveillance and utilization of alarm systems may be 

required as effective deterrents . Satellite 

communications to trigger patrols of the platforms 

will certainly be a necessary component of security . 

We know that the Gulf waters nearshore structures 

are threatened by increased nitrogen and phosphorus 

levels and more unstable salinity . Better culture 

waters appear to be outside the three-mile barrier. 

Most of the available rigs lie in the waters beyond 

three miles anyway. 

If the most desirable sites are beyond the three-mile 

boundary, then this culture methodology will develop 

on the most inaccessible, remote platforms that will 

require more costly maintenance from shore, more 

costly ingress and egress with personnel. 

On the positive side however, the more remote 

locations also offer less risk of winterkill, which is 

greatly reduced further offshore as oceanic water is 

not subject to rapid temperature change . 

We know that at an average cost of $10 to 15 million 

for existing construction and placement, industry 

cannot bear the cost of duplicating these structures 

for growout facilities . Existing structures must be 

utilized. A short window of opportunity exists for the 

development of offshore mariculture. 

It is highly unlikely that there will ever be 

coordination of mariculture activities with oil and gas 

operations on active platforms. However if oil and 

gas personnel and mariculture activities can utilize 

boats, helitransport services, decompression 

chambers, diving activities and the like, favorable 

cost controls for mariculture activities will be better 

achieved. Availability of decompression chambers, 

need for 110' utility boats to ferry out personnel and 

to deliver the structures themselves, feed, harvest 

equipment, use of trained divers for structural repairs 

can exceed $2,000 per day. These technologies do 

not come without serious ongoing operational costs 

that cannot easily be borne by mariculture activities 

alone. 

It will not be easy to make this culture concept 

viable, sustainable or profitable . High quality seafood 

demand will continue, regulatory pressure will 

continue to mount for land-based operations, 

platforms will continue to be chopped up and 

scrapped or donated to rig-to-reef programs. 

Mariculture has a short window of opportunity to 

make best use of these multi-million dollar structures . 

We need the fish they are capable of producing, we 

need the jobs they are capable of generating ; 

therefore, we will meet the demand for technology 

that makes these platforms viable . Profitability may 

well be the single most limiting factor in the 

consideration of the ocean giants for mariculture 

production . 

With roughly an eight-year window of opportunity, 

the most innovative and viable projects will compete 

for investment and venture capital dollars against 

other investment alternatives and possibly less risky 

ventures . Offshore projects will not enjoy a 

honeymoon with investor attitudes. This culture 

technique will not be capable of sustaining highly 

visible public losses and failures without an 

immediate erosion of investor confidence . We cannot 

afford to elephant hunt on the high seas . The most 

visible of projects in the next five years must show 

positive promising results. This means that 

collaborative government and private enterprise 
373 

projects must pave the future . Platform culture will 

not attract small investors. These projects are for the 

stout-hearted and will be funded by big business . 

They will succeed if they are designed around 

economies of scale or as supplemental income 

streams to other offshore integrated oil and gas 

activities . 

THE WATERMARK CORPORATION 

Mr. Gregg Creppel 

Watermark Corporation 

Watermark is embarking upon a venture of 

attempting to couple offshore oil and gas production 

with operations designed to farm fish and shellfish in 

the offshore environment on deep water oil and gas 

platforms. Recognizing that natural resource 

management, energy production, and food 

availability will all become critical issues in the 

coming century, Watermark has developed a plant 

that will meet these needs (Figures 513.1 and SB.2). 

Oil and gas production and seafood farming are two 

industries that are viable for development in the Gulf 

of Mexico immediately and concurrently . 

Management believes that the success of combining 

these industries is built upon the premise that 

diversity in commercial operations will provide a 

shield from the risks associated with either operation 

by itself because of the "buffering" that one 

operation's revenue flow should offer to the other. 

Watermark's primary focus is to establish a 

mariculture (sea farming) operation that will utilize 

offshore oil and gas production platforms located in 

the clear, oceanic-quality, deep waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico, beyond near-shore land runoff and related 

pollution. Watermark has researched the global state 

of affairs with regard to inadequate food supplies for 

future generations and has selected mariculture as a 

business venture that will contribute to the solving of 

these global societal problems . Furthermore, 

Watermark has chosen to conduct this business in a 

way that can turn the liabilities of off-shore oil and 

gas platforms into assets . The company will seek to 

acquire platforms which still have hydrocarbon 

production in order to receive the benefit of the 

revenues generated from further oil and gas 

production . This income can create a positive cash 

flow for the company during the time in which the 

mariculture operation is being established and can 

enhance the overall corporate profitability thereafter. 

The demand for seafood significantly exceeds the 

ability for the countries of the world to supply 

seafood to consumers. Seafood shortages are related 

to the decline in natural fishery populations both 

from over-fishing and environmental degradation. 

With the anticipated continued decline in natural 

seafood supplies, mariculture is attracting wide 

interest from both the business community and 

governments around the world as a means to 

supplement dwindling natural fishery supplies and 

eventually could become a dominant source of 

seafood. 

Mariculture, the farming of marine organisms in a 

controlled aquatic environment, is an infant science 

with significant, although untested, potential. Well 

planned, efficiently managed mariculture operations 

can achieve goals of environmental protection and 

natural fishery stock preservation . The farming of 

marine species can reduce pressures on natural 

stocks, which in some instances are approaching 

extinction, and can provide economic stability to 

fishing communities by providing significant profitproducing food harvests for growing populations 

world-wide. As mariculture technology continues to 

develop, including the use of better environments, 

such as deep ocean water regions, and the continued 

improvement of caging methods and feeding of 

culture species, there is no doubt that the proportion 

of seafood provided through mariculture versus 

natural fished stocks will continue to increase . 

Watermark's goal is to supply a premium-priced 

species such as pompano to the seafood market. 

There are many economic advantages to cultivating 

a delicacy product such as pompano. This product 

can command a high price, eliminate the vagaries of 

commodity markets, and control market expansion by 

supply rather than demand. Presently, the pompano 

market (about one million pounds annually) is 

relatively small compared to other fishery products, 

due to a limited catch by fishermen . The market is 

also highly elastic and could be greatly expanded 

with little effect on its price. Pompano has an 

excellent name and reputation throughout the United 

States . No efforts have been made, however, to 
374 

L~O ~O a Mkw PC- llro~ v IftwcA p" 

Win hooves 

1 

Wkuh hoes / 

Guy wdreo 

.1 

M ~iatic"~ er" 

, ..r..~ . 

Oallast unto 

Feed . Aeration, Comprtlsul 

. Air 6 Harvest Lubef } 

-`. . 

~_ fish Pen 

Return mec . for 

-nGh t 

" Anchor FQ6 

! r 

Figure 5B.1 Surface view rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities . 

expand the pompano market because of its limited 

natural supply . 

The concept of utilizing offshore oil and gas 

production platforms for mariculture purposes is not 

new. It is only now, however, that the environmental, 

economic, and biotechnological components are 

coming together to facilitate this industry . The 

development of this proposed relationship provides 

a catalyst for a critical evolution in the way natural 

and man-made resources are utilized, as even the 

most bountiful of resources are finite. 

integration of several of the component services and 

products involved in mariculture. With as many as 

3,800 platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, there is the 

potential for the company to obtain a substantial 

number of producing platforms that will serve as 

mariculture facilities . As Watermark expands, it will 

also eventually be able to minimize the Company's 

dependence on commercial purveyors of feed 

products and processing facilities . This will result in 

enhanced profitability by incorporating value-added 

processing at all levels of production as well as 

through cost reduction. 

Watermark envisions rapid horizontal expansion to a 

number of platform facilities, followed by vertical 

Oil and gas platforms provide an excellent 

environment in which to grow enormous quantities of 
375 

BUOY 

 WATER L! NE 

300' 0 

N 

N 

N 

R 6c FEED t0 MUD LINE 

rv N RY IN 

750' I 

" = 

Figure 513.2 . Vertical cross-section rendition of oil and gas platform supporting mariculture facilities that 

shows the radial dimensions of the complex. 

high-value fish and shellfish worth many millions of 

dollars. The possibilities for growth and profits for 

Watermark through combining the business of oil 

and gas production with the business of mariculture 

are extensive, and Watermark has assembled the right 

management team with the expertise to get the job 

done. 

HIGH SEAS MARICULTURE 

Mr. Michael C. Kacergis 

Maryland Shrimp Company Inc. 

To most people the word aquaculture is either a 

foreign term or it invokes images of cutting edge 

technology and exotic gadgetry for rearing shellfish 

and finfish. While many believe that aquaculture is a 

new industry, the reality is that aquaculture dates 

back to the ancient Romans in the West and the 

Chinese in the East . Today, worldwide efforts in 
376 

aquaculture, especially mariculture or marine 

aquaculture, are expanding as traditional fishery 

stocks dwindle or collapse . 

The U.S . fishing industry is experiencing difficult 

times, as indicated by these headlines that paint a 

picture of a recently-unfolding crisis : 

Baltimore Sun: "Over Fishing Has Nearly 

Depleted World's Oceans" 

Boston Globe : "Fish: Greed, Pollution, 

Development Take Toll" 

Buffalo News: "The Worldwide Fishing Crisis" 

National Fisherman: "Disaster Relief Funding 

Sought To Keep Northeast Fishermen 

Afloat" 

The Economist: "The Tragedy Of The Oceans" 

(a possible allusion to G. Hardin's 1968 

article, The Tragedy of the Common, 

Science 162:1243-1248 .) 

In reality the decline of ground fish populations has 

been seen over many years. Georges Banks has 

experienced one remarkable shift in species biomass. 

Traditionally cod, haddock, and yellow tail flounder 

dominated this rich fishing ground . Today dogfish 

(shark) and skate account for 75% of the catch by 

weight (U .S . Department of Commerce 1992). 

In 1988, the United Nations Food and Agricultural 

Organization (FAO) reported that the world fish 

production accounted for approximately 98 million 

metric tons . This figure includes 14 million metric 

tons from aquacultural production (FAO 1991). 

According to dollar value statistics from the FAO, as 

of 1992 the United States ranked as the world's 

second largest importer of fishery products . Japan 

ranked first in fish imports. In 1993 U.S . imports of 

fishery products reached a record $10.6 billion while 

our exports of fishery products accounted for only 

$6.9 billion. This resulted in a trade deficit of $3.7 

billion (U.S . Department of Commerce, 1994). 

In general, the U.S . fishing industry appears plagued 

by catch reductions and closures due to diminished 

fish populations. Some examples include the west 

coast herring roe fishery now reduced from its 

historical significance to a season lasting all of 42 

minutes. The Alaskan halibut fishery is shifting from 

last year's pair of 24-hour "derbies" to a system of 

Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) . (For an 

overview of ITQs, see D. Shaw. 1994. Halibut: 

Understanding ITQs : When youy buy, what you'll 

pay. In Seafood Leader, Vol. 14, pp. 106-114.) For 

the second time in 28 years Alaska is closing the 

Bristol Bay king crab fishery. On the east coast the 

New England Fishery Commission is proposing 

sweeping closures on Georges Bank to allow 

haddock stocks to regain strength . And in Gulf of 

Mexico waters, Florida just passed a referendum that 

essentially bans nets larger than 500 square feet of 

mesh from state waters . 

There are several measures that may ease fishing 

pressure and allow fish populations to regain 

strength . The implementation of bans and area 

closures represent the harshest restrictions to be 

endured by the fishing community. Individual 

transferable quotas, limited entry, area licensing, and 

sole ownership (Edwards et al . 1993) are additional 

measures that may aid in the recovery of fish 

populations. Mariculture, a truly renewable industry 

represents an alternative that would help mitigate 

heavy fishing pressures currently exerted on our 

living marine resources. By producing sufficient 

quantities of domesticated fish species, we would 

reduce our dependence on natural stocks, allowing 

them to regain historical levels . 

Mariculture would also provide a means to reduce 

our dependence on imported fishery products. In 

1988 seafood product imports accounted for more 

than 25% of the dollar value of all food and live 

animal imports combined. The imported seafood 

products total for 1988, $53 billion, was slightly 

greater than the total imports of meat products and 

live animals, $5.2 billion (National Research Council 

1992). In light of our dependence on imported 

seafood, the 1994 $3.7 billion deficit, and declining 

fish populations, it would be prudent to explore the 

possibilities of large scale mariculture. 

In the Gulf of Mexico there exists a unique 

opportunity to link the oil and gas industries with 

mariculture operations . The petroleum industry on 

the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) began in 1947 

when the first well was drilled beyond the sight of 

land (Emmer et al . 1992). Since then the industry has 

experienced many lucrative years but today it finds 

itself in an economic slump. A new trend has 

recently appeared in the OCS where the petroleum 

industry began removing more production platforms 

than they were installing . (See Figure 513.3 for 
250 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

200 ---------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------- 

0 150 ----------------------------------- ------------------------- 

__ . 

m x 

PLI 100 ------------------------------ 

50 ----------- ---------------------

0 

83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 91 

Year 

installation -"°"m removal 

Figure 513.3 . OCS Production Platform Installation vs . Removal. W 

J 
378 

additional detail .) Since 1987 and 1993 the number 

of platforms being removed jumped from 24 to 179 

respectively . This accounts for an 87% increase in 

platform removals over only six years (U.S . 

Department of the Interior 1994). These platforms, 

which have reached the end of their effective design 

life are viewed as a liability and not a valuable 

resource. The largest aspect of the liability is 

presumably the considerable cost of platform 

removal . One should note that many of these 

platforms are situated in waters highly suitable for 

raising a wide variety of marine finfish and shellfish. 

As each platform is removed, a potential opportunity 

to establish a mariculture site in the OCS is lost . 

Maryland Shrimp Company (MSC) feels that mariculture can intervene in several ways, providing 

financial incentives for both platform owners and for 

the Minerals Management Service. Platform owners 

will benefit from the additional revenue stream 

generated by a percentage of the sales of fish . This 

new revenue stream, which could effectively cover 

the debt service on the platform could transform a 

marginally producing platform into a profitable platform . A non-producing platform scheduled for removal would remain on station. This would postpone 

the costly removal and greatly increase the design 

life of the platform . Under MSC's program the platform would now serve as a support structure for 

mariculture operations whereby one platform will be 

associated with one netpen. Platforms or "Offshore 

Mariculture Infrastructure Stations" can now serve as 

housing for netpen attendants, storage for feed, and 

a site for energy generation required for the daily 

operation of the netpen. MMS would benefit from a 

royalty based on a percentage of the fish sales. 

Maryland Shrimp Company views the role of MMS 

in OCS mariculture as that of lead agency in regulatory oversight. MMS already regulates gas and oil 

operations in the Gulf of Mexico and has in place the 

necessary infrastructure to fill the position of lead 

agency . This infrastructure includes support systems, 

transportation, and the generation of data for the Gulf 

of Mexico. 

Netpens will not be attached directly to the platform 

for both engineering and safety considerations . The 

only direct connection between the netpen and the 

platform will be an umbilical that will provide power 

to both the winching system and surface lighting . In 

the event of catastrophic failure of the netpen the 

umbilical will have a breakaway connection, thus 

allowing the netpen to settle to the bottom and not 

affecting the structural integrity of the platform. The 

netpens are designed to allow remote adjustment of 

their height in the water column. This will permit 

netpen attendants on site to raise or lower the pen in 

varying weather conditions . 

Maryland Shrimp Company plans to raise a range of 

economically important finfish species. These species 

include: 

Tuna (Thunnus sp.) 

Mahi-mahi (Coryphaena sp.) 

Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) 

Snapper (Lutanus sp .) 

Grouper (Epinephelus sp., Mycteroperca sp.) 

Tilapia (Tilapia sp.) 

All species above were chosen for a variety of 

reasons . Economically, species appeal as a "white 

table cloth item" (a term used to describe high value, 

high priced items in the restaurant trade) implies high 

economic value on the retail market. This factor 

alone makes a species highly attractive for domestication . In the case of blue fin tuna, wholesale export 

prices can command as much as $35 .00 per pound. 

Growth rates and ease in spawning are other important considerations in the choice of a fish species 

targeted for domestication . Mahi mahi demonstrate 

high fecundity (many eggs from a single spawn) and 

tremendous growth rates in captivity where a 13 kg 

fish can be raised from the egg stage in approximately 130 days (Hagwood et al. 1981 ; Kraul 1993). 

Even though tilapia is a fine fish for human 

consumption, this species was chosen for several 

additional reasons. First, certain species of tilapia are 

filter feeders which means all their nutritional 

requirements can be derived from the surrounding 

water. This significantly reduces the quantity of food 

required to rear them. Full strength sea water is 

known to inhibit the spawning of tilapia. Even 

though there are reproducing populations of tilapia in 

the coastal brackish waters of Florida, Louisiana, and 

Texas, we are not aware of any reports of tilapia 

caught in deep waters of the OCS. In the event of 

escape, it is unlikely a tilapia would survive long . 

This species of fish is suited to the relatively shallow 

protected waters of rivers, ponds or estuaries. Their 

morphology allows the fish only short bursts of speed 

which will make them easy prey for the streamlined 
379 

pelagic predators which roam the Gulf of Mexico. 

Tilapia will provide both a protein source as feed 

required by the species of higher economic value as 

well as high quality white fish fillets for human 

consumption. 

There are several benefits the mariculture industry 

has to offer. One of the more obvious benefits is the 

creation of jobs in economically troubled regions. 

Many positions would be created including netpen 

attendants, fish processing, and transportation. 

Maryland Shrimp Company has a standing policy to 

set starting wages at $11 per hour. Unlike the 

traditional fisheries, mariculture is a truly renewable 

industry . Entire generations of fish are reared from 

larvae to adulthood supplied by eggs of captive brood 

stock. Another benefit is that fish farming offers 

relief from the heavy fishing pressures exerted on 

many fish populations. Markets can be supplied with 

farmed fish, thus reducing the dependence of wild 

stocks . Mariculture can also directly replenish 

depleted populations through a program of stock 

enhancement. Large quantities of larvae and juvenile 

fish can be released into specific areas where 

populations once flourished in the hope that a small 

percentage will survive to the age of reproduction . 

Last, unlike traditional fish harvest methods, there is 

no bycatch associated with mariculture. (Bycatch or 

incidental-catch is the taking of non-target species. 

Bycatch is usually discarded into the sea dead.) For 

a worst case scenario one need only examine the 

global shrimp industry's bycatch records to view 

discard rates as high as 1,100% (Warren 1994). 

Mariculture in federal waters has its share of 

difficulties, the largest being regulatory ambiguity 

specific to ownership of fish within a netpen. For 

example, the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act, does not mention aquaculture or 

mariculture within its text. It does state however, 

". . . the United States claims . . . sovereign rights 

and exclusive management authority over all fish, 

and all Continental Shelf fishery resources, within the 

exclusive economic zone ." (For additional 

information, see Magnuson Fishery Conservation and 

Management Act, section 101 .00-627(a) .) This gives 

ownership of fish within a netpen to the Federal 

Government and eliminates private ownership. The 

Canadian Aquaculture Act (ascended to 8 December 

1988) on the other hand states in section 16(5), 

"All aquacultural produce of the species and 

strains specified in the aquaculture license, while 

constrained within the boundaries of the 

aquaculture site, are the exclusive personal 

property of the licensee until sold, transferred, or 

otherwise disposed of by the licensee ." 

For mariculture to exist in the OCS there must be a 

legal provision that specifies private ownership to 

fish within the netpen . Without such a provision, 

there is little incentive for private industry to invest 

under such financially risky circumstances. 

The oil and gas industry in the Gulf of Mexico's 

OCS is experiencing a dramatic shift toward 

increased production platform removals. These 

platforms should be considered a valuable asset 

rather than a financial liability. Mariculture offers a 

renewable industry and alternative revenue stream to 

the platform owner. By creating an industry in the 

OCS, mariculture will offer many jobs to 

communities burdened by high unemployment rates . 

Mariculture represents a viable alternative to the 

traditional methods of harvesting marine fish 

products . Finally, mariculture has the potential to 

satisfy many of the United States' seafood needs and 

offers relief to our increasing seafood import deficit. 

REFERENCES 

Edwards, F.H., A. J. Bejda, and A. Richards. 1993 . 

Sole Ownership of Living Marine Resources. 

U.S . Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, 

Massachusetts. 

Emmer, R.E., A. Rheams, and F. Wagner. 1992. 

Offshore Petroleum Development and the 

Comprehensive Planning Process. Final report 

submitted to Minerals Management Service. 

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1991 . 

FAO Yearbook, Fisheries Statistics, Catches, and 

Landings . Vol . 68, 1989 . 

Hagwood, R.W., G.N . Rothwell, M. Swafford, and 

M. Tosaki . 1981 . Preliminary report on the 

aquaculture development of the dolphin fish, 

Coryphaena hippurus (Linnaeus) . Journal of the 

World Aquaculture Society 12(1):135-139. 
380 

Kraul, S . 1993 . Larviculture of the mahi mahi, 

Coryphaena hippurus in Hawaii, USA. Journal 

of the World Aquaculture Society Vol. 24 , No. 

3 pp. 410-421 . 

Hardin, G. 1968 . The Tragedy of the Commons. 

Science 162:1243-1248. 

National Research Council . 1992 . Marine 

Aquaculture: Opportunities for Growth . 

Committee on Assessment of Technology and 

Opportunities for Marine Aquaculture in the 

United States . Washington D.C . : National 

Academy Press. p. 290. 

U.S . Department of Commerce. 1992. Status of 

Fishery Resources off the Northeastern United 

States for 1992. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 

U.S . Department of Commerce. 1994. Fisheries of 

the United States . National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C . 

U.S . Department of the Interior. 1994. Current Facts 

and Figures, Minerals Management Service, 

Offshore Oil and Gas Operations, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region, August 1994. 

Warren, B. 1994. Major report points to many 

incidental-catch problems worldwide, but few 

solutions. In National Fisherman, Vol. 75, No. 1, 

pp. 16-17. 

OPEN OCEAN MARICULTURE AND 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF 

PETROLEUM STRUCTURES TO 

FISHERIES 

Mr. Steve Kolian 

Tulane University 

Discourse begins by introducing an open ocean mariculture concept and then moves on to address two 

case studies that examine the significance of 

petroleum structures to the regional fisheries. The 

mariculture idea, called Hydro Wheel (Figure SB.4), 

is to submerge and organize several petroleum structures as artificial reefs inside a planning area . Then 

process fish above the reef configurations, sending 

the discards down to the reef fish . 

For example, if a trawler came up and unloaded his 

catch at the processor, the usable portion of the 

harvest would be channeled to the market and the 

discards would be sent down to the reef fish . His 

by-catch would be reduced to 1%, everything would 

go to the market or be utilized to feed the reef fish 

below. Commercial and recreational hook and liners 

would catch fish above the reefs. 

More importantly, the fishermen will be doing the 

work for the fish . Most of his catch will be diffused 

through a pipe system distributing about 2,000 lbs. of 

fish offal a day. His trawls, his haul, his diesel 

engine, will help find the next meal for the fish . 

Much as in agriculture, where yield can be related to 

the input of subsidiary energy, i .e. machine, fertilizers, irrigation . Hydro Wheel production will be 

relative to the amount of food and habitat invested . 

The proposed system can be a platform for a succession of fisheries management strategies, including 

crab culture, lobster farming, brooding and stocking, 

etc. Fishermen will be transferred from predator 

methods to agrarian methods, lifted from one groove 

to be set in another. 

REEF HABITAT, RED SNAPPER, AND 

PETROLEUM STRUCTURES: CASE STUDY 

The Louisiana continental shelf is home to over 

3,000 oil and gas platforms. The base of a platform, 

called a jacket, forms a profile against ocean currents . 

Attaching organisms, including hermatypic coral and 

octocoral, colonize the substrate up and down the 

steel structures . The 3,000 oil and gas platforms 

peppered across the shelf constitute 90% of the reef 

habitat offshore of Louisiana (Scarborough-Bull 

1987). Otherwise, there would be virtually no reef 

habitat. Sedimentation from the Mississippi and the 

Atchafalaya smothers any natural reef development 

until a thin archipelago of coral reefs, about 100 

miles seaward from the coast (Figure SB .S). 

As the wells dry up, the structures are removed. 

Every year over 300 acres' of high-profile substrate 

disappears off the continental shelf (MMS platform 
381 

Figure 513 .4 Hydro Wheel concept. 

removal schedule 1994). To reef fish such as red 

snapper, the ferrous profile of an oil and gas platform 

provides the same functions as the calcium profile of 

natural coral. They form grazing areas, respite from 

the current, nursery grounds, and protection from 

predators. They accommodate feeding mechanisms 

for numerous species at every trophic level. 

Due to their hydraulic morphology, artificial reefs 

have a much higher (10-15 times) carrying capacity 

than natural reefs. So the removal of petroleum 

structures, estimated to be 90% of the reef habitat 

along the Louisiana continental shelf, may be more 

significant than the figure above suggest (Figure 

513.6) 

Authorities are campaigning for the mandatory use of 

a Bycatch Reduction Device (BRDs) to protect red 

snapper from incidental catch by shrimp trawlers . 

Contrary to popular opinion, the BRDs are not being 

implemented to protect finfish in general; they will 

be required to protect red snapper. Ground fish are 

only being harvested at about 50% of their optimum 

yield (NMFS 1981). 
382 

Red snapper exhibit such a strong fidelity to 

structure, the developers of BRDs have encountered 

trouble designing a device that works. Red snapper 

have been observed to refuse to swim out of a net 

equipped with a cumbersome BRD (Atrand 1994). In 

another report, by-catch reduction devices where 

used on one side of a vessel and a normal net on the 

other. Researchers found that the nets without a BRD 

consistently had zero or very few snapper mortalities 

while the nets equipped with a BRD consistently 

contained larger snapper mortalities (Lirette 1994). 

This suggests that snapper are structure oriented . 

Most of the red snapper habitat ranges west of the 

Mississippi right where oil and gas structures 

compose the majority of reef habitat. If the bulk of 

the reef habitat disappears, the red snapper 

populations will decrease proportionally . There are 

approximately 18,000 licensed commercial shrimp 

operators in Louisiana alone (LDWF 1989). The 

BRDs will be enforced upon all the shrimpers in the 

Gulf of Mexico . Thousands of fishery jobs are in 

jeopardy due to the declining populations of red 

snapper. 

JAPANESE ARTIFICIAL REEFS AND 

PETROLEUM JACKETS 

Japan has experienced amazing success with their 

artificial reef program. They have invested $7 billion 

in their coastal program so far and continue to 

reinvest year after year (Nagahata 1991). Their aim 

is self reliance, to transform a national fleet that once 

pursued fish in distant seas to one that harvests fish 

in Japanese coastal waters . 

Their materials are usually reinforced cement blocks, 

and they are only about 2 by 2 meters, though some 

modules reach 10 meters in height (Sonue and Grove 

1985). Although they sometimes try other configurations, generally they drop cement blocks and pile 

them on top of each other (Figure SB.7). So the end 

result is not, by any means, as highly developed an 

engineering design as petroleum structures . 

The cost of Japanese installations vary from $60,000 

to $16,300,000 (Nagahata 1991). An eight-tier 

petroleum jacket from a 120-foot depth composes 

LOUISIANA 

MISSISSIPPI 

TEXAS 

Now Orleans 

i 

i 

i 

i 

I 

- . 1 

1 - 

Figure 513 .5 . Tributary sedimentation prevents any natural reef development until a thin archipelago of reefs. 
383 

LOUISIANA 

MISSISSIPPI 

TEXAS 

o ~ New Orleans 

i- 

~' 

~ .r. : ; . 

Figure 513.6 . Petroleum structures constitute 90% of the reef habitat along the Louisiana continental shelf. 

93,000 m' of volume with a footprint of 3,900 

meters' encompassing 3 .5 acres' of substrate surface 

(Quigel and Thorton 1987) (Figure SB.8). A comparable Japanese cement reef of that size would cost 

$10,000,000 to build and install. 

Bonsack and Sutherland (1985) showed that Japanese 

artificial reefs offset their investment dollar in one 

year. If they spent $10 million to build and install 

93,000 m3 of reef habitat, the fishermen would catch 

$10 million worth of fish over the reef every year . 

They would spend about $45 billion on cement modules to build the equivalent amount of reef habitat 

presently available in our petroleum jackets. 

eliminates waste and transforms fishermen from 

predator methods to agrarian methods. It is crucial 

that parallels be drawn between snapper populations 

and petroleum structures as well as natural reef 

habitats and the ferrous profiles supporting the 

platforms. They constitute 90% of the reef habitat 

along the Louisiana continental shelf. Over three 

hundred acres' are being destroyed every year . 

REFERENCES 

Atrand, S . 1994. Mr. Atrand is a representative of 

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council . 

Information obtained by interview. 

CONCLUSION 

Man and marine life would mutually benefit by 

leaving the oil and gas structures in the water, 

particularly when you consider Japan has spent $7 

billion installing artificial reefs and our oil and gas 

companies will spend over $7 billion to remove them 

all (Reggio 1989). The obsolete oil and gas platforms 

could help develop a new fishery approach that 

Bonsack, J.A. and Sutherland, D.L . 1985 . Artificial 

reef research : a review with recommendations 

for future priorities . Bulletin of Marine Science, 

Vol. 37. 

Lirette, D.J . 1994. Mr. Lirette is a Fishery 

representative for the Terrebonne Fisherman's 

organization . Information obtained by interview. 
384 

Figure 513 .7 . Japanese artificial reefs. 

1555 oOVORAS H.L 3 .3 "A" 

H .I . 3 .2 "U" 

I ~~ - -

- ` F =i i 

I/ / r! `a '~~ 

t (~ - - -

i 

MAGNITUDE OF SCALE 

Figure 513 .8 . Petroleum platform . 
385 

Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries. 1989. Number of 

Commercial Trawling Licenses issued in 1989. 

Nagahata, Daishiro (ed.) . 1994. Recent advances in 

aquatic habitat technology . Proceedings of the 

Japan-U.S . Symposium on Artificial Habitats for 

Fisheries, June 11-13, 1991, Nihon University 

Conference Hall, Tokyo, Japan. Rosemead: 

Southern California Edison Company. 

NMFS. 1981 . Draft Fishery Management Plan, 

Environmental Impact Statement and Regulatory 

Analysis for Groundfish in the Gulf of Mexico. 

National Marine Fisheries Service. 

Quigel J.C ., and Thorton W.L . 1987. Rigs to 

reefs-a case history. In Petroleum Structures as 

Artificial Reefs: A Compendium. Fourth 

International Conference on Artificial Habitats 

for Fisheries, Rigs-to-Reefs Special Session, 4 

November 1987, Miami, FL OCS Study/MMS 

89-0021 . 176 pp. 

Reggio, V.C ., Jr. (compiler) 1989. Petroleum 

Structures as Artificial Reefs: A Compendium. 

Fourth International Conference on Artificial 

Habitats for Fisheries, Rigs-to-Reefs Special 

Session, 4 November 1987, Miami, Fla. OCS 

Study/MMS 89-0021 . 176 pp. 

Scarborough-Bull, A. 1987. Some Comparisons 

Between Communities Beneath Petroleum 

Platforms Off California and in the Gulf of 

Mexico. 

Sonue C. J. and Grove R.S . 1985. Typical Japanese 

Reef Modules. Bulletin of Marine Science, Vol. 

37. 

Mr. Steve Kolian grew up commercial fishing in the 

Gulf of Mexico from Brownsville to the Dry 

Tortugas with several years' experience in both the 

trawling and reef fishery. Mr. Kolian also worked on 

the railroad on lines across the Canadian Provinces 

and the U.S . Rockies as a gaudy dancer and as part 

of a section gang. He received his B.A . from 

Augsburg College and MSPH in Environmental 

Water Quality at Tulane University . 
SESSION 5C 

SUBSALT EFFORTS ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 
389 

Session: 5C - SUBSALT EFFORTS ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 

Co-Chairs: Mr. Jesse Hunt and Mr. Gary Rutherford 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Subsalt Efforts on the Outer Continental Shelf 

No manuscript submitted 

Uncovering a New Play with Advanced 

Technologies 

Subsalt Imaging over the Mahogany Salt Sill 

Mahogany Subsalt Prospect 

Present and Future Subsalt Exploration 

Mr. Jesse Hunt 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Dr. Bruno Vandeville 

University of Texas 

Bureau of Economic Geology 

Mr. Dick Standaert 

Oryx Energy 

Mr. Davis W. Ratcliff 

Mr. David J. Weber 

Diamond Geophysical Service Corporation 

Mr. Tim A. Wallace 

Phillips Petroleum 

Mr. Kenneth Nadolny 

Mr. Stefan Rutkowski 

Mr. Clint Moore 

Anadarko Petroleum 
391 

SUBSALT EFFORTS ON THE 

OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF 

UNCOVERING A NEW PLAY WITH 

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES 

Mr. Jesse Hunt 

U.S . Minerals Management Service 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

INTRODUCTION 

Since the first offshore well in the Gulf of Mexico 

was drilled using an onshore rig on a wooden 

platform in the 1940's, hydrocarbon exploration has 

advanced based on "hot new plays." These plays 

identified and drilled through the advancement of 

drilling, seismic and computer technology . 

In the early years, with crude seismic technology and 

very little processing available, only the major salt 

domes and growth faults were targeted . As seismic 

technology and processing advanced, "bright spots" 

as hydrocarbon indicators became the hot new play. 

The next "hot new play" became the flexure trend 

along the continental shelf-slope break. With 

advances in drilling technology, the deep water areas 

of the Gulf of Mexico were the "hot new play" of the 

late 1970s and early 1980s, and are still active today. 

The latest "hot new play," made possible by major 

advances in computer technology to aid in 

processing, is potential reservoir quality sands found 

beneath horizontal sheets of salt . 

For years, geophysicists have recognized the 

existence of large masses of salt beneath the outer 

continental shelf, but only with recent advances in 

computer technology and speed have they been able 

to image beneath the salt to map potential 

hydrocarbon trapping structures . 

In keeping with the purpose of the ITM meetings to 

foster sharing of information on research, 

accomplishments and current industry activity and 

technologies, we felt it was appropriate to include 

industry subsalt efforts in this year's agenda . 

Mr. Dick Standaert 

Oryx Energy 

A new play with great potential is emerging within 

the Gulf of Mexico. Lying in water depths of 120 

feet to more than 3,000 feet, the current subsalt play 

stretches across more than 36,000 square miles of the 

Western and Central Gulf of Mexico, with potential 

hydrocarbon-bearing sediments lying below 

horizontal salt layers up to 9,000 feet thick. 

Since the early 1970s the concept of targetable 

geologic section in a subsalt position has been 

recognized because of data acquired in the more 

ultra-deepwater areas of the Gulf of Mexico OCS and 

the subsequent leasing activity there. Until recently, 

subsurface imaging of these sediments had been 

obscured in the shallower water areas of the Gulf of 

Mexico by the overlying salt layers, thus preventing 

any accurate examination of interpretation of the 

underlying sediments with traditional 2-D seismic 

data . However, with the development of improved 

acquisition methods and architectures (larger cable 

lengths), 3-D seismic processing technologies 

(PSDM, and the new generation of supercomputers, 

it is now possible to image more properly the 

sediments and structure below these salts. 

But new and improved technologies bring higher 

costs, larger time requirements to process seismic 

surveys, and the need to find new steps to help 

reduce these time requirements and associated costs. 

Success within the subsalt could have a significant 

impact on the Gulf of Mexico and companies 

actively exploring it . The play itself, although in its 

very early stages, lies within a mature basin, with a 

mature and developing infrastructure . Reserve 

potential, although not truly proven, can be thought 

of as significant and world class. This potential has 

been bolstered by the discovery of hydrocarbons 

trapped below tabular salt as seen in Exxon's 

Mississippi Canyon 211 well (1990) and more 

recently Phillips' Ship Shoal 349 discovery (1993) 

with estimated reserves of more than 100 NMBE. 
392 

Dick Standaert is the General Manager, Offshore 

U.S .A ., for Oryx Energy. He has been in the oil 

industry for 20 years and with Oryx Energy for 13 

years . He has a degree in geology from State 

University of New York. 

SUBSALT IMAGING OVER THE 

MAHOGANY SALT SILL 

Mr. Davis W. Ratcliff 

Mr. David J. Weber 

Diamond Geophysical Corporation 

SUMMARY 

Exploring for hydrocarbon below salt has been, and 

will continue to be, a high-risk/high-potential 

business endeavor. Recent subsalt discoveries have 

generated a tremendous interesting subsalt 

exploration, both in the Gulf of Mexico as well as in 

other basins around the world. The geophysical 

technology which has played the most significant 

role in the success of subsalt explorations is, by far, 

Depth Imaging. Depth imaging technology (poststack 

and prestack) has allowed explorationists to identify 

and map structural and stratigraphic features below 

salt that trap significant hydrocarbon accumulations. 

In this paper, we discuss subsalt imaging strategies 

and technology applications (3-D Time and Depth 

Migration) that can assist the subsalt explorationist in 

prospect evaluation, risk assessment, well placement 

and field development, using the Mahogany Salt Sill 

Area as a calibration point. In addition to utilizing a 

specific "subsalt" acquisition geometry, the collective 

processing strategy will incorporate 2-D time 

imaging, 2-D poststack depth migration, 2-D prestack 

depth migration, side-line profiling, 3-D time 

imaging, 3-D poststack depth migration and "target 

oriented" 3-D prestack depth migration. 

DISCUSSION 

The Mahogany Salt Sill is an extensive salt mass that 

covers several offshore blocks in the Ship Shoal Area 

of the Gulf of Mexico. Figure SC.1 shows a depthmigrated seismic section over the now-famous 

Mahogany Discovery. Notice the salt shape as well 

as the subsalt reflectivity and subsalt faulting . The 

salt body has been remobilized and has both salt sill 

and salt dome components, with thickness variations 

ranging from a few hundred feet to over 8,000 feet 

thick. This variation in salt shape and thickness 

creates difficult imaging problems below salt . An 

integrated time and depth migration strategy can be 

used to obtain high quality subsurface imaging 

around and beneath the salt structure. 

Figure SC.2 shows another example of a seismic line 

over the salt sill . It has been processed using 

conventional techniques . Figure SC3 shows the same 

seismic line processed using prestack depth migration 

technology . Notice the excellent image of the bottom 

of salt on the depth migrated data versus the poor 

base of salt on the conventional time image. Also 

notice the improved subsalt imaging on the depthmigrated section versus the highly distorted and 

chaotic image below salt on the conventional 

migration. The Conventional time imaging 

technology can be used to correctly image sediments 

and faulting above salt as well as the top of salt . The 

time imaging also provides velocity information 

above salt and is considered an initial building block 

for subsequent prestack depth migration work and 

velocity model building . The prestack depth 

migration is used to improve the base of salt and 

subsalt imaging once an accurate velocity model is 

generated. 

The velocity model building procedure is the most 

time-consuming, interpretive and critical part of 

subsalt imaging. One essential tool that can be used 

to quality control the velocity model is a plot of the 

prestack depth migrated CDP gathers. Figure 5C.4 

shows the depth-migrated gathers after several 

velocity iterations . Notice how the sediments above 

salt, top of salt and base of salt are nearly flat, 

indicating that an accurate velocity field was used. 

Also notice how the base of salt is present on all 

offsets ranging from 300 meters out to 6,000 meters. 

Acquisition of 3-D seismic data using long offsets 

(6,OOOm) have provided several geophysical benefits 

to the Mahogany Salt Sill area . The benefits include 

improved based of salt and subsalt imaging, 

improved prestack velocity analysis and better AVO 

analysis outboard of salt . 

CONCLUSIONS 

Exploration beneath the Mahogany Salt Sill has been, 

and will continue to be, a significant exploration 
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396 

Figure SC.4 . Prestack depth migrated CDP gathers (offset range 300m - 6,OOOm). 
397 

strategy . The Mahogany Discovery has breathed new 

life into the Gulf of Mexico, with its resource 

estimates of 100-300 million barrels of oil. Depth 

migration technology has made a major impact in the 

subsalt exploration play . A well-planned imaging 

strategy, which includes 3-D prestack depth 

migration, can provide excellent structural and 

stratigraphic images below salt . The geophysical 

imaging techniques that were developed by research 

scientists years ago have given the industry the 

ability to once again increase profitability and reduce 

exploration risks in an area that was thought to be a 

"Dead Sea." 

named the 1994 recipient of the Society of 

Exploration Geophysicists' (SEG) distinguished 

Virgil Kauffinan Gold Medal award for his 

contributions in 3-D structural imaging. He holds a 

B.S . in mathematics from the University of New 

Orleans. 

MAHOGANY SUBSALT PROSPECT 

Mr. Tim A. Wallace 

Phillips Petroleum 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors would like to thank PGS Tensor for their 

excellent 3-D time and 3-D depth imaging 

technology applications . Specifically, we thank 

Karen Chevis, Kurt Sellers, John Anderson and 

Kenny Lambert of PGS Tensor. Also, we would like 

to acknowledge PGS Exploration for their highly 

effective 3-D subsalt acquisition techniques which 

were used over the Mahogany Salt Sill 3-D Project. 

REFERENCES 

Ratcliff, D.W., Gray, S.H., and Whitmore, N.D. 

1992. Seismic imaging of salt structures in the 

Gulf of Mexico, The Leading Edge, 11 :4, April 

1992, pp. 15-31 . 

Ratcliff, D.W. 1993 . New technologies improve 

seismic images of salt bodies . OGJ, 91 :39, 

Sept . 27, pp. 41-49. 

Ratcliff, D.W., Jacewitz, D.A ., and Gray, S.H. 1994. 

Subsalt imaging via target-oriented 3-D prestack 

depth migration. The Leading Edge, 13 :3, March 

1994, pp. 163-170. 

Mr. Davis W. Ratcliff is vice-president of Diamond 

Geophysical Service Corporation and president of the 

recently formed Diamond Geoscience Research 

Corporation. For the past 10 years Mr. Ratcliff has 

been involved in the geophysical imaging of complex 

salt structures . Before joining Diamond, he was the 

supervisor of geophysical technology for Amoco 

Production Company's U.S . and European 

exploration business unit . More recently, he has been 

The Gulf of Mexico is a world-class producing 

region . The offshore exploration industry was 

pioneered here starting as early as the late 1930s. In 

the past 50 years, the industry has successfully 

produced billions of barrels of oil and trillions of 

cubic feet of gas for the consumers of America. As 

the basin has matured as a petroleum province, the 

expectation of remaining reserves has declined . Many 

in the petroleum industry were ready to abandon the 

Gulf by 1990. Revenues generated from area wide 

leasing had been in decline. The deep water Gulf 

showed continued promise, but only for those who 

could manage the large expense and long lead time 

before production . For a number of companies, the 

exploration focus shifted to a new play called the 

subsalt play . The subsalt play had been theorized for 

several years; however, few were willing to take the 

risk of testing this theory at a cost of $12 million to 

$15 million per well . In 1993, a prospect dubbed 

Mahogany was drilled as a discovery below a salt 

layer of greater than 3,000 feet in thickness. The 

discovery, which is still in the appraisal stage, 

created a boom in activity . Geophysical contractors 

developed services targeted at subsalt exploration. 

OCS leasing expenditures more than tripled from the 

previous year . Two additional operators moved in 

rigs to drill below the Mahogany salt sheet on 

acreage adjacent to the discovery well . The 

possibility exists of a new play with large scale 

reserves in the middle of the most mature offshore 

basin in the world. 

In the mid 1980s, seismic data quality had improved 

to the point that it was apparent not all salt was 

deeply rooted . There is a large area on the southern 

part of the Louisiana shelf, in fact, that is dominated 

by salt sheets that flowed down slope from salt dome 
398 

feeder stocks . The industry began evaluating the 

possibility the sedimentary section below this salt 

could contain the necessary elements for commercial 

accumulations of hydrocarbons. Several geologic 

questions had to be addressed before the exploration 

play could move forward. What kind of reservoir 

conditions could be expected? What kind of drilling 

conditions could we expect in and below salt? How 

could we improve the quality of seismic data to 

reliably map the location of structures below the salt? 

In the federal OCS Sale in the Central Gulf of 

Mexico in 1990, Phillips Petroleum Company leased 

Ship Shoal blocks 349 and 359 based on evidence 

that a relatively shallow base of salt was present. 

Mapping of the base of salt indicated a structure may 

be present on the lease, however data quality was still 

too poor to actually map the sedimentary section 

below salt . After acquisition of the lease, a recent 

technology development called post stack 3-D 

seismic depth migration was applied to a 3-D 

seismic data set acquired over the prospect which 

revealed mappable data below salt . Interpretation of 

the dataset showed a large structure, which if full of 

hydrocarbons would contain a very large field. The 

prospect was named Mahogany. 

The discovery well drilled in 1993 by Phillips 

Petroleum Company, Anadarko Petroleum 

Corporation and Amoco drilled into salt at about 

7,300 feet beneath the sea floor and exited salt over 

3,000 feet deeper . The well, drilled to a total depth of 

16,500 feet, tested at a rate of 7,256 barrels of oil per 

day and 73 million cubic feet of gas per day from a 

subsalt reservoir. The high flow rates on the well 

suggest a significant accumulation of hydrocarbons 

could be present. With information from the well, the 

seismic data was processed with the emerging 

technology 3-D Pre-Stack Depth Migration (PSDM). 

This processing revealed a clarity far beyond that of 

the data on which the prospect was originally leased, 

however, still inferior to the suprasalt data . The 

application of PSDM technology has become a 

critical step in the appraisal process to reduce drilling 

risk . 

Early 1994, the Mahogany #2 appraisal well was 

spud and drilled as a deviated hole from the location 

of the discovery well . That well tested at a rate of 

4,366 barrels of oil per day and 53 million cubic feet 

of gas per day from a separate zone than was tested 

by the original well . The appraisal well confirmed a 

continuity of sands and favorable reservoir conditions 

to allow for high production rates. 

The Mahogany discovery proved that conditions can 

be present below the salt present in much of the Gulf 

of Mexico to maintain exploitable quantities of 

hydrocarbons . The find revealed a new play, with 

potential reserves of hundreds of millions of barrels 

of oil, in the middle of a mature basin that many 

were ready to abandon. The response of the industry 

has been to increase quickly monetary and human 

resources to the Gulf of Mexico subsalt exploration 

effort. At least 10 companies have participated in 

subsalt exploration wells since the Mahogany 

discovery. Five geophysical contractors are targeting 

their services towards subsalt exploration. At least 

two drilling contractors have advertised moving rigs 

into the Gulf in the hopes of securing long-term 

subsalt drilling contracts . The Mahogany discovery 

has had as great a short-term impact on the Gulf of 

Mexico exploration industry as any well in the 

history of Gulf of Mexico exploration. Only time will 

tell if that impact is warranted. 

Tim Wallace has worked for Phillips Petroleum 

Company for the last 14 years and currently serves as 

U.S . Offshore Exploration Manager. Mr. Wallace 

received a B.S . in geophysics from New Mexico 

Institute of Mining and Technology . 

PRESENT AND FUTURE 

SUBSALT EXPLORATION 

Mr. Kenneth Nadolny 

Mr. Stefan Rutkowski 

Mr. Clint Moore 

Anadarko Petroleum 

Recent discoveries in the subsalt play have touched 

off a wave of excitement that has not been seen in 

recent years in the Gulf of Mexico. Oil and gas 

exploration in the Gulf of Mexico has always been 

influenced by salt and the structures formed by or 

hidden by salt . The original significant oil and gas 

discovery in the Gulf of Mexico basin (Spindletop) is 

related to a salt-formed structure. Over the years, 

both onshore and offshore oil and gas has been found 
399 

around and under salt structures, primarily salt 

domes. Some of the oil and gas deposits were found 

by drilling beneath salt wings that protruded from the 

flanks of the salt dome, and some might say these 

were the first subsalt discoveries. 

Salt acting as a fluid can be easily deformed into a 

wide variety of shapes . The shallow and deepwater 

areas of the Gulf of Mexico have examples that 

illustrate the types of structural styles that a salt mass 

can be deformed into . Salt movement can be 

characterized as having primarily vertical movement 

and primarily horizontal movement. The salt that is 

characterized by vertical movement results in the 

typical salt diapir. These domes are located primarily 

in the shallow water areas of Louisiana. 

The deepwater areas of the Gulf of Mexico illustrate 

horizontal movement of the salt . The Sigsbee ridge in 

the deepwater Gulf of Mexico defines the southern 

limit of a major horizontal salt sill . As sediment is 

deposited over the salt sheet, small mini basins can 

be formed which will deform the underlying salt . As 

more sediment is deposited the salt becomes even 

more deformed . 

Looking at a bathymetric map of the Sigsbee ridge 

we can see the edge of the ridge and the small mini 

basins that are being formed in the salt layer. Down 

dip from the edge of the ridge we see that we can see 

basin floor fans that are being deposited at the edge 

of the ridge.There have been 18 significant subsalt 

wells drilled in the Gulf of Mexico (Table SC.1). 

Five wells have encountered significant amounts of 

hydrocarbons . 

The subsalt play beneath allochthonous or horizontal 

salt sheets was apparently first developed by Gulf Oil 

in the early 1980s with two wells drilled in a subsalt 

section. The West Cameron 505 was the first well, as 

we know, to purposely drill a subsalt prospect 

beneath an allochthonous salt sheet. The Eugene 

Island 324, although not drilled through salt, tested a 

section analogous to a subsalt section. 

Mahogany discovery drilled by Phillips in 1993 . This 

well was followed by the Teak discovery in 1994 and 

a second, confirmation well in Mahogany. 

The latest subsalt discovery was recently announced 

by Shell and Amerada Hess in Garden Banks 128. 

This well reportedly did not actually drill through 

salt, but rather drilled under the edge of a sill . This 

would be the fourth oil and gas discovery on a 

subsalt prospect in the Gulf of Mexico. Fifteen wells 

have been drilled for subsalt prospects since 1987 

with four discoveries and one prospect still drilling . 

The recent relatively high success rate exhibited by 

recent wells is not uncommon in the initial phases of 

exploration in a new trend or play. 

The identification of subsalt prospects has been made 

easier with the advent of regional 3-D surveys over 

the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the shelf and immediate 

deepwater areas are covered by regional 3-D surveys. 

In addition to a large quantity of data, the quality of 

data has been steadily improving especially with the 

advent of high performance computers and 3-D depth 

migrations . As contractors and oil companies become 

more adept at performing depth migrations, the 

quality of subsalt data should continue to improve. 

The integration of well control and better quality data 

will extend the subsalt play under more complex salt 

features and in deeper water. 

The next several years should continue to sustain a 

high level of subsalt drilling as the recently identified 

subsalt prospects on the shelf and near shelf are 

drilled. Most of the southern additions of Louisiana 

and High Island have subsalt potential. The depth to 

the top of salt can vary from several hundred to 

20,000' . As industry becomes more adept at drilling 

below salt, deeper salt sills will become more 

prospective. The future of the subsalt trend will rely 

on continued improvement in subsalt depth imaging 

and the extension of the subsalt play to the ultra 

deepwaters of the Gulf of Mexico. 

REFERENCE 

One of the more significant wells was drilled in 1986 

by Diamond Shamrock in South Marsh Island 200. 

This well penetrated a 1,000' salt interval, and then 

found a near 1,000' thick, high quality and good 

porosity sand . 

The Mississippi Canyon 211 drilled by Exxon in 

1990 encountered oil and gas bearing sands beneath 

a salt sheet in deep water. The first significant 

shallow water well was the Ship Shoal 349 #1 

Ewing, T.E . 1991 . Structural Framework, in 

Salvador, A., (ed.) The Gulf of Mexico Basin: 

Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of 

America, The Geology of North America, Vol. J, 

pp. 31-52. 
400 

Table 5C . I . Significant Subsalt Wells - Federal Offshore Gulf of Mexico (major sill well penetrations). 

DRLD TVD 

SEDIMENT 

TVD THICKNESS 

DATE TOP THICKNESS BELOW 

WELL NAME DRLD(TD) RESULTS OF SALT OF SALT WELL(TD) SALT 

GARDEN BANKS 171 #1 05/84 DRY -8400 1110 10597 997 

MARATHON* 

WEST CAMERON 505 #2 09/84 DRY -13900 1690 18500 2820 

GULF 

S. MARSH ISLAND 200 #1 02/86 DRY -8730 990 13500 3700 

DIAMOND SHAMROCK' 

VERMILLION 356 #1 12/87 DRY -8400 2100 17000 6360 

AMOCO 

LAKE WASHINGTON # 1 04/90 DRY -9350 4075 21241 7781 

AMOCO (ONSHORE) 

MISS . CANYON 211 #1 06/90 OIL & GAS -5750 3030 14670 5820 

EXXON 

BAY MARCHAND #1 05/91 DRY -9820 4340 18277 4260 

AMOCO 

GARDEN BANKS 165 #1 04/92 DRY -5765 6950 18000 5200 

CHEVRON 

SOUTH MARCH IS . 169 kl 12/93 P&A'D N/A N/A 18020 N/A 

AMOCO 

SHIP SHOAL 349 # 1 10/93 OIL & GAS TITE TITE 16500 TITE 

PHILLIPS 

SOUTH TIMBALIER 260 #1 05/94 OIL & GAS TITE TITE 16610 TITE 

PHILLIPS 

SHIP SHOAL 349 #2 08/94 OIL & GAS TITE TITE 18603 TITE 

PHILLIPS 

VERMILLION 349 #1 05/94 DRY TITE TITE 16146 TITE 

PHILLIPS 

SHIP SHOAL 360 #2 08/94 P&A'D N/A N/A 19000 N/A 

UNOCAL 

SHIP SHOAL 250 09/94 P&A'D N/A N/A 17772 N/A 

JAPEX 

SHIP SHOAL 368 #1 SPUD DRLG N/A N/A PTD 17500 N/A 

AMERADA HESS 06/94 

SOUTH TIMBALIER 289 #1 SPUD P&A'D N/A N/A 18034 N/A 

CNG 10/94 

GARDEN BANKS 128 # I 07/94 OIL & GAS N/A N/A 17477 N/A 

SHELL 

Unintentional subsalt well 
401 

Kenneth A. Nadolny is Exploration Manager of 

Offshore/Alaska Exploration forAnadarko Petroleum 

Corporation. He has been in the industry for 20+ 

years, 11 which were with Transco prior to his 

joining Anadarko in 1989. In 1990, he became 

Exploration Manager of International/Gulf of Mexico 

Exploration and since 1993 has been Exploration 

Manager of Offshore/Alaska Exploration. He 

received a B.S . in physics at Rensselaer Polytechnic 

Institute in 1973 . 

Dwight "Glint" Moore is presently Project Geologist 

for Anadarko Petroleum on their Offshore Gulf of 

Mexico Exploration Team. Nearly all of his 15-year 

career has focused on exploration and development 

in the Offshore Gulf of Mexico. He worked 10 years 

with Diamond Shamrock (Maxus) prior to joining 

Anadarko in 1987. Glint earned degrees in geology 

and finance from Southern Methodist University in 

1978 . 

Stefan (Steve) Rutkowski is Geological Advisor, 

Offshore/Alaska Exploration for Anadarko. He 

received his geological degree in 1968 at the 

University of La Plata in Argentina. Prior to joining 

Anadarko in 1980, he worked as a geologist for 

various oil companies in several overseas locations. 

From 1980 to 1991, Steve was Anadarko's 

International Exploration Manager. At the end of 

1991, he transferred to Anadarko's offshore group to 

work on the subsalt geology of the Gulf of Mexico, 

where he continues to date. 
SESSION 5D 

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, 

PART 11 
405 

Session: SD - DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF CETACEANS, PART II 

Co-Chairs: Dr. Robert Avent and Dr. Randall Davis 

Date: November 17, 1994 

Presentation Author/Affiliation 

Major Oceanographic Features of the 

Northwestern and Central Gulf of Mexico 

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information 

System Support for the GulfCet Project 

Cetacean Habitats : A Preliminary Analysis 

Marine Birds of the Northern Central and Western 

Gulf of Mexico 

Acoustic Tracking of Sperm Whales -

Preliminary Results 

Dr. Giulietta S. Fargion 

Texas A&M University 

Mr. L. Nelson May, Jr . 

Mr. Thomas D. Leming 

Mr. Mark F. Baumgartner 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center 

Dr. Randall Davis 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

Dr. Dwight E. Peake 

The University of Texas Medical Branch at 

Galveston 

Dr. Giulietta Fargion 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

Dr. Robert Benson 

Texas A&M University 

Dr. William E. Evans 

Mr. Mike Duncan 

Mr. Troy Sparks 

Texas A&M University 
407 

MAJOR OCEANOGRAPHIC 

FEATURES OF THE 

NORTHWESTERN AND CENTRAL 

GULF OF MEXICO 

phenomenon has been observed in the Gulf Stream as 

well, where sightings of large whales were associated 

with shelf-edge areas where warm core rings were 

located and particularly at the edges of those rings 

(Waning et al. 1993). 

Dr. Giulietta S. Fargion 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

SUMMARY 

Five recent studies have investigated the 

hydrographic features of the northwestern-central 

Gulf of Mexico. Together they provide a nearly 

comprehensive hydrographic data set for the period 

1992-1993 . The time evolution of Loop Current 

anticyclonic eddies Unchained ("U"), Vazquez ("V"), 

Whopper ("W") and Extra ("X") are described by 

dynamic height and remote sensing data . The effects 

of these features on primary production and marine 

mammal location are also discussed. 

INTRODUCTION 

The primary physical oceanographic components of 

the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) are the Loop Current, 

eddies derived from this feature, and the Mississippi 

River plume. Eddies are important physically and 

biologically because they function as pumping 

mechanisms, mixing water masses and their 

constituent organic and inorganic compounds. Biggs 

and Muller-Karger (1994) suggest that the cooccurrence of cyclonic circulation cells in association 

with anticyclonic eddies may enhance primary 

productivity by increasing nutrient resources in 

surface waters . Cyclonic eddies lead to higher 

primary production because of the increased upward 

nutrient flux at their periphery. This cyclonic eddyanticyclonic eddy pairing transports high-chlorophyll 

shelf water seaward, by at least 100-200 km. 

Upwelling and mesoscale features are manifest in the 

patterns of chlorophyll concentrations and are 

therefore revealed in satellite imagery (Smith et al . 

1986, Waning et al . 1993). 

Correlation of GOM marine mammal sighting data 

with mesoscale features suggests that cetaceans, due 

to their trophic interactions, are more abundant in 

these regions of high primary productivity . A rational 

explanation for this observation is that cetaceans tend 

to habitate those areas where food is plentiful. This 

Over the period 1992-1993, ship surveys, aerial 

surveys, and satellite coverage allowed continuous 

monitoring of the Loop Current, eddy shedding, and 

eddy propagation at unprecedented spatial and 

temporal resolution . These MMS sponsored studies 

include the GulfCet Program and the three program 

units of the Louisiana-Texas Shelf Physical 

Oceanography Program (LATEX): Latex-A studied 

the shelf circulation, Latex-B the Mississippi River 

plume, and Latex-C the eddy system. The Ship of 

Opportunity Program (SOOP) also examined the 

eddy system over the continental slope of the 

northwestern (NW) GOM. The integration of in situ 

and remotely sensed hydrographic data demonstrated 

that the GOM is a complex region where cyclonicanticyclonic pairs and cyclonic-anticyclonic-cyclonic 

triad systems interact, merge, and separate several 

times before disintegrating, or "spinning down" 

(Jockens et al. 1994). 

EDDY TIME CHRONOLOGY 

At least three anticyclonic eddies "U," "W," and "X," 

each with a diameter of at least 300 km, were shed 

from the Loop Current during the 1992-93 period and 

moved with their associated cyclonic eddies into the 

western Gulf. Eddy Unchained ("U") was shed in 

midsummer 1992. This eddy was detected by satellite 

altimeter data as an anticyclonic geopotential 

anomaly of +50 dyn cm (Hamilton et al. in press, 

Biggs et al . 1994), and in August 1992 the eddy 

captured an Argos drifter from the Louisiana shelf. 

During GulfCet Texas Institute of Oceanography 

(TIO) Cruise 2 (August 1992), the new Eddy "U," as 

well as older Eddy Triton, were present in the central 

and NW corner of the Gulf, respectively (Figure 

SD.1). Eddy Triton was spinning down in the NW 

corner with a dynamic height of 125 dyn cm, while 

Eddy "U" had a dynamic height greater than 140 dyn 

cm . During this cruise 1,146 km of survey effort 

were conducted in continental slope waters . A group 

size of nine sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) 

were seen at the edge of Eddy "U." A group of 120 

pantropical spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuate) 

were sighted at the edge of Eddy Triton . 
-96 -95 -94 -93 -92 -91 -90 -89 -88 -87 

~~" - 30 '3 

New Orleans 

Houston I 

I 

29 .ate ; 29 

cn ~ 

28 28 

00 / 110 

2 0 - f -~ 27 

~ ~ IN `L~ Eddy Unchained 

26- Eddy Triton -26 

Sperm Whale Sightings 

e Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Sightings 

25- 

25 i 

- Survey Effort 

-96 -95 -94 -93 -92 - 9 1 - -89 -88 -87 

0 00 

Figure 5D. I . TIO Cruise 2 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting 

effort, and prominent eddies shown. 
409 

Eddy "U" was vigorous and large, about 300 km in 

diameter, and centered at 25° N and 90° W in 

September 1992 (Hamilton et al. in press) . In early 

fall 1992, drifter trajectory and satellite altimeter data 

showed that this vigorous eddy ("U") soon cleaved 

into two eddies : a minor eddy, Vasquez ("V"), with 

a dynamic anomaly of +27 dyn cm, and a major 

eddy, still referred to as Eddy "U," with a dynamic 

anomaly of +40 dyn cm (Biggs et al. 1994). A 

NOAA-AVHRR image from 12 October 1992 

captured these two eddies after the split (Figure 

SD.2). Two hydrographic surveys by SOOP and 

Latex-C in late October confirmed the separation of 

"V" from "U" (Table SD.1). Dynamic heights at this 

time were 142 dyn cm and 157 dyn cm for Eddies 

"V" and "U," respectively (Hamilton et al. in press, 

Biggs et al. 1994) . 

During this period, the smaller Eddy 'IV" was 

centered at the base of the northwestern continental 

slope, northwest of Eddy "U." Between September 

and December 1992 Eddy "V" moved westward 

along the 2,000 m isobath. The remainder of Eddy 

"U" advected west by southwest (WSW) until it 

eventually collided with the continental margin of the 

western Gulf in spring 1993 . GulfCet TIO Cruise 3 

entirely surveyed Eddy "V" at its position at the base 

of the NW corner of the Gulf in late November 1992. 

The dynamic height of Eddy "V" was greater than 

140 dyn cm. Two groups with a total of two sperm 

whales were seen at the periphery of Eddy "V," and 

a total of 515 km of sighting effort were completed 

(Figure SD3). 

In the later half of December 1992, Eddy "V" 

abruptly moved northward onto the continental slope 

in the northwestern corner of the Gulf. It remained at 

about the same size (approximately 100 km diameter) 

and in approximately the same position through May 

1993 (Fargion et al . 1994a). In January 1993, a 

Latex-C survey showed Eddy "V" to have a dynamic 

height greater than 135 dyn cm (Fargion et al. 

1994a). In the ensuing months, Eddy "V" continued 

to spin down while remaining in the same region . In 

late February 1993, GulfCet TIO Cruise 4 found that 

Eddy "V" continued to spin down to a dynamic 

height of about 125 dyn cm (Figure 5D.4). Two 

groups of 24 sperm whales and two groups of 40 

pantropical spotted dolphins were seen at the edge of 

Eddy "V." A total of 203 pantropical spotted 

dolphins (10 groups) were scattered at the edge of 

cyclonic eddies . The total sighting effort for this 

winter cruise was 584 km. 

A NOAA-AVHRR image in mid-February confirmed 

the location of both Eddies "U" and 'IV" in the GOM, 

with Eddy "U" in the southwest and Eddy "V" 

spinning down in the northwest. This image also 

indicated that an interaction between the two eddies 

had occurred with a subsequent water exchange . 

Analysis of altimetry data suggested that Eddies "U" 

and "V" began to coalesce by mid-to late-March 

1993 (Jockens et al . 1994). In early April, a Latex-C 

drifter, which had been circulating in Eddy "U," shot 

north-northeast into the region occupied by Eddy 

"V ." Throughout the remainder of April, the joined 

eddies were centered about 24.5° N and 96° W with 

an arm of Eddy "U" extending to the northeast into 

the region formerly occupied by Eddy "V." 

Thereafter, Eddy "V" existed primarily as an "arm" 

extension of Eddy "U ." Satellite altimetry data 

showed the presence of cyclonic rings on the 

northwest and southeast flanks of Eddy 'IV" (Jockens 

et al . 1994). As April progressed, the arm 

strengthened and extended further North. A NOAAAVHRR image, in mid April, confirmed the altimeter 

data. 

In late April to early May 1993, Eddy 'IV" was 

beginning to pinch off of Eddy "U" again, and had its 

center located at about 27° N and 94.5° W. A LatexA hydrographic cruise confirmed the presence of the 

anticyclonic Eddy "V" on the shelf with an 

associated cyclonic eddy to its' northwest (Jockens 

et al. 1994). Altimetry and NOAA-AVHRR data 

confirm that Eddy "U" and Eddy "V" separated again 

by the second week of May (Jockens et al . 1994). 

The thermal structure obtained from a Latex-C aerial 

survey in mid-May also showed a full separation of 

Eddy "V" from Eddy "U" as well as a weakening of 

Eddy "V." A Latex-A drifter, deployed in early-May, 

circulated in Eddy "V" throughout May. Satellite 

altimeter data also indicated a cyclonic eddy to the 

South of Eddy "V" (Jockens et al . 1994). All that 

remained of Eddy "V" by the end of May to the 

beginning of June was a small region adjacent to the 

shelf with weak, generally anticyclonic circulation, 

and a broad region of cyclonic circulation to the 

southeast. The data taken on GulfCet TIO Cruise 5 in 

early June suggested that a very weak anticyclonic 

cell remained. It was equally possible that the 

anticyclonic circulation was absent from the region 
0 

Figure SD.2 . NOAH-AVHI-IR SST (oC) analysis of the western Gulf of Mexico for 12 October 1992, showing Eddy "V" (northwest) and eddy "U" 

(southeast) (Image courtesy of Coastal Studies Institute, LSU). 
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effort, and prominent eddies shown. 
-96 -95 -94 -93 -92 -91 -90 -89 -88 -87 

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Figure SD.4 . TIO Cruise 4 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting 

effort, and prominent eddies shown. 
413 

Table SD. 1 . Oceanographic features located during GulfCet, LATEX, and SOOP programs during 1992-1993, and 

their properties . 

Oceanographic 8°C Isotherm Dyn. Height 

Survey Date Feature Depth (m) (800 dbar) 

Latex-C 7 Aug 1992 Eddy "U" 550 m 115 cm 

Surveys F02 & F03 9 Aug 1992 

GulfCet 10 Aug 24 1992- NW comer 

TIO Cruise 2 24 Aug 1992 of Eddy "U," > 600 m > 135 cm 

Eddy "T" 625 m > 125 cm 

Latex-C 11 Oct 1992 Eddy "U" both 

Survey F04 & Eddy "V" > 675 m 

SOOP 28 Oct 1992- Eddy "U" 718 m 157 cm 

Cruise 92G-13 31 Oct 1992 & Eddy "V" 656 m 142 cm 

GuKet 8 Nov 1992- Eddy "V" 650 m 140 cm 

TIO Cruise 3 22 Nov 1992 

Latex-C 19 Dec 1992 Eddy "V" 650 m 

Survey FOS 

Latex-C 4 Jan 1993 Eddy "V" > 650 m 135 cm 

Surveys F06 & F07 6 Jan 1993 

SOOP 9 Jan 1993- Eddy "V" 678 m 133 cm 

Cruise 93G-01 12 Jan 1993 

GulfCet 4 Jan 1993- Eddy "V" >650 m 

NMFS Cruise 203 14 Feb 1993 

GulfCet 12 Feb 1993- Eddy "V" & 625 m 125 cm 

TIO Cruise 4 27 Feb 1993 "no name" Eddy 600 m 110 cm 

Latex-C 12 May 1993 Eddy "V" 600 m 

Surveys F08 & F09 16 May 1993 (moving inshore) 

GulfCet 6 May 1993- Loop Current & > 750 m 

NMFS Cruise 204 1 3 June 1993 ps . Eddy "V" 

GulfCet 23 May 1993- Eddy "V" 

Cruise TIO 5 5 June 1993 not present 

SOOP 1 June 1993- Eddy "W" 788 m 170 cm 

Cruise 93G-07 4 June 1993 

Latex-C 28 Aug 1993- North side 575 m 125 cm 

Surveys F010 & FO 11 5 Sept 1993 Eddy "W" 

& Eddy "X" > 675 m > 145 cm 

GultCet 28 Aug 1993- North side 575 m 125 cm 

TIO Cruise 6 5 Sept 1993 Eddy "W" 

& Eddy "X" > 675 m > 145 cm 

Latex-C 28 Oct 1993 

Survey F012 31 Oct 1993 Eddy "W" 650 m 

I Nov 1993 

GulfCet 3 Dec 1993- North side 

TIO Cruise 7 14 Dec 1993 Eddy "X" > 625 m >125 cm 

Latex-C 16-18 Dec 1993 

Surveys F013 & F014 23 Dec 1993 Eddy "X" > 625 m 130 cm 
414 

formerly occupied by Eddy "V." Figure 513.5 shows 

the sperm whale and pantropical spotted dolphin 

distributions were scattered throughout the study 

area, and 992 km of survey effort were completed. At 

the same time, the LATEX-A drifter buoy changed 

course to move in a cyclonic loop to the southeast of 

Eddy "V" (Jockens et al . 1994). Eddy "V" appears to 

have dissipated completely in the summer of 1993 . 

There is evidence from June and July drifter tracks 

that a cyclonic eddy may have formed in that region . 

Eddy Whopper ("W") was formed in June 1993 . It 

was a large eddy that also formed a subsidiary warm 

anticyclonic eddy, similar in size to Eddy "V," at the 

base of the continental slope at about 93° W. Unlike 

Eddy "V," however, this northern portion of Eddy 

"W" apparently interacted with a cyclonic eddy on 

the lower slope and moved rapidly south by 

southeast, away from the slope in August 1993 

(Hamilton et al . in press, Biggs et al . 1994). Eddy 

"W" had an anticyclonic geopotential anomaly of 

+55 dyn cm. Similar to Eddy "U," Eddy "W" also 

split into two portions shortly after its formation: a 

combination of drifter, altimeter, and SST data shows 

that the northern (minor) portion collided with the 

continental margin of the NW Gulf in summer 1993, 

while the southern (major) portion advected WSW 

and collided with the western margin of the GOM in 

December 1993 (Fargion et al. in press, Biggs et al. 

1994). Eddy "W" was surveyed in August of 1993 by 

GulfCet TIO Cruise 6 while the eddy moved about 

the NW corner of the GOM (Figure SD.6). At that 

time, the eddy had a "bone" shape with a dynamic 

height of 120 dyn cm. Eighty five sperm whales and 

16 pantropical spotted dolphins were seen at the 

edges of eddies "W" and "X." The total sighting 

effort for this summer cruise was about 1104 km. 

By late August 1993, another eddy, Eddy Extra 

("X"), a large vigorous Loop Current eddy, was 

located by ship (GuIfCet TIO Cruise 6) on the 

continental slope at 89.5° W. It was shown to have a 

dynamic height of 145 dyn cm (Figure SD.6). Eddy 

"X" interacted with an isolated cyclonic eddy on the 

lower slope between 93° and 92° W, causing the 

cyclonic eddy to move eastward towards the Loop 

Current (Hamilton et al . 1994). Eddy "X" 

subsequently moved westward along the base of the 

slope as tracked by AVHRR satellites in late 

November. In the satellite images from that time, 

Eddy "W" appears to be in the NW corner with the 

cyclonic eddy on the eastern side . In early December 

1993, Eddy "X" was surveyed by ship (GulfCet TIO 

Cruise 7) and had a dynamic height greater than 125 

dyn cm. Figure 513.7 shows the three groups with 16 

sperm whales and five groups of 108 pantropical 

spotted dolphins that were seen at the edges of Eddy 

"X" and its associated cyclonic eddies . The total 

sighting effort for this last TIO cruise was about 730 

km. Analysis of NOAA-AVHRR satellite data 

suggested that Eddies "W" and "X" began to coalesce 

by mid-to-late December, and by early January 1994 

they appear to have formed one large eddy with 

elongated arms. Unfortunately, altimeter data was not 

available for this period . Intense cloud cover over the 

Gulf resulted in poor NOAA-AVHRR satellite 

coverage for the first quarter of 1994. The first cloudfree NOAA-AVHRR image was in early May 1994, 

and no evidence of eddy "W" or "X" was found in 

the NW corner of the Gulf. Clarification of the fate 

of these eddies will probably be resolved by the 

Latex-C and SOOP programs, as these programs are 

to be carried out through 1994-1995 . 

FRESHWATER INFLUX 

Two major events related to the Mississippi River 

occurred during the study period 1992-1993. The first 

occurred in the fall of 1992 when Mississippi River 

fresh water extended outward into the Gulf to the 

2,000 m isobath; the second event was the "great" 

flood of 1993, occurring during the summer. Walker 

and Rouse (1993) reported an unusual Mississippi 

River plume feature which occurred in October 1992. 

Under maximum discharge and under strong 

northeasterly winds, shelf water was rapidly forced 

away from the Mississippi River delta and over the 

continental slope, extending from 88° 20' W to 90° 

50' W and offshore farther than the 1,000 m isobath. 

This information was confirmed the following month 

by TIO Cruise 3, but by that time the fresh water 

intrusion into the Gulf had extended to the 2,000 m 

isobath. This nutrient laden fresh water resulted in 

higher values of chlorophyll at those stations touched 

by the plume. 

A combination of natural variability and global-scale 

circulation anomalies during the 1992-1993 period 

resulted in severe and persistent precipitation over 

the central United States, and brought the total flow 

of the Mississippi River to new records. Monthly 

mean Mississippi River discharges during April and 

May were 50% higher than the long-term mean 
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-96 -95 -94 -93 -92 -91 -90 -89 -88 -87 

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Figure SD.6 . TIO Cruise 6 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to SUU m, sperm whale and pantropical spottea uotphm signnngs, signtmg 

effort, and prominent eddies shown. 
Figure SDJ. TIO Cruise 7 surface dynamic topography (cm) with respect to 800 m, sperm whale and pantropical spotted dolphin sightings, sighting 

effort, and prominent eddies shown. v 

-96 -95 -94 -93 -92 -91 -90 -89 -88 -87 
418 

(1930-1992), and August discharge rates were higher 

than the long-term peak monthly mean discharge 

which usually occurs in April. Undoubtedly, the 1993 

El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event 

contributed to the flooding of the Mississippi and 

Missouri River valleys. The "great flood" of the 

Mississippi River caused significant changes to the 

landscape and ultimately, to the coastal ocean. This 

flooding event was exceptional for the season 

(summer), duration (weeks to months) and 

magnitude, all of which created unusual hydrographic 

features in the Gulf of Mexico . The effects of fresh 

water were detected not only in the northern Gulf, 

but also in the Florida Keys, and along the U.S . east 

coast (Walker et al . 1994). The most obvious effect 

of the increased Mississippi River flow was increased 

nutrient influx with correspondingly increased 

phytoplankton concentrations . Dortch (1994) reported 

that total phytoplankton concentration during the 

period of flooding was more than an order of 

magnitude greater than normal . High concentrations 

of phytoplankton result in an increased carbon flux to 

the bottom, either as a result of dead plankton sinking 

or as zooplankton fecal pellets. This higher flux may 

consequently create large areas of hypoxia. 

Wind measurements from Louisiana coastal stations 

and continental shelf buoys suggest that the eastward 

flow of the Mississippi plume in the summer 1993 

was at least partially wind-driven (Walker et al . 

1994). From mid-July through August, surface winds 

along the Louisiana coast were predominantly 

westerly and southwesterly. Another concurrent 

factor was the presence of Eddy "X" at the delta of 

Mississippi. Eddy "X" could have enhanced the 

eastward direction of the plume of fresh water. 

Previous studies have shown a positive correlation 

between the Mississippi River flow and the 

interannual variations in chlorophyll concentration, 

which in turn influences the development of primary 

productivity in the Gulf. Higher chlorophyll values 

have been found in association with the fresh water 

influx from the Mississippi river and cold cyclonic 

eddies (Fargion et al. 1994b) . 

CONCLUSION 

The study area in 1992-1993 presented a complex 

hydrographic scenario . The following features were 

seen : a) new warm anticyclonic eddies with 

associated cyclonic eddies moved in and out of the 

northern GOM; b) recently formed warm anticyclonic 

eddies interacted with older eddies in the 

northwestern corner of GOM; and c) unusual 

freshwater outflow extended offshore as far as the 

2,000 m isobath in fall of 1992 and in the summer of 

1993 fresh water discharge streamed to the east of 

the Mississippi delta. As a result of eddy movement, 

each of the GulfCet surveys had a unique opportunity 

to view meso- to large-scale hydrographic features . 

No generalizations can be made regarding eddy path, 

residence time, or frequency of occurrence in the 

study area. Generally, however, after separation from 

the Loop Current, anticyclonic eddies drift westward 

until their progress is halted by the northwestern 

continental slope, in the "eddy graveyard." In the 

central-northwestern GOM anticyclonic warm eddies 

with their affiliated cold cyclonic eddies, in addition 

to the fresh water influx from the Mississippi River, 

are the primary circulation features which can 

enhance primary productivity and subsequently 

increase production at higher trophic levels . Biggs 

and Muller-Karger (1994) reported in a Texas Sea 

Grant Program communication that the continental 

slope of the NW Gulf is a region where pelagic 

predators are abundant. Since these predators (such 

as skipjack, blackfin tuna, blue marlin, swordfish, 

and shark) require consistent food sources, they are 

not likely to be sustained by low primary 

productivity or infrequent episodes of enhanced 

primary productivity. Primary productivity, therefore, 

must be maintained relatively consistently. Particular 

areas where this level of production are most likely 

to remain relatively consistent are, the Mississippi 

River plume vicinity and the area just peripheral to 

the eddy pathway from the Loop Current. It is 

suspected that cetacean food sources, as well, would 

most likely be concentrated in these areas of 

consistently higher primary productivity . Cetacean 

foraging efficiency would be maximized when 

feeding effort was concentrated in these areas. It is in 

association with these areas that GulfCet sightings 

have often been reported . Data from the period 1992-

93 suggest that Loop Current features (i .e ., warm 

eddies and associated cold eddies) are a frequently 

used habitat for sperm whale and pantropical spotted 

dolphins . 

REFERENCES 

Biggs, D.C ., D. Lopez-Veneroni, A. Vazquea de la 

Cerda, and R. Kozak. 1992 . Repeated 

observation of the Gulf Loop Current Eddy 
419 

"Triton" in 1992 from Ship-of-Opportunity 

oceanographic cruises and Argos-tracked surface 

drifters . Paper presented at the IX Congreso 

Nacional de Oceanografia, Mexico City, Mexico. 

Biggs, D.C and F. Muller-Karger. 1994. Ship and 

satellite observations of chlorophyll stocks in 

interacting cyclone-anticyclone eddy pair in the 

western Gulf of Mexico. J. Geophys. Res. 

99(C4) :7371-7384. 

Biggs, D.C ., G.S . Fargion, P. Hamilton, K. Schaudt, 

J. Feeney, R. Leben, L. Rouse and N. Walker. 

1994. Ship, aircraft, and satellite observations of 

the Loop Current Eddies U and W and their 

interaction with the continental margin of the 

Western Gulf of Mexico. Abstract in EOS 

75(16): 212. 

Biggs, D.C ., G.S . Fargion, and P. Hamilton . In press. 

Repeated observations of an anticyclonic Loop 

Current eddy in 1992. In Proceedings : thirteenth 

annual Gulf of Mexico information transfer 

meeting, December 1993 . U.S . Dept. of the 

Interior . Minerals Mgmt. Service. New Orleans, 

La. MMS Contract No. 14-35-0001-30665 . 

Dietrich, D. E. and C. Lin. 1994. Numerical studies 

of eddies shedding in the Gulf of Mexico. J. 

Geophys. Res. 99(C4):7599-7615. 

Dortch, Q. 1994. Changes in phytoplankton numbers 

and species composition. In M.J. Dowgiallo 

(ed.), Coastal oceanographic effects of the 1993 

Mississippi River flooding . Special NOAA 

report. NOAA Coastal Ocean Office/National 

Weather Service, Silver Spring, Md. 76 pp. 

Fargion, G.S ., D.C . Biggs, and P. Hamilton . In press. 

Dynamic topography of eddies U, V, and W in 

1992-93 from GulfCet, aircraft, and Ship-OfOpportunity surveys. In Proceedings: thirteenth 

annual Gulf of Mexico information transfer 

meeting, December 1993. U.S . Dept. of the 

Interior. Minerals Mgmt. Service. New Orleans, 

La. MMS Contract No. 14-35-0001-30665 . 

Fargion, G.S ., D.C . Biggs, P. Hamilton, R. Leben, 

L.Rouse, and N.Walker. 1994a. Ship, aircraft, 

and satellite observations of the Loop Current 

Eddies V and X and their interaction with the 

continental margin of the Northern Gulf of 

Mexico. Abstract in EOS 75(16):212 . 

Fargion, G.S ., C.L . Schroeder, and D. Brandon. 

1994b. Hot spots of chlorophyll pigments in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico associated with 

cyclonic eddies . Abstract in EOS 75(3): 51 . 

Hamilton, P., G.S . Fargion, and D.C . Biggs. In press. 

Survey of eddy U, V, and W with expendable 

probes and drifters . In Proceedings: thirteenth 

annual Gulf of Mexico information transfer 

meeting, December 1993. U.S . Dept. of the 

Interior. Minerals Mgmt. Service. New Orleans, 

La. MMS Contract No. 14-35-0001-30665. 

Hamilton, P., G.S . Fargion, and D.C . Biggs. 1994. 

Survey of eddies U, V, W, and X in the central 

Gulf of Mexico with XBT's and ARGOS 

drifters . Abstract in EOS 75(16): 212. 

Jockens, A., G.S . Fargion, and R. Leben. 1994. 

Observation of the fate of eddy V: April-June 

1993 . Abstract in EOS 75(16) :212 . 

Smith, R.C ., P. Dustan . D. Au, K.S . Baker and E.A . 

Dunlap. 1986. Distribution of cetaceans and seasurface chlorophyll concentrations in the 

California Current. Mar. Biology 91 :385-402. 

Walker, N.D. and L.J . Rouse. 1993 Satellite 

assessment of Mississippi River discharge plume 

variability. OCS Study/MMS 93-004. U.S . Dept. 

of the Interior, Minerals Mgmt. Service, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Regional Office, New Orleans, La. 

50 pp. 

Walker, N.D ., G.S . Fargion, L.J . Rouse, and D. 

Biggs. 1994. The great flood of summer 1993 : 

Mississippi discharge studied. EOS 75(36):409, 

414, 415. 

Waring G. T., C. P. Fairfield, C. M. Rushsam and M. 

Sano. 1993 . Sperm whales associated with the 

Gulf stream features off the north-eastern USA 

shelf. Fish . Oceanogr . 2(2) :101-105 . 
420 

Dr. Giulietta S. Fargion, an Associate Research 

Specialist in the Department of Marine Biology at 

TAMUG, serves as Data Manager and PI for the 

MMS-TIO GulfCet Program 1991-1994. In 1989 she 

received her Ph.D . in oceanography from Scripps 

Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California . 

REMOTE SENSING AND 

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 

SYSTEM SUPPORT FOR THE 

GULFCET PROJECT 

Mr. L. Nelson May, Jr . 

Mr. Thomas D. Leming 

Mr. Mark F. Baumgartner 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center 

INTRODUCTION 

The National Marine Fisheries Service -Southeast 

Fisheries Science Center (NMFS-SSC) is providing 

remote sensing and geographic information system 

(GIS) support for the project. The GIS will be used 

to integrate and analyze the various data types to 

explore possible relationships between the 

distribution and abundance of marine mammals and 

satellite and shipboard measurements of 

environmental variables in the Gulf of Mexico. 

GIS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 

The GIS hardware consisted of a Silicon Graphics 

UNIX workstation with 80 megabytes of random 

access memory, online access to 12 gigabytes of hard 

disk and optical storage media, and other peripherals. 

The software was the Advanced Geographic 

Information System software, AGIS. (AGIS is a 

proprietary GIS software package developed and 

marketed by Delta Data Systems, Inc. 131 Third 

Street, Picayune, MS 39466 .) AGIS is capable of 

storing and analyzing raster and vector data (Aronoff 

1989) simultaneously. 

BASE MAP COORDINATE SYSTEM 

All of the digital map layers used in the GIS data 

base were registered to a Gulf of Mexico master 

image (GMMI) that includes the GulfCet study area 

and encompasses the area from 18° to 31' North 

Latitude and 80° to 98° West Longitude. The GMMI 

is a raster image consisting of three land cover 

classes: land, water, and land pixels adjacent to water 

(coastline). The file was generated from vector 

coastline data reformatted from the Digital Chart of 

the World data base (U.S . Defense Mapping Agency 

1992). Data were earth located within the GMMI 

with longitude/latitude coordinates using a simple 

cylindrical projection (linear longitude/latitude) 

system (Snyder 1987). The dimensions of each pixel 

in the GMMI were 0.01° longitude by 0 .01° latitude . 

DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING 

The locations of cetaceans observed from aircraft and 

vessels were recorded with global positioning system 

receivers and later converted to vector maps 

organized by survey platform, cruise leg, cruise 

number, and season as appropriate. Other attribute 

information recorded for each sighting included the 

date, time of day, species, herd size, and a flag 

variable to indicate whether the sighting was on 

effort or off effort . Survey tracklines were also stored 

as vector maps with attribute information to enable 

retrieval and display for specific dates, survey 

number, and survey platform . 

Sea surface temperature (SST) and surface salinity 

measurements acquired bythermosalinigraphs aboard 

the vessels were converted to line vector maps 

corresponding to survey tracklines . SST gradients 

were also derived from the thermosalinigraph 

measurements and stored as line vectors. Water 

temperature data from CTD and XBT measurements 

were converted to raster and vector maps by depth 

class using standard depths defined by the National 

Oceanographic Data Center. 

Of the 344 satellite images that were acquired to 

support the ship and aircraft surveys during the two 

year field effort, a total of 118 were selected based 

on the distribution of cloud cover and the availability 

of survey data within ±24 hr of the overflight. The 

images were collected by the Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) carried aboard the 

NOAA-11 and NOAA-12 polar orbiting satellites . 

Each satellite provided partial or full coverage of the 

study area twice per day (one daytime and one 

nighttime overflight) depending on the orbital path 

and cloud coverage. The data were obtained on 

computer compatible tapes from the level lb archives 
421 

(Kidwell 1985) maintained at the National Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service and the satellite 

receiving station operated by NMFS at Stennis Space 

Center. The satellite images were processed into SST 

images using the multichannel SST algorithms 

described by McClain et al. (1985). The images were 

rectified to fit the GMMI using the earth location 

data included with each raw image file and the 

nearest neighbor resampling technique 

(Schowengerdt 1983). SST gradient maps were 

derived from the satellite images and stored in the 

data base . 

In addition to the survey, environmental, and satellite 

data collected for the project, other public domain 

GIS data sets were obtained from the U.S . Geological 

Survey and Minerals Management Service. These 

included coastlines, boundary of the U.S . Exclusive 

Economic Zone, state and international boundaries, 

and bottom depth maps (Herring 1993). 

Conover, W. J. 1980. Practical nonparametric 

statistics . John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 

493 pp. 

Herring, H. J. 1993. A bathymetric and hydrographic 

climatological atlas for the Gulf of Mexico. 

Report No. 109, Minerals Mgmt. Service. 

Kidwell, K. B. (compiler) . 1985. NOAA polar orbiter 

data users guide. NOAAMESDIS/SDSD, 

Washington, D.C . 

McClain, C. P., F. A. Williams, and C. C. Walton. 

1985. Comparative performance of AVHRRbased multichannel sea surface temperatures . 

Journal of Geophysical Research, 90(C6): 

11587-11601 . 

Schowengerdt, R. A. 1983 . Techniques for image 

processing and classification in remote sensing. 

Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Fla., 249 pp. 

PROCESSING PROTOCOL 

A total of seven environmental variables are 

currently being analyzed relative to cetacean 

sightings: SST, SST gradient, surface salinity, depth 

of the 15°C isotherm, temperature at 100 m, bottom 

depth, and bottom depth gradient . The cetacean 

sightings and environmental data acquired along each 

survey trackline have been extracted and are 

currently being analyzed using plots and tabular 

listings . Environmental profiles for each species are 

also being developed using tabular summaries and 

plots. Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) two sample tests 

(Conover 1980) are being used to compare the 

distributions of aircraft and ship survey effort for 

uniformity across the observed ranges of each 

environmental variable . K-S tests are also being used 

for similar comparisons of cetacean sightings with 

survey effort . 

An analysis of the distribution of cetaceans and 

environmental variables relative to documented 

oceanographic features is currently in progress . 

REFERENCES 

Aronoff, S. 1989. Geographic information systems: 

a management perspective. WDL Publications, 

Ottawa, Canada, 294 pp. 

Snyder, J. P. 1987. Map projections - a working 

manual . U.S . Geological Survey Paper 1395. 

Washington, D.C . : U.S . Government Printing 

Office, 383 pp. 

U.S . Defense Mapping Agency. 1992. Digital chart 

of the world, edition 1 . Earth Science 

Information Center, U.S . Geological Survey, 

Stennis Space Center, Mississippi. 

L. Nelson May, Jr . has been employed as a remote 

sensing specialist with the National Marine Fisheries 

Service since 1990. His areas of interest include 

applications of remote sensing and GIS techniques to 

support fishery management information needs 

within the agency. Mr. May received a B.S . degree in 

marine science from the University of West Florida, 

and M.S . and M.A. degrees in marine science and 

applied statistics, respectively, from Louisiana State 

University. 

Thomas D. Leming has worked as a research 

oceanographer for the past 26 years with the National 

Marine Fisheries Service. His areas of research 

include satellite and fisheries oceanography. Mr. 

Leming received a B.S . in Oceanography from the 

University of Washington, an M.S . in physical 
422 

oceanography from the University of Miami, and is 

currently a doctoral candidate in physical 

oceanography at Louisiana State University . 

Mark F. Baumgartner has worked for the National 

Marine Fisheries Service since 1992. His interests lie 

in the application of GIS technology to the marine 

environment and the oceanographic processes 

governing marine mammal distribution . Mr. 

Baumgartner received a B.S . in mathematics and 

computer science from the University of Notre Dame 

and is currently pursuing a master's degree in 

biological oceanography at the University of 

Southern Mississippi's Center for Marine Science. 

CETACEAN HABITATS: 

A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS 

Dr. Randall Davis 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

One of the objectives of the GulfCet Program was to 

gain a better understanding of the oceanographic 

habitat of cetaceans. To accomplish this, we have 

began an analysis of the hydrographic data in relation 

to the distribution of different cetacean species. This 

analysis is only in the initial phases, so the results 

must be considered preliminary. The average 

hydrographic conditions for cetaceans sighted in the 

study area are shown in Table 513.2 . The average 

hydrographic values are shown in Table 5D.3 for 

four commonly observed species during GulfCet 

cruises, pantropical spotted dolphins, sperm whales, 

Atlantic spotted dolphins, and bottlenose dolphins. 

There was no significant difference between the 

average hydrographic conditions and those observed 

for the pantropical spotted dolphin and sperm whale 

sightings for the six selected hydrographic variables. 

On average, these two species were found in areas of 

very deep water, between 1,105-1,242 meters. They 

were also found in an area of relatively steep bottom 

gradient, 19-24 meters per 1 .1 kilometers . Average 

sea surface temperature was about 19-20° C and 

surface salinity was normal for offshore areas for the 

Gulf of Mexico. The Atlantic spotted dolphin and 

bottlenose dolphin appeared to be located closer to 

the edge of the continental shelf in water that was 

typically 197-294 meters deep. None of the other 

hydrographic variables were significantly different, 

except the bottom depth gradient, which was slightly 

less than for pantropical spotted dolphins and sperm 

whales. This indicates that Atlantic spotted dolphins 

and bottlenose dolphins were probably found over 

the continental shelf, as opposed to steeper regions of 

the continental slope. Further in-depth analyses, 

using the GIS and canonical correspondence analysis, 

will be necessary to determine the relationship 

between cetacean sightings and hydrographic 

variables. This analysis will be complete in early 

1995 . 

Table SD.2 Mean hydrographic values for cetaceans sighted in the GulfCet study area . 

Water 

Depth of the Temperature at Bottom Depth 

15° Isotherm 100 m Bottom Depth Gradient SST SST Gradient Surface 

(m) (C°) (m) (m/1 .1 km)* (°C) °G1 .1 km Salinity (PSU) 

194 19.5 1,009 19 24.7 0.07 35.6 

(141-2 94) ( 17-26) (100-2000) (0-120) (14-31) (0 .07) (16-37) 

* 1 .1 km is the size of a remote sensing pixel . 
423 

Table SD.3 . Mean hydrographic values for four commonly observed species in the GulfCet study area. 

pecies 

Depth of the 

15° Isotherm 

(m) 

Water 

Temperature 

at 100 m 

(C°) 

Bottom 

Depth 

(m) 

Bottom 

Depth 

Gradient 

(m/I .1 km)* 

SST 

(°C) 

SST 

Gradient 

'C/1 .1 km 

Surface 

Salinity 

(PSU) 

Pantropical 198 19 .2 1,242 19 25.3 0.07 35.6 

Spotted 

Dolphin 

Sperm 195 19.9 1,105 24 23.7 0 .08 35.8 

Whale 

Atlantic 184 19.3 197 11 22.7 0.09 34.9 

Spotted 

Dolphin 

Bottlenose 189 19.1 294 16 24.2 0.08 33 .6 

Dolphin 

Dr. Randall W. Davis is a Professor and Head of the 

Marine Biology Department at Texas A&M 

University at Galveston. His research interests are the 

diving physiology of marine mammals, the 

rehabilitation of oiled wildlife, and the conservation 

of endangered and threatened species. He received 

his B.S . in Biology from University of California, 

Riverside and his Ph.D. in Physiology from the 

University of California, San Diego. 

MARINE BIRDS OF THE 

NORTHERN CENTRAL AND 

WESTERN GULF OF MEXICO 

Dr. Dwight E. Peake 

The University of Texas Medical Branch 

at Galveston 

Dr. Giulietta Fargion 

Texas A&M University at Galveston 

Dr. Robert Benson 

Texas A&M University 

The GulfCet Texas Institute of Oceanography (TIO) 

cruises presented a unique opportunity to expand the 

knowledge of the pelagic avifauna of the northerncentral and western Gulf of Mexico by a systematic 

bird survey of areas previously never or only 

minimally investigated in an organized fashion . 

Clapp et al . (1982, 1983) summarized all available 

records of seabirds from the northern Gulf of 

Mexico ; a majority of these records for pelagic 

species have been obtained onshore, usually after 

storms . Duncan and Harvard (1980) did limited shipbased surveys in waters offshore Alabama. Although 

spotting small dark birds from a moving aircraft is 

difficult, Fritts and Reynolds (1981) and Fritts et al . 

(1983) conducted aerial surveys of birds in the Gulf 

of Mexico which included offshore areas of 

Louisiana and Texas and provided much useful 

information regarding pelagic seabirds in the Gulf. 

Bird observations were made on TIO Cruises 3-7 and 

the data provides information on the species, 

distribution, and relative abundance of birds in the 

GulfCet study area . 

Forty-three species of birds were seen during these 

cruises. Twenty-two of these species are non-seabirds 

and include ducks, herons, and passerine species. 

These observations provide examples of the TransGulf pathway for migrating landbirds. Twenty-one 

species of seabirds, defined as coastal, offshore, or 

pelagic species of birds which have their usual 

habitats and food sources in the sea or oceans were 

observed (Harrison 1983). Table 513.4 summarizes 

the seabird species, number of sightings, and water 

depth where sightings occurred as well as the mean 

group sizes . Although no new seabird species for the 

Gulf of Mexico area were seen, two species, Cory's 

Shearwater and Band-romped Storm-Petrel, will be 

added to the official Louisiana bird list pending 
424 

acceptance of the records by the Louisiana Rare 

Birds Committee. 

The predominant species noted on each TIO cruise 

was different. Figures SD.8 - 513.11 present the 

relative abundance of species on Cruises 3, 4, 5, and 

6 (sighting rates are defined as the total number of 

individuals seen on each cruise while observing oneffort divided by the number of hours spent on-effort 

for each cruise). The most common species for TIO 

Cruise 3 are total jaegers (Pomarine Jaeger and 

unidentified jaeger) and Puffinus shearwaters 

(unidentified small Puffinus sp. and Audubon's 

Shearwaters). For Cruise 4, Laughing Gull, Herring 

Gull, total jaegers, and Northern Gannet are the 

predominant species. On TIO Cruise 5, Band-romped 

Storm-Petrels, total jaegers, and Bridled Tern were 

the major species seen . Black Tern, Puffinus 

shearwaters, and Bridled and Sooty Terns 

predominated on Cruise 6. Seventy percent of the 

bird sightings and individuals on Cruise 7 were 

Pomarine Jaegers. Jaegers, small Puffinus 

shearwaters, and Band-romped Storm-Petrels, 

interestingly, were not considered to be significant 

components of the Gulf of Mexico avifauna by Fritts 

et al . (1983). 

Although the Wilson's Storm-Petrel has previously 

been considered the most abundant Storm-Petrel in 

the Gulf of Mexico, all but one of the Storm-Petrels 

identified to species on Cruises 3-7 were Bandrumped Storm-Petrels. These sightings of Bandrumped Storm-Petrels occurred throughout the 

GulfCet study area . The world population of Bandrumped Storm-Petrel is approximately 50,000-

100,000 birds and the entire Atlantic Ocean 

population may number less than 15,000 birds 

(Croxall et al. 1984). Although Clapp et al . (1982) 

listed only five records for this area, the Gulf of 

Mexico may represent an important and previously 

unrecognized nonbreeding habitat for this uncommon 

species. In light of this, the possible exposure of 

these birds to oiling from a spill becomes particularly 

significant. 

Audubon's Shearwater is another species with a 

limited Atlantic Ocean population, numbering less 

than 5,000 pairs (van Halewyn et al. 1984). Clapp et 

al. (1982) and Fritts et al . (1983) noted only 26 

records of this species in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. The TIO cruise data suggests, however, that 

it is much more common in the study area than 

previous information would indicate . Because this 

species rests on the water and dives for food items, it 

is at high risk for oiling (Fritts et al. 1983). 

Despite the prior belief that Pomarine Jaeger is 

uncommon in the northern Gulf of Mexico (Duncan 

and Harvard 1980), this species was common on the 

November through May cruises. Sightings occurred 

throughout the study area; on the February cruise, 

most sightings occurred in the areas with the greatest 

water depths . The primary foraging behavior for 

jaegers during much of the winter in this area seems 

unlikely to be kleptoparasitistic in view of the large 

numbers of jaegers relative to other species; a flock 

of at least 100 jaegers seen feeding over a group of 

sperm whales suggests scavenging may be an 

important jaeger feeding method this time of year . 

While the Black Tern is not strictly a pelagic species, 

a large offshore concentration of Black Terns was 

noted on Cruise 6 (August 1993) in the area of the 

Mississippi River plume where fresh water streamed 

eastward. Although large flocks were observed 

feeding over fish schools, more notable were the 

numbers of Black Terns resting on flotsam. These 

observations suggest that despite the conclusions of 

Clapp et al . (1983) and Fritts et al . (1983) that the 

Black Tern is not very susceptible to oiling, this 

species may be at high risk of oiling during 

migration. 

Other notable bird sightings made on the TIO cruises 

include two records of the White-tailed Tropicbird 

and two records for the Brown Noddy Tern. Less 

than approximately 15-20 previous records exist for 

either species from the northern-central and western 

Gulf of Mexico, and the GulfCet records represent 

some of the few offshore records in this area. 

The GulfCet TIO bird observations, therefore, add 

significantly to the knowledge of the avifauna of the 

Gulf of Mexico through the first intensive ship-based 

offshore bird survey for the northern-central and 

western Gulf. Forty-three total species of birds and 

21 species of seabirds were observed, including two 

probable additions to the list of Louisiana bird 

species. Several species which were not previously 

well known in the Gulf of Mexico, including 

Band-romped Storm-Petrel, Audubon's Shearwater, 
425 

Table SD.4 . Seabird Sighting Results for TIO Cruises 3-7 

Species 

Mean 

Water Mean 

Total Number Water Depth Depth Group 

Sightings Range (m) (m) Size 

Cory's Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) 5 89-1809 1004 1 .4 

Audubon's Shearwater (Puffinus lherminieri) 44 107-2184 1563 2.52 

Pterodroma sp. 1 1314 1314 1 

Wilson's Storm-Petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) 1 144 144 1 

Band romped Storm-Petrel (Oceanodroma castro) 14 216-2714 1640 1 .42 

Unidentified Storm-Petrels (Hydrobatidae) 16 196-1979 1094 1 .68 

White-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus) 2 1758-1982 1870 1 .5 

Northern Gannet (Sula bassanus) 20 103-2341 450 2 .85 

Masked Booby (Sula dactylatra) 16 569-2306 1343 1 .18 

Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) IS 75-1772 755 1 .46 

Pomarine Jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) 102 136-2587 1633 1 .72 

Unidentified Jaeger (Sternocarius sp.) 50 109-2380 1477 3 .66 

Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla) 76 100-2313 898 1 .74 

Bonaparte Gull (Larus philadelphia) 1 219 219 1 

Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) 52 9-2584 703 2.22 

Royal Tern (Sterna maxima) 6 9-2584 731 1 .33 

Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis) 6 102-1611 598 2.2 

Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) 5 176-1410 613 1 

Least Tern (Sterna antillarum) 2 106-1603 854 2 

Unidentified white-back Sterna sp . 7 136-1667 917 1 .57 

Bridled Tern (Sterna anaethetus) 35 105-2176 944 1 .48 

Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) 11 125-1993 1448 7.54 

Unidentified dark-back Sterna sp. 11 186-2006 1192 133 

Black Tern (Chlidonias niger) 59 75-2104 411 26.6 

Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus) 2 13 96-1591 1494 1 
Herring Gulls 

Cory's Shearwaters 

Unidentified Large Shearwaters 

Unidentified Storm-Petrels 

Laughing Gulls 

Northern Gannets 

Unidentified White-back Sterna 

Masked Boobies 

Aububon's Shearwaters 

Unidentified Small Shearwaters 

Pomarine Jaegers 

Unidentified Jaegers 

CD C) C) C) CD CD C) CD C) 

°o o °o °o °o °o °o °o °o 

O r N M ~' l1) (O I- 00 

O O O O O O O O O 

Individuals Per Effort Hour 

a 

N 

Figure SD.8 . Cruise 3 overall relative bird abundance. 
Unidentified Dark-back Sternas 

Unidentified Storm-Petrels 

Unidentified White-back Sterna 

Unidentified Small Shearwaters 

Royal Terns 

Unidentified Jaegers 

Northern Gannets 

Pomarine Jaegers 

Herring Gulls 

Laughing Gulls 

0 .0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1 .0000 1 .2000 

Individuals Per Effort Hour 

Figure SD.9 . Cruise 4 overall relative bud abundance. N 

J 
Audubon's Shearwaters 

Unidentified Storm-Petrels 

Masked Boobies 

Unidentified Jaegers 

Unidentified Dark-backed Sternas 

Brown Noodles 

Sooty Terns 

Pomarine Jaegers 

Cody's Shearwaters 

Royal Terns 

Bridled Terns 

Band-romped Storm Petrels 

0 .0000 0.0500 0 .1000 0.1500 

Individuals Per Effort Hour 

0.2000 0.2500 

N 

00 

Figure SD.10. Cruise 5 overall relative bird abundance. 
Cory's Shearwaters 

Unidentified White-back Sternas 

White-tailed Tropicbirds 

Unidentified Large Shearwaters 

Royal Terns 

Laughing Gulls 

Least Terns 

Unidentified Storm-Petrels 

Common Terns 

Unidentified Small Shearwaters 

Masked Boobies 

Sandwich Terns 

Unidentified Dark-backed Sternas 

Magnificent Frigatebirds 

Bridled Terns 

Sooty Terns 

Audubon's Shearwaters 

Black Terns 

0.0000 5.0000 10.0000 15.0000 20 .0000 25.0000 

Individuals Per Effort Hour 

Figure 5D. 11 . Cruise 6 overall relative bud abundance. N 
430 

and Pomarine Jaeger, apparently are important 

constituents of the avifauna of the northern Gulf. The 

GulfCet data, furthermore, demonstrate that the Gulf 

of Mexico is an important seabird habitat. 

REFERENCES 

Clapp, R. B., R. C. Banks, D. Morgan-Jacobs and W. 

A. Hoffman. 1982. Marine birds of the 

Southeastern United States and Gulf of Mexico. 

Part I: Gaviiformes through Pelecaniformes . U.S . 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological 

Services, Washington, D.C . FWS/OBS-82/01 . 

637 pp. 

Clapp, R. B., D. Morgan-Jacobs and R. C. Banks. 

1983 . Marine birds of the Southeastern United 

States and Gulf of Mexico. Part III: 

Charadriiformes. U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Office of Biological Services, Washington, D.C . 

FWS/OBS-83/30. xvi and 853 pp. 

Croxall, J. P., P. G. H. Evans, and R. W. Schreiber 

(eds .) 1984. Status and conservation of the 

world's seabirds . International Council for Bird 

Preservation, Technical Report, No. 2 . 

Cambridge, England. 

Duncan, C. D. and R. W. Harvard. 1980. Pelagic 

birds of the northern Gulf of Mexico. American 

Birds: 34 (2): 122-132. 

Fritts, T. H., A. B. Irvine, R. D. Jennings, L. A. 

Collum, W. Hoffinan, and M. A. McGhee. 1983. 

Turtles, birds, and mammals in the northern Gulf 

of Mexico and nearby Atlantic waters. 

Washington, D.C . : U.S . Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Office of Biological Services, 

FWS/OBS-82/65. 455 pp. 

Fritts, T. H. and R. P. Reynolds . 1981 . Pilot study of 

the marine mammals, birds and turtles in OCS 

areas of the Gulf of Mexico. U.S . Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Division of Biological 

Services, Washington, D.C . FWS/OBS-81/36, xi 

and 140 pp. 

Harrison, P. 1983. Seabirds : An identification guide. 

Boston : Houghton Mifflin. 448 pp. 

pp. 169-222. In J. P. Croxall, P. G. H. Evans, 

and R. W. Schreiber (eds .), Status and 

conservation of the world's seabirds . 

International Council for Bird Preservation, 

Technical Report, No. 2. Cambridge, England. 

Dr. Dwight E. Peake is a Clinical Assistant Professor 

in the Division of Emergency Medicine at The 

University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 

His areas of research are cruise ship and maritime 

medicine and pelagic seabirds . Dr. Peake is a 

member of Phi Beta Kappa and received his B.S . in 

biology with honors from the College of William and 

Mary and his M.D . degree from the Medical College 

of Virginia . He worked as an ornithological research 

assistant while in college and has observed pelagic 

seabirds off both coasts of the United States, off 

western Mexico, and Hawaii . He also organizes 

public pelagic birding trips in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Dr. Giulietta S . Fargion, an Associate Research 

Specialist in the Department of Marine Biology at 

Texas A&M University at Galveston (TAMUG), 

serves as Data Manager and PI for the MMS-TIO 

GuIfCet Program 1991-1994. In 1989 she received 

her Ph.D . in oceanography from Scripps Institution 

of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA . 

Dr. Robert Benson is a member of the Engineering 

Technology faculty at Texas A&M University at 

College Station and is the director of the Texas 

Engineering Experiment Station's Center for 

Bioacoustics . His areas of research interest are the 

analysis and classification of animal vocalizations 

and the application of modern technology to 

problems in ecology. Dr. Benson received his B.S . in 

physics from Southwest Texas State University and 

his Ph.D. in cosmic-ray physics from Texas A&M 

University . 

van Halewyn, R. and R. L. Norton. 1984. The status 

and conservation of seabirds in the Caribbean, 
431 

ACOUSTIC TRACKING OF SPERM 

WHALES - PRELIMINARY RESULTS 

Dr. William E. Evans 

Mr. Mike Duncan 

Mr. Troy Sparks 

Texas A&M University 

ACOUSTIC LOCALIZATION AND TRACKING 

EFFORTS ON GULFCET CRUISE 8 

GulfCet Cruise 8 was designed to test the feasibility 

of tracking sperm whales acoustically using the 

horizontal towed array and vertical arrays of 

sonobuoys. During the cruise (20-28 August 1994), 

49 sonobuoys were deployed, 33 of which were used 

in three-buoy vertical arrays . Plots of the location of 

the ship and presence of whales were noted every 10 

seconds. The cruise track is a good description of the 

distribution of sperm whales in the study area during 

the 8 days of the cruise . Sperm whales were 

encountered throughout the eight-day period in the 

small area off the mouth of the Mississippi River (see 

Figure SD.12) . We maintained contact with sperm 

whales 68% of the time ranging from 80-89% from 

21-22 August, then reducing 59, 21, 51% for the final 

three days. While in the main study area we 

maintained nearly constant contact. During the three 

final days we moved to the east, southwest and south 

to determine the extent of the distribution of the 

groups being tracked. All whales encountered were 

within the study area in Figure 5D.13. We 

photographed a total of 244 sperm whale encounters, 

though that number will likely include a number 

repeat contacts . 

Both sonobuoys and a towed linear array were used 

in an attempt to localize sperm whales at depth as 

well as track them. By using multiple receivers at 

known locations in a known acoustic environment, 

enough travel time information could be collected to 

estimate the location of the acoustic source . The 

linear array was towed near the surface while the 

sonobuoys were deployed in close proximity to each 

other in order to approximate a vertical array. 

Figure SD.13 illustrates the combined use of the 

towed array and the sonobuoys. 

The localization and tracking efforts on GulfCet 

Cruise 8 centered around a matched field type of 

approach. Given an estimate of the acoustic 

environment, known receiver positions, and assuming 

linear ray paths, the most probable location of the 

source was determined by finding the best match 

between observed arrival time differences and 

differences between several hundred pre-defined 

locations in the acoustic field. We usually selected 

about 1,024 points in 3-D space over some volume of 

ocean. Travel time differences for these points were 

computed taking the temperature effect on the 

vertical sound speed profile into account. Thirty 

XBTs were deployed and provided accurate real-time 

temperature versus depth data. Data on salinity were 

not collected; therefore 35 psu was assumed. The 

location associated with the set of travel time 

differences most closely matching the set produced 

by the source was presumed to be an approximate 

location . Figure SD.14 is an example of the matched 

field model output . It was found during the cruise 

that the accuracy of the model could be improved 

upon by including higher order terms in the time 

delay calculations . For example, three hydrophones 

produce three time delay variables; dt,z, dt , dt2, . The 

accuracy is improved on by artificially increasing the 

dimensionality of the problem with the second order 

terms; dt,Zdt , dt,Zdt2,, dt dtZ, . 

This technique was used with varying degrees of 

success. The primary difficulty encountered was that 

of signal identification . It was sometimes quite hard 

to identify signals on each of the receivers that were 

the result of a single source click. Oceanic multipaths 

and multiple sources made this even more difficult. 

Also the lack of salinity data was a likely source of 

error. A more suitable model would include acoustic 

wave refraction . This would allow us to glean 

location information from the arrival times of 

acoustic multipaths and thus turn them into an asset 

rather than a hindrance. The model also proved to be 

rather unwieldy for real and near-real time use. This 

was mostly due to the data acquisition method. The 

same computer was used for acquisition and 

processing which slowed the overall process down 

considerably . Also, times of signal arrival were 

estimated from the digital record by hand (i .e ., picked 

out one by one on the computer display by the user). 

Ideally this process could somehow be automated. 

The amount of qualitative judgment that went into 

arrival time estimation, especially for multiple 

targets, would tend to make this kind of automation 

a less than trivial task . 
.A 

w 

N 

Figure SD.12. TIO acoustic localization and tracking cruise study area . 
433 

Y 

towed ar r ay 

/ sonobuoy 

~ 

100, 

array 

100, i ~ x 

i 

i 10*1 

000, 

i 

accusti c source 

(what e) 

z 

Figure 513.13 Array configuration . Three sonobuoys are used in conjunction with the towed linear array to obtain 

ten travel time difference estimates. The origin of the coordinate system used was the location of 

the aftmost trace in the towed array. The orientation of the axes was the same as shown. 
434 

1000-

800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

.~ . 

600 ---- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;-----------------

400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. 

200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

0 50Qm) 1000 

0 0 

-100_- - -------- 

-0- ' ------------ 

N .200. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - ------------

1~ [ 

-300' . . . . . . . . . . o- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

-400 

0 500 1000 x("') 

o p 

-100----------- . . . . . . . . . . . . 

---- . . . . . .- . ------------ 

---------,o- . ------------ 

-4000 

500 1000 

y (m) 

0 

E 

N 

-500 

1000 

1000 500 500 

Y M o 0 x (m) 

Figure 513.14. Matched field model output. Given a hydrophone array similar to the one shown in Figure 513.12, 

the matched field model estimates the location of a test acoustic source. Views along each of the 

coordinate axes are shown (see Figure SD.12), as well as a three dimensional perspective. Circles 

represent the hydrophone locations. The location of the test source is indicated by a square, and 

the triangle represents the estimated location . 
435 

possible 

locations 

O f 

sonobuoy 

array / 

z 

towed array 

bearing estimate 

x 

O 

/ sonobuoy 

D array 

// , O 

acoustic source 

Y 

Figure SD.15 . A "de-coupled" version of the array configuration. Range and depth of the source are estimated 

first using the vertically aligned sonobuoys. Azimuth may then be determined from arrival time 

estimatesat the towed array. Because the acoustic field no longer needs to be continually recalculated due to changing relative receiver positions, computation time is minimized. 
436 

0 

-100 

-200 

0 

E 

-300 

Q 

v 

-400 

-500 

n 

n -6000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 

range (m) 

Figure 513.16. Example of the model output for a single vertical array of sonobuoys. Range and depth are 

estimated for five whales encountered during GulfCet Cruise 8. Estimates lying near the model 

bounds are suspect. 
437 

During the cruise it was also found that the signals 

recorded from the towed array near the surface were 

very unlike those recorded by the sonabuoy 

hydrophones. This was not altogether mystifying ,as 

surface scattering may drastically change the shape of 

a reflected wave form. This increased the difficulty 

of obtaining distinct arrival time differences between 

signals received by the array and those received by 

the sonobuoys. For this reason it was decided that the 

towed linear array was best processed independently 

of the sonobuoy array. The sonobuoy array of three 

hydrophones was used to obtain depth and range 

estimates in relation to the vertical array axis . This 

information could then be coupled with 

corresponding towed array information on source 

bearing to produce two possible source locations. 

This also speeds up the required computation time as 

we now are looking at a 2-D instead of 3-D acoustic 

field which does not have to be constantly reevaluated due to the movement of the towed array 

receivers . The range and depth from the vertical array 

may also stand alone as valuable information, as 

depth, at least, is uniquely defined. Figure 513.15 

illustrates the independent use of the towed and 

sonobuoy arrays . Figure SD.16 is an example of 

range and depth estimates from the vertical array 

output from the model . The model found the closet 

match in the pre-computed field, so those points 

lying near the boundaries of the field should be views 

with some suspicion. 

Texas. Since 1992 he has been involved with signal 

processing and data analysis for the GulfCet project. 

Recently, he has also worked on geoacoustic 

modeling of marine sediments. He received his B.S . 

in Maritime Systems Engineering from Texas A&M 

University at Galveston. 

Troy D. Sparks is a Research Assistant at the Marine 

Acoustics Lab, Center for Bioacoustics, in Galveston, 

TX, and he is a M.Sc. candidate in Wildlife and 

Fisheries Science at Texas A&M University . His 

areas of interest include bioacoustics of cetaceans 

and resource management as it pertains to 

endangered species via remote sensing techniques 

such as passive and active acoustics, and satellite 

telemetry. Other interests include the study of large 

marine ecosystems, development of environmental 

policies, and marine resource management. Troy D. 

Sparks received his B.S . in Biology with 

departmental honors from Indiana University . 

William E. Evans, Ph.D. is a Professor in 

Oceanography and Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences 

and is President of the Texas Institute of 

Oceanography . He has been active in psychoacoustic 

and bioacoustics research since 1954. He specializes 

in the effects of noise on animals, especially in the 

marine environment, psychophysics of hearing, 

biological sonar systems, and oceanographic 

correlates of marine vertebrates. Dr. Evans received 

his B.S . from Bowling Green State University is 

Science Education, his M.A . from Ohio State 

University in Audiology, and his Ph.D. from the 

University of California at Los Angeles in Biology 

and Biophysics . 

Michael E. Duncan is currently a M.S . candidate in 

Physical Oceanography at Texas A&M University . 

Prior to this, he worked as an assistant scientist at 

Lockheed Engineering and Science Co. of Houston, 
INDEX TO AUTHORS 
441 

Aratame, Dr. Natsumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 

AtilIa,N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Banker, Mr. B. C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 

Baumgartner, Mr. Mark F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 

Beatty, Ms. K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199,212 

Benson, Dr. Robert H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351 

Bergman, Dr. Edward M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 

Biedenbach, James M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 

Boothe, Dr. PaulN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 

Broussard, Mr. Larry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 

Cake, Jr ., Dr. Edwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 

Carney, Dr. Robert S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 143, 162, 219 

Carr, R. Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 

Catallo, Dr. W. James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 

Causley, Marianne C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 

Chapman, Duane C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 

Courtney, Mr. Lee A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 

Das, Dr. Tapash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 

Davis, Dr. Don . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 

Davis, Dr. Randall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347, 422 

Defenbaugh, Dr. Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 

Debusschere, Ms. Karolien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 219 

DeLaune, Dr.R.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 

DePhillips, Mr. Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 

Deseran, Dr. Forrest A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 

Dindo, Dr. John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 

Dougall, Mr. David A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296 

Duke, Ms.Belinda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 

DyhrkoPP, Mr. Felix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 

Ellis, Mr. Matthew S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 209 

Ericsson, Mr. John D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 

Ertl, Mr. Robin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 

Evans, Dr. William E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 

Fannaly, Mr. Marion T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

Fargion, Dr. Giulietta S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 

Fleeger , Dr. John W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 

Fournie, Dr. John W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204 

Friel, Mr. Christopher A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 

Froomer, Dr. Norman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

Gettleson, Dr. David A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 

Gitschlag, Mr. Gregg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 

Gittings, Dr. Stephen R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

Goeke, Mr. Gary D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

Goodman, Dr. Ron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 

Goudey, Mr. Clifford A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 

Graham, Mr. Bruce D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 

Gramling, Dr.Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 

Green, Dr. Roger H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 

Guo, Mr. T. Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 

Hall, Martha Wise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 

Hamilton , Dr. Leonard D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 

Hammer, Dr. Thomas R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 
442 

Hansen, Mr. Larry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350 

Harper, Dr. Donald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 

Hart, Dr. Alan D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 

Heffernan, Ms. Linda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 

Henry, Mr.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Hodgins, Dr. Donald O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263, 283 

Holtzman, Dr.Seymour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323 

Hsu, Dr. S. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 186 

Hunt, Mr. Jesse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391 

Iledare, Dr. Wumi O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

Inoue, Dr. Masamichi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143, 220 

Jefferson, Mr. Thomas A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 

Johnson, Dr. Walter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 

Kacergis, Mr. Michael C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 

Kasprzak, Mr. Rik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 

Katz, Mr. Gerard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 

Kendall, Dr. James J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 

Kennicutt II, Dr. Mahlon C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107, 108, 113, 212 

Kim, Mr.Yung-Ku1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 

Kolian, Mr. Steve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380 

Langley, Ms. Carla M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 315 

Lee, Mr.C .S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 

Leming, Mr. Thomas D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420 

Li, Ms.Shue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 

Lin,Dr.Q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Lindau, Dr. C. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 

Lindstedt, Ms. Dianne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

Lolk, Nina K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 

Lotufo, Mr. Gui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 

Lugo-Fernandez, Dr. Alexis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 

Lynn, Mr.Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354 

MacDonald, Dr. Ian R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 

Mandke,J.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251 

May, Jr ., Mr. L. Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 

McDonald, Dr. S. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199, 212 

McKee, Dr. Brent A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 

Meinhold, Ms. Anne F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 

Mendelssohn, Dr. IrvingA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,219 

Mirabella, Mr. John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 

Montagna, Dr. PaulA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 

Moore, Mr.Clint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398 

Moore, Mr. Tim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369 

Moran, Mr.Dave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295 

Mullin, Dr. Keith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 

Murray, Dr. Stephen P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 

Nadolny, Mr. Kenneth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398 

Ness, Mr. Howard 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

Norris, Dr. Jeff C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 

Oivanki, Mr. Stephen M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 

Ostrom, Mr. Christopher L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

Overton, Dr.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Oynes, Mr.Chris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 
443 

Pardue, Dr. J. H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 

Penland, Dr. Shea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

Portier, Mr. R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Powell, Dr. Eric N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84, 197, 209 

Presley, Dr. Bobby J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 

Proffitt, Dr. Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 

Pulsipher, Dr. Allan G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 

Rabalais, Dr. N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Ramsey, Ms. Karen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

Ratcliff, Mr. Davis W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 

Ratterree, Mr. Jim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 

Reggio, Jr., Mr. Villere C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39, 295 

Roberts, Dr. Harry H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 

Roberts, Ms. P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Rogers, Dr. Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 

Roscigno, Dr. Pasquale F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107, 315 

Ross, Dr. Gary Noel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 

Rouse, Dr. Lawrence J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271 

Rutkowski, Mr. Stefan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 

Safe, Dr. S. H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199,212 

Sager, Dr. William W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 

Schoeffler, Mr. Harold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Schroeder, Dr. William W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 

Seydlitz, Dr. Ruth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 

Shaver, Ms. Donna J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 45 

Simecek-Beatty, Ms. Debra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 

Singelmann, Dr. Joachim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 

Smith, Dr. Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 

Standaert, Mr. Dick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 

Stanley, Dr. David R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 

Steorts, Mr. William L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 

Stickle, Jr ., Dr. William B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 242 

Street, Mr. Greg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 

Sutherlin, Mr. John W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 

Tao, Mr. Qiang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 

Thomas, Dr.Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 

Thomsen, Ms. J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212 

Tinis, Ms. Sally E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271, 283 

Tolbert, Dr. Charles M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 227 

Twilley, Dr. Robert R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 

Vaudeville, Dr. Bruno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 

Versowsky, Mr. Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 

Vigil, Mr. Ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

Wade, Dr. Terry L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 

Walker , Dr. Nan D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

Wallace, Mr. Tim A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 

Walsh, Ms. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 

Warren, Mr. K. A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 

Wayne, Ms. Lynda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 

Weber, Mr. David J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 

Weeks, IV, Mr. Edward T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 

Welsh, Ms. Susan E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 
444 

Westphal, Ms. Karen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 

Whitten, Gary Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 

Willett, Ms. K. L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199, 212 

Wilson, Dr. Charles A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235 

Wilson-Ormond, Dr. Elizabeth A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 209 

Winston, Dr. Gary W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 

Wiseman, Jr., Dr. William J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 

Wursig, Dr. Bernd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354 

Yocke, Dr. Mark A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 

Zganjar, Mr. Chris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 
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ADCOX, WALLACE 

MMS PROCUREMENT OPERATIONS BR 

MAIL STOP 2510 

381 ELDEN 

HERNDON VA 22070 

ALFORD, JOHN 

SANTA FE INTERNATIONAL CO 

2 LINCOLN CENTER 

5420 LBJ FREEWAY 

DALLAS TX 75240-2648 

ALLEN, DAN 

SR ECOLOGIST 

935 GRAVIER ST RM 1239 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

ALLEN, RUTH M 

TULANE UNIV 

6961 MAYO BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70126 

ALVARADO, ALEX 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

ARATAME, NATSUMI 

LSU SOCIOLOGY DEPT 

126 STUBBS HALL 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

ARCENEAUX, LUTHER J 

SR COMPUTER REPRESENTATIVE 

PO BOX 51107 

LAFAYETTE LA 70508 

ARNOLD, CYNTHIA 

SEAGULL ENERGY CORD 

1001 FANNIN SUITE 1700 

HOUSTON TX 77002 

AVENT, BOB 

MMS LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

BANKER, BRADLEY 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

WETLAND BIOCHEMISTRY INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803-0301 

BARNES, TOMMA 

UNIV OF WEST FLORIDA BIOLOGY DEPT 

11000 UNIVERSITY PARKWAY 

PENSACOLA FL 32514 

BARNETT, PAULA 

NATIONAL OCEAN INDUSTRIES ASSOC 

1120 G STREET NORTHWEST SUITE 900 

WASHINGTON DC 20005 

BARTON, WARREN 

MMS LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

BATES, MR, ALTON 

DEPT OF ENERGY 

900 COMMERCE RD EAST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

BEATTY, KARLA 

GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

BEAUBIEN, DEBRA 

BP EXPLORATION 

200 WESTLAKE PARK BLVD 

HOUSTON TX 77079 

BEBLER, MELANIE 

FIELD BIOLOGIST 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DRIVE ANNEX ROOM 41 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

BENSON, ROBERT 

TEXAS A&M MARINE BIOLOGY DEPT 

PO BOX 1675 

ATTN: PAULA CANTON 

GALVESTON TX 77553 

BIEDENBACH, JAMES M 

NBS 

6300 OCEAN DR CAMPUS BOX 315 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78418 

BISTERFELD, TED 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

345 COURTLAND ST NE 

ATLANTA GA 30365 
448 

BLAKE, JAN BRISTER, MICHAEL 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT LGS 

MAIL STOP 5430 PO BOX G 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD BATON ROUGE LA 

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BROOKS, STEVE 

BLAKEMORE, D EXXON COMPANY USA 

1440 CANAL ST PO BOX 61707 

NEW ORLEANS LA NEW ORLEANS LA 70160 

BOND, JOHN R BROUSSARD, LARRY 

JOHN R BOND & ASSOCIATES TENNECO GAS 

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PANAMA BEACH FL 32417 HOUSTON TX 77252 

BOOTH, JAMES BROWN, MURRAY 

SHELL OIL COMPANY MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

701 POYDRAS MAIL STOP 5430 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70119 1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

BOOTHE, PAUL 

TEXAS A&M OCEANOGRAPHY DEPT BULL, ANN 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77843-3146 MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

BOULDEN, MARION 1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

BIOLOGIST & PROJECT LEADER NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

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2000 QUAIL DRIVE BULL, DAVID 

PO 98000 ROOM 41 AUDUBON INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 6500 MAGAZINE ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70118 

BOWERS, RION 

UNIV OF WEST FLORIDA BIOLOGY DEPT BURGESS, ROBERT 

11000 UNIVERSITY PARKWAY UNIV OF TEXAS 

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PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

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LA DEPT WILDLIFE & FISHERIES BURRAGE, DAVE 

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BILOXI MS 39531 

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TENNECO GAS SHELL OFFSHORE INC 

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HOUSTON TX 77252 NEW ORLEANS LA 70161 
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CAKE, EDWIN COOK, ELIZABETH 

SEA PRIDE IND BHP PETROLEUM 

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CARNEY, ROBERT S COURTNEY, L 

DIRECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

LSU COASTAL MARINE INSTITUTE 1 SABINE ISLAND DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 GULF BREEZE FL 32561 

CARR, SCOTT CREPPEL, GREGG 

NATIONAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY WATERMARK CORPORATION 

6300 OCEAN DRIVE, BOX 315 3811 ST CHARLES AVE 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78412 NEW ORLEANS LA 70115 

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CHAUVIN LA 70344 MAIL STOP 4700 

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CATALLO, JAMES 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIV DAS, TA PASH 

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BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

CHEW, DENNIS 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT DAUTERIVE, LES 

MAIL STOP 5430 MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD MAIL STOP 5430 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

CHOZICK, STEVE 

UNIV OF NEW ORLEANS DAVIS, DON 

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NEW ORLEANS LA 70148-0630 LA APPLIED OIL SPILL RESEARCH 

AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM 

CHRISTOPHER, JOE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT DAMS, RANDALL 

MAIL STOP 5430 TEXAS A&M MARINE BIOLOGY DEPT 

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NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 ATTN: PAULA CANTON 

GALVESTON TX 77553 

CHUSTZ, STEVE 

LA DEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DAMS, SCOTT 

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BATON ROUGE LA 70804 345 COURTLAND STREET NE 

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COOK, DOUG 

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1360 POST OAK BLVD SUITE 500 COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS INC 

HOUSTON TX 77056-3020 1260 MAIN ST 

BATON ROUGE LA 70806 
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DEFENBAUGH, RICK 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

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NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

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OFFSHORE MANAGER 

DEMEX 

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DESERAN, FORREST 

LSU SOCIOLOGY DEPT 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

DICHARRY, GREG 

CNG PRODUCING CO 

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PO BOX 369-370 

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PO BOX 25861 

OKLAHOMA CITY OK 73125 

DOKKEN, QUENTON 

ASSOC DIRECTOR 

COASTAL STUDY TAMU-CC 

6300 OCEAN DRIVE 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78412 

DOODLEY, BILL 

AGIP PETROLEUM 

2950 N LOOPWEST SUITE 300 

HOUSTON TX 77092 

DORAND, STEVE 

AUDUBON INSTITUTE 

6500 MAGAZINE ST 

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DOUGAL, DAVE 

AGIP PETROLEUM 

2950 NORTH LOOP WEST SUITE 300 

HOUSTON TX 77092 

DUBOIS, MARY KERR 

3721 W LOYOLA DR 

KENNER LA 70065 

DUCOTE, GREGORY J 

LOSCO 

1885 WOODALE BLVD 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

DUET, JASON M 

MARINE BIOLOGIST 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE AND FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DRIVE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

DUKE, BELINDA 

GULF OF MEXICO PROGRAM 

PUBLIC INFORMATION CENTER 

BLDG 1200 ROOM 103 

STENNIS SPACE CTR MS 39529-6000 

DYRHKOPP, FELIX 

MMS 

& PROD 1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

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MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

EASLEY, STEPHANIE 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

365 CANAL ST SUITE 3080 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70130 

ELLIS, MATT 

TEXAS A&M OCEANOGRAPHY DEPT 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77843-3146 

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MGR, REGULATORY & ENVIRON DIV 

JOHN E CHANCE & ASSOCIATES 

200 DULLES DRIVE 

LAFAYETTE LA 70506 

ERICSSON, JOHN D 

SEA PRIDE INDUSTRIES 

91 BAY BRIDGE DRIVE 

GULF BREEZE FL 32561 
451 

EVANS, WILLIAM 

TEXAS A&M MARINE BIOLOGY DEPT 

PO BOX 1675 

AT-IN : PAULA CANTON 

GALVESTON TX 77553 

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MMS 

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150 THIRD ST ROOM 107 

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US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS 

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NEW ORLEANS LA 70001 

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TEXAS A&M UNIV 

GALVESTON TX 

FASCIO, IVON 

18 BISTANEAU 

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505 WEYER ST 

GRETNA LA 70053 

FINLEY, HEATHER W 

LOSCO 

1885 WOODALE BLVD 

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FLEEGER, JOHN 

LA STATE UNIV 

2142 OAKCLIFF DRIVE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70810 

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FREEMAN, CHUYLE 

TEXACO 

400 POYDRAS 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70160 

FRIEL, CHRIS 

FLORIDA MARINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

100 8TH AVE SE 

ST PETERSBERG FL 33701 

FROOMER, NORM 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

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NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

FRUMKES, DANIEL 

UNITED ANGLERS OF SO CALIFORNIA 

24958 MALIBU 

MALIBU CA 90265 

FRY, MICHAEL 

DEPT AVIAN SCIENCE 

UNIV OF CALIFORNIA 

DAMS CA 95616 

FURY, SANDI 

CHEVRON USA 

935 GRAVIER STREET 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

GEORGE, LISA 

EXEC OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR 

THE CAPITOL ROOM 1501 

TALLAHASSEE FL 32399 

GETTLESON, DAVID 

CONTINENTAL SHELF ASSOC 

759 PARKWAY ST 

JUPITER FL 33477 

GILLARD, BOB 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

GITSCHLAG, GREGG 

FISHERY BIOLOGIST 

4700 AVENUE U 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

GITTINGS, STEVE 

NOAA, FLOWER GARDEN BANKS 

1716 BRIARCREST DR SUITE 702 

BRYAN TX 77802 
452 

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MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

GOEKE, GARY 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

GOERS, CONNIE 

J CONNOR CONSULTING INC 

16225 PARK 10 PLACE 

HOUSTON TX 77084 

GONZALEZ, CARLA J 

3105 DANNY PARK 

METAIRIE LA 70002 

GOODMAN, RONALD 

IMPERIAL OIL RESOURCES LTD 

PO BOX 670 

COCHRANE 

ALBERTA CANADA TOW OWO 

GOUDEY, CLIFF 

BUILDING E 38-372 292 MAINE ST 

CAMBRIDGE MA 02139 

GRAHAM, KEN 

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MAIL STOP 5430 

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GRAMLING, ROBERT 

DIRECTOR DEPT SOCIOLOGY & 

ANTHROPOLOGY 

UNIV OF SOUTHWESTERN LA 

PO BOX 40198 

LAFAYETTE LA 70504 

GRAPENTINE, LEE 

TEXAS A&M ZOOLOGY DEPT 

UNIV OF WESTERN ONTARIO 

LONDON ONTARIO N6ASB7 

GRAY, ANN 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70801 

GREEN, ROGER H 

GOOMEX-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

95 KILWORTH PARK DRIVE RR3 

LONDON ONTARIO NOL 1 RO 

GREENE, JOHN 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

GRIFFIN, LYNN 

ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIALIST 

FLORIDA DEPT OF EPA 

3900 COMMONWEALTH BLVD 

TALLAHASSE FL 32399-3000 

HAMILTON, CHRISTOPHER 

UNIV OF NEW ORLEANS 

PO BOX 1204 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70148 

HANCOCK, LI'NN 

3134 BAYBROOK 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78418 

HANCOCK, MAX 

RECREATION CONTROL 

3134 BAYBROOK 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78418 

HANIFEN, JAMES 

LA DEPT WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

PO BOX 98000 ANNEX 41 

BATON ROUGE LA 70898-9000 

HANSEN, LARRY 

75 VIRGINIA BEACH DRIVE 

MIAMI FL 33149 

HARDER, DON 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

GALVESTON TX 77553 

HAUGHEY,PAT 

252 ORION AVE 

METAIRIE LA 70005 

HEGGELUND, PER O 

AQUASEED 

1319 DEXTOR AVE NORTH SUITE 210 

SEATTLE WA 98105 
453 

HENDERSON, RUSSELL 

BASIN STREET ASSOCIATES 

PO BOX 15030 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70175 

HENLEY, VERNARD W 

EXXON COMPANY USA 

PO BOX 61707 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70161-1707 

HENRY, LARRY 

CHEVRON USA PRODUCTION 

935 GRAVIER ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

HERDT, LYN 

MMS 

1849 C STREET NW 

MAIL STOP 4013 

WASHINGTON DC 20240 

HIGNIGHT, WANDA 

HARPY OIL AND GAS 

1600 SMITH SUITE 1400 

HOUSTON TX 77002 

HILL, CHARLIE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

HODGINS, DON 

SEACONSULT MARINE RESEARCH 

8805 OSLER STREET 

VANCOUVER BRIT COLUMBIA CANADA 

HOLDER, SAMUEL 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

HOOGLAND, RICHARD 

GULF FISHERIES MGMT COUNCIL 

LINCOLN CENTER 

5401 KENNEDY SUITE 331 

TAMPA FL 33609 

HSU, S A 

LOUISIANA STATE LJNIV 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

HUNT, JESSE 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

ILEDARE, WUMI O 

LSU ENERGY CENTER 

1 EAST FRATERNITY CIRCLE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

INOUE, MASAMICHI 

LOUISIANA STATE LJNIV 

COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

JACKSON, WILLIAM B 

FISHERY MGMT SPECIALIST 

NATL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE 

4700 AVENUE U 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

JEFFERSON, TOM 

TEXAS A&M MARINE BIOLOGY DEPT 

PO BOX 1675 

GALVESTON TX 77553 

JOBLING, JIM 

GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

833 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

JOHNSON, BRITT 

TULANE UNIV 

4007 ST CHARLES AVE 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70115 

JOHNSON, WALTER 

MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE 

381 ELDEN ST SUITE 1109 

MAIL STOP 4360 

HERNDON VA 22070 

JOHNSON, WILBUR G 

PRESIDENT, MNE INC 

PO BOX 9056 

PRATTVILLE AL 36067 

JOHNSON, BONNIE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 
454 

JOHNSTON, JAMES B KENNICUTT II, MAHLON C 

NATIONAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

700 CAJUNDOME BLVD 833 GRAHAM ROAD 

LAFAYETTE LA 70506 COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

JOHNSTON III, JOHN E KENNY, JOHN J 

LA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY KENNY ENTERPRISES INC 

DEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES 401 WHITNEY AVE 

PO BOX G GRETNA LA 760056 

BATON ROUGE LA 70893 

KILADA, RAOUF 

KALKE, RICK UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN 

UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

KILLEEN, PATRICK 

KASPRAZAK, MICHELLE COPESTONE INC 

LA DEPT WILDLIFE & FISHERIES PO BOX 51439 

PO BOX 98000 ANNEX 41 LAFAYETTE LA 70505 

BATON ROUGE LA 70898-9000 

KILLEEN, TIM 

KASPRAZAK, RIK LA DEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE AND FISHERIES 1600 CANAL ST 

2000 QUAIL DRIVE NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

KIM, Y 

KATZ, JERRY TEXAS A&M UNIV 

NATIONAL ENERGY EDUC DEV PROJ 335 GRAHAM ROAD 

1920 ASSOCIATION DR SUITE 414 COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

RESTON VA 22091 

KOLIAN, STEVE 

KEELER, BARBARA 1119 DAUPHINE #13 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY NEW ORLEANS LA 70016 

1445 ROSS AVE 

DALLAS TX 75202-2733 KRANSHE, GEORGE 

LA OFFICE OF EMERGENCY PREP 

KELLAM, JEFF PO BOX 44217 

UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERV BATON ROUGE LA 70806 

MAIL STOP E56 

1600 CLIFTEN RD KRUEBBE III, EDWARD 

ATLANTA GA 30333 SR ENGINEERING TECH 

SHELL OFFSHORE INC 

KENDALL, JIM PO BOX 61933 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT NEW ORLEANS LA 70161-1933 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD LADNER, ORNELL 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 MISS DEPT OF MARINE RESOURCES 

2620 BEACH BLVD 

BILOXI MS 39531 
455 

LAIRD, TRAVIS LIN, QIANXIN 

SEA PRIDE INDUSTRIES WETLANDS BIOGEOCHEMISTRY INSTITUTE 

91 BAY BRIDGE DRIVE LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

GULF BREEZE FL 32561 BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

LAMARQUE, JOHNELLE LINDSAY, RICHARD O 

4400 SPAIN ST DIAMOND GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70122 5218 E 69TH PLACE 

TULSA OK 74136 

LANDRY, CONNIE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT LINDSTEDT, DIANNE 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

LANG, WILLIAM LOPEZ, JOHN 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 387 CARR DRIVE 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD SLIDELL LA 70458 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

LOTUFO, GUILHERME R 

LANGLEY, CARLA LSU ZOOLOGY & PHYSIOLOGY DEPT 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD LOUSTEAU, MEG 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 1730 NAPOLEAN AVE APT F 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70115 

LANZOTTI, MARK 

UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN LOW, HARLAN 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI AMERADA HESS 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 500 DALLAS STREET 

HOUSTON TX 77002 

LEMING, TOM 

NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERV LOYACANO, HAROLD 

BLDG 1103 ROOM 218 PRESIDENT 

STENNIS SPACE CENTER, MS 39529 ENVIRONMENTAL ENTERPRISES USA 

173 COMMERCIAL SQUARE 

LEWANDOWSKI, SUE ANN SLIDELL LA 70461 

WMCOM 

8124 HIGHWAY 56 LUGO-FERNANDEZ, ALEXIS 

CHAUVIN LA 70344-2124 MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

LI, RAN 1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

L1NIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 MACDONALD, IAN R 

GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

LI, S 335 GRAHAM ROAD 

TEXAS A&M UNIV COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 MACGILLVRAY, TIM 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 
456 

MACKLIN, JIM 

401 WHITNEY AVE SUITE 402 

GRETNA LA 70076 

MANDKE, J S 

SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE 

7119 SAYBROOK 

SAN ANTONIO TX 78250 

MARS, REX 

ERCON 

8800 JAMEEL RD SUITE 190 

HOUSTON TX 77040 

MARTIN, ROBERT 

TEXAS GENERAL LAND OFFICE 

1700 N CONGRESS AVE 

AUSTIN TX 78701 

MAY, NELSON 

NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERV 

BLDG 1103 ROOM 218 

STENNIS SPACE CENTER, MS 39529 

MCARDLE, LISA 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

MCDONALD, SUSANNE J 

GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

833 GRAHAM RD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

MCLAUGHLIN, SANDRA 

MMS-PROCUREMENT OPERATIONS BR 

MAIL STOP 2510 

381 ELDEN 

HERNDON VA 22070 

MEEK, MRROBERT 

ECOMAR INC 

158 SANTA FELICIA DRIVE 

GOLETA CA 93117 

MEINHOLD, ANN 

BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LAB 

BUILDING 490 D 

UPTON NY 11973 

MENDELSSOHN, IRVING A 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

WETLAND BIOGEOCHEMISTRY INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

MERCANTE, PAMELA 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

MEYER, RICHARD 

SHELL OFFSHORE INC 

PO BOX 61933 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70448 

MIDDLETON, BOB 

MMS HEADQUARTERS 

MAIL STOP 2510 

381 ELDEN 

HERNDON VA 22070 

MILLS, LISA R 

NMFS-PASCAGOULA 

PO DRAWER 1207 

PASCAGOULA MS 39568-1207 

MIRABELLA, JOHN V 

4442 N VACATION LANE 

ARLINGTON VA 22207 

MIRE, MIKE 

SR ENGINEERING TECHNICIAN 

SHELL OFFSHORE INC 

ONE SHELL SQUARE 

PO BOX 61933 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70161 

MIRE, JOHN P 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

MOATE, GEORGE H 

TEXACO 

400 POYDRAS 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70160 

MONTAGNA, PAUL 

UNIV OF TEXAS 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 
457 

MOORS, RAYMOND 

MCDERMOTT 

PO BOX 188 

MORGAN CITY LA 70381 

MOORS, TIM 

TEXAS AQUACULTURE ASSOCIATION 

PO BOX 13285 

CAPITOL STATION 

AUSTIN TX 78711 

MORAN, BOB 

NATIONAL OCEAN INDUSTRIES ASSOC 

1120 G STREET NORTHWEST SUITE 900 

WASHINGTON DC 20005 

MORAN, DAVE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

MULINO, MAUREEN M 

STEIMLE & ASSOC INC 

3826 AIRLINE HWY 

PO BOX 865 

METAIRIE LA 70001 

MULLIN, KEITH 

NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERV 

MURRAY, STEVE 

LSU COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

NADOLNY, KEN 

MANAGER 

ANADARKO PETROLEUM CORP 

OFFSHORE/ALASKA EXPLORATION 

17001 NORTH CHASE DR 

HOUSTON TX 77060 

NAKAD, JANE 

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 

1445 ROSS AVE 

DALLAS TX 72587 

NESS, HOWARD 

DIRECTOR, MEXICO AFFAIRS OFFICE 

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 

NMSU BOX 3001 DEPT MEAF 

LAS CRUCES, NM 88003 

NICOL, JOHN 

SAIC 

11251 ROGER BACON DR 

RESTON VA 22090 

NUNEZ, ARLETTE 

SHALLOW HAZARD INTERPRETER 

PO BOX 61933 ROOM 3173 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70130 

O'NEAL, ASHLEY 

UNIV OF WEST FL BIOLOGY DEPT 

11000 UNIVERSITY PARKWAY 

PENSACOLA FL 32514 

OIVANKI, STEVE 

MISSISSIPPI OFFICE OF GEOLOGY 

OLSEN, EARNIE 

UNIV OF WEST FLORIDA 

10000 UNIVERSITY PARKWAY 

PENSACOLA FL 32514 

OLSEN, PETER 

TEXAS A&M TEEX OIL SPILL SCHOOL 

PO BOX 1675 

GALVESTON TX 77551-1675 

ORMOND, ELIZABETH 

TEXAS A&M OCEANOGRAPHY DEPT 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77843-3146 

OSTROM, CHRIS 

SANCTUARIES AND RESERVE DIVISION 

1305 EAST WEST HWY SSMC-4 

SILVER SPRINGS MD 20910 

OYNES, CHRIS 

REGIONAL DIRECTOR 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

PALMER, HARRY D 

MAS 

PO BOX 1604 

SLIDELL LA 70458 

PARK, S 

CDSI 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123 
458 

PARKER, M E (MIKE) 

EXXON COMPANY USA 

PO BOX 2180 RM 1488 

HOUSTON TX 77252-2180 

PASCHKE, ORVILLE 

CHEVRON 

935 GRAVIER ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

PATRICK, LORNA 

BIOLOGIST 

US FISHERIES AND WILDLIFE SERVICES 

1612 JUNE AVE 

PANAMA CITY FL 32444 

PATTON, FRANK 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

PAUL, DEBBIE 

SECRETARY 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

833 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

PAULING, GENE 

PETROLEUM ENGINEER 

US DEPT OF ENERGY 

900 COMMERCE RD EAST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123 

PEAKE, DWIGHT 

DVM 

30 LEBRUN CT 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

PEEK, DWIGHT 

30 LEBRUM COURT 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

PEIRCE, ALAN 

FLA DEPT OF AGRICULTURE 

2051 EAST DIRAC DRIVE 

TALLAHASSEE FL 32310 

PENLAND, SHEA 

LSU COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

PETERSON, JON 

NMFS 

3209 FREDERIC ST 

PASCAGOULA MS 39568 

PLONSKY, MARTIN 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

POSADAS, BENEDICT 

MISS SEA GRANT ADVISORY 

2710 BEACH BLVD #lE 

BILOXI MS 39531 

POWELL, ERIC 

TEXAS A&M OCEANOGRAPHY DEPT 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77843-3146 

POWERS, SEAN P 

TEXAS A&M MARINE LAB 

5007 AVENUE U 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

PRATT, RICHARD 

MARINE SPILL RESPONSE COMPANY 

1350 I STREET NW SUITE 300 

WASHINGTON DC 20005 

PROFFITT, ED 

MCNEESE STATE UNIV 

LA ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

PO BOX 90220 

LAKE CHARLES LA 70609 

PULSIPHER, ALLAN 

LSU CENTER FOR ENERGY STUDIES 

1 EAST FRATERNITY CIRCLE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

RABALAIS, NANCY N 

ASSOCIATE PROFFESOR 

LUMCON 

8124 HIGHWAY 56 

CHAUVIN LA 70810 

RAINEY, GAIL 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 
459 

RAMSEY, KAREN 

LA STATE UNIVERSITY 

E302 HOWE-RUSSELL BLDG 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

RASMUS, PAUL 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

RATCLIFF, DAVID 

VICE PRESIDENT TECHNOLOGY 

DIAMOND GEOPHYSICAL SERVICE CORP 

2929 BRIARPARK DR, SUITE 525 

HOUSTON TX 77042 

RATTERREE, JIM 

EPA REGION VI 

1445 ROSS AVE 

MAIL CODE 6W-PI 

DALLAS TX 75202 

RAY, JIM 

SHELL OIL CO 

910 LOUISIANA STREET 

HOUSTON TX 77002 

RAYLIE, MIKE 

STEIMLE & ASSOC 

3826 AIRLINE HWY 

METAIRIE LA 70001 

REED, KAREN 

NMFS-PASCAGOULA 

PO DRAWER 1207 

PASCAGOULA MS 39568-1207 

REGGIO, VILLERE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

REITSEMA, L A 

MARATHON OIL COMPANY 

PO BOX 269 

LITTLETON CO 80160 

REWOLINSKI, ROBERT 

UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

RICHARDS, CARVER 

PHILLIPS PETROLEM 

PO BOX 1967 

HOUSTON TX 77251 

RICHARDSON, ED 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

BOBBINS, SHELLEY 

GOVT ANALYSIS 

EXEC OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR 

THE CAPITOL 

ROOM 1501 

TALLAHASSEE FL 32399 

ROBERTS, HARRY H 

LSU COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

RODEN, CAROL 

BIOLOGIST 

NMES 

PO DRAWER 1207 

PASCAGOULA MS 39568-1207 

ROGERS, BOB 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

ROGERS, BARTON 

US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS 

PO BOX 60267 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70001 

ROGERS, CAROLYN 

NMFS 

PO BOX DRAWER 1207 

PASCAGOULA MS 39563 

ROSCIGNO, PAT 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 
460 

ROSS, GARY NOEL 

PRESIDENT 

BATON ROUGE AUDUBON SOCIETY 

BATON ROUGE LA 

ROUSE, LARRY 

LSU COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

ROUSE, MARK 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

RULLMAN, JOHN 

EXXON 

PO BOX 60626 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70160 

RUTHERFORD,GARY 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

SAFE, STEVEN 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

SAGER, WILLIAM W 

GERG-TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

ST CLAIR, MICHELE 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

SAMMARCO, PAUL W 

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR 

LUMCON 

8124 HWY 56 

CHAUVIN LA 70344 

SATTERLEE, KENT 

SHELL OFFSHORE CORPORATION 

PO BOX 61933 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70161 

SAVOIE, L BRANDT 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DR 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

SCAIFE, BILL 

ENVIRONMENTAL COORDINATOR 

AMOCO 

1340 POYDRAS 

PO BOX 50879 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70433 

SCHANEVILLE, DON 

CHEVRON USA PRODUCTION 

935 GRAVIER STREET 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

SCHOEFFLER, HAROLD 

PO BOX 2218 

LAFAYETTE LA 70502 

SCHROEDER, TIM 

LSU BIOWETLANDS LAB 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

SCHROEDER, WILLIAM W 

DAUPHIN ISLAND SEA LAB 

PO BOX 369 

DAUPHIN ISLAND, AL 36528 

SCHUBERT, WINNIE DEE 

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEER 

MOBIL E&P US 

751 BAYOU PINES EAST 

LAKE CHARLES LA 70601 

SCHULTZ, FRED 

STEIMLE & ASSOC 

3826 AIRLINE HWY 

METAIRIE LA 70001 

SCOALS, LT WES 

COMMAMNDING OFFICER MSO 

US COAST GUARD 

800 DAVID DRIVE 

MORGAN CITY LA 70380 

SEIP, JOHN 

1200 ST CHARLES AVE 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70130-4334 
461 

SHAVER, DONNA 

NATIONAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 

PADRE ISLAND NATL SEASHORE 

9405 SOUTH PADRE ISLAND DRIVE 

CORPUS CHRISTI TX 78418 

SHAW, RICHARD F 

LSU COASTAL FISHERIES INSTITUTE 

WETLAND RESOURCES BLDG 

BATON ROUGE LA 70806 

SHERRARD, JIM 

SANTA FE INTERNATIONAL CO 

2 LINCOLN CENTER 

5420 LBJ FREEWAY 

DALLAS TX 75240-2648 

SIMANEK, CAROL 

UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

SIMMONS, ROBERT 

EXXON 

PO BOX 61707 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70161 

SINGELMANN, JOACHIM 

LSU SOCIOLOGY DEPT 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

SMITH, BRENT 

US DEPT OF ENERGY 

900 COMMERCE ROAD E 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123 

SMITH, CHARLES 

MMS 

381 ELDEN ST SUITE 1109 

MAIL STOP 4730 

HERNDON VA 22070-4817 

SMITH, ELBRIDGE 

BIOLOGIST 

LA DEPT WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DRIVE ANNEX ROOM 34 

BATON ROUGE LA 70898-9000 

SPENCER, STEPHEN R 

US DEPT OF INTERIOR 

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL 

COMPLIANCE 

PO BOX 649 

ALBUQUERQUE NM 87103 

SPIES, BOB 

APPLIED MARINE SLIEWLES 

2155 LOS POSITAS CT #5 

LIVERMORE CA 94550 

STANDAERT, DICK 

ORYX ENERGY CORD 

NOEL ROAD RM 873 

DALLAS TX 75221 

POLICY & 

STANLEY, DAVID 

RESEARCH ASSOCIATE 

LSU COASTAL FISHERIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

STECHMANN, TED 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

STEORTS, BILL 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

STICKLE, W B 

LSU ZOOLOGY LIFE SCIENCE DEPT 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

STREET, GREG 

UNIV OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN 

PO BOX 1267 UTMSI 

PORT ARANSAS TX 78373 

STRIKMILLEN, MICHAEL 

ENVIRONMENTAL ENTERPRISES 

173 COMMERCIAL SQUARE DRIVE 

SLIDELL LA 70461 
462 

SZABO, DAVID 

OCEANOGRAPHY-MOBILE 

13777 MIDWAY ROAD 

DALLAS TX 75244-4312 

THOMAS, ROBERT 

LOUISIANA NATURE & SCIENCE CENTER 

PO BOX 870610 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70187 

THORSTEINSON, LYMAN 

NATIONAL BIOLOGICAL SURVEY 

ALASKA SCIENCE CENTER 

2525 GAMBILE ST 

ANCHORAGE AL 99503 

TOLBERT, CHARLES 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

TWILLEY, ROBERT R 

UNIV OF SOUTHWESTERN LA 

PO BOX 42451 

LAFAYETTE LA 70504 

VENDEVILLE, BRUNO C 

UNIV OF TEXAS 

AUSTIN TX 

VERSOWSKY, PAUL 

CHEVRON USA INC 

935 GRAVIER ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

VINCENT, DERRICK 

EAST JEFFERSON HIGH SCHOOL 

1432 FIELD ST 

METAIRIE LA 70001 

WADE, TERRY L 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

WALDEMAYER, BILL 

6621 WUERPEL ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70124 

WALKER, NAN 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIV 

BATON ROUGE LA 70808 

WALLACE, MIKE 

MMS 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

WALLACE, T A 

GENERAL MANAGER 

PHILLIPS PETROLEUM 

WALLER, RICHARD 

GULF COAST RESEARCH LAB 

PO BOX 7000 

OCEAN SPRINGS MS 39566-7000 

WALSH, MAUD 

LSU INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL 

STUDIES 

42 ATKINSON HALL 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

WARREN, K 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 

WAYNE, LYNDA 

LSU COASTAL STUDIES INSTITUTE 

331 HOWE-RUSSELL BLDG 

BATON ROUGE LA 70806 

WEEMS, SHEILA 

ESRI 

900 ISOM SUITE 106 

SAN ANTONIO TX 78216 

WERNER, FREDERICK T 

US DEPT OF FISHERIES & WILDLIFE 

1729 EL CAMINO REAL #211 

HOUSTON TX 77058 

WESTPHAL, KAREN 

LA STATE UNIV 

RM E333 HOWE-RUSSELL BLDG 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

WILLETT, KRISTIE 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

335 GRAHAM ROAD 

COLLEGE STATION TX 77845 
463 

WILSON, CHARLES A 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR 

LSU COASTAL FISHERIES INSTITUTE 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803-7503 

WINSTON, GARY W 

LSU BIOCHEMISTRY DEPT 

BATON ROUGE LA 70803 

WINTERS, ROBERT 

TENNECO GAS 

PO BOX 2511 T-1417A 

HOUSTON TX 77252 

WISNIEWSKI, JILL C 

LA DEPT OF WILDLIFE & FISHERIES 

2000 QUAIL DRIVE 

PO BOX 98000 ANNEX RM 34 

BATON ROUGE LA 70898-9000 

WITTEN, MARK 

COORDINATOR 

CHEVRON USA 

935 GRAVIER ST 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70112 

WOLFF, GARY 

TEXAS A&M UNIV 

723 INWOOD 

BRYAN TX 77802 

YOCKE, MARK 

SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS INTERNATIONAL 

YOUNG, DANNY 

AMOCO 

PO BOX 50879 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70150 

ZATARAIN, VICKI 

MMS-LEASING & ENVIRONMENT 

MAIL STOP 5430 

1201 ELMWOOD PARK BLVD 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70123-2394 

ZEIN-ELDIN, ZOULA 

RESEARCH PHYSIOLOGIST 

4700 AVENUE U 

GALVESTON TX 77551 

ZERBEL, PATRICIA 

11251 ROGER BACON DRIVE 

RESTON VA 22090 

ZIMMERMAN, MICHAEL 

UNIV OF NEW ORLEANS 

PO BOX 1084 

NEW ORLEANS LA 70148 
S~,ENT OF 1~ The Department of the Interior Mission ~PQ ~/yam 

a - ; As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for 

most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use 

of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the 

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environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; and providing for the 

ACH 3 ~ enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation . The Department assesses our energy and mineral 

resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best interests of all our people by 

encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care . The Department also has a major 

responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories 

under U.S. administration . 

The Minerals Management Service Mission 

A s a b ureau o f th e D epa rt men t o f th e I n t er i or, th e Mi nera l s M anagemen t S erv i ce ' s ( MMS ) pr i mary 

res p onsibilities are to mana g e the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS) collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian lands and distrib te 

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s s those revenues . 

Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program 

administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally sound 

exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral resources. The 

MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities by ensuring the efficient, timely and 

accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and production due to Indian 

tribes and allottees, States and the U.S . Treasury. 

The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being 

responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially affected 

parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the quality of life for 

all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic development and environmental 

protection.