DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Summary

Fire fighters may be at risk for 

crash-related injuries while operating excess and other surplus vehicles that have been modified for 

fire service use. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and 

Health (NIOSH) has summarized 

recommendations to prevent injuries and deaths while operating 

these vehicles. 

Preventing Death and Injuries of 

Fire Fighters Operating Modified 

Excess/Surplus Vehicles

Description of

Exposure

Fire departments with limited financial 

resources often craft fire apparatus out of 

excess/surplus military and other vehicles as an affordable alternative to new or 

used apparatus designed for fire fighting. 

Some excess/surplus vehicles are loaned 

to fire departments by the Federal Excess 

Personal Property Program or acquired 

through the Department of Defense Fire 

Fighter Property Program, or from state 

agencies. Fire departments are responsible for any modifications, maintenance, 

and upkeep of these vehicles [US Forest 

Service 2009]. 

The U.S. Fire Administration has reported crash risks attributed to overloaded 

water tankers that were once used as military fuel tankers [USFA/ FEMA 2003]. 

The NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program investigated seven fatal incidents involving 

crashes that occurred when fire fighters 

were operating modified excess/surplus 

vehicles. These investigations identified 

factors that can create safety concerns 

for fire departments: lack and nonuse of seat belts, poor maintenance, exceeding the gross vehicle weight rating 

(GVWR),* using fuel tankers for hauling water without proper baffling, unsafe 

riding locations, and inappropriate vehicle modifications. Two of the cases are 

described below. 

Case Study 1

On June 21, 2005, a 52-year-old male 

volunteer chief died from injuries sustained during a tanker rollover. While 

driving on a gravel road at approximately 

*GVWR is the recommended weight rating by 

the manufacturer as the highest operational 

weight for a vehicle and any added cargo or 

equipment.

40 miles per hour, the left front tire ruptured, causing him to lose control, leave 

the road, and roll over several times. The 

chief was ejected and died on the scene 

from his injuries. Seat belts were not 

used during the incident [NIOSH 2006]. 

The apparatus was a 1981, 21⁄2-ton, 6 × 6 

military tanker originally designed to carry gasoline (Figure 1). The truck, primarily used off road, weighed 13,530 pounds 

empty and had a GVWR of 16,530 pounds 

cross-country.† The tank was divided into 

three sections and had a capacity of 1,200 

gallons. The estimated fully loaded water 

weight was 9,960 pounds, which exceeded the cross-country weight rating by approximately 7,000 pounds. Both rear axles 

had dual wheels. The tanker was equipped 

with lap-type seat belts and still had the 

original split rim wheels. Eight out of ten 

tires were bias-ply‡ tires manufactured in 

1981. The apparatus was acquired by 

the department in 1998 through a loan 

†

Cross-country GVWR accounted for the severe 

duty the military expected during off road 

operations. Newer military vehicles provide 

only the cross-country GVWR [REC 2009a,b].

‡

Bias-ply tire is a pneumatic tire having crossed 

layers of ply-cord set diagonally to the center 

line of the tread.
Figure 1. Military surplus vehicle involved in Case Study 1.

Case Study 2

On June 26, 2003, a 46-year-old male volunteer assistant chief 

was fatally injured after being ejected from a water tanker as a 

result of a rollover crash. The victim was driving to a wildland 

fire on an unpaved road within a national forest. The tanker 

failed to negotiate a curve and rolled down into a canyon. The 

victim was ejected from the cab during the rollover and was 

found lying unresponsive on the ground. He was pronounced 

dead at the scene [NIOSH 2003]. 

program. The fire department did not inspect or make any 

modifications to the apparatus.

used to transport diesel fuel. The estimated, fully loaded water 

weight was 9,960 pounds, which exceeded the recommended 

payload weight by more than 2,000 pounds. State police reported that the tanker probably had brake failure before the incident; the master cylinder was leaking brake fluid, and the emergency brake was inoperable. Both front shock absorbers and 

three tires were defective. The vehicle did not have seat belts.

Controls

NIOSH recommends that fire departments take the following precautions and actions to minimize hazards and risks to 

fire fighters when using modified excess/surplus vehicles for 

emergency response:

Guidelines and Procedures 

•	Ensure that all fire fighters are seated in appropriate riding positions and are secured by seat belts whenever the 

vehicle is in motion (NFPA 1500). Vehicles without a restraint system should have one installed that meets current standards of the Society of Automotive Engineers 

[SAE 1994, 1995a; 1995b]. 

•	Develop a standard operating procedure or guideline for 

operating modified excess/surplus tankers, including when 

the vehicle should and shouldn’t be used and required training for operators. Consider operating these vehicles only in 

nonemergency mode (i.e., no lights or siren). 

•	Develop procedures to declare a vehicle mechanically deficient or unsafe, and immediately remove it from 

service until it is repaired or replaced. 

Apparatus Design and Modification

•	Ensure that the weight of a fully loaded vehicle does not 

exceed the GVWR. This is especially important when 

using military fuel trucks as water tankers, since water 

weighs 8.33 pounds per gallon, approximately 20% more 

than certain fuel types. The weight of additional fire fighting equipment should also be monitored, as this added 

weight may increase total vehicle weight in excess of the 

GVWR. Since wildland fire fighting apparatus may see 

severe off-road use, the cross-country GVWR should be 

considered the maximum if specified [REC 2009b].

•	Ensure that tanks are baffled for safe handling of water 

(NFPA 1901). Fuel tanks generally lack appropriate baffles to allow for the safe transport of water. 

•	Ensure the vehicle is not operated with a partially filled 

water tank, because the sloshing effects of water during 

vehicle operation may cause the vehicle to become dangerously unstable when changing lanes or negotiating 

curves. 

•	Ensure that the vehicle’s center of gravity has not been 

raised higher than when originally manufactured. A low 

Figure 2. Military surplus vehicle involved in Case Study 2.

The apparatus was reported to be a 1954, 21⁄2-ton military fuel 

servicing truck acquired through a loan program with a recommended payload weight§

 (without personnel) of 7,500 pounds 

(Figure 2). The truck had a 1,200-gallon tank that was originally 

§

Payload is the carrying capacity of a vehicle.
center of gravity contributes to improved vehicle stability. Roscommon Equipment Center (REC), a cooperative 

program between the National Association of State Foresters and the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, provides calculators and guidelines to determine center of gravity and weight distribution. 

Maintenance

•	Implement a vehicle maintenance program following the 

recommendations in NFPA 1911. 

•	Before placing vehicles into service, ensure that the vehicles are fully inspected, repaired as needed, and road tested by a certified mechanic, or where available, a certified 

emergency vehicle technician (EVT) (NFPA 1911, 1500). 

The EVT should meet requirements found in NFPA 1071. 

•	Service and maintain vehicles and have them professionally inspected at least annually to keep them in safe operating condition and in compliance with federal and 

state motor vehicle regulations and military vehicle operation guidelines. Surplus agencies should provide fire 

departments with manufacturer’s manuals and vehicle 

data when available. REC may be of assistance in obtaining manuals. 

•	Ensure that the vehicle maintains ample suspension, 

steering, and braking ability through periodic vehicle 

inspections and maintenance. 

•	Inspect tires often for uneven wear, proper inflation, and 

deterioration. Adequate tread depth does not necessarily mean that tires are safe. Maintain tire pressures and 

replace tires according to the manufacturer’s recommendations (e.g., replacing tires of a certain age). Tires 

that show signs of dry rot or cracking should also be replaced. Consider if military grade tires are adequate for 

the road surfaces the vehicle may be operated on. Some 

military tire tread patterns may not be suitable for use 

on wet, hard surfaces.

Training

•	Use NFPA standards such as NFPA 1002, 1451, 1500, 

1901, and 1906 as a guide to assist in development of a 

driver training program. Consider requiring a commercial driver’s license for all operators who will be driving 

these types of vehicles. 

•	Provide training before driving and operating to ensure 

that drivers understand the handling characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of each vehicle.

Resources

•	Ensure that funds are available for routine/preventative maintenance, safety modifications, and appropriate 

driver/operator training. Grants are available through 

the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal 

Excess Personal Property Program, and Volunteer Fire 

Assistance Program [USFA 2009]. 

•	Be aware of resources provided by REC. REC develops 

guidelines for local, state, and federal fire agencies to 

safely convert these former military vehicles to wildland 

fire apparatus.

For information about the NFPA standards referenced in this 

document, visit [www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/list_of_codes_

and_standards.asp]. 

For information about fire fighter fatalities listed in this document, visit [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire] (Report Nos. F2001-06, 

F2002-36, F2003-23, F2004-15, F2005-27, F2006-06, F2009-08). 

For more information about the U.S. Forest Service Federal 

Excess Personal Property Program, visit [http://www.fs.fed.us/

fire/partners/fepp/]. 

Acknowledgments

The principal contributors to this publication were CDR 

Steve Berardinelli, Robert Koedam, Virginia Lutz, and Stacy 

C. Wertman. CDR Berardinelli and Mr. Koedam previously 

worked for NIOSH.

References

NIOSH [2003]. Volunteer assistant chief dies in tanker rollover—

New Mexico [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/reports/face200323.

html]. 

NIOSH [2006]. Volunteer fire chief dies from injuries sustained 

during a tanker rollover—Utah [www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire/

reportsface200527.html]. 

REC [2009a]. Guidelines for designing wildland fire engines. 

Roscommon Equipment Center [www.roscommonequipment 

center.com/].

REC [2009b]. Design Packet 63M939, Military M939 Series 

6×6 Truck Evaluation. Roscommon Equipment Center [www.

roscommonequipmentcenter.com]. 

SAE [1994]. J 384 Motor vehicle seat belt anchorages test procedure. Washington, DC: Society of Automotive Engineers. 

SAE [1995a]. J 385 Motor vehicle seat belt anchorages—performance requirements. Washington, DC: Society of Automotive 

Engineers. 

SAE [1995b]. J 383 Motor vehicle seat belt anchorage—design recommendations. Washington, DC: Society of Automotive Engineers. 

USFA [2009]. USFA grants and funding. Emmitsburg, MD: U.S. Fire 

Administration [www.usfa.dhs.gov/fireservice/grants/index.shtm]. 

USFA/FEMA [2003]. Safe operation of fire tankers. Emmitsburg, 

MD: U.S. Fire Administration, Publication No.FA248 [www.

usfa.dhs.gov/downloads/pdf/publitions/fa-248.pdf]. 

US Forest Service [2009]. The federal excess personal property 

program. What is FEPP? [www.fs.fed.us/fire/partners/fepp/]. 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

4676 Columbia Parkway

Cincinnati, OH 45226–1998

Official Business

Penalty for Private Use $300

The information in this document is based on fatality investigations and expert review. More information about the Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program is available at 

www.cdc.gov/niosh/fire. 

More information about fire fighter safety is available at 

www.firegrantsupport.com www.fs.fed.us/fire/partners/fepp/ 

www.usfa.dhs.gov www.fs.fed.us/fire/partners/vfa

www.nfpa.org

To receive NIOSH documents or more information about occupational safety and health topics, please contact NIOSH at 

Telephone: 1–800–CDC–INFO (1–800–232–4636) 

TTY: 1–888–232–6348 ■ E-mail: cdcinfo@cdc.gov 

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh 

For a monthly update on news at NIOSH, subscribe to NIOSH eNews

by visiting www.cdc.gov/niosh/eNews. 

Mention of any company or product does not constitute 

endorsement by NIOSH. In addition, citations to Web sites 

external to NIOSH do not constitute NIOSH endorsement of the 

sponsoring organizations or their programs or products. Furthermore, NIOSH is not responsible for the content of these Web sites. 

This document is in the public domain and may be freely 

copied or reprinted. NIOSH encourages all readers of the 

Workplace Solutions to make them available to all interested employers and workers.

As part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 

NIOSH is the Federal agency responsible for conducting research 

and making recommendations to prevent work-related illnesses 

and injuries. All Workplace Solutions are based on research studies that show how worker exposures to hazardous agents or activities can be significantly reduced. 

Preventing Death and Injuries of Fire Fighters 

Operating Modified Excess/Surplus Vehicles

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2011–125

Safer • Healthier • PeopleTM December 2010

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